Underutilized Fruits and Nuts Vol. 2 Fruits of Tropical Region
O.P. PAREEK Formerly Director Central Institute for Arid Horticulture (ICAR) Bikaner-334 001 (Raj.)
SUNEEL SHARMA Professor of Horticulture Haryana Agriculture University Hisar-125 004 (Haryana)
Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors Jaipur 302 003 (Raj.) India
First Published in 2009 by Prem C. Bakliwal for
Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors 807, Vyas Building, Chaura Rasta Jaipur 302 003 (Raj.) India Phone: 0141-2578159 e-mail:
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© Authors
ISBN 978-81-7910-282-4 (Set) 978-81-7910-284-8 (Vol. 2)
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CONTENTS
List of Colour Plates ..................................................................................................... .
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS OF TROPICAL REGION 1.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS ................................................ 3-218
-Abiu ............................................................................................................................ 3 -Acai Palm ................................................................................................................... 6 -African Breadfruit ..................................................................................................... 7 -African Plum Tree ..................................................................................................... 9 -African Walnut ....................................................................................................... 11 -Akee .......................................................................................................................... 12 -Ambarella ................................................................................................................. 14 -Araca-boi .................................................................................................................. 16 -Babassu .................................................................................................................... 18 -Baccaurea ................................................................................................................. 20 -Bakuri ....................................................................................................................... 23 -Bambangan ..................................................................... :........................................ 24 -Barbados Gooseberry .............................................................................................. 25 -Bignay ....................................................................................................................... 27 -Bilimbi ...................................................................................................................... 29
-Binjai ......................................................................................................................... 31 -Biriba ......................................................................................................................... 32 -Black Sapote ............................................................................................................. 34 -Borojo ........................................................................................................................ 36 -Brazil Nut ................................................................................................................ 36 -Breadfruit ................................................................................................................. 38 -Breadnut ................................................................................................................... 42 -Burahol ..................................................................................................................... 44 -Buriti Palm ............................................................................................................... 45 -Bush Mango ............................................................................................................. 47 -Camu Camu ............................................................................................................. 48 -Canistel ..................................................................................................................... 50 -Carambola ................................................................................................................ 52 -Cashew ..................................................................................................................... 55 -Cassabanana ........................................................................................................... 60 -Ceriman .................................................................................................................... 61 -Champedak .............................................................................................................. 62 -Coco Plum ................................................................................................................ 64 -Cola Nut ................................................................................................................... 66 -Couepia .................................................................................................................... 68 -Cow Tree .................................................................................................................. 70 -Cupuazu ................................................................................................................... 71 -Custard Apple ......................................................................................................... 73 -Durian ...................................................................................................................... 75 -Elephant Apple ....................................................................................................... 82 -Fijian Longan .......................................................................................................... 83 --Galo Nut ................................................................................................................... 85 --Gandaria .................................................................................................................. 86 --Genipap .................................................................................................................... 88 --Giant Granadilla ..................................................................................................... 89 --Governor's Plum ..................................................................................................... 91 --Grumichama ............................................................................................................ 93 --Guarana ................................................................................................................... 94 -Horse Mango ........................................................................................................... 96 -Ice Cream Bean ........................................................................................................ 97 -Jackfruit .................................................................................................................. 100 -Jamaica CherrY ...................................................................................................... 103 -Java Almond .......................................................................................................... 105 -Java Rose Apple .................................................................................................... 107
-Kitembilla ............................................................................................................... 109 -Kokam ..................................................................................................................... 111 -Kuwini .................................................................................................................... 112 -Langsat ................................................................................................................... 114 -Lovi-Lovi ................................................................................................................ 117 -Lucuma ................................................................................................................... 119 -Madrono ................................................................................................................. 120 -Malabar Chestnut ................................................................................................. 121 -Malay Rose Apple ................................................................................................ 123 -Mammee Apple ..................................................................................................... 125 -Mangosteen ............................................................................................................ 127 -Marang ................................................................................................................... 131 -Matisia .................................................................................................................... 133 -Miracle Fruit .......................................................................................................... 135 -Monkey Pot ............................................................................................................ 136 -Namnam ................................................................................................................. 137 -Nance ...................................................................................................................... 138 --Okari Nut ............................................................................................................... 140 --Orinoco Apple ....................................................................................................... 141 --Orinoco Nut ........................................................................................................... 142 --Otaheite Gooseberry ............................................................................................. 144 -Pandanus ............................................................................................................... 145 -Paniala .................................................................................................................... 148 -Paradise Nut .......................................................................................................... 149 -Passionfruit ............................................................................................................ 150 -Pataua Palm ........................................................................................................... 153 -Pejibaye ................................................................................................................... 155 -Pili Nut ................................................................................................................... 158 -Pitomba ................................................................................................................... 160 -Pitomberia .............................................................................................................. 161 -Pulasan ................................................................................................................... 162 -Pummelo ................................................................................................................. 164 -Rakum Palm .......................................................................................................... 166 -Rambutan ............................................................................................................... 168 -Rose Apple ............................................................................................................. 172 -Rukam .................................................................................................................... 174 -Rumberry ................................................................................................................ 176 -Salak Palm ............................................................................................................. 177 -Sansapote ............................................................................................................... 180
2.
-Santol ...................................................................................................................... 181 -Sapucaia Nut ......................................................................................................... 183 -Seagrape ................................................................................................................. 185 -Soncoya .................................................................................................................. 186 -Souari Nut .............................................................................................................. 187 -Sour Sop ................................................................................................................. 188 -Spanish Joint Fir ................................................................................................... 190 -Spanish Tamarind ................................................................................................ 192 -Star Apple .............................................................................................................. 193 -Sugar Palm ............................................................................................................. 196 -Sweet Calabash ..................................................................................................... 199 -Sweet Granadilla .................................................................................................. 199 -Tahiti Chestnut ..................................................................................................... 200 -Telfairia Nut .......................................................................................................... 202 -Tomatillo ................................................................................................................ 203 -Tonka Bean ............................................................................................................ 205 -Tree Bean ................................................................................................................ 206 - Tucuma ................................................................................................................... 208 -Uvilla ...................................................................................................................... 209 -Velvet Apple .......................................................................................................... 211 -Water Lemon ......................................................................................................... 213 -West Indian Locust ............................................................................................... 214 -Wild Cashew ......................................................................................................... 215 -Yellow Mombin ..................................................................................................... 216 UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION ...................................................................................... 229-292 -African Fan Palm .................................................................................................. 229 -African Locust Bean ............................................................................................. 230 -Amra ....................................................................................................................... 232 -Avocado ................................................................................................................. 234 -Barbados Cherry ......... ......................................................................................... 239 -Chironji ................................................................................................................... 242 -Downy Myrtle ........................................................................................................ 244 -Drumstick ............................................................................................................... 245 -Hissing Tree ........................................................................................................... 248 -nama ....................................................................................................................... 250 -Indian Almond ...................................................................................................... 252 -Kei Apple ............................................................................................................... 254 -Khirni ...................................................................................................................... 255
3.
4.
-Macauba ................................................................................................................. 257 -Marney Sapote ....................................................................................................... 258 -Manila Tamarind .................................................................................................. 261 -Masuku ................................................................................................................... 262 -Monkey Jack ........................................................................................................... 264 -Oyster Nut ............................................................................................................. 265 -Palmyra Palm ........................................................................................................ 267 -Pequi ....................................................................................................................... 269 -Red Mombin .......................................................................................................... 271 -Shea Butter Tree .................................................................................................... 273 -Spanish Lime ......................................................................................................... 275 -Strawberry Pear ..................................................................................................... 277 -Sugar Apple ........................................................................................................... 278 -Surinam Cherry .. ,.................................................................................................. 282 -Tamarind ................................................................................................................ 284 -Water Apple ........................................................................................................... 287 -West African Ebony .............................................................................................. 289 -Wild Custard Apple ............................................................................................. 290 UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL ARID REGION ...... 297-312 -African Dove Plum ............................................................................................... 297 -Argan Tree ............................................................................................................. 298 -Baobab .................................................................................................................... 300 -Black Plum ............................................................................................................. 302 -Doum Palm ............................................................................................................ 304 -Kaffir Orange ......................................................................................................... 305 -Marula Nut ............................................................................................................ 306 -Mogongo Nut ........................................................................................................ 309 -Yeheb Nut .............................................................................................................. 311 EPILOGUE ......................................................................................................... 313-315 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................... 316-328 INDEX ................................................................................................................. 329-342
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
LIST OF COLOUR PLATES
TROPICAL HUMID REGION Fruiting twigs of buriti palm (M :uritia vinifera) .................................................................... 219 Fruits of sweet calabash ........................................................................................................... 219 Fruits of okari nut ...................................................................................................................... 219 Fruiting in velvet apple ............................................................................................................. 219 Fruiting in ceriman .................................................................................................................... 219 Cut open fruits of salak palm in background ....................................................................... 219 Fruits of acai palm ..................................................................................................................... 219 Fruiting in African breadfruit .................................................................................................. 219 Fruit clusters of Spanish joint fir (Gnetum gnemon) ............................................................... 220 Fruits of star apple .................................................................................................................... 220 Pods of tree bean (Parkia speciosa) ............................................................................................ 220 Fruits of abiu .............................................................................................................................. 220 Fruits of tucuma (Astrocaryum standleyanum) ......................................................................... 220 Fruit clusters of sugar palm (Arenga pinnata) ........................................................................ 220 Fruiting in babassu (Orbignya phalerata) ................................................................................ 220 Nuts of Java almond (Canarium indicum) ............................................................................... 220 Fruiting branch of cupuazu ..................................................................................................... 221
Fruiting in elephant apple ........................................................................................................ 221 Fruits of genipap ........................................................................................................................ 221 Fruiting in giant granadilla ..................................................................................................... 221 Fruiting in Governor's plum .................................................................................................... 221 Fruiting in grumichama ............................................................................................................ 221 Fruits of guarana ....................................................................................................................... 221 Fruiting in Jamaica cherry ........................................................................................................ 221 Fruiting in lovi-Iovi .................................................................................................................... 222 Fruits of lucuma ......................................................................................................................... 222 Fruiting branch of madrono ..................................................................................................... 222 Fruiting in Malay rose apple ................................................................................................... 222 Fruits of matisia ......................................................................................................................... 222 Fruits of namnam ....................................................................................................................... 222 Fruits of orinoco apple .............................................................................................................. 222 Fruits of rakum palm ................................................................................................................. 222 A fruiting passionfruit vine ..................................................................................................... 223 Fruit clusters of peach palm ..................................................................................................... 223 Fruiting branch of pili nut ........................................................................................................ 223 Fruiting in pulasan .................................................................................................................... 223 Fruit clusters of pummelo ......................................................................................................... 223 Fruits of rambutan ..................................................................................................................... 223 African Plum tree (Dacroyodes edulis) ...................................................................................... 223 A fruit of soursop ....................................................................................................................... 223 Fruiting in breadnut (Brosimum alicastrum) ............................................................................ 224 Fruiting in bush mango ............................................................................................................ 224 Fruits of camu camu .................................................................................................................. 224 Fruits of canistel ........ ................................................................................................................. 224 Fruiting in carambola ................................................................................................................ 224 Fruit clusters in cashew .... ........................................................................................................ 224 Fruiting in custard apple .... ...................................................................................................... 224 Fruits of durian .......................................................................................................................... 224 Fruiting twig of African walnut (Coula edulis) ...................................................................... 225 Fruits of akee .............................................................................................................................. 225 Fruit bearing in ambarella ........................................................................................................ 225 Fruit clusters of Baccaurea courtallensis .................................................................................... 225 Fruiting in bignay (Antidesma bunius) ..................................................................................... 225 Fruiting in bilimbi ...................................................................................................................... 225 Fruiting in borojo ....................................................................................................................... 225
Brazil nut .................................................................................................................................... 225 Fruiting branch of Malabar tamarind ..................................................................................... 226 Fruits of mammee apple ........................................................................................................... 226 Fruiting in mangosteen ............................................................................................................. 226 Fruits of marang ......................................................................................................................... 226 Fruiting in jackfruit, cut open fruit (inset) ............................................................................. 226 Fruiting in nance ....................................................................................................................... 226 Fruiting in otaheite gooseberry ................................................................................................ 226 Fruits of paradise nut ................................................................................................................ 226 Fruits of bakuri ........................................................................................................................... 227 Fruiting in Barbados gooseberry ............................................................................................. 227 Fruiting branch of black sapote ............................................................................................... 227 Fruiting in breadfruit ................................................................................................................. 227 Fruiting in burahol .................................................................................................................... 227 Fruits of cassabanana ............................................................................................................... 227 Fruiting in coco plum ................................................................................................................ 227 Fruits of cola nut ........................................................................................................................ 227 Fruiting in Fijian longan and fruit (inset) .............................................................................. 228 Fruits of galo nut ....................................................................................................................... 228 Flowering and fruiting in Inga vera ......................................................................................... 228 Fruits of Mysore gamboge (Garcinia cambogia) ....................................................................... 228 Java apple fruits ......................................................................................................................... 228 Fruits of kokam .......................................................................................................................... 228 Fruits of langsat ......................................................................................................................... 228 Fruiting in Pandanus tectorius ................................................................................................... 228
TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION Fruiting in wild custard apple (Annona senegalensis) ........................................................... 293 Fruiting in Surinam cherry (Eugenia uniflora) ........................................................................ 293 Fruit clusters of Indian almond ............................................................................................... 293 Fruiting in Spanish lime ........................................................................................................... 293 African locust bean .................................................................................................................... 293 Fruiting in kei apple .................................................................................................................. 293 Fruiting in monkey jack ............................................................................................................ 293 Pequi fruits .................................................................................................................................. 293 Fruits of manila tamarind ........................................................................................................ 294 Fruiting branches of masuku (Uapaca kirkiana) ..................................................................... 294 Palmyra palm in fruiting .......................................................................................................... 294
Fruits of. shea nuts ..................................................................................................................... 294 Fruits of strawberry pear .......................................................................................................... 294 Fruiting in sugar apple ............................................................................................................. 294 Fruit clusters on tamarind tree ................................................................................................ 294 Fruit clusters of water apple .................................................................................................... 294 Fruits and leaf of amra .............................................................................................................. 295 Fruiting in avocado and cut fruits (inset) .............................................................................. 295 Fruiting in Barbados cherry ..................................................................................................... 295 Fruiting chironji tree and fruits (inset) ................................................................................... 295 Fruiting in drumstick ................................................................................................................ 295 Fruits of hissing tree (Parinari curatellifolia) ........................................................................... 295 Fruiting branch of khirni .......................................................................................................... 295 Fruiting in mamey sapote (Pouteria sapota) ............................................................................ 295
TROPICAL ARID REGION Drum palm (Hyphaene thebaica) ................................................................................................ 296 Argan tree in fruiting ................................................................................................................ 296 Fruiting in baobab ..................................................................................................................... 296 Fruiting in black plum (Vitex doniana) .................................................................................... 296 Fruiting in kaffir orange (monkey ball) .................................................................................. 296 Fruiting in marula nut .............................................................................................................. 296 Fruiting branch of mogongo nut and nuts (inset) ................................................................ 296 Fruits of African dove plum ..................................................................................................... 296
Underutilized Fruits of Tropical Regions
2
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Table 1 : Underutilized fruits from tropical regions of the world having economic potential Humid region Abiu, Acai palm, African breadfruit, African plum tree, African walnut, Akee, Ambarella, Araca-boi, Babassu, Baccaurea, Bakuri, Bambangan, Barbados gooseberry, Bignay, Bilimbi, Binjai, Biriba, Black sapote, Borojo, Brazil nut, Breadfruit, Breadnut, Burahol, Buriii palm, Bush mango, Camu camu, Canistel, Carambola, Cashew, Cassabanana, Ceriman, Champedak, Coco plum, Cola nut, Couepia, Cowtree, Cupuazu, Custard apple, Durian, Elephant apple, Fijian longan, Galo nut, Gandaria, Genipap, Giant granadilla, Governor's plum, Grumichama, Guarana, Horse mango, Ice cream bean, Jackfruit, Jamaica cherry, Java almond, Java rose apple, Kitembilla, Kokam, Kuwini, Langsat, Lovi lovi, Lucuma, Madrono, Malabar chestnut, Malay rose apple, Mammee apple, Mangosteen, Marang, Matisia, Miracle fruit, Monkey pot, Namnam, Nance, Okari nut, Orinoco apple, Orinoco nut, Otaheite gooseberry, Pandanus, Paniala, Paradise nut, Passionfruit, Pataua palm, Pejibaye, Pili nut, Pitomba, Pitomberia, Pulasan, Pummelo, Rakum palm, Rambutan, Rose apple, Rukam, Rumberry, Salak palm, Sansapote, Santol, Sapucaia nut, Seagrape, Soncoya, Souari nut, Sour sop, Spanish joint fir, Spanish tamarind, Star apple, Sugar palm, Sweet calabash, Sweet granadilla, Tahiti chestnut, Telfairia nut, Tomatillo, Tonka bean, Tree bean, Tucuma Uvilla, Velvet apple, Water lemon, West Indian locust, Wild cashew, Yellow mombin.
Semi-arid region Arid region African fan palm, African dove plum,Argan African locust bean, tree, Baobab, Amra, Avocado, Black plum, Barbados cherry, Doumpalm, Chironji, Downy myrtle, Drumstick, Kaffir orange, Marulanut, Hissing tree, nama, Indian almond, Kei Mogongo nut, Yehebnut. apple, Khirni, Macauba, Mamey sapote, Manila tamarind, Masuku, Monkey jack, Oyster nut, Palmyra palm, Pequi, Red mombin, Shea butter tree, Spanish lime, Strawberry pear, Sugar apple, Surinam cherry, Tamarind, Water apple, West African ebony, Wild custard apple.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
1. ABIU Abiu or caimito (Pouteria caimito (Ruiz and Pav.) Radlk. syn. Achras caimito Ruiz. and Pav., Lucuma caimito Roem. & Schultes, Labaitia caimito Martius, Guapeba caimito Pierre) belongs to family Sapotaceae. It is native of Peru particularly the Amazon headwater area (Clement, 1989). The fruit was well known in the pre-Columbian civilizations of South and Central America. It is well distributed throughout the tropics, though not grown to any large extent commercially (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). Its trees grow wild in the Amazon lowlands from Peru to the State of Para in Brazil. It grows wild on the lower eastern slopes of the Andes from southwestern Venezuela to Peru. A botanical variety P. caimito var. strigosa is reported from Venezuela. It is cultivated in Peru, Ecuador and Venezuela (Morton, 1987). It has also been introduced in Australia. The fruit holds good potential for commercial production in the hot tropics (Martin et al., 1987). Even before 1492, South American Indians cultivated it. It is now cultivated in Brazil and Peru and holds good potential in hot tropics. It grows better in warm humid areas free from frost. Abiu plants are drought resistant but even a short dry spell is not desirable. Mature trees can withstand as low temperature as -2°C with little damage. Best growth of the tree occurs within 120 of the equator and up to an elevation of 1000 m and in warmer areas within 250 of the equator (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). The tree can be grown on a wide variety of soils provided drainage is good. Best growth occurs in fertile, well-drained soils. It can be planted on acid soils (FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987) but cannot tolerate waterlogged areas and saline soils.
4
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Abiu is a dessert fruit. It is rich in carbohydrates and protein and provides 95 calories and contains 74.1 g moisture, 2.1 g protein, 1.1 g lipids, 3.0 g fibre, 96.0 mg calcium, 45.0 mg phosphorus, 1.8 mg iron, 0.2 mg vitamin BI , 0.2 mg vitamin B2, 3.4 mg niacin and 49.0 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of pulp (Morton, 1987). Fruit is also used to make ices and ice cream. Fruit pulp is eaten to relieve coughs, bronchitis and other pulmonary complaints. The wood is dense, heavy and hard and is used for construction particularly for making handles of tools.
