Entering Space

10"

-

NUMBEROr SITaRS

107 106 10t 6-km ANTENNA

104 10j 102

USION STARSHIP

30-km ANTENNA

101 100 lor

DISTANCE (LIGHT-YEARS)

FIGURE ll.2 Detectability of magsailsnuerinterstellar distances.

Meeting ET

. z69

million stellar systems to be found within the latter distance. This extended derection capability combined with magsail radiation's unique time1;21nge dependent frequency spectrum appears to make a search for magsail radiation the most promising option for extraterrestrial starship detection. It may be noted that our esrimate of starship mass is a speculative guess. However, since the signal detectability is proportional to the mass of the ship divided by the square of the distance, a decreaseof ship mzrssby 2 orders of magnitude results only in a decreasein detectability distance by 1 order of magnitude. Thus, even if the true characteristic mass of starships is 10,000 tonnes, and not the 1,000,000 tonnes we have postulated as a baseline, magsail radiation would still be detectable by the 6-km antenna at 4O light-years and by the 30-km anrenna at 2oo light-years. It's worth a try.

GALACTIC

CIVILIZATION

the assumptionof a moderate(50'000 yearsor less)value fot L Wnrr. readily explainsthe absenceof extraterrestrialson Earth in the Present'unl.r, lrery low valuesfor L and V arechosen,it is difficult to understandhow to outsidersat all times in the Past.The soit could havebeeninaccessible

in equation11.2 constantwith the otherfactorsffu,f6,f^,and Q considered ng earlierbut varyi L andV,we cancalculatethe avsamevalues*i^irr-ed erageprobabletime betweensuchdrift-through encounters.(Sucha calculation is done by computing the averagepath length between settled domainsand dividing that distanceby the solarsystem'srelative interstellar drift speedof 10 km/s.) The resultsare shownin Table LI.4. The Earth hasbeenhabitablefor creatureslike ourselvesfor about 600 million yearsand readily terraformableby anybodywith a good bioengineeringcapability for 3.6 billion years.If we take our previous"best-guess" caseof L = 50,000years,V = 0.0025c, the calculationsgiven in Table 11.4 show that our solarsysrem,while unlikely to be within or very near a settled region today, has probably drifted through settled domains of inter-

27O

r ENTERING

SPACE I TABLE T7,4 '

AuerageTimebetween Earth/ET DornainDrift-Througlt Encounters (millionsof years) L (vsans)

V = O.O05c

5 ,000 10,000 20,000

t5 ,6 4 5

30,000 40,000

7L

50,000 60,000 70,000 90,000 90,000 1 0 0, 000

V = 0.001r

62,592

39r,r3g

7,822

4g,gg2

9tl 289 I2I

6 , 1 11 1,910

I4

62

6.8

3t

390 226

3.1 0.8

2r

L42

T4

0

9.0 t.9 2.3 0.2

95 66

r,9t5 244 )c)

150,000 180,000

0 0 0 0 0

200;000

0

tr20,000 1 4 0, 000

V = O.0025c

0 0 0

763

48 27 I7 11 1.0 4.6

stellar spaceabout once evety 62 mlllion years. So under those assumprions, it would appear that the solar system has been inside of someone else,s sphereof influence about 10 times during the 600 million years that Earth has been prime real estate. Lower assumprions for L and,V lead to less frequent encounters,but, all in all, it seemsthat the odds are high that someone has stopped by. For some reason, they didn'r sray. As mentioned eadier, one explanation could be that they were orange K-star people (i.e., members of the cosmic maiority) and regarded the ex_ cessiveultraviolet environment of our yellow G-srar wo4d wirh disdain. But any Typ. III civilization worth its salt should have been able to handle that problem. A more intriguing explanation is that they chose not ro invade because they thought it would be wrong to interfere with the development of a

Meeting ET

. 27 r

promising biosphere, or more interesting and rewarding to wait to seewhat it might bring forth. This may seem like a bizarre idea
one species will ever expand to mastery of the entire

272

.

ENTERING

SPACE

galactic theater. The distances involved are too great, the required time span for the activity too long, the number of indigenous civilizations too vast, and the numerical and tactical advantages naturally accruing to defenders of a solar system against an interstellar invasion force so manifest that no campaign of galactic conquest could ever succeed.Galactic civilization will not be an empire spread from a single Typ. III, but a society of many Typ. III civilizations linked together. So the question is, when we meet the galactic club, will we be fit to join it?

MEETING

THE

U]\IVERSE

\Y/henI wasa child, I spaheas a child, I und.erstood as a child, I thoughtas a child: a rnan,I put away childish but wbenI becarne things.Far nowweseethraugha glass,darkly; but tbenfacetoface:nowI knowin part; but thensball I knouteuenas a/soI am knotan. - S A I N T P A U L , I C o r i n t h i a nI 3s : I I - 1 2

T In

my view, to be successfulin joining the club we will need to have attained a degree of both technological and ethical maturity that can only come with having reached Typ. III status ourselves. In fact, far from being beneficial, there is good reasonto believe that encountering arype III civilization will be psychologically devastating for humanity, if we have consigned ourselves to a Type I role. One only has to look at human history to see the results when more primitive cultures have come into contact with the \(est. Humans require dignity. We cannot survive with the thought that we are beings of a lesser order. Turning off the radio telescopesto perform a kind of cosmic withdrawal is not an option, as it amounts to conceding inferiority in advance. The only solution is to grow up. Since time immemorial, we humans have prided ourselves upon the conceit that we are the universe'ssole vesselsof sentient life. If we maintain a scientific outlook, that conceit is likely to be destroyed. \7e will not be able to base our pride and dignity on the childlike notion that there are no

M e e t i n gE T

273

others. Instead, we will have to grasP a deeper and more mature idea, that we are worthwhile not becausewe are alone, but becausewe are unique and precious representativesof something far bigger than ourselves. Something to which we can contribute-as equals. \fle must rnakeourselves fit to foin the galactic club. On the other hand, if there is no galactic club, if the galaxy is really a Hobbesian jungle war of all against all, then technological maturity of Type III level is required for survival. Specieswith little empathy can still be allies; witness the strategic maneuvers of terrestrial geopolitics. But to survive in such a universe, we would need to become "worthwhile as friends, undesirable as enemies." Finally, even if there are no extraterrestrials, making ourselves worthy to meet them is still what we need to do for our own sakes. Typ. III calls.

CHAPTER Nortb

T2

to the Stars

Thereis grandtur in this uiett of life, with its seueralpowers,ltauing beenarigina/ly breathed by tbeCreatorinto a few formsor into one; and tbat . . , from sosimplea beginning endless forns ntostbeautifuland mostuonderfal hauebeenand are beingeuolaed, -

c H A R L E s D A R w r N , O n t h eO r i g i no f S p e c i e1s3, 5 9

It is possibleto belieue tbat all tbepast is but the beginningof a beginning,and that all that is and bas beenis but the twiligbt of the dawn, It is possible to belieue that all thehuman rnindltaseuerarcomplislsed is bat tbedrean beforetheawakening,. . .'Ve are reaturu of tbetwilight, But it is out of our raceand Iineagethat all rnindswill spring. , , that will reachforward fearlusly to comprehend tbisfuture tbat defeatszur eyes,All tbis world is heauywith tbepronriseof greata tbings.. . , -

H. G. w E L LS , "TheDiscouery of theFuture"r

North to the Stars

275

THE EXTRATERRESTRIAL IMPERATIVE Ho-"ns

of explorers.Four hundredmillion yearsago, arethe descendants

our distant ancesrors forsook the aquatic environment in which they had evolved to explore and colonize the alien world above the shoreline. It is remarkable when you think about it, sacrificing the security of the waters for the hazardsof the land. Fish are superbly adapted to life in the marine habitat. Compared to their crawling arthropod, molluscan, and echinoderm competitors, fish underwater are like gods, flying effortlessly through their liquid firmament. In contrast, fish out of water--{ven ones with stubby fins that allow them to drag themselves across the sand-are hapless, helpless creatures,running imminent risk of death by desiccation, asphyxiation, or predatory attack by crabs or other low-life. But on land, animals could raise their body temperatures higher, first through accessingdirect sunlight and later through the evolution of warmbloodedness, thereby more readily increasing their level of activity and brain development than would have been possible had they stayed in the ocean. \il[hile the land habitat of the Earth is actually spatially smaller than the oceans,it offers much more varLety,and far better possibilities for separate, independent development, than does the sea.It also offers greater challenges, including those associatedwith rapid seasonal,climatic, and other forms of environmental change. Therefore, on land, the possibilities and driving forces for evolution have been much greater, and it has occurred faster. In the 400 million years since some fish left the ocean, their compatriots who stayed behind have not changed much, but the descendants of the emigrants have evolved legs and wings, feathers and fur, far-seeing eyes, nimble hands, and clever brains. On land it is possible to build fires. On land it is possible to seethe stars. Out of the oceansto the land. Out of Africa to the north. Out of Earth and into space.The future is best served not by those who remain behind to walk in the footstepsor swim endlesslyin the wakes of their ancestors,but by those who dare the unknown, willing to risk all to take on the challenge of the new. The human desire to explore is thus one of our primary adaptations. \7e have a fundamental need to seewhat is on the other side of the hill, because our ancestors did, and we are alive becausethey did. And, therefore, I am firmly convinced that humanity will enter space.\We would be less than human if we didn't.

276.

ENTERING

sPACE

In this book I have mentioned the need for humanity to mature if we are to join in the grand enterprise of Type III civilization. By maturing, I mean leaving behind the infantile selfishnessand violence of our species' childhood. But I do not mean become old. Quite the opposite, we must preserve and expand our youthful characteristic of curiosity. Juvenile animals explore. Humans explore as adults. S7hen we ceaseexploring, we die-first in soul, then in body. To be rcally alive as individuals, to be really alive as a civilization and as a species,we must be willing to continually seek out and experience the new The human expansioninto spacewill not be without cost, and that cost will be measured in units far more dear than dollars. The Oregon Trail was lined with graves. Not all of our missions will be successful,for in enterprising the unknown, the possibilities for disasters abound. Progress was never without risk. The day may come when humanity no longer has a need for wars. But we will always have a need for heroes.

