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OECD Environmental Performance Reviews NETHERLANDS
This book is part of the OECD Environmental Performance Reviews Programme which conducts peer reviews of environmental conditions and progress in each member country. It scrutinises efforts to meet both domestic objectives and international commitments. The analyses presented are supported by a broad range of economic and environmental data and lead to recommendations for further environmental and sustainable development progress.
1998 1998 1998 1998 1999 1999 1999 1999 2000 2000 2000 2000 2001 2001 2001 2001 2001 2002 2002 2002 2002 2003 2003
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NETHERLANDS
A first cycle of Environmental Performance Reviews, covering all member countries, was completed in 2000. The second cycle focuses on environmental management, sustainable development and international commitments.
Latest reviews available • Mexico • Australia • Switzerland • Belgium • Czech Republic • Denmark • Russian Federation* • Turkey • Hungary • Greece • Ireland • Luxembourg • OECD countries • Germany • Iceland • Norway • Portugal • Slovak Republic • Japan • United Kingdom • Italy • Netherlands • Poland
OECD Environmental Performance Reviews
Topics covered: Environmental Management Air and Water Management Nature Conservation and Biodiversity Economy, Society and Environment Sectoral Integration: Transport International Co-operation
OECD Environmental Performance Reviews NETHERLANDS
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OECD Environmental Performance Reviews
NETHERLANDS
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT Pursuant to Article 1 of the Convention signed in Paris on 14th December 1960, and which came into force on 30th September 1961, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) shall promote policies designed: – to achieve the highest sustainable economic growth and employment and a rising standard of living in member countries, while maintaining financial stability, and thus to contribute to the development of the world economy; – to contribute to sound economic expansion in member as well as non-member countries in the process of economic development; and – to contribute to the expansion of world trade on a multilateral, nondiscriminatory basis in accordance with international obligations. The original member countries of the OECD are Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The following countries became members subsequently through accession at the dates indicated hereafter: Japan (28th April 1964), Finland (28th January 1969), Australia (7th June 1971), New Zealand (29th May 1973), Mexico (18th May 1994), the Czech Republic (21st December 1995), Hungary (7th May 1996), Poland (22nd November 1996), Korea (12th December 1996) and the Slovak Republic (14th December 2000). The Commission of the European Communities takes part in the work of the OECD (Article 13 of the OECD Convention).
Publié en français sous le titre : Examens environnementaux de l’OCDE PAYS-BAS
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FOREWORD The principal aim of the OECD’s Environmental Performance Reviews is to help member countries improve their individual and collective performances in environmental management. The primary goals for this programme are: – to help individual governments assess progress; – to promote a continuous policy dialogue among member countries, through a peer review process; and – to stimulate greater accountability from member countries’ governments towards their public opinion, within developed countries and beyond. Environmental performance is assessed with regard to the degree of achievement of domestic objectives and international commitments. Such objectives and commitments may be broad aims, specific qualitative goals, precise quantitative targets or a commitment to a set of measures to be taken. Assessment of environmental performance is also placed within the context of historical environmental records, the present state of the environment, the physical endowment of the country in natural resources, its economic conditions and demographic trends. These systematic and independent reviews have been conducted for all member countries as part of the first cycle of reviews. The OECD is now engaged in the second cycle of reviews directed at promoting sustainable development, with emphasis on implementation of domestic and international environmental policy, as well as on the integration of economic, social and environmental decision-making. The report was peer-reviewed by the Working Party on Environmental Performance (Paris, January 2003). The conclusions and recommendations of the report are approved by the Working Party.
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GENERAL INTRODUCTION This review of the Netherlands’ environmental performance examines results in the light of domestic objectives and international commitments. It reviews progress since the previous OECD Environmental Performance Review of 1995. It also evaluates progress with respect to objectives of the 2001 “OECD Environmental Strategy for the First Decade of the 21st Century”. The report is organised in three parts: – Part I is entitled: “Environmental Management” and focuses on air, water as well as nature conservation and biodiversity; – Part II is entitled: “Sustainable Development” and focuses on environment and the economy, environmental-social interface and integration in the transport sector; – Part III is entitled: “International Commitments” and focuses on international co-operation. The OECD extends its most sincere thanks to all those who helped in the course of this review, to the representatives of member countries to the Working Party on Environmental Performance, and especially to the examining countries (Mexico, New Zealand and Sweden) and their experts. The OECD is particularly indebted to the Government of the Netherlands for its co-operation in expediting the provision of information and the organisation of the experts’ mission to the Netherlands, and in facilitating contacts with many individuals both inside and outside administrative and governmental structures of the country. The OECD Working Party on Environmental Performance conducted the review of the Netherlands at its meeting on 20-22 January 2003 and approved its conclusions and recommendations. This report is published under the authority of the SecretaryGeneral of the OECD.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................
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1. Environmental Management ........................................................................ Implementing cost-effective environmental policies ................................... Air................................................................................................................. Water ............................................................................................................ Biodiversity, nature and landscape conservation ......................................... 2. Towards Sustainable Development .............................................................. Integration of environmental concerns in economic decisions .................... Integration of environmental and social concerns........................................ Integration of environmental concerns in transport decisions ..................... 3. International Co-operation ...........................................................................
20 20 22 24 25 28 28 30 31 33
Part I ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2. AIR MANAGEMENT.....................................................................................
37
Recommendations.............................................................................................. Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 1. Evaluation of Performance........................................................................... 1.1 Policy objectives................................................................................. 1.2 Trends in air emissions ....................................................................... 1.3 Trends in air quality............................................................................ 1.4 Integration of air pollution concerns into sectoral policies ................ 2. Focus on Selected Topics ............................................................................. 2.1 Energy trends ...................................................................................... 2.2 Reducing ammonia emissions from agriculture ................................. 2.3 The Energy Efficiency Benchmarking Agreement.............................
37 37 38 38 40 43 46 54 54 56 57
3. WATER MANAGEMENT .............................................................................
59
Recommendations.............................................................................................. 59 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 60 1. Evaluation of Performance........................................................................... 61 1.1 Policy objectives in the 1990s ............................................................ 61
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1.2 Performance concerning emission reductions .................................... 1.3 Performance concerning water quality ............................................... 1.4 Performance concerning water quantity issues .................................. 1.5 Expenditure, financing and water charges.......................................... 1.6 Decoupling performance .................................................................... 2. Focus on Selected Topics ............................................................................. 2.1 Modernising the institutional framework ........................................... 2.2 Integrating water management and spatial planning .......................... 2.3 Trends in water use.............................................................................
64 70 73 74 77 79 79 80 80
4. NATURE CONSERVATION AND BIODIVERSITY.................................
83
Recommendations.............................................................................................. Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 1. Evaluation of Performance........................................................................... 1.1 Policy objectives................................................................................. 1.2 State of nature and biodiversity .......................................................... 1.3 Pressures on nature and biodiversity .................................................. 1.4 Policy responses ................................................................................. 2. Focus on Selected Topics ............................................................................. 2.1 Outlook for pollution pressures .......................................................... 2.2 International agreements.....................................................................
83 84 85 85 87 89 93 101 101 103
Part II SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL – ECONOMIC INTERFACE ................................... 107 Recommendations.............................................................................................. Conclusions ....................................................................................................... Integration of environmental concerns in economic decisions .................... Implementing cost-effective environmental policies ................................... 1. Towards Sustainable Development .............................................................. 1.1 Policy objectives................................................................................. 1.2 Decoupling environmental pressures from economic growth............ 1.3 Production and consumption patterns ................................................ 1.4 Policy integration................................................................................ 1.5 Sustainable development strategy ...................................................... 1.6 An evolution towards sustainable development in national environmental policy planning ........................................................... 1.7 Environmental expenditure and financing..........................................
107 108 108 109 111 111 113 117 118 121 128 129
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2. Environmental Policy Implementation......................................................... 2.1 Regulatory instruments....................................................................... 2.2 Environmental agreements ................................................................. 2.3 Economic instruments ........................................................................ 2.4 Environmental impact assessment of projects.................................... 2.5 Land use planning............................................................................... 3. Focus on Selected Topics ............................................................................. 3.1 Environmental policy objectives ........................................................ 3.2 Economic context ............................................................................... 3.3 Environmentally related fiscal measures............................................ 3.4 Institutional context ............................................................................
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132 132 139 142 144 145 146 146 149 151 152
6. ENVIRONMENTAL-SOCIAL INTERFACE.............................................. 157 Recommendations.............................................................................................. Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 1. Evaluation of Performance........................................................................... 1.1 Environmental democracy: information, participation and access..... 1.2 Environmental awareness and education............................................ 1.3 Environmental employment ............................................................... 1.4 Environment, health and safety .......................................................... 2. Focus on Selected Topics ............................................................................. 2.1 Social context ..................................................................................... 2.2 Access to nature and recreation areas.................................................
157 158 158 158 163 165 166 170 170 172
7. SECTORAL INTEGRATION: TRANSPORT............................................. 175 Recommendations.............................................................................................. Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 1. Evaluation of Performance........................................................................... 1.1 Policy objectives................................................................................. 1.2 Integration of policies......................................................................... 1.3 Trends in the environmental effects of transport ................................ 1.4 Traffic management............................................................................ 1.5 Vehicles and fuels ............................................................................... 1.6 Infrastructure development................................................................. 2. Focus on Selected Topics ............................................................................. 2.1 Environmentally sustainable transport ............................................... 2.2 The port of Rotterdam ........................................................................
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175 176 177 177 178 180 183 185 188 188 188 189
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Part III INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS 8. INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS AND CO-OPERATION.............. 193 Recommendations.............................................................................................. Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 1. Evaluation of Performance........................................................................... 1.1 Objectives ........................................................................................... 1.2 Official development assistance ......................................................... 1.3 Climate protection .............................................................................. 1.4 Transboundary pollution..................................................................... 1.5 Marine pollution ................................................................................. 1.6 Management of living marine resources ............................................ 1.7 International trade and the environment............................................. 2. Focus on Selected Topics ............................................................................. 2.1 The National Climate Policy Implementation Plan (NCPIP)............. 2.2 International co-operation for protection of the Rhine.......................
193 194 195 195 196 198 203 205 212 214 218 218 221
ANNEXES I.A I.B I.C II.A II.B III. IV. V.
Selected environmental data........................................................................... Selected economic data .................................................................................. Selected social data ........................................................................................ Selected multilateral agreements (worldwide) ............................................... Selected multilateral agreements (regional) ................................................... Selected environmental events (1992-2002) .................................................. Physical context.............................................................................................. Selected environmental web sites...................................................................
224 226 228 230 234 239 245 247
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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Figures 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 5.1 6.1 6.2 6.3 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 8.1 8.2 8.3
Air pollutant emissions................................................................................... Trends in air quality........................................................................................ Energy structure and intensity ........................................................................ Performance in meeting North Sea targets for micropollutants and heavy metal emissions ............................................................................. Public waste water treatment plants ............................................................... Agricultural inputs.......................................................................................... Freshwater quality in the Netherlands............................................................ Decoupling ..................................................................................................... Water use ........................................................................................................ Fauna and flora ............................................................................................... Eutrophying and potential acidifying deposition ........................................... Agriculture...................................................................................................... Major protected areas ..................................................................................... Economic structure and trends ....................................................................... Environmentally related impacts on health .................................................... Distribution of environmental pressures by income group ............................ Social indicators ............................................................................................. CO2 emissions from traffic ............................................................................. Expected transport emissions of CO2, NOx and SO2 ...................................... Trends in the transport sector ......................................................................... Road fuel prices and taxes.............................................................................. Official development assistance ..................................................................... Port state control............................................................................................. Trade and environment trends ........................................................................
42 44 55 65 67 69 71 78 81 88 90 95 98 114 168 168 171 181 181 184 186 197 207 215
Map of the Netherlands........................................................................................... 246 Tables 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Emissions of traditional air pollutants by source ........................................... Emissions of toxic air contaminants............................................................... Legal ambient air quality standards................................................................ Energy prices in selected OECD countries .................................................... Energy prices and average energy consumption ............................................
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3.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 7.1 8.1 8.2 8.3
Achievement of water management objectives.............................................. Achievement of nature conservation objectives............................................. Land use ......................................................................................................... Protected areas................................................................................................ Economic trends and environmental pressures .............................................. Environmentally related economic and fiscal instruments............................. Revenue from environmentally related taxes ................................................. Examples of support for sustainability investments by the private sector ..... Pollution abatement and control (PAC) expenditure...................................... Planned national government environmental expenditure ............................. Planned environmental expenditure by other governmental bodies .............. Revenue from environmental charges ............................................................ Selected environmental legislation................................................................. Enforcement of environmental legislation outside the VROM Inspectorate . Enforcement of environmental legislation by the VROM Inspectorate......... Key environmental policy objectives and achievements ............................... Transport and environmental targets for 2000 and 2010................................ Summary of Dutch international environmental aid ...................................... CO2 emissions from fuel combustion by source and sector ........................... Progress and performance compared to international targets for reduction of emissions to air........................................................................................... 8.4 Oil pollution surveillance in the North Sea .................................................... 8.5 Nutrient inputs to the North Sea..................................................................... 8.6 Biological status of key North Sea stocks exploited in Dutch fisheries.........
62 86 93 98 115 122 126 127 130 131 131 132 134 138 138 148 182 198 200
I.A I.B I.C II.A II.B
224 226 228 230 234
Selected environmental data........................................................................... Selected economic data .................................................................................. Selected social data ........................................................................................ Selected multilateral agreements (worldwide) ............................................... Selected multilateral agreements (regional) ...................................................
204 210 211 213
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ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS Abbreviations a.e. AEWA AIJ ALARA ANWB AQFD ASCOBANS BAFH BAT BOD BREFs BuZa CBS CCO CDM CEP CER CFP CITES CIW CLEEN CO COD COST CPB CSD CSR EA ECN EEA EEBA
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Acid equivalents African-Eurasian Migrating Waterbird Agreement Activities Implemented Jointly As low as reasonably achievable Royal Dutch Touring Club EU Air Quality Framework Directive Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas Bonn Agreement Flight Hour Best available technology Biochemical oxygen demand BAT reference documents Ministry of Foreign Affairs Statistics Netherlands Committee for Environmental Policy Monitoring Clean Development Mechanism Company environmental plan Certified Emission Reduction Common Fisheries Policy Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Commission on Integrated Water Management Chemical Legislation European Enforcement Network Carbon monoxide Chemical oxygen demand European Co-operation in the Field of Scientific and Technical Research Central Economic Planning Agency Commission on Sustainable Development (UN) Corporate social responsibility Environmental agreement Energy Research Institute Energy Efficiency Agreement Energy Efficiency Benchmarking Agreement
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EEZ EHS EIA EIA EIC EMA EMAS EMEP EPR ERT ERU ERUPT EST EU-NEC EZ FAO FSC GEF GH GHG HCFCs HFCs ICAO ICES ICPR IEA IETP IFC IMO IMPEL INECE InfoMil IPPC IPO IRF ISO ITTO
OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Netherlands
Exclusive Economic Zone National Ecological Network Energy Investment Allowance Scheme Environmental impact assessment Environmental Integration Committee Environmental Management Act Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EU) Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe Environmental Performance Review (OECD) Environmentally related tax(es) Emission reduction unit Emission Reduction Unit Procurement Tender Environmentally sustainable transport EU Directive on National Emissions Ceilings Ministry of Economic Affairs Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN Forest Stewardship Council Global Environment Facility Good Wood Foundation Greenhouse gas(es) Hydrochlorofluorocarbons Hydrofluorocarbons International Civil Aviation Organisation International Council for the Exploration of the Sea International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine International Energy Agency Integrated Environmental Target Plan International Finance Corporation International Maritime Organisation EU Network for the Implementation and Enforcement of Environmental Law International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement Information Centre for Environmental Licensing Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Association of Provincial Authorities International Road Federation International Organisation for Standardisation International Tropical Timber Organisation
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IUCN JI KWS2000 LPG LNV LRTAP MAR MARPOL MILIEV MIA MINAS MOU MtC NCDO NCPIP NEC NEPP NGO NH3 NIDO NMVOCs NOx NOVEM NPK NPSP5 NSD NVVP NW3 NW4 ODA ODP ODS ORET OS
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World Conservation Union Joint Implementation Hydrocarbons 2000 programme Liquefied petroleum gas Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries UNECE Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution Maximum admissible risk International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships Environmental and Economic Self-reliance (ORET/MILIEV Programme) Environmental Investment Allowance Minerals Accounting System Memorandum of Understanding Million tonnes (megatonnes) of CO2 equivalent National Committee for International Co-operation and Sustainable Development National Climate Policy Implementation Plan National Emissions Ceiling (EU) National Environmental Policy Plan Non-governmental organisation Ammonia National Sustainable Development Initiative Non-methane volatile organic compounds Nitrogen oxides Agency for Energy and the Environment Nitrogen phosphorous potassium Fifth National Policy Document on Spatial Planning (draft) North Sea Directorate National Traffic and Transport Plan (draft) Third National Policy Document on Water Management Fourth National Policy Document on Water Management Official development assistance Ozone depletion potential Ozone depleting substances Export Transactions Relevant to Environment (ORET/MILIEV Programme) Ministry for Development Co-operation
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OSPAR PAC PAHs PCBs p.e. PFC PGO PIC PM10 POPs PPDIWS PPP PPPs PRTR RAP REB RIVM RIZA ROM SAC SEA SERIDA SF6 SMEs SMP SPA SVV2 TBT TFC TFS TGEA TSP UNCED UNECE UNFCCC USD VAT
OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Netherlands
Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic Pollution abatement and control Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Polychlorinated biphenyls Person equivalent Perfluorocarbon Private Data Management Organisation Prior informed consent Particulate matter < 10 microns in diameter Persistent organic pollutants Policy Plan for Domestic and Industrial Water Supplies Polluter pays principle Purchasing power parities Pollutant Release and Transfer Register Rhine Action Programme Regulatory energy tax National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection National Institute for Inland Water Management and Waste Water Treatment Regional development agency Special Area of Conservation Strategic environmental assessment Safety Environmental Risk Database Sulphur hexafluoride Small and medium-sized enterprises Seal Management Plan Special Protection Area Second Transport Structure Plan Tributyltin Total final energy consumption Transboundary Shipments of Waste (network) Target Group Environmental Agreement Total suspended particulate matter UN Conference on Environment and Development UN Economic Council for Europe UN Framework Convention on Climate Change United States dollar Value added tax
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VNG VOCs VOGM VROM V&W
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Association of Netherlands Municipalities Volatile organic compounds Supplementary Municipality Policy Scheme Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management
Signs The following signs are used in Figures and Tables: . .: not available – : nil or negligible . : decimal point
Country Aggregates OECD Europe: All European member countries of the OECD, i.e. countries of the European Union plus the Czech Republic, Hungary, Iceland, Norway, Poland, the Slovak Republic, Switzerland and Turkey. OECD:
The countries of OECD Europe plus Australia, Canada, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Mexico, New Zealand and the United States.
Country aggregates may include Secretariat estimates. The sign * indicates that not all countries are included.
Currency Monetary unit: Euro (EUR) In 2002, EUR 1.139 = USD 1.
Cut-off Date This report is based on information and data available up to December 2002.
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LIST OF TEAM MEMBERS Mr. Ralph Chapman Ms. Ingrid Hasselsten Mr. Rodolfo Lacy Tamayo Mr. José Antonio Moreno Mendoza
Expert from reviewing country: New Zealand Expert from reviewing country: Sweden Expert from reviewing country: Mexico Expert from reviewing country: Mexico
Mr. Christian Avérous Mr. Gérard Bonnis Ms. Martha Heitzmann Mr. Heikki Sisula Mr. Eduard Goldberg
OECD Secretariat OECD Secretariat OECD Secretariat OECD Secretariat OECD Secretariat (Consultant)
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1
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS* The Netherlands, which has a very open economy, experienced rapid expansion during the last ten years. It is the world’s sixth largest exporting country, and its gross domestic product (GDP) is the world’s 14th highest. The Netherlands has become a hub of international commerce, with a transport infrastructure centred on the port of Rotterdam (the busiest port in the world) and Amsterdam-Schiphol airport. Very high densities of both population and economic activities have led to very intense pressures on the country’s environment. Together with the delicate geographical balance between land and water, these pressures have made environmental protection a matter of serious public concern. Environmental issues have a strong international dimension in the Netherlands, reflecting regional environmental interdependencies (e.g. transboundary air and water pollution, North Sea pollution), regional economic interdependencies (EU membership, the country’s role as a gateway to Europe) and global environmental issues (e.g. vulnerability to climate change and sea level rise, the importance of trade and environmental aid). Since the early 1990s, the Netherlands has made considerable progress in decoupling a number of environmental pressures from economic growth and meeting several of its ambitious environmental targets. This progress reflects the reshaping of the Dutch economy and the strengthening of environmental policies, including in the EU context. Today priority environmental issues include: loss of biodiversity, climate change, over-exploitation of natural resources, threats to human health and external safety, damage to the quality of life, and possible unmanageable risks. Several of these issues reflect pressures on the environment deriving from the Netherlands’ development choices, such as intensive agriculture and transport. * Conclusions and Recommendations reviewed and approved by the Working Party on Environmental Performance at its January 2003 meeting.
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It will be necessary for the Netherlands to: i) improve the cost-effectiveness of its environmental policies; ii) further integrate environmental concerns into economic and social decisions; and iii) reinforce its international environmental co-operation on environmental issues. This report examines progress made by the Netherlands since the previous OECD Environmental Performance Review in 1995, and the extent to which the country’s domestic objectives and international commitments are being met. It also reviews progress in the context of the OECD Environmental Strategy.* Some 52 recommendations are made that could help strengthen the Netherlands’ environmental performance in the context of sustainable development.
1.
Environmental Management Implementing cost-effective environmental policies
In the last ten years the Netherlands has met or come close to meeting a number of its domestic objectives (e.g. concerning SO2 emissions, toxic air contaminants, groundwater depletion, flood protection, phosphorus concentrations in water, expansion of the ecological network) and international commitments (e.g. transboundary air pollution and North Sea targets). The Environmental Management Act (EMA) provides a framework for co-ordinating environmental legislation, though water, soil and nature management are subject to specific legislation. New regulations establish corporate financial liability for environmental damage. At the central level enforcement staff recently increased by 10%, following regrouping of the environmental, spatial planning and housing inspectorates; the number of inspections has also increased and penal sanctions have been applied. To maintain their incentive function, fine levels have been made proportionate to the size of the company. As a result, compliance levels have increased. Inspection and prosecution pay particular attention to the movement of dangerous goods. Environmental taxes (e.g. on groundwater, landfill) and a regulatory energy tax have been introduced and other taxes are under discussion. Charges apply to point and diffuse water pollution, and producer responsibility has been extended to a range of waste streams. Overall, economic and fiscal instruments are used widely in the Netherlands. A new spatial planning policy to control urban * The Objectives of the “OECD Environmental Strategy for the First Decade of the 21st Century” are covered in the following sections of these Conclusions and Recommendations: maintaining the integrity of ecosystems (Section 1), decoupling of environmental pressures from economic growth (Sections 2.1 and 2.3), integration of social and environmental concerns (Section 2.2) and global environmental interdependence (Section 3).
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development and protect landscape areas was issued in 2000. Overall, industry has been responsive and often proactive in improving its environmental performance, particularly through environmental agreements (e.g. covenants) and environmental management and auditing; there are also environmental reporting obligations for companies. The customised licensing system introduced in 1995 reflects a shift from regulatory approaches to monitored self-regulation. Environmental agreements, which are more or less binding substitutes for regulation, have been successful in a number of areas in the Netherlands; long-term environmental objectives have been agreed with industry in a series of branch agreements, and the contributions expected from individual companies have been included in their operating permits. Flexibility in meeting objectives, and a stable investment context, have made these schemes attractive to firms. The characteristic policy mix of regulation/licensing plus economic instruments plus environmental agreements continues to be productive. The gradual move to de-emphasise environmental agreements and regulation (arising from economic liberalisation and greater European and international integration) and to place more emphasis on economic instruments has merit, especially as it takes advantage of the government’s strength in establishing frameworks rather than micro-managing. However, despite this positive picture the Netherlands has not met several of its commitments or is not on the way to meeting them (e.g. for CO2, NH3, NOx and VOC emissions, nitrogen inputs to water, nature protection, green space in urban areas). Many of the previous NEPP targets for emission reductions and for environmental quality have been postponed or revised. Water management and nature conservation objectives are being addressed separately, reflecting the institutional setting. As a result, integration of nature and water management initiatives in central and local land use planning (e.g. water areas for flood prevention, green areas for nature conservation) has been weak. Licensing of groundwater abstraction and waste water discharge is not covered by the EMA and has remained separate from integrated air, noise and waste licensing. There is a somewhat unclear split of enforcement and licensing responsibilities among the central, provincial and municipal levels in this relatively small country, though administrative agreements have been signed to enhance co-operation among enforcement partners. Customised licensing (based on overall pollution reduction targets) applying to the 100 top companies (mostly multinational) conflicts with the IPPC logic that requires BAT standards for each individual production process. Fines are too low to prevent illegal traffic linked to international trade (e.g. CITES, Basel Convention). There has been a tendency to focus on fiscal rather than economic instruments, with no air emission charges, user charge levels with little effect on water consumption, and flat rates applied to municipal waste collection charges. Implementation of environmental
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agreements should be accompanied more systematically by transparency mechanisms and the threat of penalties, such as levying of an energy tax, in cases of non-compliance with targets. The move towards market-based instruments may be difficult to make in all areas. Increased emphasis on market based instruments should not come at the expense of experimentation with other approaches such as labelling and support for eco-design.
It is recommended to: • retain and refine quantitative policy targets for reducing environmental pressures, and strengthen efforts to see that they are attained without slippage; • enhance the role of provinces as a key level of policy integration, including environmental policy planning, land use planning and water management planning; • improve the split of enforcement and licensing, especially at local level, and clarify the responsibilities of the central, provincial and local levels; possibly broaden the scope of inspection and enforcement by the VROM Inspectorate to include IPPC companies; • take steps toward implementing the IPPC Directive for large companies, in such a way that emission trading can be applied in the best possible way; • reinforce integration of nature and water management objectives in central and local land use planning; establish periodicity in the preparation of land use plans; • extend the use of economic instruments (e.g. waste, water and transport management) and their incentive effects, in line with the user and polluter pays principles.
Air The Netherlands has successfully decoupled emissions of most traditional air pollutants from economic growth, improving urban air quality and reducing the Dutch contribution to transboundary air pollution. For most of the 50 priority air pollutants, emissions have been reduced to (or even below) targets set domestically and internationally to protect human health and the environment. This has been accomplished with a mix of instruments. Substantial reductions in emissions of toxic chemicals have also been achieved. Taxes on energy and
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transport have played a role, as well as active participation by the industrial sector in environmental agreements on reducing air pollutant emissions and improving energy efficiency. Air pollutant emission trading schemes are being developed. Ammonia emissions from agriculture were reduced by 15% between 1996 and 2002, partly due to the introduction of standards for manure storage facilities and manure spreading techniques. The proposed NOx emission trading scheme should be implemented. However, greenhouse gas emissions have not yet been decoupled from economic growth. Ozone, NOx and fine particles still contribute to regional problems of photochemical pollution and acidification of ecosystems. Environmental agreements have not succeeded in meeting industry targets for NOx. New policy measures will be needed to address these concerns, particularly in the energy, transport and agricultural sectors. Despite some improvements in recent years, final energy consumption per unit of GDP in the Netherlands remains above the OECD Europe average. Measures taken have not been effective enough to increase the use of renewable energy sources. Limited progress in reducing air pollutant emissions has been made by small and medium-sized firms. There has been too little progress in the transport sector. N2O (nitrous oxide) emissions from agriculture have not been reduced.
It is recommended to: • continue efforts to reduce emissions of NOx, particulate matter and NMVOCs (e.g. from transport, energy and industry) in light of persistent problems with concentrations of NO2, PM10 and ozone in some areas; implement the proposed NOx emission trading scheme; • pursue efforts to reduce ammonia emissions from agriculture; • provide small businesses with appropriate enforcement mechanisms to address long-term emission objectives, particularly for ozone precursors and priority substances; • continue to work towards increased energy efficiency; • expand the use of renewable energy sources (e.g. in municipalities and large firms).
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Water The Netherlands has a large delta area at the estuary of several main European rivers. This clearly increases pressure on water pollution and flood management. The Netherlands’ performance in reducing pressures on its water environment in the last ten years has been very good. In general, it has more than met the deadlines in the EU Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive for connections to the sewerage system and secondary treatment of waste water; 98% of the Dutch population is served by sewerage networks, all of which are connected to waste water treatment. The rate of removal of oxygen-demanding substances at public waste water treatment installations increased from 92 to 96% during the 1990s. Phosphorus and nitrogen removal is widespread. These achievements have required sustained financial efforts, particularly from households. The Netherlands has met North Sea targets for phosphorus and for most micropollutants and heavy metals. The 50% national reduction target for pesticide use has almost been met (47%). The Netherlands had the best overall performance among OECD countries with respect to decoupling pressures on the water environment from economic development and population growth. Strengthening of flood protection along major rivers, which repeatedly threatened to overflow their banks in the mid-1990s, is almost complete. Substantial progress has been made regarding most of the recommendations of the 1995 OECD Environmental Performance Review. Yet the Netherlands’ performance in reducing environmental pressures has still not been adequate to sustain the positive water quality trends of the 1980s and early 1990s. This partly reflects the high intensity of pressures on the water environment, which are often several times above the OECD average. These pressures in turn reflect the high intensity and density of economic activities such as agriculture and transport. Improvement of water quality stagnated during the latter part of the decade, mainly due to difficulties in tackling diffuse sources of pollution. Few surface or groundwater bodies meet basic water quality standards for several pollutants. The Netherlands did not quite meet the North Sea reduction targets for nitrogen. The impact of diffuse discharges, such as nutrients and pesticides from agriculture, emergency overflows from combined sewage systems and run-off from paved areas, remains severe. Nitrate standards for shallow groundwater are exceeded throughout the higher parts of the country. Implementation of measures to remedy groundwater depletion, which affects one-seventh of the total land area, has fallen short of targets. Further reduction of pressures cannot be achieved without a transition towards sustainable production processes, especially in agriculture. To achieve this transition, inter-sectoral economic efficiency should be given greater attention than in the past. If nothing
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more is done, sediments in watercourses contaminated by micropollutants and heavy metals will affect water quality for many decades to come. Safety issues remain paramount: expected rises in sea level, increasing discharges and continued land subsidence mean that the struggle to protect a population of which a large proportion lives below sea level can never be won once and for all.
It is recommended to: • strongly pursue implementation of policies to allocate “more space for water”, establish ecological networks and better protect areas at risk (e.g. from floods); in particular, integrate water management, nature management and spatial planning; • reinforce actions to combat groundwater depletion; complete and implement comprehensive provincial groundwater plans; • further reduce nitrogen loads from intensive agriculture (livestock and crop production) in line with related international commitments (EU Nitrates Directive, North Sea action programme); • strengthen efforts to achieve further progress in dealing with emergency overflows from combined sewers; • continue efforts to safely dispose of and/or treat contaminated dredging spoil; • continue to modernise the institutional framework for water management in line with the EU Water Framework Directive; • give more attention to economic analysis of water management measures in different sectors (e.g. municipal, industrial, agricultural); • strengthen inspection and enforcement relating to illegal discharges into the sewage system.
Biodiversity, nature and landscape conservation Nature management is subject to comprehensive national policy planning (Nature Policy Plan) under the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (LNV). The National Ecological Network (EHS) being established will include fragmented protected areas throughout the Netherlands, corridors to connect them, and large bodies of water such as North Sea coastal waters, the Wadden Sea, the IJssel Lake and the Delta. The annual rate of realisation of the EHS is increasing, but it remains below the target set by LNV to meet the objective
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of completion by 2018. Failure to meet the LNV target was mainly due to land scarcity and high land prices, as the network was largely created through land purchase and restoration by LNV. The emphasis is now moving from land acquisition to the signing of management contracts with landowners. Fourteen national parks have been established, and 50 000 additional hectares were given protected status in the 1990s. This, too, is below target. National protected areas are managed by the Dutch Forest Service (200 000 hectares) and NGOs (160 000 hectares). Forested areas increased by 23 000 hectares over the last decade. Phosphorous concentrations in surface water have decreased and are now in line with the NEPP target, mainly as a result of industry efforts. Biodiversity loss has been halted in some ecosystems, such as breeding habitats for migrating birds on farmland and woodland. Volunteers, often highly specialised, actively contribute to biodiversity monitoring. Open landscapes (polders in the west, cultivated grassland on peat soil in the north and west) are still relatively intact, but they are experiencing increasing pressure from urbanisation. Targets have recently been established to protect these areas. Awareness of nature conservation has grown over the decade, especially regarding demand for green areas in and around cities and for recreation in protected areas. The Netherlands has signed and ratified international agreements relating to nature and biodiversity. However, these efforts are not always commensurate with the intense pressures on biodiversity, nature and landscapes from economic activities; in some cases they do not appear to lead to results consistent with national targets. This may require reviewing and possibly revising the institutional setting for biodiversity, nature and landscape conservation. Many species are still threatened, and biodiversity conservation has continued to deteriorate in ecosystems subject to eutrophic deposition and eutrophication (e.g. open dunes, heaths and coastal waters). Nitrogen deposition (the main component of eutrophic deposition) is still far above NEPP targets, reflecting high emissions of NOx from transport and ammonia from agriculture. Acid deposition has been reduced but is still above the NEPP target. Overall, only 10% of Dutch natural areas are fully protected against acidification and eutrophication compared with a 2010 NEPP target of 20 to 30%. Desiccation due to agricultural drainage still affects 500 000 hectares, and restoration activities have been limited and are below target. Biodiversity is also under strong pressure from pollution by toxic substances: intensity of pesticide use remains largely above the OECD average; ambitious reduction targets were set recently. Water pollution by heavy metals and by hormone disruptors, as well as a lack of connections between water systems, affect aquatic life. In coastal areas little has been done to protect nature effectively; despite the 1995 OECD recommendation, there are no established marine reserves (plans are in discussion). Mud fishing (bottom trawling) is still
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practised in the North Sea, which has an impact on sea floor habitats. Residential areas have continued to be developed at the expense of natural areas, leading to the adoption of additional spatial planning regulations. It is unclear whether the objective of devoting one-third of the inland EHS entirely to nature conservation will be met. Further efforts are needed to fully implement the EU Birds and Habitats Directives. Amendment of the Nature Conservation Act to fully transpose the Birds and Habitats Directives was submitted to Parliament. Nature management has been integrated into agricultural policy with mixed results. While they fall under the same parent ministry, EU farm subsidies targeted at supporting agricultural production are much larger than public expenditure on nature protection. Agri-environmental measures have focused more on controlling diffuse water pollution than on converting farmland to wildlife habitats (mainly meadows), though payments to farmers are being increased to meet the conversion target of 110 000 hectares by 2020.
It is recommended to: • complete establishment of the national ecological network according to targets, taking account of requirements of the EU Birds and Habitats Directives; • achieve the target of 20 to 30% of natural areas fully protected against acidification and eutrophication, particularly by reducing pressures from agriculture and the waste water industry; • reinforce implementation of nature conservation objectives in agricultural policy, particularly by meeting reduction targets for pesticide use, ammonia emissions and desiccation, speeding up farmland conversion in natural areas, and tackling diffuse water pollution by nitrogen compounds; • reinforce implementation of nature conservation objectives in water policy, particularly by reducing water pollution by toxic substances, developing connections among water systems and setting ecological quality objectives for water bodies; • enhance nature protection in coastal areas, particularly through better control of mud fishing and establishment of marine reserves, in the framework of the OSPAR Convention; • strengthen efforts to integrate biodiversity, nature and landscape conservation among themselves and with spatial planning.
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2.
OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Netherlands
Towards Sustainable Development Integration of environmental concerns in economic decisions
Dutch performance in terms of reducing emissions and environmental pressures over the last decade has been strong. This performance should be seen in the context of sustained GDP growth of 35%, and of liberalisation and greater European and international integration of the country’s economy. Overall, pollution abatement and control expenditure has been growing, from 1.9% of GDP in 1990 to 2.6% in 2000. This share, which is expected to remain stable during the next three years based on existing and proposed policy measures, is large by OECD standards and reflects a high level of environmental pressure and readiness to commit resources to mitigation. There is no evidence that this expenditure has affected the competitiveness of the Dutch economy. Concerning institutional integration, there has been good progress with respect to integration of sustainability into the thinking and activities of a range of government and private sector actors (as demonstrated, for example, in the 1997 policy document on Environment and Economy). Considerable reliance is now being placed on some high-level guiding principles set out in the fourth National Environmental Policy Plan (NEPP4), some high-level sustainable development principles, and the concept of “transition management” and “transition processes” within a sustainable development goal-setting and backcasting framework. The characteristically Dutch “polder model” approach of dialogue between the government and stakeholders to develop environmental policy has been successful. There is recognition of the need to address areas in which progress remains to be made, as shown in environmental and sustainable development planning documents. Concerning market-based integration, the Netherlands has expanded its use of economic and fiscal instruments and, overall, is implementing the polluter pays and user pays principles despite the exemption of many companies from environmental taxes (e.g. energy taxes) in an attempt to preserve competitiveness. The recent ecological tax reform represents significant progress, with a shift from taxation of labour and income. The various environmentally related Dutch fiscal instruments now account for 14% of total tax revenue. However, decoupling environmental pressures from economic growth has proven elusive, particularly for CO2 emissions, municipal waste and the impacts of urban sprawl, including continuing pressures on biodiversity. Among other residual problems are the levels of particulate matter and ozone, the backlog of contaminated sites, groundwater quality and noise. Also of concern is the review or postponement of some targets that have been hard to meet (e.g. for NOx and ammonia), as well as the risk that some more difficult targets (e.g. for
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groundwater) may not be met. The Dutch Central Economic Planning Agency has noted that goals with respect to the country’s manure problem were not met due to a reluctance to implement policy forcefully enough. The general planning approach used in the Netherlands requires a very high degree of co-ordination among national ministries. Environmental plans must be co-ordinated with a number of national sectoral plans, the more so as the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM) is responsible for only some environmental policy areas. Integration of environmental policies into other national policies is laid down in the NEPPs. However, policy integration has not yet been reflected in markedly better environmental performance in key sectors such as agriculture and transport. The high levels of production and consumption of the Netherlands continue to lead to large environmental effects outside of the Netherlands. Overall, the government’s goal of reaching sustainability by 2010 (i.e. within one generation at the time this goal was set) appears increasingly difficult to achieve, particularly for the agriculture and transport sectors. Strong and continuing political determination and support by the public will be indispensable in this respect.
It is recommended to: • implement environmental plans and objectives with determination; • strengthen institutional integration, particularly to ensure that a sustainable development framework is firmly embedded in central, provincial and local government and across key sectors, notably energy, agriculture and transport; • refine the market based instruments and extend the environmental tax system, having regard to simplicity, effectiveness, transaction costs and carrying out cost-benefit analysis; • couple the regulatory energy tax with pollutant emissions (carbon tax) and consider its extension to large companies in the case of non-compliance with environmental targets; • undertake environmental assessment earlier in the decision-making process to influence choices concerning plans, policies and programmes; • extend the use of spatial planning and regulation to serve pollution abatement, nature, biodiversity and landscape conservation as well as risk prevention; • maintain investment and efforts in environmental research and development.
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Integration of environmental and social concerns The Netherlands is making strong efforts to inform and educate the public about environmental protection. The quality of environmental information is high, and reporting activities and access to this information are well established. The public also has good access to the courts concerning environmental matters. Public debate and public participation in decision-making are quite well developed. Dutch environmental research and development are influential at the national and international levels, with respect to both technical matters and policy issues. A tradition of openness and transparency in policy-making and goal setting is maintained for the benefit of civil society. Key documents like the National Strategy for Sustainable Development, the National Environmental Policy Plans (NEPPs) and the annual “balance” reports present environmental issues using a forward looking approach. However, environmental employment represents only 1.3% of total employment, a figure which could be higher if there were a more active environmental employment policy. Local Agenda 21 initiatives have produced mixed results.
It is recommended to: • strengthen measures to improve external safety in relation to transport (e.g. air traffic, railways, transport of hazardous substances) and chemical installations; • strengthen efforts to improve the quality of the living environment with respect to noise nuisance, air pollution and access to green areas for recreation, especially in the case of low-income groups; • further maintain a high-quality environmental information base and ensure continuity in environmental reporting activities; • make further efforts to increase environmental awareness and sustainable behaviour, particularly regarding car and energy use; • continue to promote public participation in decision-making and goal-setting processes (e.g. at an early stage), both at national and local levels; • ensure that national environmental policy links up with relevant local sustainable development initiatives; • encourage sustainable development initiatives in the framework of Local Agenda 21, particularly in relation to mainstream local activities (e.g. housing, infrastructure, etc.).
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Low-income groups experience above average severe noise nuisance and local air pollution, while their neighbourhoods often do not have as much green space as more prosperous areas. The number of large-scale accidents has increased in recent years; thus so have threats to external safety. People living near airports and large chemical installations are particularly exposed to risks of accidents. Health risks related to air pollutants have decreased but still remain a problem; 2.5% of the population is exposed to levels of NO2 above the limit value (4% for fine particles PM10). Noise nuisance has remained a health concern in the Netherlands. Natural habitats and valuable landscapes have been lost to urban development, reducing public access to natural resources, recreation and silence.
Integration of environmental concerns in transport decisions Until recently, the level of integration of environmental, transport and spatial planning in the Netherlands has been commendable. Environmental concerns have been incorporated into transport policies. Regarding vehicles and fuels, air emissions have been reduced in line with EU Directives. The Netherlands has introduced fuel efficiency labelling. In 2002 purchase tax discounts were granted for the most fuel-efficient (lowest CO2 emitting) cars. Introduction of more environmentally friendly fuels and other technological innovations have contributed to the reduction of some harmful emissions (e.g. lead, SO2 and NOx). Despite a significant increase in traffic volume, emission reductions have been notable. With respect to traffic management, car-restricted and bicycle- and pedestrian-friendly town centres have a long tradition and are still favoured in local land use planning. In some cases only delivery vehicles and buses are allowed to enter urban zones. Speed limit enforcement has been stepped up considerably, for safety and pollution reasons. Eco-driving (fuel-efficient driving) has been encouraged through training of drivers and incentives to buy vehicles equipped with devices to enhance fuel efficiency. Innovative parking policy is based on pricing and regulations (e.g. a limited number of parking spaces for employees). The level of service provided by the Dutch public transport system could serve as a model for a number of other OECD countries. Fuel taxation has been reviewed and revised, and fiscal advantages for those commuting by car have been eliminated. Concerning infrastructure, EIA is used with extended consultation. However, the Netherlands is not yet moving towards sustainable transport. Integration of environmental concerns, land use planning and sustainable development in transport policy and planning is not commensurate with the country’s ambitious transport development plans and efforts to maintain the Dutch share in
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international transport. Compared with the early 1990s, there are currently fewer environmental targets, and most are less ambitious; some targets have been abolished (e.g. for CO2 emissions) or postponed (e.g. noise), and others have been extended (e.g. NOx) or strengthened (e.g. VOCs). Implementation and enforcement of environmentally beneficial transport policies and measures have not always been coherent and resolute. CO2 emissions from road traffic have increased dramatically, despite the wide range of economic instruments adopted to discourage private car use. Urban and transport development strategies have not succeeded in reducing traffic volumes for passenger cars. To reduce transport emissions, the Netherlands mainly relies on technological innovations by nonDutch vehicle and airplane manufacturers. Noise emissions from road vehicles, rail and aviation are spreading. The 1998 agreement on lowering the speed limit in the Randstad area has not been implemented. There is no political consensus on road pricing nor on a per-kilometre tax. Attempts to develop instruments to better control emissions from inland and ocean shipping and aviation have had marginal results while awaiting common or technology-related standards and effective agreements at international level (e.g. on taxation of aviation and bunker fuels, emission standards for heavy-duty diesel engines used in locomotives and ships).
It is recommended to: • strengthen or revive efforts to integrate environmental and sustainable development concerns into transport policy; • further internalise externalities into transport operation and pricing: strengthen the use of existing economic instruments and introduce new ones, such as the suggested per-kilometre tax on lorries and cars (with differentiated rates according to time, place and the environmental impact of each vehicle) or other relevant instruments; • work towards eliminating domestic and international distortions in competition among transport modes (e.g. subsidisation, taxation, standards), including within the EU, IMO and ICAO; • pursue efforts to reduce noise emissions from road, rail and air traffic (e.g. emission reduction at source); • urgently define and implement a package of measures to reduce CO2 emissions from freight and passenger transport; • continue to improve accident prevention and preparedness in the transport of hazardous substances.
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33
International Co-operation
The Netherlands has continued to play a leading, proactive role in the development and implementation of international environmental laws reflecting the regional and global interdependencies of its environment and economy. These efforts have been carried out in the interest of the international community, as well as in the Netherlands’ own interest. Concerning climate change, the Netherlands was very active in helping to achieve progress towards the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol. It succeeded in bringing about a relative decoupling of its CO2 emissions from GDP growth, largely due to a 14% decrease in the energy intensity of the Dutch economy between 1990 and 2000. By significantly reducing emissions of NOx, SOx and NMVOCs, the Netherlands has more than met its reduction targets under the Oslo, Sofia and Geneva Protocols to the LRTAP Convention. It continues active enforcement of marine agreements. It carries out regular surveillance and enforcement in its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) against illegal dumping or discharges from ships. At least 25% of foreign ships calling at Dutch ports are consistently inspected for compliance with MARPOL standards. The Netherlands reduced point source discharges of nitrogen and phosphorous to the North Sea to the extent of being on track to meet its North Sea Conference targets. Partly due to a successful environmental agreement with offshore oil and gas producers, the frequency and magnitude of oil spills and flaring have been reduced; fugitive methane emissions have been limited and compliance with OSPAR limits on oil in effluents has improved. Based on its experience with a prior informed consent (PIC) system to regulate exports of dangerous chemicals to developing countries, the Netherlands played a key role in developing the 1998 Rotterdam PIC Convention. It is one of the few countries that consistently meet UN targets for official development assistance; it also meets its own national commitment regarding the environmental component of its ODA. Despite these impressive achievements, the Netherlands could improve its performance in meeting several international environmental commitments. It failed to meet its national target for stabilising CO2 emissions at their 1990 level by 2000. The ancillary benefits of domestic climate protection measures were not taken into account when preliminary targets were established for realising 50% of the country’s Kyoto commitment through domestic measures. The polluter pays principle (PPP) has not been integrated into early plans to use the Kyoto mechanisms. New reduction targets concerning transboundary air pollutants under the Gothenburg Protocol and the EU National Emission Ceilings (NEC) Directive will require implementation of additional domestic control measures. Stricter
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standards established in 2000 under MARPOL Annex VI are likely to necessitate tighter control of atmospheric SOx emissions in the offshore zone. To comply with the EU Nitrates Directive, the Netherlands will need to strengthen control of nitrogen emissions from agriculture. It should accelerate efforts to designate marine protected areas, so as to implement the Habitats Directive fully in its 200-mile EEZ. In line with FAO recommendations, it has attempted to implement vessel decommissioning schemes to reduce fishing capacity but with little success thus far. Shared and straddling marine fish stocks in the North and Wadden Seas need to be restored: many of these stocks are classified as “outside biologically sustainable limits”. Progress towards Objective 2000 of the International Tropical Timber Organisation (ensuring that all imported hardwood comes from sustainably managed forests) appears to have lost momentum. While development assistance projects are expected to comply with host country requirements concerning the application of environmental impact assessment, the Dutch government does not require systematic application of EIA for these projects.
It is recommended to: • take into account ancillary benefits of reducing SOx and VOC emissions when assessing the cost-effectiveness of potential greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction measures, and develop means to implement the polluter pays principle through the Kyoto mechanisms; • take steps to ensure full implementation and enforcement of new international commitments concerning port reception and ship-generated wastes and cargo residues; • continue to work in international fora to promote management of shared and straddling marine stocks in the North Sea following an ecosystem management approach; • put an end to illegal trade in ozone depleting substances; • co-operate internationally to develop means of ensuring that timber and wood products imported to the Netherlands originate from sustainably managed tropical and boreal forests; • strengthen and generalise requirements concerning environmental impact assessment, to apply to all major projects financed through international assistance (ODA and non-ODA); • ratify and implement recent international environmental agreements.
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Part I
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
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2
AIR MANAGEMENT*
Recommendations The following recommendations are part of the overall conclusions and recommendations of the OECD Environmental Performance Review of the Netherlands: • continue efforts to reduce emissions of NOx, particulate matter and NMVOCs (e.g. from transport, energy and industry) in light of persistent problems with concentrations of NO2, PM10 and ozone in some areas; implement the proposed NOx emission trading scheme; • pursue efforts to reduce ammonia emissions from agriculture; • provide small businesses with appropriate enforcement mechanisms to address long-term emission objectives, particularly for ozone precursors and priority substances; • continue to work towards increased energy efficiency; • expand the use of renewable energy sources (e.g. in municipalities and large firms).
Conclusions The Netherlands has successfully decoupled emissions of most traditional air pollutants from economic growth, improving urban air quality and reducing the Dutch contribution to transboundary air pollution. For most of the 50 priority air * The present chapter reviews progress in the last ten years, and particularly since the previous OECD Environmental Performance Review of 1995. It also reviews progress with respect to the objective “maintaining the integrity of ecosystems” of the 2001 OECD Environmental Strategy. It takes into account the latest IEA Energy Policy Review of the Netherlands.
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pollutants, emissions have been reduced to (or even below) targets set domestically and internationally to protect human health and the environment. This has been accomplished with a mix of instruments. Substantial reductions in emissions of toxic chemicals have also been achieved. Taxes on energy and transport have played a role, as well as active participation by the industrial sector in environmental agreements on reducing air pollutant emissions and improving energy efficiency. Air pollutant emission trading schemes are being developed. Ammonia emissions from agriculture were reduced by 15% between 1996 and 2002, partly due to the introduction of standards for manure storage facilities and manure spreading techniques. The proposed NOx emission trading scheme should be implemented. However, greenhouse gas emissions have not yet been decoupled from economic growth. Ozone, NOx and fine particles still contribute to regional problems of photochemical pollution and acidification of ecosystems. Environmental agreements have not succeeded in meeting industry targets for NOx. New policy measures will be needed to address these concerns, particularly in the energy, transport and agricultural sectors. Despite some improvements in recent years, final energy consumption per unit of GDP in the Netherlands remains above the OECD Europe average. Measures taken have not been effective enough to increase the use of renewable energy sources. Limited progress in reducing air pollutant emissions has been made by small and medium-sized firms. There has been too little progress in the transport sector. N2O (nitrous oxide) emissions from agriculture have not been reduced.
1.
Evaluation of Performance 1.1
Policy objectives
The Netherlands’ main policy objectives in the area of air management are to achieve its domestic air quality standards and to reduce polluting emissions, in conformity with EU Directives and international agreements such as the Gothenburg and Kyoto Protocols. Air quality objectives for priority substances have been set, as well as emission reduction objectives to reduce acid deposition and greenhouse gas concentrations. The fourth National Environmental Policy Plan (NEPP4) set new targets for emissions and deposition of acidifying substances (SO2, NOx, NH3 and VOCs) by 2010. The emission reduction targets are less ambitious than those under NEPP3. In particular, it was estimated that immense efforts would be needed to meet the 2010 NEPP3 emission targets for nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ammonia (NH3). In NEPP3 it was determined that emissions of all these substances should be maintained at 2000 levels until 2005. The 2000 emission target for sulphur dioxide (SO2) has been
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achieved; the target for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) has been exceeded by almost 50% (partly reflecting a change in the calculation method since the target was set). The NEPP4 deposition targets for 2010 are also less ambitious for nitrogen and potential acid deposition. This means there will be less effective protection of nature than had been envisaged; while the NEPP3 targets focused on complete protection of some 80% of natural areas, the new targets are intended to provide complete protection of only 20 to 30% of these areas. Nonetheless, the national emission reduction targets proposed for 2010 in NEPP4 are more demanding than those proposed in the 2001 EU Directive on National Emission Ceilings (EU-NEC) or in the 1999 Gothenburg Protocol. The Dutch point out that there are three explanations for this: i) a safety margin can ensure that international agreements to which the Netherlands is committed are met, even in the event of disappointing results; ii) more ambitious targets are appropriate to the pioneering role the Netherlands and several other countries have sought to play in Europe; iii) greater emission reductions offer greater nature protection. The 1996 EU Air Quality Framework Directive (AQFD) established air quality objectives. Its first Daughter Directive (1999) set quality standards for NOx, SO2, lead and particulate matter (PM10). The second Daughter Directive (2000) set standards for CO and benzene. There will be new ozone standards in the third Daughter Directive, which is under preparation. The 1995 OECD Environmental Performance Review recommended that the Netherlands: – step up efforts to increase the effectiveness of permitting and enforcement procedures at provincial and municipal levels, building on progress already accomplished; – ensure the monitoring and effectiveness of existing voluntary agreements; encourage industrial branches and individual facilities to draw up their own programmes of emission reduction; – review the potential of using economic instruments more widely; – continue efforts to lower the energy intensity of the Dutch economy, through progress in energy efficiency and energy consumption patterns; – strengthen measures to reduce the emission of priority substances and VOCs from stationary sources; – strengthen the contribution of the agricultural sector (e.g. by further reducing ammonia emissions) and the transport sector (e.g. emissions of NOx, VOCs, CO2).
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1.2
Trends in air emissions
Overall, Dutch environmental policy has been successful with respect to air emissions. Emissions of most of the Netherlands’ 50 priority pollutants have been reduced close to or even below target values. Thus they pose no or a very limited threat to human health and the environment. Even in the case of substances that continue to present problems, emissions have been reduced significantly. However, concentrations of the following substances substantially exceed the target values: acrolein, benzene, ethylene, toluene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Maximum permissible concentrations of some substances are even exceeded. These substances include fluorides (near industrial sources), NOx (in urban areas with high traffic density), particulate matter (PM10) and tetrachloroethylene (near dry cleaners).
