Edited by
Iva Apostolova and Tom Claes
Educational Structures in Context
At the Interface
Series Editors Dr Robert Fisher Dr Daniel Riha
Advisory Board Dr Alejandro Cervantes-Carson Dr Peter Mario Kreuter Professor Margaret Chatterjee Martin McGoldrick Dr Wayne Cristaudo Revd Stephen Morris Mira Crouch Professor John Parry Dr Phil Fitzsimmons Paul Reynolds Professor Asa Kasher Professor Peter Twohig Owen Kelly Professor S Ram Vemuri Revd Dr Kenneth Wilson, O.B.E
An At the Interface research and publications project. http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/at-the-interface/ The Education Hub ‘Idea of Education’
Educational Structures in Context: At the Interfaces of Higher Education
Edited by
Iva Apostolova and Tom Claes
Inter-Disciplinary Press Oxford, United Kingdom
© Inter-Disciplinary Press 2010 http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/publishing/id-press/
The Inter-Disciplinary Press is part of Inter-Disciplinary.Net – a global network for research and publishing. The Inter-Disciplinary Press aims to promote and encourage the kind of work which is collaborative, innovative, imaginative, and which provides an exemplar for inter-disciplinary and multidisciplinary publishing.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission of Inter-Disciplinary Press. Inter-Disciplinary Press, Priory House, 149B Wroslyn Road, Freeland, Oxfordshire. OX29 8HR, United Kingdom. +44 (0)1993 882087
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN: 978-1-84888-024-5 First published in the United Kingdom in eBook format in 2010. First Edition.
Table of Contents Introduction Iva Apostolova and Tom Claes PART I
Questioning the Formal Structures of Higher Education Why Should We Go to School? Iva Apostolova Developing a New Curriculum: Chartered Street or Valley Wild? Karen Gomoluch and Gill Whittaker Questioning The Idea of the University Sanja Petkovska Teachers’ Knowledge and Teacher Education: Some Reflections Maria Leonor Borges Separating Learning and Evaluation Mark Dobbins
PART II
vii
3
11
25
33
43
Higher Education in Specific National Contexts Higher Education in Canada: New Millennium, New Students, New Directions Dale Kirby
53
Developing Active Citizenship: Universities as Agents of Social Change Sarwet Rasul
63
The Nature of Learning Theories and their Effects on Distance Education Practices in Turkey Serpil Koçdar and Nilgün Özdamar
77
PART III
The Impact of Technology on Higher Education Online Teaching with Learning Objects Bill Tait User Requirements Analysis for Use of Mobile Phones in Learning and Teaching Johnnes Arreymbi and Chrisina Draganova Using a Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext to Develop Reading Comprehension: An Ongoing Case Study with Students with a Media Studies Degree Maria Isabel Orega and Antonio Moreira Biographical Notes
95
105
119
135
Introduction Iva Apostolova and Tom Claes The present eBook The Idea of Education is intended as a historical snapshot of the conference The Idea of Education 5 that took place in Budapest in May 2008. The fifth edition of the conference on the idea of education, continued the tradition of critical debate and reflection on Higher Education that started in 2002. Among the topics covered both in the presentations and the discussion panels, were the relation between a Doctoral Degree and career opportunities, self-marketing among university applicants, the impact of globalisation on Higher Education in different developed and developing countries, and questioning the mission of Higher Education, and the role of the teacher in it. The conference ended with a positive message affirming the role of Higher Education as an autonomous, independent space where different points of view and critical approaches could be tried out before they are implemented in society. The eleven chapters in this volume are accurate representations of the chapters presented at the conference in Budapest. The editors have grouped the chapters into three sections, each dealing with more general or more specific issues pertaining to education. The first section introduces chapters that deal with general questions about the existing structures of formal academic education. While the authors adopt a critical approach to the existing structures of formal Higher Education, they seem to agree that the primary role of university in creating and organising the social life, (helped by the personal example and experience of the teacher), not only should not be ignored, but should be reinforced to protect universities against the reigning opportunism, managerialism, and bureaucracy that seem to have been affecting, in various degrees, all modern structures. The second section of the volume focuses on more specific issues concerning Higher Education in different national contexts. While the challenges that Higher Education faces in Canada are different than the challenges it faces in Pakistan or Turkey, the authors agree on one thing: Higher Education should promote the values of democracy and tolerance, prepare students not only for the labour market but also for active citizenship. Historically, universities have been hubs of creativity. In the context of globalisation where national and cultural boundaries are questioned, universities should resume (or keep) their role of facilitators of social change. This entails the need for Higher Education to remain an autonomous social institution and be available to all social groups, including, and especially, the ones whose access to higher education have been traditionally restricted.
viii
Introduction
______________________________________________________________ The third section focuses on the impact of technology, and more specifically, the Internet, on Higher Education. The issues the authors tackle range from the use of Web 2.0 technology to the use of mobile phones and different online platforms during lectures. Despite the very different issues and goals that the authors see with regard to the use of technology in the classroom, they argue along the same lines: the fast access to detailed and voluminous information, and the effective structuring of this information that technology offers, should be incorporated as a useful tool in any classroom, to help the lecturer deliver the material successfully and remain connected to the students (and successfully resolve specific problems that students might face with the course material). The editors wish to thank all contributors to the current volume whose creative ideas and solutions have greatly enriched the ongoing debate about the place and role of higher education in society! Iva Apostolova Tom Claes
PART I Questioning the Formal Structures of Higher Education
Why Should We Go to School? Iva Apostolova Abstract I will examine the question of what motivates us, in the first place, to go to school (it applies to both secondary and post-secondary school), and then, what motivates us, as parents, to send our children to school. In order to answer this question I will first look at issues such as what place the institution of school has in our society, and what possibilities there are of it becoming a more informal rather than formal way of education. Our first encounter with adults that have post-secondary education is at the level of day care. In day care children play according to certain, not necessarily firmly fixed, rules. All the adults in day care are representatives and guardians of the social rules and order. To ensure that the adults in day care will play their roles successfully, they need to go through a special training. The post-secondary pedagogical early childhood education emphasizes not only the rational side of the process of teaching and learning but also its emotional side. It seems that we need to go to school (understood both as secondary and post-secondary education) in order to understand how society functions and teach those rules to the young. Since ultimately, we are social animals, understanding how society functions is what brings us together. The traditional education system passed on from day care through middle and high school until university level faces a number of problems such as keeping the students waiting to enter the real life which comes after school while memorizing approved by an authority knowledge. An alternative is offered by the program Philosophy for Children. The first goal of Philosophy for Children program is to find a solution to a given problem, using the tools of philosophy. And philosophy is understood as acting, rather than contemplating. Key Words: Philosophy, secondary education, post-secondary education, Philosophy for Children, social role of the teacher, Canada. ***** The idea of investigating the reasons for our urge as contemporary citizens to receive formal education was first conceived in the summer of 1999 with my colleague from Sofia University, George Terziev. At the time both of us were involved in the program Philosophy For Children which also required field work with children in a kindergarten setting. Since then many things have changed in my life. I left for Canada to do my Doctoral studies in
4
Why Should We Go to School?
______________________________________________________________ Philosophy. A few years later I became a wife and a mother. I continued doing philosophy on different levels - at present I am a part-time professor of Philosophy at the University of Ottawa, and for a few years now I have also been introducing philosophy and logic to gifted fifth-graders. My experiences as a parent and as a professional have shown me that Philosophy for Children is an ideology and methodology worth exploring and applying. What is, I believe that our contemporary society (I mean mostly North American society) needs an educational program which, as opposed to the streamlined and overspecialised programs that secondary and post-secondary education offer, teaches us to reflect upon everything in life, from moral norms to the laws of logic. What follows is a glimpse of my grappling with some of the questions that have always interested me and whose answers today I feel even more urged to find out. In this chapter I will examine the question of what motivates us, in the first place, to go to school, and what school, understood as elementary, secondary and post-secondary formal education, is supposed to teach us. In order to answer this question I will first look at issues such as what place the institution of school has in our society, and what possibilities there are of it becoming a more informal rather than a formal way of education. With regards to this, I will argue that the structure of our higher education has a significant impact on all aspects of our lives and the lives of our pre-school children. It is a common practice in both Eastern Europe and North America for the parents to engage their child(ren) from a very young age in all kinds of community organized or institutionalised activities. Some of the popular ones are daycare, pre-school programs for learning foreign languages, Montessori day-care programs where children learn various practical skills, different sports- or arts-oriented day camps, etc. The age for signing up is anywhere from six months old until the age of majority. The explanation and justification for the existence and prosperity of such organized activities is that they provide time and space where children meet and get to know their own kind - children of the same age, interest, hobby, or mental and/or physical challenge of some sort. On that same note, home-schooling, even though a legitimate option for parents in Canada, is not a very popular one. The idea of sending our pre-school age children to a daycare, and of encouraging our older children to go to a college or university, stems from the belief, firmly embedded in our Western culture, that we, as human beings, need more than just be together with other human beings. We also need to understand our human condition. The understanding of the human condition is usually interpreted, at least in the Western philosophical tradition, as an intellectual/rational reconstruction of something that may lead to a problem that will need to be solved with intellectual/rational means. And for that, we need to be put in a situation of ‘together’-ness, that is, we need to be put in a
Iva Apostolova
5
______________________________________________________________ designated space and time where we learn about the world and ourselves. This situation is provided by the institution of the school. As we move from secondary to post-secondary school, we learn more and more about the human condition. We learn that being human depends upon the current cultural, scientific, technological and temporal situation. For example, today our North American cultural situation is marked by a pervasive world-view, described as genetic fatalism, genetic essentialism, the gene myth, the selfish gene, or genetic determinism. We read in important articles, a part of university course readers, that in the near future we will be dealing with genetically enhanced human beings who will not necessarily relate to our historical past, of the non-enhanced human beings. So, our discussions begin to revolve around the mechanisms of what we call normative genetics, which is supposed to be the new ethics that will accommodate the needs of all kinds of humans. And what happened to the ‘old’ ethics? While I am not disputing the significance of intellectual development and all that comes with it, I would like to remind us of another, often forgotten by both educators and students, function that the school has. This function consists of not only teaching us to understand the human condition, but also of helping us become human. To use the words of the French philosopher Jacques Maritain, education is meant to overcome egoism.1 What this means is that all the years that we are supposed to spend in school, ought to make us better persons. Regrettably, as Maritain observes, what happens more often than not, is that we come out of school well equipped with techniques for winning an argument, or managing a company, but we do not learn how to be wise or how to love. Acquiring wisdom and learning to love will teach us how to be free in the sense of being autonomous human beings. As Maritain puts it, there are two types of freedom. One of them is freedom of autonomy, which is different from freedom of choice. Freedom of choice is a freedom to own, to trade and to enjoy the pleasures of life. While freedom of autonomy is the ability of our human spirit to act spontaneously. 2 It is in this spontaneity that our ability to love and become good persons lies. This brings us to another very important aspect of the school. The school, providing the situation of together-ness, is the ‘arena’ where two or more generations meet, and sometimes clash, as generations. Therefore, we need to find, if not a mechanism, then a middle ground to bridge the gap between the two generations. The teacher (understood as both school teacher and university professor), who traditionally, represents the older generation (even though we see exceptions at university level), plays a specific role. She represents the social order, and thus, she has a responsibility to be a guardian of the social rules that we all obey in our daily lives and which are applied on a mini scale within the school.
6
Why Should We Go to School?
______________________________________________________________ To ensure that the adults in the school will play the role of guardians of the social order successfully, they need to go through either a special pedagogical training, or in the case of university professors, through ‘informal’ pedagogical training in the sense of having taught a few university courses as a part of their PhD degree. Pedagogical education, by definition, emphasizes not only the rational side of the process of teaching and learning but also its emotional side. On the one hand, the teacher should be able to understand, interpret and enforce the rules. On the other hand, she should be able to put herself in someone else’s shoes, to sympathize and empathize with someone else’s situation. It is through this ability of the teacher to successfully apply both the rational and the emotional side of education that the gap between the generations that co-exist in the school arena, is bridged. And it is precisely through the ability of the teacher to reconcile the rational and the emotional side that the attention is given to the person that is acquiring knowledge and not to the institution that provides the facilities for education, or the corporation that will benefit from the knowledge of the student afterwards. Unfortunately, it seems that the higher we go in our educational endeavours, the more the rational side of our training is stressed. As a matter of fact, I think that we lose the emotional side of education and everything that comes with it completely at university level. There is a growing tendency among Canadian universities to treat their students as ‘clients,’ which combined with the growing sizes of classes (I have on a regular basis 200+ first year philosophy classes!), and the need to use multimedia when lecturing which stems from it, makes it very difficult for the teacher to put a face to the student’s name, let alone be able to create an environment of a dialogue. Thus, instead of being concerned with teaching itself, a contemporary teacher is worried about things like crowd-control, computer failure, finishing on time, and keeping up with the new techniques of teaching that her employer, the university, and her clients, the students, demand from her. What I think students at all levels of education should always be in touch with is their inner lives, as well as, what we call, reality. Knowledge of one’s inner life is accomplished by nourishing the inner vitality that all young people seem to possess naturally. It is through this inner vitality that the aforementioned spontaneity comes into being. It seems to me, however, that one of the outcomes of our contemporary education is the erosion of this spontaneity or curiosity of our human spirit. Let us consider for a moment how the traditional education system is structured. We begin our lives in education in the daycare and/or kindergarten. What is obvious to me is that we view daycare and kindergarten programs as a prelude to something bigger and better. Junior and senior kindergarten programs play the role of ‘entrees’ or corridors to the school proper. Now, let us put ourselves in the shoes of a young person who goes to daycare and/or
Iva Apostolova
7
______________________________________________________________ kindergarten. It is very difficult to imagine that anyone, let alone a young child, would like to spend a few years of her life in the corridor before being admitted to the main hall (grade one of school proper). What is even more unpleasant is the fact that, after being admitted to grade one of school proper, it is explained to the young person that elementary school is only a prelude, an ‘entree,’ a waiting room that leads to middle school, which in turn, leads to high school. After high school comes either college or university. What comes after post-secondary education is, as we, PhD students, often refer to it ironically, real life. In other words, every year of schooling that the young person takes is only a prelude to real life. The absurdity of the situation comes from the fact that living the real life is always replaced by precluding, waiting and preparing for it. Is it not, then, understandable that some young people, tired of all the waiting and fake main halls, decide to enter real life not through the main door of high school, college or university, but through the back doors of dropping out of school? And is it so strange that so many first year university students, who have been through all the corridors and waiting rooms of real life, have lost not only their spontaneity and curiosity to life, but have also lost their touch with reality? Both questions are rhetorical. It seems to me that if children need to be prepared for anything before entering the school system, it is for encountering all its defects and failures that go all the way up to the university. While school is supposed to play a mediating role between ‘yesterday’ and ‘tomorrow’ preserving the best of human experience and keeping the hope for a better future alive, what happens in practice is that while at school we lose the ‘today’ in waiting for what happens after we finish the next grade, or apply for the next degree. The real question is, is there anything that can be done to change the way things are? An alternative is offered by the program Philosophy for Children. Originally, the program has generated its ideas from the philosophy of the American pragmatist, John Dewey. Even though it is designed to imitate the free playful spirit of the kindergarten rather than the rigid and hierarchical structure of the school, it is not a program that is especially designed for children. The methodology of Philosophy for Children is widely usable in philosophy, philosophy of education, and a variety of pedagogical disciplines. The message a Philosophy for Children instructor wants to send out is that we are gathered in this given place and time in order to spend some time together, to hear what the other person has to say, and to learn something new about the other participants, as well as ourselves. Philosophy for Children does not deny the use of different techniques to achieve its goal. The difference with the conventional education system is that Philosophy for Children promotes philosophical techniques. The first goal of Philosophy for Children program is to teach us how to create
8
Why Should We Go to School?
______________________________________________________________ the sense of a community of inquiry. In other words, the goal is to find a solution to a given problem, using the tools of philosophy. And philosophy is understood as acting, rather than contemplating. The tools that philosophy has to offer are countless. In a philosophical discussion we use arguments, and concepts; we clarify definitions; we explain and create theories; we use irony to make a point, or we doubt everything, including our own existence. The solution that the community of inquiry is supposed to reach is never predetermined, as it is in the case of a conventional class. What is even more important is that in a Philosophy for Children class, it is not expected that the discussion of the problem will end with a moral, or even a positive outcome of some sorts. The most important outcome of any philosophy discussion is the moving forward through realization of one’s own mistakes. Mistakes are understood as logical fallacies, argumentative weaknesses, or false beliefs. In other words, Philosophy for Children considers mistakes to be, perhaps, the most important elements of a discussion. We believe that no positive outcome or a solution of a problem can be reached unless there is at least one mistake made along the way. What we hope to achieve within the community of inquiry is spontaneity in learning, and in doing things, in general. One of the many values of spontaneous learning is that it is ‘absorbed’ quickly by the student. Once it is internalised, it is almost immediately set in action and we can see the practical benefits of our philosophical discussions. The goal is to make the students put themselves, as much as possible, in the shoes of their peer, or teacher, even all living organisms and try to understand how we should treat them, and why. Another thing the teacher is hoping to achieve is make his students reach the important questions and/or conclusions about the topic themselves, and not just repeat what they have heard on TV, at home, or in school. This way, the knowledge that they have gathered in this class will be their knowledge and not a textbook, or another mandatory external source, knowledge. We believe that this way knowledge is internalised much more easily by the students, and the feeling of satisfaction after a well done job is there to reward them for their efforts. Which, we hope, will not only motivate them to identify what interests them the most and encourage them to dig deeper, but will also help them stay in touch with reality at all times. If our audience thinks that I am suggesting that Philosophy for Children program has to replace the traditional education system at the level of elementary, middle, and secondary school, she is mistaken. I fully understand that science, math, and grammar classes are very important for our general knowledge of the world, and for building theoretical as well as purely practical skills. Philosophy for Children program does not have the ambition to replace the traditional school curriculum or methodology. What Philosophy for Children program is trying to do is only to add new elements to the already existing school methodology, so that when students come out
Iva Apostolova
9
______________________________________________________________ of high school and continue to post-secondary education, they are not ‘in the dark’ as to how to identify a moral dilemma when they encounter one, and respond to it adequately. If we want to understand how the education system works, from the lowest to the highest level, we have to broaden our view of what the institution of school is and how the process of educating the young works. We, as instructors, have to always keep in mind that what lies at the bottom of every human experience is curiosity and spontaneity. If we look at human experience as a result of humans’ natural ability to be curious about the world, then our understanding of education will change, too. Education could and should, in fact, mean discussing, listening, agreeing, disagreeing, challenging each other, and learning from each other. One possible answer to the question ‘why should we go to school?’ is, ‘so that we know’. Know what we want and why we want it, know how to become good persons.
Notes 1
J Maritain, Education at the Crossroads, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1960, pp. 22-31. 2 J Maritain, Freedom in the Modern World, Gordian Press Inc., New York, 1977.
Bibliography Maritain, J., Education at the Crossroads. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1960. ______
. Freedom in the Modern World. Gordian Press Inc., New York, 1977.
Developing a New Curriculum: Chartered Street or Valley Wild? Karen Gomoluch and Gill Whittaker Abstract The chapter discusses the development of a common ‘philosophy’ agreed upon by academic staff in the Education department of an English university, and examines whether this philosophy can be maintained whilst lecturers are involved in the complex process of developing a curriculum for postcompulsory initial teacher training. 1 Currently, the latter is subject to the particular demands and constraints imposed by various external agencies. Data analysis suggests that the external restrictions placed upon the group have resulted in a strengthening of the relationship between creativity, autonomy and confidence. This prompted the examination of the idea that conformity can co-exist with creativity in teaching and learning, although in this case study the latter appears to be of a more ‘subversive’ and individual kind. There is also a more complex and interesting relationship between individual and collective growth and the capacity for creativity: why did the group feel it necessary to develop the ‘philosophy’ when they did, and how could it continue to foster creativity in teaching and learning? It appears that the opportunity for creativity, in this instance at least, came about through cooperation and shared needs, in the face of increasing bureaucracy, managerialism and loss of autonomy within the HE sector. Key Words: Creativity, conformity, philosophy, Community of Enquiry. ***** 1.
The Chartered Streets The chartered streets within which the education of teachers takes place are planned, built and inspected by various agencies external to the university. The streets are carefully maintained by the university educators of these teachers, and this maintenance is currently scrutinised in a manner and to an extent which increases steadily and inexorably. The development of the streets of teacher education has increased significantly over the last decade, which has witnessed: …the introduction of significant policies aimed at regulating the recruitment, training and professional development of teachers in England …in all phases of education [who] have recently faced increased
12
Developing a New Curriculum
______________________________________________________________ requirements to be accountable to others, to deliver achievement and quality in measurable forms and to submit their work to scrutiny. 2 The university in this case study has been particularly affected by the changes to the education of teachers who train in the post-compulsory sector. Prior to 2001, choices concerning curriculum and assessment of these student teachers lay with the academics: it was indeed a ‘valley wild,’ the ‘secret garden’ of the curriculum. There was no prescription, professional standards or even any formal requirement for teachers in further and adult education to possess a formal teaching qualification. This changed in 2001 when the latter requirement was introduced. A new national lead body was established. The Further Education National Training Organisation (FENTO) assumed responsibility for the development and quality assurance of national standards for teachers in further education. These standards were ‘mapped’ against the teacher education curriculum. Whether the map was a guide around these increasingly policed streets, or a barrier, was initially uncertain. The policing continued in the forms of the Quality Assurance Agency, and latterly, the Office for Standards in Education. The streets were becoming crowded, not only by Evans’s ‘bureaucratic Rottweilers’3 but they were also being redesigned. Narrower, with higher walls, and more exacting measurements. Lecturers and students were getting lost within the maze of performance indicators, standards frameworks, subject specifications, professional standards. Not only were they losing their way, they were forgetting how to think. Whilst the street maps proliferated, creativity was restrained by Blake’s ‘mind-forged manacles’. 2.
From the Streets Into the Valley The increasing bureaucracy, managerialism and loss of autonomy within all sectors of the UK’s education system continue to be major areas of discussion. A growing recognition of their situation prompted the academic staff in this case study to think carefully about a means by which they could maintain creativity in all areas of their work at the same time as navigate the ever-changing streets. The means was the evolution of an agreed ‘philosophy’. This was achieved through a series of educational development sessions. Macdonald distinguishes between staff development and educational development, the latter involving a more holistic approach rather than implying ‘…workshops and trainer-led content…’ 4 The ideas which emerged were written down, after protracted discussion, as a description of the ideas and values considered central to the work of the educators and their students. There was much debate over terms like ‘teaching’ and ‘training,’ discussed against the current imperative of ‘professional prescription;’5
Karen Gomoluch and Gill Whittaker
13
______________________________________________________________ however there was unanimous agreement that continuing professional development for both educators and students in the department should be: …a matter of education as well as training - serving precisely to equip teachers with an independent, confident and critical voice in the wider ethical and political conversation about the ultimate moral and social purposes of education.’6 This description, or ‘philosophy,’ could perhaps lead the way out of the streets and into the valley, thus providing us with a different kind of map. 3.
The Journey: Maps and the Carnivalesque Originally our interest lay in the exploration of how (or if) the development of the common philosophy would be able to shape responses to outside pressures, and how (or if) it could influence the ways in which the department works. The key question remains: can critical and creative thinking continue when faced by frameworks which are externally prescribed and regulated? The discussion of this question follows later in this chapter, and is based on discourse analysis of semi-structured interviews and a survey of academic colleagues. Our analysis will suggest that lecturers respond quite differently to the increasing prescription and regulation of, in this case study, the teacher training curriculum, and we identify three broad categories into which these responses fall. However, we also reflect upon the idea that, paradoxically, it is these same external restrictions which resulted in a strengthening of the relationship between creativity, autonomy and confidence, made tangible through the ‘philosophy’. We will examine the reasons why the group felt the need to develop the philosophy when they did, before we discuss the data analysis. In this case study at least, it appears that the opportunity for creativity and critical thought has developed through cooperation and shared, as opposed to individual, needs. These needs are expressed within a context of anxiety concerning academic professionalism, identity, autonomy, and the demand for internal and external accountability. The latter creates time restraints and can be a barrier to developing what Helsby terms a ‘culture of collegiality.’7 One lecturer observed: …there was a time when we did have regular times together. [The philosophy is] coming out of desperation… we are disparate and desperate. Who are we working with? Who are we? Common identity has come about because of one or two people who take it seriously enough.
14
Developing a New Curriculum
______________________________________________________________ This view was echoed by another respondent who also reflected on past times: In the past we had an inclusive approach - but I don’t see any alternative. The freedom that we had before when we were not on the government’s radar. People were concerned in the past about maintaining what we had before. Now there is very little opportunity to do anything beyond the parameters that have been set. On a superficial level these commentators could be accused of reminiscing about a golden age: singing a ‘lengthy hymn to the departed university.’8 Evans, however, points out that the past should not be invoked ‘as an attack on the present’ but urges us to consider the present as a ‘distortion of the values of the academy… a shift from a collective world in which independent and critical thought was valued, to a collective world in which universities are expected to fulfil not these values but those of the marketplace and the economy.’9 The lecturers quoted here are examining this shift, and are now trying to understand how they have wandered from the valley to find themselves in the chartered streets of teacher education. But on a positive note, these wanderings have resulted in the creation of a common identity that could prove to be an effective map within the streets. The individual can utilise this map in the way most suited to their particular response to the streets, depending on whether they are a ‘map follower,’ a ‘map-maker,’ or a ‘circumventer’: terms which we will discuss later. The theme of ‘common identity’ is apparent in much of the discourse. When phrases such as ‘collegial manner,’ ‘collective approach,’ ‘democratic process,’ ‘unifying effect,’ ‘brought the department together,’ are considered together with one interviewee’s observation that he adopts a ‘subversive approach’ in the classroom, the discourse becomes that of the carnivalesque. Atkinson makes some wry observations about responses to government initiatives in staff meetings, adding, ‘Maybe laughing would be a good start. Maybe a bit of Carnival is what we need.’ 10 Carnivalesque is ‘collective in feeling and popular…and questioning of authority’ 11 and we suggest that the group felt both of these needs: to develop a common identity, and to offer some resistance to governmental discourses of policy and accountability. The result was the philosophical statement, although respondents differed in their ideas as to whether the philosophy would be resilient in the face of what one lecturer termed ‘an unstoppable steam roller whose direction can only marginally be influenced by us.’ As discussed above, attitudes differ according to which ‘response category’ lecturers fall into: the map-makers see the philosophy as a ‘creative pedagogy of resistance’12 which could have some influence over the design of the
Karen Gomoluch and Gill Whittaker
15
______________________________________________________________ chartered streets. ‘Hopefully our statement will challenge this narrow notion/definition of education’ was a comment on one questionnaire. However, our research shows that there is a pressing need to reclaim academic autonomy. Autonomy is generally accepted as one aspect of teacher professionalism, and Robson comments that ‘[t]he concept of autonomy has a particular salience amongst university teachers.’ 13 In our case study, one respondent refers to the erosion of autonomy and another describes herself as creative but not autonomous. This loss of control over the curriculum design of post-compulsory teacher education can be considered in the context of Ball’s ‘policy technologies:’14 …policy technologies can be examined in … relation to the way in which they overtly influence the manner in which curriculum development is carried out, teaching styles are chosen, learning outcomes are linked to assessment and so on. Second, they can be examined in relation to the way in which they covertly influence the thinking, attitudes and values, in short, the professional identity and practice style, of all those involved in education. 15 It is the latter examination which is of interest to this case study, as it seems that the need to reflect upon and develop both an individual and a group ‘professional identity’ in response to the restrictions imposed by the ‘policy technologies’ has, at least in the early stages of this research, been fulfilled. We will now examine how we feel the philosophy could continue to foster creativity in teaching and learning, with reference to the particular contextual factors which Helsby considers are key in determining creative responses to policy implementation: ‘the most significant of these are teachers’ professional confidence, the availability of both space and time for reflection and a strong culture of collegiality.’ 16 4. Professional Confidence: Using the Maps Differently As discussed earlier, our data suggests that lecturers respond differently to the increasingly prescribed curricula for post-compulsory teacher training. However, within that spectrum we have identified three broad responsive categories which resonate with our earlier discussion about ‘maps’. Interviews show that there are those who consider the prescriptive nature of their work to be generally positive; a tighter structure, rather than being restrictive, is seen as providing a secure framework within which one may be confident about individual creativity in the form of improvisation, while maintaining overall fidelity to the given curriculum: these, we call the ‘map followers’. On the other hand, there are those who feel that HE should have a more fundamental role in deciding how teachers should be trained. Their
16
Developing a New Curriculum
______________________________________________________________ concern and their creativity are around influencing and shaping policy. We call these the ‘map-makers’. Finally, we have the ‘circumventers’ who acknowledge the need for maps, yet give them scant regard. ‘Circumventers’ appear to use the map as a rough guide to which they may refer from time to time. It seems that circumventers gain satisfaction by straying from the path or by allowing the terrain to dictate their pace and approach, while maintaining a distant eye on the final destination. These three categories: map-makers, map followers and circumventers, sit well with Boden’s approaches to creativity. According to Boden, combinational creativity uses old ideas in unexpected or unfamiliar ways. This type of creativity needs a ‘rich source of old ideas’ 17 and equates to our category of ‘circumventers’. Exploratory creativity, on the other hand, appears to be related to tinkering or improvising with an existing set of rules - an approach that we associate with ‘map followers,’ whereas transformational creativity involves a more fundamental change to the rules and would sit well with our ‘map-makers’. Weick suggests that ‘maps’ help people to make sense of puzzles and dilemmas.18 Indeed, Weick suggests that even if a map is unsuitable, it may, nevertheless, provide security and direction. So, perhaps map following and the more tentative nature of exploratory creativity may be associated with feelings of apprehension and insecurity. 19 We might assume that map followers are uncomfortable with ambiguity, whereas circumventers are more confident or familiar with the subject area and in their interpretation of curriculum content. Also, paying scant regard to policy implementation may help to reduce tension, since change, and thus stress, is avoided. Paradoxically, however, a strict adherence to policy may also be a strategy for stress-reduction, since one has the security of doing what is being asked. It is likely that circumventers fall into the former category and map-followers will be found in the latter. While in the past there has been a tolerance of differences, the development of a shared philosophy may have been precipitated by a growing concern that forthcoming changes have the potential to create fissures which would weaken our collective ability to deal with the stresses that policy change may bring. Helsby’s call for a ‘strong culture of collegiality’ was, perhaps, being anticipated. 5.