Botany The tree is evergreen and grows 4.5-6 m tall with a pyramidal or round crown. Leaves are dark green, alternate, entire, obovate to lanceolate but variable in shape and 10-20 x 36 em in size. Flowers are borne solitary or in clusters of 2-5 in the leafaxils or above the leaf scars, practically sessile, hermaphrodite; sepals usually 4, ovate, small; corolla cylindrical, white or greenish white; stamens 4-5 on the throat of the corolla, staminodes 4-5; pistil is little longer than corolla with a small globose, 10-12 celled ovary. Fruit is bright yellow, globose to cylindrical berry, 4-5 cm in diameter, 5-10 cm long, tomentose when young; flesh whitish, translucent and jelly-like. The fruit skin is leathery, 3-5 mm thick and produces sticky latex. Seeds are 1-4, cylindrical-ovoid, slightly compressed on the sides (Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987). 1
E
..1' C f
Fig. 1 : Pouteria caimito (Ruiz & Pav.) Radlk. 1. Leafy branch; 2. Fruit. (FAO, 1986)
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
5
Varieties There is much variation in form, size and quality of the fruits in seedling trees. Two types have been identified in Colombia; one bears round and large fruits in 4 years, and the other starts bearing small fruits having little pulp one year after planting. Named varieties in Queensland, Australia, include Inca Gold and Cape Oasis, Gray, Z 1, Z 2, Z 3, Z 4, Z 25 and Z 31 (Parker, 1986). For genetic improvement, the selection criteria include early and regular bearing, round fruit of over 180 g size with few seeds and low skin latex and firm, sweet, translucent flesh having 13-18% total soluble solids and good shelf life (Nakasone and Paull, 1998).
Culture Abiu plants are usually grown from seeds. Seeds are recalcitrant and therefore short lived. The plants raised from seedlings take long time to bear and show great variation in fruit yield and quality. Vegetative propagation methods except by side veneer grafting (FAO, 1986) have given little success. The trees are spaced 8-10 m while planting. Closer inter-row spacing of 2-3 m has also been adopted. Young plants require some shade and regular irrigations until these are established. Moisture stress is harmful to fruiting trees. Flowers and small fruits abscise under moisture stress and fruit size gets reduced. Therefore, regular irrigations particularly during the dry season are necessary for higher yield of larger fruits. A mature abiu tree requires at least 1.5 kg N, 0.5 kg PPs and 0.5 kg ~O per year. Applications are made in at least two splits, one before the wet season and the other just after harvest (Lim and Ramsay, 1992). Mulching is commonly done around the base of the tree to check weed growth and conserve soil moisture. Pruning of mature trees is limited to removal of dead and thin branches and branchlets of the lower whorl that bend towards the ground. In the early years of growth, however, little trimming is required to stimulate lateral growth. The seedling trees flower 710 years after planting. The grafts flower in 3-4 years. Flowering occurs throughout the year. Insects carry out pollination. Fruit set is abundant during the warmer months. One hundred to 130 days are taken from flowering to maturity. Fruit development takes about three months (Schoefield, 1984). Since flowering often overlaps the preceding crop, there can be as many as three crops in a year. It is not uncommon to find fruits of various ages on the same tree and sometimes on the same branch. The skin of immature fruit is green, changing to light yellow on ripening. When immature, all parts of the fruit contain sticky white latex and the cut surface rapidly browns. As fruit matures, the latex disappears from the pulp and remains only in the peel. Full ripening occurs in 1-5 days, when the fruit pulp does not have sticky latex. On maturity, the white translucent flesh becomes jelly-like and sweet with a pleasant somewhat caramel flavour. One to five large oblong seeds are enclosed in a 5 mm thick leathery skin. The tough leathery skin can be easily bruised. It takes 100 to 130 days from flowering to fruit maturity. Fruits are harvested when bright yellow in colour. In northern Queensland, harvesting begins in December and continues until June, with the maximum pick between January and March. On full bearing, the tree produces from 250 to 700 fruits in a year. A mature tree yields 200 kg fruits annually. Abiu fruit normally weighs from 50 to 500 g. Larger fruits weighing up to 1000 g have been reported in a semi-domesticated race. The fruit can be stored for about one week at 12°C.
6
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Pests and diseases do not seriously limit productivity of abiu trees. However, some leaf eating larvae, trunk borer (Cratasomus sp.), twig borers, various scales, aphids and mealy bugs attack different parts of the tree. As they ripen, abiu fruits can become host for fruit flies (Anastrepha sp.). These being quarantine pests, limit the export potential of fruits (Morton, 1987; Nakasone and Paull, 1998).
2. ACAI PALM Acai palm or acai or assai or asai or pina palm (Euterpe oleracea C. Mart.) belongs to family Palmae and is native to Amazon region of Brazil. It is also known as cabbage palm or para palm, palmit, acai-do-para or manicola. It is found growing in Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and Brazil. It has been introduced into India, Sri Lanka and Malaysia. The other related species Euterpe edulis C. Mart. is distributed along the southern seacoast of Brazil and E. precatoria Mart. occurs on Peruvian-Brazilian-Colombian borders (Martin et al., 1987; Tabora et al., 1993). The acai palm needs hot, wet tropical lowland conditions. It grows in the region receiving annual rainfall of 1400-2800 mm under temperature range of 20 to 23°C in seasonally flooded habitats and along the water margins. It can be grown on sandy soils and in marshy areas. The fruit is eaten fresh or as drink, wine, syrup and sauce. Its pulp has an unusual flavour similar to that of raspberries or blackberries and has a nutty taste. In Brazil, it is cooked with cassava meal. The fruit is also used in many baked products. The fruit pulp has high calorific value being rich in starch and sugar. It is also a good source of vitamin A, calcium, phosphorus and iron. Dense purple liquid of incomparable flavour is extracted from the seeds. It is used in drinks or to prepare ice cream, liquor and sweets. Acai palm is an excellent source for palm cabbage or heart and thus has great promise in the tropics (Anderson, 1988). The palm heart contains 2.42% protein, 0.89% crude fibre, 0.33% fat, 0.86% total sugars and 1.8 mg vitamin C per 100 g cabbage (Quast and Bernhardt, 1978). The leaves are used for weaving and thatching. The elegant acai palm is also a choice palm for gardens (Martin et al., 1987).
Botany Acai is a monoecious, clustered and unarmed feather palm. It grows up to a height of 25 m. The palm is easily recognized by its long (20-30 m), thin and elegant stem having a basal diameter of 15-20 em. The long pinnate leaves have pendulous segments. The leaves are 2-3 m long, inserted mainly on top of the palm. The inflorescence is a 50-80 cm long panicle bearing yellow, unisexual flowers. The fruit is a small, round, black violet drupe, 12-15 mm in diameter with single seed. The fruits are borne in large cluster (Anderson, 1988; Briicher, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Culture Acai palm can be propagated either by seed or suckers. Seed takes six months to germitlate. Germination of seeds can be improved by soaking in water. Sowing is done either in plastic bags or in beds under shade to raise seedlings. The seedling is transplanted before or after one leaf has developed. The spacing of the plants in the field depends on the intended produce. For the production of fruits, a spacing of 5 x 5 m is recommended and for palm
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
7
cabbage, spacing at 2 x 2 m is considered enough. Young palms are provided temporary shading by intercropping (Tabora et al., 1993). Three years after planting, management of the clumps is done through removal of the tillers, leaving just three or four. Phosphorus and potassium fertilization improves palm growth by increasing leaf number, girth and height.
Fig. 2 : Euterpe precatoria Mart., Acai palm (Source: Fruit Trees of Amazon Region)
Seed propagated palms start flowering three years after planting whereas those propagated through suckers flower one year after planting. Three years after planting, elimination of extra suckers from the clumps is done to retain three or four. The palm flowers and develops fruits throughout the year. From a planting density of 400 per hectare, 10 to 12 tonnes fruit yield is estimated. The fruit turns black or purple on ripening. Harvesting season is usually from July to December. Palm heart yield of 1 kg per tree has been reported. The most serious insect pest is Rhyncophorus sp., which deposits its eggs on the young unopened leaves. The larvae eat the tender leaves and proceed toward the meristematic apex, killing the whole plant. A fungal disease, Colletotrichum sp., attacks acai seedlings causing as much as 70% losses in the nursery (Tabora et al., 1993).
3. AFRICAN BREADFRUIT African breadfruit (Treculia africana Decne.) of family Moraceae is a native of tropical West Africa (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as African boxwood, mozinde and okwa and is found growing in Guinea, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, Nigeria, Cameroon, Sierra Leone and Ghana. It is found growing in evergreen and deciduous forests usually near the streams and swamps and requires hot tropical climatic conditions for good growth and fruiting but
8
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
can also grow in subtropical moist conditions. It can be grown in a variety of soils having pH 5 to 5.3 (Duke, 1989). Roasted or boiled seeds are peeled and eaten as a dessert nut or after frying in oil. The seeds are also ground into meal for flavouring sauces and alcoholic beverages. Flavour of seed is similar to peanuts. The seed also yields edible oil. African breadfruit flour is used to prepare a variety of sweetened baked foods such as cookies, buns, cakes, biscuits and snacks. Almond milk is a beverage made from its meal. Heartwood of the tree is golden yellow or yellow brown in colour and is very dense and heavy and is used for furniture, carving and twinery. African breadfruit is a folk remedy for cough, fever, leprosy, throat ailments and round worms and for tooth extraction. Bark decoction is used to treat constipation and cough. Root decoction is used as febrifuge and vermifuge. It is considered a tonic after illness (Duke, 1989; Wickens, 1995). It is reported to provide 415 calories and contain 13.9 g protein, 6.2 g fat, 77.5 g total carbohydrates, 1.8 g fibre, 2.4 gash, 140 mg calcium and 349 mg phosphorus per 100 g of seed on zero moisture basis (Duke, 1989).
Botany It is a medium to large dioecious tree of 27 m height and 3 cm girth. Leaves are alternate, simple, glabrous, elliptic to ovate-elliptic, 20-25 x 7.5-12 em in size. Male and female flowers are borne on separate inflorescences. Male flower heads are globular, 5 cm in diameter, brownish-yellow, very short pedunculate with 3 stamens. Fruit is spherical, 45 cm in diameter and 12-16 kg in weight, borne subsessile on the trunk and main limbs and is covered with coarse, spine-like tubercles. It becomes yellow brown and soft on ripening. Seeds are numerous, smooth, ellipsoid, 1.25 cm long and brown in colour (Duke, 1989).
Fig. 3 : Treculia africana Decne., African breadfruit (Duke, 1989)
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
9
Varieties Lot of variability occurs with regard to growth and fruiting. Some types can tolerate drought, low pH and waterlogging conditions (Duke, 1989).
Culture It is generally propagated either by seed or budding or cuttings. The vegetatively propagated plants come into bearing at 2 to 4 years age whereas the seedlings bear after 10 or more years. The former also produce fruits at lower plant height. Flowering occurs in January-February and the fruits mature during February-March (Duke, 1989). A mature tree produces up to 30 fruits annually. After processing, each fruit yields 5-10 kg seed (Nwokolo, 1996).
4. AFRICAN PLUM TREE African plum tree (Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H. J. Lam. syn. Pachylobus edulis G. Don.), also known as African pear, bush butter and safoutier belonging to family Burseraceae, is a native of tropical West Africa and is distributed in tropical Africa and Malaysia (Martin et al., 1987). The other related edible species are D. buettneri, D. igaganga, D. klaineana and D. macrophylla. African plum tree features in the evergreen forests extending from southern Nigeria to Zaire and in the m'..lltistoried compound farms of southeastern Nigeria (Burkill, 1985). It is found growing wild in southern Nigeria, Congo and Cameroon and is cultivated in Cameroon, Zaire, Gabon to Uganda and central Angola. It is an extremely plastic plant tolerating a wide range of day lengths, temperatures and edaphic conditions. It grows well both at high and low altitudes in relatively dry tropical Savanna. It prefers humid and sub-humid climatic conditions. It can also grow at an altitude of 1000 m. Mature and young trees are susceptible to frost. African plum tree favours acid soils with plenty of organic matter. It holds lot of potential for agroforestry uses in the tropics. It can be planted to serve as a live fence, as shade tree in tree crop plots and on contour bunds or for hedgerow planting (FAO, 1982; Ayuket al., 1999a; Martin et al., 1987; Aiyelaagbe et al., 1998; Ngatchou and Kengue, 1989; Kengue, 2002). The fruit pulp is eaten fresh, fried, roasted or boiled as dessert with curries. The pulp has pleasant subacid flavour and is rich in starch and protein. Oil is extracted from the seeds that contain palmitic acid (36.5%), stearic acid (55.5%), oleic acid (33.9%) and linoleic acid (24.0%). The oil is suitable as cooking oil for margarine and also for the manufacture of soaps, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. The juice of the leaves is used for the treatment of otitis. The decoction of the leaves is used to treat fever, stiffness and headache. The bark contains resin containing sabinene, limonene and canaric acid (Ekong and Okogun, 1969). A decoction of the bark is used in various oral complaints. Wood is used for the preparation of tool handles, poles, etc. (FAO, 1982; Ngatchou and Kengue, 1989). Botany It is an evergreen tree and grows up to 8-12 m in height with a straight and cylindrical trunk. The leaves are compound imparipinnate with 4-12 pairs of leaflets. The tree is dioecious. Male and hermaphrodite flowers are borne on axillary or terminal 8-25 cm
10
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
long inflorescences. Female inflorescence is 5-15 cm long. Female inflorescences produce more fruits than the hermaphrodite ones. The ovary is bilocular each with two ovules. After fertilization they fail to develop normally and only one seed develops. Fruit is an ellipsoid to globular or conical drupe, 4-12 cm long and 3-6 cm in diameter. The drupes are rose coloured when young turning deep blue at maturity. The pericarp consists of a very thin, waxy and coloured epicarp and pulpy edible mesocarp. The light rose, green or whitish mesocarp is 0.5 cm thick and has varied flavour. The endocarp is thin, smooth and plated extremely with a barely visible escutcheon. The seed is light green and consists of two fleshy and five lobed cotyledons (FAO, 1982; Ngatchou and Kengue, 1989).
Fig. 4 : Dacryodes edulis. Safou. female inflorescence; B. Male inflorescence; C. External morphology of flower; D. Longitudinal section of female flower; E. Longitudinal section of male flower; F. Transeverse section of ovary; G. External morphology of fruit; H. Longitudinal sectioin of fruit. (Kengue, 2002).
Varieties Two varieties of D. edulis have been described. D. edulis var. edulis has large, usually more than 5 em long and 2.5 cm wide fruits. D. edulis var. paroicarpa bears fruits usually smaller than 5 x 2.5 cm. In both the varieties, diversity with regard to fruit shape exists (Ngatchou and Kengue, 1989).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
11
Culture African plum tree is generally propagated from the seeds or by air layering or stem cuttings. Standard cultural practices for the African plum tree should be developed. It is planted in the field at a spacing of 10 x 10 m. Trees raised through seeds come into bearing 5-6 years after planting. The vegetatively propagated plants start bearing earlier. Flowering occurs during early January and lasts for about a month. In some early or late varieties, the flowering continues for three months. The flowers are not showy but their strong perfume attracts insects. Bee (Apis mellifera) is the main pollinating insect. Fruiting occurs in MayJune depending upon the time of flowering. The fruit yield ranges from 8 to 110 kg tree-! depending on age of the tree. Fruits are very perishable and start rotting in a few days. The fruits are packed in bags or baskets for farm gate sale.
5. AFRICAN WALNUT African walnut (Coula edulis Baill. syn. C. catrea Wildem and Th. Our.) belongs to the family Olacaceae and is native of western tropical Africa (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as gabon nut or almond wood. It is found growing wild from Sierra Leone to Gabon and Zaire, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, Nigeria and Cameroon. It is a dominant species of evergreen wet forest and as the understorey of semi-deciduous forest on non-flooded lands. It is a gregarious species of hot tropical humid lowlands but has no special soil requirement. At present, it is a locally important species (Martin et al., 1987). Its seeds are eaten fresh, boiled or roasted and are source of edible oil. African walnut kernel is very rich in oil. Almost 87 per cent of the fat is oleic acid. Per 100 g of seeds contain 7.9 g protein, 25.7 g fat, 64.3 g total carbohydrates, 180 mg calcium and 269 mg phosphorus on zero moisture basis and provides 505 calories. The bark decoction is used to treat dysentery in Liberia. African walnut wood is extremely hard, heavy, close grained and resists water well. It is also resistant to insect attack particularly termites. It is used for making poles for bridges and charcoal (FAO, 1982; Duke, 1989; Wickens, 1995).
Botany It is a medium or large tree, 20-25 m in height having a large, dense crown casting a deep shade. The bark is thick, rather smooth lenticellate, greenish-brown, slightly fissured, white and resinous in young trees. Leaf is alternate, simple, exstipulate, oblong or elliptic, coriaceous, 10-30 x 4-9 cm in size. The secondary nerves are depressed on the upper surface and prominent on the lower surface. The young shoots and leaves are covered with rust coloured stellate hair. Flowers are small, tetramerous or pentamerous, with rather thick glabrous, greenish-yellow petals. The fruit is an ellipsoidal drupe, 3-4 cm long with an extremely hard kernel. The flesh surrounding the kernel is green or reddish, 5-6 mm thick and smooth. The oily kernel has a taste comparable to that of a chestnut or hazelnut (FAO, 1982; Duke, 1989).
Culture It is generally propagated from the seeds. Owing to the hard integument, seed germination is poor and may take up to one year. African walnut plants are planted at 10 x 12 m spacing. Shading is useful when the plants are young. Cultural requirements for systematic cultivation of African walnut should be standardized. In Nigeria, flowering in
12
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
the trees occurs during January to May and the fruits mature in August. On ripening, the fruit skin turns brownish. No insects or diseases are known to infest the African walnut (FAO, 1982; Duke, 1989).
a) branch with leaves
Fig. 5 : Coula edulis BailI. ( FAO, 1982)
6. AKEE Akee (Blighia sapida Koenig) belongs to family Sapindaceae and is native of West Africa (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as seso vegetal. It was introduced into the West Indies during the eighteenth century. It is also planted in West Indies, Ghana and Bahamas (Morton, 1987). There is little potential for its commercial production mainly because of the toxicity in fruit aril (Martin et al., 1987). Akee tree performs the best in hot, tropical and subtropical lowlands where rainfall is well distributed or where seasonal dry periods occur. It flourishes from sea level up to an elevation of 900 m. It can tolerate light frosts (Morton, 1987, Martin et al., 1987). Young trees are more susceptible to winter cold compared to mature trees. It is well adapted to a variety of soils including infertile rocky soils. The aril of the fruit is eaten fresh as well as after cooking. It is generally eaten boiled or fried. The pink tissue, the raphe, attaching the aril to the seed is highly poisonous. Both unripe and overripe arils contain the poisonous peptide, hypoglycin A, which causes vomiting and sometimes even death. Therefore, only naturally open fruits should be eaten.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
13
It is also grown as an ornamental plant owing to the attractive, coarse, compound and dark
green leaves and red fruits (Morton, 1987; Wickens, 1995). Akee fruit contains 57.60 g moisture, 8.75 g protein, 18.78 g fat, 3.45 g fibre, 9.55 g carbohydrates, 83 mg calcium, 98 mg phosphorus, 5.52 mg iron, 0.10 mg thiamine, 0.18 mg riboflavin, 3.74 mg niacin and 65 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of raw arils (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is a small evergreen tree growing up to 15 m in height and has 30 cm trunk diameter. The bark is grey, smooth to slightly rough. The inner of the bark is pinkish, gritty and slightly bitter. Twigs are light grey, stout, finely hairy with long, narrow ridges. The leaves are alternate and 15-20 cm long. Leaflets are in 3-5 pairs, with short stalks. The blades are elliptic, mostly 7.5-20 cm long and 5-10 cm wide. The upper surface is shiny, yellowgreen and hairless with many sunken, parallel side veins. The lower surface is dull light green with raised, hairy side veins. The flowers are small, greenish white and fragrant, borne on unbranched raceme of 7.5-18 cm length. Flowers are of two kinds, bisexual and male. The flower has calyx consisting of 5 pointed, brownish-tinged sepals, 5 white petals, 8 stamens and pistil with 3-angled, 3-celled, and 3-ovuled brownish ovary. The fruit is attractive, yellow to red, thick walled, three-valved, pyriform capsule, 7-8 cm long and 4-5 cm in diameter, borne in clusters of 3-10. The three globose, shiny black seeds are covered with firm, white, nut-flavoured pulp (Morton, 1987).