SPACE COLONIZILTION AND HUMAN DIVERSITY T

bioto gy, ^n animal type is generally considered to be successful if it manages to diversifir itseLf into many species inhabiting a wide array of habitats. The reasonfor this is that a single specieswith a single mode of life is a slender thread whose line to the future can be easily cut if conditions change adversely. Viewed from this point of view, the genus Homo cannot ln

currently be considered very successful;certainly we are not safe, as for the pasr 20,000 years(since the extinction of our Neanderthal cousins)we have been limited to a single species.Of course, our speciesis of global extent and has featured many widely differing cultures. However, in the twentieth cenrury, with the advent of global communications and jet aircraft, the potential for terrestrial geographic barriers to maintain cultural diversity has been eradicated. In consequence,the wodd is now rapidly being homogenized to a single culture, and in the twenty-first century this tendency will 'Were we to remain Earth-bound, we would soon not be only only accelerate. one species, but one culture. If studies of biology and evolution are any guide, that is a prescription for disaster. However, fortunately, the human expansion into spaceshould generate

North to the Stars . 277 conditions for the rapid regeneration of both cultural and biological diversity. In narure, Largeinterconnected gene pools are very slow to evolve, as it takes a very long time for any new trait to become dominant. In contrast, the generation of new species is favored when a small group becomes isolated from the main stock of its kind and put in a new environment where it is offered new oppomunities and subject to novel adaptive stresses.Under such conditions, the generation of new traits is called forth, and since the genes for the new trait are not being constantly washed out by interbreeding with the primary population, new varieties and new sPeciesrapidly result. Analogous processesof innovation-in-isolation ate necessaryfor the generation of substantially new cultures by human populations. As humans expand to Mars, the asteroids, the outer solar system, and ultimately the srars, precisely such conditions for, first, cultural and, ultimately, generic diversification will obtain. In fact, due to the intrinsic enormous differences in environment from one extraterrestrial habitat environmenr ro another (down to things as fundamental as the gravitational field within which a civtlization exists), it is certain that both culture and heredity will be driven fast and hard in many diverse directions. It might be maintained that in the future, the increasing human ability to control heredity will impede this process. I would argve the contrary. In fact, since cultural evolution occurs normally on a much faster time scale than genetic evolution, as soon as human beings gain control of the genetic code (i.e., culture gains control of heredity), biological evolution will occur at a greatly acceleratedpace. It might be the casethat in one locality or another, governments will act to suppressthis kind of self-directed evolution. However, enforcement of any sort of government edicts across interstellar space is likely ro be impossible. Therefore, among the far-flung culturally diverse civilizations, some might chooseto suppresschange, but others will drive it. The difference of opinion on this scorewill thus serve only to acceleratethe processof multiple speciation. One of the results of these programs of self-modification will no doubt be a drastic extension of the individual human life span. The aging process itself may well be defeated. If this is the case, however, the necessity for spaceexpansion will be greatly accentuated, as the younger generation will face old worlds in which the determining roles have already been assigned. Humans need ro matter. In the age of immortality, new generations will need new worlds to give their lives immortal purpose. Fortunately, long-lived people will be able to undertake long voyages. Thus, the interstellar diaspora, and its production of ever more diversitg will be driven even further.

278.

ENTERING

spACE

In sciencefiction television and film, such as Star Trek, the galaxy is frequently depicted as being inhabited by numerous speciesof "aliens" who are humanoid in all respectsexcept for minor differences, such as skin color or ear shape, and who can sometimes interbreed. Humans are the processof 4 billion years of terrestrial evolution, and while for reasonsof convergenr evolution it is possible that aliens might be found with a general form similar to humans (i.e., two arms, two legs, head-on-top is a fair|y practical design plan), they would obviously differ enormously from us inrern ally at every level, including organs, tissues,and cellular structure. Interbreeding would thus clearly be an impossibility. However, if the processof human diversification alluded to in the previous paragraph were to go forward, then it is highly probable that several hundred thousand years from now, interstellar space in this region of the galaxy will be populated by numerous human-descendedintelligent specieswhich will differ from each other in aPpearance,emotional makeup, and other characteristicsro a considerably Steater extent than the cosmopolitan species that populate the Star Trek universe. Local stylistic fads could well creare races with green skin or pointed ears; more serious considerations such as gravity differences might drive the development of outlandishly tall-thin (low gravity) or shortpowerful (high gravity) varieties. Many of them, as a result of their selfdirected evolution, will be far more intelligent, sensitive, healthy, long-lived, athletic, graceful, and (to themselves,anyway) beautiful than we. But they will all be human.

HUMANITY AND COSMIC EVOLUTION Beforetheeuolutionof lfe . . . theportals of thefuture rernainwid.eopen. -HENRI

BERGSON

The universe is evolving. In the beginning, there was nothing bur energy, which condensed to form electrons and protons, which then formed hydrogen atoms and molecules, which then separatedinto giant rotating clouds of gas that formed the basis for the galaxies. W'ithin these galaxies, the gas

Nortb to the Stars . 279 condensedfurther into first-generation stars, which then proceededto produce heavier elements through the processof hydrogen nuclear fusion. The larger of these stars burned out quickly and exploded, spreading their elemental products throughout the galaxy. \7ith the availability of these heavier components, such aS oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, iron, and silicon, second-generarion stars could form, and with them families of solid planets capable of hosting the development of life. On our planet at least, and probably many, many orhers, life then evolved, complexified itself, and developed intelligence sufficient to understand physical law and expand through space. In relation ro the above-describedprocesses,and to its future, the univefse is still young. According to the generally acceptedBig Bang hypothesis, the universe itself is only 12 billion years old; it is expected to last at least several trillion years into the future. By comparison, our Milky \Vay galaxy is 10 billion years old, our Sun is 4.6 billion years old, and life on Earth is 3.8 billion years old. \7e've arrived on the scenejust recently, but the show had been going on only a short time before Lrs---over99 percent is yet to go. In the history of the universe to date, all of its creations-hydrogen gas, galaxies, first-generation stars, heavy elements, planets, and life-have each played a role in determining and enabling the subsequent phase of development. Gas created galaxies, galaxies created first-generation stars, those stars created the heavy elements, the heavy elements created planets, the planets created life, and life, ever advancing, createdmind. Mind has yet to play its hand. Except for the outside possibility that intelligent life may be responsible for the development of bacteria for use in propagation of life rhrough space,there is no evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence playing any role in the creation or development of our biosphere, or anything else for that matter. This fact, that Mind has not yet, at least in any large or apparent way' created something else fundamentally new in the universe, or substantially affected its developmenr, suggests to me that Mind is still immaturs-1ha1 intelligence, while no doubt existing in innumerable locations, has just begun to extend itself outward to link itself together on a cosmic scale.\7e have not yet met ET and ET has not yet met us. Could we be the only people out of the loop? Not likely. Rather, it seems to me more probable that the galactic club has yet to get itself organized and everybody connected. And the intergalactic club has even further to go. Life's children are newborns, awakening in the early dawn of the first day of the cosmic spring. It will be a while before we all meet.

z8o'ENTERING

SPAcE

Evolutionary theory tells us that living things evolve and behave in the way that they do in order to survive and perperuare their species.That is undoubtedly true; yet thete is a playfulness to Life, in the delightfully sporting way that it goes about achieving this very serious purpose. Creativity is joy, and Life and Mind both love to play. Life takes over planets to further life's development, and to open new theaters for evolution's frolic of innovation. Mind can simil arly affect planets and, as we have seen,probably stars too. It can dream of far more. But can it do more? \fiil Mind someday be able to influence developments on a cosmic scale? Typ. I civilizations have control over the resourcesof their planet, Typ. II of their solar system, and Type III of thei r galaxy.Can there be something greater, a Type IV civilization, one that has mastery over the development of its universe? If it is to have any hope for a say in such matters, Mind will need to become connected on a galactic and intergalactic basis. \fithin the scope of physics as we know it, there are limits to how effectively this can be done. The speed of light mandates that communication from the center to the edge of our own galaxy cannot be accomplished in less than 50,000 years. That's not too bad-50,000 years is a blink on the cosmic time scale.It's less than some reasonableestimates for L, the averagelifetime for technological civilization. Conceivably, if a galactic communication exchange were set up, that very fact might extend the L of the participants. But signaling to our nearest galactic neighbor, Andromeda, would take a million years, and to our farthest galactic relatives, over 10 billion. But perhaps, if the knowledge and insights of millions of Type III civilizations within our galaxy can be put rogerher, something new will emerge. Perhaps, if so many pieces of the puzzle can be joined, a deeper understanding of nature and its laws can be achieved, and new powers over nature thereby attained. \7e really don't know a lot about physics today. -Weknow how a variety of phenomena work, but we don't know why. sfe don't know why matrer exists or has mass, or why mass has inertia, or bends spacetime to exeff gravity. \7e don't know why all mass is positive (as opposed to negative or imaginary) or if indeed it is. \7e don't know why charge exists, or why the charges of the fundamental particles are what they are, or why like charges repel but unlike charges attract, and why the magnitude of these forces have the particular values that they do. \7e don't know why mass-energy or charge is conserved,or if it really is under all circumstances. S7e don't know why fundamental particles with a given self-repelling charge don'r blow

North to tbe Stars

z8t

themselves ro pieces. \7e know that the ratio of electric and magnetic forces determines the speed of light, but since we don't know why these forces have the ratio they do, we really don't know why light travels at the speed it does. \7e don't really know what Space'or time, or spacetime, iS, or where it comes from, or why it is continuous. \7e don't know why there ate fonq and only four, fundamental forces of nature, or if indeed there are only four. S1/edon't know what caused the Big Bang, or time, or causality for that matter. \7e don't know why time runs forward but not backward or sideways. \7e don't know if our universe is unique, or if millions or trillions, or even infinite numbers also exist. By definition, if something is in another universe, it is not in ours, and we cannot interact with it. But was this always so, or must it always be so? \7e don't know why the laws of the universe follow the geometric relations they do, or why they should have any relation to geomerry ar all. \(/e don't know why the fundamental constants governing the magnitude of forces in our universe are constant' or if they are. These are only a few examples of our ignorance. The amount we have yet to learn is immense. \7e can use all the help we can get. If answers to any of the above questions were found, the technological value could be extraordinary. To take iust one example, if we could learn how to find or make negative matter (not antimatter, but matter with negative mass)owe could use it to negate the inertia of ordinary matter and achieve starflight at the speed of light. But perhaps we could go even further. The universe and its physical laws did not always exist. $7hat were the processesthat brought rhem into being? Can humans or other intelligent speciesduplicate those processes,perhaps altering them to advantage? Today humanity is in rhe position of someone learning how to play chesson a single chessser. But if the accumulated knowledge of the galaxy wete combined, could we learn to build new chesssets?Could we learn how to write new rules? Could we change the laws of the universe? Or design new universes,with better laws? Penn State University physicist Lee Smolin has written a very interesting book, entitled The Life of tbe Cosmos,in which he speculateson why the laws of the universe appear to be so finely tuned to favor the existence of life.2Indeed, it can be readily shown that if any one of many crucial physical constanrswere adjusted a bit higher or lower, not only intelligence and life but even srars woutd be impossible. Smolin suggests that universes are born within black holes, which are formed from stars, and that the universes born within black holes have laws that are similar, but not identical, to

z8z.

ENTERING

SPAcE

those of their parent stars. According to Smolin, if the daughter universes have better laws for producing stars (and thus black holes), they will multiply faster than those that produce few or no stars. Therefore, by u kind of natural selection, universes favoring stars, and thus life, would come to predominate, and our own life-friendly universe, far from being an unlikely anomalg would be the odds-on-favorite. Smolin's theory can be regarded as very speculative, on any number of grounds. For example, it is unclear whether there arc any other universes, and there seems little basis to either suppoft or refute his notion that the laws of nature within a black hole daughter universe should be " just a little bit different" from those of the parent universe. But let us speculare even further. Let's say that intelligence has evolved within a given universe, and it has linked itself together, and grown in potency and knowledge ro rhe point where it understands the laws of creation and is capable of using them. Might it not then seek to create new universes, even more favorable for the development of life and mind? SThat if our universe is one of those? And if so, as the beneficiaries of such work, could we not participate in bringing the processforward another step? Could it be rhat it is not srars, but intelligence, that is responsiblefor the propagation and self-perfection of universes? These are wild speculations.I indulge in them only becausethe true ultimate potential of a fully interlinked Typ. III galactic civilization is unknowable at this time. It may be that compared to any one of its component members, the whole may be something entirely new. The body of an intelligent organism is not just an assembly of cells; it is a phenomenon of a higher order altogether. Mind may be immanent in the cell, but it is certainly not predictable. S7e may be on a path to something truly astounding. Ideas like unified intelligence of the galaxy can sound prerty scary as they can be suggestiveof some kind of loss of individuality. Actually, nothing could be further from the truth. Establishment of communication within a society is what empowers individuals; only through communication can a single mind affect society at Iarge. A mind whose thoughts are unheard or unread is doomed to oblivion. Similarly, if the human race, in its finite span, is to make a contribution that goes beyond itself, it must link up in communication with others. Should we do that, then the thoughrs of a single individual may one day be able to reach an entire galaxy. And should we wish for more than a finite span, then we must have progeny. In any case,if intelligence is going to have a role in cosmic evolution, I

Nortb to tbe Stars

283

think that humanityshouldbe part of it. But to do so,we will haveto learn much, and not only about physics,but about purpose. I suggestthat we go forth and find out.