Culture of Collegiality: Using the Maps Together Trowler’s research into academic life in a new university may shed some light on our analysis. 20 In his exploration of responses to policy change, Trowler concluded that, rather than ‘vision’ being exposed from the top, it is more productive to have ‘…a shared vision …that attracts broad commitment because it reflects the personal vision of those involved.’ 21 Trowler refers to this as ‘ownership,’ which he says, ‘is mercurial in character and understanding [and] is almost always fuzzy initially’. Given that our
Karen Gomoluch and Gill Whittaker
17
______________________________________________________________ philosophy is also, intentionally, fuzzy, we can see that this is not likely to have the same appeal as the ordered nature of well specified criteria. Furthermore, ownership is also dependent upon opportunity for collective thought. All interviewees were positive about the educational development sessions; they had had a ‘feel-good-factor’. However, as one interviewee commented, they were more in the form of therapy, rather than having any real connection with operational matters. Broadly speaking, it seems that circumventers enjoyed the philosophical developments because of the latter’s ‘fuzzy’ status, whereas map-followers enjoyed the social get-together, the feeling of carnival, but did not feel that the philosophy would have any real impact on policy implementation. Brown suggests that creativity is aligned with opportunity and ability for critical thought. ‘If we become governed by the rules of academic disciplines or by the emphasis on innumerable skills or criteria of thought,’ Brown suggests, then critical thinking and, hence, creativity may be stilted. 22 Critical thinking is ‘inherently communicative’23 and relies on ‘an emergent collective wisdom that may influence … ideas and beliefs.’24 Helsby cites an example of an episode in educational history when a new educational initiative (TVEI, Technical and Vocational Initiative - designed to encourage a more positive response to vocational education for post-16 school children) was proposed by government. In contrast to our impending competencebased and finely tuned policy, Helsby describes a policy that was proposed, but had only vague outcomes and few criteria. Emerging from this came a ‘heady atmosphere of grassroots creativity,’ 25 characterised by innovative approaches to teaching and learning, increased co-operation across and between institutions and, suggests Helsby, hierarchical power and control appearing to move downwards into the schools and colleges. After a short period of ‘openness and professional creativity’ came the introduction of a new qualification framework (National Vocational Qualifications), which were considerably more authoritarian and conformist in terms of pedagogic interpretation and thus eliminated the need and opportunity for collegiality and co-operation. Some members of the department were concerned, not only about the tenor of the forthcoming teacher training course, encapsulated by one respondent as ‘competency-led drivel’ from which ‘there’s no escape,’ but there was also concern about ‘lack of time’ or ‘reduced opportunity for collaboration,’ without which the aforementioned ‘unstoppable steam roller’ would result in the values of our philosophical statement ‘withering away’ or becoming a statement that would simply ‘collect dust’. There appears to be contrasting views about the need and purpose of a collectivist approach. Some respondents felt that the development days had been important - but only in a social sense. The sessions were regarded as a ‘bubble of enthusiasm’ in the carnivalesque sense: but the opportunity for change and
18
Developing a New Curriculum
______________________________________________________________ challenge was temporary, not permanent. However, other respondents saw the days as something more fundamental: a ‘cornerstone for all our discussions and a starting point [for our] community of enquiry’. Broadly, it seems that circumventers saw the purpose of the development meetings as establishing shared values on which they could move forward. An important aspect of this, expressed by circumventers, is that the collectivism continues, whereas map followers felt that although the development days were useful in maintaining departmental contact, the sessions were viewed as alongside the development of the new course, rather than being either fundamental to the way we work with the new specifications or necessary for guiding the way through which the new course would be interpreted. It seems that map followers see the philosophy as ‘outside’ the operational work of the department whereas circumventers wish to see the philosophy as central to the way we plan and implement policy. For circumventers, collectivism appears to be more necessary. Their need for a ‘consensual vision for the future’26 requires opportunity to experiment and reflect in a collective sense, which also equates with Helsby’s factors for creativity, which are ‘space and time.’27 6.
Space and Time: Thinking About the Maps Several respondents expressed surprise that management had allowed time to be given to the development days. We have already noted that, over recent years, changes in management, course structure, timetabling and accommodation have all conspired to reduce opportunity for staff to engage in either casual or formal social settings. As new members of staff arrive, therefore, it is increasingly difficult for them to learn from the social situation since they are denied opportunities for gradually being absorbed into the cultural milieu of the department.28 We could suggest that, without reference to this type of social, cultural map, some new staff members will focus on the more reliable and predictable map provided by prescribed curricula and there will be a shift towards individualism which ‘implies that judgement, reasoning and causal inference are generally toward the person rather than the situation or social context.’29 There appears to be a paradox arising from our data; we see that map followers are tending to be more individualistic - a characteristic that we may have expected from circumventers. However, as Oyserman points out, 30 individualism suggests that one may stand aside from the social milieu, whereas collectivism implies that groups and group harmony are important and strength comes from the social context. Responses from circumventers would lead us to believe that continuity of ‘philosophy’ meetings is for them of greater consequence than it is for map followers. In other words, collectivism may support combinational creativity, whereas exploratory creativity is more likely to be a feature of an individualistic culture.
Karen Gomoluch and Gill Whittaker
19
______________________________________________________________ Esquivel and Hodes suggest that we are facing a ‘slump’ which is characterised by ‘a decrease in originality, concurrent with an increase toward conformity of thought.’31 Our prediction is less pessimistic. Our case study indicates that creativity will continue, but it will be of an exploratory nature: ventures from the streets into the park perhaps, or explorations of side streets which are, nevertheless, well chartered. In the absence of a collective culture, combinational creativity will become more difficult and transformational creativity will be impossible. Combinational and transformational creativity need the confidence and collectivity for critical thinking, and critical thinking needs imagination - which can be used as ‘a resource to expel dominant ideology.’32 Interviews with map-makers reveal that they have recognised the inevitability of a future which restricts their independence and creativity and have determined to turn their attention to creating maps for different courses. There is a belief that it will not be in our interest to follow maps and this work must be devolved to other sectors. Map makers are searching for uncharted and more challenging terrain in which to plan academic routes. E.F. Schumacher in his Guide for the Perplexed warns of the unreliable nature of both real and philosophical maps. Schumacher maintains that throughout his school and university life he was given ‘maps of life and knowledge on which there was hardly a trace of many things I most cared about and that seemed to me to be of the greatest possible importance for the conduct of my life.’ 33 The establishment of our philosophical statement has encapsulated the values that we most care about and articulates what we consider to be most important. Key words in this statement are creativity and community of enquiry. Our data suggest strong links between these two but without the latter we feel that creativity may continue - but it will remain within chartered street rather than valley wild.
Notes 1
W Blake, The Complete Poems, Penguin, London, 1977, p. 104. B Bailey and J Robson, ‘Changing Teachers: A Critical Review of Recent Policies Affecting the Professional Training and Qualifications of Teachers in Schools, Colleges and Universities in England’, Journal of Vocational Education and Training, vol. 54, no. 3, 2002, pp. 325-342. 3 M Evans, Killing Thinking: The Death of the Universities, Continuum, London, 2004, p.3. 4 R Macdonald, ‘Educational Development: Research, Evaluation and Changing Practice in Higher Education’, in R. Macdonald and J. Wisdom, (eds), Academic and Educational Development, Kogan Page, London, 2002, p. 3. 5 D Carr, ‘Professional and Personal Values and Virtues in Education and 2
20
Developing a New Curriculum
______________________________________________________________ Teaching’, Oxford Review of Education, vol. 32, no. 2, May 2006, p.175. 6 ibid., p. 176. 7 G. Helsby, ‘Creating the Autonomous Professional or the Trained Technician? Current Directions in In-service Teacher Support’, Evaluation and Research in Education, vol. 7, no. 2, 1993. 8 Evans, p. 2. 9 ibid, p. 3. 10 E Atkinson, ‘Education, Postmodernism and the Organization of Consent’, in J. Satterthwaite, E. Atkinson and K. Gale (eds), Discourse, Power and Resistance: Challenging the Rhetoric of Contemporary Education, Trentham Books, Stoke on Trent, 2003, p. 5. 11 R Selden, (ed.), Practising Theory and Reading Literature, Harvester Wheatsheaf, London, 1989, p. 167. 12 K Gale, ‘Creative Pedagogies of Resistance in Post Compulsory (teacher) Education’, in J. Satterthwaite, E. Atkinson and K. Gale (eds) Discourse, Power and Resistance: Challenging the Rhetoric of Contemporary Education, Trentham Books, Stoke on Trent, 2003, p. 165. 13 J Robson, Teacher Professionalism in Further and Higher Education, Routledge, London, 2006, p. 12. 14 S Ball, quoted in K Gale, p. 166. 15 ibid, p. 167. 16 Helsby, ‘Creating the Autonomous Professional or the Trained Technician? Current Directions in In-service Teacher Support’, p. 114. 17 M A Boden, ‘Creativity and Knowledge’, in A. Craft, B. Jeffrey, and M. Leibling (eds), Creativity in Education, Continuum, London, 2001, p. 96. 18 C Weick, Sensemaking in Organisations, Sage Publications Ltd., Thousand Oaks, 1995. 19 D Oyserman, ‘High Power, Low Power, and Equality: Culture Beyond Individualism and Collectivism’, Journal of Consumer Psychology, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 353-357. 20 M Trowler, Academics Responding to Change, SRHE and Open University Press, Buckingham, 1998. 21 ibid, p. 154. 22 K Brown, Education, Culture and Critical Thinking, Ashgate Publishing Ltd. Aldershot, 1998, p. 38. 23 S Brookfield, The Power of Critical Theory for Adult Learning and Teaching, Open University Press, Maidenhead, 2005, p. 250. 24 P J Palmer, The Courage to Teach, Jossey-Bass Inc., San Francisco, 1998, p. 76. 25 Helsby, ‘Creating the Autonomous Professional or the Trained Technician? Current Directions in In-service Teacher Support’, p. 80. 26 Trowler, p. 154.
Karen Gomoluch and Gill Whittaker
21
______________________________________________________________ 27
Helsby, ‘Creating the Autonomous Professional or the Trained Technician? Current Directions in In-service Teacher Support’, p. 144. 28 J Lave and E Wenger, Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1991. 29 Oyserman, p. 354. 30 ibid. 31 G B Esquivel and T G Hodes, ‘Creativity, Development and Personality’ in J Houtz (ed), The Educational Psychology of Creativity, Hampton Press Inc., New Jersey, 2003. 32 I Shor and P Freire, A Pedagogy for Liberation, Bergin and Garvey, New York, 1987, p. 185. 33 E F Schumacher, Guide for the Perplexed, Vintage, London, 1997, p. 9.
Bibliography Atkinson, E., ‘Education, Postmodernism and the Organization of Consent’. In J. Satterthwaite, E. Atkinson and K. Gale (eds), Discourse, Power and Resistance: Challenging the Rhetoric of Contemporary Education. Trentham Books, Stoke on Trent, 2003, pp. 3-12. Bailey, B. and Robson J., ‘Changing Teachers: A Critical Review of Recent Policies Affecting the Professional Training and Qualifications of Teachers in Schools, Colleges and Universities in England’. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, vol. 54, no. 3, 2002, pp. 325-341. Blake, W., The Complete Poems. Penguin, London, 1977. Boden, M. A., ‘Creativity and Knowledge’. In A. Craft, B. Jeffrey and M. Leibling (eds), Creativity in Education. Continuum, London, 2001. Brookfield, S., The Power of Critical Theory for Adult Learning and Teaching. Open University Press, Maidenhead, 2005. Brown, K., Education, Culture and Critical Thinking. Ashgate Publishing Ltd., Aldershot, 1998. Carr, D., ‘Professional and Personal Values and Virtues in Education and Teaching’. Oxford Review of Education, vol. 32, no. 2, May 2006, pp. 171183.
22
Developing a New Curriculum
______________________________________________________________ Esquivel, G. B. and Hodes T. G., ‘Creativity, Development and Personality’. In J. Houtz (ed), The Educational Psychology of Creativity. Hampton Press Inc., New Jersey, 2003. Evans, M., Killing Thinking: The Death of the Universities. Continuum, London, 2004. Gale, K., ‘Creative Pedagogies of Resistance in Post Compulsory (Teacher) Education’. In J. Satterthwaite, E. Atkinson and K. Gale (eds), Discourse, Power and Resistance: Challenging the Rhetoric of Contemporary Education. Trentham Books, Stoke on Trent, 2003. Helsby, G., ‘Creating the Autonomous Professional or the Trained Technician? Current Directions in In-service Teacher Support’. Evaluation and Research in Education, vol. 7, no. 2, 1993, pp. 65-82. Helsby, G., Changing Teachers’ Work. OU Press, Buckingham, 1999. Huberman, M., ‘Professional Careers and Professional Development’. In T. R. Guskey and M. Huberman (eds), Professional Development in Education. Teachers College Press, New York, 1995, pp. 193-224. Lave, J. and Wenger E., Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991. Leach, J., ‘A Hundred Possibilities: Creativity, Community and ICT’. In A. Craft, B. Jeffrey and M. Leibling (eds), Creativity in Education. Continuum, London, 2001, pp. 175-194. Lucas, B., ‘Creative Teaching, Teaching Creatively and Creative Learning’. In A. Craft, B. Jeffrey and M. Leibling (eds), Creativity in Education. Continuum, London, 2001, pp. 35-44. Macdonald, R., ‘Educational Development: Research, Evaluation and Changing Practice in Higher Education’. In R. Macdonald and J. Wisdom (eds), Academic and Educational Development. Kogan Page, London, 2002, pp. 3-14. Nolan, V., ‘Educating a Nation of Innovators’. In V. Nolan (ed), Creative Education. Synectics Education Initiative, Buckingham, 2000.
Karen Gomoluch and Gill Whittaker
23
______________________________________________________________ Oyserman, D., ‘High Power, Low Power, and Equality: Culture Beyond Individualism and Collectivism’. Journal of Consumer Psychology, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 353-357. Palmer, P. J., The Courage to Teach. Jossey-Bass Inc., San Francisco, 1998. Price, G. M., Weaver, W. T. and Logan-Price, K., ‘Liberating Creative Potential’. In Nolan, V. (ed.) Creative Education. Synectics Education Initiative, Buckingham, 2000. Robson, J., Teacher Professionalism in Further and Higher Education. Routledge, London, 2006. Schumacher, E. F., Guide for the Perplexed. Vintage, London, 1997. Selden, R., (ed) Practising Theory and Reading Literature. Harvester Wheatsheaf, London, 1989. Shor, I. and Freire P., A Pedagogy for Liberation. Bergin and Garvey, New York, 1987. Trowler, M., Academics Responding to Change. SRHE and Open University Press, Buckingham, 1998. Weick, C., Sensemaking in Organisations. Sage Publications Ltd, Thousand Oaks, 1995.
Questioning The Idea of the University Sanja Petkovska Abstract Since the educational reforms of the XX and XXI centuries, the University has promoted the pursuit of ‘usable knowledge,’ relating to the men’s struggle for survival in any given setting. 1 The world, transformed by modern technologies, seeks for a different kind of human being. The University, the main purveyor of higher education world-wide, produces them with maximum of effectiveness of educational process. We should remember here that this current idea of the University student is not what it has been in the past and is not related to the ancient idea of the University, neither in Ancient Greece, nor during the Middle Ages. In the book, The Idea of the University, Jaspers reminds us that main purpose of the University is not to solve social and economical problems, even if it can offer opinions related to them. Despite many theories issued about a ‘knowledge society,’ as well as theories on intercultural education, achieving skills such as technical, vocational, artesian skills, and other lifelong learning skills, there has not been much critical analysis done on how this double-bind relationship between society and the University should be solved. The University is meant to fulfil social, economic and often political purposes. Key Words: The University, know-how ideology, independence, knowledge, Bologna Process. ***** During the past few decades, many changes have occurred in the world of higher education. Rarely conceptualised educational practices have been pursued, and all that has happened in the educational system has naturally been conceptualised wholly and completely by the policy creators in the modern world. From the onset of obligatory education in the XVIII century, many of the patterns that normally characterized the presence of higher education of the society in which a particular system of higher education is working, have noticeably changed. Before education was made available to the masses at the primary and secondary levels, the role of the educational system was very different from what its role is today. Each period in history conducted its research and learned according to the notions of the time, thus forming a significant social feature of each particular time period. One such significant social feature of the manner of learning and conducting research during each historical period included the generic
26
Questioning The Idea of the University
______________________________________________________________ placement of ideas and often limited collection of facts for use by a very small sector of the population, usually truth seekers and philosophers, and the political elite. Before the onset of obligatory education in society that came about during the process of industrialization in Europe, the University never before had to question its purpose in society. Continuum in the educational system development has not yet been created, since HE (Higher Education) and other forms of education have developed separately, before compulsory education and before the modern idea of creating one holistic system of education was developed. That continuum never was truly, because HE was proceeding to it, it never was its consequent higher grade in this process. The reasons for the implementation of compulsory education in society was to give the masses the opportunity of literacy and to include a broader section of the population in the political and social-decision making of everyday life. The invention of lower education consequently brought changes into the previous forms of education. This compulsory, elemental, post-collegiate system of education underwent changes and consequently, evolved even further as a system of education based on graduate levels of education. Higher Education is not simply a higher level than other levels of education; its origins are different from primary and secondary, pre-collegiate levels of education. The characteristics of post-obligatory and pre-graduated forms of education are directly related to the modern political and social state and capitalistic economic system. It should also be mentioned that the ancient idea of democracy is closely related to the basic, fundamental idea of education, which is to say that within this democratic system of education, one should have the opportunity to ask questions about the conditions one lives in as a society without any fear of repression, indifference or violent repercussions from authority as long as one asks about the rules of the world we live in a respectful manner. This set of conditions describes what is typically known as the democratic political life system and culture. Unfortunately, this idea of such a system of government has never existed. Higher Education ideally provides a special opportunity for developing specific ideas, and solutions to problems in society, but only it can be treated as a substratum of society. As Jasper points out, societies are obligated to tell its citizens the truth, but the truth is not always something that is easily achieved, especially in the case of a society developed more on the basis of myth than fact. The only social entity that can take legitimacy and power away from the University is the political body and only a democratic political structure can give power and legitimacy to the University. If independent Universities do not exist, how we can we determine the social order we live in?
Sanja Petkovska
27
______________________________________________________________ 1.
Humboldt, Heidegger and ‘Revolutionary University Reforms’ The perfection of the education system, as Humboldt imagined and reformed it, unfortunately, also created the perfect vehicle for fascistic intervention within the higher education system, because his idea of education was closely related to the national state. One of the most prominent figures who related Humboldt’s ideas to Nazism was the German philosopher, Heidegger, the rector of one of Germany’s universities who very nearly became Minister of Education during Hitler’s Fascist regime. Heidegger’s interventions in the education system actually share many traits in common with modern ideas about Higher Education. One of these modern concepts includes the idea that science should be completely subordinated to the public (and/or national) interest. 2 Like the purveyors of the modern system of Higher Education must have been, from interventions Heidegger’s in the education system, it can be inferred that he too was a critic of the incapacity of the previous system of education to output individuals into the work force due the general approach taken by the previous system which was not directly related to everyday life. Heidegger’s speech about the selfconfirmation of the University amazed even Jaspers, who wrote his book on the very same topic, though he did not touch upon national-socialistic ideas as Heidegger did. If one is looking to find out about the origin of how the higher education system came to be related to the systems of economy and labour, one should not look to find the answer in Marxism, nor liberalism, nor even in early capitalism. According to Victor Farias, student movements and already established higher educational institutions played a huge role in the spreading of fascist ideas. 3 German experience tells us that at a time when many social changes are taking place, institutions of higher education are the most vulnerable to change along with the state itself, often taking the main role in these changes, even if it is towards a totalitarian direction. In his reflections upon higher education reforms Hromadzic, the author of Bologna Trojan, points out that higher education reforms have played a major role in the integration of the European system, allowing them to achieve a significant role in international policy and foreign relations and to make strong economic liaisons worldwide.4 No activity related to the economy can remain independent of the government. According to Immanuel Kant, only a few disciplines should be delegated to the jurisdiction of the state; all other disciplines should remain independent of the state.5 This proposition, however, is still harmful to the University, for without the support of the state, there is very little chance that the philosophies and the humanities, for example, could gain any sort of prevalence in society even with the strongest of arguments.
28
Questioning The Idea of the University
______________________________________________________________ 2.
The Idea of the University The Idea of the University, a book published in 1949 by Karl Jaspers proposes the astounding idea that ‘universities are places where the ‘consciousness of age should be developed’. 6 Included within this idea of Jasper’s is that the task of pursuing the truth without any hesitation should be done by the University. The truth lies in openly being able to communicate what the public good of society is comprised of, whether this truth is negative or positive to hear. If it can be acknowledged that the ‘accumulation of scientific knowledge can in no way establish any goals for human existence, for it has no knowable set of legitimate values, and therefore can never be fully controlled in any way’.7 Higher education is thus an illustration of a paradoxical substratum of ideas upon which our society is necessarily based, as it can never be controlled nor ever be completely free, however, it is better for society to rely on the system of higher education through which humans would continually seek forth the truth of knowledge for the betterment of society at any cost. Inherent in the quest and purpose of higher education is that its purpose cannot be an internal: self-purpose, nor an external purpose geared towards something else, for its own purpose and task is related to both aspects of education. From Jasper’s point of view, all scientific knowledge is related to knowledge as a whole. On the other hand, we can still consider his approach to the scientific knowledge as a variation of an ideal interdisciplinary point of view which deserves to stand as a long-time goal for education. Students should always be aware of the association of all other disciplines with the scientific knowledge, and consider all knowledge to be related as a whole. The University should be free to announce and call for the questioning of social life without evoking any impeding opposition or arguments. The purpose of a the University within any society is to care for the ideals of equality, the pursuit of knowledge and the pursuit of solidarity with humanity from a position where it can defend and support itself as an independent institution within society and at the same time, related to the society in the specific dialogue. Continually questioning society, questioning the conditions we live in and questioning how these two different perspectives of idealism and realism can be united through the University is one of the best ways to keep creating and transferring knowledge within society. The University, put in charge of this role in society, would approach closer to the ideal role which is prescribed to it in international papers as well as in the ancient description of Greek democracy. The University would serve as a permanent sort of instrument to test the goals of society and see if we are indeed moving in the right direction as a society: the University should become accustomed to giving its opinions about public affairs world wide, comparing them with published ideals and opinions from the side of instrumental governmental officials. The ideas which academia represents aren’t neutral in modern
Sanja Petkovska
29
______________________________________________________________ society, and perhaps, they were ever meant to be as such. The lessons learnt from the history can prove this fact. Not often quoted in educational periodicals, Derrida also announced his ideas about how universities should work in modern society, highlighting the fact that crises which modern societies experience are more than just crises.8 Derrida thinks that the University reserves the right to investigate, pursue and speak the truth as it is about any researched subject in the world. In general, there is no border for critical, I would like to say deconstructive, process at the University - of all presuppositions, all rules, whole axiomatic, and therefore, whole political philosophy, all ideologies, all religious or national dogmas are the same as all economical, social, national and religious powers which are, in one or another way, supported, presented and used.9 The University usually has a function to serve a particular set of social interests, that of finding out the truth about certain situations and finding out as much knowledge as possible about problems which effect our world and the whole of humanity today. The University should not only be permitted, but be obligated to speak openly about any researched topic on earth. In this sense, according to Derrida, an idealistic model of the University needs to be set up where everything about a specific research topic can be said openly with scientific responsibility for the sake of the scientific experiment, and it is necessary as well that the results can be said in public and can be published. This is the only kind of utopia which is the only kind of utopia worth struggling for. Furthermore, the University that holds a position like the one described above is engaged in all social processes, but the locus of control must be in the hands of the University and not in the hands of the state or any other sort of social or political power. The University should admit its ideological nature, and it should start to pursue for the truth, considering the truth as always ideological on some level! Between the formation of the classic the University and the Bologna process from 1999, the protests that occurred in 1968 were a significant event. Protests against hierarchical and inequality based academic and state power structure all over the world occurred on 1968. Even though these effects were global and were for the most part beneficial to society, they have now been almost completely forgotten. However, it was still the greatest success that critical thought ever knew, as its purpose was to treat knowledge as opposite to a product of sale. This movement was started without any support of the state or by The University’s board. It was started by a synchronic movement of the students. The moment after 1968 was simultaneously probably one of the best moments for the autonomy of higher
30
Questioning The Idea of the University
______________________________________________________________ education as well as one of the moments of the lowest rating for the University in terms of being an elitist place for learning, where finding a place in society and the labour world was only meant marginalizing others not high enough on the social scale to attend these elitist places of learning. 3.
Conclusion It seems that the question of the University’s survival is not a question, which depends on the University itself to answer, because the University cannot defend or protect its own basic values. The definition of these values is a question of influence and political power structure, and one of the most relevant references according to this is ancient ideal of truth seeking. The answers to this question should arise from the very essence of order of one society strongly devoted to improve democratic relations in the consistent sense of that word. Only this kind of society can provide conditions of freedom for the University. The current bias against higher education development does not provide a likely environment where the preliminary conditions for the realization of proclaimed goals of educational reforms can be established. Nevertheless, the anticipation that liberal education is a guaranteed provider of broader access to higher education as a paradigm which can easily solve any type of social problem seems quite unreasonable. We must remind ourselves here that neo-liberalism is the current dominant ideology of the world. It is an ideology whose outcomes are totally opposite to all the proclaimed goals and tasks that it has proposed and that have failed in terms of education as all the popular documents such as The Bologna Declaration, Millennium Development Goals and the No Child Left Behind programs in the US prove. In the line of all the seemingly impossible promises made in those documents, of which the promise of education for all is one of them, are also presuppositions that maintain that the mobility of students can provide for the freedom of higher institutions of learning. As a part of the educational system in capitalistic order, higher education cannot be equally accessible for all social groups, because most of them cannot compete with the rich material and cultural resources provided to the select, elite Universities in the world. There is a constant switching of positions in debates upon higher education. The confusion about the purpose of higher education is widespread in universities all over the world. In Serbia, for example, tuition fees for the public the University have constantly been increasing. At this moment, the students have no means of protecting themselves against the rising costs of tuition fees, and fees are increasing at many of the European and American Universities as well. The costs of attending these universities are critically unbalanced with the average incomes and average standard of living of many of the countries of student’s residence who attend these universities. Therefore, the University appears in these circumstances as a
Sanja Petkovska
31
______________________________________________________________ leading capitalist institution, a concept which is totally and utterly absurd. What leads current reforms in HE in the world can be described as Nokkala did: In this study the knowledge society is looked upon as such an ‘economic-political meta-narrative or a ‘dominant rationality’ or ‘regime of truth’ which legitimises certain activities and delegitimises others, constituting and constraining the activities of actors as subjects of government.10 We should remember that the modern University is an institution where diversity and plurality of views is valued. From a current, point of view, the University is closer to re-evoking the national state than it is to capitalizing on the popularity of the plurality’s point of view since it is not the majority but the minority who receive privileges when it comes to higher education and whose lifestyles determine those of the majority population. What has to be done is, very precisely then, is to defend the point of view of the University. Differing points of view within the University first have to be resolved in order to allow for the possibility of the plurality to speak and later, to offer different ideas for living. If this is not the case, the University will certainly stop being a symbol of freedom and resistance to injustice, inequality and ignorance in any social period or environment. If the University ceases to embody these values in our age, it may surely be the end of the University as we know it. What we face now is a society of knowledge entrepreneurship and market-oriented ideas and technology produced under conditions of extreme class struggle where there are many unequal and uneven starting points.