Fig. 6 : Blighia sapida Koenig, A. Flowering shoot; B. Longitudinal section of flower; C. Fruit; D. Dehiscing fruit; E. Seed and aril (Purseglove, 1974)
14
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Culture It is generally propagated by seed or by shield budding. Cultural requirements for akee need to be developed. The tree starts producing fruits 3-4 years after planting. Flowering occurs in April-May and the fruit matures in about 90 days. On ripening, the shell folds back exposing the white, nutty-flavoured aril with a shiny black seed partially embedded at the end of each section. The pulp (aril) should be eaten immediately. After ripening, the oily arils soon become rancid and become unfit to eat. Only well developed arils from newly opened fruits are not poisonous. The arils of poorly developed fruits and seeds should not be eaten and the water used in parboiling the fruits should be discarded (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987).
7. AMBARELLA Ambarella (Spondias duicis Soland ex Parkinson syn. S. cytherea Sonn.) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and is also known as great hog plum, jew plum, Tahitian apple, polynesian plum, hevi, vi apple, golden apple and otahetite apple. The other cultivated species are S. purpurea L., the red mombin or Spanish plum, grown for its brilliant red coloured fruits rich in vitamin A and C, and S. mom bin L. syn. S. Iutea L. (golden mombin, yellow mombin, hog plum), S. tuberosa Arruda (imbu) and S. venulosa Mart. Ambarella is native of South East Asia and South Pacific region. However, other species like S. purpurea L., S. mombin L., S. tuberosa Arruda, and S. venulosa Mart. are native to the New World. It is cultivated on small scale in Myanmar, Cuba, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Malaysia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and USA (Puerto Rico) principally for its edible fruits (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Ambarella tree requires tropical climatic conditions. It grows between 23°N and 23°S at low and medium altitudes. It has also shown adaptability to subtropical climatic conditions. In the tropics, it is common up to 700 m altitude. The trees require considerable sunlight. Shaded trees produce little or no fruits. Sheltered locations are suitable for ambarella as its brittle branches break easily. The trees are drought tolerant. The trees can grow well on rocky limestone soils or sands, but perform the best in deep rich soils. Ambarella has good potential for cultivation in the tropics (Martin et al., 1987). The fruits are eaten raw. Flavour of the fruit is like that of mango or pineapple. The fruit is rich in ascorbic acid (42 mg/100 g pulp) and iron. Boiled and dried fruit can be kept for several months. The fruit is also used to prepare juices, sherbets, beverages, jam, sauce, jelly, pickles, soups, stews and preserves. The green fruit is much used in green salads (rujak) and curries and to make pickles (sambaI). Young leaves are stewed and eaten as a vegetable. These are sometimes cooked with meat to tenderize it. The wood is light brown and buoyant and has been used for canoes in the Society Islands (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Ambarella is a valuable home garden tree (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Ambarella fruit provides 157.30 calories and contains 59.6-85.5% moisture, 0.500.80% proteins, 0.28-1.79% fat and 0.85-0.36% crude fibre per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany Its trees grow rapidly attaining a height of 10-25 m with a straight, grey and smooth trunk. The trees are deciduous. The leaves are alternate, crowded at the ends of the branchlets,
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMlO REGIONS
15
pinnate, 30-60 cm in length, usually with 4-12 pairs of lateral elliptic leaflets, 4-14 x 2.5-5 cm in size and a terminalleaflet. At the beginning of dry and cool season, the leaves tum bright yellow and fall, but the tree with its nearly smooth, light grey brown bark and graceful rounded branches remains attractive. In the spring, small inconspicuous, whitish, pentamerous flowers appear on large (up to 50 em long), widely branched terminal panicles. Flowers are either male or female or hermaphrodite in a cluster. Calyx is small, 2.5 cm in diameter; petals 5, reflexed yellowish-white; stamens 10, shorter than the petals; ovary sessile, and 5-celled. Fruits are ellipsoid and glabrous drupes, yellow or orange when ripe, 5-10 x 4-8 cm in size with thick, fleshy and white pulp. Stones are comparatively thin, consisting of one layer, with prominent ridges from which long tough fibres radiate in all directions and are 5-celled. Woody core contains 1-5 flat seeds (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Varieties There are no named cultivars although relatively improved forms with thick mesocarp and sweet, refreshing acid taste are available. Inferior forms have long spines, woody endocarp and resinous or pungent pulp. Collections of ambarella genotypes are being maintained at Direction De Investigaciones de Citros y Otros Frutales, La Haban, Cuba (5 accessions) and Centro de Invest. Agricolas Del Pacifico-Norte-INIA, Sin, Mexico (4 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1992). There is need to develop types for commercial cultivation.
Fig. 7 : Spondias cytherea Sonnerat, Ambarella, 1. Flowering branch; 2. Fruiting branch; 3. Fruit in cross-section (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
16
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Culture The ambarella can be easily propagated from the seeds. The seeds germinate in about four weeks. Propagation by vegetative methods such as hardwood cuttings, air layering and budding is also successful. Grafting is usually done on Spondias pinnata Kurz. syn. S. mangifera Willd. (amra), a species which bears a much poorer fruit. A non-petioled, slender, mature but green and smooth budwood is used. The plants are spaced 7.5 to 12 m apart in the field. Young trees require light shade for good growth but require enough sunlight for good fruit development. Mature trees are somewhat brittle and are damaged by strong winds. Therefore, sheltered locations are preferred for its plantation. Insects carry out pollination. The trees raised by planting seedlings start producing fruits after four years while those raised from cuttings bear after 2-3 years. The trees bear prolifically, either continuously or seasonally depending on rainfall distribution. Flowering occurs in spring (March-April) and the fruits mature in 200 or more days in late summer or during early fall. On ripening, the skin and flesh of the fruit turns golden yellow. The fruits should be used while still firm and the flesh is crisp, juicy and sub-acid with somewhat pineapple like fragrance and flavour. If allowed to soften, the aroma and flavour become musky and the flesh is difficult to slice due to tough fibres. On an average, 800-900 fruits are produced on a tree. Scab, sooty mould (Tripospermum spp.) and gummosis diseases are reported to attack ambarella trees but do not cause serious damage. The beetles, Pondontia 14-punctata, and P. affinis cause considerable damage to the leaves in Malaysia and Indonesia. In Jamaica, the West Indian fruitfly (Anastrepha mombinpreoptans) attacks the fruits, but the damage is not of economic consequence (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
8. ARACA-BOI Araca-boi or pichi or araza or araza-buey (Eugenia stipitata McVaugh) belongs to the family Myrtaceae and is native of western Amazonia. It is found growing wild in Peruvian Amazon, Ecuador, Bolivia and Colombia (FAO, 1986). It is cultivated in western Amazonia especially around Iquitos, Peru (Leaky and Newton, 1994a). Araca-boi grows naturally in areas with 2800 mm rainfall and mean annual temperature of 26°C up to an elevation of 650 m. It can withstand drought to some extent (FAO, 1986). It prefers well-drained, rich, loam soils but can be grown on poorer, dry oxisols provided they are well-drained. The fruit pulp is used to prepare jelly, juice, ice cream, sweetmeats and jam. The fruit is slightly to extremely acidic and has agreeable refreshing flavour. Owing to high acidity the fruit cannot be eaten without processing. The strong fragrance of the ripe fruit is exquisite but is lost in thermal processed products. Araca-boi has potential for domestication (Clement and Villachica, 1994). Araca-boi fruit contains 90-94.3 g water, 8-10.75 g protein, 3.2 g fat, 70-89 g carbohydrates, 5-6.5 g fibre, 0.16-0.21 mg calcium, 12917 IU vitamin A, 9.84 mg thiamin and 7.68-74 mg vitamin C in 100 g pulp (FAO, 1986; Clement and Silva, 1994).
17
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
Botany Araca-boi is a shrub of 3-5 m height. Leaves are simple, opposite, elliptical-oval in shape, 8-20 x 3-10 em in size. Inflorescence is racemose, 4-10 mm in width bearing 3-8 flowers. The flower has 4 white petals, 75-150 stamens and one pistil. The ovary is multilocular. The fruit is globose-depressed. The fruit is 50-100 g in weight, 5-10 cm longitudinal diameter, yellowish in colour with velvety rind on ripening. The pulp is aromatic, light yellowish in colour, succulent, and slightly fibrous. Each fruit contains around 6 to 12 seeds, which are oblong in shape and 2.5 cm in length.
'>lJt.----~
~1~lI'3
Fig. 8 : Eugenia stipitata McVaugh. 1. Leafy branch; 2. Fruit; 3. Flower; 4. Seed. (FAD, 1986)
Varieties There are two sub-species of Eugenia stipitata: i) E. stipitata subsp. stipitata McVaugh is called pichi in Peru and araca-boi in Brazil. Its tree grows up to 12-15 m tall with short-petioled, opposite, broadelliptic leaves, acuminate at the apex, rounded at the base, 7.5 - 18 x 3.4 - 8.25 cm in size with entire margin and 6-10 pairs of impressed lateral veins on the upper surface, densely hairy on the underside and faintly dotted with oil glands on both sides. Inflorescence is racemose, axillary with 4-10 mm long axis bearing 2-5 pairs of flowers, which are white, hairy, 2 cm wide with numerous prominent stamens. Terminal flower is absent. Pedicels are 1-2 mm long, calyx lobes are rounded, broader than long, overlapping in the bud. Five petals are white, obovate, 7-10 x 4 mm in size. Ovary is 4-locular, each locule having 5-8 ovules. Style is 5-8 mm long. Fruit is an oblate or spherical berry like a small guava. It is very aromatic. In wild trees, the fruit is 1.5 cm wide and less than 56 g in weight. In cultivated types, the fruit is 12 cm wide weighing 420 to 800 g with thin and delicate skin, soft, juicy and very acid pulp, containing 8 to 10 irregular oblong or kidney shaped seeds which are 12.5 cm long and 1.5 cm wide. The fruit is light green at first but turns pale or orange yellow on ripening, with a thin velvety skin enclosing a juicy and thick pulp which accounts for as much as 60 per cent of the fresh fruit (FAO, 1986).
18
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
ii)
E. stipitata subsp. sororia is called rupina caspi in Peru. It is a shrub or a small tree of 3 m height with elliptic leaves, 9-12.5 x 2.5-4.5 em in size, with barely visible veins; minutely hairy or hairless beneath when fully mature having a few dark dots. The flowers are 1.25 cm wide with 75 stamens (FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987). Germplasm of araca-boi has been maintained at Iquitos, Peru (20 accessions) and Manaus, Brazil (5 accessions) ( Leaky and Newton, 1994a).
Culture It is generally propagated through seeds. Seed germination may take 2-4 months to start and 6-8 months to complete. The seeds may germinate in few weeks if stored in moist charcoal powder. Planting in the field is done at a spacing of 3 x 3 m or 4 x 4 m. The seedlings grow slowly at first even on a good substrate. In about 12 months time the seedlings attain a height of 25-45 cm and can be transplanted. Cultural requirements for araca-boi should be standardized. It seems to have high potassium requirement as in case of guava. The trees begin to bear fruit in about 18 months. The fruiting season is from January to May in Brazil. Plants flower and bear fruits throughout the year on well-fertilized soils. There may be 4 crops a year in Peru and Ecuador. Fruits may be collected when they start to turn yellow. They continue to ripen after harvest. Harvesting should be done at least once a week, as the maturity is very rapid. The fruit skin is very thin and the pulp is delicate. Therefore, careful postharvest handling is very important. The araca-boi fruit has delightful flavour. When planted at 3 x 3 m spacing, fruit yield of 3 to 5 tonnes per hectare can be obtained at first harvest on adequate fertilization and irrigation. Yields of 28 tonnes per ha have been obtained in Peru. The fruit has economic potential. A leaf spot disease has been obserfed. The fruit is prone to the attack by fruitflies (FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987). Technologies to retain the aroma and taste in its processed ·products should be developed (FAO, 1986).
9. BABASSU Babassu (Attalea speciosa C. Mart. ex. Spreng. syn. Orbignya phalerata Mart., O. martiana Barb.-Rodr., O. speciosa (Mart.) Barb.-Rodr.) belongs to family Palmae and is native of southern and eastern fringe of Brazilian Amazonia. It is also known as babacu palm or aguassu. It is distributed throughout South America. It grows wild in more than 150,000 km2 area from the Atlantic Ocean to Bolivia especially in Maranhao, Bahia and northern Minas GeraIs and Mato Grosso. The related edible species are A. cohune C. Mart. (cohune palm), A. colenda (0. F. Cook) Balslev and Ardr. Hend. The palm requires hot tropical monsoon climatic conditions for good growth and productivity. It tolerates a wide range of edaphic conditions and grows in both primary and secondary forest sites subject to intensive disturbances. It is especially common on the abandoned agricultural lands. It grows the best in alkaline or neutral soils under average rainfall and good drainage conditions (FAO, 1986; Duke, 1989; Clay and Clement, 1993; Wickens, 1995). The babassu tree has multipurpose uses. The babassu fruit provides a variety of important subsistence and commercial products. Its pulpy mesocarp is edible and provides a starchy meal. Flour, animal feed, medicines and beverages are prepared from the mesocarp. The kernels provide oil and protein-rich meal. Babassu kernels taste, smell and look like
19
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
coconut meat, but contain more oil (60-70%), which is rich in lauric acid. The oil is useful for cooking, soap making and burning. Unlike many palm oils, the babassu oil does not quickly turn rancid. The endocarp is used to prepare high calorie, low polluting charcoal. The leaves are used for fibre, fuel and as construction material. The leaves also have medicinal value. The stems are used for construction and as food (palmito), salt, animal feed and mulch material. The palm has good potential for use in agroforestry (FAO, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993; Johnson, 1997). The current collection and use of kernels from its wild trees is a very important source of both income and food for about 9 million people. Therefore, babassu has potential to be developed as a fruit crop. The babassu kemal contains 4.21 % moisture, 66.12% oil, 7.17% protein, 14.47% digestible carbohydrates, 5.99% woody fibre and 2.03% ash (Duke, 1989).
Botany It is an erect, smooth, pleonanthic, single-stemmed feather palm growing up to 20 m in height. Leaves are elegant, large and pinnate with long, rigid, oblique-acuminate, 1025 leaflets disposed in a vertical plane. The palm is monoecious. The spadix has large racemose and pendent branches, which are rigid, bracted and dense. Female spadix has many sessile flowers on branches with abortive male flowers at the apices. Male spadix has flowers with small calYx, two or rarely three overlapped petals, 24 stamens, aggregate in groups of eight. Female flowers are much larger, ovoid-oblong with broadly oblong sepals, slightly smaller, oblong petals with irregularly serrated margins and 3 to 6 stigmas. Fruit is an oblong, conical, pointed drupe with persistent calyx. Epicarp is fibrous, 1-4 mm thick, mesocarp is mealy, dry, 2-12 mm thick and the endocarp is woody, 100-200 g in weight enveloped almost half way and has 3 to 6 seeds. Seeds are ellipsoid in shape, flattened and 2-6 x 1-2 em in size (FAO, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993; Wickens, 1995).
•.
.}.
-.- j. .
'>I'!,
Fig. 9 : Orbygnya martiana Barb. Rodr., Babassu (Duke, 1989)
20
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties There is plenty of scope to develop cultivable types using the rich variability occurring in Brazil. Search for genotypes having precocity and high kernel content besides the ability to grow on poor soils and degraded pastures in areas considered too dry for african palm, peach palm, tucumas is required for future development (FAa, 1986).
Culture Babassu plants are usually multiplied from the seeds. The seed may remain dormant within the nut for years provided coleopteran larvae do not attack them. Fire or heat may be necessary to break the dormancy. Separated kernels may germinate within a few months. The seed germinates and immediately pushes the apical meristem underground, which stays below ground as the palm develops. Babassu palm has long juvenile phase and starts yielding after 8 years and continues to bear for 75 years or longer. The palm produces flowers round the year that do not always set fruits. In Brazil, the fruit ripens from July to November and falls to the ground. After collection, the fruit is usually dried in sun to facilitate removal of the kernel from the shell by an axe and mallet. About 8 kg kernels can be shelled per day. The kernels prOvide 80 per cent oil and thus yield of 40 kg oil per tree can be obtained. The yield of nuts is 1500-2500 kg per hectare. Density of about 100 palms per hectare produces the maximum yield of fruit. The old groves are thinned to retain this density. No serious pests or diseases are known to attack the babassu. A beetle (Pachymerus nucleorum) destroys the fallen fruits (FAa, 1986; Wickens, 1995).
10. BACCAUREA Out of a large number of Baccaurea species belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae, only five are primarily grown for fruit. These are Baccaurea dulcis (Jack.) Muell. Arg. (ketupa), B. motleyana Muell.Arg. (rambai), B. racemosa (Reinw. ex Blume) Muell. Arg. syn. B. wallichii Hook. f. (kapundung), B. ramiflora Lour. syn. B. sapida (Roxb.) Muell. Arg. (Burmese grape, mafai), and B. griffithii Hook. f. syn. B. macrocarpa Muell. Arg. (larah, taban, rambai utan). These species occur in the region extending from India to the Pacific with the centre of diversity in western Malaysia and are cultivated in southern Sumatra and in parts of western Java. B. dulcis and B. motleyana are native to South East Asia and are widely cultivated throughout the peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Bali, Thailand and Philippines. B. racemosa is native of Malaysia and is cultivated in Java, Sumatra, Bali and peninsular Malaysia. B. ramiflora is native of South East Asia region and is cultivated in India, Thailand, Mynamar and Malaysia and B. griffithii is native to Malayan Peninsula (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It has good potential as a food crop if improved varieties are developed (Martin et al., 1987). The Baccaurea species thrive well in humid tropical lowlands, preferably below 500 m altitude. The trees are found in wide range of soils from dry sandstone to peat swamps. The rambai is common in alluvial soils along the rivers (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruit is eaten fresh and is also cooked, pickled, preserved and used in stews, jam and wine. Most of the species produce excellent timber. These are also good as ornamental and shade trees. The bark of several species is used to dye silk and also in medicines to relieve eye inflammation (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruits of B. racemosa contain 82.3 g water, 0.4 g protein, 0.2 g fibre and 5 mg vitamin C per 100 g of pulp (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
21
Botany B. dulcis trees grow 5-15 m tall with bole diameter up to 50 an. The leaves are obovate to elliptic, 14-18 x 8-13 an in size, coariaceous, glossy, glabrous having 1-5 em long petioles and ovate stipules. The trees are dioecious. Inflorescences are ramiflorous. Male racemes are 6-11 an long with yellowish fragrant flowers, 4 sepals, 6 stamens. Female racemes are 5-14 em long, with flowers having 4-5 sepals, 3 locular ovary and 3 stigmas. The fruits are 3.5-4 an in diameter and occur in clusters.
Fig. 10 : Baccaurea dulcis Oack) Muell.-Arg. (IBPGR, 1980)
B. motleyana trees are slow growing, 15-25 m tall with 40 an bole diameter and low and round crown. Leaves are evergreen, obovate lanceolate to elliptic, 20-35 x 8-17 cm in size with 3-10 an long petioles. The trees are dioecious.lnflorescences are ramiflorous. Male racemes are 13-20 an long with yellow flowers in fasicles of 2-5, having 4-5 sepals and 48 stamens. Female racemes are 25-60 an long with flowers often in clusters having 4-6 sepals. The fruits are 2-4 cm in diameter, thinly puberulous and buff-coloured. The pulp is translucent, white and sweet to acidic, has in 3 to 5 segments, which separate readily. Each segment contains a brown, flat seed, about 1.25 an long and adherent to the pulp (Morton, 1987).