CONCLUSION T.lh. human racefirst becametechnological(i.e., truly human in its relationship with nature) when it left Africa to take on the challenge of the north. Later, as humans became maritime, it was ths 5ix15-with poetic trurh, the North Star-that gave us the guidance we needed to become a truly global species. Today the stars beckon again, but this time not to new continents, but new solar systems. Multitudes of new worlds yet unknown await, filled with menaces to be faced, challenges to be overcome, wonders to be discovered, and history to be made. The first chapter of the human saga has been written, but vast volumes lying out among the stars are still blank, ready for the pens of new peoples with new thoughts, new tongues, astonishing and beautiful creations,and epic deeds. The tree of life has many branches. No branch lasts long as a single twig. Rather, each limb of the tree grows for a while and then forks out into multiple directions, wirh most of the resulting twigs terminating in extinction. No individual twig has much chance of lasting long; survival of the line is assuredonly by multitudes of branchings. Today rhe human race is a single twig on the tree of life, a single species on a single planet. Our condition can thus only be described as extremely fragile, endangered by forces of nature currently beyond our control, our own mistakes, and other branches of the wildly blossoming tree itself. Looked at this way, we can then pose the question of the future of humanity on Earth, in the solar system, and in the galaxy from the standpoint of both evolutionary biology and human nature. The conclusion is straightforward: Our choice is to grow, branch, spread, and develop, or stagnate and die. Yet grow we can, becauseas fragile as it is, our twig is currently on the edge of the tree, where we can seethe light and reach for the sky.

APPENDIX: FOUNDING DECLARATION OF THE MARS SOCIETY

The time has come for humanity to journey to Mars. \Ve're ready.Though Mars is distant, we are far better prepared today to send humans to Mars than we were to travel to the Moon at the commencement of the spaceage. Given the will, we could have our first teams on Mars within a decade. The reasonsfor going to Mars are powerful. 'Ve mustgofor tbe knowledgeof Mars. Our robotic probes have revealed that Mars was once a warm and wet planet, suitable for hosting life's origin. But did it? A searchfor fossils on the Martian surfaceor microbes in groundwater below could provide the answer.If found, they would show that the origin of life is not unique to the Earth, and, by implication, reveal a universe that is filled with life and probably intelligence as well. From the point of view of learning our true place in the universe, this would be the mosr important scientific enlightenmenr since Copernicus. 'Ve ruustgofor tbe knowledgeof Eartb, As we begin the twenty-first century, we have evidence that we arc changing the Earth's atmosphere and environment in significant ways. It has becomea critical marter for us better ro understand all aspecrs of our environment. In this project, comparative planetology is a very powerful tool, a fact abeadyshown by the role Venusian atmospheric studies played in our discovery of the potential threat of global warming by greenhouse gases.Mars, the planet most like Earth, will have even more to teach us about our home wodd. The knowledge we gain could be key to our survival. 'We mustgofor the cballenge.Civllizations, like people, thrive on challenge and decaywithout it. The time is past for human societiesto use war as a driving stress for technological progress. As the world moves towards unity, we must join together, not in mutual passivity, but in common enterprise, facing

Appendix

285

outward to embracea greater and nobler challenge than that which we previously posed to eachother. Pioneering Mars will provide such a challenge. Furthermore, a cooperative international exploration of Mars would serve as an example of how the same joint action could work on Earth in other ventures. 'V'e must go for the youtb. The spirit of youth demands adventure. A humans-to-Mars progfam would challenge young people everywhere to develop their minds to participate in the pioneering of a new world. If a Mars program were to inspire just a single extra percent of today's youth to scientific educations,the net result would be tens of millions more scientists,engineers, inventors, medical researchers,and doctors. These people will make innovations that create new industries, find new medical cures, increaseincome, and benefit the wodd in innumerable ways to provide a return that will uttedy dwarf the expenditures of the Mars program. 'World 'Ve is an mustgofor the opportunity.The settling of the Martian New opporrunity for a noble experiment in which humanity has another chanceto shed old baggageand begin the world anew, carrying forward as much of the best of our heritage as possible and leaving the worst behind. Such chancesdo not come often and are not to be disdained lightly. 'Ve mustgofor our humanity, Human beings are more than merely another kind of animal-we are life's messenger.Alone of the creaturesof the Earth, we have the ability ro continue the work of creation by bringing life to Mars, and Mars to life. In doing so, we shall make a profound statement as to the precious worth of the human race and every member of it. 'V'e mustgofor thefuture. Mars is not just a scientific curiosity; it is a wodd with a surfacearea equal to all the continents of Earth combined, possessing all the elements that are neededto support not only life, but technological society. It is a New'Sforld, filled with history waiting to be made by a new and youthful branch of human civilization that is waiting to be born. S7e must go to Mars to make that potential a reality. \fe must go, not for us, but for a people who are yet to be. \(/e must do it for the Martians. Believing rherefore that the exploration and settlement of Mars is one of greatest human endeavorspossible in our time, we have gathered to found the this Mars Society,understanding that even the best ideasfor human action are never inevitable, but must be planned, advocated,and achievedby hard work. \7e call upon all other individuals and organizationsof like-minded people to join with us in furthering this great enterprise. No nobler causehas ever been. \ilZeshall not rest until it succeeds. Tbe abouedpclarationwas signedand ratifud by the 700 attendea of the beldAugust 13-16, 1998, in Bouldzr, Mars SocietyFoundingConuention, or by auailable at unaw,ntarssociety,org infornaation is Furtber Colorado. CO 80454. P.O. Box 273,Indian Hills, writing the Mars Society,

GLOSSARY

kb/s:

Kilobits per second. Kilo-electronvolts.

keV kHz:

Kilohertz, a measure of frequency used in

1 kHz equals 1,000 cycles

per second. km/s: Kilometers per second. kW: Kilowatts. kVe: Kilowatts of electricity. k\7e-h: The total amount of energy associatedwith the use of 1 kilowatt of electricity for I hour. The total amount of energy associatedwith the use of 1 kilowatt for t hour. Megahertz, a measure of frequency used in radio; 1 MHz equals 1,000,000

kVh: MHz:

cycles per second. m/s:

meters per second.

Megawatts of electricity. MSTI: Megawatts of heat; 1 megawatt equals 1,000 kilowatts. Terawatt; 1 terawatt equals 1,000,000 megawatts. Human civilization today T\7: usesabout 14 T\7. The total amount of energy associatedwith the use of 1 terawatt for 1 T\V-year: MVe:

year. r$//kg: \Watts per kilogram. lWatts of radiated power. \$/ rf: LVz

Seedelta-V. A spacecraftmaneuver using friction with a planetary atmosphere to deceleratefrom an interplanetary orbit to one about a planet. aeroshell: A heat shield used to protect a spacecraftfrom atmospheric heating duraerobraking:

ing aerobraking. The highest point in an orbit about a planet. The pressure an atmosphere exerts. On Earth at sealevel. atmospheric pressure: the atmospheric pressureis 14.7 pounds per square inch. This amount of pressure is therefore known as one "atmosphefe" of one "bar." apogee:

G l o ssa r y

. 287

A rocket propellant combination including both a fuel and an oxibipropellant: dizer. Examples include methane/oxygen, hydrogen/oxygen, kerosene/hydrogen peroxide, etc. buffer gas: An effectively inert gas that is used to dilute the oxygen required to support breathing or combustion. On Earth, the 80 percent nitrogen found in air servesas a buffer gas. cosmic ray: A particle, such as an atomic nucleus, traveling through spaceat very high velocity. Cosmic rays originate outside of our solar system. They typically have energies of billions of volts and require meters of solid shielding to stop. Ultra cold. Liquid oxygen and hydrogen are both cryogenic fluids as cryogenic: they requife temPeraturesof -180'C and -250'C, fespectively, for storage. An experimental Reusable Launch Vehicle build by the Strategic Defense DC-X: Initiative Organization. Delta 2: An expendable launch vehicle manufactured by McDonnell Douglas, capable of throwing 1,000 kg on a direct trajectory from Earth to Mars. The velocity change required to move a spacecraft from one orbit to andelta-V: other. A typical delta-V (also written AV) required to go from low Earth orbit to a trans-Mars trajectory would be about 4 km/s. The velocity of a spacecraftrelative to a planet after effectively departure velocity: leaving the planet's gravitational field. Also known as hyperbolic velocity. A maneuver in which a spacecraft enters a planet's atmosphere and direct entry: usesit to decelerateand land without going into orbit. A maneuver in which a spacecraft is launched directly from one direct launch: planet to another without being assembledin orbit. The use of electricity to split a chemical compound into its elemental electrolysis: componenrs. Electrolysis of water splits it into hydrogen and oxygen. The number of electrons per cubic centimeter. The higher the electron density: electron density of an ionosphere, the better it reflects radio waves. A chemical reaction requiring the addition of energy to occur. endothermic: A number that characterizesthe degree to which a chemiconstanr: equilibrium to completion. A very high equilibrium constant improceed will reaction cal plies near complete reaction. Earth Return Vehicle. tank. External ETi EVA: Extravehicularactivity. The speed of the gasesemitted from a rocket nozzle' exhaust velociry: reaction that releasesenergy when it occurs. A chemical exothefmic: shell containing a payload that sits on top of a protecrive streamlined The fairing:

ERV:

launch vehicle. A trajectory which, after departing Earth, will eventually free return trajectory: ferurn to the Earth without any additional propulsive maneuvers. GCMS: Gas chromatograph mass spectrometer.

288

. G lossary

geothermal energy: Energy produced by using naturally hot underground materials to heat a fluid, which can then be expanded in a turbine generaror to produce electricity. gravity assist: A maneuver in which a spacecraft flying by a planet uses that planet's gravity to create a slingshot effect that adds to the spacecrafr'svelocity without any requirement for the use of rocket propellant. heliocentric: Centered about the Sun. By a heliocentric orbit what is meant is an orbit that transversesinterplanetary spaceand is not bound to the Earth or any other planet. Hohmann transfer orbit: An elliptical orbir one of whose ends is targent to the orbit of the planet of departure and whose other end is tangent to the orbit of the planet of destination. The Hohmann rransfer orbit is the purest incarnation of the conjunction-class orbit and, as such, is the lowest energy path from one planet ro another. hydtazine:

A rocket propellant whose formula is NrH' Hydrazine is a monopropellant, which means that it can releaseenergy by decomposing, without any additional oxidizer required for combustion. hyperbolic velocity: The velocity of a spacecraftrelative to a planet before enrering, or after effectively leaving, the planet's gravitational field. Also known as approach velocity or departure velocity. hypersonic:

A speed many times the speedof sound; in common usage, Mach 5 or

gfeatet. ionosphere:

The upper layer of a planet's atmosphere in which a significant fraction of the gas atoms have split into free positively charged ions and negatively

charged electrons. Becauseof the presenceof freely moving charged particles, an ionosphere can reflect radio waves. Isp: ISPP: JSC:

A commonly used abbreviation for specific impulse. In situ propellant production. Johnson SpaceCenter. Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

JPL: Kelvin degrees:

The Kelvin or "absolute" scaleis a method of measuring temperature that starts with its zero point set at "absolute zero," the temperature at which a body in fact possessesno heat. 27 3 degreesKelvin is the same remperature as 0 degrees Celsius, the freezing point of waftr. Each additional degree Kelvin correspondsto one additional degree Celsius.