Traditional pollutants In the 1990s the Netherlands realised large emission reductions for a range of traditional pollutants (Table 2.1). All its international commitments to reduce emissions of traditional air pollutants have been met so far. It has also made good
Table 2.1
Emissions of traditional air pollutants by source, 1990-2000 (1 000 tonnes) SO2
(%)
NOX
(%)
NMVOCs
(%)
1990 2000 Industrial combustion 1990 2000 Non-industrial combustion 1990 2000 Industrial processes 1990 2000 Mobile sources 1990 2000 Miscellaneous 1990 2000
112.6 48.3 44.2 14.7 8.1 1.2 6.7 2.6 29.4 23.6 1.4 0.7
55.7 53.0 21.8 16.2 4.0 1.3 3.3 2.9 14.5 25.9 0.7 0.7
101.1 58.8 77.2 43.3 41.9 34.7 1.5 0.6 350.2 282.9 1.9 0.7
17.6 14.0 13.5 10.3 7.3 8.2 0.3 0.1 61.0 67.2 0.3 0.2
25.9 20.7 3.9 3.2 15.8 11.1 60.5 25.7 200.4 114.9 197.1 105.0
5.1 7.4 0.8 1.2 3.1 4.0 12.0 9.2 39.8 40.9 39.1 37.4
21.8 31.9 224.4 115.5 117.1 53.1 42.4 35.3 754.2 461.8 4.6 3.5
1.9 4.5 19.3 16.5 10.1 7.6 3.6 5.0 64.8 65.9 0.4 0.5
Total
202.3 91.2
100.0 100.0
573.8 421.0
100.0 100.0
503.5 280.7
100.0 100.0
1 164.5 701.0
100.0 100.0
Power stations
1990 2000
Change 2000/90 (%) Source:
–54.9
–26.6
–44.2
CO
(%)
–39.8
EMEP.
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progress towards meeting pending international commitments, except in the case of NOx emissions (Table 8.3). The situation is different with regard to the more ambitious domestic objectives in the NEPPs. In 2000 these objectives were met for SO2 emissions but not for emissions of NOx and VOCs (Table 5.12). Since 1990 national emissions of SOx have been reduced by over 50%, those of NMVOCs and CO by over 40% and those of NOx by less than 30%. These emission reductions are mainly attributable to technological changes. SOx and NOx emissions were strongly decoupled from economic growth in the 1990s (Figure 2.1). This decoupling built on significant progress in the 1980s for SOx but marked a change with respect to NOx emissions, which had been stagnating or even increasing until the early 1990s. Emission intensities (kg/unit GDP) of SOx and NOx are well below the OECD and OECD Europe averages (Figure 2.1). For SOx emissions the Netherlands is among the best performing OECD countries; for NOx emissions its performance is surpassed by only a few other European countries and Japan. Emissions of particulate matter have been substantially reduced (by 60% in industry and by 30% in transport) over the past decade. However, the major share of decreases in PM10 concentrations have resulted from measures taken in other countries to reduce emissions of SO2 and primary particulate matter. It is estimated that domestic sources contribute only about one-quarter of total Dutch PM10 concentrations. Traffic contributes around one-third.
CO2 emissions CO2 emission intensity is higher than the OECD Europe average and ranks 15th among OECD countries. CO2 emissions increased by nearly 11% between 1990 and 2000. The Netherlands therefore failed to meet its national target of stabilising CO2 emissions during this period (Chapter 8, Section 1.3). Meeting the Kyoto target will clearly require additional measures (Table 8.2). The Dutch commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (and as part of the EU’s burden-sharing agreement) is to reduce its GHG emissions by 6% compared with 1990 levels by 2008-12. National CO2 emissions were not decoupled from GDP until 1996 and have been only weakly decoupled since (Figure 2.1). Decoupling has mainly resulted from improvements in energy efficiency, especially in the energy-intensive industry and power production sectors (Chapter 2, Section 2.1).
Ammonia and toxics Emissions of ammonia (NH3) were reduced by one-third in the 1990s, reflecting a decrease in the number of livestock as well as implementation of reduction measures (Table 8.3). This is far below national targets, but indicates progress towards meeting the pending Gothenburg and EU-NEC commitments.
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OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Netherlands
Figure 2.1 Air pollutant emissions SOx State, 2000a per unit of GDPb
Trends in the Netherlands Index 1990 = 100
GDPb
120 Fossil fuel supply
100 80 60 40
SOx emissions
Netherlands
0.2
United States Japan Denmark France Germany Italy United Kingdom
2.0 0.3 0.2 0.7 0.4 0.8 1.0
OECD Europe OECD
20 0 1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
1.3 1.5 0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
kg/USD 1 000
NOx State, 2000a per unit of GDPb
Trends in the Netherlands Index 1990 = 100
GDPb
120 Fossil fuel supply
100 80
NOx emissions
60 40
Netherlands
1.1
United States Japan Denmark France Germany Italy United Kingdom
2.7 0.5
1.5 1.3 0.9 1.2 1.3
OECD Europe OECD
20 0 1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
1.4 1.9 0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
kg/USD 1 000
CO2c Trends in the Netherlands Index 1990 = 100
State, 2000 per unit of GDPb GDPb Fossil fuel supply
120 100 80
CO2 emissions
60 40
0.44 0.38 0.37 0.26 0.43 0.34 0.44
0.63
OECD Europe OECD
20 0
Netherlands United States Japan Denmark France Germany Italy United Kingdom
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
0.41 0.51 0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
tonnes/USD 1 000
a) Or latest available year. b) GDP at 1995 prices and purchasing power parities. c) Emissions from energy use only; excludes international marine and aviation bunkers. Source: OECD; IEA.
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Emissions of toxic air contaminants except copper fell dramatically in the 1990s (Table 2.2). Per capita dioxin emissions are now the lowest in the EU. Emissions of heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are already well below those established in the Netherlands’ provisional commitments under the Aarhus protocols to the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (Table 8.3).
Table 2.2
Emissions of toxic air contaminants, 1990-98 (tonnes) 1990
Organic compounds PAHs Dioxina
1 759 611
Heavy metals Cadmium Chromium Copper Mercury Lead Nickel Zinc
1.9 11 19 3.0 333 84 221
1995
1998
929 67
713 44
1.0 8.2 20 1.1 159 96 144
1.2 5.4 21 0.6 44 53 100
a) In grams of international toxicity equivalent (I-TEQ). Source: CBS.
1.3
Trends in air quality
The Netherlands does meet the EU air quality standards introduced in 1999 for SO2 and lead (Figure 2.2 and Table 2.3). Reduction of emissions from traffic has brought about a decrease in NO2 concentrations. However, quality standards for NO2 concentrations are still exceeded, especially where there is high traffic intensity (e.g. the Rhine estuary, Amsterdam and its surrounding area, urban areas near motorways). The annual average NO2 concentration of 40 µg/m3 has been exceeded along 1 700 kilometres of road, 40% of which is located within one of the four major urban areas. In over 50% of cases exceedance is by less than 5 µg/m3, though there have been exceedances of up to 25 µg/m3.
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Figure 2.2 Trends in air quality, selected cities, 1990-2001
SO2a
NO2a
µg/m3
µg/m3
WHO guideline
50
60 50
40 40 30
30
20
20
10
0
WHO guideline
10
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
0
2000
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
1998
2000
PM10a Oxidantsb ppb
µg/m3
200
50
180 National standard
160
40
140 120
30
100 80
20
60 40
10
20 0
0 1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
Rotterdam (Schiedamsevest)
2000 The Hague (Rebecquestraat)
1990
1992
1994
Vlaardingen (Lyceumlaan)
1996
Witteveen (Talmaweg)
a) Annual averages. b) Annual maximum hourly concentrations. Source: RIVM.
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Concentrations of particulate matter (PM10) have been monitored since 1992. The average annual concentration fell from 43 µg/m3 in 1992 to less than 35 µg/m3 in 2000. The annual threshold value of 40 µg/m3 is still slightly exceeded in some urban and highly industrialised areas, mainly in the southern part of the country. High background concentrations mean that a slight increase in emissions from local sources in large cities or around large industrial complexes is sufficient to raise concentrations above the air quality standard. The annual average target for 2005 is within reach under a business as usual scenario; the target for 2010 (and a stricter EU target for 2010, which was expected to come into force in 2003) are not within reach. The 2010 target will be especially difficult to achieve, even in the very long term. The daily average target for PM10 in 2005 will probably be exceeded in some parts of the Netherlands, though the number of exceedances fell in the 1990s. Meeting the stricter target for 2010 does not appear feasible on the basis of current policy. The number of days on which the eight-hour average standard for ozone (110 µg/m3) was exceeded fell by half in the 1990s. This is now 15 days per year, or 10 days per year if the proposed EU target for 2010 of 120 µg/m3 were in effect. Human exposure to high
Table 2.3
Legal ambient air quality standards (µg/m3)
Pollutant
Parameter
Limit value
Maximum number of exceedances allowed per year
Year of compliance
SO2a
Daily mean value 1-hr mean value Annual mean value Daily mean value Annual mean value 1-hr mean value 8-hr mean value Annual mean value Annual mean value 8-hr mean value
125 350 40b 50 40 200 10 000 5 0.5 120
3 24 0 35c 0 18 0 0 0 20
2001 2001 2005 2005 2010 2010 2005 2010 2001 2010
PM10 NO2a COd Benzened Lead Ozonea, e
a) Human health standards. 2010 standards for nature are 20 µg/m3 in winter, an annual mean of 30 µg/m3 (NOx) and a 1-hr mean of 80 µg/m3 in May, June and July (ozone). b) 20 µg/m3 by 2010. c) Maximum of 7 exceedances per year allowed by 2010. d) EU standards not yet transposed in Dutch legislation. e) Proposed EU standard. Source: VROM.
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ozone concentrations has decreased, from 65 to 40% of the population. Implementation of the forthcoming Daughter Directive on ozone (Chapter 2, Section 1.1) will have a limited impact on Dutch policies already in place. The NEPP4 long-term ambient air quality target for nature (less than 6 000 hours exceeding 80 µg/m3 in spring) is exceeded in many parts of the Netherlands. Further actions are needed to reduce emissions of ozone precursors in the transport and energy sectors.
1.4
Integration of air pollution concerns into sectoral policies
The major sources of SO2, NO2, VOC and particulate matter emissions in the Netherlands are road traffic and the industrial and energy sectors. Agriculture is the main contributor of NH3 emissions. National emission targets have been translated into targets for these sectors. Substantial reductions in air pollutant emissions have been achieved despite increases in primary energy supply and final energy consumption (both around 15%) and road traffic (increases in vehicle-kilometres of nearly 20% for passenger cars and of nearly 25% for freight). To meet domestic emission targets for 2010, the Netherlands will need to achieve substantially higher emission reductions than at present. Many emission targets will be met using the proposed policy mix (i.e. based mainly on regulations, environmental agreements and fiscal instruments). However, additional reduction measures will be needed if domestic targets are to be met in their entirety.
Agriculture Ammonia (NH3) emissions largely contribute to acidification of the soil and eutrophication of natural areas (by causing grass invasions) (Figure 4.2). Agriculture is the largest producer of ammonia (94%); little is generated by households (4%) or industry (2%). Most agricultural emissions (90 to 95%) originate from livestock manure and the rest from fertilisers. Emissions from animal manure have been reduced significantly since 1990. Total ammonia emissions from agriculture decreased by one-third between 1990 and 2000. Even greater reductions were achieved in areas with the highest ammonia emissions. The Netherlands has made good progress towards meeting its international commitments to reduce NH3 emissions under the 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution and the 2001 EU Directive on National Emission Ceilings (Table 8.3). Domestic objectives are more ambitious; in 2000 the NEPP target for NH3 emissions was not met (Table 5.12). The Dutch policy for addressing mineral surpluses in agriculture was introduced in the 1980s. The first measures were aimed at minimising their negative effects. Over the years there have been progressively tighter and more comprehensive regulations and standards. The policy on mineral surpluses became considerably more
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rigorous in 1999, when priority was given to meeting environmental targets on farms. The Minerals Accounting System (MINAS) was fully implemented well ahead of schedule; all farms are required to submit a minerals return. A system of manure transfer contracting was to be introduced in 2002. Livestock farmers with manure surpluses would be required to sign contracts with farms that have a manure shortage or with manure processors. Those unable to dispose of all their surplus manure in this manner might have to reduce the number of their livestock. Other more specific instruments have been used to tackle ammonia emissions. These include regulations on spreading of manure and other types of organic fertiliser on land, and regulations intended to reduce emissions from manure storage (Chapter 2, Section 2.2). The new EU requirement to reduce emissions from livestock housing is expected to have the greatest effect in reducing ammonia emissions to acceptable levels in the Netherlands.
Energy and industry While the greatest reductions of SO2 emissions have been achieved by refineries, which met their emission target (36 million kg in 2000), the industrial sector has not meet its target (15 million kg in 2000) although it has made good progress through technological innovation. Coal-fired power stations met their emission target for 2000 despite a slight increase in emissions attributable to use of coal with high sulphur content. Industry and the energy sector have not planned new SO2 emission reduction measures before 2005; growth in the energy sector will probably be offset by reduced use of oil-based fuels. The 2010 NEPP4 emission target for the industrial, energy and refinery sectors is 30 million kg. NOx emissions from the industrial, energy and refinery sectors and from waste incineration facilities fell from 120 million kg in 1995 to 90 million kg in 2000. To meet the 2010 NEPP4 target (55 million kg), a NOx emission trading scheme will be put into effect by late 2004. This scheme should encourage all actors involved to take the most cost-effective measures. However, transition to this new policy instrument is currently slowing implementation of other emission reduction measures. For example, very limited use has been made of incentive schemes for end-of-pipe technology and the number of such measures proposed up to 2004 is also limited. It is important that the trading scheme be established in time to prevent further delays in NOx reductions. The need to amend the Environmental Management Act to bring it into conformity with EU legislation is one factor to be considered. The government and the business community have agreed on the principle of introducing NOx emission trading. Design of this scheme is well advanced. For large companies emission trading would replace the current use of environmental agreements
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and permits. The NOx emissions scheme owes much to the United States’ experience with tradable emission rights. Approximately 200 Dutch firms (large players) would participate, ensuring an adequate market and trading volume. It is uncertain how implementation of this scheme would affect development of the power generation capacity of the electricity industry. At the time the scheme was initiated, it was assumed that the electricity sector with its relatively high potential for cost-effective emission reduction would be a net supplier of NOx emission rights. However, if electricity imports increased as a result of deregulation, there could be fewer possibilities to achieve reductions and NOx credits would therefore be more expensive. NEPP4 states that if the trade of NOx emission permits for energy-intensive industry, refineries and power plants is successful, the scheme could be expanded to other sectors. Measures to reduce VOC emissions from stationary sources over the last 15 years were established in the Hydrocarbons 2000 programme (KWS2000). VOC emissions in the industrial sector have fallen by approximately 50% compared with 1981, in line with the KWS2000 objective; they now contribute 25% of total VOC emissions. More proactive implementation and better enforcement could lead to further reductions in sectors where KWS measures have not yet been adequately implemented (e.g. industrial printing and solvent applications). The 2010 NEPP4 emission target for the industrial, energy and refinery sectors is 60 million kg. Industry has also substantially reduced emissions of particulate matter in recent years (Chapter 2, Section 1.3). KWS2000 assigned an important role to environmental agreements between government and industry, in which emission reductions to be achieved by 2000 were set out. These agreements, combined with proper inspection and enforcement of permits, have provided good results using tested techniques that are easy to adopt and commercially affordable. This is the case for the majority of measures taken in the chemicals, refining, storage and transhipment sectors and under the Energy Efficiency Benchmarking Agreement (EEBA) (Chapter 2, Section 2.3). EAs do not guarantee how quickly new technologies will be introduced, and SMEs are not involved in these agreements. Adoption of new technologies tends to take longer than expected despite financial incentives. EAs are less effective when high costs are involved, as they can adversely affect the competitiveness of the companies concerned.
Energy prices and taxation The Netherlands has the highest level of gas penetration in the world. It accounts for 8.5% of total gas consumption in Europe. As the second largest natural gas producer in western Europe after the UK. and the second largest exporter after Norway, it is more than self-sufficient. Since the Netherlands is a large natural gas producer, it may appear surprising that natural gas prices for Dutch industry and households are higher than the OECD Europe averages (by 6% in 2001) (Table 2.4).
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Dutch gas pricing policy was established following the discovery of the Groningen gas field in 1959. The Ministry of Finance sets gas prices according to the “market value” principle. To generate maximum revenue for the State and the concession holder (i.e. a 50/50 public-private joint venture with Shell and Exxon), the consumer price of gas is linked to the prices of alternative fuels. These fuels include domestic heating oil and diesel for households and small-scale users, and heavy fuel oil for industrial and other large-scale users. Consumers never pay more for gas than they would for alternative fuels. The market value principle also ensures that they do not pay less. Applying this principle has raised much more revenue than if consumer prices had reflected low production costs. To avoid disruptions of the energy market, control of the gas supply is a government responsibility. Despite some adjustments, the institutional set-up and principles governing gas production, marketing, pricing and profit distribution have prevailed up until now. From the mid-1970s, in addition to the Groningen supplies, increasing volumes of gas were supplied by Dutch on-shore and off-shore fields (large and small); the 50/50 publicprivate joint venture was given exclusive responsibility for co-ordinating the trade and distribution of Dutch natural gas resources. Following liberalisation of gas supply to large consumers in 1998, and enactment of the 2000 Natural Gas Act, the holder of trade and distribution rights lost a 15% share of the industrial market. However, the EU Gas Directive liberalises only trade and distribution; it does not interfere with the structure or organisation of production. Co-ordination among the few large joint ventures to control supply in the EU’s four producing countries has avoided large-scale competition and maintained oil parity pricing. The Minister of Finance approves the selling prices charged by the holder of trade and distribution rights, and is authorised to establish maximum prices if selling prices are considered not to reflect market value. The Minister also has the power to make binding recommendations to individual gas companies concerning their tariffs. In principle, no legal restrictions apply to prices charged by local distribution companies. This pricing policy has contributed to economic growth and to maintenance of the generous Dutch welfare system. In the early 1980s aggregate State revenue from exploitation of gas reserves represented some 15 to 16% of overall State revenue (exclusive of social security contributions). Currently this share is below 5%. Since competition was introduced in the power market in 1998, the necessary institutions and secondary legislation have been put in place to make this market highly competitive. Three of the Netherlands’ four large generators have been sold to foreign utility investors. As in the gas industry, full market competition is to be introduced in the electricity industry in 2004 according to an accelerated schedule. In 2001 electricity prices for Dutch industry were 10% higher than the average for OECD Europe; prices were significantly higher (by 17%) for households (Table 2.4).
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The six Dutch power utilities offer a “green energy scheme”. Businesses that are large consumers can choose to receive a portion of their power from renewable sources. This scheme, introduced in 1995, currently represents about 1% of consumption. Customers pay an extra EUR .04 to EUR .06/kWh on top of the basic EUR .21. The Dutch World Wildlife Fund for Nature monitors how utilities spend this additional revenue. In 1996 a Regulatory Energy Tax (REB) on natural gas, electricity, fuel oil and heating oil was introduced, with the object of changing consumer behaviour by creating energy efficiency incentives. To maintain sectoral competitiveness, major energy users are exempted; 60% of revenue from these taxes comes from households, and income taxes have been lowered to offset this burden. The 40% of the revenue from businesses is recycled using three mechanisms: reduced employer contributions to social security, reduced corporate income taxes, and a higher tax exemption for the self-employed. A small portion (8%) of the revenue from the REB has been used to encourage specific energy saving measures (e.g. insulation, A-label refrigerators and washing machines). A general fuel tax, originally implemented as a charge in 1988 and modified as a tax in 1992, is levied on fossil fuels including natural gas. While this tax was designed principally for revenue generation, rates are based on fuels’ carbon and energy content. These two taxes (the REB and general fuel tax) have not always encouraged use of energy with low environmental externalities. Household use of natural gas fell by 6% between 1992 and 2000; consumer use of electricity increased by 3% between 1996 and 2000 (Table 2.5). The price increase undoubtedly contributed to more economical use of natural gas. Contributing factors include switching to double-paned windows and high-efficiency boilers. Electricity consumption rose because the increase in the REB was largely offset by a fall in net prices. Moreover, household electrical appliances have become less expensive to own. The excise duty on fuels increases annually according to inflation. This has not prevented greater consumption of road fuels, despite simultaneous increases in their net prices (Table 2.5). Fuel price differentials have remained virtually unchanged since the early 1990s, with diesel costing some EUR 0.40 less per litre than petrol (Figure 7.4). Tax differentials favouring diesel over petrol for motor vehicles are among the highest in the OECD. Sale of leaded petrol ceased in 1998.
Transport Road traffic volume, as measured in vehicle-kilometres, increased by 36% between 1986 and 1999, already exceeding the Second Transport Structure Plan
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Table 2.4
51
Energy prices in selected OECD countries, 2001 Electricity a
Oil
Households Industry (USDb/kWh) (USDc/kWh)
Netherlands United Statesf Japan Denmark France Germany Italy United Kingdom OECD Europe OECD Dutch price/OECD Europe (%) Dutch price/OECD (%)
0.059 0.042 0.143h 0.060 0.036g 0.041g 0.089g 0.048 0.052g 0.047g 110g 121g
Industry (USDb, d/t)
0.173 0.085 0.148g 0.192 0.115g 0.138g 0.183g 0.108 0.134g 0.107g 117g 147g
.. 146.8 217.2 .. 154.4 .. 197.5 177.4 195.7 189.0 .. ..
Natural gas
Households Industrya Households (USDc, e/1 000 l) (USDb/107 kcal) (USDc/107 kcal)
652.8 340.4 331.6 668.7 417.4 394.3 1 013.0 295.6 477.8 435.3 137 150
175.6 191.5 452.7g .. 187.1 187.9g .. 133.6 157.7g 168.6g 106g 99g
480.6 375.3 895.3g 698.5 470.5 425.6g 746.5h 306.4 405.0g 392.7 106g 122
a) Average prices; actual prices depend on amounts purchased by individual enterprises. b) At current exchange rates. c) At current purchasing power parities. d) High-sulphur oil. e) Light fuel oil. f) Electricity prices exclude tax. g) 2000 data. h) 1999 data. Source: OECD; IEA.
Table 2.5
Energy prices and average energy consumption Diesel
b
Net price Fuel taxc Regulatory energy taxb VATb Total priceb Consumptiond
Natural gasa
Unleaded petrol
1990
2000
1990
26 20 .. .. 46 3.5
32 30 .. .. 63 4.9
31 55 .. .. 86 3.7
2000
Electricitya
1990
1992
2000
35 19 70 .. .. .. .. 2 105 21 4.3 2 300
19 1 .. 4 24 2 100
14 1 9 3 27 1 965
1990
2000
8.5 8 7.5 .. .. .. .. 1.5 3 1.5 1.5 1.5 10 11 12 2 800 3 200 3 300
a) Households. b) Eurocents/litre (diesel and gasoline); eurocents/m3 (natural gas); eurocents/kWh (electricity); prices in 1990. c) Includes excise duty on fuels (diesel and petrol). d) Mtoe (diesel and petrol); m3/year (natural gas); kWh/year (electricity). Source: Green Tax Commission.
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(SVV2) target of a 35% maximum increase between 1986 and 2010. Private cars remain the dominant mode for passenger traffic (142 billion passenger-kilometres in 2001, an 8% increase compared with 1990). Inland waterway shipping of heavy loads (e.g. construction materials, coal) remains – in tonne-kilometres – the dominant mode of freight traffic (42 billion tonne-kilometres in 2001, an 18% increase compared with 1990). However, the rate of growth of road freight transport, mainly across the Belgian and German borders, has exceeded that of GDP since the early 1990s as it has continued to take market share away from inland waterway shipping (Figure 7.3). Road freight transport is the dominant mode as a share of GDP, totalling 31 billion tonne-kilometres in 2001; pipelines and rail transport accounted for 6 billion and 4 billion tonne-kilometres, respectively. The predominance of freight transport by road has probably had negative impacts on both energy efficiency and air pollutant emission reductions. Energy consumption by the transport sector, which increased by 34% between 1990 and 2000, accounts for 23.5% of total final energy consumption (compared with 20.4% in 1990); road transport represents 69% of the transport sector. The Dutch rate of motorisation (40 cars per 100 people) is rather low. Despite increased road traffic volume, emission performance in the transport sector has improved except for CO2. In the last decade NOx, NMVOC, CO and SO2 emissions from mobile sources decreased by 19, 43, 39 and 19% (Table 2.1); CO2 emissions increased by 19%. The decreases are still far below the NEPP2/SVV2 targets of reducing NOx and CO2 emissions from road traffic by 75% and 10%, respectively, between 1990 and 2010. Considerable progress still needs to be made to meet the NEPP4 sectoral transport emission targets of 13 million kg of SO2, 150 million kg of NOx and 49 million kg of NMVOCs by 2010. The transport sector remains one of the largest sources of national emissions of NOx (67%), CO (66%), PM10 (50%) and NMVOCs (41%). SO2 emissions from road transport are decreasing, but those from sea and river shipping are increasing and there are no international agreements with respect to reducing them. Emission reductions essentially reflect renewal of the car fleet. Over 80% of petrol fuelled cars are fitted with catalytic converters, a large share by EU standards. Petrol accounts for 44% of energy consumed by road vehicles (50% is diesel and 6% LPG). Sectoral targets for CO, NOx, PM10 and NMVOCs are derived from (the agreed further) tightening of EU (Euro) emission standards for passenger cars. The highest reductions up to 2005 should be in NOx emissions. A sharp fall in emissions per kilometre in recent years was already attributable to early introduction of fiscal measures under stricter EU legislation. In some cases NO2 exceedances can be addressed through implementing specific local government policies (e.g. reducing traffic in city centres and lowering highway speed limits near built-up areas), but considerable efforts may be required to do so. EU legislation will also lead to phased reductions of NMVOC emissions.
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To meet the 2005 objectives for SO2 emissions, low-sulphur diesel was introduced in 2000 in anticipation of new EU quality standards. Following the government’s decision in 2001 to reduce taxes on it by 6% to compensate for higher oil prices, introduction of low-sulphur diesel proceeded much more rapidly than expected. In 2002 reduced taxes were also introduced on low-sulphur petrol, with similar effects on consumers. Fiscal measures have been implemented to curtail increases in road traffic volume, but with little effect. The Netherlands imposes much higher registration taxes (close to 50% of the purchase price, VAT included) than most other EU countries and its petrol taxes are also high (Figure 7.4). Motor vehicle taxes are among the highest in Europe, ranging from EUR 300 to EUR 800 for most private passenger cars, according to weight (Table 5.2). Both registration and motor vehicle taxes are higher for diesel cars. Commuting by public transport is encouraged, especially over long distances (more than 30 kilometres). Employees are reimbursed the full cost of public transport tickets (whatever the distance travelled) and employers may claim a significant tax deduction (for a maximum of 80 kilometres travelled). Employees commuting by private car are also reimbursed with a moderate lump sum for distances between 10 and 30 kilometres; deductions are much less favourable to employers. There are more advantageous deductions for car pooling (the car owner may be reimbursed an extra EUR 0.34 per kilometre). Until the end of 2002, commuting by bicycle was also encouraged fiscally (the Netherlands has 15 million bicycles). Employers offering bicycles to their employees could claim a tax deduction of up to EUR 68 per bicycle every three years. This measure was abolished in 2003. Since 1999 all EU member States have been required to label cars according to fuel efficiency and CO2 emissions relative to vehicle size. In 2002, under a scheme intended to encourage the purchase of fuel-efficient cars, the Dutch government rewarded those who chose a low CO2 emitting car with a tax reduction of up to EUR 1 000 (Chapter 5). This measure was abolished in 2003 for budgetary reasons. More should be done to reduce emissions from the existing fleet. Some 20% of passenger cars do not comply with air pollutant emission standards. Cars three years old are subject to annual emission inspections. The 1999 EU Directive on charging heavy goods vehicles for infrastructure use (“Eurovignette”) introduced charges for the use of motorways. It imposes a maximum road user charge for various vehicle categories, differentiated according to number of axles and emission class. Along with Belgium, Denmark Germany, Luxembourg and Sweden, the Netherlands is participating in the Eurovignette scheme. A speed limit of 100 km/h (instead of 120 km/h) applies to vehicles on 17% of the total length of motorways and highways (the busiest stretches accounting for 33% of traffic
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volume). Reversion to the general speed limit in effect before 1988 (100 km/h on all motorways and highways) would reduce CO2 emissions by 1 million tonnes per year if it were fully enforced (total CO2 emissions from fuel combustion are currently some 177 million tonnes). The Passenger Transport Act of 2000, which empowers local authorities to require improved environmental performance by vehicles in use, established a new institutional framework for public transport services. The purpose of this reform has been to attract more customers, with less expenditure of public money, through tendering of urban and regional transport services by the 35 local transport authorities created in 1998. As a first step, urban and regional transport services representing at least 35% of turnover were to be tendered in 2003. The Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management will carry out an evaluation in 2004; if the results are positive, this process will continue with the aim of tendering 100% of urban and regional transport services by 2006. Reducing congestion (e.g. through designating bus lanes) would encourage use of public transport rather than private cars. New infrastructure for the high-speed train (TGV) between Brussels and Amsterdam will shorten the journey between Rotterdam, The Hague and Schiphol once it is completed in 2007. SVV2, in place since 1990, included quantified targets, particularly for growth in road traffic volume. In 2001 the draft National Traffic and Transport Plan (NVVP) was introduced to replace the SVV2. The draft NVVP no longer sets explicit mobility targets; it focuses more on road pricing (per-kilometre) policies, although without translating pricing into emission reduction levels. The introduction of road pricing was announced in 1989 (NEPP1) but has since met with considerable resistance. A recent attempt to introduce a per-kilometre tax was rejected by Parliament (Chapter 5, Section 2.3). The effect would be similar to that of increased fuel prices, except that high-mileage drivers of diesel or LPG fuelled vehicles would no longer benefit from differentiated fuel taxes. More advanced versions of the per-kilometre tax might make possible differentiation based on fuel consumption, exhaust emissions, noise, accident risk and congestion.
2.
Focus on Selected Topics 2.1
Energy trends
In 2000 the Dutch economy’s energy intensity was still slightly higher than the OECD Europe average, although it had decreased by 14% since 1990 (Figure 2.3). Total final energy consumption (TFC) increased by 16% over the decade. TFC increases have been limited in the residential and industry sectors but have been
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Figure 2.3
55
Energy structure and intensity
Energya per unit of GDPb State, 2000
Trend in the Netherlands, 1990-2000 1990 = 100
Netherlands 100
0.19 0.25
United States Japan Denmark France Germany Italy United Kingdom
75
50
0.17 0.14 0.19 0.18 0.14 0.18
25
0.18 0.22
OECD Europe OECD 0 1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
0.00
2000
0.10
0.20
0.30 toe/USD 1 000
Total final energy consumption by sector, 2000
Energy supply by source,c 1990-2000 Nuclear
Mtoe Hydro., geo., solar, wind,
Residential/ commercial 24.0%
combustible renewables and waste
70
Non-specified 7.0%
60 Natural gas
50
Transport 23.5%
Agriculture 6.5%
40
Non-energy use 4.9%
30 Oil
20
Industry 34.1%
10 Coal and coal products 0 1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
a) Total primary energy supply. b) GDP at 1995 prices and purchasing power parities. c) Breakdown excludes electricity trade. Source: OECD; IEA.
© OECD 2003
Total 60.4 Mtoe
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significant in transport, commercial services and agriculture. In 2000 the industrial sector remained the largest energy consumer (34% of TFC), followed by transport (24%) and the residential sector (17%). The Netherlands has a large, energy-intensive industrial sector compared with other EU countries; there is heavy penetration of natural gas and relatively high energy efficiency. Primary energy supply is dominated by fossil fuels (97%): 47% natural gas, 39% oil and 11% coal in 2000. Since 1990 some fuel switching has occurred in the power production, industrial and residential/commercial sectors. Coal supply has decreased by 11%, while supply of natural gas and oil has increased by 13 and 16%, respectively. Reliance on nuclear power has remained virtually unchanged. The Netherlands met its goal of increasing combined heat and power capacity to 8 000 MW by 2000. However, the target of increasing the share of renewable energy to 3% of total energy supply by 2000 was not reached; in that year renewables supplied 2.6% of the energy supply. The 1996 Third White Paper on Energy Policy sets a target of 10% renewable energy by 2020. The main renewable sources are wood, municipal solid waste, small hydro and wind. The share of electricity in total energy demand (around 12% in 2000) is still one of the lowest in the EU, partly reflecting heavy penetration of gas as a household fuel. Between 1990 and 2000 annual electricity use by industry increased by 4%, outstripping the rate of economic growth. In contrast, electricity consumption by the residential/commercial sector was stable in the 1990s following a period of rapid growth (8% per year) from 1985 to 1990. Since the mid-1990s the increase in demand for electricity has largely been satisfied by cogeneration; imported electricity from Germany and France has played an expanding role since 1999. Use of coal to generate electricity declined from 38 to 29% between 1990 and 2000, while the share of gas in electricity production increased from 51 to nearly 60%.
2.2
Reducing ammonia emissions from agriculture
Measures to limit ammonia emissions have been pursued along two tracks. There are general rules for manure storage and for manure spreading methods and periods. Stricter requirements for livestock housing are under preparation. There are rules addressing specific agricultural situations (e.g. assessment of environmental permit applications). To reduce emissions from manure application, farmers may not spread livestock manure on top of soil. The spreading period is to be relatively brief, roughly in spring and summer. Application methods that minimise emissions are described in the Decree on the Use of Livestock Manure. On grassland farmers must inject manure into the ground; on arable land they must either inject it or plough it in right away. To
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reduce emissions from manure storage, farmers must have sufficient storage capacity in fall and winter. Storing manure next to livestock housing rather than under it leads to higher ammonia emissions. Outdoor storage is therefore allowed only if manure silos are covered. There are plans to make low-emission livestock housing, which has been encouraged through incentives in recent years, compulsory. Municipal building permits for new livestock housing often prescribe lower emission rates. Tax incentives will encourage use of even cleaner animal-friendly housing. Ammonia emission requirements apply per animal housed based on the as-low-as-reasonably-achievable principle, which balances economic costs and environmental benefits. Low-emission housing will be compulsory for all pig and poultry installations in 2008. Stricter requirements are being drawn up for installations near sensitive natural areas. Farmers who keep livestock must apply for an environmental licence from municipal authorities. Licences are granted on condition that farms satisfy all environmental criteria set by local authorities, including those for ammonia emissions. Local authorities are also responsible for drawing up zoning plans indicating where livestock housing is allowed.
2.3
The Energy Efficiency Benchmarking Agreement
In 1999 VROM, the Ministry of Economic Affairs and the 12 provinces reached an agreement with trade unions, industry associations (chemicals, base metals, refineries, paper and electricity) and several dozen individual companies. Companies participating in the Energy Efficiency Benchmarking Agreement (EEBA) committed themselves to ensure that they are among the world’s best in terms of energy efficiency by 2012, thereby contributing to meeting Dutch GHG reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol. In return, the government has undertaken to ensure that no specific additional measures such as an energy tax or a CO2 emission ceiling are imposed on these companies until 2012. Participating companies have agreed to ask an independent expert to evaluate their world ranking once every four years. This expert must also ascertain whether each participant is in the top 10%. Companies must draw up an energy efficiency plan specifying measures to be taken. During the first five years a company can make economically viable investments; if appropriate, during the subsequent three-year period it must seek additional investments to improve its environmental performance. If these measures are insufficient to bring energy efficiency to the required level, the company can opt to use Joint Implementation, Clean Development or emission trading mechanisms during the last four years.
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There is a very high level of participation in the EEBA. The 103 participating companies (232 plants) account for 94% of energy consumption by the industrial sector and 100% of that by the power generation sector. Almost all these companies have finalised an energy efficiency plan, although doing so took longer than expected. The Dutch industrial sector as a whole is already in the world’s top ten with respect to energy efficiency. However, some companies are lagging behind. Others are implementing more measures than are necessary to remain in the top ten. On average, the industrial sector’s energy efficiency improved between 1999 and 2002 and is expected to continue to improve between now and 2012.
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3
WATER MANAGEMENT*
Recommendations The following recommendations are part of the overall conclusions and recommendations of the OECD Environmental Performance Review of the Netherlands: • strongly pursue implementation of policies to allocate “more space for water”, establish ecological networks and better protect areas at risk (e.g. from floods); in particular, integrate water management, nature management and spatial planning; • reinforce actions to combat groundwater depletion; complete and implement comprehensive provincial groundwater plans; • further reduce nitrogen loads from intensive agriculture (livestock and crop production) in line with related international commitments (EU Nitrates Directive, North Sea action programme); • strengthen efforts to achieve further progress in dealing with emergency overflows from combined sewers; • continue efforts to safely dispose of and/or treat contaminated dredging spoil; • continue to modernise the institutional framework for water management in line with the EU Water Framework Directive; • give more attention to economic analysis of water management measures in different sectors (e.g. municipal, industrial, agricultural); • strengthen inspection and enforcement relating to illegal discharges into the sewage system.
* The present chapter reviews progress in the last ten years, and particularly since the previous OECD Environmental Performance Review of 1995. It also reviews progress with respect to the objective “maintaining the integrity of ecosystems” of the 2001 OECD Environmental Strategy.
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Conclusions The Netherlands has a large delta area at the estuary of several main European rivers. This clearly increases pressure on water pollution and flood management. The Netherlands’ performance in reducing pressures on its water environment in the last ten years has been very good. In general, it has more than met the deadlines in the EU Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive for connections to the sewerage system and secondary treatment of waste water; 98% of the Dutch population is served by sewerage networks, all of which are connected to waste water treatment. The rate of removal of oxygen-demanding substances at public waste water treatment installations increased from 92 to 96% during the 1990s. Phosphorus and nitrogen removal is widespread. These achievements have required sustained financial efforts, particularly from households. The Netherlands has met North Sea targets for phosphorus and for most micropollutants and heavy metals. The 50% national reduction target for pesticide use has almost been met (47%). The Netherlands had the best overall performance among OECD countries with respect to decoupling pressures on the water environment from economic development and population growth. Strengthening of flood protection along major rivers, which repeatedly threatened to overflow their banks in the mid-1990s, is almost complete. Substantial progress has been made regarding most of the recommendations of the 1995 OECD Environmental Performance Review. Yet the Netherlands’ performance in reducing environmental pressures has still not been adequate to sustain the positive water quality trends of the 1980s and early 1990s. This partly reflects the high intensity of pressures on the water environment, which are often several times above the OECD average. These pressures in turn reflect the high intensity and density of economic activities such as agriculture and transport. Improvement of water quality stagnated during the latter part of the decade, mainly due to difficulties in tackling diffuse sources of pollution. Few surface or groundwater bodies meet basic water quality standards for several pollutants. The Netherlands did not quite meet the North Sea reduction targets for nitrogen. The impact of diffuse discharges, such as nutrients and pesticides from agriculture, emergency overflows from combined sewage systems and run-off from paved areas, remains severe. Nitrate standards for shallow groundwater are exceeded throughout the higher parts of the country. Implementation of measures to remedy groundwater depletion, which affects one-seventh of the total land area, has fallen short of targets. Further reduction of pressures cannot be achieved without a transition towards sustainable production processes, especially in agriculture. To achieve this transition, inter-sectoral economic efficiency should be given greater attention than in the past. If nothing more is done, sediments in watercourses contaminated by micropollutants and heavy metals will affect water quality for many decades to come. Safety issues
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remain paramount: expected rises in sea level, increasing discharges and continued land subsidence mean that the struggle to protect a population of which a large proportion lives below sea level can never be won once and for all.
1.
Evaluation of Performance 1.1
Policy objectives in the 1990s
The Netherlands’ water management policy is largely driven by the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management (V&W) and implemented by municipalities and a range of agencies (e.g. water boards). The institutional framework for water management has undergone significant changes in the last ten years (Chapter 3, Section 2.1). The main water management policies relevant to the period covered by this performance review are contained in the third and fourth National Policy Documents on Water Management (NW3, adopted in 1989, and NW4, adopted in 1998). The objectives of NW3 remain valid unless explicitly superseded by those of NW4. Successive versions of the National Environmental Policy Plan (NEPP) also contain water-related objectives for ten target groups (e.g. agriculture, industry, transport). The aim of NW3 is above all to “have and maintain a safe and habitable country as the first condition, and to develop and maintain healthy water systems which guarantee sustained use”. NW4’s aim is largely the same, but it refers to healthy and resilient water systems. Qualitative objectives are formulated for seven types of water systems. These objectives are very general and resemble vision statements, describing ideal conditions to be achieved at some time in the future. More specific quantitative objectives are contained in NW3 and 4, NEPP3 and 4, and other documents such as the Policy Plan for Domestic and Industrial Water Supply (PPDIWS) (Table 3.1). Water management performance can further be assessed against the 1995 OECD Environmental Performance Review recommendations that the Netherlands: – urgently implement further measures to halt and reverse water depletion under nature areas; – pursue efforts to implement integrated water management policies in a costeffective way, taking into account the relative contribution of various sources of pollution; – ensure that water resources are priced effectively, in line with the user pays principle;
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Table 3.1
Achievement of water management objectives
Objective/target
Performance
Sourcea
Flood protection Complete flood protection (Rhine and Meuse)
88% complete
NW4
Oxygen-demanding substance discharges Reduction to 2.1 million p.e. of discharges to State waters by 1996 Nitrogen emissions (compared to 1985) 50% reduction by 2000 of emissions from households, industry and agriculture Long-term goal of 70% reduction of emissions from households, industry and agriculture Removal rate of 75% by 1998 as average for all municipal sewage plants per water board, with interim target of 70% in 1995 Phosphorus emissions (compared to 1985) 50% reduction by 2000 of emissions from households, industry and agriculture Long-term goal of 75% reduction of emissions from households, industry and agriculture Average removal rate of 75% for municipal treatment plants
Probably achieved, as discharges to all (State and regional) surface waters were 3.5 million p.e. in 1998 Not achieved; actual reduction 44% by 1999 NEPP3, NW3, North Sea Not yet achieved NW3 Not achieved; removal rate increased from 57% in 1995 to 65% in 2000
NW3
Achieved; 63% reduction by 1999
NEPP3, NW3, North Sea NW3
Not yet achieved 75% removal rate achieved in 1996; improved to 78% by 2000
Heavy metal discharges (compared to 1985) Decrease of 50 to 90% depending 50% reduction target achieved by 1999 on substance under consideration, for Ni, Cr, As, Zn, Cu; 70% reduction target with interim goal of 50% reduction by 1995 achieved for Cd but not for Pb and Hg Organic micropollutant emissions (compared to 1985) Reduction of 90%, with interim goal of 50% (90% for certain materials) by 1995 Quality objective surface waters Max. 0.15 mg total P/litre (annual average); 2.2 mg total N/litre (summer average) for stagnant eutrophication-prone waters Urban Waste Water Directive (91/271) Connect all urban agglomerations to a collecting system by: 2001 for centres with > 15 000 p.e. 2006 for centres with 2 000 to 15 000 p.e.
NW3
NW3, North Sea
50% reduction target achieved by 1999 for 18 substances but not for 5 others; 70% target achieved by 1999 for dioxins
NW3, North Sea
Objectives far from being achieved in great majority of water bodies
NW3
EU Achieved Already achieved
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Achievement of water management objectives (cont.)
Objective/target
Performance
Sourcea
Ensure secondary treatment of waste water by: 2001 for centres with > 15 000 p.e. Achieved 2006 for centres with 10 000 to 15 000 p.e. Already achieved 2006 for discharges to fresh water Already achieved and estuaries for centres with 2 000 to 10 000 p.e. Implement nutrient removal in sensitive areas by 1999 for centres with > 10 000 p.e. (the entire Netherlands has been designated a sensitive area)
Achieved for phosphorus
Implement appropriate treatment of discharges to fresh water and estuaries by 2006 for centres with < 2 000 p.e.
On target (only nitrogen removal to be completed)
Groundwater depletion Situation should not be worse in 2000 than in 1985 25% reduction by 2000 (40% by 2010) of total area suffering from water depletion, compared with 1985 Halt increase in overall groundwater abstraction 40% reduction by 2000 of industrial groundwater abstraction relative to forecast Provinces to set groundwater levels by 2002 Pesticide use (base year 1984-88) 50% reduction in agriculture by 2000 Sewer overflows Establish priority (hazardous to public and animal health) by end of 2002 Drinking water intakes (compared to 1984-88) 50% reduction by 1995 in number of days intakes must be closed due to pollution spillage
Achieved
NEPP1
Not achieved
NEPP2, NW4
Achieved
PPDIWS
Probably achieved, but no precise figures available Not achieved
PPDIWS, NEPP3 NW4
Almost achieved; actual reduction was just below 47%
NEPP1
Efforts made; unclear whether deadline was met
Informal agreement
No data
NW3
a) NW3 and 4 = Third and Fourth National Policy Documents on Water Management; NEPP1, 2, 3 = First, Second and Third National Environmental Policy Plan; PPDIWS = Policy Plan for Domestic and Industrial Water Supplies. Source: VROM; V&W; OECD.
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– pursue the renewal of sewerage networks and the installation of dephosphating and denitrification facilities in waste water treatment plants, in as much as need be; – ensure progress in reducing diffuse emissions (e.g. nitrogen load from manure and excessive fertiliser use contributing to eutrophication), in line with international agreements (EC Directives, Rhine Action programme, North Sea action programme), through cleaner production techniques and changes in production patterns; – pursue further cost-effective action concerning contaminated bottom sediments, with due regard to risk for human and ecosystem health. There has been substantial progress with respect to all these recommendations. However, political and technical feasibility appears to have had greater weight than cost-effectiveness in the search for solutions. Now that large (point) sources of pollution have been cleaned up, it is becoming more important to determine how to achieve further emission reductions at least cost. As an economic analysis of alternative policy measures is required by the EU Water Framework Directive, this issue can be expected to receive greater emphasis in the future.
1.2
Performance concerning emission reductions
North Sea targets Good performance was recorded with respect to the 1995 North Sea emission reduction targets, which were met for most (but not all) specified substances by 1999, often with reductions considerably in excess of the 50% or 70% required (Figure 3.1): targets were met for six of eight heavy metals, as well as for 19 of 24 micropollutants. These results can largely be attributed to the success of environmental agreements agreed between the Dutch government and various industries, as well as to pesticide control regulations. Among the substances for which targets were not met were three pesticides (lindane, atrazine and simazine), tributyltin, trichlorobenzene, lead and mercury. Since lindane and atrazine have been prohibited, compliance for these substances can be expected soon (Chapter 8). The Netherlands intends to meet the goals of the 1995 Esbjerg Declaration (i.e. the “one generation” target of completely eliminating discharges of hazardous substances by 2020) through implementing product policies and promoting a life-cycle approach to production. With a 71% reduction since 1985, the Netherlands met the 2000 reduction target of 50% for phosphorus discharges to the North Sea from all sources (households, industry and agriculture) in areas draining to defined problem areas. With a reduction of 31%, the 50% reduction target for nitrogen discharges was not met (Table 8.5).
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Figure 3.1
65
Performance in meeting North Sea targets for micropollutants and heavy metal emissions
Target 50% reduction 1985-1995 Trifluralin
Trichloroethane
Chloroform
1, 2-dichlororethane
Carbon tetrachloride
Trichlorobenzene
Hexachlorobutadiene
Tetrachloroethene
Hexachlorobenzene
Trichloroethene
PCP
Dichlorovos
DDT
Parathion
HCH Drinsa
Fenitrothion Azinphos-methyl
Ni
Triphenyltin (TPT)
Cr
Tributyltin (TBT)
As
Atrazine
Zn
Simazine
Cu
Endosulphan 0
25
50
75
100
0
reduction achieved 1985-99
Target 70% reduction 1985-1999
Hg Cd Pb Dioxines 0
25
50
75
100
reduction achieved 1985-99
a) Aldrin, dieldrin, endrin and isodrin. Source: RIZA.
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25
50
75
100
reduction achieved 1985-99
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Removal of pollutants at public waste water treatment plants The share of the population connected to a sewerage system increased by 4% in the 1990s, to reach 98% (Figure 3.2). The Netherlands completed connection of sewerage networks to treatment stations in 1998. There are about 400 communal waste water treatment stations, with a combined capacity of over 26 million p.e. Despite growing inflows from households, the volume of waste water actually treated (about 16-17 million p.e.) showed a declining trend in the 1990s due to reduced inflows from industry; about 95% of influent is treated in installations with over 10 000 p.e. capacity. In the period 1990-99 the removal rate for oxygen-demanding substances at public waste water treatment installations increased from 92 to 96% for BOD and from 85 to 89% for COD. Discharges of most heavy metals from sewage treatment stations decreased significantly over the decade, with the exception of arsenic and (since 1995) nickel. Most sewage sludge is incinerated, as the sludge can no longer be deposited in landfills or used in agriculture owing to high concentrations of contaminants (e.g. copper from water pipes or zinc from roof gutters). The North Sea/NW3 targets for removal of nutrients from public sewage treatment plants have been partly met. A large proportion of the country’s waste water treatment plants were equipped with phosphorus removal equipment during the 1990s (Figure 3.2). The required 75% removal rate for phosphorus was achieved by 1996; by 2000 the removal rate was 78% (Table 3.1). The 70% (1995) and 75% (1998) targets for nitrogen were not met. Actual removal rates were 57% and 60%. By 2000 the nitrogen removal rate was 65%; the Dutch authorities expect that the 1998 target will be achieved by 2005. The above figures also mean the Netherlands met the December 1998 and December 2000 deadlines of the EU Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive and is on target to meet the December 2005 deadline for treatment of discharges in agglomerations with fewer than 2 000 p.e. For the 2% of the population whose connection to communal sewerage and waste water treatment systems is not economical, individual systems (septic tanks, biorotors) are subject to regulation and certification. Individual treatment solutions are often quite costly; the costs must be compared with those of connection to a communal sewerage system.
Emergency overflows Problems are still encountered with an estimated 15 000 emergency overflows from combined sewers, resulting in water pollution during periods of heavy rainfall. Apart from being a health risk to the public and livestock, at times these overflows also contaminate stock water supplies. An administrative agreement between various
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Figure 3.2 Public waste water treatment plants Removal of nutrients from public waste water treatment plants, 1981-2000 Phosphorous
million kg P/year
removal rate (%)
30
100 80
20
60 40
10
20 0
0 1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
influent
1993
1995
effluent
1997
Nitrogen
million kg N/year
1999
removal rate
removal rate (%)
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
100 80 60 40 20 0 1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
influent
1991 effluent
1993
1995
1997
1999
removal rate
Population connected to public waste water treatment plant, 2000a 98
Netherlands 71 62
United States Japan Denmark France Germany Italy United Kingdom
89 77
Secondary and/or tertiary treatment 91
63 92 65 63
OECD Europeb *OECDb 0
30
60
90
% of total population
a) Or latest available year. b) Secretariat estimates. Source: OECD.
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Primary treatment only All treatment
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authorities was intended to address around 1 000 of the most hazardous overflows by the end of 2002; progress has been made, but it is unclear whether the deadline will be met. Minimum standards have been set for the required temporary storage and pumping capacity of sewerage systems. Other measures include separating rainwater from sewage using double sewerage systems (one for rainwater and the other for waste water) and reducing stormwater inflows to combined sewers (e.g. by allowing rainwater from down pipes to infiltrate soil directly). Experiments with the use of rainwater as “household water” for toilet flushing, laundry and garden sprinkling are also being conducted in several newly developed urban areas. While many local authorities are working on the problem of emergency overflows, closer oversight at provincial level could ensure that overall progress continues.
Reducing pollution from agriculture Towards the end of the 1990s agriculture was responsible for almost 40% of domestic (non-imported) phosphate pollution of Dutch surface waters and almost 56% of total domestic nitrate pollution. In general, environmental pressures from agriculture decreased during the 1990s. Phosphate discharges to water from agri/ horticulture fell from about 600 tonnes to below 440 tonnes, and nitrogen discharges to water from almost 9 000 tonnes to just over 6 000 tonnes. The objective of halving pesticide use in agriculture by 2000 (compared with the 1984-88 average) was almost met: it was reduced from 19.9 million kg active ingredient to an estimated 9.6 million kg, below the target of 10.65 million kg. The number of permitted pesticides fell from 300 to 200 in the 1990s. However, there are countervailing trends such as the shift towards pollution-intensive crops (e.g. potatoes, onions, flower bulbs) or methods of cultivation (e.g. use of greenhouses). While land use changes require planning consent, current spatial planning procedures take little account of impacts on water quality. Overall intensity of use of pesticides and nitrogenous fertilisers remains very high, five times the OECD average for both (Figure 3.3). The earliest measures adopted to deal with the nutrient problem date to 1984. Since then, increasingly stringent and complex measures (which are also highly intrusive and doubtless expensive to comply with) have been introduced. Farmers with over three stock units or 3 hectares must now account for nutrient inputs and outputs (the so-called MINAS mineral accounting system, introduced in 1998) and are subject to heavy levies on excess nutrient loads to soil. As of January 2002, animal husbandry enterprises must show every year – before manure is produced – that they have contracted for proper disposal of any surplus. This system leads to the transport of large amounts of manure (about 15 million tonnes per year in the late 1990s) from regions with surpluses to regions with a capacity to receive the manure. Several thousand tonnes of poultry manure is exported. It is too early to draw
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Figure 3.3 Use of nitrogenous fertilisers, 2000 Netherlands
Agricultural inputs Use of pesticides, 2000a Netherlands
30.5
United States
69
United States
5.7
Japan
11.3
Japan
Denmark
10.3
Denmark
France Italy
15.3
Germany
16.0
United Kingdom
Italy
7.6
United Kingdom OECD Europe
*OECD Europe
8.8 6.2
OECD 0
10
*OECD 20
0.20 1.50 0.12
France
12.4
Germany
0.98
30
40
tonnes/km2 of arable and permanent crop land
0.0
0.51 0.26 0.44 0.52 0.29 0.21 0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
tonnes/km2 of arable and permanent crop land
a) Or latest available year. Source: FAO; OECD.
definite conclusions, but early indications are that MINAS is having some success; between 1999 and 2000 the nitrogen surplus fell from 223 kg to 181 kg per hectare of arable land and the phosphate surplus from 70 kg to 62 kg. The EU Nitrate Directive (91/676/EEC) requires countries to designate vulnerable zones and to take action to reduce nitrogen discharges in those zones. The Netherlands has declared the whole of its territory a vulnerable zone. The Nitrate Directive also restricts the amount of manure that can be applied to agricultural land (170 kg N/ha as of December 2002). The Netherlands has requested a derogation for application on grassland, arguing that conditions (in combination with specific measures) allow safe application in excess of this amount. The decrease in nutrient discharges cannot be wholly attributed to environmental measures. Until 1995 it was mainly due to the reduction in the number of dairy cows (EU milk quota). Further progress will partly depend on reducing and restructuring the pig and poultry sectors. Thus the key to meeting surface and groundwater quality objectives is for Dutch agriculture to become sustainable. NEPP4, which states that the issue is not whether the country’s agriculture should become sustainable, but how
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and how quickly, contains an extensive transition agenda setting out salient points associated with moving towards sustainable agriculture by 2030. Water quantity issues are also relevant; both the “more space for water” and water depletion policies will impact land now in agricultural use, as will implementation of the National Ecological Network (Chapter 4). All these factors will eventually lead to transformation of rural areas. In achieving this transformation, effective spatial planning and reparcelling of land will be among the most important instruments.