Fig. 11 : Baccaurea motleyana Muell.-Arg. (IBPGR, 1980)
22
UNDERUTILIZEO FRUlTS J\ND NUTS
B. racemosa trees are 15-25 m tall with 25-70 em bole diam@tel' and dtmse iUld irregular crown. Leaves are ovate-oblong to obvate, 7-18 x 3e7 em in ~iz~, glanduhu' having 0.5-4.5 em long petioles. Inflorescences are borne on old branches or even on the trunk. McUe racemes are 5-13 em long composed of numerous 3-flowered, densely hairy cyme(il. Flowers are very small having 4-5 sepals and 4-8 stamens. Female racmes are 1()"20 em long having solitary or fascicled, rather large flowers with 5 sepals and 3-41oeular oV!U'Y. The yellilwl$h green or reddish fruits are 2-2.4 em in diameter. B. ramiflora trees are up to 25 m tall. Leaves are ovate to ovate~laneealate in shiipe and 10-20 x 4-9 em in size. Inflorescences are borne on branches and on the trunk, which are tomentose. Male racemes are 3-8 em long bearing flowers in fascicles on very short rachis. The flower has 4-5 sepals and 4-8 stamens. Female racemes are 14 em long home lower on the trunk with solitary flowers having 4-5 sepals, 3-locular ovary and 2 lobed stigmas. The fruit is 2.5-3 em in diameter, glabrous, yellowish or pinkish to bright red. B. griffithii trees are medium in height (10-15 m). The trees are dioeclous. Flowers are similar to those of other species and are borne on the trunk. The fruit is spherical, 2.56 em in diameter having brownish external and white internal colour and borne in clusters of 3-5 (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 12 : Baccaurea racemosa (Reinw. ex Bl.) Muell.-Arg. (IBPGR, 1980)
Varieties In B. racemosa (kapundung), two forms are distinguished, one with white fruit flesh (menteng) and other with red flesh (bencoy). Both sweet and sour types are found. Lot of variability occurs in B. ramiflora (Burmese grape) with regard to fruit colour (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). In view of the serious genetic erosion particularly of rambai and kapundung, Baccaurea germplasm collection is being made in South East Asia (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Germplasm collections have been made at National BiolOgical Institute, Bogor, Indonesia and Subtropical Horticultural Research Unit, Miami, Florida, USA (Bettencourt et al., 1992.)
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
23
Culture Baccaurea is usually propagated from the seeds. Air layering and budding are also successful. Budding is done on rambai rootstocks. Cultural requirements for Baccaurea have to b~ standardized. The trees are planted at 7-9 m spacing. In Malaysia, flowering occurs in January-February and the fruits mature during July-August. In Java, fruits are harvested during January-March. On ripening, the fruit skin turns brownish yellow but the internal colour remains white (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
11. BAKURI Bakuri or bacuri (Platonia insignis Mart. syn. Platonia esculenta (Arruda) Rickett and Stafleu) belongs to the family Guttiferae. It is also known as bacuri do parana, pacuri, parcouri and bacupari. It is a native of Brazil and Paraguay where it is found wild in the Amazon region of northern Brazil from Maranhao, Goias to Paraguay. It is also cultivated (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). It is one of the most popular fruits of Paraguay and Brazil but is little known elsewhere (Leaky and Newton, 1994b). The bakuri is one of the most popular fruits of the Belem region and has good potential for spread elsewhere in the tropics (FAO, 1986; Martin et al., 1987), Bacuri requires hot and humid climate and grows best in the lowlands. The regions where it is found growing wild have temperatures between 25 to 28°C and rainfall between 1500 to 2500 rom with a pronounced dry season of 3 to 6 months. The bakuri does well on sandy and dry soils. The trees can tolerate poor soil and drainage conditions (FAO, 1986; Martin, et al., 1987). The fruit pulp is eaten raw or made into sherbet, ice cream, juice, puddings, marmalade or jelly. The wood is valued for construction, furniture, flooring, shipbuilding and general ca..pentry. The seeds contain 6-11 % oil that is mixed with sweet almond oil and used to treat eczema and herpes (Morton, 1987). Bakuri fruit contains 72.3 g moisture, 1.9 g protein, 2 g lipids, 7.4 g fibre, 20 mg calcium, 36 mg phosphorus, 2.2 mg iron, 0.04 mg thiamine, 0.04 mg riboflavin, 0.5 mg niacin, and 33 mg ascorbic acid and provides 105 calories per 100 g of pulp.
Botany The tree is tall, erect and grows up to 25 m in height with pyramidal crown and has copious latex in the bark. The leaves are opposite, oblong or elliptic, 15 em long, dark green and glossy above and leathery with wavy margins. Flowers are solitary, 7 em long, bisexual, rose coloured, S-petalled with many stamens borne terminally on yourig branches at leaf fall. The mature fruit is spherical, 8-12 em in diameter, weighing up to 900 g with smooth yellow to orange exocarp (rind). The rind is yellow, hard but fleshy inside, 1-2 em thick and contains gummy, yellow, resinous latex. The white and pithy pulp, of pleasant odour and agreeable subacid flavour, contains 1 to 4, rarely 5, oblong, angular, dark brown and 5-6 em long seeds. The infertile seed compartments are filled with pulp called "tilho" (Martin et al., 1987).
Varieties No standard variety is known. However lot of variability occurs in nature with regard fruit size, quality and yield. A seedless variety has been identified (FAO, 1996).
24
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS
AND
NUTS
Culture It is propagated through seed. The seeds germinate easily if sown soon after removal from the fruit. Germination starts after 50 days and continues for another 50 days. Seedlings are normally transplanted into po1yethylene bags and kept in the nursery until they attain 50 to 60 em height for planting in the field. Planting is done in equilateral triangular system at 10 m spacing so that there are 115 plants per hectare. Plants can be multiplied by cleft and side veneer grafting also.
Fig. 13 : Platonia esculenta 1. flower without perianth; 2.flower buds; 3.F1ower; 4. leaf branch; 5. Seed; 6&7. Whole and sectioned fruit (FAO, 1986) Although the bacuri is very rustic, it is advisable to apply manure and bone meal at planting time and then maintain a regular fertilization schedule using 10% ammonium sulphate and 40% potassium chloride. The grafted plants may start production in 3 to 5 years after planting while seedlings take 6 to 10 years to come into bearing. The tree flowers during dry season Oune-July) and the fruit matures 200-300 days after flowering. The fruits start maturing in early December and the season extends to the following May with a peak production in February-March. The fruit rind turns yellowish to brown on ripening. Ripe fruits fall down to the ground. A grown up and vigorous tree yields 800 to 1000 fruits (FAO, 1986, Martin et aI, 1987).
12. BAMBANGAN Bambangan (Mangifera pajang Kostermans) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and is native of Borneo. It is also locally known as asem payang, alim, hambawang, etc. It occurs wild in lowland dipterocarp forest of Borneo. It is found in cultivation in Dayak orchards in Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei and East Kalimantan. This attractive fruit tree remained confined
to its native area for long and was introduced outside Borneo only in the 1980's. The bambangan occurs chiefly in primary lowland forest in the wet tropics. It is adapted to areas with abundant rainfall, evenly distributed over the year and up to elevations above 1000 m (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
25
The globose or ovoid fruits of bambangan are the largest in the Mangifera genus and are 20 an in diameter. The fruit has thick coarsely fibrous flesh. The ripe fruit is pleasant to eat and has a unique aromatic flavour. Large, aromatic fruits have a strong appeal. The fruit skin is 1 an thick and can be peeled like banana. Its flesh is deep yellow. The skin is occasionally dried and used for sambal. In Sarawak, flushing shoots are sold as a vegetable (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Botany Trees of bambangan grow up to 15-33 m tall with 30-70 an trunk diameter. The bark is brown or grey and smooth or fissured, leaves are elliptic-oblong to obovate-oblong, 28-45 x 10-15 an in size, rigidly coriaceous with prominent nerves. The fragrant flowers are borne terminally or subterminally on erect, pyramidal, up to 30 an long inflorescence. The flower has 5-lobed calyx, 5 petals, purple on the inner surface and pinkish white outside, 5 stamens of which 2 are fertile, and white ovary. Fruit is a globose or ovoid drupe, 9.5-12 x 6.5-10 cm in size, rough and potato brown. The flesh is bright deep yellow, pleasantly aromatic and fibrous. Stone is plump, 9x6.5x4.5 cm in size with woody endocarp and monoembryonic seed (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Culture 'It is generally propagated through seed. The seedlings require much moisture and light shade but later grow well in full sunlight. In Sarawak, flowering occurs in May-August and fruits ripen in August-November. In East Kalimantan, flowering occurs in AprilSeptember and fruit ripens in August-January. Trunk borer (Rhytidodera simulens) damages and kills branches, but the tree retains its vitality. The attacks by Arbela on the bark are more superficial. The fruit is often seen damaged by mango weevil (Cryptorrhynchus mangiferae) whose larvae feed in the flesh (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). All the horticultural aspects of this crop need standardization (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). 13. BARBADOS GOOSEBERRY Barbados gooseberry (Pereskia aculeata Plum. ex Mill. syn. P. pereskia Karst.) belongs to the family Cactaceae and is native of tropical America (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as West Indian gooseberry, Spanish gooseberry, leafy cactus, lemon vine or blade apple. It is found growing in the West Indies, coastal northern South America and Panama. It is frequently grown as an ornamental plant or occasionally for its fruit in the American tropics, Bermuda, California, Hawaii, Israel, Philippines, India and Australia. It has little potential for wider cultivation (Martin et al., 1987). Barbados gooseberry requires hot tropical climate with medium to high rainfall. Chilling causes the leaves to fall. The plants are drought tolerant. In greenhouse experiments, it grew taller with ascending stems and larger and thinner leaves under high light intensities (Morton, 1987). Th~ fruits are eaten fresh or generally stewed, preserved with sugar or used to prepare jam. Young shoots and leaves are cooked and eaten as greens and is rich source of protein. Flowers are of great value. The leaves are valued for their emollient property and are applied on inflammations and tumors (Morton, 1987).
26
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Barbados gooseberry fruit contains 91.4 g moisture, 1.0 g protein, 0.7 g fat, 6.3 g carbohydrates, 0.7 g fibre, 174 mg calcium, 26 mg phosphorus, 3215 IV vitamin A, 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.03 mg riboflavin, 0.9 mg niacin and 2 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987). Thus the fruit is a rich source of vitamin A and calcium.
Botany It is an erect woody deciduous shrub when young and grows up to 10 m long into a scrambler or climber with vine-like branches. Spines on the trunk are long, slender and in groups and those on the branches are short, recurved, usually in pairs and rarely solitary. Leaves are alternate, 3.2-10 em long, short-petioled, elliptic oblong or ovate and shortly pointed at the apex, sometimes fleshy. Flowers are white, yellOwish or pink tinted and 2.54.5 em across. The calyx tube is prickly. Fruit is round, oval or pyiform, lemon or orange yellow or reddish, 1-2 em wide with thin, smooth and somewhat leathery skin. Seeds are 4 mm long, thin, brown or black and soft (Morton, 1987).
Fig. 14 : Pereskia aculeata Plum. ex MilL, Barbados gooseberry (Ochse, 1977; Vegetables of the Dutch East Indies, Survey of the indigenous and foreign plants serving as pot herbs and side dishes; A. Asher &: Co., BV, Amsterdam)
Varieties Two cu1tivars are well known in ornamental plants trade: 1) Godseffiana, having broad leaves, basically yellow green variegated with scarlet and coppery on the upper surface, and 2) Rubescens, having leaves variegated with red (Morton, 1987). ~
Culture It is propagated from sf:ed or by semi-hardwood cuttings. The plant requires little or no care after planting. Cultural requirements should be developed for Barbados gooseberry.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
27
Flowering occurs in June and again in October and November and the fruits mature in March and October. On ripening, the fruit skin changes to yellow and pulp becomes whitish (Morton, 1987).
14. BIGNAY Bignay or salamander (Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng.) belongs to family Euphorbiaceae and is native of South East Asia. It is also known as Chinese laurel (Martin et al., 1987). It is widespread from India and Sri Lanka to northern Australia and has been introduced into tropics but is not common outside J\sia. It is cultivated extensively in many parts of Indonesia, particularly in Java and also in Indo-China (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). A related species A. dallachyanum Baill., known as Herbert river cherry or Woolmi, a native of Australia, also produces edible fruits (Morton, 1987). Bignay requires hot, humid, tropical climatic conditions. It can also tolerate light frosts. It can be cultivated in areas below 1000 m altitude. The tree does not become as large at higher altitudes in the tropics (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987). It can grow well on various types of soils. The pulp of the fruit is eaten fresh or is used to make jam or jelly and wine. It is mixed with other fruits to prepare drinks. The fruit contains high amounts of pectin. The young leaves are sometimes eaten as lalab (a dish consisting of young leaves and fruits and eaten with brown paste, pepper and salt together with rice). The bark contains an alkaloid, which has medicinal properties (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). Bignay is a decorative home garden tree. The tree can be useful in regreening programmes (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Bignay fruit contains 91.11-94.80 g water, 0.75 g protein, 0.12 mg calcium, 0.04 mg phosphorus, 0.001 mg iron, 0.031 mg thiamine, 0.072 mg riboflavin and 0.53 mg niacin per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany Bignay is a tall (15-30 m), much branched, dioecious tree with dense crown. The straight trunk has smooth, flaky, dark-grey bark with numerous fine splits and is usually branched near the base. The leaves are distichous, large, 19-25 x 4-10 em in size, shortpetioled, oblong-lanceolate, coriaceous, shiny and glabrous above, yellowish-green and shiny beneath with short-tufts of hair. The inflorescence is terminal or axillary spike. The spikes are pubescent, 6-20 cm long and bear unisexual, apetalous flowers with small ovate or obovate, 0.7-1 em long bracts. The male flowers are sessile, pale green, later tinged red, 1-1.2 x 1.5-2 mm in size and have 3-4 stamens. The female flowers are large and stalked with ovoid ovary, 3-4 stigmas and small disk. The fruit is globose or ovoid drupe, 8.5-10 mm in diameter, dark red to light yellow and appear in clusters of 20-50. The seed is 6-8 x 4.5-5.5 mm in size, ovoid or ovoid-oblong, slightly oblique with short, thick, reticulated ribs (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Varieties Standard varieties are not known and should be developed by selection from the available variability.
28
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Fig. 15 : Antidesma bunius (1.) Spr. 1 Branchlet with leaves and axillary spikes of fruits, 2. Spike of fruits, 3. Single fruit, 4. Transverse section of fruit. (FAO, 1984)
Culture The plants can be raised from seeds but are normally propagated by vegetative methods such as cutting, layering and budding. Budding is best done during wet season as the scion buds remain dormant in dry weather. Planting should be done at 6 to 8 m spacing in the field. Attention to pollination could boost yield and improve fruit quality. To ensure satisfactory pollination, one male tree is kept for every 10 to 12 female trees. The trees tend to form low and spreading crown with drooping weak branches. Therefore, windbreak should be provided particularly when the trees are small. Seedling tree starts fruiting 5-6 years after planting, whereas grafted trees commence fruiting after 2-3 years. In Indonesia, the main flowering period is September-October and the fruit matures after 150-200 days in February-March. On ripening, the green fruit turns red and finally becomes bluish black. The juicy pulp is purple in colour.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
29
All the berries even in one cluster do not mature at one time. Therefore, ripe fruits are picked several times over a period of a few weeks. However, for jelly making, the entire spike may be harvested when about half to two-thirds of the fruits are fully ripe. Average fruit yield is 135-200 kg per tree. Termites, mealy bugs and scales sometimes infest the tree. Leaves are damaged by green scurf and algal leaf spot caused by Cephaleuros virescens (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel,1991).
15. BILIMBI
<
Bilimbi or cucumber tree or tree sorrel (Averrhoa bilimbi 1.) belongs to the family Oxalidaceae and is native to Moluccas. It is cultivated throughout Indonesia, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Myanmar. It is found in semi-wild state in the Philippines and is very common in Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore. It is grown as a garden plant across the plains of India. It has been introduced into Jamaica, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Colombia, Ecuador, Surinam, Guyana and Brazil (Morton, 1987). Bilimbi requires hot, wet tropical lowland climatic conditions and is more susceptible to frost than carambola. It requires a seasonal dry period of 2-3 months for good growth and fruiting. The tree makes slow growth in shady or semi shady situations. Although tolerant to a variety of soils, bilimbi does the best in rich, moist, well-drained soils (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruit pulp, being too acidic for raw eating, is generally used in fruit salads, curries, jelly, chutney or for preserve making. Its fruit is a rich source of vitamin C (15.5 mg/ 100 g of pulp) and is, therefore, used for the treatment of coughs, beri-beri and biliousness (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Being rich in oxalic acid, its juice is useful for bleaching stains from the hands, rust from white clothes and tarnish from brass. In Philippines, the leaves are applied as a paste on itches, swelling of mumps and rheumatism. Malayans take the leaves fresh or fermented as a treatment for venereal disease. The leaf infusion is a remedy for coughs and is given as a tonic after child birth. Bilimbi fruit contains 94.2-94.7 g moisture, 0.61 g protein, 0.6 g fibre, 3.4 mg calcium, 11.1 mg phosphorus, 1.01 mg iron, 0.035 mg carotene, 0.010 mg thiamine, 0.026 mg riboflavin, 0.302 mg niacin and 15.5 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is an attractive, long-lived, small tree growing to 5-10 m height, has a short trunk, which generally divides into a number of upright branches. Leaves are compound, alternate, imparipinnate, 30-60 cm long with 11-37 alternate or sub-opposite, ovate or oblong leaflets having rounded base, pointed tip, downy and medium green upper surface and pale underside. Flowers are small, fragrant, 5-petalled, yellowish green or purplish, marked with dark purple. These are borne in small hairy panicles emerging directly from the trunk and the oldest and thickest branches. Fruit is ellipsoid, obovoid or nearly cylindrical, faintly 5sided, 4-10 em long, capped at the apex by a thin, star-shaped calyx. The fruit skin is glossy, very thin, soft and tender and the flesh is green, jelly-like, juicy and extremely acidic. There may be a few, flattened disc-like seeds which are about 6 mm wide, smooth and brown (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
30
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Ilcm
Fig. 16 : Averrhoa bilimbi L. (IBPGR, 1980)
Varieties No well known varieties are available. However, a sweet-fruited form is found in Philippines. Germplasm collection of bilimbi has been maintained at Subtropical Horticultural Research Unit, Miami, USA (1 accession), and Tropical Agricultural Research Station, Oonal Repository, USDA, USA (one accession) and ARS, Puerto Rico (Bettencourt et al., 1992).