LEO:

Low Earth orbit. LOR: Lunar Orbit Rendezvous. LOX: Liquid oxygen. magnetic sail: A device for propelling spacecraftusing the pushing force of plasma on a magnetic field. rnagsail: A magnetic sail. MAV: Mars Ascent Vehicle. methanation reaction:

A chemical reaction forming methane. In the Mars Direct

Glossary . z8g mission, the methanation reaction is the Sabatier reaction in which hydrogen is combined with carbon dioxide to produce methane and water. 1/1,000th of a rem. millirem: The traiectory between two planets requiring the minirnum energy traiectory: least amount of rocket propellant to attain (seeHohmann transfer orbit). Mars Orbit Rendezvous. MOR: Mars sample feturn using in situ propellant production. MSR-ISPP: Nuclear electric ProPulsion. NEP: Nuclear rocket using indigenous Martian fuel' NIMF: Nuclear thermal rocket. The lowest point in an orbit around a planet' The use of heat to split a compound into its elemental constituents. pyrolyze: Ifhat most commonly refer to as dirt' regolith: rem: The measureof radiation dose most commonly used in the United States. 100 rem equals 1 Sievert, the European unit. It is estimated that radiation doses of

NTR:

perigee:

about 60 or 80 rem are sufficient to increasea person'sprobability of fatal cancer ar some time later in life by 1 percent. Typical background radiation on Earth is about O.2 remlyeat. RLV: Reusable launch vehicle. RadioisotoPe thermoelectric generator. RTG: reversewater gas shift reaction. A reaction in which hydrogen and carbon dioxide are combined Sabatier reaction: to produce methane and water. The Sabatier reaction is exothermic, with a high equilibrium constant. The heavy-lift launch vehicle used to send the Apollo astronauts to the Saturn V Moon. The Saturn V could lift about 140 tonnes to LEO'

RWGS:

SpaceExplorationlnitiative. Named for the locations where the first three were found (Shermeteorites: SNC gotty, Nakhla, and Chassign/), SNC meteorites are believed on the basis of very strong chemical, geologic, and isotopic evidence to be debris thrown off of Mars

SEI:

by impacting meteorites. Sol: One Martian daY. solar flare: A sudden eruprion on the surface of the Sun that can deliver immense amounts of radiation acrossvast stfetches of space. solar sail: A device for propelling a spacecraftby utilizing the pushing force of sunlight. The specific impulse of a rocket engine is the number of seconds specific impulse: pound of propellant deliver a pound of thrust. If you multiply the a make it can engine, given in seconds,by 9.8, you will obtain the rocket of a impulse specific in units of meter/second. Specific impulse is generally velocity exhausr engine's factor in judging a rocket engine's performance. importanr most rhe as viewed Frequently abbreviated "IsP"' SRB: Solid rocket booster.

2go

. Glossary

SSME:

Spaceshumle main engine. Single srage to orbit. stable equilibrium: An equilibrium condition that, if displaced by some external force, will return on its own to its original srate. A ball on the flat surfaceon rop of a hill is in unstable equilibrium, becauseif pushed it will roll away, accelerating itself from its original position. A ball on a flat surface at rhe bottom of a bowl is in stable equilibrium, becauseif pushed it will roll back to its starting point. SSTO:

STR: Solar thermal rocket. telerobotic operation: Remote control of some device, such as a small Mars rover equipped with TV cameras,by human operators at a significant distance away. thrust: The amount of force a rocket engine can exert to acceleratea spacecraft. Titan IV An expendable launch vehicle manufacrured by the Lockheed Marrin corporation capable of delivering 20,000 kg to LEo or j,000 kg to a minimum energy trans-Mars trajectory. TMI: Trans-Mars injection, a maneuver that places a payloador spacecraft on a 6aiectory to Mars. unstableequilibrium:

Seestable equilibrium. The pressureexerted by the gas emitted by a substanceat a certain temperature. At 100oC, the vapor pressure of water is greater than Earth's atmospheric pressureand so it will boil.

vapor pressure:

REFERENCES

Cbapter1: On the Tbresboldof tbe Uniaerse

(New York: 1. Christopher Stringer and Robin McKie, African Exdtas: Tlx Uigins of Mofurn Hananity 1997). Holt, Henry 2. James Shreve, Thc Nean&rtbal Enigna: Solving tlu Mystty of Moden Haman Origins (New York: Avon Books, 1995). 3. lrilliam McNeill, TtnRise of tbc\Vat (New York: Mentor Books, 1965)' 4. FrederickJacksonTurner, TbeFrontierin Amsican History(New York: H. Holt & Co., l92O). 5. David Ehrenstein,"Immortality GeneDiscovered,"scimce,J"n*ry 9,1998, p. 177. 6. Carroll Quigley, Tln Ewhtion of Ciuilizations(Indianapolis:Liberty Fund, 1961). 7. FrancisFukuyama,TheEnd of Hlrrary (New York: FreePress,1992)' 8. JamesHorgan, Tln End of Scina (New York: BroadwayBooks, 1997)' 9. Daniel Boorstin, TbeDircwerers(New York: Random House, 1983)'

Chapter2: Tbe Age of Dinosaurs

l. S. isakowicz, SpaceLazncb Syxens(I7ashington, D.C.: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 7995)' (Durham, NC: Duke Univeniry Press,1987)' Station:A PersonalJottrzel 2. Hans Mark,Tln Space 3. G. Harry Stine, Halfuay to Anywbere(New York: Evansand Compan5 1996\'

Chapter 3: The New SPaceRace 1. Ben lannorta,"Rocket Revolutionary,"NeutScintist,no.2145, August l,1998' 2. R. Zubrin and M. Clapp, "An Examinarionof the Feasibility of \Tinged SSTOVehiclesUtilizing Aerid propellant Transfer," AIAA 94-2923 3}th AIAA/ASME Joint Propulsion Conference,June 27-29, I 994, Indianapolis, IN. for 3. F. I7. Smith, "Practical Applications of Hypersonic Flight: OH: Battelle Institute, 1986>.

C b a p ter 4: Doing B u s i n e s so n O rb i t

l. Charles D. O'Dale, "Establishing an Infrastructure for Commercial Space,"rIBIS,February 1997'

pp.43-50. 2. Diana Gallagher, "A Reconsideration of Anatomical ment," Firebird Arts and Music, Portland, OR.

Maneuversin a Zero-Gravity Environ-

3. P. Collins, R. Stockmans,and M. Maita, "Demand for SpaceTourism in America and Japan, and Its Implications for Future SpaceActivities," JapaneseNational SpaceLaboratory,1995. 4. B. Sherwoodand C. R. Fowler, "Feasibitity of Commercial Resort Hotels in Low Earth Orbit," The Boeing Company,1991. 5. Gerard O'Neill, TheHigb Frontir (New York: Bantam Bool*s,1978).

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Chapter 5: The View fron the Moon 1. I7. Mendell, "Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Cenmry,"Lunar Houston, T)(, 1995.

and Planetary Institure,

2. L. Haskin and P. ![arren, "Lunar Chemistry," Chapter 8 o( Lanar Saurcebooh, ed. G. Heiken, D. Vaniman, and B. French (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press, 1991). 3. J. Pearson, "The Orbital Tower: A Spacecraft Launcher Using the Earth's Rotational Energy," Acta Astronailticd 2 (1975), p.781.

Cbapter 6: Mars: T he N ew

'Vorld

1. M. Carr,TheSarface of Mars (New Haven:YaleUniversiry Press,1p81). 2. R. Zubrin with Richard \Vagner, The Casefor Mars: ThePlan to Sutle theRedPlanetand tVby Ve Mast (New York: FreePress,1996; Simonand Schusrer,IggT). 3. C. Stoker and C. Emmarr, Strategies for Mars (SanDiego: Univelt, 1996). 4. R. Zubrin, Fron Intagination to Reality: Mart ExplorationStadiesof theJournal of the Britisb Intaplanetary (SanDiego: Univelt, l9g7). Society

C h a pt er 7: A s t er o i d sfo r G o o d a n d E u i l

1. D' Cox andJ. Chestek,DoontdayAstaoid:Can tVeSuruiae?(Amherst,NY PrometheusBooks, 1996). 2. I7. Alvarez, T. Rexand theCraterof Doon (Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press,1997). 3. C. Sagan,PaleBlueDor (New York: RandomHouse, 1994). 4. J. Lewis and R. Lewis,Space BreakingtheBon* of Earth (New York: Columbia University Press, Reruilrcei: 1987).

C h a pt er B : S et t lin g th e O u te r So l a r Sy s te m 1. J. Beatty and A. Chaikin,

eds., The New Solar Systen (Cambridge,

Sky Publishing Corporation,

1990). 2. S7. Burrows, Exploring Space:Voyagesin the Solar Systemand BEond (New York: Random House, 1990). 3. R. Terra, "Islands in the Sky: Human Exploration and Setrlement of the Oort Cloud," chapter 6 of Islands in the SAy, ed. S. Schmidt and R. Zubrin (New York: Wiley, 199). 4. B. Finney and E. Jones, eds., Interstellar Migration and tbe Human Expaience (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985).

Chapter 9: The Challenge of Interstellar Traael 1. R. G. Ragsdale,"To Mars in 30 Daysby GasCoreNuclearRockets,"A$ronautinandAeronautics 65, Janua;ty1972. 2. R. G. Ragsdale,"High SpecificImpulseGasCoreReactors,"NASA TMX-2243,NASA LewisResearch Center,March 1971. 3. T. Latham and C. Joyner, "summary of Nuclear Light Bulb DevelopmentStatus," AIAA gl-3j12, AIAA/NASA/OAI Conferenceon AdvancedSEI Technologies,Cleveland,OH, September1991. 4. A. Martin and A. Bond, "Nuclear PulsePropulsion:A Historical Review of an AdvancedPropulsion Concept,"Journal of theBritilh Interplanetary Society32 (I97r, pp. 283-310. 'r0/ater 5. R. Zubrin, "Nuclear Salt Rockets:High Thrust at 10,000 secIsp,"Journal of tbeBrithh Intaplan(t99I), pp. 37I-376. aary Society 6. S. K. Borowski, "A Comparisonof Fusion/AntiproronPropulsionSystemsfor InterplanetaryTravel," AIAA-87-18L4,23rd AIAA/ASME Joint PropulsionConference, SanDiego, CA, June 29*July 2, 1987. 7. R. Forward and Joel Davis, Mitor Matter: Pioneering AntimatterPbysics(New York: \7iley ScienceEditions, 1988). 8. L. Friedman,Starsailing:SolarSailsand Intasellar Trauel(New York: John \7iley and Sons,1988). 9. R. Forward, "Roundtrip Interstellar Travel Using LaserPushedLightsails,"J ournalof Spacecraft and Rockets(1984),pp. 187-195. 10. R. Bussard,"GalacticMatter and InterstellarFlighr," Acta A$ronautica(1960), pp. 179-196.