1.3
Performance concerning water quality
While commitments such as those of the International Conferences on the Protection of the North Sea (“North Sea targets”), the OSPAR Convention and EU Directives continue to drive water quality management, these commitments are evolving as well. In particular, implementation of the new EU Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC), with its emphasis on river basin management and good ecological status, will require changes in water management practices and institutions. The short-term (2006) water quality objective for receiving waters is reduction of pollutant concentrations to below the Maximum Admissible Risk (MAR) level, which is the basic quality standard. The MAR standard is broadly equivalent to “good surface water chemical status” as defined in the EU Water Framework Directive. In the longer term (2010-20) the objective is to reduce concentrations below the negligible risk or target value. Despite considerable success in reducing discharges of most pollutants, improvements in receiving water quality have tended to stagnate in recent years (Figure 3.4). In many State waters (the main water bodies such as the Rhine and the IJssel Lake, which are managed by Rijkswaterstaat, the national water agency), concentrations of phosphates, nitrates, pesticides and heavy metals (notably copper, nickel and, to a lesser extent, zinc and cadmium) still exceed basic MAR quality standards. Annual (summer-averaged) nitrate and phosphate concentrations in surface waters are often twice the MAR values. Phosphate concentrations have generally declined since the mid-1980s, but there is no clear trend for nitrogen inputs and concentrations. Reductions in pesticide concentrations observed in surface waters and rainwater, attributed to improvements in application methods and to reduced use, have not continued in the past few years. Water quality in the Dutch reaches of the two main rivers – the Rhine and Meuse – partly depends on clean-up efforts in upstream countries. Pollutant concentrations (chlorides, nitrogen, phosphates) in both rivers where they enter the Netherlands fell significantly in the 1990s, but concentrations of some substances still
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Figure 3.4 Freshwater quality in the Netherlands, 1985-2000 Total nitrogen concentration
Total phosphorous concentration
Summer average (mg N/litre)
Summer average (mg P/litre)
8
0.8
6
0.6
4
0.4
Guideline value for MARa
2
0.2
0
Guideline value for MARa
0 1985
1990
1995
2000
1985
1990
1995
2000
Regionally managed water bodies Nationally managed water bodies (including Ijssel Lake) Ijssel Lake a) Maximum admissible risk. Source: RIVM.
exceed basic Dutch quality standards. Discharges of untreated sewage to the Meuse upstream of Maastricht contribute to the problem of low dissolved oxygen levels downstream, hampering ecological recovery. Although there has been some progress on phosphate levels, phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations in regional waters (water bodies managed by water boards) were higher than in national waters, two or three times the MAR on average (Figure 3.4). The same is true for concentrations of copper and, to a lesser extent, zinc. About 60% of regional measuring stations recorded exceedences of the MAR for pesticides. The inferior quality of regional (compared with national) waters is due to the fact that they are often closer to pollutant sources, both diffuse (agriculture) and point (most waste water treatment plants discharge to regional waters). The ecological quality of 33 lakes (in terms of vegetation and phytoplankton) in the period 1996-98 was inferior to the lowest quality class at over three-quarters of measuring locations.
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In the 1990s a start was made towards achieving the NW4 long-/medium-term objective for bottom sediments dredged from canals and other water bodies (i.e. to improve their quality so that dredging spoil is suitable for purposes such as fill). The preferred long-term solution, clean-up of contaminated sediments, is difficult and costly. Sediments are now mostly stored at special dumping sites. Some measures have been taken (e.g. a ten-year plan, central government financial assistance, identification of suitable dumping sites). However, progress is slow for various reasons, including the difficulty of identifying suitable dumping sites, the time required to carry out associated environmental impact assessments, and uncertainty about the amounts of dredging spoil that need to be handled. Given that the quality of bottom sediments is of basic importance for water quality, this issue should be given high priority. Average nitrate concentrations in shallow groundwater in sandy soil have fallen in recent years, from about 150 to 125 mg/litre. However, a 1998 study found that the EU Nitrate Directive’s environmental quality standard (50 mg/litre) was exceeded in shallow groundwater lying under 77 to 85% of the Netherlands’ total land area in sandy regions (94 to 99% in agricultural areas, 21 to 30% in forest and heath areas). Sandy soil is found at higher elevations in the Netherlands, where most maize cropping and intensive animal farming take place. In natural areas where atmospheric deposition is the main source of nitrogen, nitrate levels in shallow groundwater in sandy soil have fallen in the past decade from an average of 30 to around 20 mg/litre. In deep groundwater, the source of most drinking water, nitrate levels are usually below the target value (25 mg/litre) and are stable or slowly increasing. In low-lying clay soil in the western Netherlands, nitrate concentrations fluctuate around 50 mg/litre; groundwater in some of these areas is naturally saline and therefore not suitable for drinking water. Drinking water quality is generally excellent. In 2000 a survey of the 15 largest drinking water supply companies (mostly owned by provincial and municipal governments) showed that 97% of drinking water delivered by these companies satisfied a drinking water quality index, largely surpassing minimum regulatory requirements. In some provinces concentrations of nitrates, pesticides (e.g. the herbicides bentazon and diuron), anti-fouling paints and heavy metals at times exceed standards for both raw and tap water. Improved management and purification methods gradually reduced the incidence of non-compliance for tap water during the 1990s. Dutch monitoring (in the context of the OSPAR Convention) has generally shown a decreasing trend for concentrations of phosphates and inorganic contaminants in the North Sea over the past decade. Concentrations of phosphates and dissolved inorganic nitrogen are also decreasing in coastal waters. Almost all contaminant concentrations in biota show a downward trend. The common seal population on the south-west coast greatly increased during the 1990s. However, cadmium
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levels in flounder and mussels in the western Scheldt estuary showed an upward trend. There is concern about high levels of tributyl and triphenyltin in the sediments of all Dutch marine waters, which can exceed target values by up to 300 times at some hot spots.
1.4
Performance concerning water quantity issues
The approach to water quantity management in the Netherlands has evolved considerably since the 1994 OECD Environmental Performance Review. Water quantity management is driven by national policy, which reflects specific demands related to the country’s geographical position in the delta of four European rivers (the Rhine, Meuse, Scheldt and Eems). The current approach is: i) to allow more space for water, landscapes and ecosystems; and ii) to reduce human vulnerability to nature. Large engineering projects remain important, but small-scale, adaptive and “soft” solutions are to be considered where appropriate. Safety remains paramount. Expected sea level rise, increasing discharges and continued land subsidence mean that the struggle to protect a population that lives partly below sea level can never be won once and for all.
Protection against flooding from rivers and the sea In the mid-1990s actual and threatened flooding of the Rhine and Meuse (and the evacuation to higher ground of thousands of people) was an important if rare reminder that much of the population lives in a flood plain. These events, as well as the anticipated consequences of climate change (sea level rise and an increase in winter-average river discharges of up to 40%) and the problem of land subsidence (expected to average between 0.02 and 0.6 metres by 2050), prompted a change in priorities with respect to safety in the Fourth National Policy Document on Water Management (NW4) published in 1998. Flood protection is one of NW4’s four main themes, whereas NW3 (adopted less than a decade earlier) contained no such objectives. Events in the 1990s gave new impetus to a large engineering project (the “Delta Plan for the Great Rivers”) to strengthen flood protection along the main rivers, which was 88% complete by the end of 2001. Renewed emphasis on safety was accompanied by a change of approach, requiring more space for water retention (i.e. retaining rainwater where it falls) and detention (i.e. directing overflows from streams and rivers to temporary storage). In a country where space is at a premium such an approach is more expensive than purely engineering solutions. However, in the long run this combination will reduce vulnerability and exposure. It will also create new opportunities for reconstruction of rural areas to meet needs related to recreation and nature as well as to agriculture. At the same time, flood protection will become more dependent on effective spatial planning (Chapter 3, Section 2.2).
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More space is also required in coastal zones, where development in areas at risk is to be restricted. The aims of coastal policy are to maintain the coastline at its 1990 position, and to preserve valuable dune areas and the natural dynamic character of the Dutch coast. In practice, this requires bringing sand to the foreshore to ensure that dunes can withstand the impact of storms. Sea level rise is expected to increase the need for sand replenishment.
Groundwater depletion Since the previous OECD Environmental Performance Review, Dutch water managers have made progress in addressing the problem of groundwater depletion. Vegetation is damaged when the water table falls as a result of excessive groundwater abstraction or agricultural drainage. About 507 000 hectares (one-seventh of total land area) is affected, of which about half is in natural areas. The objective of a 25% reduction in total area affected by water depletion by 2000 (compared with 1986) has not been met. Only 3% of the affected area (15 000 hectares) has been completely restored to date; 30% (150 000 ha) has been partially restored. Measures have been initiated concerning an additional 20% (Chapter 3, Section 2.3). Solving the problem of groundwater depletion is key to the success of Dutch nature policy. However, progress will also partly depend on individual provinces formulating and implementing comprehensive groundwater plans, as they are required to do under NW4. These plans were due to become operational in 2002, but only three provincial governments out of 12 met the deadline. Although withdrawals from larger groundwater abstractions no longer appear to be increasing (in accordance with the objectives of NW4), other issues (e.g. agricultural abstractions, lowering of water tables for large infrastructure projects) still need to be addressed. Groundwater depletion should therefore remain at the top of the Dutch water management agenda. Measures taken so far have already met with significant success from the point of view of nature conservation, as hundreds of endangered or locally extinct plant species have been reintroduced or are thriving again (Chapter 4). These measures may also have contributed to an increase in the number of spoonbill breeding in the Netherlands, which doubled in the period 1994-98. The Netherlands now supports almost half Western Europe’s spoonbill population.
1.5
Expenditure, financing and water charges
Expenditure Public expenditure on management of water quantity and quality is in the order of EUR 5.4 billion per year, or 1.3% of GDP. Central government expenditure is
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about EUR 1 billion, an amount that has remained broadly constant since 1996 and represents most of the expenditure on flood protection. Combined expenditure by water boards is in the order of EUR 1.6 billion for waste water treatment and water quality management (about 70%), water quantity management (25%) and flood control (less than 5%). Expenditure by municipalities is in the order of EUR 0.7 billion (mainly for storm and waste water sewerage networks). Provinces generally have a strategic planning role and are not responsible for significant expenditure. Business expenditure in this area is in the order of EUR 0.4 billion per year, of which some 20% is new investment. There is considerable expenditure by the water industry (consisting of enterprises that provide water supply and sewage treatment services) on implementation of National Environmental Policy Plan (NEPP) targets; this expenditure increased from EUR 1.42 billion to EUR 1.76 billion in the period 1990-2000 (at constant 2001 prices) or almost one-quarter in real terms. Water industry expenditure represented 0.44% of GDP in 2000. Country-wide expenditure on water management rose significantly in the 1990s, a trend likely to continue until at least 2005. Increases were particularly marked in the case of expenditure on sewerage networks. The main reasons for these increases were the need to address emergency overflows from combined sewers, connection of outlying dischargers to the sewerage system, and a maintenance backlog. Waste water treatment costs also rose due to the shift towards tertiary treatment and incineration of sewage sludge. Further increases are expected until completion of the nitrogen removal programme in 2005. Other items (contaminated sediments, groundwater depletion) have also required additional expenditure. Expenditure by industry, which made the bulk of its waste water treatment investment in the first half of the 1990s, continued to grow in the second half of the decade as a result of existing emission reduction agreements. Further emission reductions are required to meet domestic objectives as well as international commitments. The government allows firms some latitude in scheduling expenditure to coincide with major investment cycles for process and product changes.
Financing Growing expenditure has increasingly been financed through user charges. Revenue from these charges has increased considerably over the past decade. In 1994 municipalities recovered 79% of the cost of maintaining sewerage networks directly through user charges (the remainder was financed from other municipal funds); by 2005 this share is expected to reach 90%. Sewerage charges collected by municipalities increased from EUR 313 million to EUR 1 435 million in the period 1990-2001. Waste
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water treatment charges collected by water boards increased from EUR 386 million to EUR 987 million during the same period. Much of the burden of continuing increases in water management expenditure is borne by households (e.g. about two-thirds of the cost of waste water treatment by water boards). On average, it is expected that individual households’ annual water bill will increase by EUR 40 between 1998 and 2006. Some relief is available for citizens with little ability to pay; in most municipalities low-income families are exempt from sewerage charges. The water supply company of Groningen province does not require a volumetric charge to be paid for the first 30 cubic metres of water delivered to each dwelling.
Structure of household water charges Households pay fees and charges for three distinct water services, each provided by a different agency. The tariff structure for tap water is set by each of the 16 water supply companies. In metered dwellings (where the great majority of the population lives), household water bills usually have a fixed component (EUR 15 to EUR 60) and a volumetric component (EUR 0.78 to EUR 1.40 per cubic metre, not including VAT and the tap water tax). The price of tap water has risen steadily over the past few decades. Sewerage fees are paid to the local body responsible for maintaining the sewerage infrastructure. Municipal sewerage charges for households are not based on the amount of waste water collected (unlike charges for industry, which are usually proportional to water use). Waste water treatment charges, levied by water boards, are based on a unit charge per p.e. One-person households count as one p.e., multipleperson households as three p.e. Households also pay a per capita charge (“head tax”) to water boards, which finances a number of water quality and quantity measures (e.g. combating groundwater depletion). Revenue from this charge was some EUR 268 million in 1998. Some regions have experimented with basing the fee for all water-related services on drinking water usage. However, legal technicalities (e.g. boundary issues and the need to amend the Pollution of Surface Waters Act) and hesitation by various authorities still stand in the way of country-wide adoption of such a pricing system. Results of current experiments will be taken into consideration in developing further policy.
Environmental taxes In 1995 a groundwater tax was introduced to raise general revenue and to reduce groundwater depletion. This tax reduces the cost difference between drinking water produced from surface water (which is normally more expensive) and that produced
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from groundwater. The general rate is EUR 0.1631 per cubic metre; lower rates apply where extraction is accompanied by artificial recharge of the same aquifer. Revenue raised by the groundwater tax, estimated at EUR 163 million per year, is not earmarked. Exemptions apply to groundwater abstraction for land drainage, and for irrigation if less than 40 000 cubic metres per year is abstracted. Under the Groundwater Act, provinces may levy a separate charge to finance activities related to implementation of water resources policy. This charge is small, with revenue countrywide in the order of EUR 20 million. As of 2001 a water supply tax of EUR 0.29 per cubic metre is being levied on water produced by water supply companies, which can pass this tax on to customers. The tax was introduced to raise revenue (currently about EUR 111 million per year) and is not earmarked. Exemptions apply to water supplied to meet emergencies (e.g. from fire hydrants) and to sprinkler installations. Dischargers of effluents to surface waters (i.e. waste water treatment utilities and industry, but not agricultural dischargers) are subject to a tax on surface water pollution, measured in units of oxidisable matter (BOD, COD) or in pollution units. The rate per pollution unit is about EUR 43. Revenue is earmarked for financing of measures to prevent or remediate surface water pollution.
1.6
Decoupling performance
While the population of the Netherlands has been growing, the number of people not connected to a waste water treatment plant has fallen. For this indicator, the Netherlands not only recorded absolute decoupling but the best performance among OECD countries in the period 1975-98. In the same period it was among the top performers in decoupling households’ nitrogen and phosphorus discharges from population growth (Figure 3.5). Absolute decoupling can also be observed for some environmental pressures exerted by agriculture. Apparent consumption of pesticides and commercial NPK fertilisers was decoupled from final crop output in the period 1985-97, but absolute consumption levels remain very high compared with other OECD countries. There was also decoupling of soil surface nitrogen balance per unit of agricultural output (nitrogen input from fertilisers minus output through crop harvesting) in 1995-97, although the balance in the Netherlands remains among the highest among OECD countries. Accumulation of nitrogen in soil over the years has also been among the highest in the OECD.
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Figure 3.5 Decoupling
Population not connected to public waste water treatment plants versus total population, 1975-2000 1975 = 100
125 Total population 100 75 50 25 Population not connected 0 1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Discharges of nutrients from households to the environmenta versus total population, 1975-2000 Nitrogen
Phosphorus
1975 = 100
1975 = 100
125
Total population
125
100
100
75
75 Discharges of nitrogen
50
Total population
Discharges of phosphorus
50
25
25
0
0 1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
a) Amount of phosphorus and nitrogen per capita discharged to ambient waters and not removed by collective or individual treatment facilities. Source: OECD.
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Focus on Selected Topics 2.1
Modernising the institutional framework
Co-operative water management in the Netherlands existed in the Middle Ages. The present-day institutional framework evolved significantly during the 1990s. By 2000 water boards had taken over from the provinces the operational responsibility for management of regional surface waters throughout the country. The governing bodies of water boards were dominated by rural interests in the past, but today they often represent a wider range of views leading to a more holistic approach. Consolidation and amalgamation of water boards continued throughout the decade (there were about 120 in 1990 compared with 57 in 2000; it is expected that by 2005 there will be about 25). Many water boards are responsible for dike and waterway maintenance, drainage, water quality management and waste water treatment. The provinces’ responsibility is now limited to establishing a strategic framework (e.g. through provincial hydrological planning) and overseeing the results (e.g. through monitoring). As of February 2002, Rijkswaterstaat policy functions were transferred to the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management (V&W) and the national water agency now has a purely executive role. The Commission on Integrated Water Management (CIW), created in 1995 to replace earlier bodies, fulfils an important integrative role within the institutional framework. Chaired by H.R.H. the Prince of Orange, it is a statutory body made up of representatives of the water boards, provinces and municipalities. Central government is represented by the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM), V&W and the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries. The CIW’s main task is to co-ordinate implementation of water policy (including the EU Water Framework Directive). It also considers economic and social aspects of water policy. The CIW publishes an annual review of progress covering all major water management issues. One innovation is the proposed establishment of water-chain companies, whose purpose would be the integration of water services for the general public (drinking water delivery, sewage collection and waste water treatment). Only one water-chain company is operational so far; legal problems concerning public authorities’ delegation of responsibility to such companies must be resolved before the experiment can be extended. Implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive will require changes in Dutch water legislation (notably that concerned with ecological water quality standards). It may also reveal the need for further institutional changes, although none is envisaged at present. The requirement under this Directive to formulate
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management plans at river basin level should present an opportunity to drastically reduce the obligation of the over 650 agencies with water-related responsibilities to produce individual water management plans. The Directive’s requirement (article 9) that economic analyses of river basin plans be carried out should assist those with responsibilities for water management to determine the most cost-effective solutions to the Netherlands’ water problems.
2.2
Integrating water management and spatial planning
New water management approaches (e.g. “more space for water”, measures to reduce groundwater depletion) give spatial planning an important role with respect to water retention and detention. The needed integration of water and planning policies has already been accomplished through implementation of national policies for water, spatial planning and nature (i.e. NW4, the draft Fifth National Policy Document on Spatial Planning 2000/20, the Policy Document for Nature, Forest and Landscape in the 21st Century). The Dutch Cabinet has taken two further, more specific decisions that confirm and reinforce the new approaches. The water boards and the central, provincial and municipal governments have come to an administrative agreement (which may receive legal status at a later stage) to adopt a new policy instrument, the water check: all plans and decisions related to spatial planning must consequently be assessed for potential impacts in terms of flooding and overflows, water quality and groundwater depletion. This co-ordination among various levels of government is promising, but it will not be easy to implement the spatial planning approach. Competition for space in the Netherlands is intense, and water management issues have had little influence so far in determining land use. It is crucial that national level policy intentions be translated into local land use decisions. Provinces should closely monitor performance of the spatial planning system at the local level, to ensure that municipal plans take due account of water issues, that municipalities adhere to their own land use plans, and that land use is consistent with planning maps.
2.3
Trends in water use
The Netherlands is well on the way to meeting its objective of reducing freshwater withdrawals and halting increases in groundwater abstraction. Water withdrawal per capita and intensity of water use are well below the OECD and OECD Europe averages (Figure 3.6). Total water withdrawal fell by about 40% in the period 1990-96. This decrease mainly reflected more efficient use of cooling water in electricity generation (from over 6 billion to around 3 billion cubic metres per year), which represents some
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Figure 3.6 Water use, 2000a Intensity of use
Withdrawal per capita Netherlands
Netherlands
290
United States Japan Denmark France Germany Italy United Kingdom
1 870 710 140 520 490 980 210
OECD Europe
950 0
Unites States Japan Denmark France Germany Italy United Kingdom
19.9 21.2 12.3 15.9 22.3 32.1 17.4
OECD Europe
560
OECD
4.9
1 000
14.0 11.8
OECD 2 000 m3/capita
0
10
20
30
40
withdrawal as % of available resources
a) Or latest available year. Source: OECD.
two-thirds of total use. The volume of drinking water produced by water supply companies (of which about 60% comes from groundwater) decreased by a much smaller percentage, from 1 227 to 1 183 million cubic metres between 1990 and 2000. Several experiments are being made to limit tap water consumption by using rainwater for toilet flushing, gardening and car washing. Agri/horticulture consumes about 60 to 100 million cubic metres of the water produced by water supply companies; direct abstraction for agri/horticulture is between 50 and 250 million cubic metres per year, depending on rainfall during the growing season. Measures to limit groundwater abstraction are part of efforts to halt groundwater depletion. Sometimes it is possible to transfer large-scale drinking water abstraction to alternative locations where environmental impacts are less serious. Direct abstraction of groundwater by industry has shown a declining trend since the 1980s. The groundwater tax, which reduces the price difference between drinking water produced from surface water and that produced from groundwater, contributes to limiting groundwater abstraction.
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4
NATURE CONSERVATION AND BIODIVERSITY*
Recommendations The following recommendations are part of the overall conclusions and recommendations of the OECD Environmental Performance Review of the Netherlands: • complete establishment of the national ecological network according to targets, taking account of requirements of the EU Birds and Habitats Directives; • achieve the target of 20 to 30% of natural areas fully protected against acidification and eutrophication, particularly by reducing pressures from agriculture and the waste water industry; • reinforce implementation of nature conservation objectives in agricultural policy, particularly by meeting reduction targets for pesticide use, ammonia emissions and desiccation, speeding up farmland conversion in natural areas, and tackling diffuse water pollution by nitrogen compounds; • reinforce implementation of nature conservation objectives in water policy, particularly by reducing water pollution by toxic substances, developing connections among water systems and setting ecological quality objectives for water bodies; • enhance nature protection in coastal areas, particularly through better control of mud fishing and establishment of marine reserves, in the framework of the OSPAR Convention; • strengthen efforts to integrate biodiversity, nature and landscape conservation among themselves and with spatial planning.
* The present chapter reviews progress in the last ten years, and particularly since the previous OECD Environmental Performance Review of 1995. It also reviews progress with respect to the objective “maintaining the integrity of ecosystems” of the 2001 OECD Environmental Strategy.
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Conclusions Nature management is subject to comprehensive national policy planning (Nature Policy Plan) under the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (LNV). The National Ecological Network (EHS) being established will include fragmented protected areas throughout the Netherlands, corridors to connect them, and large bodies of water such as North Sea coastal waters, the Wadden Sea, the IJssel Lake and the Delta. The annual rate of realisation of the EHS is increasing, but it remains below the target set by LNV to meet the objective of completion by 2018. Failure to meet the LNV target was mainly due to land scarcity and high land prices, as the network was largely created through land purchase and restoration by LNV. The emphasis is now moving from land acquisition to the signing of management contracts with landowners. Fourteen national parks have been established, and 50 000 additional hectares were given protected status in the 1990s. This, too, is below target. National protected areas are managed by the Dutch Forest Service (200 000 hectares) and NGOs (160 000 hectares). Forested areas increased by 23 000 hectares over the last decade. Phosphorous concentrations in surface water have decreased and are now in line with the NEPP target, mainly as a result of industry efforts. Biodiversity loss has been halted in some ecosystems, such as breeding habitats for migrating birds on farmland and woodland. Volunteers, often highly specialised, actively contribute to biodiversity monitoring. Open landscapes (polders in the west, cultivated grassland on peat soil in the north and west) are still relatively intact, but they are experiencing increasing pressure from urbanisation. Targets have recently been established to protect these areas. Awareness of nature conservation has grown over the decade, especially regarding demand for green areas in and around cities and for recreation in protected areas. The Netherlands has signed and ratified international agreements relating to nature and biodiversity. However, these efforts are not always commensurate with the intense pressures on biodiversity, nature and landscapes from economic activities; in some cases they do not appear to lead to results consistent with national targets. This may require reviewing and possibly revising the institutional setting for biodiversity, nature and landscape conservation. Many species are still threatened, and biodiversity conservation has continued to deteriorate in ecosystems subject to eutrophic deposition and eutrophication (e.g. open dunes, heaths and coastal waters). Nitrogen deposition (the main component of eutrophic deposition) is still far above NEPP targets, reflecting high emissions of NOx from transport and ammonia from agriculture. Acid deposition has been reduced but is still above the NEPP target. Overall, only 10% of Dutch natural areas are fully protected against acidification and eutrophication compared with a 2010 NEPP target of 20 to 30%. Desiccation due to agricultural drainage still affects 500 000 hectares, and restoration activities have been limited and are below
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target. Biodiversity is also under strong pressure from pollution by toxic substances: intensity of pesticide use remains largely above the OECD average; ambitious reduction targets were set recently. Water pollution by heavy metals and by hormone disruptors, as well as a lack of connections between water systems, affect aquatic life. In coastal areas little has been done to protect nature effectively; despite the 1995 OECD recommendation, there are no established marine reserves (plans are in discussion). Mud fishing (bottom trawling) is still practised in the North Sea, which has an impact on sea floor habitats. Residential areas have continued to be developed at the expense of natural areas, leading to the adoption of additional spatial planning regulations. It is unclear whether the objective of devoting one-third of the inland EHS entirely to nature conservation will be met. Further efforts are needed to fully implement the EU Birds and Habitats Directives. Amendment of the Nature Conservation Act to fully transpose the Birds and Habitats Directives was submitted to Parliament. Nature management has been integrated into agricultural policy with mixed results. While they fall under the same parent ministry, EU farm subsidies targeted at supporting agricultural production are much larger than public expenditure on nature protection. Agri-environmental measures have focused more on controlling diffuse water pollution than on converting farmland to wildlife habitats (mainly meadows), though payments to farmers are being increased to meet the conversion target of 110 000 hectares by 2020.
1.
Evaluation of Performance 1.1
Policy objectives
The Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (LNV) supervises nature conservation in the Netherlands. Policy objectives for nature conservation and biodiversity were included in the 1990 Nature Policy Plan. The 1992 Landscape Memorandum, the 1994 Forest Policy Plan and the 1995 Strategic Action Plan for Biodiversity also contain nature conservation objectives. For the period 2000-10, policy objectives in all these areas (nature, biodiversity, forests and landscape) have been regrouped in a policy document released in 2000, Nature for People, People for Nature. The successive National Environmental Policy Plans (NEPPs) have set objectives for reducing eutrophication, desiccation and acidification, thereby reducing pressures on nature and biodiversity. By 2020 the Netherlands’ key national objectives are to establish a National Ecological Network (EHS), enhance nature conservation in rural areas and expand green areas in cities (Table 4.1). One-third of the inland EHS must include large-scale natural areas (e.g. sandy woodland, dunes and marshy landscapes) and vulnerable
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habitats (various types of woodland, marshy grassland and heaths) connected by ecological corridors. The remaining two-thirds are to consist of woodland and grassland with a multifunctional role. By the end of 2003, 18 national parks must be created including one transboundary park. The 1995 OECD Environmental Performance Review recommended that the Netherlands: – vigorously pursue the programme for protecting areas as national parks and in the National Ecological Network: ensure that targets are met, management plans are adopted and implemented, and rules applying within protected areas are enforced;
Table 4.1
Achievement of nature conservation objectives
Objectives
Expansion of the National Ecological Network Land Acquisition of forests and other natural areasa Changing land use designation in spatial planninga Without changing land use designationa Ecological corridorsa Water North Sea and other large coastal water areasb Wet landscapesc Outside the National Ecological Network Rural areas Forest and other natural areas Agricultural areasd Bird protection areas Afforestation Rural landscapese Green space in urban areas In the Randstad Outside the Randstad Urban landscapes
Target by 2018 (ha)
Completed by end 1999 (%)
744 500
70
453 500 188 500 90 000 13 500
95 48 43 0
6 300 000 5 000
100 0
219 900 96 500 15 000 30 000 38 400 40 000 31 685 18 685 3 000 10 000
59 100 45 73 14 0 20 31 23 0
a) Includes inland water, Ramsar and Natura 2000 sites. b) Includes the Wadden Sea, IJssel Lake and Delta. c) Includes 500 km of natural banks and fish ladders along and in waterways. d) Consists of countryside stewardship (10 000 hectares) and agri-environmental schemes (5 000 hectares). e) Network of nature (green) and water (blue) areas of man-made landscape. Source: LNV.
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– continue action, with appropriate consultation with other North Sea riparian countries, to protect the coastal and marine environment further and to establish a number of marine reserves; – better protect landscapes through the formulation of regional landscape plans and their effective implementation; – integrate nature and landscape protection concerns further in agricultural policies and intensify measures to improve the vitality of forests; – intensify measures to control the lowering of groundwater levels and consequent desiccation in nature areas; – extend measures to control and reduce the fragmentation of habitats, particularly with respect to existing and new transport infrastructure.
1.2
State of nature and biodiversity
The natural environment and biodiversity in the Netherlands have deteriorated sharply since 1950, though there has been some stabilisation since 1990 (Chapter 4, Section 2.1). Species diversity has declined sharply in recent decades; the share of species now under threat is one of the highest among OECD countries for birds, amphibians, reptiles and vascular plants. It is much the highest for freshwater fish (Figure 4.1). The state of the natural environment in the Netherlands is assessed every year by the National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection (RIVM) in the Nature Balance. The Nature Compendium provides background data. Occurrence of so-called focal species (referred to in the IUCN Red List, the EU Birds and Habitats Directives, the Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, and the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries’ list of target species) and of species characteristic of particular types of vegetation are compared with the reference year 1950. The number of locations where species are found is affected by factors such as eutrophication, acidification, desiccation and pollution by toxic substances (environmental stress), as well as land use change and fragmentation (non-environmental stress). Concerning animal species, the decline in terrestrial macrofauna and fishes has been due more to environmental stress than to other factors. In contrast, nonenvironmental stress has been the main pressure on amphibians and reptiles. In the case of mammals, birds and butterflies, non-environmental stress is at least as significant as environmental stress. The Netherlands is the temporary habitat of a large number of migratory bird species. Compared with 1950, the types of birds that breed in woodlands on high sandy soil have on average remained the same with some population increases
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Figure 4.1 Fauna and flora
State in the Netherlands, late 1990s total number of speciesa
Mammals
64
Birds
170
Freshwater fish
28
Reptiles
7
Amphibians
16
Vascular plants
1 392 0
20
40
60
80
100 Percentages
Threatened
Not threatened
Threatened speciesb
Mammals Netherlands
United States Japan
16
82
7
11
2 13
Denmark
22
13
France
20
14
Germany
37
Italy
Vascular plants
27
24
United Kingdom
Fishc
Birds
1 24 16
10 6 68
26
32
18
22
24
7 29
41
35
6
5 9
11
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 %
%
%
%
a) Excludes extinct species. b) IUCN categories “critically endangered”, “endangered” and “vulnerable” in % of known species. c) Freshwater fish only, except in USA and France. Source: OECD.
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(e.g. buzzards, goshawks and some woodpeckers). Ageing of woodlands has contributed to these increases, as well as to increases in live stocks (in total size and per hectare) and a greater share of mixed forest. Compared with 1950, breeding birds have declined sharply in agricultural areas on high sandy soil. More intensive use of arable land and grassland, and large scale agricultural production resulting in economies of scale have brought about the loss of many small landscape features (e.g. hedgerows, windbreaks). The number of breeding pairs of small owls has fallen by over 50% in the last 15 years. On balance, the situation has stabilised since 1990. Breeding of bird species associated with open dunes and heathland has fallen since 1950; these species have been declining steadily since 1990 due to the intrusion of scrubland and grasses, mainly as a consequence of an increased supply of nutrients via air deposition. Butterflies have declined even more sharply. Deterioration of environmental quality is a major cause of the decline in plant species. With eutrophication, a wide variety of species typically found in nutrientpoor conditions are displaced by species that thrive in a nutrient-rich environment (e.g. intrusion of grasses on heathland). With acidification, the original flora are displaced by those that grow best in acid conditions. Desiccation has similar negative impacts. Between 1950 and 1995, there was a 50% reduction in the occurrence of plant species. It is expected that most of these environmental pressures will decrease in decades to come, though their effects may persist longer (Chapter 4, Section 2.2). Eutrophication of brackish coastal waters has led to increased production of biomass and to changes in the species composition of phytoplankton. Occurrence of foaming algae has increased sharply in coastal waters over the last few decades. In the Wadden Sea and the Delta there have been positive and negative developments. The seal population continues to increase, some shellfish species are recovering, and there has been a drop in the number of sea birds that are victims of oil spills. However, eelgrass has become virtually extinct, the area of salt meadows and sand bars along the eastern Scheldt is decreasing, and there is a severe oyster shortage.
1.3
Pressures on nature and biodiversity
The Netherlands is characterised by high population density (the second highest in the OECD area), high livestock density (the highest in the OECD) and high road network density (the second highest in the OECD). Population density, which implies density of human activity, is often related to environmental stress and pressure on available land resources. Nutrients and ammonia emissions from livestock contribute to eutrophication. Transport infrastructure exerts pressures on the natural environment through use of space and habitat fragmentation.
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Eutrophication Eutrophication results from discharges of phosphorus and nitrogen to inland and coastal waters. Phosphorus concentrations in surface water decreased significantly (by over 50%) between 1990 and 2000: at 0.1 to 0.3 mg P/litre, they are now in line with the NEPP target (Table 5.12 and Figure 3.4). This reflects a 34% reduction in phosphorus emissions, achieved through the introduction of phosphate-free detergents and measures taken by industry. In contrast, nitrogen concentrations in surface water remained virtually unchanged during this period despite a 17% reduction in nitrogen emissions. At 4 to 5.5 mg N/litre, they are well above the 2.2 mg/litre NEPP target (Table 5.12 and Figure 3.4). Agriculture is the main source of nitrogen emissions. Urban waste water treatment plants increasingly use dephosphorisation and denitrification; it is intended that most plants will switch to intensive nitrogen removal by 2006 (Chapter 3, Section 1.2). Eutrophication also results from air pollution. Eutrophic deposition remained high throughout the decade (Figure 4.2). Nitrogen deposition decreased by only 17% between 1990 and 2000. At 2 400 mol N/hectare, it remains well above the NEPP target (Table 5.12). NOx and ammonia (NH3) emissions decreased by only 27% (NOx) and 32% (NH3) during this period, also remaining far above the NEPP targets. The source of most ammonia emissions is agriculture. Decreased NOx emissions in recent years mainly reflect a reduction in emissions from traffic and transport.
Figure 4.2
Eutrophying and potential acidifying deposition, 1980-2001
acid equivalents/ha per year
8 000 Potential acidifying deposition
7 000 6 000 5 000
Eutrophying deposition
4 000 3 000 2 000 1 000 0 1980
1982
1984
1986 SOx
Source:
1988
1990 NOx
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
NH3
RIVM.
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Acidification Following a significant decrease in the 1980s, emissions of acidifying substances continued to fall (by 32%) in the 1990s (Figure 4.2). However, at 3 140 a.e./hectare acid deposition is still far above the NEPP interim objective set in the 1989 Acidification Prevention Plan (Table 3.1). The decrease has primarily been due to sharply reduced SO2 emissions (by 54% in the 1990s), which now comply with the 2000 NEPP target. Domestic reduction of SO2 emissions was mainly achieved in manufacturing industry, electric companies and refineries. Reducing acidification also requires international co-operation. The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol, signed by most UNECE countries, targets further emission reductions by 2010 (Chapter 8). The objective of fully protecting 20 to 30% of Dutch natural areas against acidification and eutrophication by 2010 was adopted in NEPP4; only 10% of these areas is now so protected. Full protection entails not damaging specific vulnerable elements of the environment (based on current knowledge).
Desiccation Desiccation of natural areas mainly results from drainage of agricultural land and, to a lesser extent, from groundwater extraction (particularly for drinking water supply) and drainage of expanding urban areas. Over the years water tables have been lowered as part of efforts to increase agricultural productivity. One reason groundwater levels were allowed to fall was to make it possible for heavy agricultural machinery to be used as early as possible in the spring. Between 1950 and 1965, water tables across the country fell by an average of 30 cm. They appear to have stabilised at this level for some time. In the last ten years they have tended to continue to fall, though there is no clear explanation. Water tables are calculated to have fallen by 10 to 40 cm at higher elevations in the Netherlands and by as much as 40 to 120 cm at some locations. Water tables have risen again in some protected areas, but only occasionally to the 1950-65 level. About 40% of native plant species require high water tables and are therefore threatened with desiccation. Many plants characteristic of wet and moist environments have already disappeared or face extinction. Some animal species, such as insects that depend on specific plant species to reproduce, are also threatened. The objective for 2000 was a 25% reduction in total desiccated area (to 450 000 hectares, compared with 600 000 hectares in 1986). It is estimated that around 500 000 hectares is still affected by desiccation; on about 15 000 hectares the hydrological regime has been fully restored and 85 000 hectares is no longer classified as desiccated as a result of changes in designated land use. On about 275 000 hectares of desiccated land, nature conservation is now the main land use objective. The hydrological regime has been partially restored on almost 150 000 hectares. “Partial restoration”
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may refer to the spatial extent of restoration (e.g. 20% of the designated natural area) or the degree of restoration (e.g. raising the water table by 15 cm when the objective is 20 cm). An evaluation in 2001 of the restoration programme’s lack of success has led to the conclusion that it must be improved. Specific actions are being identified.
Toxic substances For a number of years reproductive disturbance has been observed in several species of aquatic fauna. It has been attributed to hormone disruptors (pesticides and natural and synthetic hormones). Substantial quantities of hormones excreted by humans and animals enter surface water through leaching or via waste water treatment plants. Concentrations in large rivers appear to be high enough to impact fish species. Even higher concentrations of natural hormones can be assumed to occur in surface water in regions with intensive livestock farming. Use of tributyltin (TBT) compounds in anti-fouling paints has contributed to the decline of mollusc species. Since 1990 the use of TBT-based paints has been prohibited on vessels less than 25 metres long. Birds are especially vulnerable to pesticides. For example, the number of Sandwich terns fell sharply as a result of discharges of organochloro compounds via the Nieuwe Waterweg; there were only 900 breeding pairs in 1965, compared with 40 000 to 50 000 in the 1950s. Once discharges ceased, the number of pairs began to increase. There are over 14 000 today. Use of plant protection products has fallen by 58% since the early 1990s, but this has been achieved mainly through reducing applications of soil sterilisation products. Insecticide use has fallen by almost 70%, while use of fungicides has remained stable. Intensity of pesticide use in the Netherlands remains well above the OECD and OECD Europe averages (Figure 3.3).
Land use changes The surface area of suitable biotopes has declined in the last few decades following changes in land use. The most significant land use trends in the last 20 years have been the expansion of developed land and woodland and a decrease in natural areas and agricultural land (Table 4.2). The extent of natural habitats of high botanical quality has been reduced dramatically over the last 50 years (e.g. loss of 50% of heathland and 75% of oligotrophic pastures and meadows).
Transport infrastructure Road construction and widening has contributed to habitat fragmentation, which together with the disappearance of natural areas has negatively impacted plant and animal populations. Most remaining valuable natural areas are small in size. Large
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Table 4.2
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Land use
(km2) Natural areas
1977 1985 1996 Change 1977-96 (%)
Forest Recrea- AgriDeveloped Transportb Otherc and other tional cultural landa wooded land areas land
Dry
Wet
Total
834 839 839
808 659 539
1 641 1 497 1 379
2 905 3 003 3 233
647 782 827
1
–33
–16
11
28
24 372 2 660 23 974 2 950 23 508 3 201 –4
20
1 269 1 328 1 340
451 387 385
6
–15
Inland water
Total
3 243 37 187 3 414 37 334 7 653 41 526 136d
12
a) Mainly residential areas. b) Mainly roads. c) Mainly construction sites. d) The inland water area greatly increased after completion of the Delta Works in the south-west in 1987. Source: RIVM.
single areas are of great importance as they often contain highly diverse ecosystems, reflecting rapid transitions between high and low water tables or between rich and poor soil. Many species of international importance are totally dependent on these areas. In 1994 a target for 2010 was established to respond to fragmentation of the National Ecological Network by roads. As of 2002, four “eco-ducts” had been constructed and 20 more were planned or under construction, 600 “fauna tunnels” had been built, and 200 existing tunnels and viaducts had been adapted to allow safe passage of small animals (e.g. badgers). Through these measures, the 2010 target had been 45% achieved at a cost of EUR 40 million. The Netherlands is chairing Programme 341 of the European Co-operation in the Field of Scientific and Technical Research (COST). The main objective of COST 341 is to promote a safe and sustainable pan-European transport infrastructure which will conserve biodiversity and reduce vehicular accidents and resulting deaths of fauna.
1.4
Policy responses
Integration of nature protection concerns in sectoral policies Measures to address environmental and other pressures on nature have been taken in the agriculture, industry and transport sectors. Despite its small size, the
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Netherlands is one of the world’s three largest exporters of agricultural produce. With dairy farming and market gardening its main activities, agriculture employs around 3% of the workforce and accounts for about 3% of the country’s GDP. Following a rapid increase in the 1970s and the 1980s, particularly in the number of pigs and poultry, livestock numbers decreased in the 1990s by 18% for cattle (4 million in 2001), 6% for pigs (13.1 million in 2001), though there has been a 29% increase for laying hens (42.7 million in 2001). The decrease reflected adjustment of the farm sector to market and policy conditions (notably milk quotas introduced in 1984), as well as the need to meet environmental requirements (in particular, manure quotas introduced in 1987 and tightened since). However, livestock density remains the highest in the OECD area (Figure 4.3). Agri-environmental measures have focused on better control of use of farm inputs to minimise diffuse pollution and to reduce eutrophication and acidification by nitrates, phosphates and ammonia. Many such measures are recent; among them, a government programme was initiated in 2000 to purchase pig and poultry farms and take them out of production (the outgoers scheme). Measures have also included a mineral accounting system, involving a tax on farm mineral surpluses, and a compulsory manure delivery system to address farm manure surpluses (Chapter 3). It is unclear how successful these measures will be in reducing the current manure surplus and high intensity of fertiliser use. There are proposals to establish limits on the number of animals per hectare and to increase support for organic farming (in which farmers appear to be losing interest to some extent). In 2001 the government released a policy document, Vision for Healthy Crop Production, which establishes the goal of reducing pollution from plant protection products by 95% by 2010 compared with 1998. This is to be achieved through encouraging farmers to move towards integrated crop production. Policy instruments to be used include education, farm certification, tightening of regulations on the sale and use of farm pesticides, and a pesticide tax from 2003. More generally, the total amount of farmland has been decreasing in the last two decades (some of it being replaced by woodland), partly as a result of the European Common Agricultural Policy in recent years. In 2001 the budget of the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (LNV) was EUR 1.8 billion. The EU contributed 62%; the national contribution was 38%. Around EUR 0.4 billion of the LNV budget has been allocated to development and management of nature reserves. Over two years the total cost of the outgoers scheme has been almost EUR 0.9 billion. However, most agricultural policy support remains associated with agricultural production. Measures taken by industry to control eutrophication and acidification have included the imposition of tighter standards and closer monitoring and control by firms of direct discharges of nitrogen and phosphorus to water, with good results
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Figure 4.3
95
Agriculture
Trends in the Netherlands, 1990-2001
Land use
1990 = 100
Arable and permanent crop land 29.0%
Energy consumption
125
Other land 31.5% Production
100
Employment
75
Machinerya Forest and other wooded land 9.2%
50 25
Permanent grassland 30.4%
0 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Livestock Density, 2001
Trends in the Netherlands, 1990-2001 million head of sheep equivalentb
60
2 271
Netherlands
50
Hens
40 Pigs Horses
30 20
Sheep Cattle
10
United States Japan Denmark France Germany Italy United Kingdom
188 1 110 934 533 718 461 672
OECD Europe
473 206
OECD 0 1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
0
1000
2000
head of sheep equivalentb/km2c
a) Tractors and combined harvester-threshers in use. b) Based on equivalent coefficients in terms of manure: 1 horse = 4.8 sheep; 1 pig = 1 goat = 1 sheep; 1 hen = 0.1 sheep; 1 cattle = 6 sheep. c) Of arable, permanent crop land and permanent grassland. Source: FAO; OECD.
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(Chapter 3). Progress has also been made on reducing air emissions of SO2, particularly through environmental agreements (Chapter 2). The water industry is making efforts to reduce eutrophication due to nitrogen and phosphorus inputs by upgrading municipal waste water treatment infrastructure (Chapter 3). Water contamination by heavy metals remains a major threat to freshwater fish populations. In the transport sector measures have been taken to reduce NOX emissions and to avoid habitat fragmentation by regulating the development of road infrastructure, but with limited success (Chapter 7). Efforts have also been made to integrate nature protection concerns in spatial and environmental policy while creating new regional development opportunities. In 1989 VROM introduced regional development agencies (ROMs). Ten ROM areas have been designated at national level. Provincial authorities have designated areas with integrated objectives, as well as environmental protection areas such as groundwater protection areas (1 450 km2), nature conservation areas and noise sanctuaries (1 780 km2). In several cases groundwater protection areas have been integrated with nature conservation areas; many conservation areas are also designated as noise sanctuaries. Such environmental protection areas are often located wholly or partly within a ROM area or within a provincial area with integrated objectives. Spatial policy in the Netherlands plays an important role in facilitating the implementation of nature policy. Recent examples are limiting the extent of agricultural land lying within nature conservation areas (“reconstruction policy”) and allowing more space for water for flood control (“space for water policy”).
Protecting terrestrial ecosystems One of the main goals of nature policy in the Netherlands is the creation of a coherent network of nature reserves, the National Ecological Network (EHS), including coastal areas and marine ecosystems. The 1990 LNV Nature Policy Plan established the objective that this network should encompass nearly 750 000 hectares by 2018 (an increase of some 40% in the amount of land designated as natural areas). This objective was reaffirmed in the 2000 policy document, Nature for People, People for Nature. To create a coherent EHS: i) the amount of land devoted to nature reserves is being increased; and ii) agricultural land is being converted to a natural environment through habitat development. By the end of 1999, 518 000 hectares or nearly 70% of the land needed for the EHS had been purchased or was being managed under contract (Table 4.1). In 2000 another 4 200 hectares was added to the EHS, more than in previous years but still well below the 5 700 hectare annual target set by LNV. Based on the present rate of realisation, it will take until 2030 (instead of 2018) for the EHS to be fully developed and handed over to nature management organisations. This delay is
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mainly related to the amount of time needed to swap land acquired outside the EHS for land inside the network, and to create new natural habitats. Because of the increasing costs of land acquisition and lack of funding, the government is changing the emphasis from land purchase for nature conservation towards management agreements with land owners (mainly farmers). Protected areas (according to IUCN classification) accounted for 482 000 hectares or some 11.6% of total area, a little above the OECD Europe average (Figure 4.4). Most protected areas are nature reserves. Fourteen national parks have been created, covering 97 000 hectares (Table 4.3). Four additional parks should be established by the end of 2003, covering another 30 000 hectares. Two “autonomous” national parks were created in the 1930s, covering 10 200 hectares. Few farmers have converted any of their land to natural areas (mainly meadows), despite the target of conversion of 110 000 hectares by 2018. This situation is changing, however, following adjustment of the compensation level to reflect income loss (pursuant to Article 6 of the EU Habitats Directive). Transposition of this article was the main reason for delay in updating the 1975 Nature Conservation Act. It is unclear whether the objective of devoting one-third of inland EHS to nature conservation will be met. In particular, a number of important differences exist between Dutch nature policy and provisions of the EU Birds and Habitats Directives, which apply to a considerable extent to the same areas (40% of inland EHS). For example, in the Netherlands nature objectives are not set until the boundaries of protected areas are determined, whereas under the EU Directives they are a determining factor in the designation of such areas. Moreover, in the Netherlands more emphasis is placed on the eventual quality of existing and future natural environments, which is subject to negotiation in order to agree trade-offs among social (residential, employment, infrastructure, recreation), economic (land use) and environmental (water management) considerations. In contrast, European law gives considerable legal protection to the natural values of designated areas under the Birds and Habitats Directives. It is therefore important that the Netherlands specifically implement habitat development and environmental and water policies to enhance the quality of nature in areas designated under these Directives. A proposal to amend the Nature Conservation Act to incorporate requirements of the EU Birds and Habitats Directives has been submitted to Parliament. Designation of 79 Special Protection Areas (SPAs) under the Birds Directive, as well as 76 Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) under the Habitats Directive, has been announced and designation of further areas is under discussion. Legal instruments are in force to protect nature conservation (natural) areas. The most important are the 1967 Nature Conservation Act (amended in 1975 and 1998), the 2002 Flora and Fauna Act (replacing the Birds Act, the Hunting Act, the Endangered Exotic Animal and Plant Species Act, and part of the 1967 Nature Conservation Act), the 1961 Forestry Act, the 1965 Spatial Planning Act (amended
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Figure 4.4
Major protected areas,a late 1990s
Netherlands
11.6
United States
21.2
Japan
6.8
Denmark
32.0
France
10.1
Germany
26.9
Italy
9.1
United Kingdom
Categories I-II (strict nature reserves, wilderness areas and national parks)
20.4 Categories III-VI
OECD Europe
10.4 12.4
OECD 0
10
20
30
% of total area
a) IUCN management categories I to VI; national classifications may differ. Source: IUCN; OECD.
Table 4.3
Protected areas
(‘000 hectares)
National parks Special Protection Areas Special Areas of Conservation Ramsar sitesa
1980-90
1991-95
1996-2000
2001-03
Total
5 53 –
21 275 –
11 713 1 000
60 – –
97 1 041 1 000
306
19
–
366b
691
a) On the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance. b) An additional 126 000 hectares are in the process of designation. Source: LNV.
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in 1994) and procedures for designating an area as a national park. Water areas are protected mainly under the Ramsar Convention (44 such sites have been designated); in 2002 the Netherlands submitted a report on its wetlands of international importance to the Convention. Areas may be protected wholly or in part under several different laws and/or regulations. De Weerribben National Park, for example, is protected under the Nature Conservation Act, the Ramsar Convention and the EU Birds and Habitats Directives. Land purchase, one of the most important instruments for protecting natural areas, is carried out primarily by the State (80% of all purchases) and private conservation organisations (20% of all purchases). These organisations include the Dutch Society for the Preservation of Nature (Nature Monuments). The land purchased by LNV is managed by the (recently privatised) National Forestry Service (50%), Nature Monuments (25%) and the provincial nature conservation agencies (25%), which together manage a considerable share of Dutch nature reserves (73% in 2000) and receive associated government financial support. LNV, the National Forestry Service and NGOs also jointly manage national parks, through a joint foundation, with the combined objectives of ecosystem conservation, education, tourism and research. Natural areas are also managed by the Ministry of Defence, the Directorate General for Public Works and Water Management, water companies, forest owners and some municipalities. A government decision was taken in 2002 to focus less on land purchase and instead to encourage third party management of nature reserves (protection of nature values, within and outside the EHS). Financial support can be obtained either for management of nature reserves (SN) or for nature management in agricultural areas (SAN). Remuneration is based on the ecological outcome and on management costs (SN) or income loss (SAN). NGOs and individuals, including farmers, are eligible for both schemes. The schemes cover management of existing natural areas and development of new ones. Provincial plans determine the location of these areas and the type of areas to be developed. In a country as densely settled as the Netherlands land use planning instruments also play a key role. To discourage development of residential areas and transport infrastructure at the expense of natural areas, steps have been taken to increase the number and extent of protected areas and to carry out land use planning. The draft Fifth National Policy Document on Spatial Planning (NPSP5) designates areas where the most urbanisation is likely to take place in the next 20 years, assuming a Dutch population of 18 million by 2030. Red perimeters to control city development and prevent urbanisation of rural areas have been introduced, as well as green ones to protect natural areas and key landscapes. Provinces and municipalities are required to
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establish red perimeters around all built-up areas, including necessary extensions already being planned. Expansion beyond one of these would be allowed only if it were shown that the built-up area could not accommodate housing and employment. To use urban space more efficiently, co-operation among cities is to be promoted by creating urban networks. The Delta Metropolis (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht and Almere) is the largest.
Protecting inland and marine water ecosystems Increasing attention has been paid in recent years to integrating biodiversity objectives into water policy. The policy document Nature for People, People for Nature aims to define good ecological quality as a target for most fresh and salt water bodies as part of implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive (Chapter 3). There is an urgent need to develop connections between water systems to improve the accessibility of rivers from the sea and the habitats of freshwater fish populations. Both fresh and salt water bodies are of great importance for bird life and as traditional features of the Dutch landscape. Considerable shares of large fresh and salt water bodies are part of the National Ecological Network and have been designated in line with the EU Birds and Habitats Directives. Ecologically, the coastal zone is the most valuable part of the North Sea. There is a wide range of pressures on marine ecosystems in coastal areas. The greatest pressures on the North Sea’s natural ecosystems are shipping and over-supply of nutrients along its coasts. Fishing has impacts on seabed fauna, fish and birds. Most fishing regulations (season lengths, catch quotas) have been adopted in an international context (e.g. EU fisheries policy) and are readjusted annually. Regulations in the framework of the Rhine Action Plan, North Sea Action Plan and OSPAR Convention are primarily aimed at limiting the flow of contaminating substances to the North Sea, increasing shipping and mining safety, and reducing over-fishing. Oil and gas extraction takes place on the continental shelf, where there are about 130 production platforms. Along with undersea telecommunication cables, oil and gas pipelines form a network on the seabed. Potential impacts of oil extraction in the Wadden Sea have been controversial. Mining of surface minerals (sand, shells, gravel) is regulated; approximately 25 million cubic metres of sand is extracted annually. Dredging deposit areas are designated by the government. Military training areas and new wind farms and transmission towers also require designated areas. There have been proposals to build a new offshore airport in the longer term. NPSP5 describes spatial planning policy for the Netherlands’ portion of the North Sea. Its stated policy goal is that “economic functions will make room for the natural system in a sound and sustainable way, in order to preserve and maintain it”.
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In 1998 the OSPAR Convention was expanded to cover conservation of coastal and marine ecosystems. Proposals have recently been made to set Ecological Quality Objectives for the North Sea. The Dutch project on Ecosystem Objectives for the North Sea will define economic uses (e.g. fishing and mining) that could be better oriented to requirements imposed by the need for biodiversity conservation in the future. Until now this has not been sufficiently the case. For example, the EU’s Common Fisheries Policy has not yet succeeded in adequately protecting marine biodiversity in the North Sea. Despite the recommendation in the 1995 OECD Environmental Performance Review, no marine reserves have been created, though plans are being discussed.