Notes 1
Many thanks to Caroline Mannaerts from Rutgers University for her help in editing this chapter. 2 Z Slobodan, Martin Heidegger and National Socialism, Literacy Association of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, 1992, p. 23 - 40. 3 V Farias, Heidegger and Nazism, Book factory of Zoran Stojanović, Novi Sad, 1994, pp. 80-100. 4 H Hromadžić, Bologna Trojan, H-alter, last time updated: 20. 01. 2007, last time visited at 12. 04. 2008 <Part I - www.h-alter.org/tekst/bolonjski-konj---1.-dio/3936> 5 ibid, Part II. 6 K Jaspers, Die Idee der Universitat, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1946, p. 9.
32
Questioning The Idea of the University
______________________________________________________________ 7
ibid, p. 30. J Derrida, Cosmopolitics, The Columns of Culture, Belgrade, 2002. 9 ibid, p. 73. 10 T Nokkala, Constructing the Ideal University - The Internalization of Higher Education in the Competitive Knowledge Society (Doctoral dissertation), The University Press, Tampere, 2007, p. 68. 8
Bibliography Derrida, J. Cosmopolitics, The Columns of Culture. Belgrade, 2002. Farias, V., Heidegger and Nazism. Publisher book factory of Zoran Stojanović, Novi Sad 1994. Hajrudin, H., ‘Bologna Trojan’. H-alter, <Part I alter.org/tekst/bolonjski-konj---1.-dio/3936> <Part II alter.org/tekst/bolonjski-konj---2.-dio/4021>
www.hwww.h-
Jaspers, K., Die Idee der Universität. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1946. Terhi, N., Constructing the Ideal the University - The Internalization of Higher Education in the Competitive Knowledge Society (Doctoral dissertation), The University Press, Tampere, 2007. Wertz, M., Education and Character: The Classical Curriculum of Wilhelm von Humboldt, The Schiller Institute,
Žunjić, S., Martin Heidegger and National Socialism. Literacy Association of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, 1992.
Teachers’ Knowledge and Teacher Education: Some Reflections Maria Leonor Borges Abstract This chapter addresses the issue of teachers’ professional knowledge and focuses on the importance of teachers’ practical knowledge to their professional development. Teacher knowledge is seen as a sum of different kinds ok knowledge (subject matter, curricular, teacher education, experiential) with diverse sources (institutional biography, life experience, etc) (Tardif, 2002; Day, 1999). This praxeological knowledge, tacitly held and neither rational or explicit and, often, not spoken, emerges as ‘private theory’ that legitimates teacher practices. In this sense, the teacher is regarded as ‘the producer of their ‘own’ profession’ (Nóvoa), the principal agent in their professional development. If we want to improve quality in teacher education the study of the construction and expression of teacher knowledge is one of the main ways with implications on teacher education (pre-service and in-service) that Higher Education can’t ignore. The reflection presented in this chapter reports to an undergoing collaboratively research about primary teachers practical knowledge in Portugal. Key Words: Praxeological Knowledge, teachers’ professional knowledge, teacher education. ***** 1.
Teachers’ Knowledge It is important to raise the question: should teachers be deprived of their role as knowledge builders and be confined to reproducing knowledge within their working environment, as mere third-party instruments? Accepting that teachers are solely limited to the exercise of knowledge reproduction is the same as considering them as machines responsible for applying theories and techniques, originated by scientific and technical knowledge, and denying them their human dimension as acting agents in the knowledge construction process. To this regard, Hargreaves calls our attention to the fact that, as the teaching practice is an activity that deals with people and is characterised by the diversity and variability of teaching settings, the outcomes of such activity cannot be definitely established or anticipated. 1 As teachers carry out their daily work, they need to maintain a strong link between concept and practice, as well as the necessary autonomy to carry out their
34
Teachers’ Knowledge and Teacher Education
______________________________________________________________ teaching/learning activities in teaching environments that are characterised by their complexity and unforeseeable outcomes. A teacher, defined as an acting agent with the capacity to reflect upon and build knowledge, must be a teaching professional with the capacity to create and self-reflect, in order to build knowledge from practice.2 The recognition of practical knowledge is, therefore, crucial in building the new professional identity of the teacher. According to Nóvoa ‘the modern professional culture will inevitably be built on knowledge and powers inherent to teachers.’3 The necessary knowledge to carry out the teaching profession is achieved through practical rationality. Such knowledge is created through and based on the very working process, which requires time and practice. 4 This kind of knowledge expresses the inevitable importance, and subjective dimension of teachers’ knowledge, which also emerges from the specificity of teachers’ work contexts. As highlighted by Perrenoud, 5 real teaching practices are achieved through spontaneous actions or interiorised routines, not from theories or recipes. The need to plan and organise work in the classroom, rooted in the instructive transposition of knowledge to teaching/learning environments, is challenged by the classroom context. Unforeseeable aspects of classroom context and interaction among/with students makes even the most meticulously planned class fall aground, thus forcing the teacher to make use of his teaching habitus and personal characteristics to act, adjust formal and personal knowledge and organise such knowledge according to any given situation. 6 In other words, teachers resort to a whole set of different types of knowledge, based on memory, information and experience, but they also resort to ‘patterns of thinking, interpretation, hypothesis-making, evaluation, anticipation and decisionmaking in order to identify the relevant knowledge, and make the most appropriate selection, combination, extrapolation and differentiation.’ 7 All aspects of this work may occur unconsciously, as teachers may not be aware of the patterns supporting it, in other words, this constitutes implicit knowledge. New knowledge must include objective and subjective characteristics, results of interaction between different types of knowledge and the way in which they are acquired and used by teachers. If, on one hand, knowledge is built on experience, it also depends on the way such knowledge is acquired, selected and interpreted by the teacher, if we clearly assume that teachers are producers in the context of their professional activities. 2.
Experiential Knowledge: Knowledge Produced by Teachers Teachers’ experiential knowledge includes all the knowledge used in their daily activities, within their respective teaching environments: 8 public theoretical knowledge, representations on pedagogical practice and all
Maria Leonor Borges
35
______________________________________________________________ teaching agents involved in educational contexts, personal knowledge acquired through personal and professional life, practical knowledge and capacity to mobilize different types of knowledge. Teachers must be capable of articulating different types of knowledge: a) b)
c)
d)
Professional Training Knowledge - refers to knowledge transmitted by professional training institutions. Disciplinary Knowledge - refers to social knowledge defined by universities and transmitted to teachers in the form of disciplines, in initial and continuing training.9 Curriculum Knowledge - refers to school programmes, through which the school presents social knowledge defined as Culture, in the form of discourses, objectives and methods. Experiential Knowledge - rooted in practical rationality, such knowledge is developed by teachers based on their daily work, personal experience and validation. This type of knowledge is not learnt in training institutions and is not systematised in theory. Practical knowledge (practical knowledge and not of the practice) includes a whole set of representation, which serves as the basis on which teachers analyse, interpret and direct their daily professional activity.
While production and control over the first three types of knowledge is external and unattainable10 to teachers, experiential knowledge is a result of teachers’ analysis, assessment and reflection in and throughout their professional practice, where they assume the principal role in every aspect of knowledge production. This praxeological knowledge is non-systematic, never fully defined and subject to the conditions inherent to any given context. As it is not necessarily based on logical and scientific thinking, teachers’ knowledge does not always hold to objective and conscious rationality, thus part of the knowledge is implicit in the action, in a logics that remains in the unconscious of the individual. If, in certain situations teachers’ actions are in agreement with their thoughts, there are situations where there is no link between thought and action. 11 It is also possible that, having conscience of the décalage between thought and action, teachers may alter their thinking in order to legitimate their actions in certain teaching situations. In other words, teachers do not always know why they act the way they do and are not always aware of everything they do and the reasons why they do it.12 Van der Maren goes even further by stating that praxis can only be elaborated, if practitioners and researchers subject themselves to the rule
36
Teachers’ Knowledge and Teacher Education
______________________________________________________________ that everything that occurs in practice does not necessarily have an explanation, nor does it need to be rational.13 Routines that are built on professional experience clearly illustrate teachers’ implicit knowledge. Such routines constitute knowledge-in-action, the ‘practical conscience, which emerges from experiential knowledge of action transformed in ways of acting, not only prevent teachers from starting from scratch all the time but also enables them to avoid lengthy reflections and manage the complexity of teaching environments. Such routines serve the purpose of controlling situations but also to transform activities in resources to reproduce knowledge, which, with time and experience, defines teachers’ way of being, style and personality. 14 This means that a routine activities rooted in the control of actions and based on learning and temporal acquisition of practical skills, do not depend on voluntary decisions, or choices made by the teacher, but rather on the ‘interiorization of implicit rules of action acquired with and through the experimentation of action.’ 15 The anamnesis of conscious discourse from temporal dimension implies that some teachers’ activities do not depend directly on their professional conscience or, in other words, the explicit knowledge of what they are and do. Thus, teachers’ knowledge holds to a certain objective and rational existence, which may be found in the reasons, discourse, language and argumentation expressed by teachers. They need to be asked why (causes, motives of their discourse or action) and how, as the means at their disposal hold subjacent motives, choices and decisions. But this information is not enough to have access to teachers’ knowledge, insofar as, and as discussed above, the latter are not always aware of this knowledge and, therefore, are unable to express it. Teachers’ knowledge must be studied not only on the basis of discourse but also in terms of know-how, observing and describing their activities in order to draw from their actions the subjacent skills that make it possible. In this line of thought, Van der Maren proposes a critical theorization of daily teaching activities (teaching praxis) resorting to a process of research that uses reflexive analysis of practitioners’ interpretative categories.1617 However, one must always bear in mind that experience alone does not entirely assume a major role in the apprenticeship of ‘being a teacher’ or, in other words, to learn with direct practice may bring experience but does not necessarily translate into knowledge (reflection, critics, systematisation, etc). Moreover, the same experience may have different effects in the process of ‘being a teacher,’ from person to person, whether it is ignored or brings about the construction of knowledge (praxis), which is related to teachers’ personal biography, training (formal and informal) and their particular level of professional development, among other aspects.
Maria Leonor Borges
37
______________________________________________________________ 3.
Objectives of the Study The objectives of the study are:
Identify the processes through which teachers’ experience (practice) becomes knowledge (praxis). Identify what are the teachers’ professional knowledge. Identify the sources of this self-built knowledge. Identify relevant elements to teachers training concepts and practices, in order to stimulate the development of praxeological knowledge in future teachers in training.
4.
Methodology The research is based on the teaching practice epistemology known as ‘the study of a set of all knowledge truly used by professionals in their daily workplace to carry out all tasks.’18 The research seeks to unveil these types of knowledge, how they are fully integrated in teaching activities and how teachers build such knowledge, incorporate, use and transform it when faced with the limitations and resources inherent to their professional activities. It is a collaborative study, as Van der Maren puts it, ‘the praxis can only be elaborated through the dialogue between the searcher and the teacher about their actions.’ The searcher is only a translator. The chosen methodology is qualitative, resorting to direct observation, analysis of documents and materials produced by teachers, and personal interviews. Considering the abovementioned issues and objectives, the study would initially include:
1st Phase - Semi-directive interviews with teachers on the theme ‘How did you learn to be a teacher?’. Objective: isolate variables that intervene in professional knowledge construction. 2nd Phase - Naturalistic observation in the classroom: identify variables that intervene in knowledge construction, taking in consideration the teacher’s professional development level. 3rd Phase - Focused observation assisted by observation tables built from results obtained in previous phases on the following subjects: interaction with pupils, activities developed, materials used. Objective: describe actions carried out by teachers in the different subjects studied, as well as the context in which they occurred. Video-recording of classes. 4th Phase - Mini-interview (recall interview) after observation where researcher and teacher/practitioner analyse what happened
38
Teachers’ Knowledge and Teacher Education
______________________________________________________________ in the classroom and the actions of the latter, previously recorded in video. This study includes the participation of first stage - primary education teachers from several primary schools, in the city of Faro, selected in accordance with a judgement sample and an intentional sample19. These samples include teachers from all age groups with different numbers of years of service and at different professional development levels. 5.
Reflections This ongoing research is at its initial phase, but I would like to share some information/ideas that seem to point the importance of the experience to be a teacher. I chose the words of two teachers, as you can see in Table 1, with different time service and in different development phases. For Maria, the youngest one, what she learns at the School of Education it was not useful to be a teacher. Where did learn how to be a teacher: ‘Then I begin to learn with my older colleagues who were working from a long time’. The importance of experience and the more experienced teachers seem to be very significant in her construction of ‘being a teacher’. And finally she says ‘(…) it begins to be usual to observe the others and put in practice ideas, and to experience/test. If we don’t have good results, we must think, meditate/reflect to understand what was wrong and what we must do to be better. Perhaps, I was wrong about the pupils needs and I went to a wrong way. In this way I’m testing (…)’: she begins to ‘walk by her feet,’ she tries to find the solutions for her problems. For Ana, the older one: ‘there are some things that come from my experience more practical, but that only happen because I have that formation. Probably, if I haven’t that support formation I’ll never remember to find … there is always a mixing.’ For her what she learns in her initial training was important, however she also says ‘and how we do? And how? So we exchange experiences’. We can ask: if we make the same questions twelve years ago would the answer be the same about the importance of initial training? It’s possible that after 22 years of experience she find a link between what she learnt and how she act? She says: ‘it’s the creative part, to create, create the lesson, to connect the things, Oh! ‘Look I can do this way and than…’. Sometimes it happens in the moment.’ Experiences and practice seems to have a great importance for Ana and Maria and for their professional development. What are the processes through which the teachers transform their experience (practice) in knowledge (praxis)? What are the sources of this self-built knowledge? We will try to find an answer.
Maria Leonor Borges
39
______________________________________________________________ Table 1: What the teachers say.
About the Professional Training Knowledge
P1Maria 10 years of service Age: 34 ‘ For me it was too much theory and then in the practice...the theory wasn’t useful (…)’ ‘I think we must spent more time in practical work on schools, to have more practice as student teachers’ ‘(…) what I saw during the four years as student teacher as little do to with what happen outside (…)’
Suggesting Experiential Knowledge
The importance of colleagues with more experience
The importance of practice
‘Then I begin to learn with my older colleagues who were working from a long time.’ ‘ At the time I had a colleague giving me support in the class. This colleague has many years of experience and in that year I learned a lot. (…) One day I was with a problem and she came and told me ‘If you don’t mind I can help you.’
P2 Ana 22 years of service Age: 45 ‘(…) I think there is a certain balance, which is: there are some things that come from my experience more practical, but that only happen because I have that formation. Probably, if I haven’t that support formation I’ll never remember to find … there is always a mixing.’
‘(…) and how we do? And how?… so we exchange experiences. That school was a good place to learn, the practice and the exchange of experiences’
What was more important was ‘much more the experience, and what the others told me.’
40
Teachers’ Knowledge and Teacher Education
______________________________________________________________
Building knowledge (implicit theories)
‘I watch how the others do the things, but I begin to watch not the youngest ones, like me, but the colleagues with more age, and more experience.’
‘(…) it begins to be usual to observe the others and put in practice ideas, and to experience/test. If we don’t have good results, we must think, meditate/reflect to understand what was wrong and what we must do to be better. Perhaps, I was wrong about the pupils needs and I went to a wrong way. In this way I’m testing (…)’
‘One thing is telling, ‘Ah, everything is connected,’ but how to connect? That is intuitive.’ ‘But it’s the creative part, to create, create the lesson, to connect the things, Oh! ‘Look I can do this way and than…’. Sometimes it happens in the moment.’
Notes 1
Cited in A Domingo, Autonomia da classe docente, Porto Editora, Porto, 2003, p.25. 2 M Develay, ‘Por uma nova identidade docente, reconstruída a partir da actividade real da profissão’, in A. Adão and E. Martins (eds), Os Professores: Identidade (RE)construídas. Ed.Lusófonas, Lisboa, 2004. 3 M M Esteves, A investigação enquanto estratégia de formação de professors, Instituto de Inovação Educacional, Lisboa, 2002, p. 69. 4 K Carter, ‘Teachers´ Knowledge and Learning to Teach’, in W R Houston (ed), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education. A Project of the Association of Teacher Educators, McMillan Publishing Company, London, 1991; M Tardif, Saberes docentes e formação profissional, Editora Vozes, Petrópolis, 2002. 5 P Perrenoud, Práticas pedagógicas, profissão docente e formação. Perspectivas sociológicas, Publicações Dom Quixote, Lisboa, 1993.
Maria Leonor Borges
41
______________________________________________________________ 6
ibid. M M Fryxell, Representações dos professores sobre os seus saberes profissionais e sobre a construção desses saberes. Tese de Mestrado: Faculdade de Psicologia e Ciências da Educação, da Universidade de Lisboa, 2003. 8 Tardif. 9 Social knowledge is all the knowledge available to any given society. 10 The notion of exteriority is frequently expressed to devaluate professional training, designated as ‘distant from reality’ and based on abstract theories from universities. 11 Esteves. 12 Tardif; Perrenoud; J M Van der Maren, Méthodes de recherché pour l´éducation, De Boeck, Bruxelles, 1995. 13 Van der Maren. 14 Giddens in. Tardif. 15 Tardif. 16 Van der Maren. 17 Praxis: reflection and conceptualization on practice. 18 Tardif. 19 L Pardal and E Correia, Métodos e técnicas de investigação social, Areal Eds., Porto, 1995. 7
Bibliography Carter, K., ‘Teachers´ Knowledge and Learning to Leach’. In W. R. Houston (Ed), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education. A Project of the Association of Teacher Educators. McMillan Publishing Company, London, 1991, pp. 291-310. Develay, M., ‘Por uma nova identidade docente, reconstruída a partir da actividade real da profissão’. In A. Adão and E. Martins (eds), Os Professores: Identidade (RE)construídas. Ed.Lusófonas, Lisboa, 2004. Domingo, J. C. A., Autonomia da classe docente. Porto Editora, Porto, 2003. Eraut, M., Developing Professional Knowledge and Competence. Falmer Press, London, 1994.
42
Teachers’ Knowledge and Teacher Education
______________________________________________________________ Esteves, M. M., A investigação enquanto estratégia de formação de professores. Instituto de Inovação Educacional, Lisboa, 2002. Fryxell, M. M., Representações dos professores sobre os seus saberes profissionais e sobre a construção desses saberes. Tese de Mestrado: Faculdade de Psicologia e Ciências da Educação, da Universidade de Lisboa, 2003. Nóvoa, A., ‘Formação de professores e profissão docente’. In A. Novoa (ed), Os professores e a sua formação. Lisboa: Dom Quixote, 1992 Pardal, L., Correia E. Métodos e técnicas de investigação social. Areal Eds., Porto, 1995. Perrenoud, P., Práticas pedagógicas, profissão docente e formação. Perspectivas sociológicas. Publicações Dom Quixote, Lisboa, 1993. Tardif, M., Saberes docentes e formação profissional. Editora Vozes, Petrópolis, 2002. Van Der Maren, J. M., Méthodes de recherché pour l´éducation. De Boeck, Bruxelles, 1995.
Separating Learning and Evaluation Mark Dobbins Abstract Learning and evaluation are two very different tasks, so why do most education institutions treat them as one? The classroom is a place of learning, and evaluation can be disruptive to the pure act of learning. Furthermore, an individual may be an excellent teacher but a poor evaluator, and vice versa, so there is no reason for the same person to hold both jobs. Finally, where evaluation is needed at all, it needs to be as fair and objective as possible. How can the need for fair and objective evaluation be served by disparate and subjective evaluators? How many students take a class because the teacher is ‘easy’ regardless of the quality of the education they will receive? This chapter will explore four categories of learning (Knowledge, Logic, Craft, and Art), the subjects which these categories relate to, the means of evaluation that are best suited to each category, and situations in which evaluation may be unnecessary. Testing in the classroom does have the advantage of simultaneously testing the subject matter as well as ‘real-world’ skills, like teamwork and meeting deadlines, so this chapter will also discuss means of evaluating those skills outside of the classroom through apprenticeship and long-term group projects. An understanding of these topics can lead institutions to establish a system of evaluation not integrated with the classroom. Finally, this chapter will briefly explore some of the auxiliary benefits of decoupled evaluation from learning, including: increased ease and practicality of independent study, a natural reduction in cost of education for motivated students, teacher accountability, and a much needed shift in power in favour of the students. Key Words: Higher education, learning, evaluation, standardised tests, knowledge, logic, craft, art. ***** 1.
Two Different Tasks Learning is the act of acquiring new information or skill. Evaluation is determining whether this information or skill has been affectively acquired. These are not the same tasks and yet these two tasks seem inseparable in most institutions of higher education. Is there any reason to believe that a great teacher is automatically and always a great evaluator, or vice versa? Having no means of evaluation is not a viable option as it negates an institution’s responsibility to certify the education its students have received.
44
Separating Learning and Evaluation
______________________________________________________________ Unfortunately evaluation and learning are often in conflict. The sometimes subjective and often wildly different approaches to evaluation that teachers take limit the ability of the institution to certify with any objectivity the competencies of the students. Likewise, evaluation is often criticised for interfering with the pure act of learning, affecting the psyche of the class and often limiting the possibilities of what a teacher can do and how they can teach. However, if we understand that these are two separate tasks then we can treat them as such and we can consider what the best structure and environment is for each as separate entities. If we can do this then we can maintain the purity of learning while meeting the realistic needs of effective evaluation. 2.
Evaluation Structure and Environment In order to examine evaluation as a separate entity from learning, there are some background concepts that need to be examined. For the purposes of this analysis, subject matter can be divided into four categories: Knowledge, Logic, Craft, and Art. There are also practical, ‘real-world,’ skills that do not easily fit the mould of these academic categories of subject matter. It is important to understand that these categories of subject matter are not the same as subjects of study. Subjects of study include the various physical sciences, social sciences, engineering, the arts, and so on. Most subjects of study contain more than one type of subject matter. As each category of subject matter is described, its relationship with some broad subjects of study will be examined. Knowledge is related to facts. Knowledge evaluation has one correct answer or a very limited set of correct answers that the student knows prior to the question being asked. Knowledge evaluation usually takes the form of multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, or short answer. Examples of knowledge include the contents of theories and factual information in the physical and social sciences. Logic is problem solving. Logic evaluation has one or a very limited set of correct answers that the student does not know prior to the problem being posed. Logic evaluation usually takes the form of a problem statement followed by a request to solve the problem. Examples of logic include math problems or applied math problems in mathematics and the physical sciences. Craft is creating a functional product. Craft evaluation almost never has a single correct answer but is instead evaluated on the basis of a clear list of requirements. Craft evaluation usually takes the form of projects or essay questions. Examples of craft include essays on the application or validity of theories for social sciences, design and implementation projects for engineering, and technical abilities in the arts.
Mark Dobbins
45
______________________________________________________________ Art is the pure act of creativity. It is questionable whether Art even has correct answers, and it certainly does not have a single correct answer. Some people may vehemently protest this statement, asserting that the form of a dancer, strokes of a painter, or pitch of a singer can clearly be judged objectively. I agree that the craft of dancing, painting, or singing can be judged with some objectivity. When I say pure creativity, I mean decisions like what subject matter to express, how to express that subject matter, when to use what forms, and when to break the proper form. An individual can only critique these decisions on the basis of their perspective and experiences, so unlike craft they either get it or they don’t. It is this creative component of the arts that I here call art and evaluation of art usually takes the form of critiques by the observers. The topic of interest is separating learning and evaluation, so aside from a theoretical basis for approaching the separation how should evaluation be structured as a separate entity from learning? There seem to be two options available, have subjective evaluators or devise a system of evaluation that is somewhat more objective. The subjective evaluator approach is certainly appropriate for evaluating art subject matter. In many cases a student only needs the critiques of an evaluator for the sake of their own self-improvement. If that is the case then the student should merely attend courses that will allow them to share their work with peers and teachers and should not concern themselves with any kind of formal requirements. Likewise, an institution may be satisfied with evaluating only the craft subject matter for artistic subjects, leaving the art subject matter to the interplay between student and teacher with no formal requirements. On the other hand, some institutions may want to have formal art subject matter requirements for attaining certain types of certification. An informal approach to this may consist of attendance and participation requirements. A more formal approach may require students to participate in a practicum where they will be judged by a panel of evaluators. The latter can also be effective for simultaneously evaluating the craft skills of the student. Whatever approach is used, completion of art subject matter requirements should only be on a pass/fail basis, to encourage freedom of expression. I should reiterate, though, that this is for art subject matter, and more precise grading may, or may not, be appropriate for the craft aspects of artistic subjects. Knowledge, logic, and craft are not as subjective as art, making subjective evaluation more questionable. An institution not only provides an education, but also is also responsible for certifying that education. Neither the student nor the society as a whole is benefited when students are certified as having acquired certain knowledge or skills that they have not acquired. Many classes use attendance, homework, or extra-credit to give students the opportunity to boost their grades. While it is quite nice of a teacher to provide
46
Separating Learning and Evaluation
______________________________________________________________ these opportunities, they ultimately prove nothing in the way of competence; they merely prove that the student is willing to work hard. It may be worthwhile for students to demonstrate that they are hard workers, but that is a practical skill, and to allow it to substitute for knowledge, logic, or craft competency negates the very real need for certifying that students have acquired those competencies. On the other hand, tests and graded projects lead to anxiety. A poor result sticks with the student forever, as there is rarely an opportunity to relearn the material and reprove their competency. This anxiety causes students to care more about their grades than about what they are learning. As a result, students often ignore material that is not graded and try to cram the material that is graded, with no concern as to whether they will remember it in a year. Many of these problems come from the fact that evaluation is tied to learning. If you separate evaluation into a separate task you remove the pressures of grades from the learning environment. Separated evaluation is also easier to retake, and institutions could adopt an attitude of encouraging students to keep trying, rather than the more contemporary attitude of finality and almost doom. Institutions can also apply a more appropriate scope to the evaluation process, evaluating just the knowledge, logic, or craft, rather than evaluating all of them and practical skills and maybe even flattery skills in a single grade for a class. This may sound like standardized testing, because it essentially is. Standardized testing is often criticized and sometimes even reviled. The topic here is not standardized testing, so I am not endorsing standardized testing in general. There are many situations where standardized testing may not be appropriate. It is questionable at best in any primary education context. Also, to apply standardized testing as part of the learning process is not something I would ever endorse, as it too often takes over the classroom, destroying the voice of the teacher. However, the separation of evaluation and learning makes having a standard quite practical, protecting the learning environment from that standard. The ability to retake the tests also offsets some of the concerns with standardized testing, like anxiety, and long-term, often unjustified, consequences for the student or even the institution. Likewise, an understanding of the four categories of subject matter helps in applying standardized testing. The appropriate testing tools can be used for the subject matter being tested, and the testing of art subject matter by standardized means can be avoided. Hopefully I have convinced you at this point that standardized testing is actually not deplorable under the circumstances I have described. Allow me to reiterate that the topic here is the separation of evaluation and learning. Attaining certification from an institution of higher education should be done on the basis of credits earned, and credits should be earned
Mark Dobbins
47
______________________________________________________________ through evaluation not through classes taken. This is what the separation of evaluation and learning means. Students can take tests without taking the corresponding courses, and can take courses without taking the corresponding tests. In this way students are empowered to take courses for the sake of learning and self-betterment while they take tests to attain certification. Allow me to also reiterate that the four categories of subject matter are not the same as subjects of study. What this means is that there will not, and likely should not, be a one to one relationship between courses and tests. Some courses may have multiple tests that relate, some tests may have multiple courses that relate, and just because a course has no tests does not mean that course is useless. Courses should be considered useful or useless on the basis of student demand, not on the basis certification requirements. Tests should be provided on the basis of the need for evaluation. Evaluation and learning will not always and, in fact, may rarely line up perfectly. As previously mentioned, there are some skills that do not fit the mould of standardized testing. A person’s test results may approximate their abilities, but factors like how a person works under pressure, how a person works with others, anxieties, motivation, and other ‘real world’ issues are not captured by testing that merely judges the purely academic achievements of the students. It is certainly within the domain of an institution to require some demonstration of competence in such practical skills. Evaluation of practical skills should be a task separate from the learning process and from evaluation of other abilities, so as not to interfere with the proper functioning of those tasks. Evaluation of practical skills can most appropriately take the form of long term group projects or internship programs that are included as part of the curriculum and requirements. Such programs should be designed to place students in real world situations in which they have to demonstrate that they have what it takes to participate in the economy as they may be expected to upon graduation. Such a program may not be appropriate for all scholarly pursuits, but for many it is important that students are exposed to real-world challenges as part of the curriculum. The exact functioning of such programs is beyond the scope here, but there are plenty of successful contemporary examples of these kinds of programs. 3.