I

References 2 9 3 11. R. Zubrin and D. Andrews,"MagneticSailsand InterplanetaryTravel," AIAA89-2441, AIAA/ASME and Monterey,CA, July i0-12, 1989. Reprinted inJoumal of Rockets Joint PropulsionConference, April 1991. Spacefligbt, (New 12. R. Zubrin, "The Magnetic Sail," chapter12 of Islandsin tbeShy,ed' S. Schmidt and R. Zubrin rJfiley, 1995). York: Seattle,rVA,July 13. D. Andrewsand R. Zubrin, "MagOrion," AIAA/ASMEJoint PropulsionConference, 7-9, t997. 14. RichardA. Muller, Nenesis:TheDeathStar (New York: I7eidenfeldand Nicolson, 1988). Mis15. R. Zubrin, "The Useof Currently Unknown Near-SolarStellarObjectsin FacilitatingInterstellar (1991), pp' 461-414' sions,"Journat of theBritish IntaplanetarySociety 16. Eugene Mallove and Gregory Matloff, Tbe Starflight Handbook(New York: Nfiley ScienceEditions, 1989).

C b a p te r 10: E x t r aord i n a ry En g i n e e ri n g 1. James Oberg, Neu Earth (Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1981)' 2. Martyn Fogg, Ten'afmming: Engineaing Planetary Enaironments, Sociecy of Automotive

Engineers,'War-

rendale. PA.1995. of Near Earth Space, ed. J. 3. J. pollack and C. Sagan, "Planetary Engineering," in Resources Matthews. and M. Guerreri (Tucson: University of Arizooa Press, 1993), pp.92l-910.

M.

(1961),pp. 849-858' 4. C. Sagan,"The PlanetVenus,"Science Atmospheresand the Evolution of Earth andYervs," Icarus 5.J. Kasting, "Runawayand Moist Greenhouse ( 1 9 8 8 ) ,p p . 4 1 2 4 9 4 . (New York: 6. M. Fogg, "A Planet Dweller's Dreams," in lslandsin the Sky,ed. S. Schmidt and R. Zubrin Ifiley, 1995). 25th Joint 7. R. Forward, "The Sratite: A Non-Orbiting Spacecraft,"AIAA 89-2546, AIAA/ASME 1989' CA, Monterey, Conference, Propulsion July g. K. Eric Drexler, Engines of creation (New York: Anchor Books/Doubleday, 9. Larry Niven, Ringuoild (New York: Ballantine, I99O). 10. Stephen Hawking,

"Gravitationally

Monthly Nom of theRoyal

Collapsed Objects of Very Low

(197l), pp. 75-78. AttrononicalSociery of Au11. Martyn Fogg, "Terraforming:EngineeringPlanetaryEnvironments"(\Tarrendale,PA: Society tomotive Engineers,1995). Republishedby Dover' New York' 1968' 12. Olaf Stapledot,TheStarmaker,1937'

Chapter 11: MeetingET

1. I. S. Shklovskii and Carl Sagan, Intelligent Life in tbe IJniuerse(New York: Delta Books, 1966).

2. Frank Drake, personal communication, 1997 . 3. Richard Dawkins, The Extend.edPhenotype(New York: Oxford University

Press, 1982\.

4. Serh Shostak, sharing the |Jniaerse(Berkeley: Berkeley Hills Books, 1998).

j. R. Zubrin, "Detectionof ExtraterrestrialCivilizationsvia the SpectralSignatureof AdvancedInterstelSynof the1993 Bioastronomy in theSearch Iar Spacecraft ," in Progress fol ExtraterrettrialLife: Procadings the Pacific of Society Asrronomical Shostak, ed. Seth 1993, 16-20, Augat CA, posiam,SantaCruz, ConferenceSeries(SanFrancisco:AstronomicalSocietyof the Pacific, 1996), voI. 74, pp. 487496. 6. R. Zubrin and D. Andrews,"Magnetic Sailsand InterplanetaryTravel,"ALAA89-2441, AIAA/ASME Monterey,CA, July LO-I2,1989. RepublishedhJournal of Spacuraft Joint PropulsionConference, and Rwkets,April 199I .

Cbapter 12: North to the Stars 1. H. G. \7ells, "The Discoveryof the Future,"Nature61 {G950),pp. 326-311' (New York: oxford University Press,1997). 2. LeeSmolin,Tbe Life of thecosntos

TNDEX

Pagenumbers in italics refer to tables,figures, and illustrations. Ackerman,James,56 Adonis,134 Rocket,56 Advent CAC-1 Passenger Advent LaunchServices,54,56 aerialrefueling,4546, 47, 13 AeroAstro.55 aerobrakingtechnology,181 Aerojet,153 corporations,24, 31-15, 54 aerospace aerospikerocketengine, 12, 44 Africa, xiii-xiv, 4-5 aging,8,211 agriculture: o n M a r s ,1 0 1 , 1 0 5 - 6 on Moon. 8I-82 onTitan, 166 Air Force,rJ.S.,23, 25, 27-28, 45, 46, 53, 180 Alan Hills (AIH) 84O0l,Il2 A l p h a C e n t a u r i1, 8 7 , 1 8 8 ,1 9 0 , I 9 I , I 9 4 , 2 O l , 204,209,258 Alvarez,Luis and $7alter,130-iL, l5I AmericanInstitute of Aeronauticsand Astronautics (IJAA),44 Anderson,Wa]n,44 Andrews, Dana, 205-6, 26) antimatter,208 propulsion,197-201, 199,263-64,267, 268 Apollo, 134 Apollo program,xv, !, 10, Il,14,25,30,42, L 0 2 , 1 4 3 ,r 7 4 "Apollo 25 YearsLater" (Sidey),11 Arctic. 121 Ares rocket, 141 Ariane rocket, 25, I42

Arizona,129-30 r56 Arizona,University of, 146, Arrhenius,Svante,250 att,5 artificial gravity research,142 Artsutanov,Y. N., 98-99, 100 Ash, Robert,154 Asia.xiii. 5 xvi, 107, 108, t 2 8 - r 6 , t 5 8 , 2 4 2 asteroids, brightnessof, l7O colonizationof, 150, 1 8 0 - 8 1 , 1 8 4 compositionof, 135, 1 3 9 4 0 , 1 3 9 , 1 4 6 , 1 1 6 , 170 deflectionof,134-39 discoveryof,131-14 exploration of , 13941 Gaiashieldmissionand,14146,143, 144, 145 iceteroids,Il 0-1 2, 182-84, 2O7-8, 234 impactenergyoL 128-29,130, 131,134 Life and, l5O-52 t72, Main Belt of, 133-34, 147, 170, 181,184 massextinctionscausedby, 16, 17,39, 130-32, 142, 15t-52, 209, 249-50, 256 mining of, 146-50, 156, I7 l 132, 134-35, I394O, I4I, 147 near-Earth, numberof, L33, r34, 147 role oi 251,2t2 panspermia past major impacts of, 128-)0, 130 relocatingof, l7 I-7 2, 171 rocketpropellantmadefrom ice on, 13-/-38 sizeof, li3, l)4, l4O, 146 astronomicalobservatorybase, Moon as,96-98 AstronomicalUnit (AU), definition oi 133, 187 astronomy,133 earlysolarsystemdiscoveriesin, 173 Iegacyof,98

296.

ENTERTNG

sPACE

Athena,115-16, Il7, I2O Atlas rocket,22, 2i, 24, 25, 26, 27, 33 atomic (6ssion)bombs,195 for fusion propulsion,I9l-94,192, 193 Atomic EnergyCommission,U.5., I92 Augustine,Norm, 32,3i Australia,L50,259 aviation prizes, 5J-57 Babbage,Charles,238, 239 backpackgas thrusters, 143 bacteria,23940, 25A-53 Ballistic Missile DefenseOrganization(BMDO), jr Barnard'sStar,2)2 Beal Aerospace, 54 beanstalks: lunar, 98-100 on Mars, 108 Beggs,James,28 bell-nozzlerocketengine,32 Benford,Greg, 120 Bennett, Gary,I76 Bergson,Henri,278 BETA program,259 B i g B a n g ,2 5 0 , 2 7 9 , 2 8 1 Big Ear Prcgram,259 Bill of Rights,124-25 Binder, Alan,93 g, 240 bioengineerin biologicalevolution,257*t8 B l a c kC o l t ,4 7 4 9 , 5 ] blackdwarfs,210,2I2 blackholes,2IO, 212-13, 24346, 281-82 BlackHorse,4147, 48, 50, 53 Boeing,34, 35, 4t, 50, 205 Boorstin,Daniel,20 bremsstrahlungradiation,263-64 Brown, George,2) browndwarfs,210, 2I2, 243, 245 Sruckner,Adam, 155 Bruno, Giordano,247 "Building America'sBridgesto rhe 21st Century," r80 B u s h ,G e o r g e , 7 , 8 ,I 0 4 businessparks,in space,54-61 Bussard,Robert, 204, 2Ot

carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) catalytic fusion cycle,2O5,243 Carbotek Corporation, 95, L51 carbothermal reduction, 1 53 Casefor Mars, Tbe (Zubrin and \Tagner), xvii, 10,

1 0 2 ,1 0 8 ,11 9 , 1 2 0 ,t 3 g , t 4 g , 2 2 7 ,2 1 O ,2 3 ) C a s s i n iG, i o v a n n i 1 , 1 0 ,1 5 8 , 1 7 3 Cassiniprobe,144, 163,176,119 catalyzedD-D fusion, 195 catapult,electromagnetic,108 Celestri,40 cell phones,39 Ceres,133, 148, I49 CERN, 198 Challenga,2T-28 chemicalpropulsion,189-90 175 chemosynthesis, ChengHo, 18-19, 20 Chicxulub,131 China, Imperial, 6, 15 global explorarion by, xiv-xv, 18-20 chipmunks,"natural habitat" expandedby, 224-25 C h i r o n ,I 7 0 , 1 7 j gases,IO9, 227 chlorofluorocarbon Christendom,medieval,15, 18 Chu, Ching $(/u(Paul), I5,206 Church,173 City Collegeof New York, 176 Civil SpaceTransportStudy (CSTS),10 Clancy,Tom,44 Clapp,Mitchell Burnside,41, 46, 49 Clarke,Anhur C., I 1, 7 l, 99, 202 Clenentine,92-93 , 94 11,92 Clenentine C l i n t o n ,B i l l , 1 1 6 Clinton administration, 32, I80 catalyticfusion CNO (carbon-nitrogen-oxygen) cycle,2O5,243 Cocconi,Giuseppe,258, 260 Cohen, Aarorr,42 Cold \Var,6, J , 8, ll, 12, 13, 2 3 , 5 1 ,7 1 8 Collins, Patrick, 53 Columbus,Christopher,123, 1 8 1 ,1 8 8 , 2 1 6 comets,158, 182-83, 20I compositionof, 91 detection and deflection of, 183 lunar water deposits from, 91

Callisco,167, 168, I7O, 173, 231 CapeCanavenl,IO2, lO3,176 carbondioxide,108-9, I32, 138, l5l, 22t, 221, 228-3r,252

origin of, 171 communication, long-dist ance, 17 7 -7 9, 1 7 9, I88 communications satellites, 3940,

t9,69,75-76

43, 54-t5,

58,

INDEX C o n g r e s sU,. 5 . , 2 7, 1 0 4 , I 3 4 , 2 5 9 Constitution,U.5., 124 Coons,Steve,155 Coriolis fotces,I42 cosmicevolution.278-83 cosmicradiation,14445, 146, 166 cosmic rays,I97 cosmology,250,281 "costplus" governmentcontracts,24 121 Cousteau,Jacques,