Landscape protection The most characteristic Dutch landscapes of international significance are polders in low-lying areas and reclaimed peatland in higher areas. Some landscapes of national significance are still relatively intact, but many are in danger of losing their unique character, particularly open cultivated grassland on peat soil. Urbanisation is one of the main reasons for the disappearance of open landscapes. At the international level, great emphasis is placed on conserving existing landscapes (cultural heritage) and less on developing new ones. To protect Dutch landscapes, government spatial planning policy is to impose restrictions on undesirable types of development (e.g. urbanisation) while, at the same time, encouraging conservation or restructuring of rural areas. Such restrictions, combined with incentives, are applied to old agricultural landscapes and areas whose cultural identity is taken into account in spatial planning (known as Belvedere zones). The document Nature for People, People for Nature includes the target of restoring landscape features on about 40 000 hectares. There is the intention to purchase 10 000 hectares and to conclude management agreements concerning 30 000 more. This is a far greater commitment than in the previous (1990) nature policy document. NPSP5 provides for the selection of National Landscapes and the preservation of hedges, river meanders and bicycle paths.
2.
Focus on Selected Topics 2.1
Outlook for pollution pressures
The outlook for nature and biodiversity in the period 2000-30 indicates that environmental pressures on nature would remain high under a business-as-usual scenario. In 2030 acidification, water deficits and eutrophication would have a less limiting effect on the occurrence of plant species than today, but environmental
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pressures would still result in 45% fewer potential sites for these species compared with 1950. The impacts of acidification and large-scale air pollution would persist through 2030. This situation would scarcely improve in agricultural areas, while the expected environmental quality of regional surface waters shows little promise of improving the overall quality of nature. Acid deposition would be sharply reduced through implementation of international agreements but would remain too high, especially in areas where there is intensive livestock raising. Despite improvements in air quality, deposition of acidifying substances and nitrogen in 2030 would be about 60 to 70% above the NEPP3 targets for 2010. Following implementation of a number of EU Directives, the supply of phosphorus and nitrogen in the Netherlands from other countries via the Rhine would decrease by 15% in 2030 compared with 1996. The water quality of the IJssel Lake, which depends on that of the Rhine, would thus improve. Concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus at the mouth of European rivers would decrease in the next ten years, as would marine pollution. The phosphorus load in 2010 would be about one-quarter what it was in the early 1980s, when pollution reached a maximum level. The load of nitrogen compounds in 2010 would be reduced by about one-half relative to the early 1980s; the likelihood of undesirable algal blooms in the North Sea coastal zone would decrease after 2010. In 2030 natural areas with a water deficit would decrease by about 2 300 km3 as a result of raising the water table at least 10 cm. The amount of the future manure surplus will depend on co-operation by farmers. Measures proposed in the Integrated Approach to the Manure Problem (letter to the Lower House of Parliament, 1999) would lead to considerable reduction of nitrogen and phosphorus losses to the environment. The effects on total manure surplus and livestock numbers would greatly depend on the willingness of cropproducing farmers to replace chemical fertilisers with manure via disposal contracts, continued lowering of phosphorus content in feed, and increasing manure exports. If 90 to 95% of excess manure were sold through disposal contracts, a national manure surplus of 19 million kg of phosphorus per year would remain. It is unclear how such a surplus could be dealt with in regard to the Dutch phosphorus loss standard. The nitrogen loss standard would be met mainly through reducing the need to use nitrogenous fertiliser. Ammonia emissions in 2030 would decrease by 30%, but additional measures would be needed (low-emission stalls and low-emission application of manure) to attain a level below the national emission ceiling of 128 million kg NH3 per year as agreed under the Gothenburg Protocol. However, the effects of over-fertilisation will continue for years. The phosphorus loss standard is insufficient to counteract further phosphorus accumulation in soil and associated run-off to surface water. The rate of soil loading is decreasing as a result of
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this policy. In many small regional water bodies (e.g. dikes) large amounts of phosphorus still negatively impact biodiversity and rehabilitation of the ecosystem. The proposed fertiliser policy would almost halve nitrate concentrations in upper groundwater. Groundwater used for water supply, which is extracted from deeper aquifers, would satisfy nitrate concentration standards for drinking water at most locations. Locally, nutrient run-off from farmland upstream will continue to put pressure on the environment downstream.
2.2
International agreements
The Netherlands has ratified all major international agreements concerning nature protection and biodiversity. These include the Washington Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (1975), the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (1982), the Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (1983) and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (1986). The Bern Convention does not apply to the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba, which are party to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) and its Kingston Protocol concerning Special Protected Areas and Wildlife. The Netherlands is party to four agreements under the Bonn Convention: Conservation of Seals in the Wadden Sea (1991), Conservation of Bats in Europe (1991), Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Sea (ASCOBANS) (1994) and the AfricanEurasian Waterbird (AEWA) (1999). The Netherlands is lead country for the AEWA. The 1991 Seal Agreement between Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands was in response to a 1988 virus epidemic that reduced the Wadden Sea’s common seal population by approximately 60% (from 10 000 to 4 000). The seal population has recovered following implementation of a series of measures. Seal reserves have been established, and taking of seals is prohibited under the 1991-95 Seal Management Plan (SMP). The Second SMP (1996-2001) introduced targets for marine mammals (viable stocks). In the Third SMP (2001-06), regulation of human use is part of a system of ecological targets for all typical Wadden Sea habitats. Implementation of the Seal Agreement is progressing smoothly. There is good co-operation among the three countries, including trilateral governmental conferences and scientific symposia held every three years. In 2002 another virus epidemic killed over 2 200 seals in Dutch coastal areas (almost 22 000 seals in northwestern European waters). Experts are confident that the seal population will recover naturally. In 1994 the Netherlands ratified the UN Convention on Biological Diversity. Parliament approved the first National Biodiversity Strategy, the Strategic Action Plan for Biodiversity, in 1995. The first National Report on the Implementation Status
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of the Convention was presented at the third Session of the Conference of the Parties (COP3) in 1996. The second National Biodiversity Strategy is incorporated in the 2000 Nature Policy Plan. The Netherlands hosted COP6 in 2002. A national action plan for agricultural biodiversity was to be presented in 2003. In the 1980s and 1990s 19 Ramsar sites were designated, covering 325 000 hectares and including major peatland and inter-tidal areas. In 2003 the Ramsar Bureau announced the designation of 14 additional sites and the considerable expansion of one site, more than doubling the total Dutch area of wetlands of international importance (Table 4.3). The Wadden Sea, one of the most important wetlands in Europe, is shared by Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands and administered co-operatively by the Common Wadden Sea Secretariat. The three Parties have designated separate sections as Ramsar sites. The new Dutch site Waddeneilanden, Noordzeekustzone, Breebaart (135 000 hectares) helps unite a large portion of the southwestern sections into a more coherent Ramsar network. The Ramsar Bureau is co-operating with Dutch authorities concerning 11 more sites (126 000 hectares) that are in the process of being designated. In the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba, 2 000 hectares of coral reefs and inter-tidal areas have been designated as Ramsar sites and new areas are being investigated. It is intended for all Ramsar sites to become Special Protection Areas under the EU Birds Directive or Special Areas of Conservation under the EU Habitats Directive.
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Part II
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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5
ENVIRONMENTAL – ECONOMIC INTERFACE*
Recommendations The following recommendations are part of the overall conclusions and recommendations of the OECD Environmental Performance Review of the Netherlands: • implement environmental plans and objectives with determination; • strengthen institutional integration, particularly to ensure that a sustainable development framework is firmly embedded in central, provincial and local government and across key sectors, notably energy, agriculture and transport; • refine the market based instruments and extend the environmental tax system, having regard to simplicity, effectiveness, transaction costs and carrying out cost-benefit analysis; • couple the regulatory energy tax with pollutant emissions (carbon tax) and consider its extension to large companies in the case of non-compliance with environmental targets; • undertake environmental assessment earlier in the decision-making process to influence choices concerning plans, policies and programmes; • extend the use of spatial planning and regulation to serve pollution abatement, nature, biodiversity and landscape conservation as well as risk prevention; • maintain investment and efforts in environmental research and development;
* The present chapter reviews progress in the last ten years, and particularly since the previous OECD Environmental Performance Review of 1995. It also reviews progress with respect to the objective “decoupling environmental pressures from economic growth” of the 2001 OECD Environmental Strategy. It takes into account the latest OECD Economic Surveys of the Netherlands.
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• retain and refine quantitative policy targets for reducing environmental pressures, and strengthen efforts to see that they are attained without slippage; • enhance the role of provinces as a key level of policy integration, including environmental policy planning, land use planning and water management planning; • improve the split of enforcement and licensing, especially at local level, and clarify the responsibilities of the central, provincial and local levels; possibly broaden the scope of inspection and enforcement by the VROM Inspectorate to include IPPC companies; • take steps toward implementing the IPPC Directive for large companies, in such a way that emission trading can be applied in the best possible way; • reinforce integration of nature and water management objectives in central and local land use planning; establish periodicity in the preparation of land use plans; • extend the use of economic instruments (e.g. waste, water and transport management) and their incentive effects, in line with the user and polluter pays principles.
Conclusions Integration of environmental concerns in economic decisions Dutch performance in terms of reducing emissions and environmental pressures over the last decade has been strong. This performance should be seen in the context of sustained GDP growth of 35%, and of liberalisation and greater European and international integration of the country’s economy. Overall, pollution abatement and control expenditure has been growing, from 1.9% of GDP in 1990 to 2.6% in 2000. This share, which is expected to remain stable during the next three years based on existing and proposed policy measures, is large by OECD standards and reflects a high level of environmental pressure and readiness to commit resources to mitigation. There is no evidence that this expenditure has affected the competitiveness of the Dutch economy. Concerning institutional integration, there has been good progress with respect to integration of sustainability into the thinking and activities of a range of government and private sector actors (as demonstrated, for example, in the 1997 policy document on Environment and Economy). Considerable reliance is now being placed on some high-level guiding principles set out in the fourth National Environmental Policy Plan (NEPP4), some high-level sustainable development principles, and the concept of “transition management” and “transition processes”
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within a sustainable development goal-setting and backcasting framework. The characteristically Dutch “polder model” approach of dialogue between the government and stakeholders to develop environmental policy has been successful. There is recognition of the need to address areas in which progress remains to be made, as shown in environmental and sustainable development planning documents. Concerning market-based integration, the Netherlands has expanded its use of economic and fiscal instruments and, overall, is implementing the polluter pays and user pays principles despite the exemption of many companies from environmental taxes (e.g. energy taxes) in an attempt to preserve competitiveness. The recent ecological tax reform represents significant progress, with a shift from taxation of labour and income. The various environmentally related Dutch fiscal instruments now account for 14% of total tax revenue. However, decoupling environmental pressures from economic growth has proven elusive, particularly for CO2 emissions, municipal waste and the impacts of urban sprawl, including continuing pressures on biodiversity. Among other residual problems are the levels of particulate matter and ozone, the backlog of contaminated sites, groundwater quality and noise. Also of concern is the review or postponement of some targets that have been hard to meet (e.g. for NOx and ammonia), as well as the risk that some more difficult targets (e.g. for groundwater) may not be met. The Dutch Central Economic Planning Agency has noted that goals with respect to the country’s manure problem were not met due to a reluctance to implement policy forcefully enough. The general planning approach used in the Netherlands requires a very high degree of co-ordination among national ministries. Environmental plans must be co-ordinated with a number of national sectoral plans, the more so as the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM) is responsible for only some environmental policy areas. Integration of environmental policies into other national policies is laid down in the NEPPs. However, policy integration has not yet been reflected in markedly better environmental performance in key sectors such as agriculture and transport. The high levels of production and consumption of the Netherlands continue to lead to large environmental effects outside of the Netherlands. Overall, the government’s goal of reaching sustainability by 2010 (i.e. within one generation at the time this goal was set) appears increasingly difficult to achieve, particularly for the agriculture and transport sectors. Strong and continuing political determination and support by the public will be indispensable in this respect.
Implementing cost-effective environmental policies In the last ten years the Netherlands has met or come close to meeting a number of its domestic objectives (e.g. concerning SO2 emissions, toxic air contaminants,
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groundwater depletion, flood protection, phosphorus concentrations in water, expansion of the ecological network) and international commitments (e.g. transboundary air pollution and North Sea targets). The Environmental Management Act (EMA) provides a framework for co-ordinating environmental legislation, though water, soil and nature management are subject to specific legislation. New regulations establish corporate financial liability for environmental damage. At the central level enforcement staff recently increased by 10%, following regrouping of the environmental, spatial planning and housing inspectorates; the number of inspections has also increased and penal sanctions have been applied. To maintain their incentive function, fine levels have been made proportionate to the size of the company. As a result, compliance levels have increased. Inspection and prosecution pay particular attention to the movement of dangerous goods. Environmental taxes (e.g. on groundwater, landfill) and a regulatory energy tax have been introduced and other taxes are under discussion. Charges apply to point and diffuse water pollution, and producer responsibility has been extended to a range of waste streams. Overall, economic and fiscal instruments are used widely in the Netherlands. A new spatial planning policy to control urban development and protect landscape areas was issued in 2000. Overall, industry has been responsive and often proactive in improving its environmental performance, particularly through environmental agreements (e.g. covenants) and environmental management and auditing; there are also environmental reporting obligations for companies. The customised licensing system introduced in 1995 reflects a shift from regulatory approaches to monitored self-regulation. Environmental agreements, which are more or less binding substitutes for regulation, have been successful in a number of areas in the Netherlands; long-term environmental objectives have been agreed with industry in a series of branch agreements, and the contributions expected from individual companies have been included in their operating permits. Flexibility in meeting objectives, and a stable investment context, have made these schemes attractive to firms. The characteristic policy mix of regulation/licensing plus economic instruments plus environmental agreements continues to be productive. The gradual move to de-emphasise environmental agreements and regulation (arising from economic liberalisation and greater European and international integration) and to place more emphasis on economic instruments has merit, especially as it takes advantage of the government’s strength in establishing frameworks rather than micro-managing. However, despite this positive picture the Netherlands has not met several of its commitments or is not on the way to meeting them (e.g. for CO2, NH3, NOx and VOC emissions, nitrogen inputs to water, nature protection, green space in urban areas). Many of the previous NEPP targets for emission reductions and for environmental quality have been postponed or revised. Water management and nature conservation objectives are being addressed separately, reflecting the institutional setting. As a
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result, integration of nature and water management initiatives in central and local land use planning (e.g. water areas for flood prevention, green areas for nature conservation) has been weak. Licensing of groundwater abstraction and waste water discharge is not covered by the EMA and has remained separate from integrated air, noise and waste licensing. There is a somewhat unclear split of enforcement and licensing responsibilities among the central, provincial and municipal levels in this relatively small country, though administrative agreements have been signed to enhance co-operation among enforcement partners. Customised licensing (based on overall pollution reduction targets) applying to the 100 top companies (mostly multinational) conflicts with the IPPC logic that requires BAT standards for each individual production process. Fines are too low to prevent illegal traffic linked to international trade (e.g. CITES, Basel Convention). There has been a tendency to focus on fiscal rather than economic instruments, with no air emission charges, user charge levels with little effect on water consumption, and flat rates applied to municipal waste collection charges. Implementation of environmental agreements should be accompanied more systematically by transparency mechanisms and the threat of penalties, such as levying of an energy tax, in cases of non-compliance with targets. The move towards market-based instruments may be difficult to make in all areas. Increased emphasis on market based instruments should not come at the expense of experimentation with other approaches such as labelling and support for eco-design.
1.
Towards Sustainable Development 1.1
Policy objectives
The aim of the first National Environmental Policy Plan (NEPP1) in 1989 was to reduce the burden on the environment by 2010 to a negligible risk for both human health and ecosystems. Over time, environmental objectives have evolved away from simple statements concerning “environmental hygiene” to more sophisticated formulations that take sustainable development into account. The government’s 1997 Policy Document on the Environment and the Economy included the goal of complete decoupling of environmental pressures from economic growth through significant changes in production, prices, taxes and governmental policy. Perhaps the most potentially significant evolution in environmental objective setting was signalled in NEPP4 – a move towards long-term “transition management”. However, 20- to 30-year objectives will not take the place of specific shorter-term objectives. By 1999 the government had determined that some pollution reduction objectives were too stringent and had made some targets less difficult to meet. In a review of environmental policy, the Central Economic Planning Agency noted that the most dangerous pitfall is to draft objectives without making clear how these objectives can be achieved and their consequences.
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Although some new, less ambitious targets for 2010 were established in the latest environmental policy plan, NEPP4, which was endorsed by Parliament in 2001, most of the targets in earlier NEPPs remain in effect. Making targets less stringent is likely to have considerable flow-on effects for the protection of natural areas against acid deposition, with consequences for biodiversity conservation. Environmental objectives are also included in separate national policy plans on water and nature, as well as in sectoral planning documents (Chapter 5, Section 3.1). Protecting international competitiveness has been a major objective within the broader policy area surrounding environmental policy. For example, this objective has influenced the impetus towards a greener tax system and, more broadly, the momentum towards ensuring that prices reflect environmental costs. It is conceivable that levies such as the regulatory energy tax could be co-ordinated internationally, or at least within the EU, but the practical difficulties would be considerable. Objectives with respect to changing production and consumption patterns include greater use of renewable energy and reduced waste and use of materials (dematerialisation). These objectives would be advanced through more environmentally friendly technologies on the production side (e.g. assisted by eco-design and life cycle analysis) and better informed consumer choices (e.g. assisted by better labelling). No formal objective has been adopted for reducing the extent of the Netherlands’ environmental footprint. This is not surprising given the elasticity of the concept. There is increased acceptance of the need to develop policies to minimise the Netherlands’ environmental impacts in other countries. This evolution in Dutch policy is evident in recent government policy documents and in some operational policies, such as the Green Fund System. Sustainable development objectives have taken some time to emerge. In 1999 the government released a document on sustainable development which stated that “objectives have been deepened and broadened, and policy is [now] directed towards sustainable development”. This policy subsumes pollution abatement and shifts the focus towards preservation of key natural resources (energy, biodiversity, space), on the basis that use of key resources provides a means of evaluating the sustainability of alternative strategies. The most recent statement on objectives is the Review of Government Policy in the Light of the National Strategy for Sustainable Development. This document does not set out a new strategy as such, but it notes that the Dutch sustainable development strategy is articulated in “many policy documents, plans and initiatives” of the last decade. It is unclear whether such a range of documents and initiatives presents fully cohesive objectives, but in any case a number of principles have been adopted to “underlie the further development of a strategy for sustainable development”. These principles are: international and domestic co-operation; coherent policy-making based on integrated assessment of economic, social and environmental factors; and a long-term view.
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Decoupling environmental pressures from economic growth
Major economic and environmental trends The Dutch economy grew by 34% in the period 1990-2001, or an average of about 3% per year (Chapter 5, Section 3.2). GDP growth exceeded the average for OECD Europe and for the OECD as a whole (Figure 5.1). By European standards there was also fairly rapid population growth (7% over the decade) (Figure 6.3). Strong economic growth has meant that, despite population growth, average income per capita increased by 26% over the decade – above the average rate for the OECD (20%). Major sources of direct environmental pressures include road traffic, industrial production, agricultural production, and energy production and consumption. Road freight traffic and industrial production increased by 36 and 21%, respectively; agricultural output was static over the decade. Despite a 14% decline in energy intensity (per unit of GDP), energy supply rose by 14%. In terms of environmental performance, some key environmental indicators (i.e. acidification and eutrophication) have continued to be strongly decoupled from economic growth (Table 5.1). However, decoupling is becoming more difficult. The rate of improvement in the latter half of the 1990s has slowed, and has even perhaps begun to be reversed in the case of eutrophication and waste disposal. Relative rather than absolute decoupling was achieved for CO2 emissions from energy use, which in 2000 were some 11% above 1990 levels and remain a major management challenge. While the trend for disturbance was positive in the early 1990s, performance over the decade as a whole was only marginally positive (i.e. a minor reduction); noise levels, important for quality of life in the densely populated Netherlands, remain a problem especially in areas exposed to the effects of vehicle and air traffic.
Performance of major sectors The Dutch government acknowledges that the present energy system is unsustainable. Efficiency of energy use has improved substantially, as rapid economic growth in the last decade stimulated capital replacement. Energy use per unit of GDP has fallen. However, compared with the government’s 1990-2000 performance target for energy saving of 1.6% per year, energy efficiency performance was disappointing at 1.3 to 1.5% per year. With the liberalisation of European electricity markets (particularly the Dutch market), electricity imports have increased rapidly. Clearly national emission figures no longer accurately represent the extent of environmental pressures arising from energy demand. Transport sector emissions of CO2 are considerably higher than the NEPP2 target for 2000 and this trend is expected to continue. A sector-specific target
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Figure 5.1 Economic structure and trends GDPa in the Netherlands, 1980-2001 EUR billion
400 300 200 100 0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
GDPb growth, 1990-2001
GDPb per capita, 2001
34.4
Netherlands
39.1
United States Japan Denmark France Germany Italy United Kingdom
14.6 26.9 22.0 19.0 19.0 28.3
OECD Europe OECD 20
Netherlands G-7 countries OECD
16.9 21.6
Netherlands G-7 countries OECD
17.9 22.1
24.9
United States Japan Denmark France Germany Italy United Kingdom
24.6 25.8 23.5 23.3 22.2 21.6
32.1
OECD Europe OECD
24.8 30.6 0
Netherlands
60 %
40
18.7 22.0 0
10
40 20 30 USD 1 000/capita
65.8 Exports as % of GDP, 2001 60.8 Imports as % of GDP, 2001
2.2 5.9 6.4
Netherlands G-7 countries OECD 0
20
Unemployment rates,c 2001
40
60
80 %
a) GDP at 1995 prices. b) GDP at 1995 prices and purchasing power parities. c) Per cent of total labour force. Source: OECD.
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for 2010 was not included in NEEP3 or NEPP4 (Table 7.1). Standards for pollutants including, NO2, benzene, ozone and particulate matter are exceeded in many parts of the Netherlands. Serious noise nuisance, especially from road and air traffic, is increasingly treated as an important issue. Urbanisation is closely associated with transport growth. Development continues to fragment and homogenise the landscape. Over 20% of landscape areas designated as of national importance are strongly threatened by urban development.
Table 5.1
Economic trends and environmental pressures, 1980-2001 (% change) 1980-90
1990-2001
Selected economic trends GDPa Population GDPa/capita Agricultural production Industrial productionb Total primary energy supply Energy intensity (per GDP) Total final energy consumption Road freight trafficd Passenger car traffic volumee
24 6 17 18 15 2 –18 2 30 32
34 7 26 –1 21 14c –14c 16c 36 19f
Selected environmental pressures CO2 emissions from energy useg Emissions of SOx Emissions of NOx Water abstractionsh Nitrogenous fertiliser use Pesticide use Municipal waste
1 –59 –1 –15 –19 –5 5
11c –55c –27c –43 –23c –58 31
a) At 1995 prices and PPPs. b) Includes mining and quarrying, manufacturing, gas, electricity and water. c) 1990-2000. d) Based on values expressed in tonne-kilometres. e) Based on values expressed in vehicle-kilometres. f) 1990-1999. g) Excluding marine and aviation bunkers. h) 1980 to 1991, 1991 to 1996. Source: OECD; IEA.
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Agriculture in the Netherlands remains unsustainable despite considerable policy efforts and some improvements in performance during the last decade. The agriculture sector is still a major contributor to acidification, eutrophication and groundwater depletion. The target of reducing the surface area subject to desiccation by 25% has not been met. The pace of adjustment in the agriculture sector has slowed the reduction of ammonia emissions, though the less stringent NEPP4 targets are likely to be met. High nitrate concentrations in groundwater in sandy soil are of concern; these concentrations are falling but are still well above limit levels. Phosphates continue to accumulate, though at a slower rate reflecting tighter standards.
Outlook The Netherlands has a robust process for developing environmental outlook studies and ensuring that they are integrated with the views of governmental bodies that have responsibilities in other policy areas. Environmental outlook studies used by the government are based on the work of the National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection (RIVM), the Energy Research Institute (ECN) and similar bodies. Several ministries are closely involved in translating these assessments into policy outlook documents. An innovative feature of NEPP4 is the presentation of outlooks for the year 2030, in very clear and detailed terms, as the basis for medium-term policy decisions. Concerning the outlook for the coming decade, some environmental performance targets are likely to be difficult to attain. Transport targets are a good example. Emissions of many substances will not meet the relevant standards by 2010 (particularly levels of particulate matter and NO2 emissions). Tensions relating to the direction of transport policy must still be resolved; as increasing congestion puts pressures on infrastructure, it may be difficult to adhere to the planned strategy of charging for road use first and afterward continuing with road construction. Similarly, the rate of progress in reforming environmentally harmful EU agricultural subsidies will be a main source of uncertainty with respect to agriculture related environmental targets. The 1989-90 ministerial policy target of reducing emissions of the most serious pollutants by 70 to 90% by 2010 is at great risk of not being met (e.g. for CO2, NOx, VOCs and exposure to fine particles). A more realistic assessment is contained in the 2002 report to the Johannesburg Summit: “Real, structural unlinking of pollution trends from economic growth seems out of reach for such issues as nitrate, greenhouse gases and NOx”. Nor are environmental problems such as groundwater depletion likely to be resolved by 2010, despite major efforts. The period in which specific targets for 2010 are to be met grows shorter every year. In view of implementation risks associated with the introduction of complex schemes (e.g. NOx emission trading, a differentiated vehicle-kilometre levy), further delays in meeting some targets are possible.
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117
Production and consumption patterns
The most important patterns of production and drivers of consumption patterns remain broadly the same as those addressed in the previous OECD Environmental Performance Review of the Netherlands. These include total private consumption spending (up by 35% in the period 1990-2000), energy use, increasing mobility and expanding urbanisation, and agricultural activities, especially intensive livestock production. Expansion of the commercial service sector (from 65 to 70%) and reduction of the industry sector (from 30 to 27%) are clearly major trends. Transport, storage and communication have expanded rapidly within the service sector, while in industry minerals and metals have declined most rapidly as a share of GDP. Production and consumption patterns are changing, but in such a way that hard-won gains are often offset by growth-induced increases in environmental pressures. Desirable trends do not appear to be occurring rapidly enough to achieve all the goals for 2010 set in NEPP1. This appears to have been one factor behind the relaxation of some targets (e.g. some were postponed until 2030). Along with other strategic considerations, it has probably influenced other targets (e.g. for CO2).
Energy The Netherlands has made considerable efforts to modernise its energy consumption patterns. Energy per unit of national income fell significantly in the 1990s despite a growth-driven increase in overall energy use. Electricity use is often associated with rising incomes, a pattern which is evident in the Netherlands. While use of energy-efficient products increased, overall electricity consumption rose by 34% between 1990 and 2000. The real price of electricity increased gradually in the early 1990s, and then more sharply at the end of the decade following introduction of the 1996 regulatory energy tax. Nonetheless, the high rate of purchasing of electrical appliances (e.g. the percentage of households with a personal computer was 26% in 1990 and 62% in 1998) contributed to significant growth in residential electricity consumption. Meanwhile, growth in electricity demand in the service sector fell to zero. On the energy supply side, incentives aimed at promoting combined heat and power (CHP) installations led to a doubling of installed CHP capacity over the decade. There was also a trend towards increased efficiency at large power plants, though use of pollution-intensive coal-fired plants continued. Renewable energy use increased almost five-fold, to a 2.6% share of the energy supply in 2000. A trend of continually growing electricity use is compatible in principle with gradual transition to a sustainable energy system. However, such a trend would require a fundamental overhaul of the energy infrastructure in the next few decades (e.g. so that hydrogen
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could be produced for fuel cell powered cars). Concerning future energy consumption patterns, the government’s assessment that significantly changing behavioural patterns would be difficult in practice appears realistic.
Transport The consumption pattern in the transport sector in the 1990s was again one of growth in volume in the face of policy measures. Over the decade passenger car vehicle-kilometres increased by 20%, though this rate slowed in the late 1990s. Heavy-duty vehicle-kilometre growth was similar to the GDP trend, but light-duty (vans) vehicle-kilometres increased by over 100%. Greater vehicle efficiency (fuel consumption reductions of up to 15% since 1985, depending on vehicle class) has been partly offset by increased vehicle weight and more powerful performance. Some success in implementing transport policy may be demonstrated by the fact that vehicle-kilometres per inhabitant have increased less in the Netherlands than in other EU countries. This could be due to different trends in real fuel prices for end-users, which fell less in the Netherlands, reflecting the government’s levy policy. By the end of the decade transport accounted for about 24% of final energy consumption. One reason for such high levels is increased holiday travel, especially by air.
Housing and land use Demographic and social change also contributes to continuing changes in production and consumption patterns with respect to housing and land use. Recent estimates put the need for additional space for housing in the near future at 85 000 hectares. This figure partly reflects the widespread trend towards smaller households, but also the desire for greater freedom of choice and quality of life. The draft Fifth National Policy Document on Spatial Planning (NPSP5) delegates responsibility for drawing demarcation lines around residential areas to municipalities. This could place green areas around cities at risk if local ambitions prevail over wider public interest. NEPP4 indicates that urban renewal will require major investment of resources in the coming years, particularly as improvements are made to low-quality post-war housing. Benefiting from this opportunity to realise environmental improvements (e.g. regarding air quality, noise and external safety) is clearly of great importance.
1.4
Policy integration
One basic issue is the extent to which environmental objectives are considered in developing a range of strategic choices in society, particularly strategic economic planning, design of long-term investments, budgeting and land use planning. The 1995 OECD Environmental Performance Review recommended that the Netherlands
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intensify its efforts to integrate environmental concerns into policies and budgets formulated in different administrations and economic sectors. In particular, it recommended that this integration be strengthened in the transport and agricultural sectors and in fiscal policies, and that specific attention be given to environmentally harmful subsidies and fiscal deductions.
Strategic economic planning The 1995 OECD Environmental Performance Review stated that “integration of environmental policies with other policies is in most cases voluntary”. This remains true to a large extent. The 1997 Dutch Policy Document on the Environment and the Economy was a landmark with respect to integration of policies in the two domains. There is now extensive involvement in environmental policy issues by other government ministries and vice versa. Concerning issues such as trade and environment, industrial policy and climate change, there are high levels of integration. Growing awareness of the need for sustainable development is demonstrated in a range of public sector agencies and provincial and municipal governments. However, the policy institutions involved are not well enough organised to look for consistent and sustainable solutions; solution-seeking and implementation are often lacking. Major strategic issues, such as energy markets liberalisation and EU agricultural policies, are still inadequately assessed from an environmental standpoint. Transport policy could give greater attention to environmental and sustainability considerations. For example, in view of the critical impact of transport growth on NOx emissions and other environmental pressures, the environment is not as prominent a driver of the draft National Traffic and Transport Plan (NVVP) as it should be. At the European level, at its meeting in Cardiff in 1998 the European Council ordered sectoral councils to prepare strategies and programmes for integrating environmental concerns into sectoral policies. This initiative was discussed at the Gothenburg summit meeting in 2001, where the Netherlands indicated that transport and agriculture were its priorities. At the international level, continuing efforts by the Netherlands and other OECD countries will be needed to find ways to reduce or eliminate environmentally harmful subsidies.
The design of long-term investments A key public sector development has been the creation of a group to assess the environmental costs and benefits of major policy and investment proposals (along with compliance costs). Across governmental layers there is still too much compartmentalisation of policies for land use planning, water and nature management, and environmental monitoring and enforcement.
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In the private sector environmental considerations have assumed an increasingly important place in investment design. This process is not complete, nor did it begin overnight. It is the result of gradual transition over the last decade, partly led by the development of environmental agreements (covenants) such as the 19 multi-year agreements with medium-sized Dutch energy consuming manufacturers. Also significant is the development with industry of initiatives such as “sustainable entrepreneurship”, sustainable industrial sites (a system for co-operation at sites to reduce energy use, waste and effluent purification costs), cleaner production and eco-design.
Government budgeting The main opportunity for environmental considerations to become part of the budget process is at the beginning of each new government’s four-year term, when revenue and expenditure are estimated and programmes are negotiated. Subsequent expenditure on environmental issues depends on whether a surplus exists on the expenditure side (e.g. arising from lower than expected expenditure on some programmes). In the past, some of this surplus was allocated to measures such as sustainable housing under the Green Fund System, sustainable energy investments and transport sector research. Major allocation decisions for the period 2003-06, including priorities for the large economic restructuring budget, have not been taken. Proposals made in NEPP4 were to remain provisional until the new government’s decisions became known. In 2000 the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM) commissioned a study on the environmentally harmful effects of subsidies by the central government (excluding EU and local subsidies). The study addressed budgetary transfers (“direct subsidies”) and fiscal deductions (“fiscal subsidies”). Case studies were carried out on nine of the 35 direct subsidies identified as potentially environmentally harmful, including those to local airports and subsidisation of rent for those with low incomes. Some of these subsidies had already been modified prior to or during the study, i.e. either lowered or based on new restrictions, including environmental ones. Moreover, as the social and economic effects of the subsidies were not considered in the study, it was difficult to draw final conclusions. However, it was concluded that the negative environmental effects of direct central government subsidies were limited. The list of fiscal subsidies that could be environmentally harmful was handed over to the Environmental Integration Committee (EIC) for further examination. The EIC is made up of VROM, the Ministry of Finance and other ministries, and independent experts and representatives from industry, trade unions and NGOs. Its role is to review current and proposed fiscal measures, evaluate their effects, and issue an opinion regarding their introduction or revision. Two EICs have been set up, reporting in 1997 (EIC I) and 2001 (EIC II). EIC II recommended that some fiscal subsidies be amended.
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In 2001-02 VROM developed a method for assessing the environmental effects of indirect subsidies (i.e. all subsidies that are not budgetary transfers). This method deals with fiscal as well as capital subsidies, price or quantity regulation, public provision of goods below cost (e.g. infrastructure) and trade measures.
1.5
Sustainable development strategy
The government considers that Dutch policy has been oriented towards sustainable development for at least a decade, as demonstrated in a wide range of policy documents. Sustainable development has certainly been a central component of environmental planning since NEPP2, which was prepared in 1993 following the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). The sustainable development concept has become familiar to the public; the government has taken a low-key approach, presenting some new policy principles to help shape an emerging strategy but otherwise limiting itself to practical actions such as consultation and a survey of public opinion. Key elements of government efforts to promote sustainable development include increasing the use of economic instruments (e.g. a relatively high level of “green taxes”) and a mix of policy instruments to complement market based measures. They also include consensual policy development in areas such as industrial policies and airport and railway development, agricultural policies and development of rural areas, integration of sustainability concepts into the activities of other institutions and actors (e.g. research institutes), and international co-operation.
Increasing use of economic instruments Use of price based instruments has become familiar and is increasing (Table 5.2). The Netherlands has introduced water and other types of charges (e.g. charges intended to recover operating costs rather than to have incentive effects), manure trading and vehicle tax differentiation. Work is proceeding on trading of both NOx and GHG emissions – the latter in the context of the draft EU Directive on GHG emission trading and the Kyoto Protocol. Pricing would still be difficult to introduce in some areas. A pricing system in which a charge for all water services (water use, sewage collection and treatment) would be based on drinking water usage has encountered legal problems as well as political opposition. More significantly, there is political resistance to the per-kilometre tax. Opposition to taxation of infrastructure development (housing, industry) on open spaces also exists. Sustainable development efforts were considerably advanced by major fiscal reform initiatives in the 1990s. The Netherlands has a relatively high level of “green taxes” compared with most other European and OECD countries (Chapter 5,
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Table 5.2 Instrument
Environmentally related economic and fiscal instruments, 2001 Rate
Remarks
Fuel tax (since 1992)
EUR 0.01329/litre (diesel) EUR 0.01319/litre (light fuel oil) EUR 0.01204/litre (petrol) EUR 0.01586/kg (LPG) EUR 0.01551/kg (heavy fuel oil) EUR 0.01122/kg (coal) EUR 0.01034/m3 (natural gas up to 10 million m3/year) EUR 0.068/m3 (natural gas above 10 million m3/year)
Revenue (EUR 627 million) goes to general budget. Tax is levied on fuel producers and importers. The fuel tax replaces the fuel charge introduced in 1988. Between 1988 and 1992, revenue produced by the fuel charge was earmarked for financing environmental activities.
Excise duty on fuel
EUR 0.65880/litre (leaded petrol) EUR 0.59037/litre (unleaded petrol) EUR 0.3975/litre (diesel) EUR 0.04656/ litre (light fuel oil, gasoil for heating) EUR 0.01554/kg (heavy fuel oil) EUR 0.01037/kg (LPG)
Revenue (EUR 5.6 billion) goes to general budget. Fuel producers and importers are subject to this tax.
Regulatory energy tax (REB) (since 1996)
EUR 0.12756/litre (gasoil for heating) EUR 0.12649/litre (light fuel oil) EUR 0.15088/kg (LPG) EUR 0.1203/m3 (natural gas up to 5 000 m3/year EUR 0.0562/m3 (natural gas between 5 000 and 170 000 m3/year) EUR 0.0104/m3 (natural gas between 170 000 and 1 million m3/year) EUR 0.0583/kWh (electricity up to 10 000 kWh/year) EUR 0.0194/kWh (electricity between 10 000 and 50 000 kWh/year) EUR 0.0059/kWh (electricity between 50 000 and 10 million kWh/year)
Revenue (EUR 2 484 million) is returned to households and industry through reduction of labour taxes. REB is levied on energy distribution companies, and producers and wholesalers of mineral oils, and passed on to small energy consumers (households, small commercial establishments). Natural gas and electricity are taxed up to a maximum amount consumed (1 million m3/year and 10 million kWh/year). Decreasing-block tariffs were introduced in September 2001 (replacing a single volumetric rate of EUR 0.1203/m3 and EUR 0.0583/kWh, respectively). Consumers receive an annual rebate of EUR 142. They benefit from an additional premium if they invest in energy-saving equipment, renewable energy and insulation. Producers get refunds for green electricity (EUR 0.02/kWh), electricity produced by cogeneration delivered to the grid (EUR 0.0057/kWh), and electricity from waste incineration (EUR 0.016/kWh). Companies investing in energy conservation get a corporate tax concession. Large-scale energy consumers (some industries) and natural gas used to produce electricity are exempted.
ENERGY
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Table 5.2 Environmentally related economic and fiscal instruments, 2001 (cont.) Instrument
TRANSPORT Registration tax
Purchase bonus for clean vehicles (in 2001 and 2002 only) Direct payment for purchase of fuel-efficient cars (in 2002 only)
Motor vehicle tax
Road tax on heavy vehicles (Eurovignette)
Per-kilometre tax (under discussion)
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Rate
45.2% plus EUR 328 (diesel passenger car) 45.2% minus EUR 1540.7735 (petrol and LPG passenger car) 20.7% minus EUR 224.2611 (motorcycle)
Remarks
Tax on purchase of a new vehicle based on net market price (VAT excluded), levied on car producers and importers and passed on to consumers. Reduced rate for second-hand imported cars according to age (minimum of 10%). Imported cars over 25 years old are exempted. EUR 325 (petrol and LPG passenger car Refund on the registration tax after purchase and delivery van) of a vehicle that fulfils the 2005 requirements EUR 550 (diesel passenger car) for exhaust gas emissions (EURO 4). The EUR 625 (diesel delivery van) bonus rate was decreased in 2002 (by 1520%). This measure was abolished in 2003. EUR 1 000 (A-rated vehicle) Applies to purchase of low carbon emitting EUR 500 (B-rated vehicle) (petrol and diesel) vehicles by individuals. Cars are rated from A to G according to their GHG emissions (in CO2 equivalent). Premiums are granted only to cars rated A and B. This measure was abolished in 2003. EUR 0.5970/kg + 0.7999/kg Annual tax on vehicle ownership (or use (LPG passenger car) of roads in the case of buses) based on net EUR 0.5407/kg + 0.7427/kg (diesel weight. The first rate is for the first 1 000 kg passenger car) (passenger car, delivery van, trailer), 2 700 kg EUR 0.1961/kg + 0.4158/kg (petrol (bus) or 11 000 kg (lorry). The second rate passenger car) applies to extra weight calculated in blocks EUR 0.1239/kg + 0.1792/kg (delivery van) of 100 kg (passenger car, delivery van, bus, EUR 0.1084/kg + 0.0203/kg (bus) trailer) or 1 000 kg (lorry). For motorcycles, EUR 0.0440/kg + 0.0454/kg (trailer) a single rate applies (EUR 81.8235/year). EUR 0.0297/kg + 0.0220/kg (lorry) Rates vary according to provinces. This tax could be replaced by a per-kilometre tax. Tax levied (daily, weekly, monthly or annually) for the use of Dutch motorways. Applies to foreign lorries of over 12 000 kg gross weight. Rates based on number of axles (up to 3; 4 and more) and engine type (non-Euro, Euro I, Euro II and cleaner). Would replace the motor vehicle tax. Based on number of kilometres driven as measured by in-car device. Tax would be levied first on lorries (in 2004) and progressively on other road users (by 2006). It would also apply to heavy foreign lorries. The tax is expected to vary according to type of road and time of day (variable road pricing system) to help shift traffic patterns. In 2003 it was decided not to proceed with this measure.
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Table 5.2 Environmentally related economic and fiscal instruments, 2001 (cont.) Instrument
Rate
Remarks
WATER User charge for public water supply (PWS), sewerage (S) and public waste water treatment (WWT)
From EUR 0.5/m3 (Drenthe province) to EUR 1.5/m3 (Duin, Zuid-Holland province) (PWS for industrial users)
Abstraction tax for fresh groundwater (since 1995)
EUR 0.163/m3
Revenue (EUR 170 million) goes to general budget. Tax is levied on major users (over 100 000 m3/year) including water companies, farmers and industry. Rebates apply if surface water was injected into aquifers prior to abstraction. Use for irrigation is exempted. Groundwater accounts for 60% of public water supply.
Abstraction charge for groundwater
EUR 0.01-0.06/m3
Revenue goes to provinces to finance groundwater research activities.
Tax drinking water supply (since 2000)
EUR 0.132/m3
Revenue (EUR 100 million) goes to general budget. Tax is levied on water companies up to a maximum of 300 m3/year.
Pollution charge
EUR 43.5811/p.e.
Revenue goes to central government (V&W) to finance water and waste water management activities. Applies to industrial and municipal discharges to state waters. Pollution load based on coefficients and converted into population equivalent (p.e.); measured for large polluters (more than 1 000 p.e.). Rate varies according to provinces (to reflect pollution abatement cost).
Charge on farm mineral surplus (since 2001)
EUR 4.54/kg/hectare (phosphorus) EUR 0.68/kg/hectare (nitrogen)
Revenue goes to central government (LNV) to finance agri-environmental activities. Applies to kgs of surplus (based on mineral accounts). For phosphorus, first 10 kg per hectare is exempted.
Water companies set PWS charges at different rates for households and industry. 90% of the Dutch population is subject to volumetric pricing plus a fixed element (5From EUR 30/pollution unit 10% of the bill), 7% pay a flat fee and 3% (De Aa, Noord-Brabant province) to an increasing-block tariff. EUR 60/pollution unit (Het Vrije van Sluis, S charges are fixed per dwelling (by utility). Zeeland province) (WWT) Water boards set WWT charges based on full cost recovery. For households, charges based on family size (one pollution unit for bachelors, 3 units for families).
WASTE User charge for municipal waste collection and disposal
Municipalities set charges based on family size (single person or family) for households and on type and size of activity for industry. Rates set to allow full cost recovery. In some cities, poor households are exempted. Some municipalities finance waste paper collection by NGOs.
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Table 5.2 Environmentally related economic and fiscal instruments, 2001 (cont.) Instrument
Rate
Remarks
Landfill tax (since 1995)
EUR 12.61/t (landfill waste) EUR 65.46/t (incinerable waste)
Revenue (EUR 239 million) goes to general budget. Tax levied on landfill operators. The rate is set according to average incineration cost. Polluted dredging sludge and soil are exempted (provided they cannot be treated), as is asbestos (provided it is delivered separately).
Product charge EUR 68.06/vehicle on passenger vehicles (since 1994)
Revenue goes to a national fund used to pay for demolition and recycling of old vehicles. Due to efficiency gains in dismantling of cars, the rate has been reduced twice since the charge was introduced.
Product charge on farm plastics (since 1996)
EUR 0.03/kg
Revenue goes to a national fund used to recycle old farm plastics.
Product charge on batteries (since 1996)
EUR 0.004-0.54/piece
Revenue goes to national fund used to recycle old batteries.
Product charge on waste paper (since 1997)
Variable
Revenue goes to national fund used to recycle waste paper. Paid by paper producers only in years when price for waste paper is too low to pay for collection and sorting.
Product charge on electrical appliances (since 1998)
Up to EUR 17/piece
Revenue goes to a national fund which transfers a portion to municipalities for separate collection and another portion to recycling companies.
Product charge on plastic blinds (since 2000)
EUR 0.08/kg
Revenue goes to national fund used to recycle old PVC window frames.
Deposit refund on bottles
EUR 0.45/plastic (PET) bottle EUR 0.07/glass (beer) bottle
Deposit refunded at time of refill at shops.
NATURE Entrance fee
Applies to entrance, transit and parking of motor vehicles in some protected areas.
Fishing licence Hunting licence NOISE Aviation noise charge
Source:
OECD.
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Revenue goes to central government (VROM) to compensate population living near airports. Airline companies pay charges for each landing and take-off. Rates vary according to type of aircraft.
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Section 3.3). These taxes generate around 14% of total government revenue. An increase in the share of revenue from green taxes since 1996 is mainly the result of taxes on waste, groundwater use and fuels, as well as the regulatory energy tax (Table 5.3). Increasing the REB has made it possible to lower other taxes (particularly income and social security taxes) in such a way that each affected sector could be compensated. However, it seems unlikely that use of environmentally related taxes can be extended much further, especially if key proposals such as the per-kilometre tax fail to be adopted. Given the environmental significance of the per-kilometre tax, it would be particularly regrettable from a sustainable development standpoint if this measure were not implemented.
Table 5.3 Revenue from environmentally related taxes, 1985-2002 (EUR billion)
Energy (excise duty on mineral oil/derivates) Transport (vehicle taxes) Environmental taxes Total ERTb Total government taxation GDP against market prices ERTb as % government taxation ERTb as % GDP
1985
1990
1995
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002a
1.8 2.1 0.0 3.9
2.5 2.9 0.0 5.4
4.3 3.9 0.9 9.1
4.9 4.2 1.7 10.8
5.2 4.8 2.2 12.3
5.3 5.1 2.8 13.1
5.2 5.1 3.4 13.7
5.8 5.0 3.4 14.2
44.6 61.9 69.7 81.5 87.8 94.3 101.2 108.2 193.1 234.5 333.7 354.2 373.9 400.6 433.9 454.5 8.7 8.6 13.0 13.3 14.0 13.9 13.5 13.1 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.1 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.1
a) Forecast. b) Environmentally related taxes. Source: Ministry of Economic Affairs.
It can be argued that the potential for significant behavioural change is limited by the fact that environmental costs are not fully incorporated into prices. Potential extension of the REB to large energy users (exempted largely due to international competitiveness concerns) has also been constrained by perceived inconsistency with long-term energy agreements and with the agreement on energy efficiency benchmarking. Thus opportunities for price-driven energy efficiency reductions have been neglected to minimise perceived risks of “leakage” and maintain good co-operative relations with business and industry. Environmental agreements and free depreciation of environmentally efficient equipment may be more effective in influencing
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consumer and producer behaviour than green price signals (e.g. fuel prices). However, careful consideration should be given to whether environmental targets are being met at the lowest possible economic costs.
A mix of policy instruments supporting market based measures to move towards sustainable development The Netherlands has used an eclectic mix of measures to move towards more sustainable industry, transport and agriculture, as well as more sustainable investment in other areas such as housing. Fiscal incentives for sustainability investments by the
Table 5.4
Examples of support for sustainability investments by the private sector
Type of support
Means and extent of support
For eco-labelling – including car efficiency labelling
Foundation established in 1992 by VROM and Ministry of Economic Affairs (EZ) to set up a national environmental labelling system. Energy labels for new cars introduced in January 2001 indicate both absolute and relative fuel consumption (by size of car).
For eco-driving
Registration tax rebates for new cars equipped with devices to improve fuel efficiency (econometer, dashboard computer or cruise control). Subsidies for eco-driving training programmes.
For cleaner production
Energy efficiency and environmental advice for SMEs (< 250 employees): 50% subsidy. Support for government authorities/consultants undertaking joint environmental projects for SMEs: 67% subsidy.
For environmental management Foundation (SCCM) established to co-ordinate certification systems (ISO 14001 certification/EMAS of environmental management systems (provides interpretations of ISO registration) and EMAS standards; sets requirements for certification organisations). For eco-design and dematerialisation
Credit scheme for environmentally oriented product development. Support available through “Promise” and “Ecodesign” projects. Activities have included an environmental innovation survey of 600 SMEs.
For research and development Under Economy, Ecology, Technology programme, EUR 127 million of innovative environmental technology in subsidies was provided in the period 1996-2000 to research institutes and small/medium research companies for projects to develop innovative environmental technology. For innovative projects
Source:
VROM.
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The National Sustainable Development Initiative (NIDO) grants shortterm (two-year) financial support to small-size innovative projects that bring sustainability benefits (such as the shift to low-energy use systems or a more environmentally friendly transport system). In 2001 NIDO awarded EUR 3.9 million in grants.
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private sector were diversified and increased overall during the 1990s. “Green investment” by business has included the Scheme for Free Depreciation on Environmental Investments (VAMIL) and the Environmental Investment Allowance (MIA). VAMIL investment reached EUR 970 million in 2000; MIA investment in that year was EUR 520 million. Investment in energy conservation has included the Energy Investment Allowance Scheme (EIA), which is intended to stimulate business investments in energy conservation and renewable energy. The Green Investment Fund has been used to stimulate investment in projects concerning the environment, nature and energy. Moreover, part of the revenue from the regulatory energy tax (REB) is used to finance premiums for consumers who buy energy-saving appliances. The REB is refunded to green electricity producers, cogenerators and waste incinerators. Other types of financial support have also been put in place to promote sustainability investments by the private sector (Table 5.4).
1.6
An evolution towards sustainable development in national environmental policy planning
Several main trends are evident in the evolution of integrated policy planning over the last decade towards sustainable development with respect to the environment and the economy. First is the gradual increase in the emphasis on economic instruments, taking advantage of the government’s strength in establishing frameworks rather than micro-managing. However, moving towards the use of market-based instruments in all areas may be difficult. Some of the benefits of negotiating a consensual approach and focusing the attention of firms and other players on environmental objectives (and ways to reduce environmental impacts) could also be lost. With effective monitoring, increased transparency and intervention where results have been disappointing, environmental agreements can be made more effective. Another trend was articulated in the 1997 policy document on Environment and Economy: the emphasis on business’s responsibility for environmental protection and the need for business to be increasingly aware of this responsibility. Government’s role was seen as facilitating the meeting of this responsibility to the greatest possible extent. For example, industry and government had expressed a joint desire to take steps to develop the concept of integrating environmental considerations into company management (e.g. through research, workshops, pilot projects, information campaigns). NEPP4 reported that implementation of the 1997 policy document in the industry and service cluster and in the agriculture and rural areas cluster had gained momentum, while in other areas (e.g. transport and infrastructure) this was not the case. In general, fostering business sector “ownership” to a point at which absolute decoupling is achievable is likely to be a long and far from easy process.
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There has also been a trend towards articulating “transition processes” and “transition management” within a framework of sustainable development goal-setting and backcasting. The idea has been to present a vision of the situation 30 years from now, especially environmental consequences. This is the basis on which long-term ambitions, objectives and transition possibilities are assessed. In the energy domain three possible approaches for transition to a sustainable energy system are indicated. While such a means of proceeding is laudable, whether it proves realistic will largely depend on how effectively stakeholders can be brought to the table and convinced to agree to necessary changes. As emphasised in NEPP4, social factors can be critical to realising behavioural changes. A fourth trend concerns attainment of targets. One impressive feature of Dutch environmental policy (which includes the formulation of sustainable development goals) has been the ability to set targets for reducing critical environmental pressures with the support of the target groups involved. While targets for most pollutants remain in place and are generally attainable, difficulties have arisen – mainly in the case of transport and agriculture related targets. Targets in general give plans real tangibility, and there is a good argument for continuing to establish and maintain them. However, the target-setting approach in these two areas may need reassessment, with greater attention given to creative implementation strategies. As noted above, with the relinquishing of a mobility target and a new focus on the use of economic instruments to address environmentally related aspects of transport, efforts should be made to obtain a reasonable balance between the benefits of additional environmental improvements and their costs. Climate and air quality policy issues are largely international in scope. NOx related activities are now focused on the development of emission trading, which is considerably delayed compared with expectations two years ago. Targets for critical sustainable development objectives such as GHG emission reductions are central to the evolving policy debate. The Netherlands’ climate change implementation plan includes a reserve package (a back-up action plan and a long-term emission reduction strategy) that allows much greater confidence that targets in this vital area will be attained.
1.7
Environmental expenditure and financing
Trends in pollution abatement and control expenditure Dutch pollution abatement and control (PAC) expenditure is high by European standards, reflecting a high level of environmental pressure and preparedness to commit resources to mitigation. Cost data include direct government, company and household costs, including those of air, waste and waste water disposal, of dealing with
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soil contamination, and of implementation and enforcement (Table 5.5). GDP growth has meant that PAC expenditure, despite cost increases, has not risen above 2.5% of GDP to date; it is projected to remain at about this level during the next three years. PAC government expenditure gradually increased in relation to GDP during the last decade, but increased quite sharply compared with government expenditure (its share more than doubling). The fastest growing areas of expenditure in the last decade (by theme) have been climate change, soil pollution, eutrophication, and research and development. Waste disposal and waste water treatment remain by far the largest environmental cost areas.
Overall environmental expenditure Figures on environmental expenditure by central government ministries illustrate the cross-cutting nature of environmental policy and its significance for a range of governmental bodies, especially the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and increasingly the Ministry of Economic Affairs. A drop in funding was projected for 2003 (Table 5.6). Environmental expenditure by other areas of government mainly consists of expenditure on waste and water management (Table 5.7).
Financing environmental expenditure The main types of environmental revenue accruing to municipalities, provinces and central government from environmental charges (excluding taxes) are used to finance environmental measures. Sewage, solid waste, waste water and water charges predominate (Table 5.8).
Table 5.5 Pollution abatement and control (PAC) expenditure, 1990-2005 (EUR billion) 1990
PAC expenditure Gross domestic product (GDP) PAC expenditure/GDP (%) PAC government expenditure/total government expenditure (%)
1995
2000
2001
6.0 314.9 1.9
8.8 349.4 2.5
10.8 420.2 2.5
10.4 433.8 2.4
0.8
1.0
1.7
1.6
2002
2003 a
11.1 445.6b 2.5 ..
2004 a
11.6 454.7b 2.6 ..
2005 a
11.9 463.8b 2.6 ..