Culture It is generaly propagated by seed but grafting has also been found successful. Air layering has been practised in Indonesia for many years. If propagated from seed, fruit production starts after 5-6 years. Several cycles of bloom and fruiting occur during the year. The tree begins to flower from February and then blooms and produces fruits more or less continuously until December. Fruit takes about 90 days to mature, which on ripening turns from bright green to yellowish green, ivory or nearly white and falls to the ground. Therefore, before the fruits fall, these have to be hand picked singly or in clusters. Gentle handling is required because of the thin and delicate fruit skin. The fruit cannot be stored more than few days. No pests or diseases have been reported (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
31
16. BINJAI Binjai (Mangifera caesia Jack. ex Wall.) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and is native of South East Asia (Martin et al., 1987). It is locally known as binjal, kemang, belunu, binglu, etc. It is found growing in Sumatra, Borneo and peninsular Malaysia. It requires hot tropica11owlands with monsoon climate below 300 m altitude. It grows well in fertile soils having good drainage (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Pulp of green or ripe fruit is eaten fresh, cooked or preserved. It is a good source of vitamin A. Binjai is often used to prepare a spice based on chillies (sambal), which is eaten with river fish. In some areas, the flesh of ripe fruit is pickled and preserved with salt in jars to make sambal when there is no fresh fruit. Young leaves are eaten raw (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Binjai fruit contains 86.5 g water, 1.0 g protein, 0.2 g fat, 11.9 g carbohydrates including fibre, 8.3 IU vitamin A, 0.08 mg thiamine and 58 mg ascorbic acid and provides 47.8 k calories per 100 g of pulp (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Botany It is a large tree growing about 35 m tall with 50-80 em stem diameter. Bark is greyish brown and superficially fissured and contains an irritant sap. Leaves are elliptic to lanceolate, 10-12 x 4-5.5 em in size, medium green, coriaceous and shiny above. Panicle emerges at terminal end of the shoot and is densely flowered, 15-25 em long and much branched with stout rachis and branches. Pale pink and fragrant flowers are 5-merous with linear petals up to 10 mm long, 1 fertile stamen, 5 mm long filament and 4 teeth like staminodes. Disk is narrow, 1-1.5 mm long, pale green, reddish brown ovary with excentric, 8 mm long, obliquely globose white style becoming violet after anthesis. Fruit is an obovateoblong drupe, necked at base and 12-15 x 6-7 em in size. Fruit skin is very thin and yellowish or pale brownish. Pulp is whitish, soft and juicy, fibrous with a peculiar sourish taste and strong smell at maturity. Stone is ellipsoid-lanceolate, 7 x 3.5-4 em in size, not flattened, thin-walled and monoembryonic. Endocarp is not woody and is made of matted coarse fibres (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 17 : Mangifera caesia Jack. (ffiPGR, 1980)
32
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties Several forms ofbinjai have been recognized based on fruit characters. The ''Wani" form has ellipsoid rounded fruit, 9-11 x 6.5-7 em in size, which is glossy and pale green at maturity having milky white flesh. Many fibreless forms with sweet pleasant taste are also available (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It merits wider cultivation as the fruit has an excellent and unique flavour (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Culture It is normally propagated by seeds and less often by marcotting. lnarching can be done on potted, decapitated rootstocks using the twigs of selected mother trees. Grafting on Mangifera indica rootstock has not been successful. Vegetative propagation would help in spread of plantations of superior types having trees of manageable size producing high yield of quality fruits. Trees are planted at 12-16 m spacing. Cultural requirements for its commercial cultivation should be standardized. Flowering occurs from June to December and ripe fruits are harvested from September to March. Ripe fruits have to be handled gently (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
17. BIRIBA Biriba or wild sweetsop or wild sugar apple (Rollinia mucosa (Jacq.) Baill., syn. R. orthopetala A. DC, R. sieben A. DC, Annona deliciosa Saff.) belongs to the family Annonaceae and is native of Central and South America and the West Indies (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as anon cimarron, cachiman creme and condessa. It is found growing wild from Peru and northern Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil and northwards to Guiana, Venezuela, Colombia and southern Mexico, Trinidad, the Lesser Antilles including Guadeloupe, Martinique and St.Vincent and Puerto Rico. It is a favourite fruit in western Amazonia. It has been introduced in USA and Philippines (Morton, 1987). Biriba has a limited potential as fruit crop (FAO, 1986; Martin et al., 1987). " It requires hot humid tropical lowlands. Its plantations are found limited to the warm lowlands from 20'N to 300S latitudes in tropical America. It can grow at elevations betwen 150 and 600 m having average temperature of 26°C Plants are very susceptible to low temperatures (3°C). In Brazil, the tree grows naturally in lowlying areas along the Amazon that are subject to periodic flooding. In Florida or Puerto Rico, it is found growing even on calcareous soils as long as these are moist (FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987). The fruit pulp is eaten fresh or is used for making desserts or wine. The fruit is regarded as refrigerant, analeptic and antiscorbutic. The powdered seeds are said to be a remedy for enterocolitis. The wood of the tree is yellow, hard, heavy and strong and is used to make ribs for canoes, boat masts, boards and boxes (Morton, 1987). The fruit contains 77.2 g moisture, 2.8 g protein, 0.2 g lipids, 1.3 g fibre, 24 mg calcium, 26 mg phosphorus, 12 mg iron, 0.04 mg ~e, 0.04 mg riboflavin, 0.5 mg niacin and 33.0 mg ascorbic acid and provides 80 calories 'per 100 g of edible portion (Morton,
1987). Botany It is a fast growing deciduous tree, 4-15 m in height. Leaves are alternate, oblong elliptic or ovate oblong, pointed at the apex, rounded at the base, 10-25 em long and leathery
FRUlTS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
33
and hairy on the underside. Flowers, 1 or 3 or occasionally more, borne together in the leaf axils, are hermaphrodite, 2-3.5 em wide, triangular having 3 hairy sepals, 3 large and fleshy outer petals with upturned or horizontal wings and 3 rudimentary inner petals. The fruit is conical to heart shaped or oblate, 15 em in diameter and has yellow rind composed of more or less hexagonal and conical segments, each tipped with a wart-like, 3 mm thick, leathery, tough and indehiscent protrusion. The pulp is white, mucilaginous, translucent, juicy and subacid or sweet. Seeds are numerous, dark brown, elliptic or obovate and 1.6-2 em long (FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987).
Fig. IS : Rollinia mucosa (Jacq.) Baill. Flowering branch and fruit. (FAO, 1986)
Fig. 19 : Rollinia deliciosa Safford (BrUcher, 1989)
34
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties The only named selection is Regnard (P. J. Wester, 1917) to have been introduced into the Philippines. A form found in the western Amazon region has fruit weighing up to 4 kg with very pronounced points.
Culture It is generally propagated from the seeds. It flowers mainly during August-September and December in Central Amazonia. Both flowering and fruiting occurs sporadically throughout the year. In Amazonia, the tree may flower and fruit off and on during the year but the fruits are most abundant from January to June. In Florida, the plants flower during April-May and the fruit matures in 90 or more days. Chrysomelidae beetles pollinate the flowers. Only about 32 per cent of the blooms set fruit. The fruits mature in NovemberDecember in Florida while in Rio de Janerio, the fruits ripen in February-March. In South America, the fruit is picked when still green and hard and thus can be transported to distant markets while these gradually tUm yellow and soften. Handling of fully ripe fruits causes wart like protuberances on the rind which tum brown or black rendering them unattractive. Five year old trees may produce 25 to 60 fruits each having an average weight of 1 kg. In Brazil, larvae of Cerconota anonella attack the fruits during maturation. The borer, Cratosomus bombina, damages the bark and the tree trunk. A stinging caterpillar Sabine sp. feeds on the leaves. A whitefly, Aleurodicus cocoas, attacks the foliage of young as well as adult trees. The fungus Cercospora anonae causes black spots on the leaves. GIomereila cinguiata causes dieback and fruit rot in Florida (FAO, 1986; Morton, .1987).
18. BLACK SAPOTE Black sapote (Diospyros digyna Jacq. syn. D. ebenaster Retz.), also known as black persimmon and sapote negro, belongs to the family Ebenaceae and is native to tropical forests of central America (Gautemala and Mexico). It grows wild in the Antilles and is a popular fruit of Mexico and Guatemala (Morton, 1987; Brucher, 1989). Black persimmon has fair potential for wide cultivation. It grows in hot tropical and subtropical climate with relatively high rainfall at low to middle altitudes. The tree does not tolerate frost. Black sapote can be grown in a wide range of soil types, from sandy loams to light clays. It is well adapted to calcareous soils and survives flooding (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; Verheij and CoroneL 1991).
Uses The fruit is eaten fresh when fully ripe and soft. It is also used in the preparation of drinks, ice-creams, cakes and liquors. The wood is yellowish to deep yellow with black markings near the heart of old trunks and is suitable for cabinet work. Various preparations of bark and leaves have been used for the treatment of fever and skin diseases (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruit of black sapote is rich in calcium, phosphorus and ascorbic acid. The fruit has four times the vitamin C content of that in sweet orange. It contains 79.46-83.1 g moisture, 0.62-0.69 g protein, 12.85-15.11 g carbohydrates, 0.01 g fat, 22.0 mg calcium, 23.0 mg phosphorus, 0.36 mg iron, 0.19 mg carotene, 0.03 mg riboflavin, 0.20 mg niacin and 191.7 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
35
Botany It is an evergreen tree with a dominant trunk and grows up to 10-12 m ID height. Leaves are alternate, elliptic-oblong to oblong-Ianceolate, 10-30 x 3-5 em in size with a dark green, shining, leathery lamina. Flowers are axillary, unisexual or hermaphrodite, borne singly or in groups of 3-7 in leafaxils. Male flowers occur usually in clusters of 3 and female flowers are solitary. Calyx consists of 5 sepals, which are green and persistent. Corolla consists of 5, white, tubular petals. The male flowers have 16-60 stamens and female flowers have 8, 10 or 12-celled ovary with one ovule per cell. Fruit is a flattened globose to slightly lobed berry, 5-15 em in diameter, dark olive-green, seated on a persistent, 4-6 lobed calyx which reflexes at maturity. Pulp is soft and brown to black. The dark chocolate colour of the pulp is considered to be unattractive (Martin et ai., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Seeds are 0-12, flat, 2 em long, smooth and brown (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 20 : Diospyros ebenaster Retz. syn. D. digyna Jacq. 1. Branch with female flowers; 2. branchlet with fruit. (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
Varieties A few promising selections of black sapote have been made. Bemecker and Maher are recent selections made in Australia (Morton, 1987). More selections, especially those having hermaphrodite flowers, can be made from the wide range of genetic diversity. The cultivated types are generally seedless. Germplasm collection of black sapote has been maintained at Centro Agronomico Tropical De Investigacion Y Ensenanza, APD6, 74, Turrialba, Costa Rica (24 accessions) (Bettencourt et ai., 1992). Culture It is commonly propagated from seeds. The seeds remain viable for several months if stored dry. Clonal propagation by budding or grafting on seedling rootstocks is also
36
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
possible. The plants are spaced 10-12 m apart in the field. Some protection from frost is needed for young trees up to 3 years age. Irrigation is regarded as essential for good production. When raised from seeds, the plants start fruiting in 5-6 years. Grafted plants bear in 2-3 years. Flowers are borne on the new shoots and hence the crop cycle is linked to flushing. This requires standardization of intensity and time of pruning. Flowering occurs during March-May and the fruits mature in 200-300 days. Self-incompatibility has been observed in some trees. Therefore, it is not advisable to plant a solitary tree. The fruit takes a duller colour on ripening. The persistent calyx at the base remains pressed against the developing fruit, becomes reflexed. At this stage, the fruits are still firm. They start softening 3-14 days after harvest. Therefore, fruits must be sent to market immediately after harvest as ripe fruits are difficult to handle. No insect pests or diseases are reported to cause serious damage. Fruits can be stored at 12.8°C and 85-90% RH for 14-21 days (Sealand, 1991) and for several months at l00C. When removed from cold storage and placed at room temperature, they soften within 48 hours (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991)..
19. BOROlO Borojo (Borojoa patinoi Cuatr.) belongs to the family Rubiaceae and is native of Colombia. It is distributed in humid forests in western Colombia along the Pacific Coast (geographic zone of Choco). It is also cultivated. Borojo requires warm tropical lowland climate with medium rainfall. Heavy soils are preferred. The fruit pulp is used to prepare juice, compote, marmalade, candies and wine. The fruit is aphrodisiac and highly energetic. It has good potential for industrial use in dairy products such as yoghurt and fermented milk. Dehydrated borojo paste can be used to prepare biological and dietary products (Martin et al., 1987). The fruit juice has 30° Brix total soluble solids and contains mainly fructose and glucose. The fruit is very rich in protein with high amounts of essential amino acids, phosphorus (150 mg/l00 g pulp) and vitamin B-complex.
Botany The small tree grows up to 3-5 m in height. Fruit is globose in shape, 7-12 em in diameter, 750 g-l kg in weight having green to brown pulp with 90-640 seeds.
Culture It is propagated from the seeds or by cutting, air layering and grafting. Cultural practices for its systemic cultivation should be standardized. The fruit is non-climacteric and is harvested when fully mature. Borojo is highly valued in local markets in western Colombia. About 3000 tonnes fruits are sold in the Cali market alone@US$ 3/kg.
20. BRAZIL NUT Brazil nut or castanha-do-brasil (Bertholletia excelsa Humb. et Bonpl.) belongs to the family Lecythidaceae and is native of southeastern Amazonia (Wickens, 1995). The family consists of a group of large evergreen or deciduous trees of which two genera Lecythis and Bertholletia produce fruits of commercial importance. This nut tree species of Amazon forest is also known as pavory nut, cremenut, castanas, para nut or neuz de para. It is also found growing in areas of Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela and Guyanas. It has been introduced
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
37
in Singapore, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Java, Hawaii and the Caribbean (FAO, 1982; Rosengarten, 1984). It is a tropical species and requires hot and humid climate for best growth. It grows the best in a well-drained, deep, rich loamy soil. The climatic limits for its natural distribution are 1400-2800 nun mean annual rainfall, 24-2~C temperature and 79-86% relative humidity. It is well adapted to heavy dry and low fertility oxisols and ultisols but is not tolerant to waterlogging. The seeds or kernels are consumed raw, roasted or in confections. Nuts have 65 to 70 per cent fat, 8 per cent carbohydrates and 13 to 17 per cent protein. Seed also yields oil, which can be used for cooking and soap making (FAO, 1986; Briicher, 1989). Wood is used in civil and naval construction. This species is extremely important to the economy of the Amazon region. Many rural poor depend on collection from the wild for their diet and livelihood. The tree has a lot of potential for its use in afforestation and to produce quality nuts (FAO, 1986). Mature seed contains 4.7 g water, 17.4 g protein, 65.0 g fat, 9.6 g total carbohydrate, 3.9 g fibre, 169 mg calcium, 620 mg phosphorus, 3.6 mg iron, 5 mg l3-carotene equivalent, 0.20 mg thiamine, 0.69 mg riboflavin, 0.20 mg niacin and 2 mg ascorbic acid and provides 644 calories per 100 g of edible material (Duke, 1989).
Botany Brclzil nut is a large deciduous tree, 35-50 m in height with cylindrical trunk having greyish bark. Leaves are simple, alternate, oblong or elliptic-oblong with wavy margins and 25-35 x 8-12 em in size. The light yellow flowers are borne on spike-like racemes. The bisexual flower has two sepals, 6 pale yellow petals, numerous stamens and short style. Brown and woody ripe fruits (pyxidum) are about 10-15 em in diameter, globose, heavy (3 kg) with 1225 or more triangular nuts (4-7 em long) packed inside the thick shell with an aperature at one end, which is closed by a woody plug and must be broken open to extract the nuts. Each nut is enclosed by thick woody shell and a thin bro~ testa and contains an oily endosperm (FAO, 1986; Wickens, 1995).
Fig. 21 : Bertholletia excelsa. 1. Leaves; 2. Fruit; 3. Open fruit showing seeds. (FAO, Wickens, 1995)
38
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties Considerable differences in yield, nut size and fruit size exist between trees occurring at different locations. Attempts are now being made by the Agriculture Research Centre of the Humid Tropics (CPATU - EMBRAPA) in Brazil to identify elite trees, create a clonal germplasm collection and provide grafted clones for commercial plantations (Clay and Oement, 1993).
Culture The Brazil nut is usually grown from seeds, which on storage lose their viability rapidly. The seeds are germinated in a seedbed or in containers and take about 14 months to germinate. Forkert grafting is also possible. Seedlings are transplanted when about 30 em tall at a spacing of 12-15 m. Regular application of fertilizers is needed depending on the soil type. Weeding is necessary particularly during the establishment of the young seedlings. The trees may take 7 to 10 years to start fruiting. The grafted plants start producing flowers 3-4 years after planting. Flowering continues over a long period. There is need to solve the problems related to pollination and fertilization which limit its productivity (FAO, 1986). The nuts take 14 to 18 months to mature. The nuts do not open naturally and lid has to be opened by an axe or a hachet. A tree can yield about 100-300 fruits (225 to 450 kg nuts). Nuts are dried, washed and redried to prepare for marketing. The fruits are transported in bags in well-aired holds and are kept in cool and dry place to prevent mould growth (FAO, 1986; Brucher, 1989). The tree is relatively free from pests and diseases. However, in early stages, rodents and leaf cutting ants attack the seedlings and Cercospora blight is sometimes seen especially on older leaves (FAO, 1986).
21. BREADFRUIT Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis Parkinson Fosb. syn. A communis J. R. Forst.) belongs to the family Moraceae and is indigenous to South East Asia and Polynesia. It is also known as Pangde Pepita (Martin et al., 1987). The British introduced it into the West Indies. The Dutch voyagers are believed to have introduced it into India but it has remained confined chiefly to the west coast of India. It is widely cultivated throughout the world. The related edible species A camansi Blanco (breadnut) naturally occurs in the Philippines, New Guinea and possibly the Moluccas. Another related species, A mariannensis Trecul, is edemic to Belau and the Mariana Islands in the western north Pacific (Ragone, 1997; FAO, 1982; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Major production areas are the Pacific and Caribbean Islands (Ragone, 1997). Breadfruit holds potential for widespread cultivation of superior selections in hot tropics (Martin et al., 1987). The breadfruit is adapted to the hot, tropica1lowlands. It grows well on a variety of soils as long as they are well-drained. It thrives at low altitudes (below 700 m) with rainfall of 1500 to 2500 mm and temperature between 21 and 32°C, Temperatures below 5°C injure the plants. The tree is susceptible to damage by winds, which cause the branches to break, and flowers and young fruits to fall. Breadfruit can be grown on a variety of soils and thrives on alluvial and coastal soils. It does the best in deep, fertile, well-drained sandy loam or clay loam soils. Impeded drainage in the soil stunts the trees and water stagnation around the roots causes premature dropping of fruits.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
39
It is more a subsistence than a commercial crop in most areas of the Pacific and Caribbean Islands. Breadfruit is a component of daily food requirement in Polynesia. It is a multipurpose tree species popular as a source of starchy food, fodder and non-food uses as timber, traditional medicine and insect repellent. The seedless breadfruit contains as much as 27.9 per cent carbohydrates, which is higher than in banana or potato. Immature fruit can be pickled, marinated or boiled. Mature and ripe fruits are used in countless recepes as vegetables or in confectionery for making cakes and desserts. The pulp of breadfruit is eaten after boiling, roasting or frying. The fruit pulp is also used in bread making or is fermented (Atchley and Cox, 1985). Fruit slices can be stored in brine (Whitney, 1988; Bates et al., 1991). It is also used in salads and soups and fried like potatoes. The flesh of seeded varieties has little use. However, their seeds are eaten after roasting or boiling or smashed into poree. Breadfruit is also a good source of pectin (5.7%) having good jellying properties. Its leaves are used as fodder and to wrap foods for cooking or serving. The collected latex is used as caulk, glue and chewing gum (Wooten and Tumalii, 1984). The latex is massaged into the skin to treat bones and sprains and is bandaged on the spine to relieve sciatica. The wood is used for beams, posts, rafts and flooring. Bark and leaves are popular in traditional medicine. Male inflorescences are used as repellent for mosquitoes. The root is used for treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery. The root bark is utilized in the treatment of fractures. Fruit and seeds are used as animal feed. It is also planted as windbreak or ornamental tree and sometimes to provide shade to coffee plantation. It is grown mainly as backyard tree and has great potential for use in agroforestry systems (FAO, 1982; IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Ragone, 1997; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The mature fruit contains 70.8 g water, 1.7 g protein, 0.3 g fat, 26.2 g total carbohydrate, 1.2 g fibre, 33 mg calcium, 32 mg phosphorus, 12 mg iron, 24 mg ~-carotene equivalent, 022 mg thiamine, 0.03 mg riboflavin, 0.9 mg niacin and 29 mg ascorbic acid and provides 103 calories per 100 g of pulp. Mature seed is reported to contain 202 g water, 15.1 g protein, 29.0 g fat, 34.0 g total carbohydrates, 2.5 g fibre, 66 mg calcium, 320 mg phosphorus, 6.7 mg iron, 280 mg (3-carotene equivalent, 0.88 mg thiamine, 0.55 mg riboflavin, 0.8 mg niacin and 12 mg ascorbic acid and provides 434 calories per 100 g (Duke, 1998). The seedless breadfruit contains 65-85 g water, 12-2.4 g protein, 0.2-0.5 g fat, 21.5-31.7 g carbohydrates, 18-32 mg calcium, 52-88 mg phosphorus, 0.4-1.5 mg iron, 26-40 IV vitamin A, 0.10-0.14 mg thiamine, 0.05-0.08 mg riboflavin, 0.7-1.5 mg niacin and 17-35 mg vitamin C per 100 g of pulp (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Botany The breadfruit is large, evergreen, attractive tree growing up to 15-30 m in height. The leaves are simple, large (30-60 em), ovate, pinnately lobed with large deciduous stipules, dark green and glossy on their upper surface and light green and matt on the underside. The tree is monoecious and male and female flowers are borne axillary on the same tree. The male inflorescence is 15-30 em long, club-shaped, and yellow, drooping or down curving. Each flower consists of a reduced tubular perianth enclosing a single stamen with two lobed anthers on thick filament. The female inflorescence is short, globular to oblong spike and develops into oval fruits which are generally 10 to 15 em in diameter weighing 1-4 kg. The fruit rind is yellowish green or brown, divided into series of low projections, green when immature but turns brown and then yellow near maturity. The fruits are produced on short, thick stalks and contain a whitish, fibrous pulp. Most of the cultivated types are seedless.