Earth Return Vehicle(ERV), I02,I03 East Africa, xiii-xiv, 4-5 ECCO/CCI.40 ecliptic,182 economy,U.S., spaceprogramsand, 10 Eddington limit,244 Ehricke,Krafft,79 "eighth continent,"Moon as,79 Einstein,Albert, I97 ,I98,201 electricity, satellite generating of, 7O-74

Criswell, David, 82-83 critical mass,195 crystalspheres,in heavens,146 CSTS(Civil SpaceTranspon Study), 50

Ellipsat,40 Emerson,Ralph \trfaldo,39 Endzaaoan66 End of History,?Ee(Fukuyama),8 Tbe(Horgan),8-) End of Science,

Dace,Harry 56 Dactyl, 140 Dante Alighieri, 1, 185 dark matter, 2IO, 2II-12 Darwin, Sir Charles,274 data transmission: from outersolarsystem,L77-79,179 to 10 light years,261 Dawkins, Richard, 256 DC-X program,16, )l-)2, 33, 40, 41, 43, 45 dead-stick landings, 48, t4 lJ.S., 124-25 Declararionof Independence, deepgravitywells,212-15,214 DeepSpaceNetwork, 188 Deep Space1, 141 Delta Clippa 43 Delta rocket, 21,27 , )5, 40, 116 Mission,xvii, 104 Design Reference deuterium, 107-8, 183, 194-95 deuterium-helium-3@-He3) fusion,90, 160, t6t, tgi,20t,264 deuterium-rritium (D-T) fusion reactors,86-87, 88 Diamandis,Peter,56 dinosaurs,extinction of, 16, 39, l3O-32, 249-50 Discoverymission,141 "Discoveryof the Future,The" (Wells),274

energy,Moon as sourceof, 82-90 Engines of Creation(Drexler),238

diversity, human, 216-7 I Drake, Frank, 248, 2r9, 260 Drake Equation,249, 2rO, 213, 214 Drexler,K. Eric, 238,239 Dyson,Freeman,182, 183,192,24o_l^1 Dyson spheres,241

ve alsoLife extra-vehicular activities (EVA), 63

entrepreneurialspaceinitiatives, 74-7 6 EpsilonEridani,259 E r o s , 1 3 4 ,1 4 0 ERV (EarthReturnVehicle),lO2,IO3 Europa,L6, t67, l7 i, 174-7 5 E u r o p ex,i i i , x v , 5 , 7 , 1 5 , 1 0 4 , 1 1 8 evolution: biological,257-58 cosmic,278-8) Eaolutionof Ciuilizations,7/e (Quigley), 8 exotic physicalphenomena,188 extraterrestrialimperative, 27 5-7 6 extraterrestriallife, xvii, 247-7 i detectingstarshipsof, 262-69, 266, 267, 268 on Europa,L74-75 on Mars,xv, 16, 17, 110-13, 117,248 panspermiaaod,210-53 populationand disuibution of,253-)5, 255 probability and frequency of, 17, llt, 248-50 search for, 248,258-62,

261

time between encounters with.270

Faerie Queene,TDa (Spenser), 157 fast package delivery

5l-52

Federal Aviation Adminisration Federal Express, )O

Eannes,Gil, 19 Earth: ageof life on,279 Life's transformation of, 151, 2T-26

297

Fermi, Enrico, 247 ,248 Fermilab, 198 Fermi's Paradox, 248, 258 Feynman, Richard, 56

(FAA), 64

298

r

ENTERTNG

spACE

fissionpropulsion,191-94, 192, 193 Fleerer,Rick, 56 "flying caqpet"vehicle,4L,42 Fogg,Mattyn,244 F-125 jet engine,47,49 Forward,Robert, 203, 2jj f o s s i l s1, 1 6 - 1 7 , 2 4 7 4 8 Fountainsaf Paradise,The(Clarke),99 Frankie,Brian, 154 free-fall,53 Friedman,Louis. 202 "fronriershock,"5, 7 Fukuyama,Francis,8,9,I27 , I33 fundamentalforces,9, 281 firsion, proton-proron, 204-5, 254 fusionplasmas,84-88, 85, 16l fusionpropulsion,xvii, 15, 90, I8O,194*97, 196, 206,263,264 fusionreactors,80, 84, IO7,183-84 Gaiashieldmission, 14146,143, 144, 14j galacticcivrlization,seeTypeIII (galactic)civilization galaxies,rotarion of, 2IO GalileoGalilei, 173 Galileoprobe,16, l4O, 144, lt8, 174*7 5, 116, t77, rt8 Gama, Vascoda, 19-20 gamma-r^yspecrromerer(GRS), 116 Ganymede,167,173 gas chromatograph-massspecrromerer(GCMS), 111 Gaspra,140 Gates,BiIl,40 Gaubatz,\filliam, )1, 3) Gemini program,10,26 GeneralDynamics,34, 10 GeneralElectric Asrrospace,l4 Genesis,xiv geostationarybeanstalk,98-1 00 geosynchronous Earthorbit (GEO),l,t,72,7), 74,83.98 Gibson,Everett,112 Glenn,John,25 global civilizarion, ne Typ. I (global) civilizarion global passenger service,52-55 Global Surveyorprobe, 16 Goddard,Robert, 11 gold,61 Goldin, Dan, 28, 7O4,ll5 GoldstoneDeep SpaceCommunicarionsComplex, r40 Gore,Al, 29

government space initiatives: enrrepreneurial ini tiarives compared w ith, 7 4-7 6 national and international Mars initiatives,

rr3_r9 gravityassists, 168-70, llI-72, 171, lJ4, I8i-, t89-90,212 gravicywells,212-7J, 214 GreatBritain, I49-rO greenhouse gases,109, 226, 227, 228-jl, Ztz Griffin, Mlke, LO4,120 ground-penetrating radar (GPR), 94 GRS (gamma-rayspectrometer),116 Grumman,34 Hale-Bopp comer, L82-83 Harrison,John, 56 Haughton Impact Crater, l2l Hawking, Srephen,244 heavyJift launch vehicles,28-29 Hegel, G. W. F., I27, 133 Heinlein,Robert,31, 38 h e l i u m - 38 , 0,81, 84,87,88,90, 97,lt94}, 1 6 r - 6 3 , 7 6 6 , r 7 0 , 1 8 0 ,1 8 1 , t g 3 - 9 4 Henry the Navigaror, 19 Herschel,Sir rJ7illiam,llo, 133, 171 h igh-temperaturesuperconductivity,xtr, | 5, 206 high-vacuum,59,60 Hildebrand, Alan,737 history "end" o( 8*9,II8,127 HMX Engineering,4344 Hohmann transferelliptical rrajeuory, I43 Hono uectus,xlii,4 Homonpiens,xiii-xiv, 4^5, 2J8 Hono technologicas, xiv, 5 Hong Kong,41 Horgan,James,8-p horizontaltakeoff/horizonrallanding (HTHL) vehicles,4149 hotels,orbital, 6244 HouseSpaceSubcommitree,29,7 j Flouston, University of, 206 Houston-ClearLake, University of, 82 Hoyle, Fred, 250 Hubble SpaceTelescope, 66, 67, 68,97,267 Hudson,Gary,3I,4344 human diversity, 276-1 8 Hunter,Max,3l,43 Huygens,Christiaan,173 ICBMs (interconrinentalballisric missiles),23, 26, 50 Ice Age, xiii, 5

/NDEX iceteroids,17O-72, 182-84, 2O7-8, 234 Ida, 140 lnfrno (Dante Alighieri), 1 intelligence,17, Il3, 279-8O, 282-83 intercontinentalballistic missiles(ICBMs), 23, 26, 50 InternationalSpaceStation(ISS),9, 14, t9, 55, 7J,142 costof, 68, 116 design of,28-29 servicingof,67-68 zero gravity researchand, 6G-61 I n r e r n e t7,, 4 0 , 5 2 , 1 2 6 interstellartravel,xvii, 187-223, 254 antimatrerpropulsionfor, I97-201, 199 characteristicpower Ievelsfor, 266 chemicalpropulsionand, 189-90 involvedin, 187, 188 distances fissionpropulsionfor, 191-94, 192, 193 fusionpropulsionfor, 194-97, 196, 206 light sails,2014,203 magnericsailsfor, L5, 204-7, 263, 264-65, 267-69,268 obstaclesto. 187-89 speciesmaturity and, 211-16 unknownstarsin, 209-15,211, 212 using Oort Cloud objects,2OT-9 lo,I7),174 iridium (element),i9, l3}-)l Iridium (satellites),)940, 49 Iridium 2,40 ISAS,141 ISP (specificimpulse),definition of, 35 Japan,6),7O4, l4I Jefferson,Thomas,128 Jet PropulsionLab (JPL),16,91, Tl4,116,l4O, r4r.154, 174 JET tokamak,86 Johns Hopkins Applied Physicslaboratory, 140 JohnsonSpaceCenter,42, IO4 Joatnal of theBritish lnterplanetarySnciety,213 Juno,133 J u p i r e r ,1 3 4 , 1 4 0 ,I 4 7 , 1 7 2 , 1 7 3 , L 7 6 , 1 8 7, 1 8 9 - 9 0 ,2 r 2 , 2 4 1 , 2 4 3 departurevelociry from, 162-6), 168-70, 169 moonsof, 16, 166-7o, 167, 173, 174-7 5 JusticeDepartment,U.S.,34 K a k u ,M i c h i o , 1 7 6 , 1 7 7 Nikolai S.,xiv, xvi Kardashev, Kasting,James,2lO

299

Kelly, Bob, 51-54 Kelly SpaceTkhnologies, 54 Kennedy,John F.,xv, ll-12, 14 Kepler, Johannes,201 Kevlar, 106 Kistler, $?'dter, 4042, 4) Kistler Aerospace,414), 54 Kito, Tomiko,I54 KomsonoIskaya Prauda, 9 8 Kowal, Charles,173 Kuiper, Gerard, 173 Kuiper Belt, 170, 182-84,2O7 Kulcinski,Jerry,84 L (life span),of civilizations,2J)-J8,255 LaGrangepoints,72,73, LOO "Iand People,"7 laserfusion, 19J lasers,2OT ,235 light sailspushedby,2O),206 Lassell,ufilliam, 173 Lauer,Chuck,49,64 launchcosts,2l-24,71 effectsofhigh levelsof,2)-24,67 to low Earthorbit,61, 89-90 for high levelsof, 23-24,26,34,49, 69 reasons of SpaceShuttle,2L-22, 27 ofTitan rocket,21,27 launchvehicles: heavy-lift, 28-29 seealsoreusablelaunch vehicles;rockets LawrenceLivermoreLaboratory92, I)5,195 Lawsonparameter,85, 86, 88 Lebedev,PeterN., 201 Lee,Pascal,121 L E O ( l o w E a r t ho r b i t ) ,1 9 4 0 , 6 I , 7 2 , 8 9 - 9 0 , 9 1 Lewis,John,146,I47 ,156 Life,280 and, 150-52 asteroids Earth transformedby, 151,225-26 potential benefitsfrom discovering nature of, l 17-18 su alsoextraterrestriallife Life of tbeCosmot,T/e (Smolin),281-82 l i g h t , s p e e do f, l 9 l , 1 9 8 , 1 9 9 lighr (solar)sails,201-4, 203, 229-30 Lindbergh,Charles,55 "liquid metaI," 238 LMIY 33 Lockheed,50 LockheedMartin, xvii corporatemergers atd, 34