11.6a 473.3b 2.5 ..
a) Planned expenditure based on existing and proposed environmental policy measures. b) Medium-term forecast by Central Economic Planning Agency (CPB). Source: RIVM.
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Table 5.6
131
Planned national government environmental expenditure, per ministry (EUR million)
Foreign Affairs Economic Affairs Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries Education, Science and Cultural Affairs Transport, Public Works and Water Management Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment Otherb Total Fiscal facilities
2002a
2003a
2004a
2005a
427 257 164 13 206 609 107
448 289 133 13 187 533 108
463 299 115 13 150 543 108
504 314 105 13 147 602 106
1 784
1 713
1 691
1 793
610
606
610
619
a) Planned expenditure based on each ministry’s estimate. b) Includes expenditure related to landscape, desiccation and ozone depletion. Source: RIVM.
Table 5.7 Planned environmental expenditure by other governmental bodiesa (EUR million) 2002
2003
2004
2005
Public administration and social insurance Municipalities Provinces Water boardsb
26.3 2 920.6 150.5 1 223.8
28.7 3 128.5 150.6 1 323.0
30.6 3 206.3 150.6 1 348.3
32.6 3 270.9 150.8 1 371.7
Total
4 321.0
4 631.0
4 736.0
4 826.0
a) Estimated increase based on average growth in expenditure in 1996-2000. b) Including expenditure on waste water treatment. Source: RIVM.
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Table 5.8 Revenue from environmental charges, 1985-2001 (EUR million) 1985
Waterb of which: Government Provincial authorities Quantitative and qualitative water control authorities Municipalities Waste water Noise nuisance from civil aviation Waste collection of which: Municipalitiesc Intermunicipal regulations Manure surplus Provinces: groundwater levy Levy/provincial charges for clean-up projects Total
1990
1995
842
1998
914
1999
946
2000a
2001a
490
608
980 1 001
47 71 386 49 313 7 276
44 44 31 34 34 34 85 86 31 31 .. .. 478 707 870 897 964 987 31 34 .. .. .. .. 542 1 006 1 151 1 247 1 356 1 435 9 15 11 13 19 60 387 1 036 1 148 1 186 1 217 1 277
271 5 .. .. 5
377 1 009 1 115 1 149 1 217 1 277 10 27 33 37 .. .. 17 17 12 14 .. .. 3 6 10 10 15 .. 1 1 2 1 .. ..
1 091 1 567 2 923 3 248 3 417 3 587 3 773
a) Budget figure. b) After reciprocal transfers. c) From 1999, exclusively income from household waste collection. Source: CBS.
Environmental expenditure is largely financed by households and companies through waste collection, waste water and water charges. These charges were estimated at EUR 1.4, 0.8 and 1.0 billion, respectively, in 2002. They are expected to increase by 11, 24 and 8% in 2005 compared to 2002. Steady increases in local charges have met political resistance.
2.
Environmental Policy Implementation 2.1
Regulatory instruments
Legal framework With the aim of making environmental legislation more cohesive, various acts (particularly concerning chemicals, waste, air and water quality) were regrouped under the 1993 Environmental Management Act (EMA). The EMA currently contains
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chapters on environmental planning, environmental impact assessment (EIA), issuing of licences, waste management, corporate environmental reporting, enforcement of environmental legislation and public access to information. New chapters will be added progressively, including on international affairs, substances and products, and financial guarantees. VROM expects the EMA to have 22 chapters eventually. The EMA is a framework act that can be supplemented by general administrative orders, provincial environmental by-laws or local authority by-laws. Water, soil and nature management are addressed in other specific legislation (Table 5.9). Under the 1989 Water Management Act, the central government and the provinces must prepare water management plans for the waters they manage. The 1996 Soil Protection Act is concerned with soil contamination. While the 2002 Flora and Fauna Act mainly addresses species protection, the 1998 Nature Protection Act provides the legal basis for establishing protected areas and landscapes. With the release of NEPP4, a period of reflection on the future of environmental legislation has begun, given the increasing importance of self-regulation by industry (through environmental agreements) and of EU legislation (about three-quarters of Dutch environmental regulations originate in Brussels). It is intended that the sustainable development, prevention, prevention at source, precaution, polluter pays and as-low-as-reasonably-achievable (ALARA) principles be reflected in Chapter 1 of the EMA, partly as an extension of Article 174 of the EU treaty. This would also affect legislation in other relevant policy fields (e.g. spatial planning, transport, energy and agriculture). Some progress has been made with respect to the 1995 OECD recommendation to expand the use of environmental liability. New regulations in 1999 established corporate liability for environmental damage. There are on-going discussions about the desirability and feasibility of establishing a publicly financed environmental compensation fund to deal with cases that cannot be settled through recourse to liability law (coverage for industrial accidents currently accounts for some 2% of companies’ insurance bills).
Licensing An important element of Dutch policy implementation is decentralisation of responsibility for issuing and enforcing environmental licences (Chapter 5, Section 3.4). This responsibility lies with provinces, municipalities and water authorities; responsibility for the development of framework legislation is centralised. Under the EMA, larger companies are required to obtain environmental licences. Depending on the size and type of company involved, the licensing authority is either the provincial or municipal government. Provincial governments issue licences to
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Table 5.9
Selected environmental legislation
1875 1901 1965 1979 1984 1993 1993 1994
GENERAL ACTS Nuisance Act, amended 1952 Housing Act, amended in 1991 Spatial Planning Act, amended in 1994 Environmental Protection (General Provisions) Acta Urban and Rural Regeneration Act Environmental Management Act General Administrative Law Act (1st and 2nd stages) Infrastructure (planning procedures) Act
1958 1970 1979
AIR AND NOISE Aviation Act Air Pollution Act, amended in 1996 Noise Nuisance Act, amended in 1981, 1992 and 1995
1976 1977 1992
WASTE Chemical Waste Acta Waste Substances Acta Environmental Management Extension (waste substances) Act
1954 1957 1957 1958 1969 1975 1981 1983 1989
WATER Groundwater (water supply companies) Acta Water Supply Act Desiccation Actb Seawater (oil pollution) Acta Pollution of Surface Waters Actb Seawater Pollution Actb Groundwater Act Act on the prevention of pollution by ships Water Management Act
1903 1965 1965 1967 1982 1985 1986 1994
SOIL Mining Actb Earth Removal Act, amended in 1995 Continental Shelf Mining Act Mineral Prospecting Act Soil Clean-Up (interim) Acta Land Consolidation Act Soil Protection Act, amended in 1996 Amended Soil Protection Act (clean-up chapter)
1936 1954 1961 1967 1995 2002
NATURE Birds Actc Hunting Actc Forestry Act Nature Conservation Act, amended in 1975c and 1998 Endangered Exotic Animal and Plant Species Actc Flora and Fauna Act
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Table 5.9 Selected environmental legislation (cont.) 1962 1963 1985 1985
CHEMICALS Pesticides Act Dangerous Substances Act Environmentally Hazardous Substances Actb Fertilisers Act, amended in 1997
1963 1994
ENERGY Nuclear Energy Actb Energy Conservation (appliances) Act
1963 1985 1993 1994
AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES Fisheries Act Interim Act on pig and poultry farms (restriction of stock)a Ammonia and Livestock Farming Act Act on production rights relocation
a) Repealed. b) Replaced (or partly replaced) by the 1993 Environmental Management Act. c) Replaced (or partly replaced) by the 2002 Flora and Fauna Act. Source: VROM.
approximately 5 000 (mostly large) companies, and municipal governments to some 76 000 smaller companies. The province or municipality is responsible for determining an acceptable pollution level for each company, based on non-legally binding guidelines that originate at the central level and applying the ALARA principle. The approximately 320 000 small companies, which have little environmental impact, are not required to obtain an environmental licence. Instead the government prescribes general environmental rules for each branch of industry (contained in instruments such as the Retail and Trade Decree). Municipalities are responsible for enforcing the general environmental rules. The 1875 Nuisance Act prescribed a licensing system for activities likely to produce a nuisance (e.g. noise, air pollution, odour) in their immediate vicinity. This system remained in place for over a century. In 1993 the EMA combined six individual permits (for air, noise and waste) in a single integrated environmental permit. Waste water is subject to three different permits depending on its discharge mode: to surface water, sewerage or treatment plants. In 1979 procedures for licensing (and rights of appeal) were harmonised in the Environmental Protection (General Provisions) Act.
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NEPP2 called for less detailed, more flexible environmental legislation to give companies increased opportunities to develop cost-effective environmental management. A new type of customised licence introduced in 1995 provides companies with properly operating environmental management systems greater flexibility to decide for themselves how to achieve prescribed environmental targets. The most advanced type of customised licence, the framework licence, gives companies more flexibility to set their environmental priorities and modify production processes without notification. In return, the company must provide more details concerning how it will achieve its targets. Therefore, the framework licence only addresses a company’s key environmental issues. Other issues are dealt with at the company’s discretion. Only companies that issue an approved annual environmental report and an approved company environmental plan (and are either ISO 14001 or EMAS certified) can apply. Since October 1999 new installations must comply with the EU’s Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive. Existing installations must also comply no later than the end of 2007. The IPPC Directive has been transposed in the EMA. To be in compliance with this Directive, Dutch companies must have one licence based on the EMA and another based on the Pollution of Surface Waters Act. They must also apply the principle of best available technology (BAT). Dutch authorities have agreed to include the first eight BAT Reference Documents (BREFs), adopted by the European Commission in January 2002, in existing guidelines for air and integrated water management. This should not entail excessive additional costs to Dutch companies operating under traditional licences, as both the BAT and ALARA principles consider the costs and advantages of introducing best available techniques. Under BAT, “available techniques mean those developed on a scale which allows implementation in the relevant industrial sector, under economically and technically viable conditions, taking into consideration the costs and advantages”. The ALARA principle refers to the best protection that can be demanded at costs that are acceptable, i.e. costs that are proportional to the acquired benefits. A question arises, however, about the compatibility of the IPPC licence and customised licences (i.e. between the requirement to cover air, water and soil and the flexibility to establish environmental priorities and determine how to achieve them).
Inspection and enforcement Since January 2002 the VROM Inspectorate (VI) has been responsible for verifying compliance and enforcing national environmental protection, spatial planning, building and housing legislation. This is the result of regrouping three separate inspectorates for environment, spatial planning and housing along with the directorate for criminal enforcement. VI currently has 700 staff in five regional offices and a central office (the Inspectorate for the Environment had 330 staff at the
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end of 2001). In the field of environment, VI is responsible for enforcing about two dozen different laws ranging from nuclear energy to air and water pollution, product safety and genetically modified organisms. An inspection plan prepared each year sets out the number of controls and the expected number of penal and administrative sanctions per decree. Every six months the VROM Minister communicates compliance and enforcement results to Parliament. The Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management is responsible for water quality, while the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries oversees nature conservation and, through its agricultural inspectorates, use of farm inputs (Table 5.10). There are also 2 500 environmental enforcement staff in the provinces and municipalities and on water boards. Provinces control pollution by some 5 000 large companies. Municipalities inspect farms, Seveso II plants and activities subject to licensing under EMA or general environmental rules. Water boards inspect sewage treatment plants. VI supervises provinces’ enforcement activities through administrative audits and random checks in the field. The new types of licences are easier to enforce than “traditional” environmental licences, which usually cover all primary processes of industrial production. Enforcing traditional licences is complex, as they contain hundreds of requirements and detailed measures for various parts of the site. In contrast, a framework licence establishes objectives for the entire site. Through the environmental management system these objectives are translated into measures corresponding to the primary processes. The framework licence consists of no more than a few pages, with a few dozen requirements at most. Enforcement is focused on the main issues and is based on the assumption that the company’s management system provides more internal control. Good progress has been made in following the 1995 OECD recommendation to pursue already well-developed efforts to enforce environmental legislation. The number of VI inspections increased from 2 000 in 1995 to 3 500 in 2000. VI obtained ISO 9001 certification in 2000. In recent years compliance with the law has generally been at the level of 50 to 60% for new legislation, with higher levels for older legislation. In 2000 one-third of inspections revealed violations and over 20% resulted in administrative or penal sanctions (Table 5.11). Penal sanctions are especially numerous in the Netherlands, reflecting public prosecutors’ high level of environmental awareness. However, more effort should be given to periodic training of these prosecutors on environmental legislation. The proportion of inspections leading to administrative or penal sanctions was particularly high for cadmium in products for sale (94%), legionella in drinking water (65%), CFCs in cooling equipment (34%), methyl bromide in products used to decontaminate cargoes (16%), and asbestos in vessel demolition yards (10%).
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Table 5.10
Enforcement of environmental legislation outside the VROM Inspectorate, 2000 Legislation
Checks
Offences
Pesticides Fertilisers Nature conservation
7 963 4 432 3 213
425 575 230
Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management State waters quality
6 785
1 853
313 100
0 3
Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries
Ministry of Economic Affairs
Mining inland Mining continental shelf
Provinces
EMA and Seveso II
11 267
2 136
Water boards
Sewage treatment
27 500
4 260
Municipalities
Seveso II Agricultural farms EMA permit EMA activities
396 4 571 15 397 17 369
59 1 717 4 195 4 318
Source:
VROM Inspectorate.
Table 5.11
Enforcement of environmental legislation by the VROM Inspectorate, 2000 Checks
Violations
Administrative sanctions
Penal sanctions
Transfrontier waste shipmentsa Nuclear Energy Act Environmental Management Act and Environmentally Hazardous Substances Act Air Pollution Act Water Supply Act
1 129 353
361 183
63 1
254 4
1 872 95 60
651 3 16
213 0 0
202 3 0
Total
3 509
1 214
277
463
a) EC Council Regulation 259/1993. Source: VROM Inspectorate.
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Fines are still used as a legal enforcement tool. With the move towards environmental agreements (i.e. self-regulation), increasing importance is being given to verifying that firms have an EMAS certificate. Fines generally range from EUR 1 000 to EUR 500 000, which is often too low to prevent illegal traffic linked to international trade (e.g. endangered wild species, hazardous waste). This is of particular concern in Rotterdam, the world’s most important port for goods traffic. VI promotes compliance and enforcement at EU level in the context of the Chemical Legislation European Enforcement Network (CLEEN) and, for transboundary shipments of waste, the EU Network for the Implementation and Enforcement of Environmental Law (IMPEL). It also promotes enforcement at international level by actively participating in the International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement (INECE). Its main objectives are the strengthening of enforcement and ensuring a level playing field for companies. Administrative agreements have been signed in all provinces to enhance co-operation between enforcement partners (provinces, municipalities, water boards and regional representatives of central government) on common priorities, information exchange and reporting. Provincial authorities are responsible for preparing and monitoring implementation of agreements, and for reporting annually to the National Co-ordination Committee for Environmental Law Enforcement. The bodies responsible for criminal enforcement (the police and the Public Prosecution Department) may also adhere to these agreements. Co-ordination between enforcement authorities and the police has improved since the environmental duties of the latter were clarified in 1990 in the environmental police plan, “Enforce or Lose”. Further improvement is needed in the reporting of provinces’ enforcement activities.
2.2
Environmental agreements
Co-operation between the government and industry is very common. The Netherlands is often described as a “consultation or consensus based economy” in which important social and economic decisions such as wage levels are taken based on talks between the government, industry and trade unions with a view to best serving the Netherlands’ general interests. Building on this kind of approach, often referred to as the “Polder model”, NEPP1 and NEPP2 emphasised the importance of self-regulation in tackling environmental problems at source. Regulatory approaches rely on prescribed technical solutions (e.g. best available technology). They are often designed for each firm and for a single medium or single substance. Such approaches provide little incentive to search for cost-effective overall solutions to environmental problems. In contrast, environmental agreements (EAs) make industry accountable for achieving pre-established targets. Strictly speaking, these are not voluntary
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agreements. Only the decision to enter into an agreement is voluntary; the agreed targets are binding. As industry has volunteered to work towards optimal environmental goals, the government agrees in turn not to introduce new laws before companies have had an “appropriate length of time” to demonstrate “reasonable” progress. There are various types of EAs, often referred to as “covenants”. Target Group Environmental Agreements (TGEAs) are declarations of intent designed to reduce pollutant emissions. Since 1992 TGEAs have been concluded in all major branches of industry. Participation by firms is high (e.g. 91% in the chemical industry). Energy Efficiency Agreements (EEAs) are declarations of intent or long-term agreements designed to implement the 1990 Energy Efficiency Policy Document. The purpose of the Energy Efficiency Benchmarking Agreement is to implement the 1997 Environment and Economy Policy Document as well as the Kyoto Protocol (Chapter 2, Section 2.3). Some 40 EEAs have been concluded since 1992. Environmental Agreements on Waste Disposal seek to promote recycling of waste streams; three have been concluded since 1994 on old vehicles, farm plastics and plastic blinds. There are various other types of EAs that differ widely in nature, form and content. Some EAs have been superseded by regulations. Over 100 EAs have been concluded since 1985. TGEAs may include an Integrated Environmental Target Plan (IETP) or a Company Environmental Plan (CEP). The IETP is a declaration of intent signed by the government and each branch of industry. CEPs are four-year agreements between the government and individual firms willing to take part in the agreement. To translate national environmental objectives into long-term emission reduction targets (IETP targets), discussions are carried out between VROM and each branch of industry through the Target Group Policy for Industry and Environment. The IETP targets must be consistent with general NEPP targets. Company branches (in the case of branches with highly diverse production technologies) can decide how to contribute to the IETP in the most cost-efficient way and by what date. This system can be managed effectively in the Netherlands since few companies do not belong to trade associations. Results of the third cycle of company environmental plans in 2001 show that many but not all targets for 2000 were met in the various industry branches. For example, in the primary metals branch the 2000 targets for releases of priority substances to air and water and for eutrophication were met but targets for acidification (SO2 and NOx) were not. This situation might reflect the nature of innovation processes in the steel and aluminium industries, as well as the time needed to introduce new technology. However, there is no evidence that TGEAs have stimulated development of energy-efficient technologies. For example, investments in energy conservation in the paper and glass manufacturing industries are likely to have been made in any case. Moreover, TGEAs have demonstrated their limitations: almost no cost-effective measures to reduce NOx emissions remain to be taken.
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Progress has been made with respect to the 1995 OECD recommendation to ensure that environmental agreements are used in association with other instruments. For each company the permitting authority must approve the CEP that will subsequently be integrated into the framework permit. The Target Group therefore functions as a sort of pre-consultative body for the licensing procedure. Participation in the Target Group entails obligations. If a company fails to adhere to agreements made at branch level, the government can make the terms of its environmental licence stricter than before. Unlike TGEAs, EEAs are not part of permits but are purely voluntary. Progress has also been made with respect to the 1995 recommendation to monitor EAs’ effectiveness and ensure that they include proper accountability mechanisms. In 1997 an environmental reporting decree was added to the Environmental Management Act to require some companies (mostly firms subject to provincial environmental licensing) to publish detailed annual reports concerning their environmental impacts and improvement plans. This decree entered into force in 1999; 250 firms must produce one report for provincial and licensing authorities and another for the general public. In addition, 150 companies publish a voluntary public environmental report. TGEAs also require participating companies to publish an environmental report for submission to the government, while EEAs require reporting on energy efficiency. The decree includes an obligation to obtain external verification of published reports. However, this part of the decree has not yet been implemented. Companies participating in the EU’s Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) are not required to produce a report for the public. In 1997 a national body was established for the purpose of increasing confidence in the quality of assessments of environmental management systems. All persons engaged in certifying ISO 14001 or verifying EMAS belong to this body, the Association for the Coordination of Certification of Environmental Management Systems. Its expert committee (made up of VROM, certification bodies, trade unions and environmental NGOs) sets out rules for evaluating a company’s compliance with legislation or with the requirements of EAs. The fact that certification bodies are members of this association gives the government sufficient confidence in ISO 14001 certificates to allow certified companies to operate under framework permits rather than more prescriptive traditional licences. There are a number of prerequisites for use of EAs, including transparency, enforcement and target-setting. Companies and branches address transparency by publishing annual performance indicators. To facilitate enforcement, performance bonds (an administrative sanction that entails the threat of a fine) have been introduced. However, the legal status of an EA (i.e. the terms of the contract under civil law) would need to be defined in order to determine what would happen to companies
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that did not meet their commitments. Other sanctions could be introduced, such as an energy tax in case of non-compliance. Another issue is how to define optimal targets under such EAs. Target-setting often requires a considerable body of information. It should also be noted that Dutch environmental groups have complained about being excluded from the target-setting process. Sectoral targets could be a cause of economic inefficiency in that they do not equalise abatement costs across sectors.
2.3
Economic instruments
Fiscal measures and economic incentives Good progress has been made regarding the 1995 OECD recommendation to further expand use of economic instruments. “Greening” the tax system has become a major policy focus in recent years. Revenue from environmental taxes (on fuel, groundwater, water supply, waste and uranium) and from the regulatory energy tax increased from EUR 0.9 billion in 1995 to EUR 3.4 billion in 2001 (1.3% and 3.4%, respectively, of total tax receipts). When revenue from excise duty on fuel (EUR 5.2 billion) and from taxes on transport (EUR 5.1 billion from registration and motor vehicle taxes) are included, total revenue from “green taxes” amounted to EUR 13.7 billion or 13.5% of total tax revenue in 2001 (Table 5.3). There has been a shift from taxes on labour and income to environmental and regulatory energy taxes, without an increase in the overall tax burden. Environmental taxes are relatively easy to administer and relatively difficult for taxpayers to avoid compared with taxes on income, profits and wealth. In 2002 Parliament indicated that it would support plans for a variable road pricing system and for a per-kilometre tax beginning in 2004. The per-kilometre tax would replace the current fixed vehicle tax scheme with a scheme based on road use. Variable road pricing and the per-kilometre tax attracted broad support from deputies, as this scheme is expected to help meet Kyoto targets while providing funds for road maintenance and reducing traffic congestion. The tax would first be applied to trucks (on 1 January 2004) and would gradually be applied to other road users by 2006. It would also be applicable to foreign trucks over 12 tonnes. Based on an in-car device that calculates the amount owed based on kilometres driven, this tax is expected to be differentiated according to road type and time of day to help shift traffic patterns. However, there has always been opposition to the introduction of a per-kilometre tax and recently Parliament decided to abandon it. There has been a move towards relying more extensively on incentives designed to stimulate the market for more environmentally friendly products while further greening the tax system. The energy premium scheme introduced in 2002 to encourage
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production and purchase of clean cars is such an incentive. Under this scheme the Dutch government rewards consumers with up to EUR 1 000 if they purchase a low CO2 emitting car. Cars are rated from A to G according to their GHG emissions and are eligible for incentives on a sliding scale according to their rating. Purchasers of B-rated cars receive EUR 500, while those who purchase the cleanest (A-rated) cars receive the full EUR 1 000. Under a 1999 EU Directive, member States are required to label cars according to fuel efficiency and CO2 emissions. Other schemes introduced in the 1990s to reward environmentally friendly behaviour include discretionary depreciation of environmental investments, as well as tax concessions for green investments and for certain energy investments. In the national budget proposal for 2003 such financial incentives are cut drastically. The energy premium scheme for consumers of certain low energy-consuming products and tax exemption for “green” electricity (replaced by a direct subsidy) are both reduced. Tax concessions and economic incentives should only be considered a temporary means of developing new technologies or production methods, as they also act as incentives to buy cars and (to some extent) they increase industrial production and thus are not consistent with the polluter pays principle. Similarly, direct payments to farmers under the EU agri-environmental scheme should be targeted at conservation of natural habitats and not linked to agricultural production. The Netherlands created a Fauna Fund in 1999 to finance measures to prevent damage caused by certain protected endemic animal species. This fund is also intended to provide compensation to injured parties when significant damage has been caused by such species. Hunting licence fees are partly used to finance the Fauna Fund.
Environmental charges Most households in the Netherlands have water meters. User charges for drinking water are based on the quantity of water consumed (plus a fixed component), but not sewerage or waste water treatment. Major cities intend to move towards a single volumetric charge based on drinking water consumption. A combined bill would replace separate bills for drinking water (water supply companies), sewerage (municipalities) and sewage treatment (water boards). Half the municipalities are directly responsible for municipal waste management, while the other half subcontract this service to (private or public) waste companies. User charges for solid waste collection and treatment are mostly based on family size (a flat rate is sometimes applied). Some municipalities charge households per kilogram of waste (based on bin size), but this approach is still experimental. Measures have been taken to follow the 1995 OECD recommendation to proceed with full implementation of the 1994 national strategy on products and the environment. From 1994, producers and importers of an increasingly wide range of goods
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have been required to take back their products for recycling. They must recover the cost of collecting end-of-life equipment from civic amenity sites, other regional collection centres or retailers, together with the cost of recycling the equipment. Retailers are required to take back certain products when they sell new ones. This (extended) producer responsibility scheme applies to passenger vehicles, farm plastics, batteries, waste paper, electrical appliances and PVC windows. It covers products already on the market before the legislation came into force. Product charges have been introduced for a range of waste streams. Some are part of environmental agreements but are generally binding, as they fall under the EMA. There is a long standing tradition of deposit-refund for beer and soft drink bottles. There are no air emission charges. Air quality objectives are implemented entirely through regulatory approaches or EAs. Introduction of the “bubble” concept is being considered. An overall emission limit could be imposed on large plants, a cluster of firms or an industry sector; within that “bubble” firms could determine how to meet the overall target, including through emission trading. Tradable permits are envisaged, particularly for CO2 and NOx emissions. Such a system is being developed to curb NOx emissions in the most cost-effective way. The cost of reducing NOx emissions can vary considerably depending on the company. Companies with lower abatement costs can sell NOx emission rights to those with higher ones. In 2000 total revenue from charges levied by provincial and local governments was about EUR 3 billion. The central government uses earmarked charges only for aircraft noise, manure surplus and pollution of State waters. Total revenue from these charges was EUR 84 million in 2000.
2.4
Environmental impact assessment of projects
The environmental impact assessment (EIA) procedure that came into force in 1987 exceeded the requirements of the 1985 EU’s EIA Directive. The Dutch procedure included evaluation and review involving public consultation; participation by the independent Commission for EIA in assessing the adequacy of information provided; consideration of alternatives; and post-decision evaluation of actual impacts and use of remedial action. The EMA transposes the 1997 amended EIA Directive. This has led to a transfer of decision-making from VROM to local authorities in most cases involving a request for exemption from EIA; however, the EIA Commission retains its advisory role. EIA is applied on a more selective basis by transferring certain activities from Annex I to Annex II of the Directive. There is no longer a compulsory requirement to undertake post-decision evaluation in all cases. As part of the decision, the competent authority must determine whether an evaluation is required and, if so, the aspects for which the evaluation should be performed and when.
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The EIA procedure prescribes steps to be taken to fulfil legal requirements while allowing some flexibility. The EIA 2000 + Implementation Programme was launched at the end of 1997 to make EIA a more selective and flexible policy instrument adaptable to individual cases. Subsequently the form, content and level of detail of an environmental impact statement can be adjusted. Due to the emphasis on streamlined implementation, EIA preparation now involves not only personnel from the VROM Inspectorate but also experts from the EIA Commission and provinces. Workshops involving provincial and municipal authorities have been organised to foster and facilitate use of “tailored” EIAs, which have been carried out since 1999. About 900 EIAs have been carried out so far (over 100 per year in the last few years). No projects have yet been halted following EIA. Since 1999 an EIA is required for construction and operation of new mining installations and pipelines on the continental shelf. Plants that extract over 500 000 kg of oil or over 500 000 m3 of natural gas per day are subject to this requirement. The EIA procedure is to be incorporated into licensing activities under the EMA. Impact assessment is currently compartmentalised and follows an aspect-byaspect approach; individual economic, social and environmental impact studies are performed. Integration of the various components only takes place at the final stage of decision-making, so that important cross-cutting issues tend to be overlooked. Environmental assessment should be undertaken earlier in the decision-making process, as already recommended in the 1995 EPR. Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) has not formally begun to be carried out in the Netherlands. Pending transposing of the EU’s 2001 SEA Directive, the less formal Environmental Test has been used to assess new legislation and policies. VROM and the Ministry of Economic Affairs jointly implement the Environmental Test by assessing both economic and environmental impacts. RIVM prepares a cost-benefit analysis of proposed new measures. A report is then forwarded to the Council of Ministers.
2.5
Land use planning
The regional identity of Dutch landscapes is becoming increasingly less distinctive. The draft Fifth National Policy Document on Spatial Planning, released at the end of 2000, contains measures to structure future urbanisation and preserve visual contrasts between urban areas and the countryside. Three-quarters of the increase in built-up area until 2020 should take place on 15% of the territory (i.e. urban concentrations). The other one-quarter should take place in carefully selected “regional catchment centres”. A strict policy of “urban growth boundaries” is introduced to prevent uncontrolled occupation of
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“green fields” and enhance redevelopment of “brown fields”. A main target is to accommodate 50% of new houses and new jobs within already built-up areas of cities and villages. However, seven landscape areas of national importance that must be protected from massive urbanisation have been designated. These areas cover 15% of the national territory. This policy also applies to valuable landscapes of regional importance whose designation has been entrusted to the provinces. To respond to pressures on land use and environmental quality from increasing mobility and expanding urbanisation, initiatives have been taken to co-ordinate policies on environment, urban planning, transport, nature conservation and water management, particularly at the local and regional level. Examples include the Towns and the Environment project implemented since 1995 by the regional development agencies (ROMs) to improve environmental quality in urban areas. The “compact driving” concept has recently been introduced to use existing road space more efficiently, thereby limiting land fragmentation by transport infrastructure. Several groundwater protection areas have been integrated with nature conservation areas; many of the latter have also been designated as noise sanctuaries. Water boards are increasingly seeking to co-ordinate agricultural, nature conservation and urbanisation objectives. Limited progress has been made with respect to the 1995 OECD recommendation to extend the use of land use planning to encompass pollution abatement, nature conservation and risk prevention. Environmental quality standards are not referred to in land use planning legislation, nor are environmental issues often seriously taken into account in the granting of building permits by municipalities. Spatial planning at the national level only provides policy guidance. Provincial land use plans are not binding on municipalities. Only regional plans for high-speed trains and EU agri-environmental schemes are binding. There is no requirement for periodicity in the preparation or renewal of land use plans (from national to local or vice versa). The extent of green areas in municipal plans is left to each municipality’s discretion. High land prices are a major obstacle to designation of nature reserves, as compensation for landowners must be found. The same applies to water management areas.
3.
Focus on Selected Topics 3.1
Environmental policy objectives
The 1995 OECD Environmental Performance Review recommended that the Netherlands: – implement environmental plans with steadfast determination and along the lines already defined;
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– pursue the already well-developed efforts at all levels of government to enforce environmental laws and regulations; – further expand the use of economic instruments (e.g. energy taxes, charges on fertilisers, water pricing, tradable emission permits), when and where economically and environmentally effective, as well as related legal instruments (liability, penalties); – monitor the effectiveness of voluntary agreements, and ensure they are accompanied by proper accountability mechanisms and used, as necessary, in association with other instruments; – proceed with the full implementation of the already adopted product policy; – integrate environmental assessment earlier in the decision-making process to influence choices concerning plans, policies and programmes; – extend the use of land use planning and regulation to serve pollution abatement, nature conservation and risk prevention. Key environmental policy objectives for the period 1990-2010 include targets for emissions and for environmental quality (Table 5.12). These objectives reflect the successive four-year National Environmental Policy Plans (NEPPs) released since 1989. NEPP1 established ambitious targets. It stated that emissions of most pollutants must be reduced by 50 to 70% by 2000 and by 80 to 90% by 2010, objectives reaffirmed in 1993 (NEPP2) and 1998 (NEPP3). NEPP2 noted that the NEPP1 targets could be achieved in principle but would require firmer policy implementation. NEPP3 stated that many of the NEPP1 objectives for 2010 would be achieved (but not that for reduction of CO2 emissions). Good progress has been made with respect to the 1995 OECD recommendation to implement environmental plans with determination. The majority of the priority substances in NEPP1 present very few problems today. NEPP4, published in 2001, focuses on persistent environmental problems that implementation of the first three NEPPs failed to solve (e.g. climate change, biodiversity loss, fragmentation of nature reserves, and health risks caused by the accumulation of, for example, air pollution, hazardous substances and soil contamination). NEPP4 also modifies the policies defined by earlier plans; a number of significant NEPP1 targets have been postponed or revised and are therefore less ambitious. The successive NEPPs mainly set targets in the areas of air, water quality and waste management. Other environmental objectives are contained in separate national policy plans on water and on nature. In 1989 the Third National Policy Document on Water Management (NW3) aimed to establish an integrated water management strategy. NW4 pursues the same approach for the period 1998-2006. It
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Table 5.12
Key environmental policy objectives and achievements Unit
EMISSIONS Climate change CO2 CO2 equivalent Acidification SO2 NOx VOCs Eutrophication P N NH3
1990
2000
2000 target
2010 target NEPP3
billion kg CO2 billion kg CO2 eq
166 217
180 223
161
million kg million kg million kg
202 570 492
92 413 278
92 249b 193
56 120 117
46 231 155c
million kg million kg million kg
75 413 232
48 343 152
80b
54
100
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY Acidification Acid deposition acid-eq 4 600 Eutrophication N deposition mol N/ha 2 900 P surface water mg P/l 0.2-0.5 N surface water mg N/l 4-5 Uppermost groundwater Natural areas mg N/l 30 Sandy soils mg N/l 150 Air qualityd Fine particle exposure µg/m3 42e Benzene µg/m3 5e µg/m3 27 (48-50) NO2 exposure Ozone exposure exceedance days 47 People affected by noise (%) 50 Waste Landfill billion kg 14 Environmental costs per GDP (%) 1.9 Nature Surface area protected against acidification and eutrophication (%)
116-133
2010 target NEPP4
199a
3 000
2 400
1 400
2 150
2 400 0.1-0.3 4-5.5
1 600 0.15 2.2
1 000 0.15 2.2
1 550 0.15 2.2
20 125
25 50
31 2 21 (38-42) 12 43 5 2.6
10
20f 5
40 10 40 40
2g
4 b
2.6
80
20-30
a) Kyoto target: –6%, based on recalculated, non-temperature corrected emissions of CO2, CH4 and N2O in 1990, and of F gases in 1995. b) 2005. c) Provided that EU Directives for products containing VOCs and motorised vehicles are adopted; otherwise the target of 163 million kg will apply. d) Air quality statistics serve as an indicator of the national average. There may be considerable exceedance of the standards at local level. Data on NO2 exposure in town are in brackets. e) 1992. f) Indicative. g) 2012. Source: RIVM.
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advocates improved co-ordination of policies on water management, physical planning and the environment, particularly to better address flood prevention. Nature conservation objectives were contained in the 1990 Nature Policy Plan, the 1992 Landscape Memorandum, the 1994 Forest Policy Plan and the 1995 Strategic Action Plan for Biodiversity. For the period 2000-10, policy objectives for nature, biodiversity, forest and landscape have been regrouped in the 2000 document, Nature for People, People for Nature. By 2020 the main objective is to establish a national ecological network. Environmental objectives are also set in sectoral planning documents, particularly for the agriculture, transport and energy sectors. Policy documents on agriculture present strategies concerning manure and ammonia (for 1995-2005), organic agriculture (for 2001-04) and plant protection products (for 2001-10). The Second Transport Structure Plan (for 1990-2010) is aimed at maintaining mobility for economic and social reasons while encouraging a major shift in modal choice towards less road transport to reduce congestion and pollution from motorised travel. The draft National Traffic and Transport Plan (for 2000-20) moves away from seeking mobility constraints but places more emphasis on infrastructure investment and management, especially for rail infrastructure. The Third White Paper on Energy Policy focuses on the development of a sustainable energy economy and further liberalisation of energy markets (for 1996-2020). It sets the target of meeting 10% of primary energy supply (17% in electricity production) from renewable energy sources in the year 2020.
3.2
Economic context
The Netherlands has a large and powerful economy. Gross domestic product (GDP) is the 14th highest in the world. The Netherlands is also the world’s sixth largest exporting country (third largest for export of food) and the sixth largest source of investment. There has been sustained non-inflationary growth for nearly two decades (Figure 5.1). The Dutch economy performed particularly well in the 1990s; sustained economic growth has been accompanied by a significant increase in the number of jobs. This excellent economic performance (the “Dutch miracle”) is in sharp contrast to the “Dutch disease” of the early 1980s, when recession was more severe than in most other OECD countries. During that period 100 000 jobs were lost per year, partly due to a sharp rise in labour costs. Furthermore, public finances were weakly controlled. Through consensus among the government, workers and employers, three important policy changes were introduced in the early 1980s that have since radically altered the Dutch economy. First, control of public spending to reduce the budget deficit and taxes on businesses helped bring down inflation and interest rates. Second, in 1982 employers
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and trade unions signed the Wassenaar agreement on wage moderation, which contributed to a reduction of unemployment. Third, most social security benefits (for longterm illness, unemployment, the elderly) were reduced to 70% of the last-earned salary, instead of 80% as had been customary. The statutory minimum wage was frozen for a decade, with the result that benefits, too, lagged behind average wage increases. There was rapid economic expansion in the 1990s (real GDP growth of 3% on average, slightly above the OECD average of 2.6%). In that decade deregulation was introduced to improve market orientation with respect to provision of goods and services in some sectors. The telecommunications market was opened up to new operators in 1991. Large shares of regional bus and rail services have been contracted out. An increasing number of gas and electricity users are gradually being given the freedom to choose their own suppliers; in 2007 this market will be completely free. The 1998 Competitive Trading Act brought Dutch rules on competition into line with those of the EU. Companies may no longer restrict competition by making agreements among themselves or abusing their powerful market position. However, Dutch economic performance has deteriorated markedly since early 2000 although it may now be recovering. Real GDP growth fell to 1.3% in 2001 and 0.1% in 2002. This downturn was mainly due to external factors, as is typically the case in open economies. In early 2001 the abrupt slowing of the US. economy and the fall in value of global stock markets affected Dutch household and business confidence, more than offsetting the impact of a major income tax reform. Inflation as measured by the consumer price index grew rapidly, from 2.5% in 2000 to 4.5% in 2001, but fell to around 3.3% in May 2002 (compared with the OECD average of 3.5% in 2001). Dutch GDP at current (market) prices was EUR 432 billion in 2001. Most central government spending is funded by national taxation, along with some smaller sources of revenue such as the sale of natural gas. Much municipal and provincial spending is also funded nationally in the form of special-purpose and block grants. Municipalities raise relatively small amounts of revenue using property taxes and local charges. The government’s current budgetary priorities are to reduce the budget deficit and the national debt. The central government debt fell to 51% of GDP in 1999 (compared with over 80% in the early 1990s). The tax burden also decreased (from more than 50% of GDP in the early 1990s to 41% in 1998). A major income tax reform was introduced in early 2001. The new tax system has a broader base and lower rates, achieved through reduced and amended deductions. The main objectives are to stimulate employment and strengthen international competitiveness while promoting sustainable economic development. The employed benefit from a fixed non-taxable deduction. Reduction of taxation on labour is financed by reductions of expenditure and increases in indirect taxes such as the VAT and environmental levies.
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The Netherlands, which has a very open economy, is a hub of international commerce. Its advanced transport infrastructure is centred on the port of Rotterdam (the world’s busiest port) and Amsterdam-Schiphol airport (the fourth largest in Europe), as well as one of the world’s most advanced telecommunications infrastructures. A major share of GDP comes from international trade, earning the Netherlands a regular current account surplus. Imports’ share in GDP increased from 50 to 55% in the 1990s to 62% in 2000 and 61% in 2001. The share of exports increased from 55 to 60% in the 1990s to 67% in 2000 and 66% in 2001. This global presence has attracted many multinational companies, as have the Netherlands’ geographical position, flexible labour relations and educated multilingual workforce. The trade and financial services sector and the public sector contribute some 70% of GDP (against 64% in 1990). Over the past ten years, growth in the export of commercial services has outstripped that of manufactured goods. Trade is the largest activity in the service sector, followed by transport and communications, construction, banking and insurance, and other commercial services. Half of all goods entering the EU pass through Rotterdam or Amsterdam. Industrial activity accounts for about 27% of Dutch GDP (against 31% in 1990), led by chemicals, food processing and metalworking. One of the main features of the Dutch manufacturing sector is its international outlook, not only as an exporter but also as the location of production plants, and its willingness to join forces with non-Dutch companies. The highly intensive agricultural sector contributes only 3% of GDP (against 5% in 1990), but provides large surpluses for export and the domestic food processing industry. Indeed the Netherlands ranks third in the world in the value of its agricultural exports, behind the United States and France.
3.3
Environmentally related fiscal measures
Several specific levies were introduced in the 1980s to finance certain aspects of environmental policy. In 1988 they were replaced by one “fuel charge” earmarked to finance about half of government expenditure on implementing environmental policy. Fuel was chosen as the tax base, as it was felt this would provide a general link with the polluter pays principle (PPP). As environmental policy intensified, the charge rate was increased to raise revenues (EUR 400 million in 1991, compared with EUR 140 million in 1988). This revived discussions on the relationship between the fuel charge and the PPP (i.e. why should energy users pay for abatement of unrelated pollution, such as soil clean-up or waste management?). In 1992 it was determined that revenues collected would no longer be earmarked for environmental expenditure but would accrue to the general budget. Consequently, the fuel charge became a fuel tax. Most environmental expenditure by the central government is now to be financed from the general budget
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(there are few earmarked charges). Obviously a change of name and status did not alter the effect of this tax on energy prices and, consequently, on environmental behaviour. The substantial increase in the fuel tax for budgetary reasons in 1992 (to EUR 630 million) met with fierce resistance from the largest energy-intensive companies. Parliament subsequently asked the government to look for other taxes with an environmental base to avoid further fuel tax increases. Taxes on groundwater extraction, waste disposal and use of uranium to produce electricity were introduced in 1995 (Table 5.2). The latter was abolished in 2001. Revenue from these taxes (EUR 170 million in 1995), like that from the fuel tax, goes to the general budget. New environmental taxes were introduced on water supply (in 2000) and others are under discussion, e.g. on surface mining (sand and gravel), pesticides and land use changes resulting in biodiversity loss. In 1996 the regulatory energy tax (REB) was introduced to create price incentives and encourage energy conservation and reduction of CO2 emissions. This decision was taken once it became clear that implementation of a European CO2/energy tax – a tax measure the Dutch government had always strongly supported – could not be expected in the short run. The REB’s introduction was gradual, with revenue of EUR 1 billion produced in 1998. This tax focuses on small energy users (households and other users such as restaurants, shops, office buildings and schools). These target groups are difficult or impossible to reach using instruments such as long-term agreements or environmental permits. Further to taxation of energy use, the REB also contains provisions promoting sustainable energy use. Large industrial energy users are exempted for international competitiveness reasons. Low-income households are compensated for the impact of the REB on electricity prices. To protect competitiveness, Dutch environmental policy tends to exempt from environmental taxes (notably energy taxes), or apply very reduced rates to, those sectors most exposed to competition. For example, households pay the major part of the REB; large consumers of natural gas (above 1 million cubic metres a year) and electricity (above 10 million kWh a year) are exempted. This goes against economic efficiency. In theory, the marginal cost of abatement is no longer equalised across the relevant tax base, with the result that the overall social cost of reaching a given environmental target is increased. Green taxes should be targeted at pollutants and should not vary (as is currently the case) according to types of fuels or categories of users.
3.4
Institutional context
The Netherlands is a constitutional monarchy. The Dutch Parliament or States General consists of an Upper House (75 members) and a Lower House (150 members). Members of Parliament are elected for four years, those in the Lower
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House through direct elections with a system of proportional representation and those in the Upper House indirectly through the provincial councils. Important items such as new legislation are reviewed and approved by both Chambers. The Lower House, which is the first to discuss legislation proposed by the government, has the right to amend bills or make its own proposals. Once bills have been approved, they are submitted to the Upper House for review and approval. The Upper House has no right of amendment. Each Chamber has an Environment Committee. The Council of State is an ancient institution appointed by the Queen which advises the government on bills before they are sent to Parliament, as well as on decrees, Orders in Council and other instruments. The Council also settles administrative disputes such as appeals by persons or companies against decisions by authorities. The Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM), created in 1982, is responsible for co-ordinating environmental policy at government level and for supervising implementation of the Environmental Management Act and specific legislation on air, noise, soil, waste and hazardous substances. Around 1 200 staff are involved in environmental management (at central level and in nine regions). A Minister and a State Secretary head VROM. Unlike in many other countries, water and nature management are the responsibility of other ministries. The Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management (V&W) is responsible for integrated water management policy, implementation of legislation on fresh and marine waters, and management of the main rivers, canals, lakes and estuaries, including issuing of licences for waste water discharges to those waters. Around 2 000 V&W staff are involved in water management. V&W also supervises traffic and transport policy. The Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (LNV) is responsible for general nature management policy, implementation of nature conservation legislation, biodiversity conservation, and designated nature protection areas. Around 1 000 LNV staff are involved in nature management. The Ministry of Economic Affairs (EZ) supervises integration of environmental policy into economic policy and activities and into energy policy. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (BuZa) co-ordinates Dutch strategy in international environmental negotiations; the Ministry for Development Co-operation (OS) is responsible for integrating environmental policy into development co-operation. Advisory bodies and research institutions include the Central Council on Environmental Protection (which advises VROM) and the independent Environmental Impact Assessment Commission. The National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection (RIVM), which has an environmental staff of 450, carries out many of the scientific studies underpinning environment policy including environmental outlooks (the most recent was published in 2000). The Central Bureau
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of Statistics has a relatively large environmental component. The Central Economic Planning Agency (CPB) evaluates various government policy plans at the formulation stage. CPB’s recommendations played a prominent role in NEPP4 formulation. There are three administrative levels: national, provincial and municipal. Water boards have an additional specialised role in this system. There are 12 provinces. Each province is administered by a Provincial Council, elected every four years. A Provincial Executive oversees each province’s day-to-day affairs under the chairmanship of the Queen’s Commissioner. The Executive, elected by the Provincial Council from among its members, usually consists of six persons. The Queen’s Commissioner for each province is appointed by the Crown. Every four years the provinces draw up provincial environmental policy plans, in which national environmental policy is applied to their own circumstances. They also publish annual provincial environmental programmes, which include specific measures and cost estimates. Provinces designate special environmental protection areas within their boundaries. They also designate waste disposal sites. Provincial authorities issue environmental licences for large industrial plants and other large enterprises with potentially harmful effects on the environment. Representatives of the 12 provinces meet in the Association of Provincial Authorities (IPO) to address common issues. The IPO advises the central government on these issues. The Netherlands has a total of 548 municipalities. The Municipal Council, elected every four years, is chaired by the burgomaster. Day-to-day administration is in the hands of the municipal executive, consisting of the burgomaster and aldermen. The Council elects aldermen from among its members; each alderman is responsible for one or more areas of municipal policy. Large municipalities have a separate executive board to handle environmental affairs. Municipalities play an important role in environmental licensing and in the enforcement of licensing conditions and general rules. They also help raise the environmental awareness of the public and the business sector, for example by drawing up Local Agenda 21s. In recent years many municipalities have provided collection facilities for sorted and separated household waste. Specific municipal environmental tasks include clean-up of contaminated soil and construction and maintenance of sewerage systems. Municipalities in the same region often co-operate on implementation of environmental policy. Such co-operation is supported financially by the central government. All municipalities in the Netherlands are members of the Association of Netherlands Municipalities (VNG). Like the IPO, it advises the central government. Municipal taxes account for only about 2% of total tax revenue. The 57 water boards have administrative and legislative powers with respect to water management. Since the Middle Ages such bodies have managed water levels and flow in and around the polders. With the 1969 Water Pollution Control Act the
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water boards became the most important administrative tier involved in water quality management. With a few exceptions, from 1970 onwards sewage treatment plants have been built and managed by water boards. They issue licences for waste water discharges (except to large rivers and lakes, in which case licences are issued by a central government agency). Water boards collect levies on waste water discharges. Most have gradually moved towards integrated water management, although some are concerned exclusively with quantity or quality. Administration of the water boards has undergone a series of changes. At the moment the system resembles that of a municipality. Each water board has a general council, an executive body, and a chairman appointed by the Crown. However, the general council is not chosen in an election with proportional representation. Usually both landowners and property owners elect their representatives directly. Representatives of other residents are chosen by municipal executives or directly; members representing industrial polluters are chosen through Chambers of Commerce. The executive body is appointed by and from the general council.
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6
ENVIRONMENTAL-SOCIAL INTERFACE*
Recommendations The following recommendations are part of the overall conclusions and recommendations of the OECD Environmental Performance Review of the Netherlands: • strengthen measures to improve external safety in relation to transport (e.g. air traffic, railways, transport of hazardous substances) and chemical installations; • strengthen efforts to improve the quality of the living environment with respect to noise nuisance, air pollution and access to green areas for recreation, especially in the case of low-income groups; • further maintain a high-quality environmental information base and ensure continuity in environmental reporting activities; • make further efforts to increase environmental awareness and sustainable behaviour, particularly regarding car and energy use; • continue to promote public participation in decision-making and goal-setting processes (e.g. at an early stage), both at national and local levels; • ensure that national environmental policy links up with relevant local sustainable development initiatives; • encourage sustainable development initiatives in the framework of Local Agenda 21, particularly in relation to mainstream local activities (e.g. housing, infrastructure, etc.).
* The present chapter reviews progress in the last ten years, and particularly since the previous OECD Environmental Performance Review of 1995. It also reviews progress with respect to the objective “social and environmental interface” of the 2001 OECD Environmental Strategy.
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Conclusions The Netherlands is making strong efforts to inform and educate the public about environmental protection. The quality of environmental information is high, and reporting activities and access to this information are well established. The public also has good access to the courts concerning environmental matters. Public debate and public participation in decision-making are quite well developed. Dutch environmental research and development are influential at the national and international levels, with respect to both technical matters and policy issues. A tradition of openness and transparency in policy-making and goal setting is maintained for the benefit of civil society. Key documents like the National Strategy for Sustainable Development, the National Environmental Policy Plans (NEPPs) and the annual “balance” reports present environmental issues using a forward looking approach. However, environmental employment represents only 1.3% of total employment, a figure which could be higher if there were a more active environmental employment policy. Local Agenda 21 initiatives have produced mixed results. Low-income groups experience above average severe noise nuisance and local air pollution, while their neighbourhoods often do not have as much green space as more prosperous areas. The number of large-scale accidents has increased in recent years; thus so have threats to external safety. People living near airports and large chemical installations are particularly exposed to risks of accidents. Health risks related to air pollutants have decreased but still remain a problem; 2.5% of the population is exposed to levels of NO2 above the limit value (4% for fine particles PM10). Noise nuisance has remained a health concern in the Netherlands. Natural habitats and valuable landscapes have been lost to urban development, reducing public access to natural resources, recreation and silence.
1.
Evaluation of Performance 1.1
Environmental democracy: information, participation and access
Provision of environmental information The Netherlands is among the OECD countries that initiated environmental data collection and dissemination in the early 1970s and work on environmental indicators in the late 1980s. Dutch research on environmental protection and management, including modelling and forecasting, has a strong international reputation. There is a long tradition of environmental monitoring, and monitoring networks are regularly reviewed and optimised. Recent efforts have helped to further increase the level of co-operation and co-ordination among provinces and between national and provincial authorities. As a
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result, reporting activities are well established at national and provincial levels, and the Netherlands disposes of a wide range of high-quality environmental information for policy development and assessment and for the benefit of its citizens. Several sets of environmental indicators have been developed and are regularly used and published. Among these are environmental performance indicators linked to policy targets, developed by the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM); indicators integrating environmental and economic information, developed by Statistics Netherlands (CBS); and an experimental national welfare indicator, based on the concept of sustainable national income. A set of indicators for sustainable development is being elaborated by the Committee for Environmental Policy Monitoring (CCO) and the National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection (RIVM) as part of the national sustainable development strategy. In some cases, changes in sets of indicators relating to policy changes may need to be balanced against stability in assessing long-term environmental progress. National state of the environment reporting is part of a collaborative effort integrating the views of several government agencies co-ordinated by RIVM, which is an independent government research institute. State of the environment reporting is closely related to the development and monitoring of national environmental policies and builds on a series of mutually supporting reports. The annual Environmental Balance report published by RIVM describes environmental conditions and trends, evaluates the effectiveness of environmental policies, and monitors the degree to which stated policy goals have been achieved. A similar Nature Balance report also exists in the field of nature protection. These reports are underpinned by two statistical yearbooks, the Environmental Data Compendium and the Nature Data Compendium, prepared jointly by CBS and RIVM. Environmental data are updated every year on internet and every two years in book form. The Environmental Outlook, published every four years by RIVM, investigates long-term developments in environmental quality, based on various economic and sectoral scenarios in areas such as transport, energy, agriculture and trade. It is complemented by a Medium-term Energy and Environmental Outlook. A variant of the medium-term outlook, examining the environmental implications of the policy programmes of the different Dutch political parties, was prepared for the 2002 elections and used by most parties. This combination of forward and backward looking assessments and statistical compendia is a powerful policy tool that effectively supports the National Environmental Policy Plan (NEPP) and the National Nature Policy Programme, prepared by VROM and the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (LNV), respectively. Policy proposals are discussed in the Interdepartmental Steering Group for the NEPP before submission to the Lower House of Parliament.
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The Netherlands also publishes a wide range of more specialised or thematic reports, including results of environmental expenditure surveys and of monitoring and control activities. Other products include detailed environmental statistics published annually or quarterly by CBS and available on internet and in environmental reports published by other public, semi-public or private institutes. Corporate environmental reporting is promoted by the 1993 Environmental Management Act (EMA). Financial incentives have been used to encourage companies to co-operate with research institutes.
Public access to environmental information The right of access to environmental information is embodied in national law and recognised as enforceable in the courts. It is promoted by the 1991 Government Information Act, which ensures access to all official information including that held by semi-public bodies, and by the EMA. Most provisions are in line with the Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters. The Netherlands signed this convention in 1998 but has not yet ratified it. The concept of environmental information is clearly defined; no distinction is made between information that can be accessed by the public and information that cannot. Environmental information is made publicly available using various mechanisms including internet (which responds to many information requests) and special information offices. Major reports such as the Environmental Data Compendium and the Environmental Balance are translated into English or have an English summary, making them more accessible to a broad international audience. Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTRs) have been implemented since 1976; data on emissions from specific installations are also collected and made available to the public independently of the PRTR system. The Information Centre for Environmental Licensing (InfoMil), established in 1995 by VROM in co-operation with the Association of Provincial Authorities (IPO), the Association of Netherlands Municipalities (VNG) and the Ministry of Economic Affairs (EZ), provides information to permitting authorities and facilitates consultations between the government and the private sector. It functions as a knowledge centre and builds on a network of licensing authorities, trade and industrial organisations, and international contacts. Environmental information is also made available to citizens for use in their daily life. The Environmental Information Centre for Consumers (Milieu Centraal), an independent body set up by the government in close co-operation with industry, provides information to help consumers choose environmentally friendly products and minimise environmental impacts associated with product use and disposal. The Agency for Energy and the Environment (NOVEM) hosts a web site where consumers, distributors and manufacturers can find information about appliances with an energy label.