Learning Structure and Environment Separating evaluation from learning does not necessitate any changes to the culture or structure of the learning component of higher education. It is entirely possible to continue with business as usual with only a few minor changes to structure. On the other hand there are many additional advantages that can be gained by a more progressive institution.
48
Separating Learning and Evaluation
______________________________________________________________ One of the greatest advantages of the separation is that independent study becomes more practical. Classes are expensive. They take the student’s time, the teacher’s time, and often many other resources. A student can save a lot by learning the material on their own and then taking the test, rather than taking a course, or retaking the course if they did poorly on a test. A system where evaluation is tied to coursework does not easily allow this, and as a result it can be difficult for even a well-motivated student to attain a certification if they don’t have the money. Independent study possibilities allow students to attain a certification of their abilities with significantly reduced costs if they are willing to put forth the extra effort and study on their own. The separation of evaluation and learning makes this far easier, and far more practical. Some institutions of higher education may be concerned that class attendance would drop dramatically as a result of the separation. If an institution is concerned with maintaining its culture and atmosphere it could define full-time status in terms of attendance as well as credits attempted. Furthermore, an institution could have attendance requirements in addition to credit requirements for certification. This is easily justified as a collegiate culture requirement; the institution is merely ensuring that every student has been fully exposed to the academic environment. With these two policies in place, an institution of higher education could maintain nearly the same learning culture and atmosphere as they would have without the separation while still benefiting from the many advantages of the new evaluation structure. However, institutions could take advantage of the separation of evaluation and learning by offering a more diverse assortment of learning environments as standard practice. People learn in different ways, at different speeds, and need different levels of assistance. Likewise different subjects may benefit from different kinds of environments. There are many ways of organizing the teaching process as opposed to the standard large seminar classes that are in vogue at many institutions today, and it becomes possible to pursue more of these options without evaluation interfering. Even standard teacher centred education, such as large seminars, moderately sized classes, and private tutoring, can be more flexible in its scope or duration. A given class may cover an entire subject, as most contemporary classes do, but there are other possibilities. There could be more one-time classes designed to cover one aspect of a subject that many students seem to have problems with. There could also be more classes that meet regularly but without a start or end date, such as open discussion forums or presentations on the latest technologies or theories. Such things do exist currently, but are usually not graded and, as a result, are often disregarded. With grading disassociated from the classroom,
Mark Dobbins
49
______________________________________________________________ students no longer choose their classes based on grading, and therefore may take advantage of a greater variety of class structures. Another possibility is to have continuously operating classrooms designed for open practice and collaboration related to a specific subject. Teachers would be available in such a setting, but as facilitators of the students. The focus would be on practice over lecture, and peer driven interaction may be more common. This is a particularly reasonable approach for the arts or philosophy, where progress is very individualized and not easily segmented into discreet courses. With all of these possibilities, a very progressive institution could even eliminate the semester system altogether, as students rely more on independent study and supplement it with one-time classes. Even the idea of full-time status or enrolment could be eliminated, introducing a greater sense of freedom and fluidity, if an institution is interested in such extreme possibilities. These ideas are also more practical due to the aid that computer technology can provide to the scheduling of classroom space. Regardless of whether the institution is very traditional or willing to explore the possibilities, the students seem to be empowered by this separation of evaluation and learning. Because requirements are met through taking tests, not classes, students are freed to take the classes they want, rather than the classes that are required. If the administration forces students to take specific courses, then it will be very obvious that they are only doing so in order to maintain control over the students, and it will be far more difficult for the administration to defend such a practice. Overall, the adoption of a separation of evaluation and learning encourages the administration to adopt the role of facilitator rather than the role of commander, which is too often held by administrations of contemporary institutions of higher education. Whether the control the administration has in contemporary institutions is with the best intentions or not is irrelevant. It becomes unnecessary with the separation of evaluation and learning. Furthermore, the shift in the balance of power in favour of students also means the empowerment of quality teachers that are effective at educating and connecting with students. Too often teachers are hired and maintained for what they offer to the administration, and not what they offer to the student. It must be remembered that the students are the customers, not the administrators, and it is the students whose interests must be served by an institution of higher education. 4.
Summary Evaluation and learning are two separate tasks, so it is certainly reasonable to suggest that they should be performed separately. With an understanding of how to evaluate different types of subject matter, it can be quite practical to separate evaluation and learning. Finally, there are many
50
Separating Learning and Evaluation
______________________________________________________________ advantages to separating the two, including greater opportunities for independent study, a greater variety of teaching methods, a reduction in cost for proactive students, and the possibility of a more empowered student body. As with any shift in practice, there are many potential missteps to be had while attempting to separate evaluation and learning. My hope is that I have provided enough insight to navigate the pitfalls and revealed sufficient benefit to make the journey desirable.
PART II Higher Education in Specific National Contexts
Higher Education in Canada: New Millennium, New Students, New Directions Dale Kirby Abstract It has long been recognized that all individuals do not have equal access to higher learning opportunities. With the demographic reality of the ‘baby boom’ generation moving toward retirement and the high school population decline, Canada must devote attention to increasing the educational attainment levels of those who have been disadvantaged and underrepresented in order to remain competitive. In many respects the Canadian system of higher education is not well suited to meeting the learning needs of many of the country’s citizens. Drawing on current research about the challenges faced by specific groups of Canadians, this chapter explores possibilities for the development of a higher education system that is more democratic, open, and accessible. Key Words: Higher education, Canada, widening participation, access, disadvantaged and under-represented groups. ***** Three discrete models – elite, mass, and universal – are often used to categorize participation levels in higher education systems. 1 These three models generally reflect the phases of development of higher education in Canada. While higher education in Canada is far more accessible today than it was just a couple of generations ago, there are a number of reasons why the country must seek to grow the system further and shift to a more truly universal system of participation. Beyond egalitarianism and the societal benefits of a more highly educated citizenry, there are important economic-utilitarian reasons why Canada should strive for greater universality. The importance of knowledge creation and innovation through research in the global economy creates a significant economic need to become a true ‘learning society’ wherein a larger segment of the Canadian population has access to and is engaged in learning throughout their lives. It is also important to consider that, while labour market projections indicate that the numbers of jobs requiring advanced education are increasing on an annual basis in Canada, the country’s youth population is declining and large numbers of individuals are approaching retirement.
54
Higher Education in Canada
______________________________________________________________ To achieve more genuinely universal participation, public policy must address the barriers to participation that exist for those who have traditionally been excluded from higher education opportunities. While the increasing costs of higher education are a barrier to participation for some, the issue of access is much more multifaceted than cost alone. Aside from affordability, there are many other barriers that disincent participation. Individuals in remote and northern areas of Canada are often deterred from accessing further education because the distance to institutions is a barrier. Some programs do not allow for part-time or self-paced study but instead require a full-time commitment. This can be a powerful deterrent for those who have family or work responsibilities. These are complicated by issues such as insufficient academic preparation, poverty, inadequate housing, racism and discrimination, substance abuse, cultural or social apathy, and language barriers. So while an often intense debate continues to be waged about the appropriate level of tuition fees, strategies for universal participation must go beyond the issue of sticker price and conceptualize access more comprehensively. If Canada is to become a true learning society, wherein a larger segment of the population has access to and is continually engaged in learning throughout their lives, we must seek to increase participation levels among selected populations such as ‘first generation’ students, rural populations, Aboriginal people, people with disabilities, and older learners. If policy makers are to dismantle the barriers that deter these groups, they must first understand what these barriers are. The best way to gain insight into these is to reflect what the existing research literature has discovered, identify the gaps, and fill these in through further inquiry. In the next few sections, I broadly outline what we already know about the levels of higher education participation within these particular groups. 1.
First-Generation Students A growing body of research has compared the educational outcomes of ‘first-generation’ students with ‘second generation’ students. The former group comprises students who are of the first generation in their families to attend college or university while the other consists of students who have one or more parents who completed a higher education program. Higher education researchers have known for some time that one of the strongest predictors of whether a high school student will go on to enrol in higher education is if his or her parents did also. A recent Canadian study found that just 48% of first-generation students went on to higher education, compared to 68% for children of parents with some level of higher education experience. Participation increased to 82% in the case of students with two parents who completed a university degree. 2 In comparison to other youth, first-generation students are more
Dale Kirby
55
______________________________________________________________ likely to be from low-income families,3 to have lower levels of academic achievement in secondary school, 4 lower overall educational aspirations, 5 and, when they do enrol, these students are less likely to successfully complete their programs. 6 With respect to aspirations, we know from research that the type of tertiary education chosen by students is also strongly correlated with the education levels of parents – the higher the educational attainment level of parents, the higher their children’s educational plans extend.7 For example, first-generation students are more likely to be interested in pursuing a non-university program (i.e., what the OECD refers to as ‘Tertiary Type-B’). 2.
Rural Students Research has shown that rural students have lower educational aspirations than do urban students.8 This has often been attributed to the socio-economic conditions in rural and remote areas including lower family incomes and lower parental educational attainment. 9 Many rural students are also first-generation students since labour markets in rural regions often have a lower demand for workers with the skills that are attained through advanced education.10 While they do not differ significantly in their performance on standardized tests,11 Canadian students who do not live within commuting distance of a college or university are less likely to participate in higher education compared to those who do.12 One reason for this is that rural students must cover additional expenses associated with living away from home. Canadian students who move away from home to complete a 4-year degree often pay upwards of $20,000 more than those who can continue to live with their parents while studying.13 Research has shown that, while the majority of rural parents expect their children to attend college or university, their expectations are lower and different than those of urban parents. 14 One of the key differences is that rural parents are more likely to expect that their children will attend a community college. Distance and cost are likely factors here since rural students in Canada are more likely to be proximate to a local community college campus than a university.15 Aside from distance and cost barriers, there are other factors that reduce the probability of higher education participation for individuals from rural areas. Like first-generation students, rural students often have less exposure to attitudes and knowledge that make them comfortable with higher education. This is, in part, because there are relatively smaller numbers of higher status role models in rural areas compared to that of urban communities.
56
Higher Education in Canada
______________________________________________________________ 3.
Aboriginal Peoples Another important under-represented group is Aboriginal people, who make up almost 4% of Canada’s total population.16 Aboriginal people in Canada have higher levels of educational attainment today than a generation ago, and those who successfully graduate from high school are just as likely to complete tertiary-level education as high school graduates in the overall population.17 When it comes to participation in non-university higher education, statistics indicate that the Aboriginal population is approaching parity with the total population. While the educational aspirations of Aboriginal youth are similar to those of other Canadian youth, one recent study found that over 70% of Aboriginal youth neither graduated high school nor completed higher education.18 Aboriginal people are also almost four times less likely than the general population to obtain a university degree. 19 This inequity is closely linked to the fact that Aboriginal students fare more poorly than the total population in terms of high school graduations. In 2001, for example, Aboriginal youth were over 2.5 times more likely than the total population to leave high school prior to graduation.20 Increasing the educational attainment levels in Aboriginal communities can not only help to reduce existing income and employment disparities, but, considering what is known about the intergenerational effects of educational attainment, this can also help increase the likelihood that future generations will have better education outcomes. In addition, because the Aboriginal population is far younger than the overall Canadian population,21 it is evident that Aboriginal workers will necessarily comprise a larger part of the Canadian labour force in the next decades. In light of this, the continued exclusion of Aboriginal people from the benefits of higher education holds negative economic consequences for the country as a whole. 4.
People with Disabilities Canadians with disabilities are another group who have been disadvantaged in higher education. While human rights legislation provides a legal framework for equal opportunity in education, there is also a growing recognition that individuals with disabilities have a valuable role to play in the labour market. At present, their potential to contribute to the economy is underutilized. While it is difficult to make precise estimates, many of those with disabilities who are not currently in the labour force would like to have an opportunity to participate. Research suggests that there is an untapped pool of about 500,000 workers amongst Canadians with disabilities. 22 The unemployment rate for adults with disabilities in the Canadian labour force is about five times higher than the unemployment rate for people without. 23 Research indicates that this situation is mitigated by higher levels of
Dale Kirby
57
______________________________________________________________ educational attainment.24 Although efforts have been made to reduce barriers to higher education for youth with disabilities, we are far from a level playing field when it comes to equality of opportunity. A recent study found that young adults with a disability condition were about 20% less likely to study beyond high school compared to other Canadian youth. 25 Canadians with disabilities are much less likely to participate in advanced education due to barriers such as limited physical access to facilities and a lack of institutional sensitivity to their unique needs.26 In addition to reducing their chances of gaining and keeping employment, this lack of access ultimately limits their participation in Canadian society. This is a human rights issue and, in light of our labour market pressures, this is also an economic issue for all Canadians. 5.
Adult and Older Learners Despite considerable and continuing rhetoric about the importance of life-long learning, the average age of Canadian college and university students has not increased by much in 40 years. 27 The adult education participation rates of Canadians with relatively little schooling or poor literacy skills are conspicuously low by international standards. 28 In fact, adult education participation levels have remained stagnant for over the past 15 years. At present, there are approximately 9 million Canadians aged 16 to 65 who have literacy skills that are below the level considered as necessary to participate in the knowledge-based society and economy. 29 Because a large proportion of Canada’s adult population is not equipped to live and work in today’s society, there is, evidently, an increasing need to provide opportunities for adult learners to improve their skills, more fully participate in the economy and contribute to their communities. From a far less utilitarian perspective, research points to connections between learning programs for older adults and positive health benefits. 30 Research has shown that continuing education positively impacts the mental, physical and emotional health of older adults. It has also been shown that seniors who continue to participate in learning activities tend to be actively engaged in their families, their communities and in their personal relationships. These findings should serve as a great encouragement for adults to engage in continuing learning. It is more important than ever that we place the education levels and post-secondary participation of older Canadians high on the public agenda. While we need to increase participation rates for the groups that I have noted, Aboriginal people, people with disabilities, rural populations, ‘first generation’ students and older learners, there are a number of other groups of Canadians whose educational needs we must also address. Space does not permit me to go into detail but this includes visible minorities, immigrant communities, homeless families and individuals, and those who
58
Higher Education in Canada
______________________________________________________________ live in inner-city neighbourhoods. 6.
New Directions I will now turn to some proposed solutions we could implement to increase the educational attainment levels of these groups. The solutions are not simple and I don’t claim to hold all the answers. I expect that we will learn more from our research as we go along. But let me define what, in my view, is essential in helping us achieve greater access to higher education. First, we need to realize from the beginning that for disadvantaged and underrepresented persons one size does not fit all. To improve access for individuals facing relatively special circumstances, a specialized policy approach is necessary. For some populations, interventions must necessarily be made at the elementary and secondary school levels. Consider Canada’s Aboriginal youth for example. If there are to be more Aboriginal students in higher education, Aboriginal communities will first need the resources to grow the numbers of Aboriginal high school graduates. This brings me to my second point. At the higher education institutional level, I suggest that we do away with the short-term, pilot project-based funding model that Canadian colleges and universities have so often used. This model relegates specialized supports to the outer fringes of institutional policy where they are vulnerable to periodic cost efficiency exercises. Specialized student support programs should instead be placed at the core of higher education funding with a coinciding long-term commitment to provide the resources required to build system comprehensiveness. Third, one of the most significant disincentives to participation in higher education for disadvantaged populations is cost. While it has been politically popular in Canada to provide universal subsidies to fund tuition reductions and universal education tax credits, these are neither efficient nor equitable ways of helping the needy. They are inequitable, in particular, because they spend more public funds to subsidize higher education for higher-income groups who already have greater access to the system. Uniform subsidies for higher education actually further entrench existing social inequalities rather than alleviating them. They are also inefficient because many students from higher-income groups would participate in the current system in the absence of additional public subsidies. A more effective use of any new funding would be to direct it entirely toward increasing affordability for those at the lower end of the income spectrum. To clarify, I would not suggest that we increase the cost of college or university for higher-income groups in Canada to buy increased access for underrepresented groups. Even though there is a certain degree of elasticity in the relationship between the costs and participation, there most certainly does come a point where tuition increases price higher education beyond the reach
Dale Kirby
59
______________________________________________________________ of a great many students. Fourth, and finally, while the availability of financial resources is a significant determinant to participation, sufficient academic preparation is evidently important as well. The system should not be designed in such a way that negative or unsuccessful experiences with formal education earlier in life act as an impediment to further education. To ensure that all Canadians have access to lifelong learning opportunities, the higher education system needs to take on greater a greater responsibility for academic remediation. Higher education institutions at all levels should also adopt clear, publicly accessible guidelines recognizing the prior learning experiences of prospective students. Of course, this cannot be achieved unless institutions have sufficient willingness to accommodate new types of learners. 7.
To Conclude None of the solutions I have proposed will or can happen overnight. Whether it is motivated by social justice or economic advancement, I also know that the Canadian higher education system can do more to support and encourage disadvantaged youth to pursue and succeed in higher education. As in most industrialized, developed nations, Canadian society, and participation in the public sphere, is increasingly predicated on a high skillshigh-wage economic strategy. Although the extent to which educational attainment can facilitate upward social mobility is constrained by stratification at the societal level, education remains the primary mechanism by which low-income and disadvantaged groups can transcend the socioeconomic position of their families. Canadians’ collective success in the global knowledge-economy is fundamentally linked to the success of Canadians who have the most to benefit from a more ‘level playing field’ in higher education access.
Notes 1
M Trow, ‘Reflections on the Transition from Elite to Mass to Universal Access: Forms and Phases of Higher Education in Modern Societies’ in J J F Forest & P G Altbach (eds), International Handbook of Higher Education, Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 2006, p. 243. 2 J Berger, A Motte & A Parkin, The Price of Knowledge: Access and Student Finance in Canada, 3rd edn, Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation, Montreal, 2007, p. 20. 3 Council of Ministers of Education Canada, Education indicators in Canada. Report of the Pan-Canadian Education Indicators Program 1999, Statistics Canada, Ottawa, 2000, pp. 106-107. 4 Berger et al., p. 55.
60
Higher Education in Canada
______________________________________________________________ 5
E D Looker & G S Lowe, Post-secondary Access and Student Financial Aid in Canada: Current Knowledge and Research Gaps, Canadian Policy Research Networks, Ottawa, 2001, p. 6. 6 T T Ishitani, Studying Attrition and Degree Completion Behaviour among First-Generation College Students in the United States, Journal of Higher Education, vol. 77, no. 5, 2006, p. 862. 7 Looker & Lowe, p. 6. 8 ibid., p. 9. 9 D Kirby & M Conlon, Comparing the Economic Experiences of Rural and Urban University Students, Alberta Journal of Educational Research, vol. 51, no. 1, 2005, pp. 5-6. 10 R Dupuy, F Mayer & R Morissette, Rural Youth: Stayers, Leavers, and Return Migrants, Statistics Canada, Ottawa, 2000, p. 4. 11 M Frenette, Do Universities Benefit Local Youth? Evidence from University and College Participation, and Graduate Earnings Following the Creation of a New University, Statistics Canada, Ottawa, 2007, pp. 14-16. 12 ibid., p. 6. 13 L Barr-Telford, F Cartwright, S Prasil & K Shimmons, Access, Persistence and Financing: First Results from the Post-Secondary Education Participation Survey (PEPS), Statistics Canada, Ottawa, 2003, p. 11. 14 S Davies, ‘A Revolution of Expectations? Three Key Trends in the SAEP Data’, in R Sweet & P Anisef (eds.), Preparing for Post-Secondary Education: New Roles for Governments and Families, McGill-Queen’s University Press, Montreal, 2005, pp. 152-153. 15 M Frenette, Too Far to Go On? Distance to School and University Participation, Statistics Canada, Ottawa, 2002, p. 2. 16 Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada in 2006: Inuit, Métis and First Nations, 2006 Census: Findings, Ottawa, 2008, p. 6. 17 M Mendelson, Aboriginal Peoples and Post-Secondary Education in Canada, Caledon Institute of Social Policy, Ottawa, 2006, p. 15. 18 Berger et al., p. 20. 19 Mendelson, p. 21. 20 ibid., pp. 9-18. 21 Statistics Canada, p. 14. 22 C Williams, Disability in the Workplace, Perspectives on Labour and Income, vol. 18, no. 1, 2006, p. 22. 23 Statistics Canada, Profile of Disability in 2001, Canadian Social Trends, Spring 2004, p. 18. 24 Williams, p. 19. 25 Statistics Canada, Profile of Disability in 2001, p. 19. 26 Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation, The Class of 2003: High School Follow-Up Survey, Montreal, 2007, p. 29.
Dale Kirby
61
______________________________________________________________ 27
ibid, p. 36. K Myers & P de Broucker, Too Many Left Behind: Canada’s Adult Education and Training System, Canadian Policy Research Networks, Ottawa, 2006, p. iii. 29 ibid, p. 1. 30 R Swindell, U3A Online: A Virtual University of the Third Age For Isolated Older People, International Journal of Lifelong Education, vol. 21, no. 5, 2002, p. 415. 28
Bibliography Barr-Telford, L., F. Cartwright, S. Prasil & K. Shimmons, Access, Persistence and Financing: First Results from the Post-Secondary Education Participation Survey (PEPS). Statistics Canada, Ottawa, 2003. Berger, J., A. Motte & A. Parkin, The Price of Knowledge: Access and Student Finance in Canada, 3rd edn. Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation, Montreal, 2007. Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation, The Class of 2003: High School Follow-Up Survey. Montreal, 2007. Council of Ministers of Education Canada, Education indicators in Canada. Report of the Pan-Canadian Education Indicators Program 1999. Statistics Canada, Ottawa, 2000. Davies, S., ‘A Revolution of Expectations? Three Key Trends in the SAEP Data’, in R. Sweet & P. Anisef (eds.), Preparing for Post-Secondary Education: New Roles for Governments and Families. McGill-Queen’s University Press, Montreal, 2005, pp. 149-165. Dupuy, R., F. Mayer & R. Morissette, Rural Youth: Stayers, Leavers, and Return Migrants. Statistics Canada, Ottawa, 2000. Frenette, M., Do Universities Benefit Local Youth? Evidence from University and College Participation, and Graduate Earnings Following the Creation of a New University. Statistics Canada, Ottawa, 2007. Frenette, M., Too Far to Go On? Distance to School and University Participation. Statistics Canada, Ottawa, 2002. Ishitani, T. T., ‘Studying Attrition and Degree Completion Behaviour among
62
Higher Education in Canada
______________________________________________________________ First-Generation College Students in the United States’. Journal of Higher Education, vol. 77, no. 5, 2006, pp. 861-885. Kirby, D. & M. Conlon, ‘Comparing the Economic Experiences of Rural and Urban University Students’. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, vol. 51, no. 1, 2005, pp. 4-17. Looker, E. D., & G. S. Lowe, Post-secondary Access and Student Financial Aid in Canada: Current Knowledge and Research Gaps. Canadian Policy Research Networks, Ottawa, 2001. Mendelson, M., Aboriginal Peoples and Post-Secondary Education in Canada. Caledon Institute of Social Policy, Ottawa, 2006. Myers, K., & P. de Broucker, Too Many Left Behind: Canada’s Adult Education and Training System. Canadian Policy Research Networks, Ottawa, 2006. Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada in 2006: Inuit, Métis and First Nations, 2006 Census: Findings. Ottawa, 2008. Statistics Canada, ‘Profile of Disability in 2001’. Canadian Social Trends, Spring 2004, pp. 14-18. Swindell, R., ‘U3A Online: A Virtual University of the Third Age For Isolated Older People’. International Journal of Lifelong Education, vol. 21, no. 5, 2002, p. 414-429. Trow, M., ‘Reflections on the Transition from Elite to Mass to Universal Access: Forms and Phases of Higher Education in Modern Societies’ in J.J. F. Forest & P. G. Altbach (eds), International Handbook of Higher Education. Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 2006, pp. 243-280. Williams, C., ‘Disability in the Workplace’. Perspectives on Labour and Income, vol. 18, no. 1, 2006, p. 16-24.
Developing Active Citizenship: Universities as Agents of Social Change Sarwet Rasul Abstract: In the present scenario of globalisation the notion of social change as an inevitable and essential phenomenon has significant implications. To fabricate a culture of tolerance, forbearance, and acceptance it is essential to prepare the youth as active citizens each one of whom knows his/her importance in the system, and is ready to play his/her role effectively. In this context Universities and other higher education institutions all over the world need to adapt themselves to the new role of facilitators in participatory development and social change. The present chapter explores the possibilities of utilization of the potential of Pakistani Universities, higher education institutions, policy makers, and syllabus designers in this regard. On the national level the need of designing and introducing active citizenship syllabus at various levels of education with the consideration of both short and long-term impact is highlighted; and its future prospects are discussed. The chapter also probes into the possibilities of finding out various national and international governmental and non-governmental organizations as partners who can be interested in bringing about this social change. Key Words: Citizenship, universities, Pakistan, education, social change, youth. ***** 1.
Introduction Change being the essence of life has been taking place throughout the history of human social existence. The notion of change becomes even more striking and significant in the present day context of globalisation. The linguistic, religious, political and cultural boundaries have blurred so much that the inter- impact of societies has emerged as one of the significant realities of social life. The relationships of nations/states are being reshaped and restructured. The traditional ties based on dualities such as superiority and inferiority, power and powerlessness are being replaced with mutual acceptance and harmony. This mutual harmony is not possible without participatory development. Forbearance and moderation are probably the most needed traits in the social life today. To generate a balance between independence and individuality on one hand and stable mutual relationships on the other hand is the key factor in making the survival of a nation/state successful in
64
Developing Active Citizenship
______________________________________________________________ the present world. In this backdrop the notion of citizenship gathers great significance; and the question of how to prepare the youth of today to play their role as active and effective citizens in the global community bears even greater implications. 2. The Definition of Citizenship: From the Traditional to the Unconventional Perspective A citizen ‘1 is a person who lives in a particular city or town, esp. one who has voting or other rights there. 2 a person who belongs to a particular country by birth or by being naturalized, who gives loyalty to it, and expects protection from it, whether or not he/she actually lives there.’ 1 Thus, citizenship is the ‘legal right of belonging to a particular country.’ 2 To Britannica Concise Encyclopaedia, citizenship is a ‘relationship between an individual and a state in which the individual owes allegiance to the state and in turn is entitled to its protection’. And, ‘citizenship entails obligations, usually including allegiance, payment of taxes, and military service.’ 3 The conception of citizenship provides the basis for the existence of a state as a political system. To Cogan the conception of citizenship can be either explicitly present in the constitution or implicitly embedded in the national traditions.4 However, mostly it is a combination of the two. To him there are five attributes of citizenship: ‘a sense of identity, the enjoyment of certain rights, the fulfilment of corresponding obligations, a degree of interest and involvement in public affairs, and an acceptance of basic societal values.’5 To Lynch there are three interdependent levels of citizenship: local, national and international.6 The local level includes family and socio-cultural groups in terms of language, religion etc.; the national level deals with citizenship which depends on birth or choice but can be extended to more than one nation; while international citizenship is based on interdependencies and interconnectivities among the global communities. Discussing the crisis of citizenship, Castles and Davidson assert that ‘there have always been some fundamental ambiguities in the notion of citizenship’ which have become even more significant in the changing times. 7 Until the recent past the idea of citizenship was hardly discussed outside university political science courses; ‘being a citizen was just a matter of common sense’ and it ‘was normal to be a citizen.’ 8 However, this notion of citizenship that was limited to the simple set of rights and obligations political rights to vote or to stand of a political office, legal rights to equality in the benefits provided by the state; and obligations to obey laws, and defend the country etc. - has been challenged in the present times. There is a significant shift from the notion of national citizenship to the global citizenship.
Sarwet Rasul
65
______________________________________________________________ To Oxfam a global citizen is one who is aware of his/her role in the wider world; respects and values diversity; understands the working of economic, political, social, technical, and environmental systems in the world; dislikes social injustice; contributes to the local and global community at various levels; is eager to play role to make world a more sustainable place; and takes responsibility of his/her own actions. 9 3.