3OO

r

ENTERING

SPACE

LockheedMarcin (cont,) "cost plus" contractsand overheadstructure of, 24_25 launchvehiclesdesignedby, 33 X-33 programand, 32-3j,34 longitude,determinationof, j6,173 Loral Corporation, 4O, 54 Los AlamosNational Laborarory,I35,Ig2,24g Iow Earthorbit (LEO), 59-60, 6t,72,99-90, 97 Lowell, Percival,110-1 1 Lunar Prospector,16, 93-94 Macartney,Lord, 20 McCaw, Ctaig,40 McDonnellDouglas,31, 32, 33, 34, 3r, 40,4I, 43.50 McFadden,Lucy Ann, 140 McKay, Chris, 120 McKay, Dave, ll2 McKinney, Bevan,43 magnericfusion, 84-88, 8j magnericsails(magsails),15, 204-7, 263, 264-65 , 267-69, 268 magnecicrraps, 84-85 MagOrion sail,2O6,2O7 magsails,fte magnedc sails mapping rates,IJ9 Marie Curie, I20 Marinermissions,10, 111, I 14 Mark, Hans, 28 Marlowe,Christopher,58 Mars,xvi, xviii, 14,26,30,49, 107-27, I34, 1 4 7 ,1 8 0 ,1 8 8 agricultureon, 10 l, 105-6 asteroidsand,14849 atmosphere of, 101, 702, LOl, 108-9, I 10, 1 1 5 , 1 3 9 , 1 5 3 - 5 6 ,I 7 2 "canals"of, ttO-tt colonization of, xvii, 101, 105-10, 118 degreeoftilr of, 1 10 hypotheticalcostofticket to, 22 imporranceof missionsto, 118, 122-24 lengthofday on, I 10 life on, xv, 16, 17,110*13, I17,248 manned mission proposedfor, l}2-j mineralresources on, 101, 107-8 Moon asbasefor flight to, !6 mmn of, 108 UAiRs missionsto, 114-16, lt9, I2O, I3B, 144; seealsoMariner missions;Viking missions NASAs \feb site fot lI9,12l

needfor narionaland internationalinitiatives for missionsro, 113-19 orbital distanceof, 187 relocatingasreroids to, 17I-72, 17I rights on, 124-27 terraformingof, 108-10, I7 l, 227-28 undergroundhydrothermalreservoirson, 106 w a t e ro n , 1 0 1 , 1 0 6 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 5 MarsDirect plan,xvii, 102-5, 106, l4l Mars Global Surveyor(MGS) orbiteg lI4,ll, MarshallSpaceFlight Cenrer,42,48 Mars }bseraer,)2 Mars SampleReturn (MSR) mission,116 Mars Sociery,I2O-22 FoundingDeclarationof,285-85 Mars Underground,120 Martin Marietta,34, 45, 4849, iO, j 3, 61-69, l i ) Martin Marietta Astronautics,40 Massachuserrs Insritute of Technology(MIT),

28_29 mass drivers," 72 mass-energy equivalency equarion, Ig7, L98 mass extinctions, asteroidsand, 16, 17,39,

130-32,142,75r-52,209,249_50, 256 matter, four statesof. 84 memes,256-57 Mercuty,9I-92, 163, I1 3 Mercuty program,70,26 META program,259 meteorires,I29, 139, 248 Metrodorus,247 Mexico,131 Microcosm,54 Milky Vay, 216-23 a g eo f , 2 4 8 , 2 1 9 mapsol,zt/,ztd nearbystarsof, 219-23 numberof starsin, 1L3,248,253 rcealsoextraterrestrialIife Miod,279 Ming Empire, xiv-xv, 18-20 Mir spacestation,68 molecular-scale engineering, 56 momenrsof inertiaof planets,2j1-34, 234 Moon,xv, xvi, 9, Il, 12,14,30,79-IOO, 102, r05. r80.232 agricultureon, 81-82 asasrronomicalobservationbase,95-98 bacteriaon,25O beanstalkto, 98-100 chemicaland mineralresources on,80-81,80, rt2-J3, r8I a

^

1

-

^

<

^

lNDEX energy frcm,82-90 esrablishinga baseon, 94-96 NASAs missionsto, ra Apollo program wateron, 16,91-91 Morrison,Phillip, 258, 260 Motorola,3940,4),54 Mount Palomar,267 MSLS,33 MSR (MarsSampleReturn) mission,116 Mstar,40 Mueller, George,42 Muncy,Jim,73 Murray,Bruce,91 M U S E SC , I 4 I ll2, 251-52 nanobacteria, 23740, 2t2 nanotechnology, National Aeronauticsand SpaceAdministration (NASA),xvii, 16, 42, 49, 19, 61, 67-68, l l 2 , l 2 r , r 4 2 , 1 75 , 1 7 8 ,1 8 0 , r 9 r , 2 1 3 ,2 2 8 asteroidprogramsof , 13), l4l budgetoi 10, 116 and,92-94 CltmentineandLunar Prospector Mission for Mars of, xvii, 104 Design Reference of, 10 earlyaccomplishments of, 174 greatestaccomplishments lunar missions of, seeApollo Program Marsmissionsof, 114-16,lI9, L2o, 138, r44; seealsoMariner missions;Viking missions Mars Web site of, ll9,l2I misallocatedprioriciesof, I 16 1989"90 Day Report" of, lO4,144 Nixon-era cutbacksand, xv SpaceShuttle program and, 27-29 , )O viewedasidle bureaucracy, J0,34 X-33 program and, 32-3) X-34 proiectof,48 National AerospaceLaborarcry,63 National Ignition Facility (NIF), 195 National Radio Astronomy Observatory(NRAO), 259 National Security,12 National SpaceSociety,12, l2O "natural habitat." 225 Nature,258 navigationprize,56 Neanderthals,xiii, 5 mission(NEAR), Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous

Mo. r4r Near-Earth Object Program Office (NEOPO), 135 near-Earthobiects(NEOs), 132, 134-3r, l)94O,

r4r

30r

near-solarstellar massobiects,2 12 Nemesis.209-IO NEP (nuclearelectricpropulsion)systems' 181,191 t79, t82, Neptune,26, 16), 110, 173, l-74, tg1, r87 Nereus,141 NERVA, 138 neutronstars,2lO,2l2 "New Millenium" program,141 Newton'slaw of reaction,35 "New \(orld Order," 7, 8 New York Tines, 16 NIF (National Ignition Facility), 195 NIFT (NuclearIndigenousFueledTransatmospheric)vehicles,162, 163, 164 Night Tboagbtson Life, Deatb and lnnortality ffoung), 187 "NIMF" vehicles,138 Niven, Lany,24142 Nixon administration,xv, 30 NK-3 1 rocketengine,47, 49 Nobel Prize,201 "noninterference" hypothesis,270-7 | nonluminousmatter, 2lO, 2ll-I2 North America,7, 149-50 Northrop, 34 Nozette,Stu, 92 NRAO (National Radio Astronomy Observatory), 259 nuclearelectricpropulsion(NEP) systems,161, 181,191 NuclearIndigenousFueledTransatmospheric (NIFT) vehicles,162, 16), 164 nuclearpower, 188 and outer solarsystemexploration,176-80 nuclearsalt water rockec(NSWR), 193-94, 193 nuclearthermal rockets(NTRs), I17 -38, I7 | , 1 8 1 , 1 9 1 ,2 1 2 - 1 3 "nuclearwinter," asteroid-caused, 130, l3l-32 Oberth,Hermann,3, 11 Officeof Managementand Budget, 174 oil,161 Olbers,Heinrich, i33 O'Neill, Gerard,7 2, 7 3, 74-7 1, 82, 96, I9O, 242 On tbeBeach,118 On tbeOrigin of Spuies(Darwin),274 Oon Cloud, 17O-7l, l8l, 182-84, 207-3, 209,242 orbicalhotels.62-64 orbiral indusries, 6142 Orbital Properties,64-65

3O2

.

ENTERING

SPACE

orbital researchlabs,59-61 Orbiral Sciences,40 Orion, Project,192-93, I94, 197 Orteig, Raymond,55 Orteig Pfi2e,55,57 Ostro, Steve.140 Outer SpaceTreaty(1961), 12-14 Owen,Henry,12-13 Ozma,Project,259,260

polycyclic aromaric hydrocarbons (PAHs), 1 l2 population growth, 159 Portugal, 19-20 power, for exploring ourer solar sysrem, Ij8-60, 159,160 power relay satellite (PRS), 74 "Prairie" (Sandburg), 2 1 Pratt and rilThirney F-100 jer engines, 4p prizes,5t-t7 Progressmodule,68

PacificAmericanLaunchSystems,43 PacificOcean,1990 asteroidcrashin, 128-29 packagedeliverS 5l-52 PAHs (polycyclicaromarichydrocarbons), 112 Paine,Thomas,I07,224 Pallas, L13 Paloma4 Mount, 267 panspermia,250*53 Paradirc(Dante Alighieri), 185 panIlax,209 ParisGun, 25 passengerservice,global, 5 2-5 5 Patbfnder(Marslanding vehicle),16,ll4-15, 1 L 9 ,l 2 l (rocketplane) Patbf.nder , 49, tO, 53, 57 Paul,Saint.272 P a xM u n d a n a , S , 1 41, 5 , D , 1 2 6 Pax Romana,S Pearson, Jerome,!p Penningtraps, 1!8 PennSrateUniversity,281 Phobos.108 Pboenix,43,44 Phoenix,Project,259-60 photoelectriceffect,201 photon rocket, 199-200, 199,261, 268 photosynthesis, 229 physics,limits to lawsandknowledgeof, xviii, 280-81 Prazzi,Giuseppe,133 picotechnology,240 PioneerAstronautics,49, 754 Pioneermissions,10, 158, 166, Il3-74, 176 PioneerRocketplane,4g,,4, 56, 54 PlanetarySociety,l2O, 202, 259 planets: momenrsof inertiaof,233-34, 234 outsidethe solarsysrem,xv, L5-17, ll3, 247 plasma,84,2Ot plasmabombs,206 plasmas,fusion,84-88, 85, 198-99 Pluto,173.187 plutonium-238,176-77

Project Orion, 192-93, I94, 197 Project Ozma,2t9,260 Project Phoenix, 259-60 propellanr cast,72 propellanc types: antimatter, I97-20I , 199, 263-64, 267, 268 characterisric power levels of , 266 chemical, 189-90 CH41O2, 14849 fission, l9l-94,

192, 193

fusion, 194-97, 1 96, 206, 26), 254 hydrogenioxygen, 30, 42, 89, 94 hydrogen peroxide, 41, 48 hydrogen peroxide/kerosene, 46 from iceteroids, fif-72 kerosene/oxy gen, 22-2J, 42, 44, 41 , 49 liquid oxygen,48 made from Martian armosphere, xvii, 7Ol-2, 10i, lt3 methaneloxygen, l0I-2 for nuclear thermal rockets. L}l-38 Proteus, 56 proton-proton fusion, 204-5, 264 Proton rocket,742 proximiry operarions vehicle ("proxops"), (g PRS (power relay satellite), 74 Quigley, Carroll, 8 radar and radio occultation science, 178-79 radioisotope heating unirs (RHUs), 176, I77 radioisotope chermoelectric generarors (RTGs), 775,117 radio telescopes,!8, 254,258-5I Ramohali, Kumar, 154 Ranger missions, 10 RD-120 rocket engine, 4! Reagan, Ronald, 28 Reagan administration, 28 "rectennas," 70 red dwarfs, 210, 2Il, Redstone rocket,23