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Public access to environmental information is well institutionalised. Information must be made available to the public on request without an interest having to be stated. Responsibility for providing the information lies with the individual authorities holding it. No formal response delay has been established, but decisions concerning the response must be taken within two weeks. Information from central government authorities is generally provided free of charge; other public authorities may ask requesters to bear a portion of the material costs. Access can be denied for reasons of commercial or industrial confidentiality, national security, or the confidentiality of certain public decisions. Complaints in cases of refusal to disclose environmental information can be addressed to the refusing authority, a national ombudsman, the Regional Court or the Council of State. The public generally has good access to the courts and the costs of court actions are relatively low. There are still difficulties with the general nature of some requests, as well as with requests that exceed the administration’s response capability. Difficulties also arise because much environmental information is scattered among administrations and administrative levels, so that information sources are not always easy to identify.
Participatory approaches The Netherlands has a long tradition of dialogue and consensus building in decision-making, and public participation is high. Public consultation during environmental impact assessments (EIA) is common and well established; granting of environmental licences is regulated by an extensive public consultation procedure. Draft licences are published in the press, making it possible for the public and other stakeholders to submit written objections before a licence is finalised. It is also possible to ask for a hearing at which oral objections may be put forward. In both cases a direct appeal may be made to the judicial department of the Council of State. In addition to the regular EIA procedure, “platform meetings” have been organised in the Rhine delta region to promote dialogue on external safety and environmental performance among inhabitants, industries, public authorities and some environmental NGOs. Overall, the range and influence of Dutch environmental NGOs is impressive. They have had an important role in promoting environmental awareness and public participation, and in shaping Dutch environmental policy. Access to Parliament has made it possible for them to influence policy debate. Environmental authorities often consult NGOs as civil society representatives. However, NGOs increasingly express the wish to be involved at an earlier stage of the policy formulation process, and to have the opportunity to work in a more co-operative spirit with private companies. In particular, they would like to be associated in key decision-making on corporate environmental issues. There are several influential environmental NGOs in the
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Netherlands. The most important in terms of membership are the Society for the Preservation of Nature in the Netherlands (which buys and manages nature protection areas), the Dutch branch of WWF, Milieudefensie (the Dutch branch of Friends of the Earth), the Netherlands Society for Nature and Environment, and Greenpeace. Other NGOs that actively participate in environmental policy-making are the Consumers’ Association, the Royal Dutch Touring Club (ANWB), the Youth Council for Environment and Development, and the Netherlands Women’s Council. A National Committee for International Co-operation and Sustainable Development (NCDO) was created in 1998. It gathers 21 representatives of major groups in Dutch civil society, including NGOs and organisations active with respect to socioeconomic, development, environmental, religious and humanitarian issues. NCDO is deeply involved in the UN sustainable development process and hosts the UNEP National Committee for the Netherlands. It aims to raise public awareness of international co-operation and sustainable development by organising roundtables and public debates. It is part of the official Dutch delegation to the UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) where it is a voice for NGOs and lobbies; it also participates in the inter-departmental CSD working group. At the same time, it acts as an adviser and a watchdog of government policy. The central government has actively encouraged Local Agenda 21 (LA21) initiatives by providing financial support to municipalities, in the context of the Supplementary Municipality Environmental Policy Scheme (VOGM) implemented in 1995-97, and to NGOs involved in the process. Handbooks have been published, public debates organised and a national working party established. Best practices have also been disseminated. Results so far present a mixed picture. While municipalities use a range of instruments to contribute to sustainability (e.g. urban and spatial planning, environmental strategies for urban areas, the sustainable building programme), only one-quarter had established a local agenda by the end of the 1990s. One explanation could be that LA21s do not add significantly to the Netherlands’ long tradition of dialogue and public participation in local development, the decentralisation of environmental policy implementation, or the proactive role of Dutch environmental NGOs. Efforts have been made to encourage sustainable development initiatives by citizens and NGOs. Under the Grant Scheme for Social Organisations and the Environment (SMOM), NGOs have received long-term (usually three-year) financial support (for a total of EUR 4 million). Approximately 40% of the 200 requests per year have been honoured, based on tendering. The scheme has also provided grants to specific projects (for a total of EUR 6 million). The Institute for the Public and Politics encourages citizens to initiate small-scale activities related to themes they consider important. After an initial conference, the citizens develop the activity with
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professional support until it becomes a full-scale project. Around 100 such activities have now begun. Local authorities and provincial governments also encourage local and/or regional neighbourhood development activities. Since 2002 the national Citizen and Environmental Policy programme has invited citizens to share their ideas about environmental policy formulation. Companies are also contributing to sustainable development initiatives. For example, much attention is being given to Corporate Social Responsibility.
1.2
Environmental awareness and education
Environmental awareness The environment began to be perceived as a major policy issue in the early 1970s. Public interest in environmental protection efforts remained high through the late 1980s; 58% of the population considered the environment a key social problem in 1989. Since then, increasing wealth (with associated higher consumption and mobility) and environmental progress have led to some loss of interest in the environment. Willingness to take action has also decreased in recent years. It is clear that changing people’s behaviour is more difficult than helping them understand their contribution to environmental stress. Environmental awareness varies across population groups. Women are more concerned than men; young people demonstrate the greatest willingness to take action to preserve the environment. The higher people’s level of education, the readier they are to pay for environmental protection. The urban population as a whole is the most concerned about the environment and more willing to make financial efforts. Judging by the membership of specialised NGOs and donations for biodiversity conservation, there is wide support for nature conservation. Tens of thousands of active volunteers monitor flora and fauna every year, help in landscape management, act as nature guides, and participate in other activities that benefit nature and the landscape. Private Data Management Organisations (PGOs) gather a good deal of information concerning nature. About 12 000 often highly specialised Dutch citizens take part in this professionally run network of volunteers. In recent years the number of people who actively participate in monitoring projects has been increasing. Most active volunteers are involved in observing birds (SOVON), butterflies (Vlinderstichting), mammals (VZZ), insects (EIS) and vascular plant species (FLORON). The Nature Policy Assessment Office uses the information provided by these organisations to report on the state of nature. Interest in organic food has grown considerably in recent years, though only 2% of total food sold in the Netherlands is eco-labelled. The largest shares of organic products are dairy products (10%) and fresh fruit and vegetables (5%). A study commissioned by
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LNV shows that in the late 1990s the market share of wood and wood products ecocertified by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) was only around 3% (far below the targets of 25% by 2003 and 50% by 2006). Only 1.5% of consumers interviewed were familiar with the FSC logo. The Good Wood Foundation (GH) was created in 1999 to increase the market share of FSC products in the Netherlands, regrouping 20 firms in the forestry sector. Its main purpose is to prevent deforestation by ensuring that wood and forest products on the Dutch market come from sustainably managed forests. GH works in close consultation with environmental NGOs such as the Heart for Wood Campaign, WWF, Oxfam and Friends of the Earth. Transport preference is another indicator of environmental awareness. There is already a good network of long-distance bicycle paths, footpaths and canals in the Netherlands. To travel short distances, many people use bicycles (42%) or walk (13%). Few use public transport (5%), but a large number use private cars (40%). For longer distances, most prefer to use cars (83%); some use public transport (15%) and a few travel by bicycle (2%). Cars (40%), bicycles (39%) and walking (21%) are all common ways to do everyday shopping. To travel to work, most people use cars (57%) and the rest bicycles (23%) or public transport (14%); 6% walk. “Greening” of the tax system, and related increases in fuel prices, have not provided strong enough incentives to change transport patterns significantly. The draft National Traffic and Transport Plan (NVVP) no longer contains explicit mobility targets.
Environmental education Environmental protection and nature conservation, often complemented by natural resource management, are part of the curriculum at different levels of the Dutch educational system. Many environmental education and public awareness raising activities are initiated and executed by grassroots organisations, active at the local level, which work with local schools and institutes. The Network for Sustainable Higher Education was created in 1998 to integrate sustainable development into higher education. It currently has over 500 members. Since 2000, the environmental education programme Learning for Sustainability has financed local and regional projects in which local authorities, water boards, schools, NGOs and companies co-operate on sustainable development while learning from each other. The Ministry of Education, Science and Cultural Affairs supervises this programme, together with VROM, LNV, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Association of Provincial Authorities (IPO), the Association of Netherlands Municipalities (VNG), and the Union of Water Boards. A massive three-year campaign to educate the general public about environmental problems and their root causes had successful results in the areas of energy
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use and waste separation. Other, more targeted campaigns have been relatively successful in increasing environmental awareness (e.g. of energy efficiency and collection of old batteries). Since 1990 an extensive awareness programme on climate change has been jointly conducted by VROM, the Ministry of Economic Affairs and energy distribution companies. Eight mass media campaigns have been devoted to different themes (e.g. energy conservation, introduction of the energy tax) and focused on different groups (e.g. young people). Two-thirds of the Dutch population is now convinced of the necessity to take steps to address climate change. This awareness raising approach has complemented a number of campaigns organised by NGOs at the municipal level between 1992 and 1995.
1.3
Environmental employment
The Dutch labour market balance improved significantly during the 1990s. The unemployment rate is currently among the lowest in the OECD (Chapter 6, Section 2.1). Between 1995 and 2001, it fell from 7.0 to 2.2%. The largest contributions to gross added value and to employment creation come from trade, services and the public sector. Directly environmentally related employment in the Netherlands stands at about 100 000, representing 1.3% of total employment, in line with most other OECD countries (i.e. between 1 and 1.5%). About 30% of these jobs are part-time; 58% are in the private sector, 38% in the public sector and 4% in non-profit and other sectors. Employment created indirectly by the implementation of cleaner technologies is not included in this estimate. In the private sector environmental jobs are 93% in pollution abatement (production of equipment, provision of services, construction and installation); they also exist in resource management (water supply, sustainable agriculture, renewable energy). In the public sector environmental jobs are concerned with provision of environmental services (waste management, waste water treatment, water supply) as well as environmental management (environmental legislation, permitting, enforcement). Non-profit and other sectors include NGOs and research institutions whose activities include advocacy, environmental monitoring, analysis and assessment, as well as social enterprises involved in environmentally related training of the unemployed. In the late 1990s employment in the environmental services industry (solid waste, waste water, soil remediation) grew at an average annual rate of 13.4%. The private sector’s share of the waste disposal market has continued to increase in importance, with significant investments in new processing equipment. The potential for the Dutch environmental industry to export its environmental management know-how, technology and services to other countries should create new business opportunities in the environment sector.
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A number of regional “bottom-up” environmental initiatives have been designed with multiple objectives in view, including benefits to the local economy and employment. Examples include networks for direct marketing of organic products, and partnerships among local government agencies, universities and companies for research and development on environmental technologies involving staff exchanges and training. There is growing interest in the employment effects of climate change policies. The Netherlands has reformed energy taxation in recent years, taking into account both environmental and employment aspects (Chapter 5). This reform has been part of the general modernisation of the fiscal system. Taxes on income and labour were reduced at the same time new or higher energy taxes were imposed, possibly contributing to lower unemployment rates. Plans to continue to broaden and increase energy taxes and introduce some form of emission trading are expected to have short-term negative impacts on employment in energy-intensive sectors (e.g. the fertiliser and aluminium industries). The extent of these impacts will depend on the manner in which domestic climate change policies are implemented, and on opportunities to outsource emission reductions in eastern Europe and Russia. Long-term effects on total employment are projected to be negligible or even slightly positive, as the revenue from energy taxes and permit auctions could be used to reduce taxes on low-skilled labour.
1.4
Environment, health and safety
The life expectancy of the Dutch population is high, partly due to strict controls on air quality and drinking water supply and the setting of quality standards for health protection. A key objective of the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM) is to ensure a healthy, safe and high-quality human living environment. Some major environmental problems have been tackled successfully in recent decades, such as exposure to dioxins and water and air pollution from industrial activities. Consequently, related health effects have been sharply reduced. But the Netherlands has a high population density and some environmental standards continue to be exceeded. Based on annual current understanding of the health risks of environmental pollution, it is estimated that the physical environment contributes something like 2 to 5% to national health problems. Among the principal health problems are those related to air pollution, noise nuisance (e.g. from traffic) and contamination of the indoor environment (e.g. from radon, tobacco smoke and allergenic biological agents). Health risks related to air pollution, such as fine particles, NO2 and ozone have decreased but still remain a problem: approximately 2.5% of the population is exposed
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to levels above the NO2 limit. For particulate matter the 2005 annual average PM10 limit value is exceeded for about 4% of the population (the current EU 2010 goal is exceeded everywhere in the country). Noise nuisance remains a health concern. The impacts of pollution on health are reasonably quantifiable (Figure 6.1). Health effects associated with other environmental factors (e.g. toxic substances, external safety and food safety) are more difficult to quantify. The impacts of biotechnology, electromagnetic fields and biological risks are being assessed. Poor neighbourhoods are often more exposed to environmental pollution and risks than prosperous ones. People living in these neighbourhoods may also have limited access to green areas. There is a clear correlation between environmental quality and income distribution (Figure 6.2). Low-income segments of the population often live in densely populated settlements with high environmental pressures, which are generally closer to polluting facilities (e.g. industrial plants, incinerators). They confront social problems such as poor education, unemployment and criminality, all of which contribute to giving environmental improvement a low priority. Some municipalities have undertaken to provide below-cost or free access to environmental services such as waste collection in poor neighbourhoods.
Environmental health NEPP4 advocates a change of policy to prevent emerging health problems that are not yet readily apparent. It also warns that public safety and the quality of the living environment could decline. In November 2001 a Policy Document on Environment and Health analysed health effects due to environmental factors and proposed measures to reduce environmental pressures. Following consultation in May 2002 with civil society, scientists, provincial and local authorities and other ministries, VROM and the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport produced an Environmental Health Action Plan. The Environmental Health Action Plan introduces a series of measures to address previously identified bottlenecks. Much of the responsibility for implementation rests with the government, though certain decisions will need to be taken at the provincial and local level and by the business community. The focus of this plan is on reducing health effects due to environmental factors and addressing, where possible, concerns associated with environmental risks. Other important emphases include making it easier to predict, manage and avoid risks and to improve the quality of the environment. The plan proposes 36 actions to achieve these goals. Some can be implemented immediately; others will need to be worked out in more detail. It is intended that decisions on concrete actions will be taken no later than the end of 2003.
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Figure 6.1 Environmentally related impacts on healtha Particulate matter 1995b Particulate matter 1995c Ozone 1995b
95% reliability interval
Ozone 1995c
Average value
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Traffic noise 1995
Aircraft noise 1995d Radon 2000 Damp 2000 0
1 000
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DALY’s per year
a) In units of Disability Adjusted Life Years = premature death or disability. b) All impacts on health combined. c) Deaths and hospital admissions. d) Cardiovascular disease only. Source: RIVM.
Figure 6.2 Distribution of environmental pressures by income groupa More than 35 dwellings per hectare
Proximity to hazardous installations
1
Proximity to green space
High Above average Average Low Minimum
Noise > 65 dB (A)
Infrastructural barrier
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Proximity to road with NO2 exceedance
a) Index 1 represents the average for the whole population; a value less than 1 is favourable. Source: RIVM.
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External safety In recent years there have been major accidents in the Netherlands related to transport and industrial activities. A 747 jumbo jet crashed in a densely populated suburb of Amsterdam in 1992, killing 39 people on the ground (the Bijlner disaster). In 2000 a fireworks factory exploded and 22 people living nearby were killed (the Enschede disaster). These accidents prompted adoption of new legislation on external safety, as well as more stringent permitting and enforcement measures for the transport sector and industrial and commercial installations. External safety is concerned with risks to people living near industrial installations and hazardous substance transport routes. This is of particular concern in the Netherlands due to high population density. Dangerous situations around airports and railway yards in inner city areas and near large chemical plants make the greatest contribution to the risk of accidents. Air traffic is an important risk factor. The risk to society presented by Schiphol Airport has increased substantially since 1990. It is expected that a fifth runway, to be operational in 2003, will reduce this risk. However, the risk will grow if the number of flights and construction of houses and offices near the airport continue to increase. About 14 of the 80 railway yards in the Netherlands (where shunting of railway cars transporting hazardous substances is permitted under the terms of environmental licensing) are considered problematic. Well known hazardous substances concerned include ammonia, LPG and chlorine. The main thrust of government policy on external safety, as set out in NEPP4, is to limit the possible effects of hazardous activities on the environment. The aim is to control environmental risks posed by the use, storage and production of hazardous substances and by their transport. VROM is responsible for co-ordinating external safety policy. A new directorate was established on 1 January 2002 to carry out co-ordinating duties. In 1999 the Commission for the Prevention of Disasters (CPR), an advisory body to the government, published the first guidelines for quantitative risk assessment (the Purple Book). Methods for calculating the risks of stationary installations and risks associated with the transport of dangerous goods are described. A new independent Advisory Council for External Safety will soon replace CPR. Its purpose is to assist VROM and other departments, as well as local authorities and the Environmental Inspectorate, in disaster prevention and control. Dutch legislation concerning the risks of major accidents was revised in 1999 in order to transpose the 1997 EU Seveso Directive on the major accident hazards of certain industrial activities. Companies handling large volumes of hazardous substances are now required to have a Safety Management System and, if there is on site storage, a Safety Report (this report replaces the former External Safety Report). To improve implementation of new and existing rules at the local and regional levels, external
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safety has been incorporated in the draft Fifth National Policy Document on Spatial Planning. External safety risks should be taken into account at an early stage in the spatial planning process, both to prevent new unsafe situations and to address existing ones. A new Council Order (to come into force in late 2003) will require authorities to estimate risk tolerability prior to granting land use and environmental permits. It will also instruct Local Councils to review risk tolerability in the vicinity of existing industrial installations. To improve enforcement, the role and capacity of central government inspectorates are being strengthened. The inspectorates will work together closely; integration measures have begun to be taken in several ministries. The integrated VROM Inspectorate (VI) became operational on 1 January 2002 (Chapter 5). A national expertise centre on external safety was established at RIVM in 2002 to provide clear and unequivocal information on the nature and scope of safety issues. RIVM was given responsibility for registering risk situations involving hazardous substances. The register will be made publicly available. The general public will have the opportunity to file complaints or ask questions about external safety using VROM’s internet hotline. In 1999 RIVM published a Safety Environmental Risk Database (SERIDA) containing physical and toxicological information for use in risk analyses in the fields of external safety, workplace safety and environmental risks. The substances included were selected from safety reports by Dutch companies included on the Seveso II list, the Dutch and EU black lists, and the list of the International Rhine Committee. The 2001 version listed 684 substances. SERIDA information is used to select the relevant hazard categories under the Seveso II Directive on major accident hazards and calculate whether threshold quantities in the Directive are exceeded. SERIDA also provides information on legal requirements for risk assessment, thus facilitating an evaluation of whether a Seveso II installation needs to notify competent authorities about its activities (including whether a safety report based on the EU Seveso II Directive should be submitted).
2.
Focus on Selected Topics 2.1
Social context
The population density of the Netherlands, at 385 inhabitants/km2, is the second highest in the OECD (after Korea). The population has continued to increase by 1 million per decade since 1970 (Figure 6.3). It was 15 million in 1990 and nearly 16 million in 2001. In 2001 GDP per capita (at 1995 prices and PPPs) was USD 24 900, the 10th highest in the OECD (compared with the OECD average of USD 22 000). Relative
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Figure 6.3
171
Social indicators
Population and ageing Population trends, 1990-2001 Netherlands
Population change
7.0
United States Japan Denmark France Germany Italy United Kingdom
14.0 3.0 4.2 4.4 3.7 2.1 4.2
1990
2001
natural increase
‰
4.6
3.9
net migration
‰
4.0
4.3
1990
1999
4.6
4.1
Foreign population %
5.6
OECD Europe OECD
9.1
0.0
2.5
Ageing
7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 %
5.0
over 64/under 15
1990
2001
ratio
0.70
0.73
2000
2000
2000
Settlement and mobility Population density, 2001
Population by type of region
Netherlands
385.0
United States Japan Denmark France Germany Italy United Kingdom
30.4 336.9 124.4 107.8
100
85.3
59.7
538
intermediate
12.4
33.2
140
2.4
7.1
126
Mobility
104.2 32.7 0
urban rural
230.6 192.3 245.0
OECD Europe OECD
% population % area density
car ownership 200
300 400 inhabitants/km2
rail traffic
1990
1999
veh./100 inh.
35
40
billion pass.-km
11
14
1990
1997
10.6
11.3
1990
2001
Regional disparities
Income and employment
GDP/inh.
GDP per capita, 2001 Netherlands
variation coefficient
113
United States Japan Denmark France Germany Italy United Kingdom
146 112 117 107 106 101 98 100 0
40
80
total rate
%
58.2
67
female rate
%
53.1
66.3
1990
2001
Unemployment
85
OECD Europe OECD
Labour force participation
160 120 OECD = 100
total rate
%
6.0
2.2
female rate
%
10.7
3.4
1990
2000
..
65.0
Health and education Upper secondary or higher education, 2001 Netherlands
65.0
United States Japan Denmark France Germany Italy United Kingdom
63.9 82.6 43.3 63.0 63.0 64.2 0
Source:
OECD.
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upper secondary 87.7 83.1 80.2
OECD Europe OECD 20
40
Educational attainment
100 60 80 % of adult population
%
Life expectancy at birth:
1990
2000
total
years
77.0
78.1
female
years
80.1
80.6
years
14.1
15.0
years
18.6
18.8
at age 65: male female
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poverty (as measured by the proportion of people with low incomes) and income inequality (as measured by the Gini coefficient) are low. Following an increase in the first half of the 1990s (from 6% in 1990 to 7.6% in 1994), the unemployment rate fell to 2.2% in 2001. This rate is among the lowest in the OECD. The labour force numbers 8.2 million, of whom 76% are in the service sector, 21% in industry and 3% in agriculture (compared with 69, 26 and 5%, respectively, in 1990). About one-quarter of the adult population has completed tertiary (university) education. The Dutch economic system is regarded as benefiting from consensus. Stability is maintained through close and regular contact within the Socio-Economic Council among trade unions, employers’ organisations and independent consultants appointed by the government. The government interferes as little as possible in industrial relations. Among the most important business groups are the Dutch Chemical Industry Association, the Central Industrial Board for Retail Trade, the Netherlands Construction Industry Council and the Union of Entrepreneurs in Logistics and Transport. The LTO represents farmers. The VNO-NCW, a general employers’ organisation, has a special spatial planning and environment office (BMRO). The major trade unions are grouped in the Federation of Netherlands Trade Unions and the Christian National Federation of Trade Unions.
2.2
Access to nature and recreation areas
A large part of the national territory is used for agriculture (57%), housing (8%) and transport (3%). A significant area is covered by inland water (19%); little space is left for forests (8%), natural areas (3%) and recreational areas (2%). Demography and the development of housing and transport infrastructure have put increasing pressure on access to recreational areas. There are geographical disparities with respect to access to nature and recreational areas. Such access is particularly difficult in the Randstad area (in and around the cities of Amsterdam, The Hague and Utrecht), where population densities are highest. Economic development activities in the south also make the demand for land high. In contrast, there are woodlands in the centre of the country and pressures from urbanisation are relatively low in the north. Demography and the development of housing and transport infrastructure have put increasing pressure on land use for recreational purposes. People increasingly feel the need for enough space to take part in recreational activities in rural areas but also
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in and around cities. Ageing of the population in both rural and urban areas will result in even greater demand for recreational and tourism facilities. It is estimated that without additional measures over 20% of existing valuable landscapes will disappear by 2020 owing to urban development. However, the draft Fifth National Policy Document on Spatial Planning provides for a restricted landscape protection area over 90% smaller than that proposed in the Fourth National Policy Document. In the Netherlands free access is granted to most nature reserves. Many of these reserves have recreation facilities. The recent policy document Nature for People, People for Nature gives the recreational value of nature a prominent role. Opening up 90% of areas protected under the National Ecological Network (EHS) to extensive recreation is a key objective. The EHS continues to expand, with the goal of covering 18% of Dutch territory by 2018 (Chapter 4). Woodlands are the favourite type of countryside for many Dutch citizens. A preference for this type of recreation applies to all regions, ages, socio-economic groups and households. Today nature conservation is the main function of 20 to 30% of Dutch woodlands. About 90% of these woodlands are accessible to the public. The government’s objective is to create 75 000 hectares of new woodlands between 1994 and 2020. Much of this expansion is planned in urban areas. Between 1990 and 1997, however, only 35% of the planned expansion was achieved, primarily because targets in the western conurbation were not met. New measures are needed to achieve this target.
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7
SECTORAL INTEGRATION: TRANSPORT*
Recommendations The following recommendations are part of the overall conclusions and recommendations of the OECD Environmental Performance Review of the Netherlands: • strengthen or revive efforts to integrate environmental and sustainable development concerns into transport policy; • further internalise externalities into transport operation and pricing: strengthen the use of existing economic instruments and introduce new ones, such as the suggested per-kilometre tax on lorries and cars (with differentiated rates according to time, place and the environmental impact of each vehicle) or other relevant instruments; • work towards eliminating domestic and international distortions in competition among transport modes (e.g. subsidisation, taxation, standards), including within the EU, IMO and ICAO; • pursue efforts to reduce noise emissions from road, rail and air traffic (e.g. emission reduction at source); • urgently define and implement a package of measures to reduce CO2 emissions from freight and passenger transport; • continue to improve accident prevention and preparedness in the transport of hazardous substances.
* The present chapter reviews progress in the last ten years, and particularly since the previous OECD Environmental Performance Review of 1995. It also reviews progress with respect to the objective “decoupling environmental pressures from economic growth” of the 2001 OECD Environmental Strategy. It takes into account the ECMT review of sustainable urban travel policies in the Netherlands.
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Conclusions Until recently, the level of integration of environmental, transport and spatial planning in the Netherlands has been commendable. Environmental concerns have been incorporated into transport policies. Regarding vehicles and fuels, air emissions have been reduced in line with EU Directives. The Netherlands has introduced fuel efficiency labelling. In 2002 purchase tax discounts were granted for the most fuelefficient (lowest CO2 emitting) cars. Introduction of more environmentally friendly fuels and other technological innovations have contributed to the reduction of some harmful emissions (e.g. lead, SO2 and NOx). Despite a significant increase in traffic volume, emission reductions have been notable. With respect to traffic management, car-restricted and bicycle- and pedestrian-friendly town centres have a long tradition and are still favoured in local land use planning. In some cases only delivery vehicles and buses are allowed to enter urban zones. Speed limit enforcement has been stepped up considerably, for safety and pollution reasons. Eco-driving (fuel-efficient driving) has been encouraged through training of drivers and incentives to buy vehicles equipped with devices to enhance fuel efficiency. Innovative parking policy is based on pricing and regulations (e.g. a limited number of parking spaces for employees). The level of service provided by the Dutch public transport system could serve as a model for a number of other OECD countries. Fuel taxation has been reviewed and revised, and fiscal advantages for those commuting by car have been eliminated. Concerning infrastructure, EIA is used with extended consultation. However, the Netherlands is not yet moving towards sustainable transport. Integration of environmental concerns, land use planning and sustainable development in transport policy and planning is not commensurate with the country’s ambitious transport development plans and efforts to maintain the Dutch share in international transport. Compared with the early 1990s, there are currently fewer environmental targets, and most are less ambitious; some targets have been abolished (e.g. for CO2 emissions) or postponed (e.g. noise), and others have been extended (e.g. NOx) or strengthened (e.g. VOCs). Implementation and enforcement of environmentally beneficial transport policies and measures have not always been coherent and resolute. CO2 emissions from road traffic have increased dramatically, despite the wide range of economic instruments adopted to discourage private car use. Urban and transport development strategies have not succeeded in reducing traffic volumes for passenger cars. To reduce transport emissions, the Netherlands mainly relies on technological innovations by non-Dutch vehicle and airplane manufacturers. Noise emissions from road vehicles, rail and aviation are spreading. The 1998 agreement on lowering the speed limit in the Randstad area has not been implemented. There is no political consensus on road pricing nor on a per-kilometre tax. Attempts to develop instruments
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to better control emissions from inland and ocean shipping and aviation have had marginal results while awaiting common or technology-related standards and effective agreements at international level (e.g. on taxation of aviation and bunker fuels, emission standards for heavy-duty diesel engines used in locomotives and ships).
1.
Evaluation of Performance
Dutch transport policy aims at strengthening the country’s position as a “gateway to Europe” and developing its transport infrastructure (ports, airports, roads, rail infrastructure, inland shipping) to support the national economy. This development choice translates into very ambitious goals for the transport sector and major environmental challenges. Transport and communications contribute around 7% of GNP (3% and 4%, respectively) and 6% of employment (470 000 people, of which 55% in freight transport).
1.1
Policy objectives
National objectives and planning Compared to the second Transport Structure Plan 1990-2000 (SVV2), the draft National Traffic and Transport Plan 2001-20 (NVVP) marked a shift in transport policy objectives from reducing growth in the use of cars and the inter-modal split (with priority given to public transport) towards road pricing and infrastructure management (with the proposed introduction of a per-kilometre tax). NVVP was rejected by Parliament in the spring of 2002, with the consequence that SVV2 is still formally in force. The draft NVVP is now being adjusted to current policy goals and principles, which reflect the increased emphasis on congestion control rather than pollution control. The draft NVVP aims at ensuring free mobility and accessibility, with a minimum of government interference in citizens’ behaviour. Freight transport is seen as a vital part of the economy: passenger and freight transport needs must be met. Unlike the previous NEPPs and SVV2, there are no explicit objectives concerning modal choice or ceilings on traffic growth in NEPP4 or the draft NVVP. The draft NVVP established accessibility, safety and quality of life as its main goals. It included a 25% reduction target for traffic fatalities and injuries by 2010. This target has recently been made less stringent. Environmental concerns are not highlighted in the draft NVVP – relative to SVV2 – and users of road transport services are not expected to be confronted with the impacts of transport pressures on the environment and land use. In NEPP4 environmental targets have been changed, but it is not always clear how they should be achieved. The 2010 target for CO2 has been abolished and the NOx target has become less stringent (Table 7.1).
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The draft NVVP proposes a number of new or reinforced policy measures. These include: government and private sector partnerships to construct and maintain transport infrastructure; decentralisation of part of transport policy implementation to provinces and municipalities; and establishment of regional mobility funds which give provincial and municipal authorities the scope to implement the draft NVVP (e.g. enhancing biking infrastructure, park-and-ride facilities, public transport and road safety measures). The financial ceiling for direct decisions on local projects by provincial and local authorities will be raised from EUR 10 million to EUR 200 million. The 1995 OECD Environmental Performance Review recommended that the Netherlands: – pursue determined efforts to meet the domestic targets adopted in the NEPP as well as international commitments (NOx protocols, convention on climate change), including necessary structural changes in the Dutch transport sector, and review of road traffic and freight transport growth options; – implement a comprehensive set of measures to discourage road transport and promote the cost effectiveness of alternative modes, including inland shipping and public transport; – develop the use of economic instruments (including road pricing in urbanised areas and fuel taxation) and eliminate fiscal deductions for commuting by car; – expand public involvement and the application of environmental assessment in the definition of transport policies and infrastructure; – improve accident prevention and preparedness, in connection with the transport of hazardous goods.
1.2
Integration of policies
Institutional integration The draft National Traffic and Transport Plan (NVVP), the draft Fifth National Policy Document on Spatial Planning (NPSP5) and the Fourth National Environmental Policy Plan (NEPP4) were produced almost simultaneously in 2000-01. While they continue the Dutch tradition of detailed and forward-looking policy planning, there is limited co-ordination and integration of policy goals and means. In particular, insufficient (and reduced) integration of environmental and spatial planning concerns in the development of transport policy is one of the main weaknesses of current traffic and transport policy planning. Successful integration of transport and spatial planning policies usually reduces transport demand. In the draft NPSP5 (covering the period 2000-20) in contrast to NPSP4 and its supplement (1990-91), reducing car use
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is no longer considered one of the main goals of spatial planning. A recent Position Paper on physical planning moves away from past planning principles in that it allows decentralised housing, which forms the basis of extra-urban car use and peak hour congestion.
Market-based integration Attempts have been made to reduce car use and congestion on roads, as well as to foster use of public transport. Fuel taxation and pricing of parking are major economic instruments influencing car use. In association with economic instruments, regulatory actions have been introduced – notably a maximum number of parking spaces of one for every ten employees in new office buildings (more parking spaces are allowed outside urban areas). This policy, however, is being less strictly enforced after some years in effect, and there is growing resistance from local governments, investors and real estate businesses concerned primarily with economic development and employment issues. Fiscal deductions for car commuting have been eliminated, in line with one of the recommendations of the 1995 OECD Environmental Performance Review. The focus on market mechanisms in the draft NVVP is strong. However, the external costs associated with transport (e.g. climate change, habitat fragmentation and loss of biodiversity, landscape degradation, environmental effects of land takings and other resource use, effects of emissions on human and ecosystem health, noise, accidents) are not explicitly referred to in the draft NVVP. According to a recent study, introducing environmentally sustainable transport in the Netherlands would have limited long-term macro-economic impacts (Chapter 7, Section 2.1). Road freight transport, shipping and aviation transport benefit from significant fiscal advantages compared with private car use.
Technology Current transport planning also emphasises technological changes: thus, “the government wants to initiate a transition process to solve difficult environmental problems, in the expectation that technological breakthroughs will play a major role in bringing about necessary reduction of environmental pressure”. Applications of information technology (e.g. on-line route information, the Global Positioning System, chip cards) and alternative energy and fuel technologies are often cited as making important contributions to reducing environmental pressure from transport. The impacts of these technologies remain uncertain, while expectations of the contributions to be realised through changes in production and consumption patterns are low.
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1.3
Trends in the environmental effects of transport
Traffic and transport affect the environment directly through emissions of harmful substances (air pollution, climate change), noise, habitat fragmentation and resource use (e.g. materials, space and energy for vehicle and infrastructure construction). Transport accidents involving people and hazardous substances entail considerable economic, environmental and social losses. Every year some 1 000 to 1 100 people have been killed and around 12 000 severely injured in accidents on Dutch roads over the last decade.
Air emissions CO2 emissions from transport have continued to increase. Other emissions from transport (e.g. NOx, SO2, VOCs) have decreased, but not enough to meet the ambitious national targets of NEPP2 and the Second Transport Structure Plan (SVV2), both from the early 1990s (Chapter 2). Without extra measures CO2 emissions from transport will double between 1990 and 2030, mainly due to a doubling or tripling of the volume of road freight transport and aviation. CO2 emissions from transport increased by around 20% between 1990 and 2000. These emissions originate essentially from road transport. Passenger cars contributed 45% and freight transport vehicles another 45% to this increase (Figure 7.1). In 1990 a 10% reduction target for CO2 emissions from road transport by 2010 was set relative to 1986; this target was abandoned about a decade later as “unrealistic” (Table 7.1). Except for the planned per-kilometre tax (considered for cars as of 2006 but recently rejected by Parliament), the draft NVVP does not contain policies or measures to reduce CO2 emissions from transport beyond those found in the National Climate Policy Implementation Plan (NCPIP), which is based on the overall Kyoto Protocol GHG emission reduction target of 6% by 2008-12 (Chapter 8). Progressive strengthening of EU motor vehicle emission standards and of fuel emission standards (for sulphur) have brought about progress in traditional road traffic air pollutant emissions. Late actions were taken in particular for inland shipping (Rhine Commission emission standards) and for commercial aircraft (International Civil Aviation Organisation 1999 NOx emission standard). Domestic measures were also taken concerning road vehicles (e.g. reduced excise duties, subsidies for fuelefficient vehicles) and will soon enter into force for inland shipping (e.g. retrofitting programme). Reduction targets for NOx emissions in the 1990 NEPP1/SVV2 (40 kt for cars and 24 kt for lorries by 2010) were replaced in the draft NVVP, which sets a 150 kt reduction target by 2010 for the entire transport sector (including inland shipping and other mobile sources). Emissions of NOx from road transport declined
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Figure 7.1 CO2 emissions from traffic, 1990-2000 1 000 tonnes
38 Passenger cars 36 34 Light-duty vehicles 32 Heavy-duty vehicles 30 Non-road traffic Situation 1990 28 1990 Source:
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
RIVM.
Expected transport emissions of CO2, NOx and SO2a
Figure 7.2
CO2
NOx
1 000 tonnes
SO2
1 000 tonnes
50
1 000 tonnes
350
30
300
25
40 250 30
20 2010 target
200
2010 target
15
150
20
10
100 10
5
50 0
0
0 1995
2010
Road passengers
2020 Road freight
a) Scenario based on draft NVVP. Source: RIVM.
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1995
2010
Inland waterway
2020
1995 Sea shipping
2010
2020
Mobile machinery
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Table 7.1
CO2 NOx SO2 NMVOCs
Transport and environmental targets for 2000 and 2010a
NEPP2 (2000 targets)
NEPP2 (2010 targets)
23 Mta 112 kta 14 ktb 65 kta
20.7 Mta 65 kta 12 ktb 57 ktb
NEPP3 (2010 targets) NEPP4 (2010 targets) No sector-specific target
65 kta 12 ktb 57 ktb
150 ktb 13 ktb 49 ktb
a) Road traffic only (passenger and freight). b) All transport modes (road, rail, inland shipping). Source: OECD.
by one-third between 1990 and 2000, a reduction achieved through stricter EU standards, thereby fulfilling international commitments. This mainly reflects use of catalytic converters in petrol burning passenger cars and of less polluting diesel engines (in the Netherlands the latter change is mainly relevant to lorries). NOx emissions from non-road transport (e.g. shipping, rail, aviation) increased by 20% during the decade, as effective NOx emission standards for non-road transport are lacking and aviation emissions are increasing with traffic despite more stringent ICAO NOx standards. If nothing is done, 25% of total NOx emissions will come from shipping in 2010. NOx emissions from the entire transport sector decreased by 20% between 1990 and 2000. This will probably not be enough to meet the ambitious national targets set in the early 1990s in NEPP2 and the Second Transport Structure Plan (SVV2) (Table 7.1 and Figure 7.2). Despite the growth of road traffic, emissions of CO and VOCs have declined by 53% and 49%, respectively, since 1980. Emissions of SO2, N2O, CO, VOCs, PAHs and particulate matter from non-road transport are still a problem.
Noise emissions Little progress has been made with respect to noise emissions. Since 1980 much of the Dutch population has continued to experience noise nuisance from roads, railways, ports, airports and industry. Despite significant investments in noise reduction, road traffic noise has remained high due to growing traffic volumes, lenient EU emission standards, a growing share of diesel cars and vans in urban traffic, increasing intensities of use on rural roads and during the night, and use of wider tyres. The focus of noise abatement policies has shifted from reducing noise levels at reception (e.g. through
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buffer zones, noise screens, building insulation) to reducing them at source (e.g. improved road surfaces, technological improvements in transport and industry). Noise levels near large commercial airports have fallen due to new ICAO/EU standards for landing and take-off noise; noise-differentiated landing charges, land zoning and enforcement of noise related standards (e.g. building insulation) have helped control noise at Amsterdam’s Schiphol airport despite traffic increases.
1.4
Traffic management
In the Netherlands transport is the fastest growing sector in terms of energy consumption and production of greenhouse gases. Current traffic levels present significant threats to the environment and human health. Road congestion, expressed in lost vehicle hours, is expected to more than double by 2020. The NEPP2 and SVV2 targets for limiting increases in car use by 35% and in use of lorries by 40% (in the period 1986-2010) were abandoned in NEPP4 and the draft NVVP as non-achievable. Between 1990 and 2001 the number of private car passenger-kilometres and road freight tonne-kilometres increased by 8 and 36%, respectively. Intense use of leisure and recreational opportunities has contributed considerably to the increase in car use. Steep growth in use of public transport in the early 1990s reflected provision of partly free transport to half a million students (Figure 7.3). Passenger transport by train now represents only about 8% of total passenger transport (in passenger-km). While rail and inland shipping had increased by 19% between 1990 and 2001, lorry traffic (in tonne-kilometres) is growing at a rate which – according to model predictions – could lead to a doubling by 2010 (compared to 1990). In the early 1990s the target of promoting a 30% increase in biking by 2010 (compared to 1986) was introduced; in practice, bicycle use declined by 22% in the period 1990-2000. The number of passengers using Schiphol airport is growing rapidly and is now expected to reach between 50 and 65 million in 2010, while a cap of 44 million had been set in 1995. For the five-runway configuration at Schiphol (planned to be in use in 2003), there is a cap on the number of dwellings (10 000) that can be exposed to the maximum allowable noise level of 35 Kosten units, broadly equivalent to 60-65 dB(A). Limiting traffic growth is touched upon in NEPP4, mainly in the context of how to “reduce the demand for freight transport without inhibiting economic development”. Reducing the volume or weight of transported products and shortening transport distances are also mentioned. The government has adopted an action programme to limit the growth of freight traffic; existing subsidy schemes may be used to support this programme. Although other means of reducing traffic (e.g. site selection, information
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Figure 7.3
Trends in the transport sector
Freight traffic,a 1990-2001
Passenger traffic,b 1990-2001
1990 = 100
1990 = 100
Rail Road GDPc Pipeline Inland waterways
150 125
150 125
100
100
75
75
50
50
25
25
GDPc Rail
Buses and coaches Private cars
0
0 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
1990
1992 1994
1996 1998 2000
Total final energy consumption by the transport sector, 2000
Private car ownership, 1999
Inland navigation 5% Netherlands
40
United States Japan Denmark France Germany Italy United Kingdom
76 40 36 46 52 56 45
OECD Europe
Air 24%
Rail 1%
39
Road 69% 45
OECD 0
20
40
60
80
vehicles/100 persons
a) Index of relative change since 1990 based on values expressed in tonne-kilometres. b) Index of relative change since 1990 based on values expressed in passenger-kilometres. c) GDP expressed in 1995 prices and purchasing power parities. Source: ECMT; AAMA; IRF; OECD.
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and communication technology) are under consideration, the draft NVVP does not address prevention per se. Speed limits have been moderately successful in reducing the number of road accidents as well as fuel consumption, air and noise emissions. Part of their success is due to streamlining of the fines procedure by the highway police (computerisation, the pay first and appeal later concept), which is to be strengthened further through additional resources and technological innovations according to the National Climate Policy Implementation Plan. The 1998 government decision to reduce the speed limit on motorways in the Randstad area to 100 km/h to cut CO2 emissions has neither been upheld nor implemented. An experiment to introduce an 80 km/h speed limit in the Rotterdam area (Highway 13) seems to have been quite effective in reducing noise and NO2 levels. It could lead to reduction of speed limits in other highly polluted areas. Improving the behind-the-wheel behaviour of the Netherlands’ 7 million car drivers in the direction of eco-driving is being addressed through the New Driving Force programme, which is funded by three ministries under NCPIP. However, the SVV2 target of reducing average fuel consumption per vehicle by 10% by 2010 through widespread introduction of eco-driving seems out of reach. Standard use of in-car feedback instruments (e.g. dashboard computers, cruise control), stimulated by fiscal measures, could help change the behaviour of many drivers in the short term. Inland shipping accounts for a large share of freight transport (in tonne-kilometres) (54% in 1990, 50% in 2001). However, road freight transport is rapidly increasing and now represents 37% of total freight transport in the Netherlands (compared with 34% in 1990). Modal split objectives have been strongly played down in NEPP4 and NVVP compared to the early 1990s, partly on the grounds that the level of NOx emissions (per tonne-kilometre) from lorries will fall less rapidly than that of diesel trains or barges following the introduction of Euro4 or Euro5 emission standards by 2008-2009. Similar emission standards should be applied to diesel engines in trains and barges, especially taking into account these engines’ expected long lifetime. Car pooling has not been successful in reducing vehicle use and congestion, though it has recently generated growing interest. About 800 000 people share cars to commute to and from the workplace (Chapter 2). Other forms of car sharing are being facilitated at the local level. Stronger economic incentives would clearly be needed to encourage greater car sharing (e.g. exemption from road tolls).
1.5
Vehicles and fuels
Road fuel prices and taxes in the Netherlands are relatively high by European standards (Figure 7.4). Fuel excise duties, which were increased in 1993 and 1997, have
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Figure 7.4 Road fuel prices and taxes
Trends in the Netherlands,a 1990-2001 Unleaded petrol
Diesel fuel EUR
EUR
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0 1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
0.0 1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
Price excluding tax
Tax
State,b 2001 Unleaded petrolc
Diesel fuel 0.74
Netherlands United States
Netherlands United States
0.37 0.44
Japan Denmark France
0.75
Italy
0.8
1.2
1.6
USD/litre
Tax
France
1.08
Germany
1.08 1.30
United Kingdom
1.02 0.4
0.97
Italy
0.89
United Kingdom
0.72
Denmark
0.70
0.0
0.44
Japan 0.66
Germany
1.23
1.17 0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
USD/litre
Price excluding tax
a) At constant 1995 prices. b) In USD at current prices and purchasing power parities. c) Unleaded premium (RON 95); Japan: unleaded regular. Source: IEA-OECD.
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stabilised since (they have been coupled with inflation since 1998, the year in which leaded petrol sales ceased). In the long term, the real prices of motor fuels (corrected for inflation) have increased less rapidly than GDP. In 2000 the prices of all fuels rose sharply due to increases in basic fuel prices (i.e. prices without taxes, levies and VAT). Average fuel cost per car-kilometre was about the same in 2000 as in the early 1980s, reflecting an overall decrease in crude oil prices, a shift to more diesel in the fuel mix and better fuel efficiency. The tax reductions on low-sulphur diesel fuel in 2001 and on low-sulphur petrol in 2002 have been extremely successful. All fuels sold today comply with the maximum 50 ppm criteria; there is an EU goal of sulphur-free diesel fuel in 2008-09. While car ownership has now reached 40 vehicles per 100 inhabitants (about the same as the European average) and is likely to increase further, the fuel efficiency of the road vehicle fleet (cars and lorries) has remained almost stable since the 1980s. Fuel consumption reductions of 15 to 20% since 1985 have not kept pace with increases in engine capacity, performance levels (power and speed) and vehicle weight (in all vehicle classes). The Netherlands has introduced fuel economy labelling and, only in 2002, purchase tax discounts for the most fuel-efficient (and least CO2 emitting) new passenger cars. In each size category purchasers of cars in the two most fuel-efficient categories (A and B) were entitled to a discount of EUR 1 000 and EUR 500, respectively, on the purchase tax. This measure was abolished in 2003 (Chapter 5). Since 2000 an extra EUR 900 purchase tax has been imposed on diesel cars, in addition to the already high purchase tax. The share of diesel cars is lower than in most other western European countries. As the Netherlands hosts and drives the activity of half the European inland shipping fleet, it could propose to the Rhine Commission that NOx emissions from inland shipping be reduced to levels at least comparable with the Euro4 requirements for lorries. To encourage inter-modal competitiveness well as for environmental reasons, existing standards should be reviewed and new standards introduced for sulphur content of fuels used by ocean-going vessels and NOx emissions from ships and aircraft. As an intermediate step, EU SO2 and NOx emission standards could be introduced for maritime shipping on territorial waters. Such issues clearly relate to the Dutch transport sector. However, they should also be addressed in an international context, particularly through the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) and International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) with respect to emission reductions. Some 40 million tonnes of NOx per year is emitted by international bunkers, including those operating in the Netherlands.
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1.6
Infrastructure development
800 km2 of agricultural land and nearly 300 km2 of natural areas have been converted to other uses in the past 20 years. Over half these areas are now occupied by buildings or by road, rail or port infrastructure (Chapter 7, Section 2.2). Around 3% of Dutch land area is used for roads. High costs in heavily developed areas, environmental and landscape impacts, and public opposition combine to make new transport infrastructure difficult to build. With ambitious development objectives having been established in the early 1990s (e.g. doubling of Rotterdam harbour activity, tripling and quadrupling of passenger and freight traffic at Schiphol airport), it is increasingly important to designate space for infrastructure expansion along existing transport infrastructure corridors. To provide incentives for efficient and profitable use of airports and seaports, low fees have been established for their use. Arrangements need to be made with respect to how to pass costs on to users and how to phase out national subsidies. Concerning roads, the draft NVVP (2001-20) introduces, inter alia, compact driving as a way to utilise existing road space more efficiently. When two lanes are re-configured into three narrower ones, with reduced maximum speed, the road can carry more traffic. Concerning rail, the draft NVVP confirms the 1996 decision to build a highspeed train line (300 km/h) from Amsterdam to Rotterdam and Brussels (with connections to Paris and London now under construction) and reinforces the plan for another high-speed train between Amsterdam and Groningen, to be realised mainly through public-private partnership. A new freight-only railway (the Betuwe line) between Rotterdam harbour and Germany is under construction (Chapter 7, Section 2.2). Installing new security and control systems on the current railway network increases efficiency by making it possible for more trains to operate safely on the same tracks. Administrative and network integration as well as interoperability are needed to foster development of transnational European railway lines. Inland waterways, one of the Netherlands’ natural assets, should continue to be used cost-efficiently for freight transport, taking account of positive (less pressure from road transport) and negative (river development, air and water pollution) environmental impacts. Pipelines play an important role in transporting gas and liquids.
2.
Focus on Selected Topics 2.1
Environmentally sustainable transport
The OECD has reviewed policy instruments for achieving environmentally sustainable transport (EST). A recent study shows that introducing EST in the
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Netherlands, with drastic emission reductions (e.g. –80% in the case of CO2 emissions) would have limited long-term macro-economic impacts; by 2030 average annual GDP growth would be some tenths of a percentage point lower than under a business-as-usual scenario, and total Dutch employment would be a few percentage points lower. If external costs are used as an indicator, total loss of material welfare in 2030 would be largely compensated by gains in non-material welfare (i.e. reductions of external costs). EST would also probably mean improvement with respect to several social factors. Differences in travel behaviour, economic and social opportunities, and quality of life among societal groups would be less pronounced and transport volumes would be reduced, improving traffic safety and resulting in a decrease in health problems associated with local air pollution and noise. This study considers tradable CO2 emission permits for both passenger and freight traffic an important prerequisite for achieving EST, apart from renewal of the fleet with high technology vehicles.
2.2
The port of Rotterdam
Recent developments Rotterdam, with 322 Mt of incoming and outgoing goods (throughput) in 2000, is the world’s largest port (followed by Singapore, with 311 Mt). It handles four times more freight than the second largest EU port, or as much as five of the largest other European ports together. The volume of incoming freight (249 Mt) is three times that of outgoing and originates mainly in Europe (100 Mt) and America (54 Mt). Crude oil accounted for 40% of throughput in 2000; most was sold on the Rotterdam spot market. Ore and scrap accounted for 19% of throughput and agri-bulk for 4%. While 18% of cargo is transported in containers, roll-on/roll-off transport accounts for 12%. The port occupies 10 500 hectares; 30% of this area is water. Total storage capacity of the Rotterdam complex is 2.6 million m3. Transport and logistics account for 50% of the port’s economic output, and industry (mainly oil refining and chemicals) for 43%. In 2000 the port of Rotterdam produced 2.2% of the Netherlands’ GDP. The Netherlands, much of Germany and parts of several other European countries may be considered the port’s hinterland. A dense network of road corridors and a modern logistics system guarantee just-in-time delivery of products to consumers in these countries. Inland, the predominant mode of transport is road. Dutch hauliers are responsible for approximately 40% of trans-border European road transport. Long distances are also served by 400 full rail shuttle services per year. Inland shipping
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carries almost everything (e.g. bulk cargo, oil, chemicals and containers) and is growing in volume. Today the equivalent of 385 lorries can be placed on one four-barge push unit. Pipelines connecting sea terminals with locations far into Europe handle 50 million tonnes of oil and chemical products per year. Very serious local air pollution, noise and environmental safety problems arise, particularly when freight is transported through urban areas.
Future developments In 1993 central, provincial and municipal governments and trade and industry agreed on the Rijnmond Action Plan, intended to reinforce the position of Rotterdam and its surrounding industrial area as a “mainport”. The twin target is to double the volume of freight handled by 2010 while improving environmental quality. To improve links with the hinterland, projects for roads, railways and inland waterways have been drawn up for the Maasvlake-Ridderkerk corridor. The action plan includes projects designed to shift goods from road to rail, shipping and pipeline, and to shift passengers from road to other modes. Implementation, which is to continue until 2010, will cost some EUR 3.6 billion, provided by public funds. An elaboration of the Rijnmond Action Plan is the Rotterdam Main Port Development Project. It also has two objectives: enhancing growth of both the port and industrial areas, and improving the quality of the living environment in the Rijnmond area. Construction of a new freight-only railway (the Betuwe line) and several motorways, and restructuring of inland navigation, have been or are being carried out. Land reclamation is being expanded (with an additional 1 000 hectares for new port areas), better use is being made of existing port space, and a 750-hectare natural and recreational area is being created. The 120 kilometre Betuwe railway for freight transport will connect Rotterdam and Germany. It is intended to provide sufficient rail capacity to handle a significant share of container traffic from the “mainport” of Rotterdam, as well as some of the increase in road freight transport. The Betuwe line is expected to handle 30 million out of an estimated 65 million tonnes of freight transported by train (both national and international) in 2010. This project’s estimated cost is EUR 5 billion.
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Part III
INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS
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8
INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS AND CO-OPERATION*
Recommendations The following recommendations are part of the overall conclusions and recommendations of the OECD Environmental Performance Review of the Netherlands: • take into account ancillary benefits of reducing SOx and VOC emissions when assessing the cost-effectiveness of potential greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction measures, and develop means to implement the polluter pays principle through the Kyoto mechanisms; • take steps to ensure full implementation and enforcement of new international commitments concerning port reception and ship-generated wastes and cargo residues; • continue to work in international fora to promote management of shared and straddling marine stocks in the North Sea following an ecosystem management approach; • put an end to illegal trade in ozone depleting substances; • co-operate internationally to develop means of ensuring that timber and wood products imported to the Netherlands originate from sustainably managed tropical and boreal forests; • strengthen and generalise requirements concerning environmental impact assessment, to apply to all major projects financed through international assistance (ODA and non-ODA); • ratify and implement recent international environmental agreements.
* The present chapter reviews progress in the last ten years, and particularly since the OECD Environmental Performance Review of 1995. It also reviews progress with respect to the objective “global environmental interdependence” of the 2001 OECD Environmental Strategy. Selected international commitments are discussed in other chapters: air pollution (Chapter 2), coastal waters (Chapter 3), nature conservation and biodiversity (Chapter 4) and Local Agenda 21 (Chapter 6).