Citizenship Education: Evolution in the Idea Giddens asserts that ‘globalisation is transforming the institutions of the societies’ and ‘is creating new transnational systems and forces.’ 10 With the emergence of globalisation the traditional position or status of a state has been revolutionized, consequently the traditional notion of citizenship has been challenged. This new and wider concept of citizenship has significant implications from the educational perspective. Discussing citizenship education for the 21st century Cogan refers back to the traditional goals of civic education and asserts ‘Citizenship education has typically been an important goal in courses of study in history and civics in most nations and has, for the most part, focused upon developing knowledge of how government and other institutions in any given state work, of the rights and duties of citizens with respect to the state and to the society as a whole and has been oriented largely towards the development of a sense of national identity.’11 He rightly argues that when world was a comparatively ‘simpler place’ such ‘conceptualisation’ could have been of some use but today the world is a set of far complex relationships and far complicated interconnections. Today ‘citizenship has many facets and education for citizenship many more’ as Rowe states.12 To Philips13 the view of citizenship that has been taught in the schools is dormant and conventional, whereas Whitty14 has pointed out another issue related to the traditional citizenship education in many societies that it is used for propaganda purposes and aims at serving personal or group interests of those in power at that time in that society. However, this conventional view of citizenship has undergone a transformation during the second half of the 20th century. With the emergence of a global community there is an extension in the notion of citizenship as well. ‘The past decades have seen perhaps more attention to democratisation and the development of civil society worldwide than at any time in recent memory, certainly since the end of the Second World War. …, there is renewed emphasis upon civic and citizenship education as a part of the formal school curriculum.’15 Various nations are making efforts in this regard. Derricott and Cogan point out the endeavours of Australia to develop the set of guidelines for teaching citizenship at schools, efforts of Indonesia to develop a civic centre for civic education. They also refer to Hong Kong, SAR and China engaged in experiments in this regard.16
66
Developing Active Citizenship
______________________________________________________________ Discussing how to educate global citizens, Bacon asserts that since our national borders become more irrelevant with the passage of time, it is important to consider what characteristics are universally required for the production of informed and active global citizens. To her the most important elements that schools need to focus with reference to citizenship education are comprehensive knowledge about world political systems, comprehensive knowledge about world economic systems, critical thinking skills to analyse issues that span political - economic lines, cross-cultural communication skills, opportunities to practice engagement as ‘active’ citizen, opportunities to build empathy for others, and forums that serve as the ‘public sphere.’ 17 4.
Citizenship Education in Pakistan: The Background Since its birth Pakistan has not been able to successfully and usefully include citizenship education in the curriculum at any level, though it has been endeavoured in various education policies. Tracing it back to the Pakistan Education Conference 1947, it is to be noticed that the educational system for the new state was expected to develop a democratic state and the then Education Minister asserted that the aim of education should be to develop ‘the fundamental maxim of democracy,’ and ‘it must aim at cultivating the civil virtues of discipline, integrity, and unselfish public service.’18 However, the curriculum did not exhibit that. The next development in education policy making was the report presented by the Sharif Commission that was appointed by the Martial Law Government in December 1958 for developing a national education system. One of the key steps taken by this commission was a uniform school curriculum and the government-prescribed textbooks for classes 1-12. It also merged history, geography and civics courses as social studies which aimed at teaching students their rights and obligations, and preparing them as useful citizens. 19 However, the courses that were designed and taught hardly focused on the development of critical analysis skills in the students. After 1971 war and the subsequent partition, the 1972 policy emphasized ‘national cohesion.’20 The major step that it took was the establishment of a National Curriculum Bureau for revising the curriculum, which ended up adding Pakistan Studies as a compulsory subject at grade 9 and 10 with the aim to develop patriotism. The 1979 Education policy of the Martial Law Government of General Zia-ul-Haq that followed, aimed at the Islamisation of society, consequently citizenship education was used as a tool to develop true practicing Muslims. The exclusionary approach that it took for non-Muslims was quite evident. The Current National Education Policy of 1998-2010 is again exclusionary for instance in the National Plan of Action chapter 2 it is stated that ‘character-building, oriented towards humanism, tolerance, and moralbuild-up on Islamic lines at elementary level shall be assigned top priority.’ 21
Sarwet Rasul
67
______________________________________________________________ Thus, at no stage in the life of the nation, in the education policy development or curriculum designing global citizenship was emphasized. Even the national citizenship, which was mostly focused, was not aimed to be taught from the perspective of enabling students to develop critical approach, or learn problem solving. 5.
Citizenship Education in Pakistan - Present Practices Today civic education is not explicitly a compulsory part of the curriculum at any stage. There are two main streams of education in the Pakistani system: government institutions and private institutions. Within each of these two mediums - English and Urdu - further classify the system. Curriculum for the government institutions is designed and approved under the auspices of the Ministry of Education. Private schools develop their own curriculum but they also prefer to stay in alliance with the government curriculum due to certain factors. The most important factor is that at middle i.e. grade 8 and/ or matriculation i.e. grade 10 their students have to appear in the standardized examination for which these institutions have to get affiliation with any of the government degree awarding bodies or boards of education in Pakistan. The schools thus prefer to prepare the students in the junior classes also on the same lines that they have to follow at middle or secondary levels. Traditionally, in Pakistan, Social Studies for grade 1-8 and Pakistan Studies for grade 9, 10 and onwards are taught as compulsory course at school and college level, in both the public and the private institutions. And, the third popular stream of education in Pakistan, that is O’ and A’ Levels, has also included Pakistan studies as a compulsory component in the curriculum as country requirements. Broadly speaking, Social Studies and Pakistan Studies deals with two dimensions: historical and geographical. The historical dimension aims at teaching the students the history and background of the creation of Pakistan such as the reasons of the creation of Pakistan, important events during the independence movement, role of various leaders etc. If ever the focus is on developing citizenship, it is the national citizenship. The historical and geographical dimensions are sometimes kept under the same title/course and sometimes taught separately. The geographical dimension aims at adding to the knowledge of the students regarding the geographical factors, resources, neighbourhood etc. Discussing the importance of relating geography ‘with the realm of citizenship’ in the UK context, Wade asserts that geography has enough potential to make a significant contribution to develop the sense of global citizenship among the students. 22 He also cites National Curriculum Geography Programmes of Study, 1999, Key Stage 3, that geographers can enable students to ‘learn about geographical patterns and processes and how
68
Developing Active Citizenship
______________________________________________________________ political, economic, social environmental factors affect contemporary geographical issues. They also learn how places and environments are interdependent.’ 23 However, in the Pakistani context the focus is more on the identification and celebration of local and national aspects of geography than the interconnectivity and interdependency with other parts of the world. This also is the issue of inability of teachers for the utilization of text to teach in the global context as no guidelines on teaching methodology, perspective that is to be taken while teaching lesson/s, broad aims of teaching these lessons etc. are provided to the schools and teachers. Here it would not be out of interest to refer to Banks who cites Barr, Barth and Shermis for their categorization of literature and theories of social studies into three traditions: 1) social studies taught as citizenship transmission; 2) social studies taught as social science; and 3) social studies taught as reflective inquiry.24 In Pakistan it generally follows the tradition of social science, and the other traditions are more or less absent. Citizenship education, aiming at the teaching of a civic sense, the knowledge of the rights and responsibilities of a citizen, the role of a citizen in the development of a society, and specially the concept of global citizenship are missing as a compulsory component in the curriculum at any level of education in Pakistan. Optional courses such as ‘Civics’ and ‘Political Science’ are taught at higher levels of education such as undergraduate and graduate; however, only a limited number of students who want to do specialization in these or related areas, opt for these courses. Significantly, even these optional courses are traditional and rigid. Thus, in Pakistan citizenship education has not been integrated into the educational system. In comparison to this, in the present times, various countries have incorporated citizenship education in their education system. For instance in his case study Athan Gotovos asserts that in Greece citizenship education is integrated in all three levels of general education: elementary, lower secondary, upper secondary represented by the subjects ‘Social and Political Education,’ ‘Elements of the Democratic State,’ and ‘Principles of Political Science- Elements of the Democratic State’ respectively.25 However, many countries still do not give the due importance to citizenship education, and do not adopt approaches that may be useful in developing active citizenship as Torney-Purta and Amadeo state it. 26 The case of Pakistan is one of these. Dean, while discussing another dimension of the problem asserts that in Pakistan ‘the curriculum and textbooks do not distinguish between Islamic education and citizenship education,’ and promote ‘exclusionary and passive citizenship. They also shows [sic.] that while Pakistani students acquire knowledge and learn some important values in schools, they do not learn the skills (problem- solving, decision-making)
Sarwet Rasul
69
______________________________________________________________ and values (civic mindedness, critical consciousness) required for effective participation in democratic life.’27 6.
Citizenship Education in Pakistan: The Role of Universities As far as the universities in Pakistan are concerned, their role in the development of citizenship in Pakistan is very limited and restricted. Currently a large number of government sector universities work in the country parallel to the private sector universities. In majority of the universities where social sciences are taught, various diplomas/ and Undergraduate and Master’s degree programmes are offered such as IR International Relations, Political Science, DDS-Defence and Diplomatic Studies, Pakistan Studies etc. However, these programmes and the courses offered under these programmes are optional; and only a limited number of students take them who want to make carrier in the relevant fields. No such compulsory course is offered on a general basis to educate the students of other disciplines in the issues of citizenship. 7. The Need for Change in the Pakistani Context: Suggestions and Recommendations In order to cope with the changing world and to play effective role in the global community, Pakistan needs to prepare its youth as active citizens. Breaking the barriers of traditional and conservative thinking there is a need to educate the youth of the country on the modern lines of citizenship. For this purpose it is very important to introduce and integrate global and active citizenship education in the whole education system of Pakistan. Discussing the notion of active citizenship in the Pakistani context I am neither exclusively talking about the concept of ‘social citizenship’ nor the ‘political citizenship’ as presented by Squires;28 rather I am taking it as an all inclusive term operating across the four major domains: social, cultural, environmental and economic as presented by Lynch. 29 It is essential to prepare the youth as active citizens each one of whom knows his/her importance in the system, and is prepared to play his/her role on various levels such as social, economic, political. The citizenship education should be introduced with the aim to develop in youth a sense of responsibility along with the urge for rights, and to generate a consciousness that they have a stake in the global society. Emphasis should be laid on developing a sense in the youth that volunteering of time, efforts and energies would benefit the community- both national and international, which in turn would benefit them. According to Osler there is also a strong need to adopt an inclusive approach, aiming at preparing citizens with an ‘inclusive rather than exclusive understanding of national identity and citizenship.’ 30
70
Developing Active Citizenship
______________________________________________________________ It is also significant to decide in our context which approach we take from today onwards to the teaching of citizenship: do we mainly focus to educate ‘about citizenship’ or ‘for citizenship’? Because in the first case it would then ‘not extent to fostering any particular set of attitudes, dispositions or virtues’ rather would focus on ‘extending young people’s knowledge and understanding of political ideas, institutions and issues’ as stated by Beck. 31 Wade cites Maiteny and Wade who discuss the importance of school in the multicultural UK context in order to break the ‘vicious circle’ of fragmentary, divided and ‘divisive values’; and assert that ‘it requires that citizenship education nurtures the capacity for active, critical, practical engagement and a sense of belonging by young people.’32 It also has significant implications in the Pakistani context. We are a multicultural and multilingual society. The intra- and inter-cultural/regional/provincial tension plays a significant role in the backdrop of variety of syllabi/curriculum/education to generate certain concerns regarding the issues of citizenship. Discussing national case studies of citizenship education in the UK, Derricott refers to the Crick report that for the teaching of citizenship in the secondary schools the burden is to be shared by the history, geography and English teachers.33 As far as Pakistan is concerned, the possibilities of combining it with other subjects are quite open in the curriculum. Probably this burden can be shared by the Pakistan studies and Islamiat, i.e. Islamic studies/ religion studies teachers. In fact, in Pakistan, like many other nations, the concept of citizenship is very closely related to religion, and is rather considered a part of religion. However, in that case there is a need to be conscious of adopting an approach that would not restrict it to the notions of religion and patriotism, rather to teach it in a global perspective of citizenship. The English and Urdu teachers can also shoulder this responsibility. For this purpose the syllabus designers and text book writers need to play their role. Stories, anecdotes and examples can be added into the texts of these courses which, on an implicit level, would help in developing a sense of citizenship in the youth. Teacher training is also crucial in this regard; and it is important to prepare teachers to handle texts with a new approach such as Spurgeon’s use of English text book to explore the issues of citizenship. 34 8.
The Needed Role of Universities As Agents of Change In Pakistan the universities and other higher education institutions need to adapt themselves to the new role of facilitators in participatory development and social change. There is a need to utilize the potential of Pakistani Universities, higher education institutions, policy makers, and syllabus designers in this regard. On the national level active citizenship syllabus should be designed and introduced in schools and colleges at every
Sarwet Rasul
71
______________________________________________________________ level. Help and guidance can be taken from the experiences of other countries, for instance Malaysian experience of inculcation of five main citizenship values - proud to be Malaysian; patriotism; esprit de corps; discipline; industrious and productive- under the 1983 educational reforms. In Pakistan the education of citizenship education should not be optional or elective rather should be inculcated in the curriculum as an integral and compulsory part at all levels of education. Researchers, educationists, and teachers from universities should be involved in syllabus designing so that the traditional conservative modes of thought could be rejected and curriculum/ syllabi could be designed on various levels keeping in mind the needs in the context of globalisation in the world. The teachers/researchers/educationists working at universities should design programmes at various levels of education with the consideration of both short and long-term impact. Starting from the college and university levels, aiming on the immediate impact, changes in curriculum and syllabus should be made, so that the youth that would come out of the universities and colleges into the practical life they are ready to face the challenges of the modern world with a full realization of their status and role as active citizens. Development of a critical and analytical approach among the students should be the major aim in this regard. The next step can be introduction of citizenship syllabus/courses at schools level; which would have a long-term impact and the children of today would be well prepared to become active citizens of tomorrow. In fact, despite the common notion that explicit citizenship curriculum is more suitable for higher levels, ‘the importance of the primary years in laying the foundations for positive and effective citizenship can not be over-emphasized’ as Rowe asserts. 35 The teachers/researchers/educationists at universities need to be involved in designing curriculum, syllabi, text books and teaching materials; and their potential and specialties should be utilized. Discussing the availability of teaching materials in the context of England, Derricott asserts that since the second half of 1990s ‘electronically available data’ and information on citizenship, citizenship education, and other related issues is easily accessible; and teachers of citizenship ‘cannot complain about lack of information-it is there in abundance.’ 36 As far as Pakistan is concerned some serious efforts are required in this regard. Higher Education Commission in Pakistan has taken significant steps to ensure the provision of electronic access to texts, books, research journals etc. at university level; but these facilities have not been provided to the schools. Being a developing country, probably it is not easy for the government to provide schoolteachers an immediate access to such resources directly. The facilities provided to the universities can be utilized in this regard. Schools can be affiliated with the universities, which will play the role of facilitators in the provision of support, both human and logistic.
72
Developing Active Citizenship
______________________________________________________________ The departments of Political Science, International Relations, and Defence and Diplomatic Studies can also be engaged in the training of schoolteachers for citizenship. Pakistan Studies/Social Studies and Islamic Studies teachers and/or new teachers can be prepared and trained as citizenship education teachers. The involvement of the university teachers through workshop conduction at various levels can also be helpful in this regard. 9.
Citizenship Education and other Organizations There are already various national and international, governmental and non-governmental organizations in Pakistan who are showing interest in the development of active citizenship in the Pakistani youth. On the national level various NGOs, and on the international level British Council through a partnership of UK, Africa and Pakistan have recently started working on various projects in this regard. Details are available on their website. However, keeping in mind the issues of sustainability of impact, and the needs for long term impact these organizations should be involved and taken as partners in the change in the educational set-up. Training of citizenship teachers is another aspect that is significant. The prospective international partners can be of great help in this regard. 10.
Conclusion In the changing time the notion of citizenship, like many other concepts, has undergone a vital change. In the backdrop of globalisation, beyond the conventional idea of rights and obligations, citizenship calls for a far more active and effective role of the citizens. There is a need to realize this change in role, and adapt ourselves to the new demands. However, Pakistani education system does not exhibit any signs of preparing youth to face challenges of the modern world as active and effective citizens. We need to see how citizen education can fit in within the national curriculum of Pakistan. An extensive programme in this regard should be made involving all the three dimensions of knowledge, skill and values in citizenship education.
Notes 1
‘Citizenship’, Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture (D Summers, ed), Longman, Harlow, 1992. 2 ‘Citizenship’, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English: The Living Dictionary (International edition, S Bullon, ed). Longman, Harlow, 2003. 3. ‘Citizenship’, Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (Accessed, February 12, 2008.)
Sarwet Rasul
73
______________________________________________________________ 4
J Cogan, ‘Citizenship Education for the 21st Century: Setting the Context’, in J Cogan and R Derricott, Citizenship for the 21st Century: An International Perspective on Education, Cogan Page, London, 1998. 5 Cogan, p. 3. 6 J Lynch, Education for Citizenship in a Multicultural Society, Cassell, London, 1992. 7 S Castles and A Davidson, Citizenship and Migration: Globalization and the Politics of Belonging, Macmillan, London, 2000, p. 2. 8 Ibid, p. 1. 9 Oxfam, A Curriculum for Global Citizenship, Oxfam, Oxford, 1997. 10 A Giddens, The Third Way: The Renewal of Social Democracy, Polity Press, London, 1998. 11 J Cogan, ‘Citizenship Education for the 21st Century: Setting the Context’, p. 1. 12 D Rowe, ‘The Citizen and the Law: Teaching About the Rights and Duties about Citizenship’, in E. B. Jones and N. Jones (eds), Education for Citizenship - Ideas and Perspectives for Cross-Cultural Study. Kogan Page, London, 1992, p 51. 13 C Phillips, Democracy and Difference, University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia, PA, 1993. 14 G Whitty, Sociology and School Knowledge: Curriculum Theory, Research and Politics, Methuen, London, 1985. 15 R Derricott, and J J Cogan, ‘Preface to the Paperback Edition’, in J J Cogan and R Derricott, Citizenship for the 21st Century: An International Perspective on Education, Cogan Page, London, 1998, p. xiv. 16 R Derricott, ‘National Case Studies of Citizenship Education’, in J J Cogan and R Derricott, Citizenship for the 21st Century: An International Perspective on Education, Cogan Page, London, 1998. 17. N Bacon, ‘Redefining Citizenship for Our Multicultural World’, 2003. (Accessed, March 4, 2008.) 18 Ministry of the Interior (Education Division), Proceedings of the Pakistan Educational Conference, Government of Pakistan, 1974, p. 8. 19 Ministry of Education, Report of the Commission on national Education, Islamabad, Government of Pakistan, 1959. 20 Ministry of Education, The New Education Policy, 1972-1980, 1972, p. 6 21. Retrieved on April, 14, 2008 from: 22 R Wade, ‘Global Citizenship: Choices and Change’, in D. Lambert and P. Machon (eds), Citizenship Through Secondary Geography, Routledge, London, 2001, p. 164
74
Developing Active Citizenship
______________________________________________________________ 23
R Wade, ‘Global Citizenship: Choices and Change’, p. 164. J A Banks, Educating Citizens in a Multicultural Society, Teachers College Press, New York, 1997, p. 18. 25 R Derricott, ‘National Case Studies of Citizenship Education’, p. 49. 26 J Torney-Putra and J Amadeo, Civic Education Across Countries: Twentyfour National Case Studies from the IEA Civil Education Project, IEA, Amsterdam, 1999. 27 B L Dean, ‘Citizenship Education in Pakistani Schools: Problems and Possibilities’, International Journal of Citizenship and Teacher Education, vol. 1, no. 2, 2005. 28 J Squires, ‘The State In (and Of) Feminist Visions of Political Citizenship’, in C. McKinnon and I. Hampsher-Monk (eds), The Demands of Citizenship, Continuum, London, 2000, p. 36 29 J Lynch, Education for Citizenship in a Multicultural Society. 30 A Osler, ‘Education for Development: Redefining Citizenship in a Pluralist Society’, in A. Osler (ed), Development Education: Global Perspectives in the Curriculum, Cassell, London, 1994, p. 4. 31 J Beck, Morality and Citizenship in Education, Cassell, London, 1998, p. 118. 32 R Wade, ‘Global Citizenship: Choices and Change’. 33 R Derricott, ‘National Case Studies of Citizenship Education’. 34 C Spurgeon, ‘Citizenship Education Through Literature’, in C Holden and N Clogh (eds), Children as Citizens: Education for Participation, Kingsley, London, 1998. 35 D Rowe, ‘The Citizen and the Law: Teaching about the Rights and Duties About Citizenship’, p. 61. 36 R Derricott, ‘National Case Studies of Citizenship Education’, p. 43. 24
Bibliography Bacon, N., ‘Redefining Citizenship for Our Multicultural World’. 2003. (Accessed, March 4, 2008.) Banks, J., A. Educating Citizens in a Multicultural Society. Teachers College Press, New York, 1997. Beck, J., Morality and Citizenship in Education. Cassell, London, 1998. Castles, S. and Davidson A., Citizenship and Migration: Globalisation and the Politics of Belonging. Macmillan, London, 2000.
Sarwet Rasul
75
______________________________________________________________ ‘Citizenship’, Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture (D. Summers, ed). Longman, Harlow, 1992. ‘Citizenship’, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English: The Living Dictionary (International edition, S. Bullon, ed). Longman, Harlow, 2003. ‘Citizenship’, Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (Accessed, February 12, 2008.) Cogan, J., ‘Citizenship Education for the 21st Century: Setting the Context’. In J. J. Cogan and R. Derricott, Citizenship for the 21st Century: An International Perspective on Education. Cogan Page, London, 1998. Dean, B. L., ‘Citizenship Education in Pakistani Schools: Problems and Possibilities’. International Journal of Citizenship and Teacher Education, vol. 1, no. 2, 2005. Derricott, R., ‘National Case Studies of Citizenship Education’. In J. J. Cogan and R. Derricott, Citizenship for the 21st Century: An International Perspective on Education. Cogan Page, London, 1998. Derricott, R. and Cogan J. J., ‘Preface to the Paperback Edition’. In J. J. Cogan and R. Derricott, Citizenship for the 21st Century: An International Perspective on Education. Cogan Page, London, 1998. Giddens, A., The Third Way: The Renewal of Social Democracy. Polity Press, London, 1998. Lynch, J., Education for Citizenship in a Multicultural Society. Cassell, London, 1992. Ministry of Education, Report of the Commission on National Education, Islamabad, Government of Pakistan, 1959. Ministry of Education, The New Education Policy, 1972-1980, Islamabad, Government of Pakistan, 1972. Ministry of the Interior (Education Division), Proceedings of the Pakistan Educational Conference. Islamabad, Government of Pakistan, 1974.
76
Developing Active Citizenship
______________________________________________________________ Osler, A., ‘Education for Development: Redefining Citizenship in a Pluralist Society’. In A. Osler (ed), Development Education: Global Perspectives in the Curriculum. Cassell, London, 1994. Oxfam, A Curriculum for Global Citizenship. Oxfam, Oxford, 1997. Phillips, C., Democracy and Difference. University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia, PA, 1993. Rowe, D., ‘The Citizen and the Law: Teaching About the Rights and Duties about Citizenship’. In E. B. Jones and N. Jones (eds), Education for Citizenship - Ideas and Perspectives for Cross-Cultural Study. Kogan Page, London, 1992. Spurgeon, C., ‘Citizenship Education Through Literature’. In C. Holden and N. Clogh (eds), Children as Citizens: Education for Participation. Kingsley, London, 1998. Squires, J., ‘The State In (and Of) Feminist Visions of Political Citizenship’. In C. McKinnon and I. Hampsher-Monk (eds), The Demands of Citizenship. Continuum, London, 2000. Torney-Putra, J. and Amadeo J., Civic Education Across Countries: Twentyfour National Case Studies from the IEA Civil Education Project. IEA, Amsterdam, 1999. Wade, R., ‘Global Citizenship: Choices and Change’. In D. Lambert and P. Machon (eds), Citizenship Through Secondary Geography. Routledge, London, 2001. Whitty, G., Sociology and School Knowledge: Curriculum Theory, Research and Politics. Methuen, London, 1985.
The Nature of Learning Theories and their Effects on Distance Education Practices in Turkey Serpil Koçdar and Nilgün Özdamar Abstract: Paradigm changes in science and society affected the emergence and development of learning theories. This situation has been changing design and implementation of distance education practices. Hence, the purpose of this study is to explore the nature of learning theories by examining the reflection of scientific and social paradigm changes on learning theories and effects of these learning theories on distance education practices in Turkey. Relate to the main purpose, first, paradigm changes in science and society was examined. Then, the reflection of these changes on learning theories was exposed. Finally, the effect of the learning theories in the design and implementation of distance education was discussed. Key Words: Paradigm changes, learning theories, distance education. ***** 1.
Introduction Educational practices are based on learning theories whether delivered on campus or at a distance. Learning theories guide the practice and research of education by trying to explain how people learn. 1 They have been the basis for understanding student learning and how best to facilitate the learning process.2 So, it is very important to understand the nature of learning theories in order to design effective distance education practices. In other words, educators can have a strong basis for their successful practices by understanding how the learning theories emerged and developed. In order to understand the nature of these learning theories, it is important to examine them in a global context by investigating the transition among various fields of science, society and education. Because, paradigm changes in science and society affected the emergence and development of learning theories. Many theories have been proposed to explain learning. Of these theories, behavioural, cognitive and constructivist approaches are three broad theoretical perspectives. These perspectives represent major trends or themes in the way learning is conceptualised. 3 Therefore, the three basic theories of learning are examined in this study. Thus, the purpose of this study is to explore the nature of learning theories by examining the reflection of scientific and social paradigm changes on learning theories and effects of these learning theories on distance
78
Learning Theories and Distance Education Practices in Turkey
______________________________________________________________ education practices in Turkey. Research questions related to the main purpose are:
How learning theories changed due to the paradigm changes in science and society; How learning theories affected the design and implementation of higher distance education practices; How learning theories affected the design and implementation of higher distance education practices in Turkey.
To answer the research questions; first, paradigm changes in science and society will be examined. Then, the reflection of these changes on learning theories will be exposed. Finally, the effect of the learning theories in the design and implementation of distance education will be discussed. 2. Paradigm Changes in Science and Society A. Paradigm Change in the First Enlightenment Age In the 18th century, important developments occurred in the field of science and philosophy in Europe by the effect of the idea that had given priority to ‘reasoning’. This was called the ‘First Enlightenment Age.’ 4 This was the age that had its origins in the idea of Aristo and continued with the inventions of Coppernic, Kepler, Galilei and Newton. The rational idea of the Enlightenment was against all the ideas that were supernatural. Because of this, the reality was the one that existed in nature. In this age, science and technology developed as a result of reasoning. With the ‘Principa’ in 1687, Newton invented a scientific method that was truly universal in its scope. Observation and experiment became the most prominent elements of scientific thought.5 Therefore, the idea of determining the truth according to observations was adopted. In Newtonian approach, every matter could be infinitely subdivided into smaller and smaller pieces without change. These matter pieces had a definite place and velocity. So, the future situation of these matter pieces could be determined definitely. 6 In Newton’s perspective, there is no uncertainty in the world; something is either black or white; there isn’t any colour of grey. Something is either true or false. Similarly, life is a system that works due to some certain rules. Every event occurs as a result of some other events. So, humans can understand how the process in the world and universe works if these rules are discovered. The view of Newton physics perceives the world as a ‘machine,’ so it is defined as ‘mechanic view.’ 7 In this context, Newtonian view affected not only physics rules but also the other fields of science such as social sciences; fields of law, literature, art, economy, music and education. In addition to this, Industrial
Serpil Koçdar and Nilgün Özdamar
79
______________________________________________________________ Revolution in Europe constituted the physical basis of the Enlightenment process and a new economic philosophy was introduced in industry. It was called ‘Fordism’ which was derived from Henry Ford’s approach to the mass production for mass consumption of automobiles early in the 20th century. 8 In Fordist approach; there is standardized production of goods in large quantities. Rationalization, mechanization, division of labour, and centralized administration are some of the elements of the Fordist production process. Due to these developments, people began to live in different social and economic conditions. They began to view the world in a different way. As a consequence, the basis of modern life was founded. These developments started by Renaissance and Reform movements, reached to the top by Enlightenment and they had been a basis for the process of ‘modernity.’ 9 Having its roots in the 16th century, modernism was a cultural movement in various fields of life, which was affected by the ideas of the First Enlightenment Age philosophers. It was a trend of thought that affirmed the power of human beings to create, improve, and reshape their environment, with the aid of scientific knowledge, technology and practical experimentation.10 B. Paradigm Change in the Second Enlightenment Age At the beginning of the 20th century, Albert Einstein introduced his ‘Theory of Relativity’ and ‘Quantum Physics’. These theories showed that the rules of Newtonian physics could not be applied to the electrons because it was not possible to determine the place and velocity of these electrons in a certain time.11 According to these theories, Newton’s assertion that the time interval between events is absolute and observer-independent failed in the real world. This was a profound paradigm shift. Since all physical systems reside in space and time, this shift shook the foundations of natural philosophy.12 This was called the ‘Second Enlightenment Age.’ 13 Contrary to the Newtonian view, nothing is certain and there is not only one truth in the world according to the theories of Einstein. Moreover, something can be both true and false. In other words, there are colours of grey. Subjectivity and probability are the characteristics of this perspective. There is a holistic approach rather than breaking the systems into small pieces.14 In 1920s, with the developments in Quantum Physics and Relativity Theory of Einstein, the ‘mechanic view’ of the First Enlightenment Age began to weaken. Parallel to these developments, it was argued that modernity caused an industrialization and mechanization mentality that ignored the human subjectivity. Moreover, it was claimed that modernism caused the humans to have a determined existence and personality rather than having critical thinking and questioning skills. 15 As a result of this, social relationships changed and the concept of ‘post-modernism’ was introduced.