40
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Seeded breadfruits are known as breadnuts, which bear fleshy prickles and the edible pulp is largely replaced by brownish, round or flattened, 2.5 em long seeds. All the parts of tree have white gummy latex (FAO, 1982; mPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 22 : Artocarpus altiUs (parkinson) Fosberg, Breadfruit, 1. Flowering and fruiting branch; 2. Halved fruit. (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
Varieties The cultivars of breadfruit may either be seeded or seedless. The seedless ones contain about 70 per cent edible pulp whereas the seeded ones contain 30 per cent pulp and 3 per cent edible seeds. The trees of both types are very similar morphologically but the seeded forms are taller and more vigorous. The number of seeds in the seeded forms varies. The seedless variety, considered a sport of the seeded type, is commonly cultivated. A number of seedless clonal cultivars have been selected. The cultivars differ in their tolerance to drought and salinity. In Fiji, varieties of seedless and seeded breadfruit are separated into 8 classes by leaf form. The important varieties in Tahiti are, Aravei, Havana, Maohi, Paea, Pei, Pucro, Rare, Rare Aumee, Rare Autia, Tatara, Vai Paere, Maopo and Pyou (Morton, 1987). Great diversity occurs with regard to growth and fruiting in Vanuatu, mainly in the north of archipelago (Walter and Sam, 2002). Germplasm collection of breadfruit has been maintained at Koronivia Research Station, Nausori, Fiji (70 accessions), Lowlands Agriculture Experimental Station, Keravat, Papua New Guinea (6 accessions) and National
41
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
Biological Institute, Bogor, Indonesia (3 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1992). A list of institutions having collections of breadfruit germplasm is given in Table 2. Table 2 : Institutions with collections of breadfruit germplasm Country/lnstitution Brazil Colombia Costa Rica, CATIE Costa Rica, ANAl Fed. States of Micronesia, Kosrae Fed. States of Micronesia, Pohnpei Fiji France Honduras Indonesia Jamaica Kiribati Papua New Guinea Philippines Solomon Islands Taiwan Tanzania Trinidad and Tobago USA- National Tropical Bot. Garden USA- USDA/ ARS Vietnam Western Samoa, Upolu
No. of accessions 10 2 1 2 Approx.20 Approx.20 (70) 2 2 3 5 < 20 6 1 25 1 1 Approx.40 173 Approx.4O 4 < 30
(Ragone, 1997)
Culture Seeded variety of breadfruit is propagated through seeds. The seeds lose viability soon after removal from the fruits and should., therefore, be sown immediately after extraction. Seedless variety can be propagated by root cuttings or by air layering of root suckers. Root cuttings taken between October and March have given success ranging from 29 to 90 per cent. The tender scion branches can be grafted on seedlings of jack£ruit or Artocarpus hirsutus. The planting is done during May-June or with the onset of rainy season at 15-20 m spacing. Approximately 100 trees can be planted per hectare if spacing is reduced to 12x8 m or lOxl0 m. The interspaces between the trees can be used to grow smaller fruits such as papaya, banana or pineapple as fillers or field crops and vegetables as intercrops until the trees occupy full space. Intercropping is possible during the first few years. In humid areas, ginger, pepper and vanilla, which can grow under shade, are often grown as intercrops.
42
UNDERUTIUZED FRUITS AND NUTS
During summer months, young plants should be watered frequently. After the plants have established, farmyard manure and wood ash or a mixture of ammonium sulphate, muriate of potash and superphosphate may be applied during the monsoon. In addition, 2 kg superphosphate should be applied every year to each bearing tree. Regular irrigation is needed during dry periods. The tree starts bearing after 5-6 years when propagated vegetatively, and after 8-10 years when grown from seeds. Flowering occurs during February-March and the fruit matures in nearly three months. Harvesting of fruit is done when it is still hard by lowering and without letting it fall from the tree. Breadfruit seeds are separated from the soft pulp of the harvested ripe fruits. A full-grown tree produces about 150-200 fruits in a year. The average yield per tree is 23-46 kg (50-100 fruits). The fruit is highly perishable and has very short shelf life of a few days. This is a major limitation in utilization of breadfruit (Ragone, 1997). Traditionally, fruit is stored by submerging in water. This method increases the storage life by a few weeks but causes splitting of the fruit. Storage in polythene bags at temperatures around 12°C extends the storage life by about two weeks. Breadfruit can be stored at 13.3OC and 85-90% RH for 14-40 days (Sealand, 1991). Fruits can be processed into dried sliced or diced fruit (Page, 1984). Fruits are also preserved by fermentation in pits or pots (Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Atchley and Cox, 1985). Several causal organisms are responsible for fruit rot of breadfruit. Phytophthora, Colletotrichum (anthracnose) and Rhizopus (soft rot) may damage the fruits, but these can be controlled by prompt harvest of mature fruits and removal of diseased fruits. Phytophthora fruit rot causes serious losses. The affected fruits develop a mouldy appearance. Spraying Bordeaux mixture at fortnightly interval during the fruiting season is effective in controlling the disease. Some other diseases are die back (Fusarium, Pythium and Rosellinia), pink disease (Corticium, Pseudocercospora), stem-end rot (Phomopsis), leaf spot (Pseudocercosporia) and leaf rust (Ureda artocarpl). IlPingalap" causes die back starting from top branches. Its causal organism is unknown and there is no method to control it (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). The common insect pests are mealy bug, scales, twig borers and fruit flies (FAO, 1982; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
22. BREADNUT Breadnut (Brosimum alicastrum Sw. syn. B. bernadetteae Woods., B. latifolium StandI., B. terrabanum Pitt.) belongs to family Moraceae and is also known as ramon and capomo. A related species B. ga1actodendron HBK is the famous milk tree or cow tree of Venezuela, which produces potable milk like latex. Breadnut is native of southern Mexico and Central America and is distributed from Ecuador, Colombia, and Panama to Guatemala and Mexico. The trees of breadnut are abundant near Maya ruins where Indians cultivated it as an important alternative food when maize crop failed (Brucher, 1989; Duke, 1989). The fruit crop seems to have little potential for development (Martin et al., 1987). Breadnut is a tree of moist tropical forests and requires hot, humid tropical climatic conditions with seasonal dry periods. However, it is extremely tolerant to drought. It can grow on a variety of soils including shallow calcareous soils and can tolerate seasonal flooding (Martin et al., 1987; Duke, 1989). Fruit pulp as well as the seed kernel is edible. The seeds taste somewhat like potatoes and are eaten raw or after boiling or roasting. These are also ground into meal and are
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
43
mixed with maize meal to make tortillas or are baked with green plantain. Bread is also prepared from its flour. Nutritive value of seeds favourably compares with maize and is four times richer in amino acids. They are very rich especially in tryptophan. The leaves serve as cattle forage (in Spanish "ramon" means browse). The trees can be tapped to obtain the free-flowing milky latex, which can be mixed with chicle or can be used like cow's milk. It is also used for chewing gum manufacture. Breadnut wood is white, dense, hard and fine-grained and is used for the construction and carpentry in Yucatan (Mexico) (Brucher, 1989; Duke, 1989; Wickens, 1995). The fruit is reported to contain 84.0 g water, 2.5 g protein, 0.5 g fat, 12.1 g total carbohydrates, 1.2 g fibre, 45 mg calcium, 36 mg phosphorus, 0.8 mg iron, 840 mg Jkarotene equivalent, 0.5 mg thiamine 1.52 mg riboflavin, 0.8 mg niacin and 28 mg ascorbic acid and provides 56 calories per 100 g of pulp. Per 100 g of seed is reported to contain 6.5 g water, 11.4 g protein, 1.6 g fat, 76.1 g total carbohydrates, 6.2 g fibre, 211 mg calcium, 142 mg phosphorus, 4.6 mg iron, 128 mg fkarotene equivalent, 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.14 mg riboflavin and 2.1 mg niacin and provides 363 calories (Duke, 1989).
Botany Breadnut tree is an evergreen, tall tree growing 20-30 m in height with 1 metre stem diameter. The bark of the tree produces latex. The leaves are 10-25 em long, oblong-ovate with prominent veins (16-18 pairs), sitting on short stout petioles, with amplexical, 5 mm long petioles. Breadnut trees are dioecious. The inflorescences are subglobose heads (3-6 mm in diameter). The anthers of male flowers are circular and centrally peltate, about 1 mm in diameter. Fruit is globose, 30 mm in diameter with edible pulp which on ripening turns yellow. The seeds are covered with a papery testa. The seed kernels are very nutritious which fall from the tree on the ground (Brucher, 1989; Duke, 1989).
Fig. 23 : Brosimum alicastrum Sw. (Brucher, 1989)
44
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties There are three named varieties in Mexico. There is lot of variability and selections can be made for tolerance to drought, fungal diseases, insect pests, salinity and waterlogging (Duke, 1989). .
Culture The breadnut tree can be grown from seeds, cuttings or air layers. It starts producing fruits 5-6 years after planting. Flowering and fruiting occurs twice or three times in a year in Florida. On ripening, the fruit turns orange in colour. Nuts are collected from the ground. A female tree yields about 50-75 kg fruits (Martin et al., 1987).
23. BURAHOL Burahol or kepel (Stelechocarpus burahol (Blume) Hook.f. and Thomson) belongs to family Annonaceae and is native of western Malaysia. It is found in South East Asia throughout Malaysia as far as the Solomon Island but its cultivation is limited to Java. It has also been introduced in Philippines and Australia (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The tree is found growing wild on deep and moist clay soils. It grows well even among the bamboo clumps where other trees would fail (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It is cultivated up to elevation of 600 m. Ripe fruit is eaten fresh. Its orange, juicy pulp imparts fragrance of violets to body excretions of a person who consumes the fruit. Medicinally, the pulp is diuretic, prevents kidney inflammation and causes temporary sterility in women. The wood is used to make household articles. Its leaves change colour from light pink to burgundy red before turning brilliant green and thus the tree has great ornamental value (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Burahol has been used traditionally as a perfume and as a family planning agent.
Botany It is an erect, evergreen tree and grows up to 25 m tall. The dark grey-brown to black trunk is up to 40 em in diameter, characterstically covered with numerous thick tubercles. The dark green, thin and leathery leaves are elliptic-oblong to ovate-lanceolate glabrous and 12-27 x 5-9 em in size with 1.5 em long petioles. The flowers are unisexual, green turning whitish, fascicled on tubercles. The male flowers are borne on upper trunk and older branches in groups of 8-16 and are up to 1 em in diameter. The female flowers emerge only on the lower part of the trunk and are up to 3 em in diameter. The fruit has 113 berry like ripe carpels, which are almost globose, brownish, 5-6 em in diameter with brown, juicy and edible pericarp and contain 4-6 ellipSOid and 3 em long seeds (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Culture It is commonly propagated from the seeds. Vegetative methods have not been successful. The seedlings are transplanted 9-10 m apart. Information on its cultural requirement should be generated to improve its productivity and production. The trees start flowering 6-9 years after planting during September-October and the fruits ripen after 6 months. A mature tree yields 1000-1500 fruits per year. The mature fruit skin on scratching
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
45
reveals a yellow or light brown colour. The fruits are covered 1-2 months before harvesting by plaited sleeves of bamboo or coconut leaflets or polythene bags. The fruits can be kept for 2-3 weeks at room temperature. The trees must be protected from damage by bats and rodents (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 24 : Srelechocarpus burahol (B1.) Hook f. &: Th. (IBPGR, 1980)
24. BURITI PALM The buriti palm or moriche palm or muriti or miriti palm (Mauritia flexuosa L. f. syn. M. vinifera C. Mart.) belongs to family Palmae and is native of northeastern South America. It is found growing in the Amazon basin, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil and Guiana. It is one of the most majestic trees of the Amazon basin. It grows well in hot, wet tropical lowlands. It is found growing wild in poorly drained or periodically flooded wastelands. Presence of the buriti palms indicates the existence of ground water in the drylands (Martin et al., 1987). Buriti palm is known as the tree of life as it provides food, drink, shelter and clothing. It is a significant source of food in the native area (Martin et al., 1987). Fruit pulp is edible and is also used to prepare alcoholic drink, candy, desserts and baked products. The farinaceous kernel yields 50 per cent light yellow edible oil. The growing shoots are harvested to obtain hearts of palm (palm cabbage), which are used in salads and to enhance the flavour of other vegetables. The trunk pith is a source of starch similar to sago. The Red Indians often make wine from the fruit, sweet sap of the trunk and unopened flower clusters. The leaves are used as a source of fibre to make cords, baskets and ropes. Tubular leaf petioles are used as rafts for transporting water (FAO, 1986; Padoch, 1988; Wickens, 1995).
46
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
The fruit pulp contains 11 g protein, 38.6 g fat, 46 g carbohydrates, 41.9 g fibre, 415.4 mg calcium, 69.9 mg phosphorus, 12.9 mg ircn, 90992.6ILg carotene, 0.11 mg thiamine, 2.57 mg niacin and 0.85 mg riboflavin and provides 526 calories per 100 g of pulp (Atchley, 1984).
Botany It is a massive solitary, unarmed and pleonanthic fan palm growing up to 20-30 m in height with a thick trunk of 30-60 em diameter. The crown consists of 15 to 20 feathery, reduplicately palmate, fan shaped open leaves. The 3 m long leaves are so heavy that two persons are needed to carry a leaf. These fall to the ground as they age. It is a dioecious palm. The inflorescences are large (2 m long) and pendent. Male catkins are 6 em long, bearing spirally arranged pairs of small flowers. Female catkin is very short, 1 em long, bearing 1 or 2 flowers. Five to eight fruit bunches, at various stages of maturity, can be found on a tree. The fruits are globose or spherical (5-6 em diameter) covered with rhomboidal, shiny brown scales. The mesocarp is thin and is composed of a cap of sponge like orange pulp around the large and hard seed. The seed is rather easy to crack (FAO, 1986; Brucher, 1989; Wickens, 1995).
Fig. 25 : Palm fruits and seeds. 1. Acrocomia sp.; 2 Astrocaryum tucuma; 3. Maximiliana maritiana; 4. Mauritia flexuosa; 5. Oenocarpus sp.; 6. ]essenia bataua; 7. Mauritia martiana. (Briicher, 1989)
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
47
Culture It is generally propagated from the seeds. Seed germinates after a few months and the plant grows to a height of 20-30 cm fairly rapidly. Fruiting starts when trees reach a height of about 6 m in about 7 years under natural conditions. Fruiting usually occurs once a year during the wet months but some fruits may be available throughout the year. On maturity, the fruit becomes yellow or orange brown with yellow to orange pUlp colour. The whole bunch is cut or individual ripe fruits are knocked off with sticks (FAO, 1986). Information is not available on insect pests of buriti palm.
25. BUSH MANGO Bush mango or duiker nut or wild mango (Jroingia gabonensis Balli. syn. 1. barteri Hook.f.) belongs to the family Irvingiaceae and is native of West Africa. This species occurs from the Casamance region of Senegal to Zaire, Angola and Uganda. It has been recognised as a primary wild species for domestication (Ladipo et al., 1996). The related edible species is Jroingia wombolu var. moesen syn. 1. gabonensis var. excelsa Okafor, which also produces edible fruits and seeds. Bush mango requires tropical monsoon climatic conditions and does not have any particular soil preference except that it does not do well in swampy or marshy places. The pulp of the fruit is sometimes eaten, although it is bitter and emits a strong turpentine smell. The fruits are often left to ferment to remove the smell. The kernel of the seed is crushed, grilled and used to prepare a sort of butter. This is known as dika, odika or pain de dika and chocolat du Gabon. The oily seed is edible and is consumed in parts of West Africa. Oil is extracted from the kernel. The kernal is also used as a delicious condiment for soups and is also made into sauce or paste. The fresh bark of the tree is used to add flavour to locally made palm wine. It is also considered to be a powerful antibiotic for scabby skin, a cure for diahorrea when used with palm oil and a toothache remedy. Timber can be used for building the superstructure of boats and is reputed to be resistant to termites (FAO, 1982).
Varieties A lot of variability is found with regard to morphological and reproductive characteristics including fruit quality attributes. There is urgent need to select superior types (Ladipo et al., 1996). Gene banks have been established in Nigeria at Ibadan (65 accessions) and at Onne (95 accessions) and in Cameroon at M'Balmayo (62 accessions) (Ladipo et al., 1996). Botany It is a large tree up to 40 m in height with well developed, dense, and much branched crown. Bark is grey green to grey brown, rather thin, exfoliating in small, elongated scales. Leaf is simple, elliptic, alternate, glabrous, coriaceous and shining on both surfaces. Flowers are fragrant, small, greenish-yellow, pentamerous and hermaphrodite, borne on axillary racemes. Flowers contain a bright yellow disk below which the stamens are inserted. The fruit is a greenish yellow drupe resembling a small fibrous compressed mango, 5-6 x 4 em in size (FAO, 1982).
48
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
branch with leaves
fruits
Fig. 26 : Irvingia gabonensis (FAO,1982)
Culture Bush mango is usually propagated by seed but can also be propagated by air layering. Polyembryony has been reported in bush mango. The tree comes into flowering 10-15 years after planting. Flowering occurs during December-January and the fruit starts maturing in July-August (early types) and in August-Septem1:ier (late). On ripening, the fruit colour changes from green to yellow (FAO, 1982; Ladipo et al., 1996)
26. CAMU CAMU Camu camu (Myrciaria dubia McVaugh syn. M. paraensis Berg, M. spruceans Berg) belongs to the family Myrtaceae and is native o~ western Amazon basin. It is widely distributed in the Amazon River basin and upper Orinoco basin in Peru, Colombia, Brazil and Venezuela (FAO, 1986). The species abundantly occurs wild in swamps, along rivers and lakes especially in Rio Mazan near Iquitos, Peru and in Amazonian Brazil and Venezuela (Morton, 1987). Camu-camu occurs naturally as bushy, semi-open, low growth on the edges of rivers and lakes. It is well adapted to periodic flooding even for few months. Thus it would be reasonable to assume that it does not require good drainage. It is found only in areas with more than 1500 mm annual rainfall and temperatures rarely below 20°C It is known to occur on the rich clay loam of the Amazon flood plain as well as on poorer sandy sites
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
49
along the rivers. It also adapts well to the well-drained clay oxisols above the flood lines. Camu-camu has not been found naturally above 200-300 m altitude (FAO, 1986). It can thus be popularised as a profitable crop for marginal farmers who live along the banks of the major rivers (FAO, 1986). The acidic pulp of the fruit is edible. The flavour of the fruit is comparable to that of lemon and is reminiscent of M. cauliflora. In Peru, the fruits are generally mashed with sugar and water to make juice that is sold as a popular bottled carbonated drink. The juice is also used to prepare organic vitamin C tablets. It can also be used to make jelly, sweetmeats, liquors and ice cream. The camu-camu is one of the richest sources of vitamin C and thus has potential for the manufacture of "natural" health product for food markets. Half ripe fruits contain 1950 to 2700 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g edible portion (Morton, 1987). Camu-camu fruit contains 94.4 g water, 0.5 g protein, 4.7 g carbohydrates, 0.6 g fibre, 0.01 mg thiamine, 0.04 mg riboflavin, 0.62 mg niacin and 2994 vitamin C per 100 g of pulp (Clement and Silva, 1994).