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Conclusions The Netherlands has continued to play a leading, proactive role in the development and implementation of international environmental laws reflecting the regional and global interdependencies of its environment and economy. These efforts have been carried out in the interest of the international community, as well as in the Netherlands’ own interest. Concerning climate change, the Netherlands was very active in helping to achieve progress towards the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol. It succeeded in bringing about a relative decoupling of its CO2 emissions from GDP growth, largely due to a 14% decrease in the energy intensity of the Dutch economy between 1990 and 2000. By significantly reducing emissions of NOx, SOx and NMVOCs, the Netherlands has more than met its reduction targets under the Oslo, Sofia and Geneva Protocols to the LRTAP Convention. It continues active enforcement of marine agreements. It carries out regular surveillance and enforcement in its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) against illegal dumping or discharges from ships. At least 25% of foreign ships calling at Dutch ports are consistently inspected for compliance with MARPOL standards. The Netherlands reduced point source discharges of nitrogen and phosphorous to the North Sea to the extent of being on track to meet its North Sea Conference targets. Partly due to a successful environmental agreement with offshore oil and gas producers, the frequency and magnitude of oil spills and flaring have been reduced; fugitive methane emissions have been limited and compliance with OSPAR limits on oil in effluents has improved. Based on its experience with a prior informed consent (PIC) system to regulate exports of dangerous chemicals to developing countries, the Netherlands played a key role in developing the 1998 Rotterdam PIC Convention. It is one of the few countries that consistently meet UN targets for official development assistance; it also meets its own national commitment regarding the environmental component of its ODA. Despite these impressive achievements, the Netherlands could improve its performance in meeting several international environmental commitments. It failed to meet its national target for stabilising CO2 emissions at their 1990 level by 2000. The ancillary benefits of domestic climate protection measures were not taken into account when preliminary targets were established for realising 50% of the country’s Kyoto commitment through domestic measures. The polluter pays principle (PPP) has not been integrated into early plans to use the Kyoto mechanisms. New reduction targets concerning transboundary air pollutants under the Gothenburg Protocol and the EU National Emission Ceilings (NEC) Directive will require implementation of additional domestic control measures. Stricter standards established in 2000 under MARPOL Annex VI are likely to necessitate tighter control of atmospheric SOx emissions in the offshore zone. To comply with the EU Nitrates Directive, the Netherlands will need to strengthen control of nitrogen emissions from agriculture. It
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should accelerate efforts to designate marine protected areas, so as to implement the Habitats Directive fully in its 200-mile EEZ. In line with FAO recommendations, it has attempted to implement vessel decommissioning schemes to reduce fishing capacity but with little success thus far. Shared and straddling marine fish stocks in the North and Wadden Seas need to be restored: many of these stocks are classified as “outside biologically sustainable limits”. Progress towards Objective 2000 of the International Tropical Timber Organisation (ensuring that all imported hardwood comes from sustainably managed forests) appears to have lost momentum. While development assistance projects are expected to comply with host country requirements concerning the application of environmental impact assessment, the Dutch government does not require systematic application of EIA for these projects.
1.
Evaluation of Performance 1.1
Objectives
The Netherlands shares terrestrial frontiers with Belgium and Germany. It borders the North Sea (with Norway, Denmark, Germany, Belgium, France and the United Kingdom) and the Wadden Sea (with Germany and Denmark). Since it is part of a number of regional environmental interdependencies, environmental issues typically have a strong international component. For example, the waters of Dutch rivers and deltas mainly originate in other countries and flow to the North Sea. The Netherlands is also part of regional air pollution interdependencies (in which acid and ozone precursors are imported and exported). Marine-based economic activities (e.g. shipping, fishing, offshore mineral extraction) of the Netherlands and neighbouring countries put environmental pressures on the North and Wadden Seas, which must be managed jointly. Because the Netherlands is highly integrated in the European economy and depends on trade with the rest of the world, ensuring a “level playing field” for Dutch firms (including harmonisation of environmental policies with major trading partners) has long been of concern. Environmental pressures are greater in the Netherlands than in most other countries due to its physical characteristics (e.g. much of the country is below sea level), high population density and economic development options (e.g. favouring transport and agriculture). Mitigating and minimising the effects of these pressures has often required high national environmental standards and a proactive attitude to raising and harmonising EU environmental norms and to strengthening international environmental commitments in general. The Netherlands has continued its active support for the development of global agreements on environmental protection and sustainable development. It is party to a large number of multilateral environmental agreements (Annex II), apart from EU Directives
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concerned with the environment. Recently it played a leading role in negotiations on several important environmental agreements including the 1998 Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure, the 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and the Kyoto Protocol. The Netherlands is committed to a range of international environmental agreements (Annex II) and related performance objectives. Its performance meeting internationally agreed objectives in selected areas (e.g. climate protection, transboundary pollution, marine pollution, management of marine resources, trade and environment) is evaluated here. Progress towards implementing the recommendations of the 1995 OECD Environmental Performance Review (EPR) regarding international co-operation is also assessed. The 1995 OECD Environmental Performance Review recommended that the Netherlands: – ratify and implement recent international environmental agreements; – strengthen bilateral co-operation with neighbouring countries, in particular concerning pollution of transboundary rivers and co-operation on local issues (environmental impact assessment [EIA], hazardous facilities); – work towards solving diffuse-source pollution problems, particularly from agriculture and transport, nationally and at EU level; – strive to reduce energy consumption and emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the Netherlands by use of an appropriate mix of regulatory, economic, and other instruments; – rigorously pursue measures to implement the Montreal Protocol and related amendments for substances (other than halons and chlorofluorocarbons [CFCs] already banned) such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and methyl bromide; – contribute to setting up an effective and equitable international system to identify and label wood harvested in a sustainable manner.
1.2
Official development assistance
The Netherlands is one of the few OECD countries which has consistently met the UN Declaration target of providing 0.7% of gross national income (GNI) in official development assistance (ODA) (Figure 8.1). Dutch ODA was EUR 3.5 billion in 2001 (0.82% of GNI). Total environmental aid (91% of which was ODA) was over EUR 428 million in 2000 (meeting the domestic target of 0.1% of GNI) and was projected to increase to EUR 645 million in 2002 (Table 8.1).
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Official development assistance, 2001a
Figure 8.1 GNIb per capita Netherlands
ODA as % of GNI Netherlands
24.1
United States
36.3
Japan
United States Japan
33.1
Denmark France
21.6
France
Germany
22.3
Germany
Italy
Italy
18.7
United Kingdom
23.9
27.9
OECD-DACC 0.0
15.0
30.0
0.11 0.23
Denmark
29.7
United Kingdom
0.82
OECD-DACC 45.0
USD 1 000/capita
0.00
1.01 0.34 0.27 0.14 0.32 0.22 0.40
0.80
1.20 % of GNI
a) Provisional data. b) Gross national income in USD at current exchange rates. c) Member countries of the OECD Development Assistance Committee. Source: OECD-DAC.
The Netherlands provides most of its environmental ODA (60% in 2000) through bilateral arrangements (Table 8.1). About 15% of environmental ODA (EUR 66 million in 2001) passes through multilateral funding mechanisms such as the Global Environment Facility (EUR 13 million in 2001) and other international environmental funds. Dutch contributions to the UN Development Programme (UNDP) and the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) were EUR 15 million and EUR 2 million, respectively, in 2001 (Table 8.1) The Netherlands provides over 20% of its environmental ODA through nongovernmental channels (EUR 96 million in 2001), working in partnership with NGOs, businesses and charities which screen, develop or carry out in-country projects. The government implicitly expects development assistance projects to comply with host country requirements concerning environmental impact assessment (EIA). Where these are weak or non-existent, however, no other EIA requirement is imposed. Expenditure on non-ODA environmental aid increased four-fold between 2000 and 2002, reflecting, inter alia, increasing expenditure on Kyoto mechanism projects.
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Table 8.1
Summary of Dutch international environmental aid (EUR 1 000) 2000
2001a
2002a
Total environmental aidb (EA)
428 244
568 781
644 832
Environmental ODA % of total EA Bilateral Multilateral GEF and Montreal Fund UNEP UNDP Otherc Non-governmental ORET/MILIEVd Othere
390 486 91 232 591 66 007 10 641 2 106 14 521 38 739 91 888 32 188 59 700
425 620 75 263 878 66 230 13 015 2 106 14 975 36 134 95 512 36 302 59 210
435 847 68 270 746 62 803 14 684 2 106 14 975 31 038 102 298 36 302 65 996
37 758 9 .. 997 9 529 27 232
143 161 25 90 756 8 904 9 076 34 425
208 985 32 136 134 22 048 15 882 34 918
Non-ODA environmental aid % of total EA Clean Development Mechanism Joint Implementation Eastern Europe Co-operative Programmef Otherg
a) 2001 data are estimated; 2002 data are projected. b) Total environmental aid equals the sum of environmental ODA and environmental aid provided through non-ODA channels. c) Includes contributions to international financial institutions, the European Development Fund, the International Fund for Agricultural Development and the Desertification Treaty. d) Programme for development-related export transactions. e) Includes co-financing programmes with NGOs and education and research programmes. f) Includes some expenditure on Joint Implementation projects. g) Includes contributions to VROM International Environmental Policy Programme. Source: Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
1.3
Climate protection
The Netherlands has addressed the climate change issue very seriously. This partly reflects its own climatic vulnerability, but also heightened awareness of international interdependence and of its responsibilities as an industrialised country. It has played an important role in developing international climate change policy. The Netherlands is committed to stringent GHG emission reductions under the EU burden-sharing agreement, in which member States have agreed how to share their
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Kyoto Protocol obligations. The Kyoto target is attainable in view of the potential reductions to be achieved abroad, but it will still not be easy to meet since the Netherlands has already achieved a high level of energy efficiency.
Progress so far The Netherlands has made significant progress regarding the CO2 intensity of its economy through the use of cogeneration and through greater industrial energy efficiency. It has reduced overall non-CO2 GHG emissions. However, it failed to meet its domestic emission reduction goals for CO2 and N2O. Following adoption of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Netherlands committed to the national target of stabilising CO2 emissions at their 1990 level by 2000. Its CO2 emissions actually increased by 11% during this period (by 8% when corrected for temperature variations affecting energy use for heating). Combustion related CO2 emissions from public electricity and heat production and from transport increased by around 20%, outweighing small emission reductions in the manufacturing/residential sectors (Table 8.2). However, with CO2 emissions increasing at one-third the rate of growth in GDP (weak decoupling) between 1990 and 2000, the Netherlands significantly reduced the CO2 intensity of its economy. This performance was mostly due to improvements in energy efficiency, especially in the highly energy-intensive industry and power production sectors (Chapter 2, Section 2.1). In 2000 CO2 intensity (0.44 tonne of CO2/USD 1 000) was slightly higher than the OECD Europe average (0.41 tonne of CO2/USD 1 000), leaving room for further improvement. Under the EU’s burden-sharing agreement, the Netherlands’ commitment under the Kyoto Protocol is to reduce the weighted sum (in CO2 equivalents) of its emissions of the “Kyoto gases” (CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs and SF6) to 6% below 1990 levels by 2008-12. As indicated in its Third National Communication to the UNFCCC (2001), overall emissions of the Kyoto GHGs increased by 6% between 1990 and 1999. The RIVM 2002 Environmental Balance estimated the increase in GHG emissions between 1990 and 2001 at about 3%. The government estimates that the net increase would have been three times as great if measures implemented in the 1990s had not already reduced emissions by about 27 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent. CO2 emissions represent 75% of Dutch GHG emissions. Progress in controlling emissions of non-CO2 GHGs has been mixed, with reductions in CH4 emissions and increases in those of N2O. Emissions of methane (CH4) were 19% lower in 1999 than in 1990, an improvement attributed to changes in waste management practices (i.e. less landfilling, higher methane recovery rate from landfills), decreases in livestock numbers and better control of fugitive emissions from chemical industries, offshore oil and gas platforms and service stations. In
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the 1990s nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions grew at about half the rate of GDP, with the largest increases in the agricultural (16%) and industrial (15%) sectors. Emissions of fluorinated halocarbons – hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) – were halved between 1990 and 2001.
Present climate policy implementation and cost-effectiveness Following adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in late 1997, the Netherlands published a National Climate Policy Implementation Plan (NCPIP) which defined policy measures for reaching its Kyoto target. Business-as-usual projections suggested that it
Table 8.2
CO2 emissions from fuel combustion by source and sector, 1990-2000 (million tonnes) Oila
Total Energy production and transformation of which: Public electricity and heat production Otherb Manufacturing industries and construction Transport of which: Road transport Residential Otherc
Natural gasa
Coal and coal productsa
Totala
1990
2000
1990
2000
1990
2000
1990
2000
54.3 34.0 12.8 23.6
61.2 34.5 11.4 18.7
71.0 44.4 19.0 26.8
79.8 45.1 27.8 34.8
34.5 21.6 26.7 77.4
32.5 18.3 25.9 79.9
159.8 100.0 58.6 36.6
177.1 100.0 67.6 38.1
0.2 0.3 12.7 23.4 10.0 18.5 26.5 48.8 24.0 44.3 0.7 1.3 4.2 7.8
0.2 0.4 11.2 18.3 14.3 23.4 31.7 51.8 29.1 47.5 0.3 0.4 3.5 5.7
13.0 18.3 6.0 8.5 18.8 26.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.4 25.9 14.8 20.9
20.7 26.0 7.1 8.8 17.3 21.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.6 23.3 16.1 20.2
25.7 74.4 1.1 3.0 7.6 22.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3
25.3 78.0 0.6 1.9 6.4 19.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.3
38.8 24.3 19.8 12.4 36.4 22.8 26.5 16.6 24.0 15.0 19.2 12.0 19.2 12.0
47.2 26.7 20.3 11.5 38.1 21.5 31.7 17.9 29.1 16.4 18.9 10.7 20.9 11.8
Change 1990-2000 (%)
10.8 15.4 21.8 2.9 4.8 19.5 20.9 –1.6 8.9
a) Percentages of total emissions are shown in italics. b) Producers of their own electricity, petroleum refineries, coal mining, oil and gas extraction. c) Commercial and institutional sector, agriculture, forestry and fishing. Source: OECD; IEA.
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would be necessary to reduce emissions by 50 MtC per year by 2008-12 to meet this target. The NCPIP was designed to address the “policy shortfall”, assuming that 50% of the reduction (25 MtC) would be achieved within the Netherlands through domestic measures and the other 50% in co-operation with other countries through the Kyoto mechanisms (Joint Implementation, Clean Development Mechanism, emission trading). Part I of the NCPIP (1999) described measures to be taken at the domestic level; Part II (2000) described those to be taken in co-operation with other countries. The whole NCPIP was evaluated in 2002; another interim evaluation is scheduled for 2005. The 2002 evaluation concluded that the Netherlands was on track to realise the targeted reduction by 2010 (Chapter 8, Section 2.1). The cost-effectiveness of climate protection measures is a priority of Dutch policymaking. The political goal of meeting 50% of the Kyoto target through domestic emission reduction measures led to an economic analysis of possible measures in the NCPIP, with the distinction being made between a “basic package” and a “reserve package”. The “basic package”, consisting mainly of no-regrets measures, is being implemented (Chapter 8, Section 2.1). In 2010 the net cost of the basic package is projected to be about EUR 450 million per year (using the national costs approach). Energy savings in the transport sector (estimated to produce savings of EUR 215 million) would partially offset the costs of energy efficiency improvements (EUR 600 million) and of controlling non-CO2 GHG emissions (EUR 65 million). Estimated using the national costs approach, the average cost of reduction for the basic package is EUR 18 per tonne of CO2 equivalent. Estimated using the end user cost approach, it is EUR 25 per tonne. A 2002 study by the Dutch CO2 Trading Commission explored the feasibility of CO2 emission trading in the Netherlands. It concluded that this would be an effective policy option, but that the costs of emission rights would be too high if emission trading were implemented only at the national level (EUR 95 per tonne if the target reduction was 12 MtC; EUR 60 per tonne if 8 MtC). Emission rights would be considerably less expensive if trading were EU-wide. Concerning meeting the other 50% of the Kyoto target through international emission reduction measures, a number of pilot projects implemented by the Netherlands through Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ) have generated considerable practical know-how and an empirical understanding of benefits and constraints related to use of project-based mechanisms (Chapter 8, Section 2.1). It has been found that the development stages of joint projects are relatively long (up to two years), as a capacity-building exercise is often required to achieve effective implementation in the host country. The transaction costs (e.g. validation, certification, credit purchasing contract) of projects targeting small CO2 emission reductions (less than 1 MtC) often exceed their benefits. Provided these logistical constraints can be overcome, the marginal costs of CO2 emission reduction – EUR 4 to EUR 5 per tonne
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for the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), EUR 5 to EUR 9 per tonne for Joint Implementation (JI) – can be between two and six times lower than those of domestic measures.
Future developments and assessment As climate policy evolves, the Netherlands’ preliminary target of meeting 50% of its Kyoto commitment using flexible mechanisms may be reconsidered. This possibility was hinted at in the 2002 evaluation of the NCPIP, as well as in a recent study on the potential for national emission trading. When such a re-evaluation is carried out, it should take account of information on cost-effectiveness obtained from JI and CDM projects carried out by the Netherlands in recent years, and emerging information on the likely price of internationally tradable permits. Ancillary benefits of domestic GHG reductions in the Netherlands should also be considered. For example, investment in energy efficient technology with the primary aim of reducing CO2 emissions may also have the effect of reducing emissions of SOx and VOCs. To the extent that the Netherlands is already committed to reducing domestic emissions of these pollutants (i.e. under the LRTAP Convention protocols, the EU National Emission Ceilings Directive, NEPP4), the value of such ancillary benefits should be taken into account in choosing cost-effective means of meeting the Kyoto target. The value of establishing an independent Dutch emission trading scheme (the initial brief of the Voigtlander Commission) is uncertain. This Commission concluded that the Netherlands should wait for full integration in a European scheme. Given that the rationale for trading is that opportunities for more cost-effective emission reduction will increase, it is clear that the scope of trading should be as wide as possible early on. A possible disadvantage of introducing a wider (i.e. Kyoto Protocol) trading scheme is that, depending on various factors such as Russian participation, it is conceivable that the price of the CO2 traded would in fact be quite low. This might have the effect of hindering efforts to reduce domestic carbon emissions. Moreover, it could undermine other measures such as environmental agreements on energy efficiency which result in emission reductions. It is important that the momentum of emission reductions not be negatively affected by such a prospect. The polluter pays principle (PPP) is reflected only to a certain extent in Dutch climate protection policy (e.g. regulatory energy tax). The national government has relied on subsidies and fiscal incentives to cover part of the investments to be made by target groups. Resources have also been made available to regional and local entities to support permitting, strengthen enforcement of speed limits and implement other no-regrets measures. Besides the EUR 227 million per year in fiscal incentives announced in 2002, the funds concerned are mainly the EUR 168 million made available so far to support climate protection policy. The government is also committed
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de facto to finance nearly 100% of JI and CDM activities planned under NCPIP Part II. Between 1996 and 1999 the government made EUR 38 million available for pilot AIJ projects, with only a few projects being directly financed by industry. Options for financing JI and CDM activities should be explored with a view to applying the PPP and involving all stakeholders more directly.
1.4
Transboundary pollution
Long-range air pollution As transboundary air pollution contributes to acidification and eutrophication, it has long been of concern to the Netherlands and its neighbours. At the end of the 1990s some 77% of SOx and 70% of NOx deposited in the Netherlands originated in other countries (the United Kingdom and Belgium were major contributors), according to the Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe (EMEP). Of the NH3 deposited in the Netherlands, 66% was of domestic origin. Dutch NH3 emissions continue to make important contributions to deposition in Germany (42 kt in 1998) and the North Sea (21 kt in 1998). Overall acid emissions in Europe have declined significantly since 1980. During the same period potential acid deposition in the Netherlands (expressed in acid equivalents per hectare per year) has decreased by over half. Nonetheless, average potential acid deposition in the Netherlands in 2000 (3 100 a.e./ hectare) exceeded by nearly 30% the objective for 2000 (2 400 a.e./hectare) established in the 1989 Acidification Prevention Plan. The Netherlands has met or surpassed most of its commitments to reduce atmospheric emissions of SOx, NOx and NMVOCs under the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution and its protocols (Table 8.3). It has signed but not yet ratified the 1998 Aarhus Protocols on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals and the 1999 Gothenburg Protocol on abatement of acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone. The Netherlands has already met the Aarhus reduction targets. The EU Directive on National Emissions Ceilings (NEC) sets caps for Dutch SO2, NOx, VOC and NH3 emissions in 2010 which are generally slightly stricter than those in the Gothenburg Protocol (Table 8.3). Meeting the Gothenburg and NEC reduction targets may require further measures. As the North Sea was designated an “SOx emission control area” in 2000 when the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) approved an amendment to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), Annex VI, the cost-effectiveness of implementing some control measures for the offshore shipping fleet should be assessed.
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Table 8.3
Progress and performance compared to international targets for reduction of emissions to air Commitments
LRTAP Conventiona Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) Ammonia (NH3) Heavy metals Cadmium (Cd) Lead (Pb) Mercury (Hg) Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) Dioxins/furans Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) EU Directive on National Emissions Ceilings (NEC) Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) Ammonia (NH3)
Protocolb Helsinki Oslo Gothenburgc Sofia Sofia Dec. Gothenburgc Geneva Gothenburgc Gothenburgc Aarhusc
Aarhusc
(1985) (1994) (1999) (1988) (1988) (1999) (1991) (1999) (1999) (1998)
Performance
Target period
Target (% reduction)
Observed period
Change (%)
1980-1993 1980-2000 1990-2010 1987-1994 1987-1994 1990-2010 1988-1999 1990-2010 1990-2010
–30 –78 –75 0 –30 –54 –30 –62 –43
1980-1993 1980-2000 1990-2000 1987-1994 1987-1994 1990-2000 1988-1999 1990-2000 1990-2000
–67 –82 –55 –16 –16 –27 –44 –44 –34
1990 cap 1990 cap 1990 cap
0 0 0
1990-1999 1990-1999 1990-1999
–58 –87 –82
1990 cap 1990 cap 1990 cap
0 0 0
1990-1999 1990-1999 1990-1999
–58 –94 –35
1990-2010d 1990-2010d
–75 –55
1990-2000 1990-2000
–55 –27
1990-2010d 1990-2010d
–63 –45
1990-2000 1990-2000
–44 –32
(1998)
a) 1979 UNECE Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution. b) Date opened for signature indicated in parenthesis. c) The Netherlands has signed but not yet ratified the Gothenburg and Aarhus Protocols; base years are therefore provisional, to be confirmed during ratification. d) Emissions to be capped, by the year 2010 and thereafter, at a level below 1990 emissions (% reductions relative to 1990 vary, indicated in next column). Source: EMEP; RIVM; OECD.
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Transboundary river pollution As recommended in the 1995 OECD Environmental Performance Review, the Netherlands has worked to strengthen bilateral and regional co-operation with neighbouring countries on pollution of transboundary rivers and on flood and industrial risk management. Within the framework of the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine, it has recently begun giving priority to co-operation aimed at reducing diffuse inputs of contaminants and restoring ecosystem functioning (Chapter 8, Section 2.2). There have been major improvements in the Rhine’s overall water quality through regional co-operation (Rhine Action Programme, 1987). However, several challenges remain. First, the removal of polluted sediment (20 to 50 Mt per year) from the port of Rotterdam at the mouth of the Rhine remains an intransigent problem. Silt transported by the Rhine settles near river banks and in the harbour, requiring dredging of the river bed. Heavy metals (e.g. lead, zinc, cadmium) are attached to silt particles in sufficient quantities to require the dredged silt to be disposed of at a special hazardous waste landfill, at a cost of some EUR 450 million per year. Furthermore, high salinity (mainly due to salt discharges from upstream mining) continues to increase treatment costs, as desalinisation is required before the Rhine can be used as a source of drinking or irrigation water. While seeking to reinforce efforts to control siltation and salinisation upstream, the Netherlands should continue its own activities to control pollution by nitrates and pesticides in order to meet its international objectives; this may imply reducing the intensity of agricultural use of nitrogenous fertilisers (including spreading of manure from intensive livestock production) and of pesticides (use of both is about three times the OECD Europe average) (Table 3.3).
1.5
Marine pollution
In the Dutch Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), economic activities that produce polluting discharges include oil and gas production, fishing and shipping. On-shore (e.g. agriculture, industry) and coastal (e.g. ports, aquaculture) activities also contribute to marine pollution. The Netherlands has made a range of commitments concerning protection of the marine environment from pollution through international agreements such as the Convention for the Protection of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR), the Declarations of the North Sea Conferences, the MARPOL Convention, the Trilateral Wadden Sea Plan and the Paris Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control (Paris MOU). Performance in meeting these internationally agreed targets is assessed below.
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Pollution from ships In 2000 the Netherlands had the world’s 24th largest shipping fleet, totalling 6.1 million dead weight tonnes (0.8% of world shipping capacity). The Dutch fleet is seventh on the “white list” of the Paris MOU, indicating a very high level of conformity with MARPOL standards. Of 2 384 inspections of Dutch ships carried out worldwide in 2000, 82 resulted in detentions (3.4%). Disposal of ship-generated waste and cargo residues is a challenge in the Netherlands, which has several large ports (including Rotterdam, the port that handles the world’s greatest annual tonnage) used by a large number of ships under many flags. A 1998 study by the Dutch Coastwatch found that at least 49% of waste on beaches originated from ships, while less than 15% of ships delivered waste to designated port reception facilities. In 1999 the North West European Waters (including the North Sea) were declared a “Special Area” for the purposes of MARPOL Annex V. Dumping of garbage and litter from ships in this area is now prohibited. Furthermore, the 2000 EU Directive on port reception facilities for ship-generated waste requires that all European ports provide waste reception facilities and that all ships discharge their wastes at their ports of call. Ports were given until 28 December 2002 to design and implement waste management plans in accordance with the Directive. Member States are also to ensure that user charges administered for port waste reception services include the costs of waste treatment and disposal (up to 70% of these costs can be recovered through direct charges, with the remainder to be incorporated in general harbour charges). To facilitate compliance with the Directive, the Netherlands participated in the “Green Port” project (concluded in 2001) in partnership with Norway, Denmark and the United Kingdom. This project compared existing waste management systems in small and middle-sized North Sea ports, and developed a model waste management plan adaptable to specific circumstances. At least 30% of Dutch ports did not have waste management plans in place in 2001; compliance of waste reception capacities and user charge systems was also uncertain, especially in the case of smaller ports. The Netherlands consistently complies with its international commitments as a port state, under the Paris MOU and the 1995 EU Directive on port state control. The Dutch shipping Inspectorate (staff of 210) inspects at least 25% of foreign-flag ships calling in Dutch ports for compliance with MARPOL standards (Figure 8.2). Since 1995 the percentage of ships inspected has remained more or less steady; the percentage detained has fallen by over 40%. In 2001 Dutch inspectors examined 1 325 ships, cited deficiencies in the case of 622 (47%) and detained 99 (7%). Inspectors found deficiencies related to MARPOL Annex I (oil) in about 30% of cases; 4% of inspections cited deficiencies related to Annex V (waste), 0.2% were related to Annex II (noxious liquid substances in
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Figure 8.2 Port state control, 1991-2001 All partiesa to Paris MOU
Netherlands %
%
40
40
30
30
20
Inspectionsb Deficienciesc
10
20
10
Detentionsc 0
0 1991 1993
1995 1997 1999
2001
1991 1993 1995 1997 1999
2001
a) Belgium, Canada, Croatia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russian Federation, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom. b) Percentage of foreign ships calling in Dutch ports which were inspected. c) Percentage of inspections with given result. Source: Paris Memorandum of Understanding Secretariat.
bulk) and 0.1% to Annex III (harmful substances in packages). Most vessels detained in Dutch ports (75%) are dry cargo ships or bulk carriers, though oil tankers have been detained increasingly in recent years following the Erika oil spill off the coast of France.
Oil spills and maritime accidents The number and density of activities in Dutch waters have led to a high risk of oil spills and other types of maritime accidents. Some 400 000 ships per year cross the Dutch EEZ, many carrying large cargoes of chemicals. There are over 120 offshore oil and gas platforms in this area, as well as extensive fishery activities. Preventing and combating pollution by oil and other harmful substances at sea and along the coastline is the responsibility of the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management. Its Directorate-General for Water Management carries out contingency planning for spill response, while its North Sea Directorate (NSD) takes the lead in response operations, co-ordinates operations at sea, and assumes legal and financial responsibility for cost reimbursement. The NSD has the means and organisation to combat an oil spill of approximately 30 000 cubic metres for three days. The Netherlands Coastguard Centre (located at IJmviden) helps co-ordinate the six government ministries which have operational responsibilities in the North Sea:
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Transport, Public Works and Water Management (V&W), Defence, Justice, Finance, Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (LNV) and Home Affairs. The Coastguard Centre is staffed 24 hours a day, with responsibility for its operational command under the Royal Netherlands Navy. In compliance with the Bonn Agreement, the Netherlands carries out regular aerial surveillance of its EEZ. Aircraft equipped with remote sensing capabilities are used to detect oil spills and, if possible, their sources. The Netherlands also co-ordinates, with the seven other Bonn Agreement countries bordering the North Sea, the implementation of monthly “tours d’horizon” aerial surveys of offshore oil and gas production zones (Table 8.4) and intensive surveys of high maritime traffic zones. When an oil slick is detected, the North Sea Directorate can initiate recovery operations immediately using special vessels and equipment stockpiles which are kept ready along the coast. Self-reported data from Dutch offshore installations show that the frequency of oil spills decreased by 65% in the early 1990s and was more or less stable in the late 1990s, at about 45 per year. The amount of oil released per observed spill has continued to decrease, from 10 tonnes per incident in 1994 to 0.2 tonne in 2000. This improved performance is attributed to better pollution control equipment and comprehensive training. Data from surveillance flights suggest that the density of small oil spills detected in the Dutch offshore zone remains high relative to other countries, possibly reflecting frequent surveillance in a relatively small area.
Operational pollution from offshore oil and gas production The Netherlands accounts for about 17% of natural gas production in the North Sea and about 0.1% of oil production. In the late 1990s some 120 offshore installations operating in Dutch waters in the North Sea were discharging to the sea or air. Overall, the pollution intensity of Dutch offshore operations is lower than that of other North Sea countries. In 1999 total hydrocarbon discharges in effluent from Dutch offshore operations made up only 1% of total discharges from all North Sea installations. Atmospheric emissions from Dutch facilities were quite low compared to output. In 1999 they accounted for 2% (0.2 kt) of total SO2 emissions from installations in the OSPAR area, 3% (8.1 kt) of VOC emissions and 4% (1.3 Mt) of CO2 emissions. The relatively low air pollution intensity of Dutch operations is linked to process changes undertaken to comply with a 1996 energy efficiency agreement between offshore oil and gas producers and the Dutch government; there was a 32% improvement in energy efficiency between 1989 and 2000, surpassing the 20% improvement target established in the agreement. Within the framework of an environmental agreement concluded in 1995 between oil and gas producers and the government, operational discharges have decreased significantly in recent years. The agreement, valid until 2010, established quantified
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reduction targets for 2000 (relative to 1990) with respect to nearly 20 pollutants; additional targets for the period 2000 to 2010 were to be negotiated. Through technological changes, by 1993 Dutch operators had reduced discharges of oil and chemicals during drilling in oil-based muds to zero. In the late 1990s, 100% of Dutch well drilling was carried out in oil-based muds and some 7 500 tonnes of used mud per year was brought to shore for disposal. The volume of oil discharged in displacement and production waters by Dutch operations decreased by 30% between 1990 and 2000 (when it totalled 190 tonnes per year). Dutch facilities discontinued natural gas flaring on a regular basis in the 1990s, capturing the gas for other uses instead. Fugitive CH4 emissions from oil and gas operations fell by 20% between 1990 and 1999 due to limitations on natural gas venting during production. However, in 1999 Dutch installations were still responsible for 17% of the CH4 emitted by North Sea production facilities, paralleling very closely their share of total natural gas production.
Scrapping of ships and platforms The Dutch merchant marine fleet includes 596 ships over 1 000 dead weight tonnes. The Netherlands also has the largest inland shipping fleet in Europe (6 500 vessels, 5 million dead weight tonnes). Many of these ships were commissioned in the 1970s and will soon be reaching the end of their useful lives. A 2000 study by the EU found that in the previous year tonnage scrapped in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan accounted for 90% of total ship scrapping volume from European registers. Low-technology scrapping techniques in these countries entail environmental and human health risks. Most ships contain large quantities of hazardous substances, which present serious disposal challenges in countries that have not developed adequate infrastructure, regulations and techniques. As an important maritime country, the Netherlands should actively support on-going IMO efforts to develop international safety and environmental requirements for ship scrapping and EU efforts to develop more acceptable scrapping options. In the late 1990s the OSPAR Commission established a complete set of rules concerning decommissioning of offshore installations in the North Sea whereby, inter alia, all dumping of steel installations is prohibited. According to the EU, the Netherlands operates about 115 steel structures in the shallow waters of its offshore zone. They have an average weight per unit (excluding piles) of 2 100 tonnes (i.e. a total of 240 148 tonnes of steel). So far, only a small number of platforms have reached the end of their economic life, been decommissioned and eventually been removed. Oil and gas fields typically have an economic life of 20 to 40 years. It follows that a much greater decommissioning effort will be required over the next decades, with a peak expected in the period 2010 to 2020. The Netherlands has begun to explore possibilities for recycling steel from platforms which will be
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decommissioned in the near future. It initiated three re-use projects in the late 1990s. In the interest of promoting re-use of platforms, Dutch research institutes have recently developed an on-line database of platforms to be decommissioned within five years, accessible to those interested in buying or selling offshore installations.
Pollution from onshore sources Discharges from agriculture, industry and households are responsible for significant contributions of nutrients to the North Sea. Under North Sea Conference targets,
Table 8.4 Oil pollution surveillance in the North Sea,a 2000 Total surveillance Total coveragec (million km2) (BAFH)b
Density of spills detected (spills/km2)
Identified polluters Platforms
Ships
In national maritime areas Netherlands
749
10.04
15.3
2
24
Belgium Denmark France Germany Norway Sweden UK
120 225 475 968 386 74 626
1.61 3.02 6.37 12.97 2.32 0.98 8.39
21.7 10.0 3.8 8.3 19.4 2.0 11.8
0 2 0 9 17 0 31
2 4 11 7 6 1 8
3 623
45.70
11.5
61
63
Total In offshore oil and gas areasd Netherlands
13
0.17
166.0
25
4
Belgium Denmark France Germany Norway Sweden UK
14 6 .. 15 7 15 15
0.19 0.11 .. 0.20 0.07 0.20 0.19
69.8 37.3 .. 40.9 10.4 20 5.1
13 3 .. 7 0 0 1
0 0 .. 1 0 0 0
Total
85
1.13
49.9
49
5
a) b) c) d)
Under the Bonn Agreement Aerial Surveillance Programme. A Bonn Agreement Flight Hour is one hour of airborne remote sensing over the sea at 335 miles per hour. Coverage refers to area covered by side-looking airborne radar during surveillance flights. Data from “tour d’horizon” flights, intensive surveys of offshore installations in the Bonn Agreement area between 52° and 63° north. Flight programmes, which include at least 600 nautical miles, are carried out every month from April to October and may last up to three days. Source: Bonn Agreement Secretariat.
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the Netherlands is committed to reduce its inputs of nitrogen and phosphorous by at least 50% (originally for the period 1985-95; deadline later extended to 2005 or sooner). According to its report to the Fifth North Sea Conference (2002), the Netherlands has made good progress towards meeting these targets, registering a 71% decrease in phosphorous inputs and a 44% decrease in nitrogen inputs between 1985 and 2000. Nitrogen and phosphorous discharges to surface waters from sewage treatment decreased by 25% and 74%, respectively, and those from industries not connected to municipal sewerage systems by 80% and 87% (Table 8.5). Slower progress towards the reduction target for nitrogen inputs indicates the need to reinforce control of pollution from agriculture and transport, as highlighted in the 1995 OECD Environmental Performance Review. Reductions of phosphorous inputs mainly reflect improved collection and treatment of urban and industrial waste water and the introduction of phosphate-free detergents. In the late 1990s the pollution intensity of the oil refining industry in the Netherlands (1.7 tonnes of oil discharged per million tonnes of crude oil processed) was 23% below the average for OSPAR countries (2.2 tonnes/million tonnes). The Netherlands was also in full compliance with the OSPAR oil content limit for effluents. Six refineries, with a total refining capacity of 16 Mt of oil per year (less than 4% of total refining capacity in the 11 OSPAR countries) operate in the Netherlands,. The total quantity of hydrocarbons discharged by these refineries decreased by 75% between 1990 and 1997, from 405 tonnes to 103 tonnes; throughput increased from
Table 8.5
Nutrient inputs to the North Sea, 1985-2000 1985 input (kt) Nitrogen
Netherlands total c
From diffuse sources From sewage treatment From industries From households not connected to sewerage works
a
Phosphorus
2000 input (kt) b
Nitrogen
Change, 1985-2000 (%) b
Phosphorus
Nitrogena
Phosphorusb
165 800
30 615
114 414
8 875
–31
–71
99 380 38 410 19 529
4 820 10 800 13 422
80 864 28 959 3 990
4 210 2 846 1 755
–19 –25 –80
–13 –74 –87
8 481
1 773
601
64
–93
–96
a) Measured as total N. b) Measured as orthophosphate-P (PO4 – P). c) Mostly agriculture. Source: Fifth International Conference on the Protection of the North Sea.
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50.6 million tonnes to 59.1 million tonnes in the same period (a 17% increase). In the late 1990s effluent from each refinery had a weighted average oil concentration of less than 5 mg oil/litre (in the highest OSPAR performance category). Two refineries had gravity separation and advanced separation systems in place; four had bio-treatment of effluents.
1.6
Management of living marine resources
Beyond the 12-mile national waters limit, the EU has competence for management of living marine resources in the Dutch EEZ under the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP). Discussions within the EU in recent years have aimed at reforming the CFP to better facilitate sustainable fish stock management. In particular, the Netherlands has argued for: i) development of multi-annual quotas at levels consistent with strategies for stock management and recovery; ii) adjustment of management instruments to take into account the impact of fisheries activities on the broader ecosystem, including moving from a mono-species to a multi-species fish stock management approach; iii) more effective and consistent monitoring and enforcement efforts across the EU; and iv) development of common parameters for measuring fishing fleet capacity.
Offshore fisheries Capture fisheries and fish processing and distribution have great economic importance in the Netherlands. In the late 1990s the Dutch fishing fleet represented about 8% of EU capacity in tonnage, operating some 1 050 vessels (180 000 gross tonnes). In 1998 it caught some 540 000 tonnes of marine fish, crustaceans and molluscs worth about EUR 318 million. The Netherlands also imported fish and fish products valued at EUR 726 million, nearly half of which came from Germany, the UK. and Denmark. In 2000 the value of Dutch exports of fish and fish products (mainly processed and deep-frozen fish) was EUR 2.1 million, 32% higher than the value of its imports. Most exports went to Germany, France, Belgium and Italy. The total fish value chain (from catch to consumer) provides jobs for some 15 000 people. Many of these jobs (approximately 6 500) are generated by specialised wholesalers and the fish processing industries. According to the FAO, the number of people whose jobs were directly associated with Dutch fisheries fell by 14% in the 1990s. The Dutch fishing sector is affected by other countries’ management of marine resources, as Dutch companies own or co-own an increasing number of German, French, Belgian and British trawler and cutter fleets. As in other North Sea countries, the majority of fish stocks (in both tonnage and value) exploited by the Dutch fleet are classified as “outside biologically sustainable limits” according to evaluations by the International Council for the Exploration of the
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Sea (ICES) (Table 8.6). For over 50% of stocks, spawning levels are considered insufficient to guarantee stock replenishment. To address resource over-exploitation, the FAO has recommended that member States reduce their fleet capacity and end subsidies that encourage additional capacity building. The Netherlands has never introduced subsidies for building of vessels. It did implement vessel decommissioning programmes, initially with little success, but with better results since 1999 reflecting the deterioration of the economic situation in the fishing industry. The number of sea-going vessels fell from 1 060 in 1989 to 710 in 2002, corresponding to a decommissioning of 22% of gross tonnage. All small trawlers and several cutters have been converted to a small number (18) of freezer-trawlers. Some 205 cutters (180 000 kW of engine power, 46 000 gross tonnes) have been removed from the fleet at a cost of EUR 98 million (about EUR 2 000 per gross tonne); the EU provided nearly 40% of funding.
Table 8.6 Biological status of key North Sea stocks exploited in Dutch fisheries
Species (stock)
Minimum spawning stocka (kt)
Demersal species Anglerfish Cod Haddock Plaice Saithe Sole Whiting Pelagic species Mackerel Herring
Estimated spawning stock biomass (kt) 1999
Status W/C/Ob
2001
Landings by Dutch fleet (tonnes) 1999
2000
.. 150 140 300 200 35 315
.. 61 115 200 223 49 174
.. 55 215 289 232 40 257
O O O O W O O
166 9 071 110 37 513 7 16 283 1 801
168 5 999 119 35 030 11 15 273 1 898
.. 1 300
.. 815
240c 1 145
.. O
3 610 108 636
3 382 108 730
a) Bpa (precautionary approach spawning stock biomass). b) ICES assessment, 2001; W = within biologically sustainable limits; C = close to limits; O = outside biologically sustainable limits. c) ICES estimate. Source: CES Advisory Committee on Fishery Management.
Marine habitats The Netherlands’ application of the Habitats Directive to protect special marine habitats is limited to its 12-mile national waters. About 95% of the Dutch area of the
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Wadden Sea is designated a Special Area of Conservation. In 2000 the Netherlands established the objective of fully applying the Habitats Directive in its 200-mile EEZ. In 2002 the government was still in the early stages of identifying areas with the greatest biological interest as potential marine reserves.
1.7
International trade and the environment
With its high international trade volumes, the Netherlands has been very active in international negotiations on trade and environment. It has promoted consistency among multilateral environmental and trade agreements. It has also supported the principle of removing trade barriers and facilitating developing countries’ access to markets as a way to accelerate development. The Netherlands’ performance in ensuring that its international trade reflects its environmental commitments has been good overall, but there are still some areas where improvements should be prioritised (e.g. ozone depleting substances, tropical timber) (Figure 8.3). The government applies the principle of prior informed consent (PIC) effectively to regulate exports that are potentially harmful to the environment. A PIC system is used to regulate export of dangerous chemicals to developing countries. In compliance with EU procedures, the Netherlands requires: i) notification of the intent to export chemicals that have been banned or severely restricted within the EU; ii) conformance with the UNEP/FAO voluntary PIC procedure; and iii) packaging and labelling of chemicals in compliance with EU legislation. The Netherlands has also contributed to the spread of such practices. It had a leading role in developing the 1995 Rotterdam PIC Convention, which introduces obligatory PIC procedures. It also applies the PIC principle to export of hazardous waste as required under the Basel Convention. In response to recent difficulties controlling international trade in ozone depleting substances, the Netherlands supports the development of licensing procedures similar to those required under PIC systems as one way to improve enforcement. The Netherlands actively participates in the OECD Working Party on Export Credits and Credit Guarantees. Having previously introduced environmental requirements for projects eligible for credit, the Dutch government recently changed its underwriting procedures to include an assessment of corporate social responsibility (CSR). To promote coherence with the host country’s wider sustainable development objectives, companies that request export credit or other support from the Dutch government to undertake business abroad are now assessed against the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises. Environmental implications, corruption and social elements (e.g. the ILO labour principles) are taken into account. It is too early to assess progress with respect to implementation of these changed evaluation procedures.
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Figure 8.3
215
Trade and environment trends, 1990-2000
Production and emissions of ozone depleting substances 1990 = 100
100 80 60 40
CFCs production
20
CFCs and halons emissions
0 1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
International trade in hazardous wastea 1 000 tonnes
500
Exports
400 300 200 Importsb
100 0 1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
1998
2000
Net imports of tropical wood 1 000 m3 roundwood equivalentc
1 400 1 200 1 000 800 600 400 200 0 1990
1992
1994
1996
a) National definition of “hazardous waste” is broader than that of article 1(1) a of Basel Convention. b) Hazardous waste imported until 1999 was predominately contaminated soil. c) Without bark. Source: RIVM; VROM; UNEP.
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Ozone depleting substances In 2001 UNEP’s Implementation Committee determined that the Netherlands was in potential non-compliance with the phase-out of CFCs and carbon tetrachloride for the year 1999 (banning of both substances was to take place by 1996 under the Montreal Protocol). In response to the UNEP Ozone Secretariat’s request to provide an explanation, the Netherlands indicated that its production of CFCs in 1999 comprised 10 725 ozone depletion potential (ODP) tonnes for export to developing countries (to help them meet “basic domestic needs”) and 4 996 ODP tonnes for authorised “essential uses” domestically. The Committee therefore decided that no further action was necessary. The Netherlands also indicated that it produced 5 672 ODP tonnes of carbon tetrachloride in 1999, mostly for use as feedstock in producing other chemicals, and 96 ODP tonnes for “essential uses” under the Protocol (no such uses were authorised for 1999). Figures from the National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection (RIVM) show that emissions of CFCs and halons decreased very rapidly in the 1990s and were near zero in 2000 (Figure 8.3). In 2002 the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM) reported that all remaining Dutch emissions of CFCs and halons were from existing applications (e.g. cooling systems, insulation material and fire extinguishers). Since 1995 only the sale of recycled CFCs and halons has been legal in the Netherlands, in accordance with international agreements. However, after Dutch customs officers seized halons (labelled as HFCs) illegally imported from China in 1997, the existence of a considerable black market in ODS was revealed. Subsequent research by the London-based Environmental Investigation Agency found that ODS smuggling was carried out through a sophisticated network, with illegal imports from Russia, India and China entering markets in several OECD countries including the Netherlands. According to a 2001 UNEP report, illegal shipments arrive in Europe via “triangulation”: ODS produced legally in a developed country are exported to a developing country to meet its “basic domestic needs” (allowed under the Montreal Protocol); the same ODS are then repackaged, mislabelled (usually as another substance or as recycled ODS) and reimported illegally for use in the country of origin. Former European territories in the developing world, especially the Caribbean, were shown to be frequent repackaging and reshipping points, often indicated by inflated import records. UNEP cited the Netherlands Antilles, which in 1995 imported over 2 000 tonnes of CFCs though its maximum authorised consumption is some 90 ODP tonnes per year.
Hazardous waste and dangerous substances In 2001 the Netherlands’ hazardous waste exports were nearly 435 000 tonnes, about 30% of the total generated nationally. Between 1990 and 2001 tonnage of
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hazardous waste exported increased by 120% (Figure 8.3). Exports (mainly to Belgium, Germany or France) were most often destined for special hazardous waste landfills. There is only one such landfill in the Netherlands (in Maasvlakte, near Rotterdam). Some exports were intended for use as raw material. Hazardous waste imports totalled 237 000 tonnes in 2001, a 20% increase compared with 1990. Most came from Germany and Belgium. Large fluctuations in these imports are related mainly to the stream of polluted soil treated in Dutch installations. Some 50 000 tonnes of hazardous waste per year entering the Netherlands is in transit (mostly waste from Germany on its way to be processed in the United Kingdom). VROM’s Environmental Inspectorate operates a special waste inspection division which controls transboundary movements of hazardous waste in co-operation with the Customs Service, the police, harbour authorities and regional counterpart agencies. Under the 1994 EU regulations on transboundary shipments of hazardous waste, the import, export and transit of such waste are forbidden unless transport has been notified (in time) and the competent authority has given explicit permission. Documents proving notification and permission must accompany shipments. Dutch inspectors have found that the best way to influence foreign transporters is through their Dutch trading partners; thus enforcement efforts and criminal charges are generally aimed at the Dutch companies involved. In practice, it has proved useful not only to check shipments (by water or overland) but also to visit large shippers and processors and inform them about regulatory requirements and legal risks of violations. When illegal shipments are discovered, Dutch authorities take measures to ensure proper disposal (preferably by the responsible parties) and to prosecute the responsible parties. Penalties usually consist of fines or short-term incarceration. As part of the EU Network for the Implementation and Enforcement of Environmental Law (IMPEL), the Netherlands hosts the secretariat of (and chairs) the network on Transboundary Shipments of Waste (TFS). IMPEL-TFS has decided to initiate an enforcement project on hazardous waste in the most important European harbours. The Netherlands, with Greece, also chairs and sponsors the Chemical Legislation European Enforcement Network (CLEEN). CLEEN reports to IMPEL and to health, finance and customs authorities on the enforcement of regulations concerning notification of new chemicals, CFCs and cadmium and, soon, the classification and labelling of dangerous substances. As part of the EU enlargement process, accession countries have been invited to participate in IMPEL-TFS and CLEEN through twinning projects.
Tropical timber The Netherlands remains one of the world’s largest importers of tropical timber (logs, sawn wood, veneer sheets and plywood). Net imports declined by nearly 40% between 1990 and 1998 but shot up abruptly in 1999, almost returning to 1990 levels
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(Figure 8.3). In 1999 the Netherlands purchased about 1.1 million cubic metres of tropical wood on the world market; most (53%) was sawn wood and multiplex (38%), with only a small share (9%) of roundwood. Progress towards Objective 2000 of the International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO) (i.e. all internationally traded timber to come from certified sustainably managed forests by 2000) has been very limited. Most tropical woods imported by the Netherlands originate in Asia (66% in 1999), Africa (22%) and Latin America (12%). The great majority of wood and wood products does not come from certified forests, though the Netherlands has actively supported ITTO programmes aimed at improving forest management in producer countries and has funded numerous bilateral projects to this end.
Endangered species The purpose of the Netherlands’ Endangered Exotic Animal and Plant Species Act (1995) and Flora and Fauna Act (2002) is to consolidate pre-existing legislation and harmonise it with EU and CITES requirements. Enforcing CITES provisions is the joint responsibility of the General Inspection Service, Customs Service and police, including the Environmental Crime Unit of the Central Police Office in Zoetermeer. In 1999 and again in 2000 there were about 2 150 seizures of illegal wildlife products in the Netherlands. Violators were subject to maximum imprisonment of six years and a maximum fine of EUR 44 700 (private individuals) or EUR 447 000 (companies). As many seizures involve Chinese health-related products, the Environmental Crime Unit has developed a database on traditional Chinese medicine. According to the Netherlands’ 1999-2000 report to the CITES Secretariat, Dutch inspectors participate in CITES enforcement training offered by the EU, as well as the training each enforcement agency (e.g. customs, police) gives its own staff. Under a co-operative agreement in effect since 1994, agencies share information and resources needed to enforce CITES.
2.
Focus on Selected Topics 2.1
The National Climate Policy Implementation Plan (NCPIP)
The NCPIP aims at achieving emission reductions equally through domestic measures (Part I, adopted in 1999) and international measures (Part II, adopted in 2000).
Domestic measures (Part I) Domestic measures are contained in three complementary packages. The “basic package” contains mainly no-regrets measures (e.g. energy conservation in all major sectors, increased use of renewable energy sources, cost-effective control of non-CO2 GHG emissions) that sectors must take in the lead-up to the first Kyoto commitment
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period (2008-10) to meet the domestic part of the commitment. The “reserve package” designates measures (e.g. increasing the regulatory energy tax and/or excise duties on motor fuels, underground storage of CO2, reducing N2O emissions in the chemicals industry) that can be taken if the basic package is insufficient to achieve the domestic part of the Kyoto commitment. The reserve measures have been prepared and could be put into effect rapidly if this were deemed necessary during the 2005 progress evaluations. The “innovation package” describes measures intended to stimulate development of new technologies and policy instruments which may be required in order to achieve further reductions of GHG emissions following the first Kyoto commitment period (2008-12). The 2002 interim evaluation of the NCPIP (Part I) found that good progress had been made towards implementing the basic package; most measures had been implemented or were in the final stages of preparation. However, progress towards specific targets for the year 2000 had been mixed. The target of expanding combined heat and power capacity to 8 000 MW had been reached; the evaluation for the first generation of long-term environmental agreements on energy conservation had even been surpassed. The interim target of a 3% share of energy use in 2000 had not been met; only 1.5% was achieved in 2000. Neither had an environmental agreement with the greenhouse horticulture sector been successful (an energy efficiency index of 56 was reached in 2000, compared to the target of 50). The evaluation concluded that as the basic package relied heavily on measures such as financial incentives, environmental agreements and public information campaigns aimed at achieving relative improvements (e.g. improving energy efficiency), its impact on absolute emission levels had been less than expected in the period of rapid economic growth during the late 1990s. Based on updated projections of energy-related emissions, including the projected impact of basic package measures launched since July 2001 (e.g. the wind energy environmental agreement, reinforcement of energy conservation policies for buildings, entry into force of Orders of Council containing crop-specific energy use standards for greenhouse horticulture enterprises), it was estimated that measures recently launched would be adequate to bring about a total reduction of about 20 MtC per year by 2010. On this basis, the evaluation also concluded that deploying the “reserve package” of measures would be unnecessary. However, it called for reinforced efforts to maximise the impact of on-going measures.
International measures (Part II) The Netherlands has taken part proactively in a number of projects to develop know-how in using Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ), Joint Implementation (JI) and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), as provided for in the NCPIP (Part II). From 1997 to 2000, 43 pilot AIJ projects were launched in Central and Eastern Europe
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with total funding of EUR 16 million. Partner countries included Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia and Ukraine. In these projects it was consistently found that concluding a bilateral agreement (letter of intent) at a project’s outset was complicated and time-consuming. In particular, agreements on how emission reductions were to be shared between the two participating countries in the period 2008-12 required the determination of an emissions baseline (i.e. GHG emissions that would have existed had the project not been carried out). As emissions data are not always readily available, establishing this baseline is problematic. Moreover, it has become apparent that the marginal cost of reductions is relatively high in the case of small-scale JI projects (i.e. less than 1 MtC), largely owing to the costs of determining the baseline and certifying the project’s impact. AIJ projects have also been launched in developing countries (20 projects in 13 countries). The AIJ pilot project experiences have led to the search for a more cost-effective approach to carbon credit purchasing under Joint Implementation. Consultations between the public and private sectors have revealed a preference for a system in which the government would purchase emission reduction units (ERUs) from companies. Using this approach, the government would purchase the expected ERUs from the project owner at a fixed price determined beforehand rather than fully financing JI projects. The Ministry of Economic Affairs has set up a European tendering scheme to facilitate the purchase of carbon credits through projects realised in Central and Eastern Europe, the Emission Reduction Unit Procurement Tender (ERUPT). Since 2000 this scheme has been used to implement four projects with total credits of 3.9 MtC and an average price of EUR 8.4 per tonne. Based on market developments and experience with CDM in the second phase of ERUPT, launched in 2002, the maximum price was lowered to EUR 5 per tonne. Whether a JI project proposal includes a validated baseline study is an important allocation criterion within the ERUPT procedure. Under the CDM, VROM has contracted with various organisations (multilateral and private financial institutions, Senter International) to act as intermediaries in purchasing Certified Emission Reductions (CERs). These organisations select and sponsor projects in developing countries, with VROM’s guidance, and buy the resulting CERs on behalf of VROM. Memoranda of Understanding are also being negotiated with individual host countries (e.g. Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Panama, Uruguay) to facilitate co-operation in delivering obligatory letters of approval. A 2001 study commissioned by VROM concluded that the marginal cost of reduction on the CDM market ranges from EUR 4 to EUR 5 per tonne. In 2002 the Dutch government granted USD 44 million to the IFC to implement CDM projects in developing countries. In return, the Netherlands will receive credits for 10 MtC towards its Kyoto Protocol reduction target of 250 MtC. Similar agreements have been entered into with the World Bank (16 MtC) and a Latin
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American development bank (10 MtC). A procurement approach similar to ERUPT is expected to provide another 10 MtC. Negotiations are under way with private banks, and bilateral carbon credit purchasing agreements between the Netherlands and non-Annex 1 countries are being considered.