80
Learning Theories and Distance Education Practices in Turkey
______________________________________________________________ According to Agger, postmodernism is a theory of cultural, intellectual, and societal discontinuity that rejects the linearism of the Enlightenment notions of progress.16 As such, postmodern culture seems to encompass various ways of social organization in which new forms of language, cultural assumptions and meanings, social movements, and power relations can emerge. 17 In this changing environment, the needs and demands of society began to change. With diversification of demand and rapid developments in communication and information technology, social and economic relationships among various agents changed and the Fordist rationale in production became inappropriate. In other words, rapid changes in society resulted in diverse market needs and the Fordist model was unable to adapt to the needs of a fast-changing society. So, a different industrial approach, which was called post-Fordism, was adopted in production. In post-Fordist approach, the products are ‘tailored’ according to the needs of the customers; therefore, there is flexibility in production of goods. The production is no more organized according to the serial model, but more like as groups of islands. The work is divided among teams of production rather than single workers as in Fordism. In other words, post-Fordist production focuses on process rather than the product. It is the shift from the old mass-production to a new, more flexible and tailored one.18 3. The Reflection of Paradigm Changes on Learning Theories A. Objectivist View The reflection of the ‘First Enlightenment Age’ on learning theories was the emergence of behaviourism in the early part of the 20th century. As observation and experiment were the most prominent elements of Newtonian view, Behaviorism focused on ‘observable’ and ‘measurable’ changes in behaviours. Behaviourist researchers such as Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behaviour. Thorndike stated that learning was the formation of a connection between stimulus and response.19 So, the cause-effect relationship in Newtonian view displayed itself as stimulus-response mechanism in behaviourism. As a consequence, the function of reward-punishment mechanism was explored in various psychological and educational practices. As mentioned above, In Newton physics, matter could be indefinitely subdivided into smaller and smaller pieces. Similar to this, in behaviourism, teaching materials were divided into smaller units and they were being presented via small units. Programs were designed to shape a student’s responses using a small lock-step approach with a high level of redundancy. Programmed instruction emphasized an operant approach to learning that had the concept of reinforcement at its heart. Operant psychologists of the time argued that learning tasks should be analysed and broken down into small enough steps so that the probability of a successful
Serpil Koçdar and Nilgün Özdamar
81
______________________________________________________________ response was ensured.20 Using principles from the Law of Effect from Thorndike and the application of reinforcement on learners, Skinner proposed that a solution to instructional problems lied in the use of strategically designed classroom materials that would take learners through information in a step-by-step fashion, shaping behaviour and strengthening desired responses.21 As early as the 1920’s people began to find limitations in the behaviourist approach to understand learning. Behaviourists were unwilling to acknowledge the existence of the mind or the act of knowing because these are not observable. Using overt behaviour as a starting point, people began to realize that there was something happening inside the organism that should be considered, since it seemed to affect the overt behaviour. Thus, the cognitive model of learning was born. 22 Cognitive science was a shift from behaviouristic practices, which emphasized external behaviour, to a concern with the internal mental processes of the mind and how they could be utilized in promoting effective learning.23 It was based on the thought process behind the behaviour. 24 According to cognitivism, changes in behaviour are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learner’s mind. 25 Behaviorism and cognitivism are called ‘objectivist’ learning theories in which the reality is seen as external to the knower. Parallel to the rationalist view of the First Enlightenment Age, objectivists believe that knowledge and truth exist outside the mind of the individual and are, therefore, objective. In this perspective, learners may be told about the world and be expected to replicate its content and structure in their thinking. 26 B. Constructivist View The reflection of the ‘Second Enlightenment Age’ on learning theories was the emergence of constructivism, which claims that reality is more in the mind of the knower, that the knower constructs a reality, or at least interprets it, based upon his or her apperceptions. The subjectivity in the idea of Einstein’s Quantum and Relativity Theories is observed in constructivism. The emphasis in objectivism is on the object of our knowing, whereas constructivism is concerned with how we construct knowledge. In other words, objectivist theories emphasize on the product whereas constructivism emphasizes process. Constructivists believe that knowledge and truth are constructed by the learner and do not exist outside of his mind.27 Therefore, according to constructivists, learners construct their own knowledge by actively participating in the learning process. In constructivist approach to learning, there is a holistic design of courses rather than dividing the learning material into pieces and presenting them via small units. Individuals actively construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems usually in collaboration with others.28
82
Learning Theories and Distance Education Practices in Turkey
______________________________________________________________ 4. The Effects of Learning Theories in the Design and Implementation of Distance Education Practices A. Traditional Distance Education Practices Objective learning theories affected the traditional distance education practices. For instance, Peters proposed that distance education could be analysed by comparison with the industrial production of goods. 29 He stated that conventional, oral, group-based education was a pre-industrial form of education, implying that distance teaching could not have existed before the industrial era.30 Similarly, Evans described distance education as part of any nation’s educational fabric. 31 Thus, distance education was examined by the researchers in the context of ‘Fordism.’ The Fordist approach to distance education is based in behaviorist learning theory in which knowledge is delivered to the learner. Fordist distance education involves mass production to mass consumption. Courses are developed by a small core of skilled workers and delivered centrally. 32 Evans states that distance education can be regarded as both a product and a process of modernity. 33 Its administrative systems, distribution networks, and print production processes are characteristics of modern societies with developed mass production, consumption, and management. Therefore, the Fordist strategy for distance education suggests a fully centralized, single-mode, national distance education system using economies of scale by offering courses to a mass market, thereby justifying a greater investment in more expensive course materials. 34 The reflection of Fordist production on distance education practices was the emergence of large-scale distance teaching universities which aimed a mass production to mass consumption. In 1969, UK Open University was founded which was the paradigm case of the Fordist model of distance education.35 Most people consider that the UK Open University was the pioneer of modern, university level distance education on a large scale. It was the model that inspired most of the world’s other mega-universities which have been distance teaching universities enrolling over 100,000 students. 36 B. New Distance Education Practices New technologies, globalisation and new ideas about student learning challenged the traditional approaches to the practice of distance education. Advances in technology have promoted key changes in distance education and changed the learners’ needs. As a result of these changes, there has been a shift from mass to ‘boutique’ education, which takes the characteristics of diverse learners into account.37 This new environment requires a flexible structure in which ideas are readily tried and shared. It is claimed that in distance education, post-Fordist systems would be able to rapidly respond to the needs of the learners. 38
Serpil Koçdar and Nilgün Özdamar
83
______________________________________________________________ Post-Fordism is directly related to constructivism. The constructivist approach to learning in which individuals give meaning to the world through experience underlies the post-Fordist position. The post-Fordist approach to distance education focuses on the consumer rather than the product. Administration can be characterized as decentralized, democratic and participatory and the division of labour is informal and flexible. 39 In the context of constructivist ideas and post-Fordism, in higher distance education, programs have been developing that focus on individual needs of learners. Learner-centred, interactive and collaborative practices are being experienced in addition to the traditional distance education practices. In these new learning environments, learners are given the opportunity for having the control of their own learning process. In addition to these, by the integration of Internet to educational settings, traditional forms of distance education have been transforming and the Internet has become the new medium for distance education. McIsaac and Gunawardena state that the explosion of information technologies has brought learners together by erasing the boundaries of time and place for both site-based and distance learners. For instance, synchronous and asynchronous technologies allow learners to interact with various agents and study in challenging collaborative environments.40 5. The Effects of Learning Theories in the Design and Implementation of Distance Education Practices in Turkey A. Traditional Distance Education Practices in Turkey The reflection of behaviorist view and Fordist production on distance education practices in Turkey was the foundation of Open Education Faculty in Anadolu University in 1982. Anadolu University was founded as a traditional university in 1958 and currently, both traditional and distance education is provided by the university. It has been providing higher education opportunities through distance education to those who could not otherwise continue their education. Anadolu University is the only university in Turkey, which offers distance education programs, commonly referred to as ‘open education’. It is a large-scale distance teaching university that is among the ‘mega universities’ in the world. 41 Currently, the Distance Education System of Anadolu University has more than 1 million students that constitute 40% of the learners in higher education system in Turkey. 42 Anadolu University, with its distance education model, offers educational opportunities to Turkish citizens living not only in Turkey but also in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and Western European countries. The University aims to increase the education level of Turkish citizens by meeting the demand for higher education. It also provides educational opportunities to learners with physical, hearing and visually impaired disabilities and people in prisons.43
84
Learning Theories and Distance Education Practices in Turkey
______________________________________________________________ Instructional approach in the University’s distance programs varies. The majority is primarily traditional distance programs: print-based, masseducation type requiring self-study. Students are expected to study their textbooks at their own pace and to take scheduled centralized exams. Selfstudy is supported by several services including TV broadcasts aired by a state channel throughout the country (TRT4), video and radio programs distributed on cassettes, CDs or DVDs, academic counselling, administrative bureaus, e-learning and mobile phone services. The rationale behind this sort of an instructional approach is to provide a higher education opportunity to as many students as possible in cost effective ways.44 B. New Distance Education Practices in Turkey The reflection of constructivism and post-Fordist approach on distance education practices in Turkey has been the emergence of learnercentred, interactive and collaborative practices in several universities. By the integration of Internet to the higher education practices, there has been a shift from traditional distance education practices to new Internet-based learning environments. Many online programs have been created in Turkey in the last decade. Started in 2000, İstanbul Bilgi University e-MBA has been the first online graduate degree program in ‘Business Administration’ in Turkey. This is an interactive program that provides flexibility by eliminating the obstacles of time and place. It is designed specifically to meet the contemporary needs of the business world in the strategic arena. 45 Middle East Technical University has been offering ‘Informatics Online’ which is an online Master’s of Science program since 2000. Collaboration among students and instructors is carried out by using both asynchronous and synchronous tools. Web-based material enriched with interactive animations, simulations and exercises forms the basic course content.46 In Anadolu University, in addition to the traditional form of distance education practices, there are also many online programs. The Information Management Associated Degree Program of Anadolu University, for example, is a completely online program which can be considered as an example of the shift from traditional distance education to Internet-based distance learning.47 It has been giving learners an opportunity of studying in a collaborative learning environment since 2001. Anadolu University has also been offering e-MBA since 2004 by the collaboration of Anadolu University and Empire State College, State University of New York (SUNY). This program provides highly interactive courses involving regular online participation by both faculty and students. Instructors in this program utilize a wide and innovative mix of textbooks, problems, tests, research and discussion papers, online discussions and debates, case analyses, role playing and skill building in their courses. Other Web-based master level programs
Serpil Koçdar and Nilgün Özdamar
85
______________________________________________________________ offered by Anadolu University are e-accommodation and Training Program for the Teachers of the Children with Developmental Deficiencies. There is also online undergraduate Pre-service Teaching and blended English Language Teaching Program. In addition to these, the above-mentioned universities also offer several e-learning programs other than higher distance education programs. One of them is the Ford e-Learning Project of Anadolu University, which was created in 2006. It was a ‘tailor-made’ multi-media program for working professionals in the company Ford-Turkey which was supported by the uniquely designed materials to be integrated into a well structured Internetbased learning infrastructure in which online assessments/evaluations, synchronous/asynchronous tutorship and the supplementary logistical services were made available.48 In other words, it was a program that took the learners’ needs and learners’ styles into account. Although it is not among the ‘higher’ education practices, it can be regarded as a pioneering example of post-Fordist design for the future higher distance education practices. Sakarya University and Mersin University are the other leading universities that offer higher distance education practices in Turkey. In both universities, there are online associate degree programs. Sakarya University also offers e-MBA master program. In addition to these programs, many conventional universities have been opening distance education centres in order to support face-to-face courses by e-learning environments and carrying out pilot studies for higher distance education. 49 A few examples of these are Bogazici University, Ankara University and Istanbul Technical University. 6.
Conclusion Science, technology, society, economics, politics and theories of learning are all in transition. Newton paradigm affected various fields of science, society and education For instance, the roots of modernism and Fordist trend in industry were found in the First Enlightenment Age displaying the characteristics of Newton paradigm. The effect of this period was the emergence of behaviourism and cognitivism that were called as objectivist learning theories in which the reality was seen as external to the knower. At the beginning of the 20th century, Einstein’s Quantum and Relativity Theory had been a profound paradigm shift that started the Second Enlightenment Age. Post-modernism and post-Fordism had been the new concepts in this age. The reflection of this age on learning theories was the emergence of constructivism, which assumed that knowledge and truth were constructed by the learner and did not exist outside of his mind. Paradigm changes in science, technology, society, economics, politics and learning theories impacted the status of distance education around the world. Behaviorism constituted the basic principles of Fordist approach to distance education. The Fordist strategy for distance education
86
Learning Theories and Distance Education Practices in Turkey
______________________________________________________________ suggested a fully centralized, single-mode, national distance education system using economies of scale by offering courses to a mass market. Constructivism and post-Fordist approach suggested creating programs that focus on individual needs of learners. Post-Fordism is directly linked to constructivism, which suggests learner-centred interactive and collaborative learning environments. In addition to these, online environments have been an appropriate medium for the application of constructivist principles to learning in higher distance education practices. Parallel to the developments in the field of distance education in the world, the reflection of behaviorist paradigm and Fordist approach on distance education practices in Turkey was the foundation of Open Education System of Anadolu University in 1982. Currently, Anadolu University is among the mega universities in the world with a number of more than 1 million students. The reflection of constructivist and post-Fordist approach has been the creation of learner-centred, interactive and collaborative programs that focus on individual needs of learners. In addition to these, by the integration of Internet to the higher education practices, there has been a shift from traditional distance education practices to new Internet-based learning environments. Several universities in Turkey have been offering online associate, undergraduate and master degree programs. A few of them are Anadolu University, Bilgi University, Middle East Technical University, Sakarya University and Mersin University. In addition to these mentioned universities, many conventional universities have been opening distance education centres in order to support face-to-face courses by e-learning environments and carrying out pilot studies for higher distance education such as Bogazici University, Ankara University and Istanbul Technical University. Consequently, today both traditional and new forms of distance education practices are offered in higher education in Turkey. To predict the next paradigm change and create challenging distance education programs in the 21st century, it can be concluded that it is necessary for distance educators to understand and analyse the past by examining the transition among various fields of science, society and education since we must know backward to think forward. 50
Notes 1
M Simonson, C Schlosser and D. Hanson, ‘Theory and Distance Education: A New Discussion’, The American Journal of Distance Education, vol. 13, no. 1, 1999, pp. 60-75. 2 T J Newby, D A Stepich, J D Lehman and J D Russel, Instructional Techology for Teaching and Learning: Designing Instruction, Integrating
Serpil Koçdar and Nilgün Özdamar
87
______________________________________________________________ Computers, and Using Media (2nd Ed), Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2000. 3 Newby et al. 4 Alatlı, A., ‘İkinci Aydınlanma Çağı’, Journal of Doğu-Batı, vol. 3, no. 10, 2000, pp. 11-14. 5 ibid. 6 T Kuhn, Bilimsel Devrimlerin Yapısı (N. Kuyas Trans.), Kırmızı Publishing, İstanbul, 2006. (Original work published 1962). 7 Alatlı. 8 Simonson et al. 9 Alatlı. 10 H B Kahraman, Postmodernite ile Modernite Arasında Türkiye. (2nd ed.). Everest Publishing, İstanbul, 2004. 11 Kuhn. 12 J Stachel, ‘Development of the Concepts of Space, Time and Space-Time from Newton to Einstein’, in A. Ashtekar (ed)., 100 Years of Relativity, Space-Time Structure: Einstein and Beyond, World Scientific Publishing, Singapore, 2005, pp. 3-37. 13 Alatlı. 14 ibid. 15 Kahraman. 16 B Agger, The Discourse of Domination: From the Frankfurt School to Postmodernism, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, IL, 1992. 17 F Balboa and J Miguel (eds), Critical Postmodernism in Human Movement, Physical Education, & Sport, State University of New York Press, Albany, USA, 1997. 18 Simonson et al. 19 Edward L Thorndike, Educational Psychology. Vol. 1: The Original Nature of Man. Vol. 2: The Psychology of Learning. Vol. 3: Work and Fatigue, Individual Differences and Their Causes, Teachers College Press, New York, 1913-1914. 20 V B Cohen, ‘A Reexamination of Feedback in Computer-Based Instruction: Implications for Instructional Design’, Journal of Educational Technology, vol. 25, no. 1, 1985, pp.33-37. 21 E H Mory, ‘Feedback Research Revisited’, in David H Jonassen (ed), Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, 2004, pp. 745-784. 22 B Mergel, ‘Instructional Design and Learning Theory’, n.d. <www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm> (accessed 5 October 2007) 23 P A Cooper, ‘Paradigm Shifts in Designed Instruction: From Behaviorism to Cognitivism to Constructivism’, Journal of Educational Technology, vol.
88
Learning Theories and Distance Education Practices in Turkey
______________________________________________________________ 3, no. 5, 1993, pp. 12-19. 24 Mergel. 25 D H Jonassen, ‘Objectivism Versus Constructivism: Do We Need A New Philosophical Paradigm?’, Journal of Educational Technology Research and Development, vol. 39, no. 3, 1991, pp. 5-14. 26 ibid. 27 T Duffy and D Jonassen (eds), Constructivism and Instructional Design, Lawrence Erlbaum, NJ, 1992. 28 T M Duffy, J Lowyck and D Jonassen, Designing Environments for Constructive Learning, Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany, 1993. 29 O Peters, ‘Distance Teaching and Industrial Production: A Comparative Interpretation in Outline’ in D. Stewart, D. Keegan and B. Holmberg (eds), Distance Education: International Perspectives, Routledge, New York, 1988, pp. 95-113. 30 Simonson et al. 31 T Evans, ‘Celebrating Difference in Research in Distance Education’, in T Evans and P Juler (eds), Second Research in Distance Education Seminar, Deakin University, Victoria, 1992, pp. 1-4. 32 Simonson et al. 33 T D Evans, ‘Globalisation, Post-Fordism and Open and Distance Education’, Journal of Distance Education, vol. 16, no. 2, 1995, pp. 256-269. 34 Simonson et al. 35 T Evans and D Nations, Reforming Open And Distance Education, Critical Reflections From Practice, Kogan Page, London, 1993. 36 J S Daniel, Mega-Universities and Knowledge Media: Technology Strategies for Higher Education, Kogan Page Limited, London, 1998. 37 T Evans, ‘Celebrating Difference in Research in Distance Education’. 38 Simonson et al. 39 ibid. 40 M McIsaac and C Gunawardena, ‘Distance Education’, in David H Jonassen (ed), Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, 2001, pp. 403-437. 41 Daniel. 42 Anadolu University, . n.d. (accessed 5 October 2007) 43 ibid. 44 EUA Self-Evaluation Report, 2008 Anadolu University Self-Evaluation Group, Association Of European İnstitutions Of Higher Education SelfEvaluation Report, Anadolu University, Eskişehir, 2007. 45 Bilgi University, . n.d. (accessed 3 October 2007) 46 Middle East Technical University, . n.d.
Serpil Koçdar and Nilgün Özdamar
89
______________________________________________________________ (accessed 3 October 2007) 47 M E Mutlu and C H Aydin, ‘The Information Management Associate Degree Program: The First Internet-Based Distance Education Experience In Turkey’, Proceedings Of 11th Annual International Distance Education Conference, Texas A&M University, Houston-Texas, 2004. 48 M Barkan and N Özdamar, A Tailor Made e-Learning Solution for FORD_TURKEY, Proceedings from EDEN Annual Conference 2007, Naples, 2007. 49 Sakarya University, . n.d. (accessed October 3, 2007) 50 Balboa.
Bibliography Agger, B., The Discourse of Domination: From the Frankfurt School to Postmodernism. Northwestern University Press, Evanston, IL, 1992. Alatlı, A., ‘İkinci Aydınlanma Çağı’. Journal of Doğu-Batı, vol. 3, no. 10, 2000, pp. 11-14. Anadolu University, . n.d. (accessed 5 October 2007) Barkan, M. and Özdamar N., ‘A Tailor Made e-Learning Solution for FORD_TURKEY’. Proceedings from EDEN Annual Conference 2007, Naples, 2007. Balboa, F. and Miguel J, (eds), Critical Postmodernism in Human Movement, Physical Education, & Sport. State University of New York Press, Albany, USA, 1997. Bilgi University, . n.d. (accessed 3 October 2007). Cohen, V. B., ‘A Re-examination of Feedback in Computer-Based Instruction: Implications for Instructional Design’. Journal of Educational Technology, vol. 25, no. 1, 1985, pp.33-37. Cooper, P. A., ‘Paradigm Shifts in Designed Instruction: From Behaviorism to Cognitivism to Constructivism’. Journal of Educational Technology, vol. 3, no. 5, 1993, pp. 12-19.
90
Learning Theories and Distance Education Practices in Turkey
______________________________________________________________ Daniel, J. S., Mega-Universities and Knowledge Media: Technology Strategies for Higher Education. Kogan Page Limited, London, 1998. Duffy, T. and Jonassen D., (eds), Constructivism and Instructional Design. Lawrence Erlbaum, NJ, 1992. Duffy, T. M., Lowyck J. and Jonassen D., Designing Environments for Constructive Learning. Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany, 1993. Evans, T., ‘Celebrating Difference in Research in Distance Education’. In T. Evans and P. Juler (eds), Second Research in Distance Education Seminar. Deakin University, Victoria, 1992, pp. 1-4. Evans, T. and Nations, D., Reforming Open And Distance Education, Critical Reflections From Practice. Kogan Page, London, 1993. Evans, T. D., ‘Globalisation, Post-Fordism and Open and Distance Education’. Journal of Distance Education, vol. 16, no. 2, 1995, pp. 256-269. EUA Self-Evaluation Report, 2008 Anadolu University Self-Evaluation Group, Association Of European İnstitutions Of Higher Education SelfEvaluation Report. Anadolu University, Eskişehir, 2007. Jonassen, D. H., ‘Objectivism Versus Constructivism: Do We Need A New Philosophical Paradigm?’. Journal of Educational Technology Research and Development, vol. 39, no. 3, 1991, pp. 5-14. Kahraman, H. B., Postmodernite ile Modernite Arasında Türkiye. (2nd ed.). Everest Publishing, İstanbul, 2004. Kuhn, T. ,Bilimsel Devrimlerin Yapısı (N. Kuyas Trans.). Kırmızı Publishing, İstanbul, 2006. (Original work published 1962). McIsaac, M. and Gunawardena, C., ‘Distance Education’. In David H. Jonassen (ed), Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, 2001, pp. 403-437. Mergel, B., ‘Instructional Design and Learning Theory’. n.d. (accessed 5 October 2007).
Serpil Koçdar and Nilgün Özdamar
91
______________________________________________________________ Middle East Technical University, . n.d. (accessed 3 October 2007) Mory, E. H., ‘Feedback Research Revisited’. In David H. Jonassen (ed), Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, 2004, pp. 745-784. Mutlu, M. E. and Aydin, C. H., ‘The Information Management Associate Degree Program: The First Internet-Based Distance Education Experience In Turkey’. Proceedings Of 11th Annual International Distance Education Conference, Texas A&M University, Houston-Texas, 2004. Newby, T. J., Stepich D. A., Lehman J. D. and Russel J. D., Instructional Technology for Teaching and Learning: Designing Instruction, Integrating Computers, and Using Media (2nd Ed). Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2000. Peters, O., ‘Distance Teaching and Industrial Production: A Comparative Interpretation in Outline’. In D. Stewart, D. Keegan and B. Holmberg (eds), Distance Education: International Perspectives. Routledge, New York, 1988, pp. 95-113. Sakarya University, . n.d. (accessed October 3, 2007) Simonson, M., Schlosser C. and Hanson D., ‘Theory and Distance Education: A New Discussion’. The American Journal of Distance Education, vol. 13, no. 1, 1999, pp.60-75. Simonson, M., Smaldino, S., Albright, M. and Zvacek S., Teaching and Learning at a Distance (2nd ed). Merrill Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2003. Stachel, J., ‘Development of the Concepts of Space, Time and Space-Time from Newton to Einstein’. In Abhay Ashtekar (ed), 100 Years of Relativity, Space-Time Structure: Einstein and Beyond. World Scientific Publishing, Singapore, 2005, pp. 3-37. Thorndike, Edward L., Educational Psychology. Vol. 1: The Original Nature of Man. Vol. 2: The Psychology of Learning. Vol. 3: Work and Fatigue, Individual Differences and Their Causes. Teachers College Press, New York, 1913-1914.
PART III The Impact of Technology on Higher Education
Online Teaching with Learning Objects Bill Tait Abstract: Online teaching involves the delivery of content, mainly through the use of learning objects, and discussion, by means of Web 2.0 and other technologies. It is widely accepted that it requires expertise in three areas, namely, subject content, Internet technology and pedagogy. Subject expertise can be assumed but the other two often present difficulties for domain expert tutors with little time to keep abreast of developments in these fields. This chapter describes an attempt to formulate an approach that is intended to reduce these problems. It is a proposal for a unified model that incorporates all three dimensions as a means of helping academic practitioners to teach online with learning objects. Key Words: Learning, object, pedagogy, internet, technology, practitioners. ***** 1.
Introduction Practising academics have to maintain expertise in three dimensions of their work, namely, their subject area, pedagogy and technology. With the increasing use of online teaching and learning these last two are becoming problematic. This has been confirmed in a recent study in which it became clear that tutors are largely unaware of both the pedagogy and the technology involved.1 It was determined, therefore, to devise a unified model that might relate these dimensions and help teachers to make consistent evaluations and design effective objects for online teaching. 2.
A Redefinition of Learning Objects There are many different definitions of learning objects. The most often quoted is that of Wiley who describes them as ‘instructional components that can be reused a number of times in different learning contexts’ and adds later that they are ‘digital entities deliverable over the Internet.’2 Boyle has emphasised the importance of high cohesion and low coupling while others have pointed out the need for a well-defined learning objective and for the object to be self-contained.3 Others have taken a more general view, for example, seeing the learning object is ‘any entity, digital or non-digital, that may be used for learning, education or training.’ 4 However, the common features of these definitions, and the key properties of a unified model are that a learning object is simply an abstracted and encapsulated unit of learning. It is abstracted, or cohesive, in the sense
96
Online Teaching with Learning Objects
_____________________________________________________________ that it abstracts a well-defined learning objective that defines its content, and it is encapsulated, or self-contained, in that it has little dependence on the rest of the study context. These properties are enough to realise the advantages of objects; that they facilitate team authoring, replacement and reuse. It is also a definition that includes other formats than digital online learning objects so it is useful for comparing these with the more traditional methods with which practitioners are familiar. 3.
Subject Context In practice, abstraction and encapsulation are not easily achieved, mainly because of the constraints imposed by the context in which they are studied. The first of these is that the achievement of a learning objective depends on entry requirements having been met by earlier objects. This means that the first consideration in designing a learning object, or any other type of object, such as a live or online tutorial, is to identify both the entry and exit conditions instead of a single learning objective. Secondly, a course unit may use material introduced inside an earlier part of the course. This is a strategy adopted to lead the learner to a fully authentic application at the end of their study. It may involve building up a language vocabulary, developing a programming application of increasing sophistication or moving from a basic to a more complex mathematical process. However, it is not available to encapsulated objects without loss of their advantages, so they have to be designed with this in mind. The third point is about implementation. The object should be designed to match the course context in terms of:
4.
the user interface, which should be compatible with other course materials and HCI principles, or at least easy to learn, the subject conventions which must be the same as those used in the rest of the course, learner motivation, which has to be generated by the software rather than a teacher, the learning activity involved, which must be appropriate for the course and the subject, the purpose of the object, for example, to replace or add to existing provision, and the production quality which should be commensurate with the expectations of the students.
Technology To date, the technological focus has been on the deployment of learning objects, and numerous standards have been developed for this
Bill Tait
97
______________________________________________________________ purpose.5 The resulting Reusable Learning Objects (RLO) are interoperable across a range of deployment systems and proliferate in Internet repositories, where they are easily found by search engines. Learning objects have become the recognised format for online learning and teaching. Technical specifications are important to those who would like to deploy their objects in repositories, but they are less important to the lone tutor who simply wants to put a lecture or tutorial online, or the course designer aiming to make more use of objects. Here the important issues relate to pedagogy and subject context, and these are considerably less well developed than the technology. Consequently, there is some dissatisfaction with the educational reusability of learning objects. 6 From the viewpoint of academic developers the most important technology is that used to implement the objects. They are often just web pages which can be implemented in Microsoft Word or PowerPoint. For more interesting results, however, they might contain inserts such as Java applets or Flash movies. There are also the so-called Web 2.0 technologies, including blogs, wikis and podcasts that have been adapted by practitioners for educational purposes. These are not generally regarded as learning objects but if the definition of a learning object is simply that it must be abstracted and encapsulated then all of them, and the traditional technologies, can be included. 5.