Botany It is a shrub or small tree growing up to 8-13 m high with thin, pale to bronzy brown bark, much branched stem with branches arising lower down the main stem. Leaves are opposite, simple, broadly ovate or elliptic, 45-10 x 1.5-4.5 cm in size with acuminate apex, rounded to sub-cuneate base, entire margin, dark green above, dull and paler below with 20 pairs of obscure lateral nerves and 3-5 mm long petiole. Inflorescence is axillary with 11.5 mm long axis usually bearing 4 sub sessile flowers in 2 opposite pairs. Fragrant flowers are regular and bisexual, calyx lobes are broadly rounded and 2.2 mm wide. Petals are ovate, 3-4 mm long and ciliate. Stamens are 125, 9-10 mm long with 0.5 - 0.7 mm long anthers. Ovary is inferior and style is 10-11 mm long. Fruit is a reddish brown to purple black, globose berry, 1-3 em in diameter with a circular, hypanthial scar at the apex and fleshy and soft pulp at maturity enclosing 2-3 seeds (FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987).
Fig. 27 : Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh. 1. Fruiting branch; 2. Flower. (FAD, 1986)
50
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties Sweet and flavoured types are available in the natural variability from where selections can be made.
Culture It is generally propagated from seeds. Seeds germinate in 14 to 21 days if sown within 2 days after removal from the fruit. Early growth of the seedlings is slow and these become ready for transplanting in a year. The seedlings are planted at a spacing of 4 x 4 m. Application of nitrogen has been found to accelerate growth. Fruit production starts three years after planting in the field. The plants flower during July to September and fruiting occurs from November to June in Amazon and Peru. The berries are picked when fully ripe and should be processed or consumed within 3 to 4 days. Fruit yield of 10 tonnes per hectare has been obtained in Peru by planting at 3 m spacing and when animal manure was applied. In plantations in non-flooded lands, a tree may bear 300 to 500 fruits whereas in flooded lands, a tree produces about 100 fruits (FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987).
27. CANISTEL The canistel or yellow sapote or egg fruit (Pouteria campechiana (Kunth.) Baehni, syn. Lucuma salicifolia HBK, L. nervosa A.DC., L. sphaerocarpa A.DC., L. palmeri Fern., L. laeteviridis Pittier, Richardella nervosa Pierre, R. salicifolia Pierre, Pouteria campechiana var. salicifolia Baehni.) belongs to the family Sapotaceae and is a native of central America and West Indies (Martin et al., 1987). It is commonly grown in central and South America. Canistel is also cultivated in Philippines. It has also been introduced in Florida, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, . Bahamas, USA (Brucher, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Canistel holds lot of potential for development because of productivity, adaptability and nutrient content (Martin, et al., 1987). It requires hot tropical lowlands receiving medium to high rainfall. It is well adapted to seasonal dry periods and tolerates light frosts. It is found up to an altitude of 1800 m and in humid climates with frequent rainfall. The trees have excellent tolerance to strong winds and salinity. It can be grown on a wide range of soil types ranging from very sandy to clays (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Canistel fruit is eaten as a dessert. It has many applications as processed fruit (Martin, et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It can be used in milk shakes, ice-cream, drinks, pudding, preserves, etc. and in pies, cakes, muffins and other baked foods. It is also eaten as a vegetable with salt and pepper and lemon juice. It can be preserved with sugar in the form of butter or marmalade. Its flesh can be dehydrated and powdered for use·as a rich food additive. In Florida (USA), it is used as a dooryard plant. Its seed is also edible (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Canistel is multipurpose species and can be used in agroforestry system. The fruit is rich in carbohydrates, protein, carotene, minerals and vitamins A and C. Ripe fruit contains 57.2-60.6 g water, 1.7-2.5 g protein, 0.1-0.6 g fat, 36.7-39.1 g carbohydrates, 0.1-7.5 mg fibre, 26.5-40 mg calcium, 30-37.3 mg phosphorus, 0.9-1.1 mg iron, 0.32 mg carotene, 0.02-0.17 mg thiamine, 0.01-0.03 mg riboflavin, 2.5-3.7 mg niacin and 4358 mg vitamin C and provides 580-630 kJ energy per 100 g of edible portion. (Verheij and Coronel,1991).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
51
Botany The canistel is a small, evergreen, open growing tree growing up to a height of 25 m if not injured by cold weather. The leaves are oblong-obovate to oblanceolate, 10-20 em long, glabrous and bright green in colour. The flowers are small, borne in the leafaxils of young branches in clusters of 2-5 having 5-lobed calyx consisting of 4-6 sepals, of which the inner ones are rounded at the apex, whitish corolla with ovate lobes, 5 stamens, 5 staminodes, columnar style, slightly dilated stigma and 5-6 celled ovary. The fruit is orangeyellow when ripe, globose or ovoid, 5-10 em long, frequently pointed at the apex having bright orange and soft flesh which is mealy, like the yolk of a hard boiled egg, and usually contains 2-3, shiny dark brown seeds (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; Brucher, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 28 : Pouteria campechiana (Kunth.) Baehni (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
Varieties Some of the improved varieties are Ross, Bruce, Aurea, Joyner, Everbearing and Hume. Du Puis, Fairchild # 1, Fairchild # 2, Saludo are large fruited and few seeded cultivars from the Philippines. In nature, considerable variation occurs in size, shape and flavour of the fruit. Genetic resources of canistel have been maintained at Subtropical Horticultural Research Unit, USDA, Miami, Florida (16 accessions), Centro Agronomico Tropical de Investigacion y Ensenanza, Turrialba, Costa Rica (13 accessions) and Institute of Plant
52
UNDERUTILIZED FauITs AND NUTS
Breeding, College of Agriculture, Laguna, Philippines (18 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1992). Azurdia (2005) have updated the list of insti.tutions having collection of germplasm of canistel.
Culture Canistel can be grown very easily from seed. However, vegetative propagation is preferred. The seeds take 3 to 6 months to germinate. Side veneer grafting and chip budding are successful. Planting is done at 7-9 m spacing. The tree is trained to improve its form. The tree tends to be very upright in growth, particularly when small, but can be kept pruned to size as a large shrub that produces abundant quantitites of fruit. Fertilizers are applied 3 to 4 times in a year. In deep soils of normal fertility, a balanced mineral fertilizer such as 10-1010 is applied every 3 months @ 50 g per application per tree and this is increased as the tree grows (Martin et al., 1987). Mulching is helpful in dry season. The seedling tree starts fruiting after 7-10 years whereas the grafts start fruiting 34 years after planting. The fruits are yellow to orange even when immature and do not mature synchronously. In Florida, flowering occurs from June to August and the fruits mature from August to March. The fruits mature in about 180 days from flowering. Each tree yields about 500 fruits. The fruits are harvested after they attain full yellow colour. Such fruits ripen within 3-4 days. Putting a little table salt on the end of fruit stalk accelerates their ripening. In Florida, the fungal diseases like scab and leaf spots (Elsinoe lepagei, Phyllosticta sp. and Phyllachora sp.), leaf necrosis (Gloeosporium sp.), fruit spot (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides), rust (Acrotelium lucumae) and root rot (Pythium sp.) have been recorded. Scale insects and mealy bugs have been observed in Florida and Philippines. Canistel is reported to be tolerant to fruitflies (Morton, 1987).
28. CARAMBOLA Carambola or star fruit (Averrhoa carambola 1.) of family Oxalidaceae is believed to have originated in South East Asia, probably in Indonesia where it has been reported to occur in a wild state (Martin et al., 1987). Knight (1983) suggested a secondary centre of diversity in northern South America around Guyana, where it has been established for over 150 years. It is grown throughout the humid tropics and the subtropics. It is rapidly developing into a more commercial crop and penetrating distant markets (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The related species that produces edible fruits is A. bilimbi 1. (bilimbi, cucumber tree), which is grown only in the tropics. It is grown in South China, Taiwan, India, the Philippines, Queensland (Australia) and South Pacific Islands (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Although the carambola originated in the hot wet tropica1lowlands, it can be grown under sheltered conditions at high elevations (1200 m) in the tropics. A well distributed rainfall between 1500 and 3000 mm is reported to be suitable but, once established, it does grow well in dry areas and can tolerate seasonal drought. The ideal temperature is considered to be between 21-32°C. Growth ceases and flower opening is restricted below 15°C while young shoots are damaged by temperatures approaching O°C and are killed below O°c. It can be grown at lower temperatures providing that young trees are protected from frost. Mature dormant trees can tolerate as low temperature as -3°C for brief periods. However,
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
53
the tree gets severely damaged if exposed for prolonged periods. It can be grown in dry climate where it must be irrigated. Deep, well drained soils having pH 5.5-6.5 are the best for its cultivation. It cannot tolerate prolonged drought, flooding and salinity conditions (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; Galan Sauco, 1993). The fruit contains oxalic acid and is usually sour and acidic. It is thus normally unsuitable for fresh consumption but is used in salads, punch bowls and for preparation of juice, jam, pickle, liquor, preserves, jam and jelly. It is also used to clean stains on metal. Green immature fruit is cooked as vegetable. The fruit is used in traditional medicines to cure affections of the skin and fevers. It is also grown as ornamental plant (FAO, 1982; Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Mathews, 1989). Carambola fruit contains 90 g water, 0.75-0.85 g protein, 3.5-11 g total sugars and 0.147 g fibre per 100 g edible portion (Verheij and Coronel, 1992). Morton (1987) reported that 100 g of edible portion of carambola fruit contains 89.0-91.0 g moisture, 0.38 g protein, 0.08 g fat, 9.38 g carbohydrates, 0.80-0.90 g fibre, 4.4-6.0 mg calcium, 15.5-21.0 mg phosphorus, 0.32-1.65 mg iron, 0.003-0.552 mg carotene, 0.03-0.038 mg thiamine, 0.019-0.03 mg riboflavin, 0.29-0.38 mg niacin and 26.0-53.1 mg ascorbic acid and provides 35.7 calories.
Botany It is a much branched, small and slow growing, evergreen tree growing up to 10-15 m in height with drooping branches. The bark is light brown, smooth or finely fissured. Leaves are alternate, imparipinnate with 3-6, entire, ovate leaflets. The flowers, borne on axillary or cauliflorous panicles, are perfect, pentamerous and heterostylous with coherant petals, much larger than the 8 mm long pink sepals with purple or red heart and 10 stamens of which 5 are sometimes rudimentary. Ovary is superior, 5-celled with 5 styles. The fruit is large, ovoid to ellipsoid berry, 6-13 em in size with five prominent longitudinal ribs, stellate in cross-section and seeds having fleshy aril (FAO, 1982; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Shiesh et al., 1985).
Fig. 29 : Ave"hoa carambola L. (IBPGR, 1980)
54
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties The important cultivars of Malaysia are Maha 66, Bl, B17, B2, Bl0 and B11. The cultivar B17 is said to produce better quality fruits than B2 and Bl0 (Rao and Ramanatha Rao, 1998). Cultivar Fwang Tung is important in Thailand; Dah Pon, Mih Tao, and Tean Ma in Taiwan; Fwang Tung, Giant Siam, Kembangen, BI, B2' B4'-B6' BlO and BI6 in Australia and Icambola in Colombia. The cultivars Arkin, Fwang Tung, Golden Star, Hoku, Kaiang, Maha, Sri Kembangsaan, Wheeler, Thayer, Kara, Kary and Newcomb are important in Florida. The cultivars may either be acidic or sweet in taste. These can also be grouped on the basis of length of style (Table 3). Table 3 : Carambola cultivars Short style B-2 B-8 B-l0 FwangTung LuTho Wheeler Sri Kembangsaan Kara
Long style B-1 B-6
B-ll B-16 Starting Maha Arkin
Kary
Watson et al., 1988 Golden Star is a self-compatible cultivar. The fruits of Fwang Tung and Maha are susceptible to injury during handling and cold storage owing to narrow ribs on them (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Germplasm collection of carambola has been maintained at Northern Territory Department, Darwin, Australia (10 accessions), Empresa Pernambucena De Pesquisa Agro Pecuria, Pernembuco, Brazil (32 accessions), Institute of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Laguna, Philippines (18 accessions), National Oonal Germplasm Repository, Hilo, Hawaii (9 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1992).
Culture It is generally propagated from seeds. However, vegetative propagation is preferred as it produces true-to-type plants. Shield budding, grafting or air layering are the most common methods of vegetative propagation (F AO, 1982). Planting is done at 6 x 6 m spacing. Owing to self and cross-incompatibility, more than one cultivar must be planted together. High winds can cause defoliation and stunted growth of trees. Fruits are also very susceptible to wind damage. Therefore, wind barriers must be provided around the field or a protected site should be selected for planting. Heavy pruning of the trees is done at the end of cool season in Taiwan to induce fruit bud initiation that occurs 7-15 days later (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). A dose of 100 kg NPK-Mg mixture (10-10-10-5) is applied every 3 months to a young tree. Deficiencies of Zn, Mn and Fe must be corrected regularly. Regular watering is required for good fruiting.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
55
Three harvests per year are taken in southern Taiwan by following management practices incorporating pruning and fertilization. Double fertilization is carried out 1-2 months before first pruning in a year during the cool dry season and then after every three months. The time of pruning is varied to achieve year round production. Other essential practices include maintaining water supply and fruit thinning to improve fruit size and reduce the length of the harvest period (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). Grafted trees start bearing 2-3 years after planting while seedlings start bearing after 5-6 years. In carambola, flowers having long styles are self-fertile while those having short styles (0.5-1.0 mm) receive pollen from flowers with long style (2 mm). Occasionally the plants produce only long or short styled flowers or sometimes both the types of flowers are produced on the same plant. In depth studies are required to understand the segregation pattern and floral biology of carambola. Flowers are produced in great numbers but less than 1% of flowers set fruits (Rao and Ramanatha Rao, 1998). The tree flowers and bears fruits continuously round the year, but usually has one or two pronounced harvest seasons, each lasting about 2 months. The fruit takes 90-110 days to ripen after anthesis. It is a nonclimacteric fruit. The average yield per tree is 50-100 kg. The fruits can be stored for 4 weeks at 10°C and 85-90% RH if picked as soon as they begin to tum yellow. In Florida, anthracnose of fruit is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Sooty mould causes blemishes on the fruit surface. Leaf spot diseases are caused mainly by Cercosporae averrhoae, Phomopsis spp. and Phyllosticta spp. None of these have, however, been found to be limiting its production. Scale insects cause injury in some locations but can be easily controlled. Leaf miners, stink bug and fruitfly larvae infestations can occasionally render the fruits unmarketable. Decline of trees has been found to be associated with localized infestation with reniform nematode (Rotylenchulus reniformis). Fruitflies cause considerable damage and can be controlled by bagging of fruits, removing the infested fruits and raking the soil to kill the pupae (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
29. CASHEW Cashew or monkey nut (Anacardium occidentale L.) of the family Anacardiaceae originated in northeastern Brazil (Morton, 1987), and spread through South and Central America. It is found growing wild in the semi-arid coasts of Venezuela and Brazil. The Portuguese introduced it in India and East Africa. Then it spread to Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Indonesia. The Spaniards took it to the Philippines in the 1~ century. At present, cashew nut is cultivated in many tropical countries mainly in Brazil, India, Venezuela, Kenya, Senegal, Mali, Madgascar, Burkino Faso, Mozambique, Vietnam and Tanzania (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Its plantations are rapidly developing in West Africa (Wickens, 1995). Major cashew growing States in India are Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Goa, Maharashtra, Orissa and West Bengal. It requires warm and humid climate with rainfall between 1000 and 2000 mm having a pronounced dry season and grows from sea level to 1000 m altitudes. Cashew nut is resistant to strong winds. It requires hot tropical climate below 1000 m elevations. Frost is deleterious for its growth. The distribution of rainfall rather than its quantity is important. Rainfall during flowering and fruiting is harmful. The tree can adapt to very dry conditions. Cashew nut can be grown on a variety of soils ranging from sandy to clay. It can be grown
56
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
in shallow soils but prefers deep sandy soils and does not tolerate inundated horizons. Excessively alkaline and saline soils should be avoided (FAO, 1982; Martin et aI., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Cashew does well under these conditions, provided the roots can grow unrestricted. Cashew kernels obtained by shelling the roasted nuts serve as a rich food. The nuts contain high quality oil and the cake after oil extraction serves as animal feed. The cashew apple (the swollen fruit stalk) is eaten fresh or mixed in fruit salads or is used to prepare paste, jam, juice, vinegar, candied fruit, beverage or strong alcoholic drinks. Seed coats are utilized as animal feed (Morton, 1987). Cashew nut shell liquid (an oil) has industrial application as a preservative for wooden structures and fishing nets. It is also used in brake lining, clutches and plastic resins (Wickens, 1995). Cashew wood is used as fuel or as a low quality timber. The bark contains tannins. The gum exudate from the wounded trees is used as an adhesive for wooden panels, plywood, bookbinding, etc. The wood is also known to have insecticidal properties. Young leaves and shoots are eaten, both fresh and cooked. All parts of the tree are used in traditional medicine. The nutshell liquid, leaves, bark, roots and juice of the "apples" are used in local medicine for various purposes such as diabetes, gestro-intestinal disorders, weak bladder and high blood pressure. It is used in fixation of sand dunes (IBPGR, 1986; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The mature seed is reported to contain 5.2-7.6 g water, 17.2-17.4 g protein, 43.4-45.7 g fat, 29.2 g carbohydrates, 1.4 g fibre, 38-76 mg calcium, 373-578 mg phosphorus, 3.8-18.0 mg iron, 0.43-0.65 mg thiamine, 0.25 mg riboflavin, 1.6-18 mg niacin, 60 mg beta-carotene equivalent and 7 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g and provides 542-561 calories. The cashew apple contains 87.9% water, 0.2% protein, 0.1% calcium, 0.01% phosphorus, 0.002% iron, 0.09% carotene and 0.26% vitamin C (Duke, 1989). Morton (1987) reported food value per 100 g of fresh cashew apple: 84.4-88.7 g moisture, 0.01-0.162 g protein, 0.05-0.050 g fat, 9.089.75 g carbohydrates, 0.4-1.0 g fibre, 0.9-5.4 mg calcium, 6.1-21.4 mg phosphorus, 0.19-0.71 mg iron, 0.03-0.742 mg carotene, 0.023-0.03 mg thiamine, 0.13-0.4 mg nboflavin, 0.13-0.53 mg niacin and 146.6-372 mg ascorbic acid.