2.2
International co-operation for protection of the Rhine
The Rhine is one of the world’s most heavily travelled international shipping lanes, constituting a major link between Rotterdam, the world’s largest port, and its hinterland. Flowing through Switzerland, France, Germany and the Netherlands before it empties into the North Sea, the Rhine has a great variety of uses including for industry, agriculture, waterworks, navigation and recreation. About 50 million people live in the Rhine river basin (200 000 km2, draining mainly from Switzerland, Germany, France, Luxembourg and the Netherlands), which is densely populated and heavily industrialised. Over one-third of the world’s chemical and pharmaceutical industries (in terms of production volume) are located in the Rhine basin. Most of the 120 waterworks along the Rhine (supplying about 20 million people) use surface water to provide drinking water (usually with bank or dune filtration). The Netherlands also uses water from the Rhine for some irrigation (e.g. in horticulture). As the downstream country, the Netherlands has participated in international efforts to protect the Rhine’s environmental quality for over a century (e.g. the 1887 treaty prohibiting discharges harmful to fish). In 1946 the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine against Pollution (ICPR) was established by France, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Switzerland with the objectives of: i) analysing the state of the Rhine; ii) proposing actions to protect it; and iii) preparing relevant international agreements. In the first 20 years of its existence, the ICPR was successful in meeting its first objective. It helped create a water quality monitoring system along the river’s entire length. After the mid-1970s, ICPR member States greatly tightened controls on waste water discharges. Massive investments were made in industrial and municipal waste water treatment. Water quality is much better than it used to be, but water quality standards are still not met for a number of pollutants (e.g. nitrates, heavy metals, pesticides, PCBs, PAHs). In the 1990s the ICPR’s scope was gradually broadened, from taking measures to improve water quality to integrated management of the Rhine basin including ecosystem restoration and flood protection. Following several accidents, the ICPR established the Rhine Action Programme for Ecological Rehabilitation (1987), which aimed to: i) guarantee use of the Rhine for drinking water supply; ii) reduce sediment pollution; iii) restore ecosystems to allow the return of salmon; and iv) help improve the ecological state of the North Sea.
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In 1998 the new focus on joint river basin management was formalised in the new Convention on the Protection of the Rhine (signed by Germany, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the EU). Going far beyond the 1963 Convention of the same name (which focused exclusively on water pollution), the new Convention sets out a river basin approach to avoiding, reducing or eliminating pollution from point and diffuse sources, ensuring the adequate security of industrial plants and other sites of potential accidents, and co-operation to reduce the risk of flooding. The 1998 Convention’s objectives are co-ordinated with those of the 1992 Helsinki Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Water Courses and International Lakes and the 1992 OSPAR Convention; it influenced the recent EU Water Framework Directive and its component on river basin management of international rivers. In 2001 Rhine ministers adopted a programme of work, Rhine 2020, to implement the terms of the 1998 Convention. It establishes objectives for the next 20 years, including: i) further improvement of water quality (diffuse sources); ii) implementation of the Action Plan on Flood Defence; iii) improvement of the Rhine ecosystem; and iv) improvement of groundwater protection. This programme sets the target of closer co-operation between organisations responsible for managing the Rhine and the North Sea, as well as stricter control of diffuse inputs including polluted river sediments.
© OECD 2003
ANNEXES I.A
Selected environmental data
I.B
Selected economic data
I.C
Selected social data
II.A Selected multilateral agreements (worldwide) II.B Selected multilateral agreements (regional) III.
Selected environmental events (1992-2002)
IV.
Physical context
V.
Selected environmental web sites
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ANNEX I.A: SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL DATA (1)
LAND 2 Total area (1000 km ) Major protected areas (% of total area) 2 Nitrogenous fertiliser use (t/km of arable land)
2
Pesticide use (t/km2 of arable land)
CAN MEX USA JPN KOR AUS NZL AUT BEL CZE DNK
FIN
9971 1958 9364
338
9.6
8.2 21.2
3.8
4.9
378
99 7713
6.8
6.9
270
84
7.7 23.5 29.2
5.7 11.3 21.9
1.9 59.0
31
79
43
2.8 16.2 32.0
7.9 17.0
7.1 10.3
8.4 7.1
0.07 0.13 0.20 1.50 1.29 0.06 0.82 0.24 1.15 0.13 0.12 0.05
FOREST Forest area (% of land area)
45.3 33.4 32.6 66.8 65.2 19.4 29.5 47.6 22.2 34.1 10.5 75.5
Use of forest resources (harvest/growth) Tropical wood imports (USD/cap.)
3
0.4
0.2
0.6
0.3
0.1
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.8
1.6
0.2
2.2 10.7
6.1
4.0
3.4
0.4 24.2
0.3
3.8
1.4
THREATENED SPECIES Mammals (% of species known)
17.1 33.2 10.5 24.0 17.0 23.2 15.2 26.2 31.6 33.3 22.0 11.9
Birds (% of species known)
9.6 16.9
7.2 12.9 14.1 12.1 25.3 26.0 27.5 55.9 13.2 13.3
Fish (% of species known)
7.1
2.4 24.0
5.7
1.3
0.7
0.8 41.7 54.3 29.2 15.8 11.8
Water withdrawal (% of gross annual availability)
1.7 15.3 19.9 21.2 34.3
6.8
0.6
4.2 45.1 12.4 12.3
Public waste water treatment (% of population served)
75
24
71
62
68
..
80
81
39
62
89
80
Fish catches (% of world catches)
1.0
1.4
5.0
5.3
1.9
0.2
0.6
-
-
-
1.6
0.2
WATER 2.1
AIR Emissions of sulphur oxides (kg/cap.) (kg/1000 USD GDP)
89.7 12.2 62.7
4
% change (1990-late 1990s) Emissions of nitrogen oxides (kg/cap.) (kg/1000 USD GDP)
6.9 24.7 95.8 11.6
5.0 20.1 25.8
3.7
1.6
2.0
0.3
2.1
4.1
0.7
0.2
0.9
2.0
5.2 14.6 0.2
0.6
-19
..
-20
-3
-29
-4
20
-55
-37
-86
-85
-71
67.4 12.0 84.4 13.1 23.3 135.2 53.4 22.6 35.7 38.6 38.9 45.6
4
% change (1990-late 1990s)
2.6
1.6
2.7
0.5
2.0
5.7
3.1
0.9
1.5
3.0
1.5
1.9
-2
18
5
-
17
17
18
-9
16
-47
-25
-21
3.8 20.8
9.3
9.5 17.2
8.4
Emissions of carbon dioxide (t./cap.)
5
16.7
(t./1000 USD GDP)
4
0.62 0.45 0.63 0.38 0.68 0.71 0.45 0.32 0.48 0.91 0.37 0.45
% change (1990-1999)
22
24
18
13
88
26
38
7.7 11.8 11.9 9
14
9.4 10.8
-19
2
5
WASTE GENERATED Industrial waste (kg/1000 USD GDP)
4, 6
..
50
..
40
60
110
30
80
60
70
20
150
Municipal waste (kg/cap.)
7
330
320
760
410
360
690
380
560
550
330
660
460
Nuclear waste (t./Mtoe of TPES)
8
4.7
0.1
0.9
1.7
3.5
-
-
-
2.2
1.0
-
2.2
PAC EXPENDITURE (% of GDP)
9
1.1
0.8
1.6
1.4
1.7
0.8
..
1.7
0.9
2.0
0.9
1.1
.. not available. - nil or negligible. x data included under Belgium. 1) Data refer to the latest available year. They include provisional figures and Secretariat estimates. Partial totals are underlined. Varying definitions can limit comparability across countries. 2) Data refer to IUCN categories I to VI; AUS, HUN, ITA, LUX, NOR, POL TUR: national data. 3) Total imports of cork and wood from non-OECD tropical countries. 4) GDP at 1995 prices and purchasing power parities.
Source: OECD Environmental Data Compendium.
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OECD EPR / SECOND CYCLE FRA DEU GRC HUN
549
ISL
IRL
ITA LUX NLD NOR POL PRT ESP SLO SWE CHE TUR UKD* OECD*
357
132
93
103
70
301
10.1 26.9
2.6
9.1
9.5
0.9
9.1
12.4 15.3
7.3
6.4
9.8 43.1
7.6
0.51 0.26 0.29 0.10
31.4 30.1 22.8 18.9 0.7
0.4
0.6
0.6
6.8
1.8
2.8
0.1
19.7 36.7 37.9 71.1
42
324
313
92
506
245
34777
6.5 11.6
7.6
9.7
6.6
8.4 21.6
8.1 18.0
3.8 20.4
12.4
x 30.5 11.4
6.0
3.9
5.8
6.9 11.8
5.1 16.0
6.2
- 0.25 0.44 0.63 0.98 0.04 0.06 0.50 0.18 0.21 0.06 0.33 0.13 0.52
0.21
1.3
3
4.5
450
41
779
8.8 23.3 34.4
9.2 39.2 29.7 37.9 32.3 42.2 73.5 31.7 26.9 10.5
0.6
0.3
0.6
0.5
0.6
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.7
0.5
2.8 11.2
7.1
- 15.6
3.6
0.3 17.9
6.2
0.1
2.2
0.6
0.5
2.7
4.0
3.4 14.6 17.3 21.2 22.2 23.1 34.2 22.2 21.9
..
6.4
..
9.9 11.1
..
11.7
-
-
0.5
6.5 40.7 51.6 15.6
14.3 29.2 13.0 18.8 34.7 21.8 18.4 50.0 27.1 7.5 68.2 24.3 32.1
49
- 33.3 31.8 27.9 82.1
7.7 14.7 13.7 14.1 14.4 19.2 42.6 -
9.6 18.6 29.4 23.8
7.9 44.7
6.7
33.9
4.7
0.1
2.6 32.1
3.7
4.9
0.7 16.9 15.2 36.8
1.4
1.5
4.8 16.8 17.4
77
91
56
26
16
61
63
95
98
73
55
55
48
49
93
96
12
92
63
0.6
0.2
0.1
-
2.1
0.3
0.3
-
0.5
2.9
0.2
0.2
1.0
-
0.4
-
0.5
0.8
27.4
14.2 10.1 51.4 58.5 33.4 42.2 16.0
32.8
15.9 22.3 12.1
7.1
5.7
6.4 39.1 37.6 40.4 33.2
8.0
3.9 33.0 19.9
0.7
0.4
3.7
5.7
1.3
1.7
0.8
0.2
0.2
0.2
4.3
2.4
2.4
3.3
0.4
0.1
5.3
1.0
1.5
-34
-84
7
-41
14
-14
-46
-79
-55
-46
-53
4
-25
-67
-48
-35
..
-68
-33
28.1 19.9 36.4 22.0 91.7 32.2 25.8 38.8 26.6 53.7 21.7 37.0 33.0 24.1 30.2 14.8 14.1 26.9
40.3
1.3
0.9
2.6
2.1
3.5
1.4
1.2
0.9
1.1
2.1
2.4
2.4
2.0
2.4
1.4
0.6
2.3
1.3
-12
-40
17
-7
-2
3
-24
-27
-27
6
-35
17
6
-43
-23
-32
48
-42
-4
6.0 10.0
8.0
5.5
7.4 18.4 10.9
7.7
7.7
6.0
7.2
6.6
5.3
5.6
3.1
9.2
11.2
0.26 0.43 0.54 0.49 0.29 0.40 0.34 0.43 0.44 0.29 0.85 0.36 0.40 0.63 0.23 0.20 0.49 0.44
0.51
-3
-15
23
-18
7.7 11.0 8
29
8
-23
11
21
-16
49
35
-36
-2
-5
49
-3
1.9
13
80
30
50
20
1
60
20
140
30
30
160
80
40
80
110
10
30
40
70
510
540
430
450
700
560
500
640
610
620
290
450
660
320
450
650
390
560
540
4.4
1.2
-
1.8
-
-
-
-
0.2
-
-
-
1.4
2.5
4.6
2.4
-
3.4
1.5
1.4
1.5
0.8
0.7
..
0.6
0.9
..
1.8
1.2
1.1
0.9
0.8
1.5
1.2
1.6
..
1.0
..
* UKD: pesticides and threatened species: Great Britain; water withdrawal: England and Wales. 5) CO2 from energy use only; international marine and aviation bunkers are excluded. 6) Waste from manufacturing industries. 7) CAN, NZL: household waste only. 8) Waste from spent fuel arising in nuclear power plants, in tonnes of heavy metal, per million tonnes of oil equivalent of total primary energy supply. 9) Household expenditure excluded; HUN, POL: investments only.
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ANNEX I.B: SELECTED ECONOMIC DATA (1) CAN MEX USA JPN KOR AUS NZL AUT BEL CZE DNK GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT GDP, 2001 (billion USD at 1995 prices and PPPs) % change (1990-2001) per capita, 2001 (1000 USD/cap.) Exports, 2001 (% of GDP) INDUSTRY Value added in industry (% of GDP) Industrial production: % change (1990-2001) AGRICULTURE Value added in agriculture (% of GDP) Agricultural production: % change (1990-2001) Livestock population, 2001 (million head of sheep eq.) ENERGY Total supply, 2000 (Mtoe) % change (1990-2000) Energy intensity, 2000 (toe/1000 USD GDP) % change (1990-2000) Structure of energy supply, 2000 (%) Solid fuels Oil Gas Nuclear Hydro, etc.
842 812 9156 3131 674 474 72 198 258 139 138 33.4 40.7 39.1 14.6 87.1 44.0 32.6 27.0 24.6 3.8 26.9 27.1 8.2 32.1 24.6 14.2 24.5 18.7 24.4 25.1 13.6 25.8 43.3 27.5 10.3 10.4 42.9 22.4 36.6 52.2 86.8 71.4 45.3
2
3
31 28 25 36.0 42.6 41.6
32 44 26 27 33 28 41 27 -5.3 135.8 28.2 19.1 45.4 15.2 -18.6 41.9
3 4 2 13.9 33.4 20.3 103 276 786
1 5 4 8 -9.2 26.2 28.0 29.0 55 27 295 102
2 1 4.3 17.2 18 30
4 .. 14
3 2.3 25
251 154 2300 525 194 110 19 29 59 40 19 20.0 23.8 19.3 19.6 109.1 25.9 32.9 13.3 22.3 -14.8 7.7 0.30 0.19 0.25 0.17 0.30 0.24 0.26 0.15 0.23 0.30 0.14 -8.7 -12.2 -13.2 3.9 15.1 -10.5 2.1 -9.8 -0.8 -15.0 -14.4
4 12.0 4.6 23.6 17.9 21.7 43.1 5.4 12.5 34.7 61.8 38.7 50.5 53.6 33.2 33.9 41.1 29.4 21.7 23.7 12.3 8.8 17.5 27.1 22.7 7.5 1.4 9.1 16.0 14.7 .. .. .. 16.5 10.4 5.0 3.3 1.3 6.3 33.5 23.7
14.2 52.2 20.7 40.4 19.1 45.0 22.7 18.2 22.9 21.3 8.6 .. 1.3 1.9 11.3
5 ROAD TRANSPORT Road traffic volumes per capita, 1999 (1000 veh.-km/cap.) 9.4 0.6 15.8 6.0 1.8 9.3 8.0 7.8 8.7 3.1 8.4 Road vehicle stock, 1999 (10 000 vehicles) 1784 1459 21533 7003 1116 1199 231 485 512 373 223 % change (1990-1999) 7.8 47.7 14.1 24.0 228.9 22.7 25.2 31.3 20.2 43.7 17.9 per capita (veh./100 inh.) 59 15 79 55 24 63 61 60 50 36 42 .. not available. - nil or negligible. x data included under Belgium. 1) Data may include provisional figures and Secretariat estimates. Partial totals are underlined. 2) Value added: includes mining and quarrying, manufacturing, gas, electricity and water and construction; production: excludes construction.
Source: OECD Environmental Data Compendium.
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OECD EPR / SECOND CYCLE FIN FRA DEU GRC HUN 124 24.6 23.9 40.4
1393 22.0 23.5 28.2
ISL
IRL
ITA LUX NLD NOR POL PRT ESP SLO SWE CHE TUR UKD OECD
1921 165 117 8 112 1288 20 398 120 352 167 739 58 206 200 391 19.0 31.2 12.2 31.8 115.0 19.0 86.5 34.4 41.9 44.6 33.7 33.5 14.9 20.6 10.3 31.6 23.3 15.5 11.5 26.8 29.1 22.2 44.5 24.9 26.5 9.1 16.6 18.4 10.8 23.2 27.7 5.7 35.0 24.5 60.6 39.8 94.5 28.3 153.6 65.8 46.2 29.8 31.5 29.9 75.9 46.5 43.8 35.0
34 25 30 21 34 63.2 19.0 14.0 14.1 54.0
29 41 29 21 27 43 35 31 30 .. 256.6 14.2 28.9 20.7 41.1 64.3 24.7 21.7
4 -13.7 9
11 4 9.1 10.3 1 54
3 2.0 164
1 8 4 -2.9 16.9 -13.0 124 21 13
3 7.2 71
1 x x
3 2 4 -0.6 -15.2 -16.2 46 9 57
4 4 0.5 12.8 19 96
1293 24965 28.3 30.6 21.6 22.0 27.1 21.6
35 28 30 30 28 0.2 40.0 26.1 38.2 10.0 15 1 7.8 -11.2 117 117
2 .. 2682
33 257 340 28 25 3 15 172 4 76 26 90 25 125 17 47 27 77 233 15.0 13.8 -4.5 27.9 -12.9 63.5 39.8 13.1 3.1 14.0 19.4 -9.9 43.4 37.9 -19.5 1.7 6.1 46.4 9.5 0.27 0.19 0.18 0.18 0.22 0.46 0.14 0.14 0.20 0.19 0.22 0.26 0.15 0.17 0.31 0.23 0.13 0.18 0.18 -7.0 -4.8 -19.3 1.5 -19.4 27.8 -30.7 -3.2 -41.9 -14.2 -14.6 -37.0 9.3 6.2 -27.6 -14.6 -2.5 3.0 -12.7
5317 17.8 0.22 -8.9
15.7 5.7 23.7 32.5 16.2 2.9 18.2 7.5 3.9 10.8 3.9 62.2 15.5 30.4 33.2 38.8 56.1 28.0 24.5 56.5 52.6 73.3 38.5 33.1 22.1 63.4 10.6 13.4 21.2 6.1 39.3 .. 23.5 34.5 21.0 46.8 13.3 11.0 8.3 18.2 41.1 13.0 .. 14.9 .. .. .. .. 1.4 .. .. .. 24.9 6.6 3.3 5.3 1.6 72.6 1.8 5.4 1.8 2.6 49.6 4.7 12.8
20.4 40.8 21.6 11.0 6.2
16.8 52.1 12.2 13.0 5.9
8.9 8.4 7.4 7.3 3.5 6.5 8.3 8.0 8.9 7.0 7.2 4.5 5.8 4.2 240 3309 4503 389 271 17 148 3545 31 675 225 1104 461 2048 7.6 16.3 20.7 54.1 12.7 27.3 55.8 15.9 40.2 17.7 16.0 72.6 109.5 41.8 46 56 55 37 27 62 39 61 71 43 51 29 46 52
5 2 2 .. -9.3 -7.0 7 13 12
28 23.6
24.1 5.5 0.9 30.5 15.5 16.2 28.6 46.8 40.5 35.9 32.6 1.5 8.9 16.4 37.8 24.3 32.0 25.4 .. 9.6 2.7 32.4 17.9 12.6 1.2 2.2 141 .. 26
8.4 7.2 0.8 7.8 8.0 424 376 548 2909 57281 7.9 13.9 132.1 15.4 21.7 48 53 8 49 51
3) Agriculture, forestry, hunting, fishery, etc. 4) Breakdown excludes electricity trade. 5) Refers to motor vehicles with four or more wheels, except for Japan and Italy, which include three-wheeled goods vehicles.
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ANNEX I.C: SELECTED SOCIAL DATA (1) CAN MEX USA JPN KOR AUS NZL AUT BEL CZE DNK POPULATION Total population, 2001 (100 000 inh.) % change (1990-2001) Population density, 2001 (inh./km2) Ageing index, 2001 (over 64/under 15)
311 991 2850 1273 473 194 39 81 103 102 54 12.2 22.0 14.0 3.0 10.4 13.6 14.5 5.3 3.2 -1.3 4.2 3.1 50.6 30.4 336.9 476.7 2.5 14.3 96.9 336.9 129.6 124.4 67.1 17.0 58.4 125.1 36.3 61.0 52.4 92.5 94.5 84.4 79.3
HEALTH Women life expectancy at birth, 2000 (years) Infant mortality, 2000 (deaths /1 000 live births) Expenditure, 2000 (% of GDP)
81.7 77.9 79.4 84.6 79.2 82.0 80.8 81.2 80.8 78.5 79.0 5.3 24.9 7.1 3.2 7.7 5.2 5.4 4.8 5.2 4.0 5.3 9.3 5.4 13.0 7.8 5.9 8.3 8.2 8.0 8.7 7.2 8.4
INCOME AND POVERTY GDP per capita, 2001 (1000 USD/cap.) Poverty (% pop. < 50% median income) Inequality (Gini levels) Minimum to median wages, 2000
2 3
27.1 8.2 32.1 24.6 14.2 24.5 18.7 24.4 25.1 13.6 25.8 10.3 21.9 17.0 8.1 .. 9.3 .. 7.4 7.8 .. 5.0 28.5 52.6 34.4 26.0 .. 30.5 25.6 26.1 27.2 .. 21.7 42.5 21.1 36.4 32.9 23.8 57.9 46.3 x 49.2 30.4 x
EMPLOYMENT Unemployment rate, 2001 (% of total labour force) Labour force participation rate, 2001 (% 15-64 year-olds) 4 Employment in agriculture, 2001 (%)
7.2 2.5 4.8 5.0 3.7 6.8 5.3 4.9 6.6 8.2 4.3 77.5 55.7 66.9 78.2 65.3 75.4 66.0 76.9 64.0 71.5 80.1 2.9 17.6 2.4 4.9 10.3 4.9 9.1 5.7 2.2 4.8 3.3
EDUCATION Education, 2001 (% 25-64 year-olds) Expenditure, 1999 (% of GDP) OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE ODA, 2001 (% of GNI)
5 81.9 21.6 87.7 83.1 68.0 58.9 75.7 75.7 58.5 86.2 80.2 6 6.6 5.2 6.5 4.7 6.8 5.8 .. 6.3 5.5 4.7 6.7 7
ODA, 2001 (USD/cap.)
0.23 51
.. 0.11 0.23
.. 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.37
.. 1.01
..
..
..
38
76
44
29
56
84
.. not available. - nil or negligible. x not applicable. 1) Data may include provisional figures and Secretariat estimates. Partial totals are underlined. 2) Ranging from 0 (equal) to 100 (inequal) income distribution; figures relate to total disposable income (including all incomes, taxes and benefits) for the entire population. 3) Minimum wage as a percentage of median earnings including overtime pay and bonuses.
Source: OECD.
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OECD EPR / SECOND CYCLE FIN FRA DEU GRC HUN
ISL
IRL
ITA LUX NLD NOR POL PRT ESP SLO SWE CHE TUR UKD OECD
52 592 823 106 102 3 38 579 4 160 45 386 101 403 54 89 72 686 600 11367 4.2 4.4 3.7 5.3 -1.7 11.9 9.6 2.1 14.8 7.0 6.4 1.4 1.9 3.6 1.5 3.9 7.7 22.1 4.2 9.1 15.4 107.8 230.6 80.5 109.5 2.8 54.6 192.3 170.6 385.0 13.9 123.6 109.4 79.6 109.7 19.8 175.1 88.0 245.0 32.7 84.4 86.2 116.3 111.9 92.4 50.0 52.2 124.9 74.6 73.0 75.0 67.0 90.7 116.3 60.2 100.1 95.6 18.4 82.3 65.9 81.0 82.5 80.7 80.6 75.6 81.4 79.1 81.6 81.2 80.6 81.4 78.0 79.1 82.4 77.2 82.1 82.5 71.0 79.8 3.8 4.5 4.4 6.1 9.2 3.0 5.9 5.1 5.1 5.1 3.8 8.1 5.5 4.6 8.6 3.4 4.9 38.7 5.6 6.6 9.5 10.6 8.3 6.8 8.9 6.7 8.1 6.0 8.1 7.5 6.2 8.2 7.7 5.9 7.9 10.7 4.8 7.3
.. .. ..
23.9 23.5 23.3 15.5 11.5 26.8 29.1 22.2 44.5 24.9 26.5 9.1 16.6 18.4 10.8 23.2 27.7 5.7 21.6 4.9 7.5 9.4 13.8 7.3 .. 11.0 14.2 .. 6.3 10.0 .. .. .. .. 6.4 6.2 16.2 10.9 22.8 27.8 28.2 33.6 28.3 .. 32.4 34.5 .. 25.5 25.6 .. .. .. .. 23.0 26.9 49.1 32.4 x 60.8 x 51.3 35.6 x x x 48.9 46.7 x 35.5 38.2 31.8 .. x x .. x
22.0 .. .. ..
9.1 8.7 7.4 10.4 5.7 1.5 3.9 9.6 2.6 2.2 3.6 18.2 4.1 10.5 19.3 4.0 1.9 8.4 5.1 74.8 69.7 75.1 63.0 58.0 76.8 70.4 60.8 65.3 67.0 80.7 65.1 75.7 69.3 69.5 77.0 81.8 51.5 75.9 5.7 3.7 2.6 16.0 6.3 7.8 7.0 5.3 1.4 2.9 3.9 19.1 12.7 6.4 6.1 2.3 4.2 32.6 1.4
6.4 68.5 6.6
73.8 63.9 82.6 51.4 70.2 56.9 57.6 43.3 52.7 65.0 85.2 45.9 19.9 40.0 85.1 80.6 87.4 24.3 63.0 5.8 6.2 5.6 3.9 5.2 .. 4.6 4.8 .. 4.7 6.6 5.3 5.7 5.3 4.4 6.7 5.9 3.9 5.2
64.2 5.5
0.33 0.34 0.27 0.19
0.22
75
73
59
18
..
.. 0.33 0.14 0.80 0.82 0.83
.. 0.25 0.30
.. 0.76 0.34
.. 0.32
..
..
..
..
..
74
26
322
197
298
27
43
177
126
4) Civil employment in agriculture, forestry and fishing. 5) Upper secondary or higher education; OECD: average of rates. 6) Public and private expenditure on educational institutions; OECD: average of rates. 7) Official Development Assistance by Member countries of the OECD Development Assistance Committee.
© OECD 2003
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60
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ANNEX II.A: SELECTED MULTILATERAL AGREEMENTS (WORLDWIDE) Y = in force S = signed R = ratified D = denounced CAN MEX USA JPN
1946 Washington Conv. - Regulation of whaling 1956 Washington Protocol 1949 Geneva Conv. - Road traffic 1954 London Conv. - Prevention of pollution of the sea by oil 1971 London Amendments to convention (protection of the Great Barrier Reef) 1957 Brussels Conv. - Limitation of the liability of owners of sea-going ships 1979 Brussels Protocol 1958 Geneva Conv. - Fishing and conservation of the living resources of the high seas 1960 Geneva Conv. - Protection of workers against ionising radiations (ILO 115) 1962 Brussels Conv. - Liability of operators of nuclear ships 1963 Vienna Conv. - Civil liability for nuclear damage 1988 Vienna Joint protocol relating to the application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention 1997 Vienna Protocol to amend the Vienna convention 1963 Moscow Treaty - Banning nuclear weapon tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water 1964 Copenhagen Conv. - International council for the exploration of the sea 1970 Copenhagen Protocol 1969 Brussels Conv. - Intervention on the high seas in cases of oil pollution casualties (INTERVENTION) 1973 London Protocol (pollution by substances other than oil) 1969 Brussels Conv. - Civil liability for oil pollution damage (CLC) 1976 London Protocol 1992 London Protocol 1970 Bern Conv. - Transport of goods by rail (CIM) 1971 Brussels Conv. - International fund for compensation for oil pollution damage (FUND) 1976 London Protocol 1992 London Protocol 1971 Brussels Conv. - Civil liability in maritime carriage of nuclear material 1971 London, Moscow, Conv. - Prohib. emplacement of nuclear and mass destruct. weapons on sea-bed, ocean floor Washington and subsoil 1971 Ramsar Conv. - Wetlands of international importance especially as waterfowl habitat 1982 Paris Protocol 1987 Regina Regina amendment 1971 Geneva Conv. - Protection against hazards of poisoning arising from benzene (ILO 136) 1972 London, Mexico, Conv. - Prevention of marine pollution by dumping of wastes and other matter (LC) Moscow, Washington 1996 London Protocol to the Conv. - Prevention of marine poll. by dumping of wastes and other matter 1972 Geneva Conv. - Protection of new varieties of plants (revised) 1978 Geneva Amendments 1991 Geneva Amendments 1972 Geneva Conv. - Safe container (CSC) 1972 London, Moscow, Conv. - International liability for damage caused by space objects Washington 1972 Paris Conv. - Protection of the world cultural and natural heritage 1973 Washington Conv. - International trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES) 1974 Geneva Conv. - Prev. and control of occup. hazards caused by carcinog. subst. and agents (ILO 139) 1976 London Conv. - Limitation of liability for maritime claims (LLMC) 1996 London Amendment to convention 1977 Geneva Conv. - Protection of workers against occupational hazards in the working environment due to air pollution, noise and vibration (ILO 148) 1978 London Protocol - Prevention of pollution from ships (MARPOL PROT) 1978 London Annex III 1978 London Annex IV
Y Y Y Y
D R R R R Y S Y Y S Y
R R
Y Y
R
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
R R R
Y Y Y Y Y
R
R R R R
R R R R D
R R
R
R R
R R R R R S
R
R R R
R R D R R
D R R
D R R
S
D R R
R
R
R
R
R R R
R R R
R R
R R R
R
R
R
R
R R R
R R
R R
R R
S R R R R R
R R R R R
Y R Y R Y Y S Y
R R
R R
R R R R
Y R Y
R
R R
R R R
Y Y Y Y Y
R
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OECD EPR / SECOND CYCLE Y = in force S = signed R = ratified D = denounced KOR AUS NZL AUT BEL CZE DNK FIN FRA DEU GRC HUN ISL IRL ITA LUX NLD NOR POL PRT ESP SLO
SWE CHE TUR UKD EU
R R R R
R R R R R D
R R R R R D R R
R R R R R
R R R
R R D R R R S
S
S R
R
R R S R
R R
R
R R R R
R R R R R
R R R R R
R R R R R
R R R R R R
S R R R R R
R R R
R R R
R R R
R R R
R R R
R
R
R
R R R R R
R R R R R R
R R R
R R
R R
R R
R R
R R
R R
R R
R R
R R
R R R
R
R
R R R R R
R
R R R R S R
R R R
R R R
R R R
R
R R
R R
R R
R
R R R
S R
R R
© OECD 2003
R R
R R R R R R
R R R R R R
R R R R S R
R R R
R R R
R R
R R R R
R R R R R S
R R R R R D
R R
R R
R R
R R R
R
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R
R
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R R R R R D R R R D R R R R
R R R R R D R R R D R R R R
R R R
R R R
R R R
R
R
R
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S
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R R R R R D R R R D R R R R
R
R R
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R R R R D R R R D R R R
R
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S R S
R R R R R D R R R D R R R R
R
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D R R R R
R R R R R D R R R D R R R R
R
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R
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R R D S
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D
R
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R R
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D
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R R R R R D
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R
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R R D R R
D R R
R
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R R R R R D R R R D R R R R
S
R
R
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R R S R
D R R R
R
R
R R R R R
R R R
R R R
R
R
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R R
R
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S R R R R R
R R R
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D R R R D R R
D R R R
R R R R R R
R R R R
R R
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R R R R R R
R R
R R R
R R R
R R R
R R R
R
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R R R R
R R D R R R D R R R R R R
R
D
R R R R R D D R R D D R
S
R R R R
R S R
R R R R
R R R
R S R
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R R
R R R
R R R
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R R R R
R
R
R R S R R R R R R
S
S S
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S R R R R R R R R R R R S R
R R R R R D R R R D R R R R
R
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R R
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R
R
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R R R R
R R
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R S
R R
R
R R
R R
R R R R N R
R R
R R R
R R
R R R
R R
R R R
R R S R R R R R D R R R D R R R
R R R R
R R
R
R
R
R
R R R R R D D R R
S
S
S S
R R R R R D R R R D R R R R
R
R
R
R
R R R R R D D R R D D R S R
R R R
R R R R R
R R R
R R R
R
R R
R
R R R S R
S
R R R R
R R
R R
R
R R R
R R R
R
R R R
R
R
R
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S R R R R R R R R R S R
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R R D R R R D
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R R R R R R
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ANNEX II.A: SELECTED MULTILATERAL AGREEMENTS (WORLDWIDE) (cont.) Y = in force S = signed R = ratified D = denounced CAN MEX USA JPN
1978 London 1997 London 1979 Bonn 1991 London 1992 New York 1996 Monaco 1996 The Hague 1982 Montego Bay 1994 New York 1995 New York 1983 Geneva 1994 New York 1985 Vienna 1987 Montreal 1990 London 1992 Copenhagen 1997 Montreal 1999 Beijing 1986 Vienna 1986 Vienna 1989 Basel 1995 Geneva 1999 Basel 1989 London 1990 Geneva 1990 London 1992 Rio de Janeiro 2000 Montreal 1992 New York 1997 Kyoto 1993 Paris 1993 Geneva 1993 1994 Vienna 1994 Paris 1995 Rome 1996 London 1997 Vienna 1997 Vienna 1997 New York 1998 Rotterdam 2001 London 2001 Stockholm
Annex V Annex VI Conv. - Conservation of migratory species of wild animals Agreem. - Conservation of bats in Europe Agreem. - Conservation of small cetaceans of the Baltic and the North Seas (ASCOBANS) Agreem. - Conservation of cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area Agreem. - Conservation of African-Eurasian migratory waterbirds Conv. - Law of the sea Agreem. - relating to the implementation of part XI of the convention Agreem. - Implementation of the provisions of the convention relating to the conservation and management of straddling fish stocks and highly migratory fish stocks Agreem. - Tropical timber Revised agreem. - Tropical timber Conv. - Protection of the ozone layer Protocol (substances that deplete the ozone layer) Amendment to protocol Amendment to protocol Amendment to protocol Amendment to protocol Conv. - Early notification of a nuclear accident Conv. - Assistance in the case of a nuclear accident or radiological emergency Conv. - Control of transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and their disposal Amendment Prot. - Liability and compensation for damage Conv. - Salvage Conv. - Safety in the use of chemicals at work (ILO 170) Conv. - Oil pollution preparedness, response and co-operation (OPRC) Conv. - Biological diversity Prot. - Biosafety Conv. - Framework convention on climate change Protocol Conv. - Prohibition of the development, production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons and their destruction Conv. - Prevention of major industrial accidents (ILO 174) Agreem. - Promote compliance with international conservation and management measures by fishing vessels on the high seas Conv. - Nuclear safety Conv. - Combat desertification in those countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa Code of conduct on responsible fishing Conv. - Liability and compensation for damage in connection with the carriage of hazardous and noxious substances by sea Conv. - Supplementary compensation for nuclear damage Conv. - Joint convention on the safety of spent fuel management and on the safety of radioactive waste management Conv. - Law of the non-navigational uses of international watercourses Conv. - Prior informed consent procedure for hazardous chemicals and pesticides (PIC) Conv. - Civil liability for bunker oil pollution damage Conv. - Persistent organic pollutants
Y
R
R
R
S R
R R S R R R R R R
R R R
Y Y Y Y Y Y S Y S Y R Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
R
R R R R R R R R Y R Y S Y R
R R R R
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R R S
Y R Y Y R Y R S Y R S Y R
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R R S
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R
R
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Y R Y R
R R
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R R
Y
S S S
Y R
S R
S
Source: IUCN; OECD.
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OECD EPR / SECOND CYCLE Y = in force S = signed R = ratified D = denounced KOR AUS NZL AUT BEL CZE DNK FIN FRA DEU GRC HUN ISL IRL ITA LUX NLD NOR POL PRT ESP SLO
SWE CHE TUR UKD EU
R
R S R R R
R
R
R
R
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R R R R
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R R R R R R R R R R
R R R S R S S
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R S R R R
R S R R R
R S R R R
R
R
R
R
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R S S S
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R R R R R R
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R S R R S R
R R R R R R R R R R R R S S
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R R S R R R
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R R S R R R
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R
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R R R R R
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S R R S
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R
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R R S R R S
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R R R R R R R R R R R R S
R R R R R R R R R R R R
R S R R S
S
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R R R R R R R R
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R R R
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R R S R R R
R S R R S
R
R R
S
S S
S
S
S
S
R
R R
R R
R R
R R
R R
S
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R R
R R
R R
R R
R R
R R
R R
S
R
S
S R
R
R
R
R
R
R
S
S
S
R
S
R S
S
S R
S
R R
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
© OECD 2003
S R
R
S
S
R R
R R
S
S
R
R R R R
R R
R R
R R
R R
R
R
R
R
S
S S
R R
R R
S
S S
S
S
S
R
S
S
S
S
R
R
S
S S
R S S
R R R R
S R R S
R R R R R R R
R R R R R R
R R R R
R R R R R R R
R R R R S R R R R S R R R
R R R
R R R
R R R R R R R R R R R R S R
S R R R S R S R
R S
S
R R S R R S
R R
R R
R S R R
R R R
R R
S
S S
R
R R R S
R R
R R R
R
S
R R R R R R
S
R
R R
R
S
R
R
R
R S
R
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
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ANNEX II.B: SELECTED MULTILATERAL AGREEMENTS (REGIONAL) Y = in force S = signed R = ratified D = denounced CAN MEX USA JPN 1885 Berlin 1946 London 1958 Dublin 1960 London 1961 Copenhagen 1962 Hamburg 1963 London 1950 Paris 1957 Geneva 1975 New York 1958 Geneva 1959 1991 1960 1963 1964 1964 1982 1982 1988 1963 1976 1976 1976 1991 1964 1966 1967 1968 1983 1968 1979 1970 1972 1983 1972 1974 1974 1986 1992 1979
Washington Madrid Paris Brussels Paris Paris Brussels Brussels Vienna Bern Bonn Bonn Bonn Brussels London Rio de Janeiro London Strasbourg Strasbourg Paris Strasbourg Brussels Oslo London Stockholm Paris Paris Paris Bern
Treaty - Regulation of Salmon Fishery in the Rhine River Basin Conv. - Regulation of the meshes of fishing nets and the size limits of fish Amendments Amendments Amendments Amendments Amendments Conv. - Protection of birds Agreem. - International carriage of dangerous goods by road (ADR) Protocol Agreem. - Adoption of uniform conditions of approval and reciprocal recognition of approval for motor vehicle equipments and parts Treaty - Antarctic Protocol to the Antarctic treaty (environmental protection) Conv. - Third party liability in the field of nuclear energy Supplementary convention Additional protocol to the convention Additional protocol to the supplementary convention Protocol amending the convention Protocol amending the supplementary convention Joint protocol relating to the application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention Agreem. - International commission for the protection of the Rhine against pollution Supplementary agreement Conv. - Protection of the Rhine against chemical pollution Conv. - Protection of the Rhine from pollution by chlorides (modified by exchanges of letters) Protocol Conv. - Fisheries Conv. - International convention for the conservation of Atlantic tunas (ICCAT) Conv. - Conduct of fishing operations in the North Atlantic Agreem. - Restriction of the use of certain detergents in washing and cleaning products Protocol Conv. - Protection of animals during international transport Protocol Conv. - Benelux convention on the hunting and protection of birds Conv. - Prevention of marine pollution by dumping from ships and aircraft Protocol Conv. - Conservation of Antarctic seals Conv. - Nordic environmental protection Conv. - Prevention of marine pollution from land-based sources Protocol Conv. - Protection of North-East Atlantic marine env. (replace Oslo-1972 and Paris-1974) Conv. - Conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
R S
R R
R R
R S
R S
R
R
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R
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OECD EPR / SECOND CYCLE KOR AUS NZL AUT BEL CZE DNK FIN FRA DEU GRCHUN ISL R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R S R S S R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
R R
R R
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R S
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R S R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R R
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R R S R R
R R
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R R R R R
R R R R R
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R R R R R R R R S R R R R R R R R R
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R S
R R R R R R R R R
R R S
R
R R
R R
S
R R
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R R R
R R
R R
R R R R
R R R R
R R R R R R
S S S S S S R R R R R S
R R R R R
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R
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R
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R R R R
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R R R R
R R R R R R
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R R R R R R R R R
R R
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R R R R R R R R
R R
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R R R R
R R R R R
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R R R
R R R R R R R R S
R S S S S S S S S R R R R R
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R R R R R R R R R R
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ANNEX II.B: SELECTED MULTILATERAL AGREEMENTS (REGIONAL) (cont.) Y = in force S = signed R = ratified D = denounced 1979 1984 1985 1988 1991 1994 1998 1998 1999 1980 1995 1998 1980 1982 1982 1983 1989 1983 1983 1990 1991 1992 1992 1999 1992 1994 1994 1994 1994 1990 1996 1998 1998 1999 2000 2000
Geneva Geneva Helsinki Sofia Geneva Oslo Aarhus Aarhus Gothenburg Madrid Strasbourg Strasbourg Canberra Brussels Paris Bonn Bonn Cartagena Cartagena Kingston Espoo Helsinki Helsinki London La Valette Lisbon Lisbon Charleville-Mézières Charleville-Mézières Magdeburg Strasbourg Aarhus Strasbourg Bern Florence Geneva
Conv. - Long-range transboundary air pollution Protocol (financing of EMEP) Protocol (reduction of sulphur emissions or their transboundary fluxes by at least 30%) Protocol (control of emissions of nitrogen oxides or their transboundary fluxes) Protocol (control of emissions of volatile organic compounds or their transboundary fluxes) Protocol (further reduction of sulphur emissions) Protocol (heavy metals) Protocol (persistent organic pollutants) Protocol (abate acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone) Conv. - Transfrontier co-operation between territorial communities or authorities Additional protocol Second protocol Conv. - Conservation of Antarctic marine living resources Conv. - Benelux convention on nature conservation and landscape protection Memorandum of understanding on port state control Agreem. - Co-operation in dealing with poll. of the North Sea by oil and other harmful subst. Amendment Conv. - Protection and development of the marine environment of the wider Caribbean region Protocol (oil spills) Protocol (specially protected areas and wildlife) Conv. - Environmental impact assessment in a transboundary context Conv. - Transboundary effects of industrial accidents Conv. - Protection and use of transboundary water courses and international lakes Prot. - Water and health European Conv. - Protection of the archaeological heritage (revised) Treaty - Energy Charter Protocol (energy efficiency and related environmental aspects) Agreem.-Protection of the Meuse Agreem.-Protection of the Scheldt Agreem.-International commission for the protection of the Elbe river Conv. - Disposal of waste and waste water generated from navigation on the Rhine Conv. - Access to env. information and public participation in env. decision-making Conv. - Protection of the environment through criminal law Conv. - Protection of the Rhine Conv. - European lanscape convention Agreem. - Iinternational carriage of dangerous goods by inland waterways (AND)
Y Y Y Y Y Y
CAN MEX USA JPN R R R R R R R S S R R R R S S S
Y Y Y Y R Y Y R Y Y Y Y Y Y R S Y
R
R R S
Y Y Y Y Y
Y
Source: IUCN; OECD.
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OECD EPR / SECOND CYCLE KOR AUS NZL AUT BEL R R R R R R R R R R R R S S R S S S R R S S R
R
R
R R R R R
R R R
S S
CZE DNK FIN R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R S R S R R R
R R
R S R S S R R R R
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R R R R R R R
R R R
R
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R R R S R R R
FRA DEU GRCHUN ISL R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R S R R R R R R S S S S S R S S S S S S S R R R S R R S S R S R R R R R R R R S R S R S R R R R R
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S
S S
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Y = in force S = signed R = ratified D = denounced IRL ITA LUX NLD NORPOL PRT ESP SLO SWECHE TUR UKD EU R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R S R R R R R R R R R R S R R R R R S R R R R R S R R R R R R S S R R R S S S S R R S R S S R R R S S S S R R S S S S R S R S S S S R S S R R R R R R R R R R R R S R R S R R R R R S R R S R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R S R R R S S R R R R R R R R R R R R R R S R S S R R R S R R R R R R R R R R R S R S R S S S S S R S S S R S S S R R R S R R R R R R R R R S R R R R R R R R R R R R R S R R R R R R R R R R R R S S S S R S S S R S S S S S S S S S R R R R S S R S S S S S S S S S S
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Annex III
SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS (1992-2002) 1992 • Landscape Memorandum. • First report on state of forest quality, followed by major press coverage of the effects of acidification on Dutch forests. • The Netherlands signs Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention). Convention expanded in 1998 to include conservation of marine ecosystems. • Article 130 of Treaty of the European Union (Maastricht) calls for applying precautionary, prevention, reduction at source and polluter pays principles in EU environmental policy. • Crash of 747 in densely populated area of Amsterdam kills over 40 people. Parliamentary inquiry responds to public concern about safety in vicinity of Schiphol airport.
1993 • Second National Environmental Policy Plan (NEPP2). • Forest Policy Plan. • First environmental evaluation of highway speed limit programme. • High water levels in Rhine and Meuse.
1994 • The Netherlands ratifies UN Convention on Biological Diversity. • Decision not to construct east-west runway at Maastricht-Aachen regional airport, partly because of noise considerations. • Law banning use of animal remains in cattle feed to prevent spread of “mad cow” disease.
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1995 • Structural Plan for Rural Areas in the Netherlands. • Policy Note on vehicle and fuel technology to improve environmental performance of road vehicles. • Policy Note on reduction of air pollution from aviation in the medium and long terms, including through fuel taxation. • Decision to build freight-only railway from Rotterdam to Germany (Betuwe line), to build the A73 motorway in the Province of Limburg and to allow growth of Schiphol airport. • Over 200 000 people evacuated because of high water levels in Rhine and Meuse, leading to designation of new flood plains and intensification of efforts to improve dikes and deepen rivers.
1996 • Strategic vision for landscape architecture in the Netherlands, focusing on transition between urban and rural areas. • Introduction of “ecotax” on energy for households and small industries. • Introduction of fiscal incentives to purchase clean (electric, hybrid, natural gas) vehicles, including exemption from luxury tax (45.2% of net purchase price). • Policy Note on vehicle emission control and fuel quality. • Policy Note on improving modal shift (from road to rail and inland water) and freight transport efficiency. • Policy Note from Minister of Transport on improving accessibility of congested Randstad area. Contracts signed between government, four large cities (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht) and provincial authorities for further investment in road and public transport infrastructure. • Second environmental evaluation of highway speed limit programme. • Speed limit enforcement project on the A2 motorway (Amsterdam-Utrecht) using computer-aided video cameras. This (costly) pilot scheme is highly effective in reducing speed violations, average speed, accidents, deaths and emissions. • Decision to build high-speed railway (HSL) through the Netherlands’ “green heart”.
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1997 • Policy Note on contaminated soil remediation. • EU Auto-Oil II Programme on vehicle emissions and fuel quality launched under Dutch EU presidency. • Introduction of farm minerals accounting system (MINAS). • Restructuring of livestock industry in response to swine fever epidemics.
1998 • Third National Environmental Policy Plan (NEPP3). • Fourth National Policy Document on Water Management. • Over 85 countries including the Netherlands sign Rotterdam Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Convention on controlling trade in hazardous chemicals and pesticides. • Release of plan “Taxes in the 21st Century” which examines how to lower labour taxes and raise taxes on consumption and environmental pollution. Ecotax doubled, VAT increased from 17.5 to 19%. • State forests of Staatsbosbeheer certified by Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). 1.5% of wood processed in the Netherlands originates from FSC-certified forests. • “Area contracts” to improve spatial planning in rural areas and facilitate structural adjustments in agricultural sector. • BSE crisis spreads in the Netherlands. • Extreme rainfall leads to severe flooding over large area.
1999 • New strategic approach to managing rural areas adopted by provinces and the environment and agriculture ministries, including agreements on roles and responsibilities. • Introduction of restrictions and incentives to preserve traditional agricultural and cultural landscapes (Belvedere zones). • Draft Climate Protection Implementation Plan to reduce CO2 emissions from transport, including through speed limit enforcement, fuel efficiency labelling, curtailment of short car trips and fuel-efficient eco-driving. No reference to previously agreed 10% reduction goal (1986-2010) for CO2 emissions from road traffic.
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• Study shows that for air emissions the comparative advantage of rail and inland water over modern road freight transport (diesel trucks equipped with NOx reduction technologies) is shrinking except in case of CO2. • Decision not to implement previously agreed 100 km/hour speed limit throughout the Randstad.
2000 • Policy plan on nature conservation (Nature for People, People for Nature). • Draft National Traffic and Transport Plan. • Policy plan on water management (Water Policy in the 21st Century) addresses increasing water levels. • The Netherlands signs Cartagena Protocol to Convention on Biological Diversity. • Designation of 79 protected natural areas and 26 wetlands of international importance in process of designation pursuant to EU Birds and Habitats Directives and Ramsar Convention. • Adoption of EU Water Framework Directive, which provides guidelines for managing quantity and quality of surface, coastal and groundwater. • Introduction of fiscal incentives for purchase of cars equipped with speed and fuel consumption controls (deduction of EUR 50 for econometer, EUR 325 for computer and cruise controls). • Decision to extend computer-aided speed limit enforcement to all major highways in 2000-05 as part of National Climate Protection Implementation Programme. • Creation of Vogtländer Committee to assess possibilities of introducing national CO2 emissions trading. • Presentation of new measures for greening Dutch tax system. • Steps towards privatisation of electricity production. • Fireworks factory explosion in city of Enschede kills over 20 people and completely destroys residential area with 400 houses. New legislation on external safety and much stricter enforcement.
2001 • Fourth National Environmental Policy Plan (NEPP4). • Proposal to amend Nature Conservation Act in Parliament. • Policy Programme on International Biodiversity.
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Adoption of a new chemical policy strategy. Major outbreak of foot and mouth disease in the Netherlands. The Netherlands signs POPs Convention. Introduction of fiscal incentives for purchase of low-polluting cars (complying with EU 2005 standards) and low-sulphur diesel fuels. Incentives for training in eco-driving. 5% of wood on Dutch market originates from eco-certified forests. Fire in city of Volendam kills 13 young people, reviving public debate on external safety. Creation of VROM Directorate for external safety.
2002 • Sixth Conference of Parties to Convention on Biological Diversity (COP6) in The Hague. • Flora and Fauna Act. • Lower and Upper Houses of Parliament vote unanimously to ratify Kyoto Protocol. • Environmental Policy Implementation Memorandum. • Introduction of eco-labelling for new cars. Purchasers of the most fuel-efficient cars rewarded with EUR 500 to EUR 1 000 reduction. • New Inspectorate for Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment to report to the new Inspector General. • Environment portfolio allocated to State Secretary instead of VROM Minister. • Manure contracting system comes into effect, allowing farmers to engage in livestock production only if they can guarantee that manure will be disposed of in environmentally acceptable way. • Registration under Ammonia and Livestock Farming Act required to prevent establishment of new farms near vulnerable areas that are part of National Ecological Network.
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Annex IV
PHYSICAL CONTEXT The Netherlands is situated on the south-east shore of the North Sea, at the downstream end of three international river basins (Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt). Inflows from the Rhine and Meuse are the country’s main freshwater resources, and their quantity and quality have a direct impact on the Dutch environment. About 30% of the total surface area of 41 573 km2 lies below sea level, in the west and north, protected from the sea by barriers of dunes and dikes. Towards the east and south elevations are higher, though the Netherlands’ highest point is only 321 metres. A series of islands to the north encloses the shallow Wadden Sea. The country’s physiography has long been characterised by the shifting balance between land and water. The need to protect the land from high water from rivers and the sea, and the tradition of artificially draining low-lying areas, have combined to give the Netherlands a complex hydraulic infrastructure. The enclosure dam across the former Zuyder Zee (now the IJssel Lake) and the delta works in the south-west have substantially modified the land and water environments. Despite occasional losses to the sea, reclamation of marshes, lakes and tidal areas gradually expanded the total land area, starting when the first polders were created in the 13th century and only coming to a halt well into the second half of the 20th century. About 60% of total area is currently used for agriculture, 9% is covered by forest and wooded land, and a large part of the rest consists of inland water, urban areas and roads. In the low-lying parts of the country the landscape is largely man-made. Elsewhere large tracts of land have long remained uncultivated, allowing the natural development of terrestrial ecosystems. These areas have come under extreme pressure from economic activities since World War II, but valuable wetlands, heath and dune areas are still left, requiring protection. The Netherlands has major natural gas reserves and a small amount of oil. Large volumes of gas are exported. Domestic coal resources are no longer exploited. There are no other significant natural resources.
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Map of the Netherlands
Land use in the Netherlands Arable and permanent crop land 29%
0 km
25
50 km
Permanent grassland 30%
Forest and other wooded land 9%
Other areas 32%
Leeuwarden
Groningen
Wadden Sea Friesland
Sea waters, inland waters Randstad conurbation
Drenthe IJssel Lake
North Sea North Holland
IJssel
Flevoland
Overijssel
Amsterdam NETHERLANDS The Hague South Holland Rotterdam
Utrecht Arnhem
Gelderland
Rhine Waal
GERMANY
Meuse
Breda
Zeeland
North Brabant
Limburg Scheldt
BELGIUM
Maastricht
FRANCE
Source:
OECD.
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Annex V
SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL WEB SITES Web site
Host institution
www.vrom.nl/pagina.html
Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment
www.minlnv.nl
Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries
www.minvenw.nl
Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management
www.minez.nl
Ministry of Economic Affairs
www.rivm.nl
National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection
www.cbs.nl
Statistics Netherlands
www.rws-avv.nl
Transport Research Centre
www.minfin.nl
Ministry of Finance
www.minbuza.nl
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
www.riza.nl/index_uk.html
Institute for Inland Water Management and Waste Water Treatment
www.netcoast.nl/rikz/rikzinternat.htm Institute for Coastal and Marine Management
© OECD 2003
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