Pedagogy The problem with this technological model is that all of these objects appear to employ quite different pedagogies. It would be useful to find a way of unifying this aspect too, so that a more complete qualitative comparison can be made. A major problem again is practitioner access. It is widely recognized that many practitioners are less expert in this subject and less up to date with the literature than they are with their subject domains. Pedagogy is the theory of teaching and as such can be regarded as a strategy for the implementation of specific learning methods. So it is defined in terms of learning theory. There are two pedagogies associated with an object. One is the intrinsic pedagogy of the content object and the other is the learning activity that uses the content. Content objects are the media from which the students learn, including text, images, diagrams, audio clips, video clips and interactive simulations, while learning activities define how the content is to be used, as illustrated in Figure 1.
98
Online Teaching with Learning Objects
_____________________________________________________________
Figure 1: A learning object with a content object in the form of a simulated browser to show JavaScript program execution, and a learning activity that indicates how the object should be used in this online tutorial. Learning activities are generally defined in terms of broad perspectives. There are several versions of these. A recent one defines associative, constructivist and situative approaches, while a more common view refers to behaviourist, cognitivist and constructivist, and there are many variations on these themes.7 So, as far as the practitioner is concerned, the terminology is quite abstracted and somewhat elusive. As evidence of this problem, a wide variety of solutions have been proposed to facilitate practitioner access, including authoring systems, 8 learning patterns,9 learning taxonomies,10 folksonomies,11 the conversational framework,12 IMS learning Designs,13 pedagogic planners14and extensible learning objects.15 And here is another one. 6.
Pedagogical Components This solution reduces the general pedagogical approaches to a set of basic components that can be aggregated to reconstruct any of them. There are three major advantages in doing this. One is that the components can be described in natural language that is easily understood by the practitioner. A second is that they apply to both the learning activity and the content object. The third is that they allow the designer to use any preferred technology. Opinions may vary on what components to include but one possibility that works quite well is the following set:
Bill Tait
99
______________________________________________________________
Information: any source of information such as text, diagrams, pictures and even web search engines where information is provided usually for memorisation. Experience: any source of real or virtual experience such as practical work and computer simulations, or vicarious experience in the form of demonstrations or video clips. Consolidation: any material that facilitates understanding of the concepts involved such as multiple views and authentic practice. Discussion: any arranged situation where learners collaborate in some way, such as discussion groups, online asynchronous conferences and audio/visual conferences. Assessment: any arrangement in which the learner is tested and provided with feedback in a proactive approach in which learning takes place.
As a simple example, a behaviourist strategy might be delivered as a cycle of information or experience and assessment to develop a knowledge base. For this purpose it would use information or experience content objects. A cognitivist approach might use experience, consolidation and assessment to target reflective practice and knowledge building with suitably stimulating objects. A constructivist approach might use experience and consolidation with or without discussion depending on the version involved. In this case a blog or a wiki might deliver the content. The practitioner can use whichever components appear to be the appropriate choices with no need to have any prior knowledge of the general pedagogical terminology. The effect on the technology is equally enabling. Designers can use any technology to achieve a particular result, including the user-friendly Web 2.0 technologies. This is illustrated in Figure 2 where the same results are obtained with a Flash learning object and a blog object.
100
Online Teaching with Learning Objects
_____________________________________________________________
Figure 2: Two ways of implementing a constructivist e-tutorial on how to carry out an Internet search, one using a Flash object and the other a blog. 7.
The Unified Model The proposal here is that learning materials can be compared and evaluated if they are all regarded as objects. Some objects may be stored in a repository or database, while others make up the contents of books or printed course texts. In all cases, a framework can be proposed that is accessible to practitioners and applicable to all technologies. Such a unified model can be defined by combining the effects of context, technology and pedagogy as described above. It is presented here as a set of criteria that should be considered in any design process, comparison or evaluation, as follows:
Subject context requires that entry and exit requirements should be defined and that the content should be compatible with local conventions. Technology should be optimised to match the pedagogy of the learning activity and the content object, and to meet the requirements of production quality, usability and motivation. Pedagogy should be defined in terms of the pedagogical components to be included and applied to both the learning activity and the content objects.
Bill Tait
101
______________________________________________________________ 8.
Conclusion Academic practitioners have to keep abreast of developments in their own subject areas and both the technology and the pedagogy involved in teaching with online learning objects. For many, this is asking too much. Pedagogical theory is still evolving and not the sort of area that a practitioner can easily keep in touch with. At the same time technology, and especially Internet technology is also leaving many of us behind. The unified model is intended to help the practitioner to overcome these difficulties. Pedagogical components facilitate the use of effective pedagogy and show how it can be implemented with any technology. This should facilitate design and allow evaluative comparisons to be made. It might also help to answer some recurring questions such as whether new technologies introduce new pedagogies or just adapt the old ones.
Notes 1
B Tait, ‘Learning Objects, Pedagogy and Motivation’, Higher Education Academy, 8th Annual Conference on Information and Computer Science, 2007. 2 D A Wiley, ‘Connecting Learning Objects to Instructional Design Theory’, in D. A. Wiley (ed), The Instructional Use of Learning Objects. Agency for Instructional Technology, 2002. 3 T Boyle, ‘Design Principles for Authoring Dynamic, Reusable Learning Objects’, Australian Journal of Educational Technology, vol. 19, no. 1, 2003, pp. 46-58; M Weller, C Pegler and R Mason, ‘Putting the Pieces Together: What Working with Learning Objects Means for the Educator’, 2003; BECTA, ‘Packaging and Publishing Learning Objects’, BECTA, 2005, available at , (accessed April 2008) 4 IEEE, ‘Learning Technology Standards Committee Learning Object Metadata, Final Draft Standard, IEEE 1484.12.1-2002’, 2002. 5 ADL, SCORM, 2004. (Accessed Nov 2008.) 6 R Jones, ‘Designing Adaptable Learning Resources with Learning Object Patterns’, Journal of Digital Information, vol. 6, no. 1, Article No 305, 2004; C Gunn, S Woodgate and W O’Grady, ‘Repurposing Learning Objects: A Sustainable Alternative?’ ALT-J, Research in Learning Technology, vol. 13, no. 3, 2005, pp. 189-200; N Friesen, ‘Three Objections to Learning Objects and E-learning Standards’, in McGreal (ed), Online Education Using Learning Objects, Routledge, London, 2004; J G Hedberg, ‘E-Learning Futures? Speculations for a Time Yet To Come’, Continuing Education, vol. 28, no. 2, 2006, pp 171-183.
102
Online Teaching with Learning Objects
_____________________________________________________________ 7
JISC, ‘Effective Practice with E-Learning, Workshop Series’, 2004, , (Accessed Nov 2008.) 8 S Britain, ‘A Review and Analysis of Content Authoring Software in Relation to eXe’. A Report Commissioned by the Tertiary Education Commission of New Zealand, 2005; E Heathcote and S Dawson, ‘Data Mining for Evaluation, Benchmarking and Reflective Practice’, in: Proceedings of the E-Learn World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, & Higher Education, Vancouver, Canada, 2005. 9 P Goodyear, P Avgeriou, R Baggetun, S Bartoluzzi, S Retalis, ‘Towards a Pattern Language for Networked Learning’, in S Banks, P Goodyear, V Hodgson, C Jones and V Lally (eds), Networked Learning, Lancaster University, Lancaster, 2004, pp. 449-455. 10 G Conole and K Fill, ‘A Learning Design Toolkit to Create Pedagogically Effective Learning Activities’, Journal of Interactive Multimedia Education, vol. 8, 2005; C Bailey, K Fill, M T Zalfan, H C Davis, G Conole and B Olivier, ‘Panning for Gold: Designing Pedagogically-Inspired Learning Nuggets’, Educational Technology and Society, vol. 9, no. 1, 2006, pp. 113122. 11 S Currier, L Campbell and H Beetham, JISC Pedagogical Vocabularies Project Report 1: Pedagogical Vocabularies Review, JISC, Bristol, 2006. 12 D Laurillard, ‘Rethinking University Teaching: A Conversational Framework for the Effective Use of Learning Technologies’ (2nd ed), Routledge, London, 2002. 13. R Koper and C Tattersall, ‘Learning Design - A Handbook on Modelling and Delivering Networked Education and Training’, Springer, BerlinHeidelberg, 2005, pp. 21-40. 14 JISK 15 B Tait, ‘Extensible Learning Objects’, IADIS International Conference on Elearning, Southampton, 2007, vol. 1, pp. 19-26.
Johnnes Arreymbi and Chrisina Draganova
103
______________________________________________________________
Bibliography ADL, SCORM, 2004. (Accessed Nov 2008.) Bailey, C., Fill K., Zalfan M. T., Davis H. C., Conole G. and Olivier B. ‘Panning for Gold: Designing Pedagogically-Inspired Learning Nuggets’. Educational Technology and Society, vol. 9, no. 1, 2006, pp. 113-122. BECTA, ‘Packaging and Publishing Learning Objects’. BECTA, 2005. Boyle, T., ‘Design Principles for Authoring Dynamic, Reusable Learning Objects’. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, vol. 19, no. 1, 2003, pp. 46-58. Britain, S., ‘A Review and Analysis of Content Authoring Software in Relation to eXe’. A Report Commissioned by the Tertiary Education Commission of New Zealand, 2005. Conole, G. and Fill K., ‘A Learning Design Toolkit to Create Pedagogically Effective Learning Activities’. Journal of Interactive Multimedia Education, vol. 8,, 2005. Currier, S., Campbell L. and Beetham H., JISC Pedagogical Vocabularies Project Report 1: Pedagogical Vocabularies Review. JISC, Bristol, 2006. Friesen, N., ‘Three Objections to Learning Objects and E-learning Standards’. In McGreal (ed), Online Education Using Learning Objects. Routledge, London, 2004. Goodyear, P., Avgeriou P., Baggetun R., Bartoluzzi S., and Retalis S., ‘Towards a Pattern Language for Networked Learning’. In S. Banks, P. Goodyear, V. Hodgson, C. Jones and V. Lally (eds), Networked Learning. Lancaster University, Lancaster, 2004, pp. 449-455. Gunn, C., Woodgate S. and O’Grady W., ‘Repurposing Learning Objects: A Sustainable Alternative?’ ALT-J, Research in Learning Technology, vol. 13, no. 3, 2005, pp. 189-200.
104
User Requirements Analysis for Use of Mobile Phones
______________________________________________________________ Heathcote, E. and Dawson S., ‘Data Mining for Evaluation, Benchmarking and Reflective Practice’. In: Proceedings of the E-Learn World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, & Higher Education, Vancouver, Canada, 2005. Hedberg, J. G., ‘E-Learning Futures? Speculations for a Time Yet To Come’. Continuing Education, vol. 28, no. 2, 2006, pp 171-183. IEEE, ‘Learning Technology Standards Committee Learning Object Metadata, Final Draft Standard, IEEE 1484.12.1-2002’. 2002. JISC, ‘Effective Practice with E-Learning, Workshop Series’. 2004. (Accessed Nov 2008.) Jones, R., ‘Designing Adaptable Learning Resources with Learning Object Patterns’. Journal of Digital Information, vol. 6, no. 1, Article No 305, 2004. Koper R. and Tattersall C., ‘Learning Design - A Handbook on Modelling and Delivering Networked Education and Training’. Springer, BerlinHeidelberg, 2005, pp. 21-40. Laurillard, D., ‘Rethinking University Teaching: A Conversational Framework for the Effective Use of Learning Technologies’ (2nd ed). Routledge, London, 2002. Tait, B., ‘Extensible Learning Objects’. IADIS International Conference on Elearning, Southampton, 2007, vol. 1, pp. 19-26. Tait, B., ‘Learning Objects, Pedagogy and Motivation’. Higher Education Academy, 8th Annual Conference on Information and Computer Science, 2007. Weller, M., Pegler C. and Mason R., ‘Putting the Pieces Together: What Working with Learning Objects Means for the Educator’. 2003. Wiley, D. A., ‘Connecting Learning Objects to Instructional Design Theory’. In D. A. Wiley (ed), The Instructional Use of Learning Objects. Agency for Instructional Technology, 2002.
User Requirements Analysis for Use of Mobile Phones in the Classroom Johnnes Arreymbi and Chrisina Draganova Abstract In this study we investigate the requirements of students and lecturers from the School of Computing and Technology at University of East London for a system that uses mobile phones to support learning and teaching during classroom sessions. We offer an analysis model of these requirements that can be further used for the design and implementation of the system. Key Words: Mobile education, mobile learning, mobile technologies in learning and teaching, interactive learning. ***** 1.
Introduction In recent years there has been considerable interest among educators in finding ways of integrating mobile and wireless technologies in learning and teaching. This study focuses on the requirements of students and lecturers from the School of Computing and Technology (SCOT) at the University of East London for a system that uses mobile phones to support learning and teaching. Some of these requirements would be applicable to any other mobile wireless devices such as notebooks or PDAs. However, modern mobile phone devices have similar capabilities, and they are less costly and more ubiquitous. According to UK government statistics nearly 75% of the general population in the UK, and nearly 90% of the people between the ages of 15 and 34, own or use a mobile phone. 1 An activity-based categorisation of mobile technology uses and their mapping to existing learning theories is offered by Laura Naismith et al. in the form of a comprehensive review. 2 According to this classification there are six categories of learning that can benefit from the use of mobile technologies: behaviourist, constructivist, situated, collaborative, informal and lifelong learning, learning and teaching support. In our study we concentrate particularly on investigating the user requirements related to activities that support classroom interaction (behaviourist). There have been a number of systems developed and tried using mobile phones in support of classroom interaction, student group work and module administration. These have received positive feedback from students and lecturers. However, the adoption of mobile technologies in learning and teaching is still in its infancy and further studies are needed to address issues such as seamless embedding
106
User Requirements Analysis for Use of Mobile Phones
______________________________________________________________ of the technology in the learning environment, interface design, issues of usability and accessibility, privacy, security and cost. We have collated a comprehensive set of requirements using questionnaires and other related studies that have explored the use of mobile phone technologies for the activities that are of interest for the students and lecturers in SCOT. On the basis of the collated comprehensive set of requirements, we offer an analysis model of the requirements that can be further used in design and implementation of the proposed system. The chapter is organised as follows: Section 2 addresses the motivation for the research to apply mobile technologies in learning and teaching and explores related systems, Section 3 discusses the findings from the questionnaires survey, Section 4 presents, initial use case model of the captured requirements, and the last Section draws from the research and derives our conclusions. 2.
Background Classroom interaction in the form of asking questions, gathering answers and giving feedback, and/or role play during a seminar/lecture session enhances the students learning by improving their attention and by giving them an opportunity for reflection on the presented content. 3 It also promotes an active learning environment, provides feedback for the lecturer to constructively align the learning and teaching approaches with the expected learning outcomes, and also increases students’ motivation. 4 Classroom interaction falls in the behaviourist learning paradigm, which states that learning is achieved through an association between a specific stimulus (e.g. question asked by a lecturer) and a response (e.g. answer given by a student).5 However, implementing effective interaction in a large lecture session is not an easy task. Typically (or in a typical classroom situation), only a small number from the whole group and usually the same students would participate in such interaction. And from our findings and experience, we realise that, many students find it difficult to ask or answer questions during large lecture sessions for fear that they might sound ‘obvious’ or ‘stupid.’6 Some students may not be able to think ‘fast enough’ and they easily give up trying, especially when some of their peers answer the question asked by the lecturer. Therefore, using a system that can give an opportunity to every student to actively participate or contribute anonymously in the class sessions and without peer pressure or fear of being exposed, can greatly improve the interaction in the classroom and enhance the student’s understanding of the material, and in general, the learning experience. Interactive classroom technologies can be used as an additional vehicle for accomplishing personalised learning goals. The ‘TV remote’ system offers a solution for supporting interaction in class through mobile phones using Bluetooth connections, with no
Johnnes Arreymbi and Chrisina Draganova
107
______________________________________________________________ transmission costs incurred by students. 7 The main functionalities that the students can use in the ‘TVremote’ system include: submission of text messages as free text, submission of feedback or lecture evaluation as a rating on the Likert scale, submission of answers to decision polls or multiple choice questions and retrieving information. The functionalities offered by the ‘TVremote’ system to the lecturer include: publishing text that can be retrieved by the student’s mobile client, browsing through a current set of messages, graphical overviews of correct and incorrect answers to multiple choice quizzes. An informal evaluation of this system shows that the ‘TVRemote’ system is technically feasible even in a very large lecture scenario, but a formal evaluation of the application of this system on a large scale has not been performed. In our view the ‘TVremote’ system has quite complicated implementation and suffers from the limitations of the Bluetooth technology, including much lower data transfer rates compared to other wireless communication technologies, and the small number of devices that can be connected simultaneously to the laptop of the lecturer. There are a number of studies that report positive results on the use of SMS/MMS in classroom interaction systems. 8 However, a major issue with these systems is the cost of SMS/MMS that prevents their wide adoption, especially from the students’ point of view. ‘TXT-2-LRN’ describes a SMS-based classroom interaction system and evaluates its use and impact on students’ learning experience. 9 The system consists of a mobile phone connected to the lecturer’s laptop with installed SMS management tool. The students using this system can submit questions or comments to the lecture’s laptop via SMS and submit answers to multiple choice quizzes. The lecturer can read the incoming questions on the laptop screen and the results from the multiple choice quizzes can be graphically displayed on the projector. This system has been tested in large lectures of 300 students.10 One of the most useful features of this system reported in the findings is the ability to send the lecturer SMS during class, which enables the possibility for instantaneous feedback and adaptive learning and teaching. Overall, increase of the student participation and better quality feedback have been observed. However there two issues with this system: one noted above is the incurred cost of SMS for students, and another issue is the need to interpret large amounts of text by the lecturer during the class session. ‘Mobile Phone Extension to Ubiquitous Presenter’ offers a solution to support active learning in the classroom though SMS/MMS to an email address on a server which is then relayed to the instructor. 11 This system offers two main functionalities to students using mobile phones: text message submission via SMS to short-answer problems and photo submission of hand written answers and/or graphics via MMS to mathematical, code writing and
108
User Requirements Analysis for Use of Mobile Phones
______________________________________________________________ diagrammatic problems. The system offers the same functionalities via laptops and Tablets. ‘Pls Turn Ur Mobile On’ describes a system that uses SMS to support interaction in the classroom as well as the possibility to store the classroom SMS messages on a server for after class use. 12 The students’ SMS submissions are stored on a laptop in an Excel file for viewing on the lecturer’s laptop. The lecturer can comment on the submitted text messages. The stored SMS can be used to continue the discussion after class via online threaded comments. The study reports a positive attitude of the students towards the system. There are other types of interactive systems, such as ‘Turning Point Interactive Response Systems’ (TPIRS) typically used for interaction with a TV audience during a quiz show, which could be utilized in classroom situations for interaction. For example, in TV shows such as ‘Who wants to be a millionaire, (ITV.com)’ an electronic interactive system is used to assist the contestant with instant feedback from the audience, with results displayed graphically on screen. The TPIRS system can engage an audience of up to 1200 simultaneous users at a range of about 30 meters 13, effectively offering a classroom or meeting forum voting system. This type of assessment tool is easy to use and operates using infrared technology that sends information to a central receiver with software that allows quizzing, survey and/or assessing students. It can easily be integrated with Microsoft PowerPoint presentations and can analyse responses in real time. The students can respond to questions using special handsets or computers and the results are graphically presented on screen instantly. The system integrates well into almost any environment and gives instant user feedback for any electronic presentation. The systems described above show that it is possible to adopt and integrate mobile devices during class room sessions to enhance students’ learning experience. However, there is still a need of finding a solution which offers a free-of-cost connection, makes use of the modern capabilities of mobile phone devices, automatically collates students’ messages, makes intelligent interpretation of the students’ answers and, sends appropriate automatic individual feedback to the students’ mobile devices. 3.
Questionnaires - Results and Discussion We have used one preliminary questionnaire for students in order to assess the usefulness of different types of services offered as learning support via mobile phones. During the investigation, we have used closed and Likerttype questions on a scale of 1 to 5. The questionnaires have been completed by 120 undergraduate students from SCOT. The results of the preliminary questionnaire show that 89% of the students would find it very useful or useful to be alerted on their mobile phones about news related to their modules (e.g. deadlines for assignments,
Johnnes Arreymbi and Chrisina Draganova
109
______________________________________________________________ relevant links, new information etc.), 80% of the students would find it very useful or useful to use mobile phones to collaborate (communicate) on group assignments and 61% would find it very useful or useful to use mobile phones during lecture session with the purpose of sending feedback to the teacher or answer questions. The students were also asked whether they own a mobile phone and whether they use it for SMS, MMS, Email, Web, Music, Images and Video. 98% indicated that they own a mobile phone. However, less than 10% of the respondents indicated that their set has WiFi connectivity. The use of the different functionalities within their sets is: 95% - SMS; 42% - MMS; 23% - Email; 31% - Web; 80% - Music; 78% Images and 66% - Video. This use pattern reflects the associated costs of using the different services to the students/users and indicates the typical use of the current capabilities of mobile phones. Our findings confirm that the majority of the students own a mobile phone and are interested in services provided on their mobile phones to support learning. The usage of the different functionalities shows that students are adopting those that are most affordable to them. This confirms that cost is an important issue and it needs to be taken into consideration when developing a system for support of learning and teaching based on mobile phone technologies. Next we have used a questionnaire to capture the requirements from the point of view of the students related to classroom interaction via mobile phones. The questionnaire has been completed by 119 undergraduate students from SCOT. The students have been asked to tick all appropriate features that they want to have in a system supporting learning via mobile phones. Figure 1 illustrates the results showing the percentage of students that have selected the specific features related to Classroom settings.
User Requirements Analysis for Use of Mobile Phones
110
______________________________________________________________ A. Classroom settings 90% 78%
80%
69%
70% 60%
54%
54%
Percent
50% 50% 37%
40% 30% 20% 10% 0% A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
Features
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6
send anonymously a question during a classroom session to the lecturer. send anonymously evaluation or feedback about a classroom session to the lecturer. receive a short summary of the lecture session. receive animation, audio or video podcast related to a lecture session. register your attendance. receive individual automatic feedback after answering questions during a lecture/tutorial session.
Figure 1: Proportions of students that selected the features A1-A6 related to Classroom settings as useful. In addition to the questions asked related to the features above we have asked students to provide other suggestions. Their answers include the following suggestions:
‘Setting time for tasks at the beginning of each semester; changing tutorial groups’ ‘Receive mock exam questions to practice’ ‘To be able to send questions to your tutor outside school hours’ ‘Send the lecture slides’ ‘Lecturer is running late it would be nice if you could use the text message scheme to let students know’ ‘Send text message to the lecturer when students are running late’
Johnnes Arreymbi and Chrisina Draganova
111
______________________________________________________________
‘Automated calendar settings sent to class/module/programme/tutorial/practical dates and according to group membership’ ‘To be able to notify the lecturer of absence from class’
phone times
Comments and suggestions given by lectures include the following:
‘I don’t think the use of mobile phones is appropriate in any of the above. Email & UEL plus will suffice!’ ‘I think that it will be problematic’ ‘Send e-mail alerts (official emails only) on their mobile’ Conducting live test i.e. placing a call to the student at agreed time followed by sending an email containing assessment during the live call and sitting in front of PC terminal’ ‘Most can be done by email’ ‘The great problem is requiring/expecting all students to own a particular class/capability of phone’ ‘Turn off in lectures/classes so as not to disturb!’ ‘Make sure they are turned off during class’ ‘I wouldn’t like to introduce the use of mobile phones into lecture …in case the students use it for inappropriate texting.’ ‘I would like a mobile system where students can easily scan or swipe their ID cards to automatically register class attendance, rather than the current paper based systems’
Our findings show that the majority of the students who completed the questionnaire are interested in the feature ‘receive short summary of the lecture session’ (see Figure 1). From interviews with lecturers we found that the highest of the surveyed lecturers think that the feature ‘post automatically messages to all students with short texts, graphics, animations or podcasts’ would be useful. These two features have common functionality that includes, sending and receiving short text related to a lecture session, which indicates some similarity in the view of students and lecturers regarding the features of the proposed system. While most of the features illustrated in Figure 1 have been found useful by more than 50% of the students, this is not the case with the surveyed lecturers. Less than 50% of those lectures believe that such features would be useful. This gives an indication that the students are more open and positive about introducing mobile phones technologies in classroom settings. This observation is also confirmed in the comments given by students and lecturers. While students offer constructive suggestions in all instances, lecturers are more concerned with issues such as disturbance in the classroom, inappropriate texting, and possession of the right capabilities
112
User Requirements Analysis for Use of Mobile Phones
______________________________________________________________ phones by students. Some lecturers do not see at all the relevance of such a system. These concerns could be shared, due to the fact that mobile technologies are still not widely adopted in Higher Education. The results from the closed questions and the comments overall indicate similar patterns in the views of the surveyed students and lecturers. In general the students are more open and constructive compared to the lectures. This confirms that there is a need to explore different system models that can demonstrate the potential of the new mobile phone technologies in improving engagement and learning processes in order to gain wider acceptance and adoption. 4.
Use Case Analysis Model In this study we employ use case modelling technique which enables capturing functional requirements of a system. The main elements of use case modelling include: stakeholders - people that have interest in the system, use cases describing how the system responds to requests from actors to fulfil their goals and use case scenarios describing the sequence of steps that are executed in order to deliver these goals. 14 Use case modelling is well suited for defining user requirements and is widely used in Information systems development. Table 1 illustrates the initial list of actors, use cases and brief use case descriptions. Table 1: Actors, use case, descriptions and prioritisation
Actor Student
Student
Classroom Setting Use Case Brief Description Send a question/ A student sends a question or a comment comment during a classroom session to the lecturer. The question or comment is received by system. An alert is sent to the GUI to notify the lecturer that there is a question or a comment pending. Send evaluation/ A student anonymously sends evaluation Feedback or feedback in a specific format about a classroom session to the lecturer. The formatted text is received by the system and processed to provide an aggregated response.
Johnnes Arreymbi and Chrisina Draganova
113
______________________________________________________________ Student
Register attendance
A student sends his/her student ID number to register attendance. The system records the ID, date and time and sends acknowledgement to the student.
Lecturer
Send summary/ definition/ hyperlink
A lecturer sends short summaries, definitions or hyperlinks at once to students’ mobiles using the system.
Lecturer
Send a question
A lecturer sends a question in a specific format at once to students’ mobiles using the system.
Lecturer
Send graphics/ animations/ podcasts/ individual feedback
A lecturer sends graphics, animations or podcasts at once to students’ mobiles using the system. The system capability includes intelligent techniques for analysing the student responses to questions and generating relevant feedback thus enabling the lecturer to provide individual feedback.
Table 2 illustrates the stakeholders and their interest in the system under consideration, and the level of importance of their interest. Stakeholder Students
Lecturers
Interest To have additional ways of communication with lecturers and peers; To be able to send timely feedback regarding face-to-face sessions; To collaborate on group work; To receive important information on time; To send and receive responses anonymously. To engage larger number of students during lecture sessions; To adapt and align learning and teaching according to the understanding of the students; To improve students motivation; To align learning and teaching strategies to learning outcomes; To align assessment
Importance High
High
114
User Requirements Analysis for Use of Mobile Phones
______________________________________________________________
SCOT
University
methods to learning outcomes; To improve students’ support; To enhance the students’ learning experience, and support lecturers’ teaching. To explore and evaluate the practice of using mobile technologies in learning and teaching, and in students’ support.
High
Medium
5.
Conclusions This chapter has investigated the issues concerning the use of mobile phone technologies in classroom interaction, students’ collaboration and students’ support. A questionnaire survey was carried out to capture and establish the system’s functional requirements. A use-case model was developed and utilised to analyse the requirements. Other studies have been evaluated where similar technologies have been used to improve students learning experience and exam results. We observe that the majority of students were very positive, lecturers were somehow concerned about the perceived use and benefits derived from using mobile phone technologies to enhance learning and teaching within SCOT at UEL. Developing a system that implements the use-case model suggested in Section 4 would demonstrate the benefits and illustrate specific examples of how these technologies can be used in learning and teaching. To create a complete service, the critical issues of usability, authentication, authorization and privacy, should be incorporated in the proposed system.15 Accessibility of the resources on the mobile system should also be thoroughly investigated. Future work will address these issues and will include design, implementation and evaluation of the proposed system model.