212, 232-33, 243

INDEX.3o3 regenerariontime,213 researchlabs,orbital, 59-51 Vehicle(RASV), 34, 45 ReusableAerospace reusablelaunchvehicles,xv, 16, 26-35,58 DC-X program,16, 3l-32, 33, 40, 4I, 43, 4t s of, 26-27 disadvantage keys to economicfeasibiliry of, 30 49-t5 rocketplanes, SpaceShuttle as,27, 29-30 ssTo, 30-33, 4149, 7 2, 149 X-33 program,32-33, 34,4l RHUs (radioisotopeheatingunits), I76, 177 Rice University, 12, 14 Rift Valley, xiii-xiv, xv ringworlds,24142 Robinson,Kim Stanley,120 robotic satellites,SS,69 robotic spacemissions,! g, 2354O robots,self-replicatin "Rocket Equation,"35 rocketplanes,xvii, 49-JJ fast packagedeliveryusing,50-51 serviceusing, 52-55 global passenger military applicationsfor, 5l-12 rocketryand spaceflight,fundamentilsof,35-38, 37 rockets: launchcostsfor, 2l-24,26 technologicalstagnationin developmemof, 24--25 weaponryoriginsof,26 w ako propellant types; reusablelaunch vehicles;specifurockets R o c k w e l l3, 2 , j 3 , 3 4 , 5 0 Roebling, Johann,224 Rohrabacher , Dana,7 3 Romanek,Chris, 1 12 Rosenberg,Sanders,153 Rostow,\Valt \7., 12 Rotary Rocket Company,44 helicopter,4344 Roton space-launch RTGs (radioisotopethermoelectricgenerators), 176,177 Rusk, Dean, 13 Russia,9,67 Rutan, Burt, 56 Sabatierreaction,lt3, I54 Sagan,Carl,xiii, 128,228-29,2)I sails: light (solar),2014, 203 magnetic,reemagneticsails St. Louis,Mo., 56 Sandburg,Carl,2I

Santarius, John, 84 satellites: communicatiarls,394o, 43, 54-tr, 58, 59, 69,75-76 of, 3940, 43, 54-15, 59 constellations power relay,74 robotic,58,69 servicingof,66-69 solarpowered, 7O-74, 82, 83 Satevod,40 Saturn,I6J, 164,17O,173, 174, 176, I82, 187,243 seealso Titan SaturnV rocket, xt,,42, lO2 ScaledComposires,56 science,xviii, 8*9, 280-81 SDIO (StrategicDefenseInitiative Organization), t6,3L,32,45 SeaLaunchsystem,34-35 "SeaPeople,"7 Searchfor ExtraterrestrialIntelligence (SETI), 2t941 self-replicatingautomatons, 23J40 SenateAppropriationsCommittee, 120 SERENDIP program,259 sex,in zero gravity,6) Siberia,129 Sidey,Hugh, 11 (SSTO)vehicles,30-34, 38, single-stage-to-orbit 4149,69,12, r49 skyhook,99, I08 Skylabspacestation, 10, 28, 61-68,1O9,142 Smith, Fred, 50 Smolin,Lee,281-82 socialdevelopment,sevenstagesof, 8 115, 117, 120 Sojourner, solarflares,81, 101 solar power arrays,on Moon, 82-84 SolarPowerSatellite(SPS)systems, 7 0--74, 82, 81 solar(light) sails,201-4, 203,2?9-30 solarsystem: ageof, I4A ashumanity'snaturalenvironment,I5I-52 solarsystem,outer,xvii data transmissionratesfrom, 17-/-19, 179 earlyastronomicalexplorationof, 173 in,159-60, 160 energyresources explorationof,173-75 main obstaclesto settling oi 180-81 nuclearpower and exploration of, 176-80 robotic explorationof, 173-7 5 settling of, I57-84 rransportationin, 148 solarwind, 2Ol, 2O5,2OG

3O4.

ENTERING

SPACE

sound barrier,4344 SovietUnion, 7, 9-IO, 11, 13, 14, 23, 26, ll4, l2g, rg3,22g Space Access, 54 space activist organizations, 120 space asset servicing, 66-69 space business parks, 64-6t space colonies, 7 2-7 5, 96, l9O Space Exploration Initiative, spacefaring, fundamental spacefaring civilization,

104

reason for, 79 seeType II (spacefaring)

civilization spaceflight and rocketry, fundamentals of,35-38, 37 Space Frontier Foundation, 120 SpaceHab, 59 space initiatives, entrepreneurial vs. governmental,

74-76 SpaceNau, 48 spaceprogram,U.S., 9-15 cosrof, 10, 14 d e c l i n eo f , x v , 9 - 1 0 , L 4 goal neededfor, 10-12 Outer SpaceTreaty'seffecton, 12-14 (Lewis), 146 Space Resources SpaceShuttle, 9, 33, 35, 59, 59, lO5, 142 annual program cost of, 27 design faults of, 29-30 andpoliticsof,27-28,30 economics first flight of, 25 Hubble repairsand,66 launchcostof, 2I-22,27 MMU unit of,I43 on-boardcomputersof, 25 zerogravity rat executionexperimentconductedon, 116 SpaceStation, seelnternational SpaceStation spacetourism,62-64 spacecransportationsystems,four generationsof, 180-81 speciesmaturity, 215-76 specificimpulse(ISP),definition of, 35 Spectra,100, 106 Edmund, 157 Spenser, Sponable, Jess,3 1 70-14,82,83 SPS(SolarPowerSatellite)systems, Spttnik, xiv,9 Sridhar,K. R., 154 vehicles,30-34, 38, SSTO(single-stage-to-orbit) 4t49,69,72, T49 Stapledon,Olaf,246 STARDUST mission,141 Starmaker,Tle (Stapledon), 246

stars,216*23 of, 23I-32, 2r3, 263 classifications lighting of,24346 Milky ITay'spopulationof, ll3 plasmaassubstanceof, 84 unknown cypesof, 209-15 seealn interstellar travel; Milky \Vay detecrionof,26249, 266, 267, 268 starships, Starsys,40 Star Trek, 278 StateDepartment,U.S., 12, 13 statites,233 "SteadyState"theory,250 Stoker. Carol. L20 StraregicDefenseInitiative Organization(SDIO), 16,3t,32,45 S u n ,1 8 9 - 9 0 , 2 O I , 2 I 2 ageof,279 brightnessof, 1!0, 2i2, 241, 245 of,232 classification ratio fog 176 energy/distance type of fusionreactionin,2O4 high-remperature,xv, I 5 superconductivity, Surveyormissions,10, 250 "synthesisgas,"I54 i njeccion), | 42 TAI (rransasteroid Tanburlaine(Marlowe), 58 TANSTAAFL,38 Tau Ceti, 219 Taylor, Ted, I92 t e c h n o l o g y4 , 6 , 8 Teets,Peter,40 T e l e d e s i4c 0 , ,41,49,54, 68 11), 241, 267 telescopes, terawatt,definition of, 188 Taminator2, 238 terraforming, 22546 definition of,225 lighting srars,24346 of Mars,108-10, 227-28 technology{or,23542 of tidally lockedworlds, 231*35 ofVenus and Venus-likeplanets,228-)l TestBan Treaty(1963),193 Texas,University of, 11 "There'sPlenty of Room at the Bottom" (Feynman).55 thermal emissions,2lI-I2 80, 160, 161 fusionreacrors, thermonuclear Thiokol Star48, 41 , 48 Third IDTorld,70, 74, It9

/NDEX

. 3oj

Thomas-Keprta,Kathie, 112 Thor-Delta rocket,23 tidallyJocked worlds, terraforming of, 231-35 Tinc, Il T i t a n ,1 6 3 - 6 5 , 1 6 5 ,1 71 , l 7 9 , 1 8 1 ,2 3 0 Titan rocket,2), 24-25, 26, 27, 2940, 33, 40,

Venus,112,242 terraforming of, 228-1 | vertical takeoff/verticallanding (VTVL) system, 4r,43,44,45 Vesta,I l3 Il5,116, 174 V i k i n g m i s s i o n s1, 0 , 2 6 , l l l , l l 4 ,

49,68, r42 Tokyo Universiry,6l Tombaugh,Clyde, 173 tonne,definition of,22 rourism,6244 Toutatis,140 iniection (TAI), 142 cransasteroid rrans-Atlanticflights,52, 51, 57 "triangle trade," I49-iO tritium, 86-87,88 Triton, 173,243 Truth, Sojourner,115 TRW. t3 Tsiolkovsky,Konstantin, 3, 11 "tuna can" habitats.106 Tirnguska,12P 12th apparentmagnitude objects,21 1 two-stage-to-orbit(TSTO) vehicles,3L, 42 Typ. I (global)civilization, 146, 189, 2t 6, 27 I completing humanity'sstatusas,xvi, 1-76

Vladivostok,129 von Braun,\7ernher,11,2i,42,138 Von Neumann,John,235 Voyagermissions,IO,26, 158, 168, 173-74, L76, r79, r87 V-2 rocket,23,26

definition of, xiv, 280 civilization,xvii, 76, Type II (spacefaring) 188-89, 202, 231, 215, 2404r, 215, 277 definition of, xiv, 280 humanity'scransicionto, xvi, 17-I84 Type III (galactic)civilization,xvi, xvii definition of, xiv, 280 destructionof,25648 human diversiry and,276-7 8 humanity'stransitionto, 181-28J asimperative,272-7 3, 275-7 6, 283 as network, 269-72 potential resultsof encounterwith,272 probableexistenceof, 248 Type IV civilization, 280 Ulam, Stanislaw,I92 United SpaceAlliance, 33 UniversalSpaceLines,54 universe,ageof,279 universes,within black holes,281-82 U r a n u s r, 3 3 , 1 6 3 , I 7 0 , L 73 , 1 7 4 , 1 76 , r 8 7 U.S.Newsand\VorldRe^ort,4O Van Allen,James,156 "VentureStar"launchsystem,l3

\fagner, Richard, 120 \Iang,John,42 war: humanity'spotential end from, 118 progressdriven by,6-7 speciesmaturity and, 215-16 I7ashington,University of, 155 '$7asser, Alan, 12 w a t e r ,1 7 , 1 1 3 on Europa,174-75 from iceteroids,183 o n M a r s ,1 0 1 , 1 0 6 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 5 on Mercury,9I-92 o n M o o n ,1 6 , 9 L - 9 5 proportionalweight of componentsof, 103 'Webb, \Talter Prescott,123 S(ehrmacht,23,26 !?'ells,H. G.,274 'rU7est Indies, 149-J0 white dwarfs,2IO, 212, 232-33 \Thitmire. Daniel. 205

w|ld2, r4r Villiams,John, 155 \tr7isconsin, University of, 84 'Worden, Simon"Pete,"3l-j2,92 r0ilright PattersonAir ForceBase,99 X-Prize Foundationand competition, 56-57 X-33 program,32-i1, 34, 4l x-34,49 Young, Edward, 187 Young, I-arry, 142 Yucatan,l31 Yung Lo, 18 Zarc,Richard,7L2 Zenit boosters.34 zero gravity,51, 19, 60, 63, IL6, 14243, L45 Zubrin,Maggie, l2O

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Roberc Zub-in is an internationally renowned astronautical engineer and the acclaimed aurhor of The Casefor Mars, which Arthur C. Clarke called "rhe mosr comprehensive accounr of the past and future of Mars that I have ever encounrered." NASA recently adapted Zubrin's humans-to-Mars mission plan. A former senior engineer at Lockheed Martin,Zubrin is president of the Mars Societyand founder of Pioneer Astronaurics, a successful space exploration and development firm. He lives with his family in Indian Hills. Colorado.