Notes 1
Adult mobile phone ownership or use: by age, 2001 and 2003: Social Trends 34, viewed on 27 December 2007, 2 L Naismith, P Lonsdale, G Vavoula and M Sharples, ‘Literature Review in Mobile Technologies and Learning’, NESTA Future lab Series, Report 11, 2004. 3 K Ruhl and S. Suritsky, ‘The Pause Procedure and/or Outline: Effect on Immediate Free Recall and Lecture Notes taken by College Students with Learning Disabities’. Learning Diasability Quarterly, Vol. 18, 1995, pp. 2-
Johnnes Arreymbi and Chrisina Draganova
115
______________________________________________________________ 11; W Waite, M Jackson and A Diwan, ‘The Conversational Classroom’, Proceedings of the 34th SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, Reno, Nevada, 2003, pp. 127-131. 4 H Bär, G Rößling, E Tews and E Lecher, ‘Bluetooth Interaction Support in Lectures’, Proceedings of Mobile Learning 2006, IADIS Press, 2006, pp. 360-364; H Bär, E Tews and G Rößling, ‘Improving Feedback and Classroom Interaction Using Mobile Phones’, Proceedings of Mobile Learning 2005, IADIS Press, 2005, pp. 55-62. 5 Naismith et al. 6 Bär, ‘Bluetooth Interaction Support in Lectures’. 7 ibid.; Bär, ‘Improving Feedback and Classroom Interaction Using Mobile Phones’. 8 E Scornavacca and S Marshall, ‘TXT-2-LRN: Improving Students’ Learning Experience in the Classroom Through Interactive SMS’, hicss, 40th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS’07), 2007, p. 5b; D Lindquist, T Denning, M Kelly, R Malani, W G Griswold and B Simon, ‘Exploring the Potential of Mobile Phones for Active Learning in the Classroom’, SIGCSE 2007, 2007, pp. 384-388; C Markett, I A Sánchez, S Weber and B Tangney, ‘Pls Turn Ur Mobile On: Short Message Service (SMS) Supporting Interactivity in the Classroom’, Proceedings of International Association for Development of the Information Society (IADIS) Conference on Cognition and Exploratory Learning in Digital Age, Lisbon, Portugal, 2004. 9 Scornavacca and Marshall. 10 Naismith et al. 11 Lindquist et al. 12 Markett et al. 13 More information at: . 14 A Cockburn, Writing Effective Use Cases, Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc. 2001. 15 J Arreymbi and M Dastbaz, ‘Issues in Delivering Multimedia Content to Mobile Devices’. Sixth International Conference on Information Visualisation (IV’02), 2002, pp. 622-626.
Bibliography Arreymbi, J. and M. Dastbaz, ‘Issues in Delivering Multimedia Content to Mobile Devices’. Sixth International Conference on Information Visualisation (IV’02), 2002, pp. 622-626.
116
User Requirements Analysis for Use of Mobile Phones
______________________________________________________________ Bär H., E. Tews and G. Rößling, ‘Improving Feedback and Classroom Interaction Using Mobile Phones’, Proceedings of Mobile Learning 2005. IADIS Press, 2005, pp. 55-62. Bär H., G. Rößling, E. Tews and E. Lecher, ‘Bluetooth Interaction Support in Lectures’. Proceedings of Mobile Learning 2006. IADIS Press, 2006, pp. 360-364. Biggs, J., Aligning Teaching and Assessing to Course Objectives’. Teaching and Learning in Higher Education: New Trends and Innovations. University of Aveiro, 2003. Biggs, J., ‘Constructing Learning by Aligning Teaching: Constructive Alignment’. Teaching for Quality Learning at University. 2nd Ed. Wiltshire, Open University Press, 2004, pp. 11-33. Chen J. and D. Kinshuk, ‘Mobile Technology in Educational Services’. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, vol. 14, no. 1, 2005, pp. 91-109. Cockburn, A., Writing Effective Use Cases. Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc. 2001. Evans, J., ‘Free iPhone, iPod Touch Offer for students’. 2008. , Accessed March 16, 2008. Lindquist, D., T. Denning, M. Kelly, R. Malani, W. G. Griswold and B. Simon, ‘Exploring the Potential of Mobile Phones for Active Learning in the Classroom’. SIGCSE 2007, 2007, pp. 384-388. Markett C., I. A. Sánchez, S. Weber and B. Tangney, ‘Pls Turn Ur Mobile On: Short Message Service (SMS) Supporting Interactivity in the Classroom’, Proceedings of International Association for Development of the Information Society (IADIS) Conference on Cognition and Exploratory Learning in Digital Age, Lisbon, Portugal, 2004. Mitchell K., N. J. P. Race, D. McCaffery, M. Bryson and Z. Cai, ‘Unified and Personalized Messaging to Support E-Learning’. Fourth IEEE International Workshop on Wireless, Mobile and Ubiquitous Technology in Education - (WMTE’06), 2006, pp. 164-168.
Johnnes Arreymbi and Chrisina Draganova
117
______________________________________________________________ Naismith, L., P. Lonsdale, G. Vavoula and M. Sharples, ‘Literature Review in Mobile Technologies and Learning’. NESTA Future lab Series, Report 11, 2004. Riordan B. and J. Traxler, ‘Supporting Computing Students at Risk Using Blended Technologies’. Proceedings of 4th Annual Conference, Galway, Ireland, Computer Science, 2003, pp. 174-175. Ruhl, K. and S. Suritsky, ‘The Pause Procedure and/or Outline: Effect on Immediate Free Recall and Lecture Notes taken by College Students with Learning Disabities’. Learning Disability Quarterly, vol. 18, 1995, pp. 2-11. Scornavacca E. and S. Marshall, ‘TXT-2-LRN: Improving Students’ Learning Experience in the Classroom Through Interactive SMS’. hicss, 40th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS’07), 2007, p. 5b. Waite, W., M. Jackson and A. Diwan, ‘The Conversational Classroom’. Proceedings of the 34th SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, Reno, Nevada, 2003, pp. 127-131. Zurita, G., M. Nussbaum and M. Sharples, ‘Encouraging Face-to-Face Collaborative Learning Through the Use of Handheld Computers in the Classroom’. Mobile HCI 2003, Fifth International Symposium on Human Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services. Udine, Italy, 2003. Zurita, G. and M. Nussbaum, ‘Computer Supported Collaborative Learning Using Wirelessly Interconnected Hand-held Computers’. Computer & Education, vol. 42, no. 3, 2004, pp. 289-314.
Using a Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext to Develop Reading Comprehension: An Ongoing Case Study with Students with a Media Studies Degree Maria Isabel Orega and António Moreira Abstract This chapter presents an ongoing case study on the use of the platform DidaktosOnLine.1 The participants in the study are a class of first year students attending an English language course of the Media Studies degree, at the School of Education of the University of the Algarve. DidaktosOnLine was developed at the University of Aveiro by Moreira and his research team and is based on Cognitive Flexibility Theory. This is a constructivist theory of learning and instruction, which defends that information, should be presented from multiple perspectives through the use of cases that function as examples of knowledge in context. According to Spiro et al., multiple representations of knowledge and the development of cognitive flexibility are facilitated by the use of hypertexts, which facilitate navigating through complex knowledge domains. 2 As this theory emphasizes repeated presentations of the same material in reorganized sequences and from different perspectives, cognitive flexibility hypertexts provide non-linear links that help implement multiple dimensions of knowledge representation. The students worked with a hyper-document called Images of Britain and the British, to develop reading comprehension competences and their sociocultural knowledge on British society. The aim of the study is to understand the effect of some individual characteristics of the readers as well as the effect of features of the digital learning environment on the comprehension of the texts included in it. The individual characteristics of the learners relevant for the study are, among others, learning styles, epistemic preferences, prior knowledge of the themes of the texts and other documents, language proficiency, and reading experience. The features of the digital learning environment studied are essentially aspects of the design of the platform, which allow multiple representations of the texts and themes and their possible contribution to facilitate reading comprehension. Key Words: Reading Comprehension, hyperdocuments, Flexibility Theory, digital learning environments, learning styles. *****
Cognitive
120
Using a Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext
______________________________________________________________ 1.
Introduction Nowadays, the new digital learning environments have contributed to the changes that Van Oostendorp says ‘are occurring in society regarding the delivery of information to individuals and the way individuals process this information.’3 In view of these changes, and in an educational context, it is important to understand how the students react to these digital learning environments. How do they assess these tools that claim so many pedagogical positive effects? How do students interact with a new type of document that requires a more active role of the user? This chapter presents an ongoing study on reading comprehension using a digital learning environment, the platform DidaktosOnLine. This platform was developed at the University of Aveiro in Portugal and is based on Cognitive Flexibility Theory. This is a constructivist theory of learning and instruction, which defends that information, should be presented from multiple perspectives through the use of cases that function as examples of knowledge in context.4 The ability to read and understand written texts in English is particularly relevant for students in Higher Education, especially in the context of a language course. However, students frequently find it difficult to read more complex texts, and to do reading tasks that require transfer of knowledge and summarising information from different sources. In a digital learning environment, the design of the document may possibly influence the way learners read and learn. Mishra, Spiro and Feltovich, referring to Cognitive Flexibility Hypertexts, emphasise that ‘It is now widely accepted that technology is not neutral with regard to its effect on cognition. (…) different technologies engender different mind-sets or ways of thinking.’5 The purpose of this study is to look at how some factors associated to the readers and to the texts may influence the text comprehension in a digital learning environment. Some of the factors associated to the readers that will be analysed are: language proficiency, learning styles, epistemic preferences and background knowledge. Regarding the factors associated to the texts, we will focus on aspects of the design of the hyper-document that allow a special interaction of the reader with the texts, such as the possibility of thematically criss-crossing the texts of the mini-cases. 2.
Reading and the Reader There have been several attempts to explain the nature of reading and to account for how we read and understand a text. The interactive models are so far considered to give an adequate description of the process of reading. According to the interactive perspective, reading is an interactive process between the reader and the information in the text. The reader has a central role because (s)he contributes with his/her knowledge and experience.
Maria Isabel Orega and António Moreira
121
______________________________________________________________ Schema theory emphasises the constructive nature of comprehension and the role of the background knowledge in the way we understand new information. Carrell and Eisterhold point out that ‘[a]ccording to schema theory, comprehending a text is an interactive process between the reader’s background knowledge and the text. Efficient comprehension requires the ability to relate the textual material to one’s own knowledge.’ 6 Spiro et al. also emphasise a similar idea when they say that comprehension is a process that goes beyond decoding the information in a text: First, we take it as an accepted cognitive principle that understanding involves going beyond the presented information. For example, what is needed to comprehend a text is not solely contained in the linguistic and logical information coded in that text. Rather, comprehension involves the construction of meaning: the text is a preliminary blueprint for constructing an understanding. The information contained in the text must be combined with information outside of the text, including most prominently the prior knowledge of the learner, to form a complete and adequate representation of the text’s meaning.7 If the reader has such an important role in the process of comprehension, then we should expect differences in the way several readers understand the same text, taking into account variables such as, background knowledge on the topic of the text, readers’ attitudes, interests or reading styles. 3. Cognitive Flexibility Theory and Cognitive Flexibility Hypertexts Cognitive Flexibility Theory is a constructivist theory of learning and instruction. This theory attempts to overcome the difficulties that students experience at the stage of advanced knowledge acquisition, avoiding oversimplification of complex knowledge domains and helping the application or transference of the knowledge acquired to other contexts. Spiro and Jehng explain the concept of cognitive flexibility in the following way: ‘[b]y cognitive flexibility, we mean the ability to spontaneously restructure one’s knowledge, in many ways, in adaptive response to radically changing situational demands.’ 8
122
Using a Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext
______________________________________________________________ According to Spiro et al.: A central claim of Cognitive Flexibility Theory is that revisiting the same material, at different times, in rearranged contexts, for different purposes, and from different conceptual perspectives is essential for attaining the goals of advanced knowledge acquisition. 9 To implement this claim Cognitive Flexibility Theory suggests that complex subject matters should be presented from multiple perspectives through the use of cases that function as examples of knowledge in context. Each case is divided into small units, the mini-cases. Then it is necessary to identify the themes or points of view to analyse the mini-cases and write a thematic commentary explaining how a general theme applies to a particular mini-case. As this theory emphasizes repeated presentations of the same material in reorganized sequences and from different perspectives, cognitive flexibility hypertexts are considered the ideal medium to implement multiple dimensions of knowledge representation. 4.
DidaktosOnLine The platform DidaktosOnline is a cognitive flexibility collaborative and distributed environment. According to Carvalho and Moreira it was developed to achieve the following objectives: 10
to foster the production of hypermedia didactic materials by means of collaboration between teachers from common areas and interests; to make universally available the didactic materials produced on the platform; to foster the collaborative sharing of these materials among learning communities that share the same interests; to develop mechanisms of production of e-portfolios for the collaborative construction of knowledge among communities of teachers and students; to foster the development of teaching and learning communities, through the sharing of materials and to promote contacts among all users of the platform; to establish the necessary conditions for the distributed education of teachers under the principles of CFT, random access instruction and case-based education.
Maria Isabel Orega and António Moreira
123
______________________________________________________________ The platform DidaktosOnLine allows the organization of a digital content database, which can be accessed, in a traditional, linear structure of content presentation, that is, reading the cases and mini-cases as if they were presented in a book. The content database can also be accessed in a nonlinear way, implementing thematic criss-crossing, which means reading several mini-cases of different cases to which one theme or combination of themes apply. The URL to access the platform is . You can access the platform as a content manager or as an ordinary user. To become a content manager you need to register in the system and be given a password by the platform administrator. As a content manager you may create projects that are organised in cases and mini-cases. The mini-cases may include texts, graphics, audio and video. A content manager may also create special sequences, suggesting the reading of particular mini-cases in rearranged instructional sequences that highlight a specific theme or themes, which is the way thematic criss-crossing is implemented in this platform. An ordinary user doesn’t need to register in the system and has only access to the public areas of the platform. Figure 1 shows the first page of the project Images of Britain and the British presenting the list of cases and special sequences.
124
Using a Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext
______________________________________________________________
Figure 1: First page of the project Images of Britain and the British. 5.
Learning Styles The interest for the individual characteristics of the learners is an attempt to understand how the general claims about the effect of methodologies or technologies may vary according to particular learners. Milton points out that [t]here is general agreement that all learners are not alike. Not only will they vary according to obvious characteristics like age and gender, they will also vary according to learning style and preferences. Presented with the same material in the same class, some learners are likely to find the materials helpful and learn well, while others may find the same tasks uncongenial and fail to make the progress they otherwise could.11
Maria Isabel Orega and António Moreira
125
______________________________________________________________ There is relative agreement about the idea that learners are not all alike. What is not so consensual is the identification of the differences among learners and how far they influence learning. The concept of learning styles is one of these variables. Dörnyei quotes Reid to present a general definition of the concept of learning style, ‘an individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing and retaining new information and skills.’12 Several authors agree that the concept of learning style is synonymous of a set of personal preferences regarding the way a learner approaches and processes information. On the other hand, there are several views on the number of dimensions that integrate the notion of learning style, or on the way the dimensions are described. For the current study we have decided to use the Ehrman and Leaver Cognitive Styles Construct (E&L), a construct that has been used and validated with students of a foreign language. 13 Ehrman and Leaver developed a profile approach to learning style diagnosis. The E&L model consists of a super-ordinate construct, synopsisectasis, and ten subscales: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Field Sensitive - Field Insensitive Field Independent - Field Dependent Random (non-linear) - Sequential (linear) Global-Particular Inductive-Deductive Synthetic-Analytic Analogue-Digital Concrete-Abstract Levelling-Sharpening Impulsive-Reflective
To implement their approach, they developed an instrument, the Ehrman and Leaver Learning Styles Questionnaire. This questionnaire consists of three items for each of the ten subscales. It has been validated in the USA at the Foreign Service Institute, as one of the questionnaires given to participants in the Learning Consultation Service of that Institute. Ehrman and Leaver explain that [t]he E&L construct offers a rich variety of information about language learners and language learning. It is useful alone, but even more so in tandem with other information, especially that which comes from discussions and interviews with students that add value, because they permit the interviewer and the learner to discuss unusual or
Using a Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext
126
______________________________________________________________ apparently contradictory profiles and make sense of them in the learner’s current context.14 6.
The Study Using a case study approach, the general purpose of this study is to focus on the comprehension of written texts in English presented in a digital learning environment, the platform DidaktosOnLine. The study aims at achieving the following objectives: 1.
2.
3.
4.
To assess the importance of the characteristics of the design of the hyper-document in the comprehension of written texts integrated in a hyper-document developed with the platform DidaktosOnLine; To assess the importance of the characteristics of the participants in the study in the comprehension of written texts integrated in a hyper-document developed with the platform DidaktosOnLine; To analyse the opinion of the participants in the study regarding the use of the platform DidaktosOnLine to access documents and study a topic of the syllabus; To find out the relationship between the characteristics of the participants and their opinion on the hyper-document and the relationship between their opinion and the results of the test on the background knowledge and of the final task.
A. Research Questions The study aims at answering the following research questions: 1.
What is the influence of the following characteristics of the design of the hyper-document on the comprehension of the texts of the project Images of Britain and the British?
The resources, pictures, videos, charts, other texts, associated to the text of the mini-case; The information presented in the areas ‘description,’ ‘context’ and ‘activities’ of the platform; The themes indexed to the texts of the mini-cases; The sequences which implement a thematic crisscrossing; The theme commentaries.
Maria Isabel Orega and António Moreira
127
______________________________________________________________ 2.
What is the influence of the following characteristics of the participants in the study?
English language knowledge; Experience of learning English, both at school and in other contexts; Learning styles; Epistemic preferences; Experience as a reader, both in English and in the mother tongue; Background knowledge on the topic of the project; Age; Sex.
3.
What is the opinion of the participants in the study regarding the use of the platform DidaktosOnLine to access documents and study a topic of the syllabus?
4.
What is the relationship between the characteristics of the participants and their opinion on the hyper-document and the relationship between their opinion and the results of the test on the background knowledge and of the final task?
B. The Hyper-document Images of Britain and the British The hyper-document Images of Britain and the British develops topics that are part of the syllabus of the English language course of the first year of the Media Studies degree at the School of Education of the University of the Algarve. The hyper-document includes seven cases that integrate between three to eight mini-cases each and includes fourteen themes to analyse the mini-cases. Figure 2 shows the first page of the mini-case British Unity in Diversity. The section Description offers a short description of the text.
128
Using a Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext
______________________________________________________________
Figure 2: First page of the mini-case British Unity in Diversity. The section Description offers a short description of the text. C. The Participants The participants of the study are the first year students of the Media Studies degree of the School of Education of the University of the Algarve enrolled in the English language course in the academic year of 2007-2008. All students have explored the hyper-document both in a linear and in a non-linear way. In the first sessions they began to study the first cases, having access to the available resources and to the additional information in the sections context and description. In the subsequent sessions they gradually had access to more information in each mini-case, namely the section activities, and the themes indexed to each mini-case, as well as the thematic commentaries. Finally they had access to the special sequences which implement thematic criss-crossings and present the mini-cases in new arrangements according to specific themes.
Maria Isabel Orega and António Moreira
129
______________________________________________________________ D. Data Collection and Treatment The following data have been collected, in order to answer the research questions defined above: 1.
Answers to several tests and questionnaires in order to build a learner profile of each of the students of the class:
Identification questionnaire. Ehrman and Leaver Learning Style Questionnaire. A language test (Quick Check Test). Test on the background knowledge of the themes developed in the hyper-document. Reading comprehension test, selected from a collection of First Certificate in English tests. Questionnaire on epistemic beliefs.15
2.
Answers to short reading comprehension tasks on the texts of the mini-cases. These tasks will be available in the field Activities.
3.
Summary of the main themes of the hyper-document.
4.
Opinion questionnaire on the use of the platform DidaktosOnline.
5.
Interview with the students.
7.
Expected Outcomes Although we do not have yet the final results of the study, we can try to anticipate the answer to some aspects of the research questions and refer to some data based on the observation during the sessions and on general information from the interviews. Regarding the first research question on the influence of the characteristics of the design of the hyper-document on the comprehension of the texts, in the interviews students emphasised the following aspects: The importance of the resources associated to the texts of the mini-cases, as a way to expand the information in the text. The visual resources, particularly the videos, helped to explain some concepts of the texts in a simple way. They also considered helpful the information presented in the areas description, context and activities as it introduced and contextualised the texts of the minicases. They all considered that the special sequences helped them very much to understand the themes of the mini-cases and didn’t find it boring to read
130
Using a Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext
______________________________________________________________ the same mini-cases again, as some participants in previous studies have reported. Regarding the second research question on the influence of the characteristics of the participants, the group is quite heterogeneous, which anticipates the possible influence of several learner variables in the way they have interacted with the platform and have performed the reading tasks. We are particularly interested in the results of the learning styles questionnaire and also in the results of the epistemic preferences questionnaire. The level of language proficiency of the students had certainly a great deal of influence in the way they read and understood the texts. As a mixed-ability group, there are obvious differences in the time needed to read the texts and to do the reading tasks and also in their reactions to the difficulty and length of some texts, although most of them are short. Regarding the students opinion on the use of the platform, it was globally a very positive one. None of them had previously worked with a digital learning environment. There was one student who doesn’t like computers and said that he prefers other media. They agreed that they have learned quite a lot on the themes of the project. Only a few students considered the hyper-document too long. We are particularly interested in comparing the global results of the group with the individual characteristics of each student.
Notes 1
A Moreira, L Pezdro, P Almeida, ‘DidaktosOnLine: Princípios subjacentes à sua conceptualização e prototipagem para a constituição de comunidades de prática’, in Actas da IV Conferência Internacional de Tecnologias de Informação e Comunicação na Educação - Challenges 2005, P Dias and C Freitas (orgs.), Centro de Competência Nónio da Universidade do Minho, Braga, 2005, (CD-ROM), pp. 753-764. 2 R J Spiro, W Vispoel, J Schmitz, A Samarapungavan, A Boerger, ‘Knowledge Acquisition for Application: Cognitive Flexibility and Transfer in Complex Content Domains’, in B C Britton and S M Glynn (eds) Executive Control in Processes in Reading, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey, 1987, pp.177-199. 3 H Van Oostendorp (ed.), Cognition in a Digital World, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey, 2003, p. xi. 4 Spiro et al. 5 P Mishra, R J Spiro and P Feltovich, Technology, Representation and Cognition: The Prefiguring of Knowledge in Cognitive Flexibility Hypertexts’, in H. Van Oostendorp (ed), Cognitive Aspects of Electronic Text Processing, Ablex Publishing Corporation, New Jersey, 1996, pp. 287-288.
Maria Isabel Orega and António Moreira
131
______________________________________________________________ 6
P Carrell and J C Eisterhold, ‘Schema Theory and ESL Reading Pedagogy’, in P. Carrell, J. Devine and D. Eskey (eds), Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988, p. 76. 7 R J Spiro, P J Feltovich, M J Jacobson and R L Coulson, ‘Cognitive Flexibility, Constructivism, and Hypertext: Random Access Instruction for Advanced Knowledge Acquisition in Ill-Structured Domains’, in T. M.Duffy and D. H. Jonassen (eds), Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction. A Conversation, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, 1992, p. 64. 8 R J Spiro and J Jehng, ‘Cognitive Flexibility and Hypertext: Theory and Technology for the Nonlinear and Multidimensional Traversal of Complex Subject Matter’, in D. Nix and .R Spiro (eds), Cognition, Education and Multimedia: Exploring Ideas in High Technology, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, Hillsdale, 1990, p. 165. 9 Spiro et al., ‘Cognitive Flexibility, Constructivism, and Hypertext: Random Access Instruction for Advanced Knowledge Acquisition in Ill-Structured Domains’, p.65. 10 A Carvalho and A Moreira, ‘Criss-crossing Cognitive Flexibility Theory Based Research in Portugal: An Overview’, Interactive Educational Multimedia, no. 11, October 2005, p. 20. 11 J Milton, Report1: Literature Review in Languages, Technology and Learning, Centre for Applied Language Studies, University of Wales Swansea, Futurelab Series, 2002, p. 9. 12 Z Dörnyei, The Psychology of the Language Learner Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, 2005, p. 121. 13 M Ehrman and B L Leaver, ‘Cognitive Styles in the Service of Language Learning’, System, vol. 31, 2003, pp. 393-415. 14 Ibid., p. 411. 15 A Moreira, Desenvolvimento da flexibilidade cognitiva dos alunos-futuros professores: uma experiência em Didáctica do Inglês. Dissertação de Doutoramento. Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro. 1996.
Bibliography Carrell, P. and Eisterhold J. C., ‘Schema Theory and ESL Reading Pedagogy’. In P. Carrell, J. Devine and D. Eskey (eds), Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988, pp. 73-92.
132
Using a Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext
______________________________________________________________ Carvalho, A. and Moreira A., ‘Criss-crossing Cognitive Flexibility Theory Based Research in Portugal: An Overview’. Interactive Educational Multimedia, no. 11, October 2005, pp. 1-26. Dörnyei, Z., The Psychology of the Language Learner Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, 2005. Ehrman, M., Leaver B. and Oxford R., ‘A Brief Overview of Individual Differences in Second Language Learning’. System, vol. 31, 2003, pp. 313330. Milton, J., Report1: Literature Review in Languages, Technology and Learning. Centre for Applied Language Studies, University of Wales Swansea, Futurelab Series, 2002. Mishra, P., Spiro R.J. and Feltovich, P. J., ‘Technology, Representation and Cognition: The Prefiguring of Knowledge in Cognitive Flexibility Hypertexts’. In H. Van Oostendorp (ed), Cognitive Aspects of Electronic Text Processing. Ablex Publishing Corporation, New Jersey, 1996, pp. 287-306. Moreira, A., Desenvolvimento da flexibilidade cognitiva dos alunos-futuros professores: uma experiência em Didáctica do Inglês. Dissertação de Doutoramento. Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro. 1996. Moreira, A., Pedro L. and Almeida P., ‘DidaktosOnLine: Princípios subjacentes à sua conceptualização e prototipagem para a constituição de comunidades de prática’. In Actas da IV Conferência Internacional de Tecnologias de Informação e Comunicação na Educação - Challenges 2005. P. Dias e C. Freitas (orgs.). Centro de Competência Nónio da Universidade do Minho, Braga, 2005, (CD-ROM), pp. 753-764. Spiro, R. J., Vispoel, W. Schmitz, J., Samarapungavan A., and Boerger, A. ‘Knowledge Acquisition for Application: Cognitive Flexibility and Transfer in Complex Content Domains’. In B. C. Britton and S. M. Glynn (eds) Executive Control in Processes in Reading. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey, 1987, pp.177-199.
Maria Isabel Orega and António Moreira
133
______________________________________________________________ Spiro, R. J. and Jehng J., ‘Cognitive Flexibility and Hypertext: Theory and Technology for the Nonlinear and Multidimensional Traversal of Complex Subject Matter’. In D. Nix and R. Spiro (eds), Cognition, Education and Multimedia: Exploring Ideas in High Technology. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, Hillsdale, 1990. Spiro, R. J., Feltovich P. J., Jacobson M. J. and Coulson R. L., ‘Cognitive Flexibility, Constructivism, and Hypertext: Random Access Instruction for Advanced Knowledge Acquisition in Ill-Structured Domains’. In T. M. Duffy and D. H. Jonassen (eds), Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction. A conversation. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, 1992, pp. 57-75. Van Oostendorp, H., (ed), Cognition in a Digital World. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. New Jersey, 2003.
Biographical Notes Iva Apostolova is a professor in Philosophy at the University of Ottawa, St. Paul’s University and the Dominican University College in Ottawa, Canada. Department of Philosophy, University of Ottawa, 70 Laurier East Ave., Ottawa, ON, K1S 2N3, Canada. Johnnes Arreymbi SCOT, University of Docklands Campus 4-6 University Way, London E16.
East
London
Maria Leonor Borges teaches at the School of Education of the University of Algarve, Portugal. Mark Dobbins is an aspiring philosopher from the USA. His interests are numerous but tend to focus on innovation of social systems. He takes a somewhat Socratic approach to philosophy, with an emphasis on openminded reasoning over scholarship, though with great deference to those who pursue scholarship and what they bring to reasoned argument. Chrisina Draganova (corresponding author): SCOT, University of East London Docklands Campus 4-6 University Way, London E16. Karen Gomoluch, School of Arts, Media and Education, University of Bolton, UK Dale Kirby is an Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Education at Memorial University of Newfoundland. He is the author of one of Canada’s most widely-read blogs about issues and problems in the field of post-secondary studies (http://post-secondary.blogspot.com). Serpil Koçdar works at the Department of Distance Education, Anadolu University of Turkey. António Moreira, University of Aveiro, Portugal. Maria Isabel Orega, University of Algarve, Portugal. Nilgün Özdamar works at the Department of Distance Education, Anadolu University of Turkey.
136
Biographical Notes
______________________________________________________________ Sanja Petkovska is currently a Master’s student in Socio-cultural anthropology at the University of Belgrade and researcher at the Centre for Educational Policy. Sarwet Rasul, Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Bill Tait is an Associate Teaching Fellow in the Centre for Open Learning in Mathematics, Science, Computing and Technology (COLMSCT) at The Open University, UK. Gill Whittaker, School of Arts, Media and Education, University of Bolton, UK.