Botany It is an evergreen tree growing up to 10-12 m high, with a wide dome-shaped crown. The leaves are simple, alternate, obovate to obovate-oblong, 2Ox15 em in size, leathery, red brown when young, swollen at base, flattened on upper surface. Inflorescence is a lax, up to 25 cm long, terminal, drooping, many-flowered panicle with fragrant male and hermaphrodite flowers. The flower has 5,lanceolate to oblong-ovate sepals that are 4-15 x 1-2 mm in size, reflexed, whitish at anthesis and later turning pinkish red. Male flower has 7-9 stamens of 4 mm length and 1-3 stamens of 6-10 mm length. Hermaphrodite flower usually has 5 petals, 5 sepals, 9 short and 1 long stamens and a superior, reniform, monocarpellate ovary. Long stamens produce viable pollen. Style is Simple, 12 mm long, exerted from corolla to the length of long stamens. Fruit is a kidney-shaped nut, about 3 x 1.2 em in size with grey brown, resinous, hard pericarp and much enlarged and swollen pedicel forming the fruit-like cashew apple, which is pear-shaped, 10-20 em long, 4-8 em broad, shiny, red-yellow, soft and juicy. The seed is kidney-shaped with reddish-brown testa. Two large white cotyledons and a small embryo together constitute the kernel (FAO, 1982; mPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
57
Fig. 30 : Anacardium occidentale 1. fruiting branch; 2. bisexual flower; 3. male flower; 4. fruit; 5.Leaves. (FAD, Wickens, 19S5)
Varieties Cultivars suitable to different regions of India have been recommended (Table 4). Some selections made at the Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod, India are M10/4, M6/1, M14/3 and M76/1 (Nambiar, 1979). The important hybrids evolved at the Cashew Research Station, Vengurla, Maharashtra are 2/11, 2/12 and V7. Promising varieties of Brazil are Amarelo Gigente or Manteiga (Briicher, 1989). In Kenya, budded material from Selection 'A81' has shown high yielding ability. Of the 16 clones selected in Malaysia, 'Cll' yields 30% higher than 'C21' and 2 to 6 times more than the other clones. In Thailand, Selections 'SK60-1', 'SK60-2', SK-A and Sirichai 25 are recommended. Cashew Balli 2 has been identified for high yield and better nut and apple characteristics (Anon., 1998). High yielding cultivars of cashew are Amrutha (H 1697), Sulabha (K 10-2), Vengurla 2 and Vengurla 7 (Singh et al., 2003). Table 4 : Suitable cashew cultivars for different States of India Indian States Karnataka Kerala Andhra Pradesh
Varieties BLA-39-4, VR-1, VR-2, Ullal-1 and Ullal-2 BLA-39-4, K-22/1, NDR-2-1 BPP-4, BPP-6, VRI-2, Ullal1, Chintamani 1
contd. ...
58
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
... contd.
Indian States Maharashtra Orissa Tamil Nadu Goa West Bengal
Varieties V-I, V-4, VRI-2 WBDC-V, T-40, BPP-2, BPP-6, BPP-8, Ullai-l BRl-l, VRI-2, VRI -3 V-I, V-4, VRI-2 BLA 39-4, Jhargram 1, BPP 8
Nambiar et al., 1990; Singh et al., 2003 Low yield level per tree should be raised by the use of selected genotypes to popularize this fruit crop.
Culture Fully mature nuts are used for planting new orchards. Nuts having low moisture content remain viable for a year. Clonal propagation methods such as marcotting and layering are successful. About 30 per cent success has been obtained by budding and top grafting. Softwood grafting has also been found successful. It is done by grafting on the softw()od portion of 40-60 days old rootstock seedling retaining 1 or 2 pairs of leaves below the graft joint till the buds sprout (Bhaskara Rao, 1998). Mass multiplication can be done by clonal micropropagation. Bud proliferation (1 to 13 per explant) could be achieved on MS medium supplemented with 1.0 mg/litre thiadiazuron in combination with BA (0.5 and 1.0 mg/litre). Rooting in these microshoots is induced using NAA and combination of IBA and IAA (Bhaskara Rao, 1998). Cashew trees are commonly planted at 7.5-10 m spacing. High density planting (625 plants/ha) gives 2-3 fold production of that obtained by planting at normal density. Weeding the basin area 1 m around the trunk and slashing the remaining interspaces is essential until the trees fully grow. Later, the trees smother most of the weeds. Application of fertilizers promotes growth of the seedlings and advances onset of flowering. Irrigation after initiation of flowering through fruit set and development at 60-80 litres/tree once in 4 days by drip method along with application of 500:125:125 g NPK/tree gave higher yields (Singh et al., 2003). Production of 420 kg raw nuts per hectare removes 13 kg nitrogen, 4 kg P205 and 3 kg ~O. Application of 500 g N, 125 g P20 S and 125 g ~O has been recommended. In high rainfall areas, fertilizers should be applied 1.5 m away from the trunk in 25 em wide and 15 em deep trenches. In low rainfall areas, application should be incorporated in soil in circular band of 1.5 m width, 1.5 m away from the tree trunk, incorporating in the soil. Yellow leaf spot has been observed in cashew growing tracts and can be corrected by the application of 0.03% ammonium molybdate as foliar spray after correcting the soil pH by application of lime @ 6 kg/ tree. Soil moisture conservation by using live mulch or by digging catch pit above the plant basin in slopy areas increases yield. Pineapple is the most beneficial intercrop in cashew orchards up to the fifth year after planting in tropical areas of southern India (Bhaskara Rao, 1998). Economic life of cashew is about 25 years after which replanting should be done. But this is costly and leads to loss of income for at least five years. An alternative is to raise
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
59
cashew trees in hedgerows, which increases the canopy surface area per hectare. High productivity from hedgerows can be maintained by coppicing the alternate rows at 50-75 em height when the rows are within 1 m distance from each other. The stumped hedges resume production in the second year. Hedgerows may also be uprooted to replace with superior genotypes but the replanted hedgerow will commence production after 5 years. However, during this period, the remaining hedgerows spread fully and give higher yields. If the gap between hedgerows becomes less than 1 m, the production begins to decline. Then these should be cut back to provide ample room for the expansion of the rejuvenated/ replanted hedgerows. This system allows continuous cropping at higher than the normal productivity level. Seedling trees come into production after 4-5 years whereas the vegetatively propagated trees bear after 2-3 years. The cashew tree flowers during February-March and the fruit matures in 60-90 days. The harvest period lasts 2-3 months since the flowering in each inflorescence and in each tree is protracted and all trees do not reach full bloom at the same time. Best quality is attained when the freshly fallen nuts are dried and stored immediately. The nuts should be gathered at least weekly. For efficient collection, the area under the tree should be kept clean and free from weeds. After removal of the cashew apple, the nuts are sun-dried to reduce moisture from 25 to below 9 per cent. If properly dried, the kernels retain their quality, particularly the flavour. The nuts should not absorb moisture during storage. Equilibrium moisture content for cashew nuts is about 9 per cent at 2'?C and 70 per cent relative humidity. The cashew apples ripen before raw nuts are mature. Picking has to be done almost daily. The average yield of cashew apple is 70-80 quintals per hectare. Average yield per tree is 3 kg at the age of 3-5 years, 4 kg at 6-10 years, 4.7 kg at 11-15 years and 5.3 kg during the age of 16-20 years. Later, the yield declines owing to loss of limbs by breakage. Cashew apple can be stored at O°C and 85-90% RH for 35 days (Sealand, 1991). The nuts are roasted in oil at 200°C and are then cracked with a wooden mallet to obtain the kernels. Now, automatic mechanical processing methods are used to get the product of high grade. Oean kernels are carefully dried to about 5 per cent moisture content. The export trade requires packing into 4-gallon metal containers with carbon dioxide. Leaf spot is a common disease observed mainly in nursery plants. Spray of Bordeaux mixture (1 %) should be done to control the disease. Under hot and humid conditions, anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) attacks young shoots and flowers, which dry up and shed. Infections on the fruits cause their necrosis and shedding. The disease is often associated with insects and/ or fungi. Selections of resistant plant types can be done. Powdery mildew is also common. Affected plant parts become covered with white fungal growth. The leaves may shrivel, dry and shed. Similarly, flowers may drop. Since the fungus flourishes in humid environment, densely planted trees suffer more. Wilt or damping off disease also causes damage. Tea mosquito, Helopeltis antonil and weevil (Mecocorynus loripes) cause considerable damage. These insects damage the leaves, but cause most of the damage to inflorescences and young fruits which dry and shed. A spray of 35% EC Endosulfan @O.05% should be done to control tea mosquito. Other destructive pests are wood or stem borers, stem girdlers or sucking pests such as thrips (lBPGR, 1986; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Spray of 0.05% Endosulphan can effectively control these pests (Bhaskara Rao, 1998).
60
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND
NUTS
30. CASSABANANA Cassabanana or silkana or musk cucumber (Sicana odorifera (VeIl.) Naud syn. Cucurbita oOOrifera VeIl.) belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae and is native of Brazil. The plants are found in Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, Venezuela and tropical part of Central America. It is widespread throughout the tropical America. Historical evidences show that it was
cultivated in Ecuador in pre-Hispanic times. The European writers mentioned that it was cultivated in Peru in 1958. It is also grown for its fruit in Cuba, Puerto Rico and Mexico. It was introduced in USA in 1916 (Brucher, 1989; Morton, 1987). It requires hot and humid climatic conditions for good growth and fruiting. High temperature during the fruiting season is needed to ensure perfect fruit ripening. The thin slices of ripe flesh are cooling and refreshing especially in the summer season. It is cooked to prepare jam or other preserves. Immature fruit is cooked as vegetable or in soup and stews. Fruit of cassabanana produces long lasting fragrance, which repels moths. Liquor prepared from the fruit relieves sore throat. Cassbanana fruits are hung in the house to serve as room deodorizer. The seed infusion is used in Brazil as febrifuge, vermifuge, purgative and emmenagogue. The leaves are used to treat uterine hemorrhages and venereal diseases (Morton, 1987). The ripe fruit (without peel, seeds or soft central pulp) contains 85.1 g moisture, 0.14 g protein, 0.02 g fat, 1.1 g fibre, 21.4 mg calcium, 24.5 mg phosphorus, 0.33 mg iron, 0.11 mg carotene, 0.058 mg thiamine, 0.035 mg riboflavin, 0.0767 mg niacin and 13.9 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is a monoecious, perennial, fast growing, heavy and herbaceous climber. It climbs the trees to 15 m or more height by means of 4-parted tendrils equipped with discs that can adhere tightly to the smoothest surface. Young stems are hairy. The leaves are grey, hairy, rounded cordate or rounded kidney-shaped, 30 em wide, deeply idented at the base, 3-lobed with wavy or toothed margins and 4-12 em long petioles. Flowers are white or yellow, urnshaped, 5-lobed and solitary. Male flower is 2 em long and the female flower is about 5 em long. The fruit is renowned for its strong, sweet, agreeable, melon-like odour. When ripe, the fruit is ellipsoid or nearly cylindrical, sometimes slightly curved, 30-60 em in length, 711 em thick, hard-shelled, orange red, maroon, dark purple with tinges of violet or entirely jet black, smooth and glossy with tough, 2 em thick, orange yellow or yellow, cantaloupelike juicy flesh. In the central cavity, there is softer pulp, a soft fleshy core and numerous flat oval, 16 mm long and 6 mm wide seeds which are light brown bordered with dark brown stripes, in tightly packed rows extending the entire length of the fruit (Morton, 1987).
Culture Cassabanana is generally grown from seeds or by cuttings. The vines are either grown over the arbours or can be planted close to a tree. However, if allowed to climb too high, the vine may smother and kill the tree. Standard cultural practices for this crop should be developed. The cassabanana fruits remain in good condition for several months if kept dry and out of sun. The fruit has high market value in Puerto Rico. It is very susceptible to fruitfly attack (Morton, 1987).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
61
31. CERIMAN Ceriman or split leaf philodendron (Monstera deliciosa Liebm.) belongs to the family Araceae and is native of south Mexico and Guatemala (Martin et al., 1987). The related edible species M. perusa (1.) de Vries grows in rain forests of Panama and produces sweet-acid fruits (Briicher, 1989). It is grown chiefly for its ornamental foliage and edible fruits. It is planted on rockeries along pillars or tree trunks and in pots to display its elegant foliage. Thus this important ornamental plant holds limited potential as a food plant. A well-drained, rich, sandy loam soil in hot humid tropical lowlands is the best for its culture. The ceriman is strictly tropical and cannot tolerate frost. It does the best under semi-shade and has a high moisture requirement. It is not adapted to saline conditions (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). The fruits have a flavour giving a mix of pineapple and banana and are thus considered a delicacy. Unless the fruit is washed well before eating, its remnants may cause irritation in the throat. Its consumption sometimes causes allergy or anaphylaxis. It is also processed into jelly and jam. M. deliciosa var. variegata is a mutant having yellow and white variegation, which is a good houseplant. The aerial roots are used to make baskets (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). Analysis of the fruit shows that it contains 77.88% moisture, 1.81 % protein, 0.2% fat, 16.19% sugar and 0.57% fibre (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is a stout, woody stemmed, close jointed, deciduous and 10 m long climber, forming cord-like, hanging aerial roots. The leaves are often very large (1 m), orbicular ovate and broad, entire, pinnately cut and perforated or pinnatifid, thick, leathery, elliptic to oblong having lobes in 1-4 series on each side of the midrib. The petioles are prominent and sheathing. Peduncles are terminal, solitary or fascicled bearing ovate or oblong, boat shaped, creamy spathe, whi~h opens wide after flowering. The spadix is bisexual, shorter than the spathe, cylindrical or nearly so, densely flowered with perfect flowers above and sterile below. Perfect flowers are without perianth having 4 stamens and 2-celled ovary with 2 ovules in each cell. Berries are very small, crowded or formed into a multiple fruit, which is cone like, 25 em long and 5-6 em in diameter. The fruit ripens gradually from base upwards. The fruit becomes ready for consumption when all the scales fall off in about a week or more after picking (Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989).
Culture Ceriman is propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings, each having 3-4 nodes, during February-March and July-September. Even single node cuttings planted in coarse sand rooting medium give cent per cent success. These cuttings, if planted in September, establish well. Rooting of single node cuttings takes about 75 days as against 42 and 40 days in case of 2 and 4 node cuttings.
62
UNDERUTlLIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Although ceriman can grow well in open as well as under complete or partial shade but requires warm, moist and humid conditions. When planted in open, it needs protection from sun scorch especially during summer. In north India, it grows well throughout the year but the ideal period is from March to November. When grown for fruits, it is pruned and is not allowed to grow more than 2.53 m high. A mixture consisting 2 parts sandy loam soil and 1 part each of leaf mould, well decomposed cowdung manure, gravel and brick pebble is the most suitable growing medium for pot culture. Repotting once a year in July-August is desirable for healthy growth of the plants. The plants should be irrigated regularly during the active growth period and sparingly during winter. The atmosphere must be kept humid by sprinkling water. Sprinkling of leaves with water especially during summer (April-June) helps to keep the foliage healthy and fresh. To keep the foliage attractive, periodic sponging with damp cotton wool may be done. When grown from seed, fruit production starts 6-8 years after sowing. The plants raised from cuttings produce fruits in 3-4 years. Flowering occurs throughout the year under favourable conditions. About 90-120 days are required for the fruits to mature. On ripening, the external colour of fruit turns yellowish green and the internal flesh colour becomes pale yellow. Ceriman fruits are often called amarphal. The rodents often attack the vines necessitating proper preventive measures. Scales and mealy bugs also attack the plants and can be controlled by sprays of 0.1 per cent monocrotophos (Martin et ai., 1987; Morton, 1987).
32. CHAMPEDAK The champedak (Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr. syn. A. champeden Spreng., A. champeden (Lour.) Spreng.) belongs to family Moraceae and is native of South East Asia (Martin et ai., 1991). It is wid~ly distnbuted in Myanmar, peninsular Thailand and Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, Moluccas and Irian Java. It is cultivated commercially in peninsular Malaysia (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruit is, however, almost unknown outside tropical Asia. The tree grows the best at lower than 1000 m altitudes on fertile and well-drained soils. It requires hot, wet tropical climate for good growth and fruiting but suffers severe injury if temperature goes below soc. It prefers a fairly high water table (0.5-2 m) and can survive periodic flooding even with acid swamp water (Martin et ai., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fleshy aril around the seed is softer and more aromatic than that of jackfruit. It is eaten as a dessert or is preserved and cooked with other foods. The seeds are eaten after boiling or roasting and taste much like chestnuts. The immature champedak fruits are used for making soup. The young leaves are eaten. The wood is good for construction of furniture whereas the bark is used as a dye for clothing. The young tree has a good crown so that it can be used as an ornamental shade tree (Martin et ai., 1987; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel,1991). The composition of the fruit flesh on dry weight basis is approximately 3.5-7 g protein, 0.5-2 g fat, 84-87 g carbohydrates and S-6 g fibre per 100 g edible portion. Seeds
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
63
contain 10-13% protein, 0.5-1.5% fat, 77-81% carbohydrates and 4-6% fibre on dry weight basis (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Botany The tree is evergreen, monoecious and of medium size (up to 18-20 m tall). The trunk is straight with smooth and greyish bark. New shoots, including petioles and pedicels are covered with thin, brown and wiry hair, which make them distinguishable from those of jackfruit. The leaves, about 5 to 25 em long and 5 to 10 em wide, alternate with short petioles, sometimes three-lobed, but on older trees these are obovate or elliptic and entire. The upper· side of the leaf is green and shiny and almost glabrous and the lower side is covered with long brownish and short white hair. The small flowers are borne in dense spikes. Male and female flowers are borne on different inflorescences, the female flowers on large branches on the trunk itself. The large multiple fruit is similar in appearance to the jackfruit except that it is more cylindrical and smaller. It can be distinguished from the jackfruit by its smaller fruits with thinner rind and more juicy flesh, which is darker yellow when ripe Garrett, 1959). The fruit is 35 em in length and up to 15 em in diameter. Its dark yellow rind is thinner, fleshy and more juicy. Thirty or more seeds are large and embedded in the pulp (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 31 : Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr. (IBPGR, 1980)
Varieties In peninsular Malaysia, a distinction has been made between the wild (bankong) and cultivated (chempedak) trees. Bankong is classified as variety silvestris Comer and the
64
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS'
cultivated chempedak as variety integer. The wild trees are glabrous to variously hairy with withering green to yellowish leaves whereas chempedak has hairy trees with deep yellow to rich orange leaves. In Sarawak, Brunei, chempedak is preferred since it has larger fruits with thicker and dark orange flesh. In Malaysia, Selections CH 29 (attractive orange flesh), CH 19 (moderate yielder, yellow flesh with strong aroma), CH 26 (Paya Jaras), CH 27 and CH 28 are high yielding. Hybrids between jackfruit and chempedak are called Nangka chempedak and one of them has been named as CHINA (Page, 1984; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Collection of germplasm of chempedak has been done at Selangar, Malaysia. There is need to develop clonal material of superior quality (Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Nakasone and Paull, 1998).
Culture The tree is propagated from seeds or by modified forkert budding on chempedak, jackfruit and monkey jack (A. rigidus Blume) rootstocks. The rootstock should be 8-11 months old at the time of budding. Since the young plant quickly develops deep tap root system, these are usually grown in containers to facilitate transplanting. Light shade is essential both in the nursery and after the young plants have been set out in the field. These are planted in the orchard at 12 to 14 m spacing. Due to poor drought tolerance, irrigation is essential. In Malaysia, 30 g N:P:K:Mg fertilizer mixture [8:4:2:1] is applied to a tree of 6 month age and the dose is doubled every 6 months until the tree attains 2 year age. Older tree receives 1 kg of 4:2:4:1 fertilizer mixture every 6 months. The plants raised from the seeds start producing fruits after 5 years whereas the grafted plants produce fruits 2-4 years after planting. Flowering occurs from July to August and the fruits ripen from September to December. There is need to regulate harvest time for higher production of good quality (Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Nakasone and Paull, 1998). The fruits are borne on the trunk and the main branches. The fruits are harvested when they start softening. Fruit maturity can be judged by dull hollow sound when tapped, by the change in skin colour from pale green to yellowish brown and by the characteristic odour and flattening of the surface spines. The yield of chempedak is similar to that of jackfruit. In peninsular Malaysia, the fruit is often bagged on the tree or a loose basket of palm leaves is woven around the fruits to protect from fruitfly, rodents, bats and ants. This results in a distinctive lattice pattern imprint on the ripe fruit. The fruits are attacked by fruitflies but can be easily protected by bagging. The beetles sometimes damage the bark of the trees. Bacterial dieback is caused by Erwinia carotovara, which is a serious disease. Initially, it affects the growing shoots and later spreads downwards and eventually kills the tree. In Malaysia, antIbiotic injections are given on the tree trunk to control the disease (Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Nakasone and Paull, 1998).
33. COCO PLUM The coco plum or icaco (Chrysobalanus icaco L.) belongs to the family Chrysobalanceae and is a native of Central and South America and West Indies (Martin et al., 1987). It has been naturalized in Fiji and Singapore and is cultivated in Vietnam and in west and central Africa. Thus it is an important local fruit.
65·
FRUITS FOR 'TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
It performs the best in the hot tropical lowlands. It can grow on a wide range of soil , types from poor to fertile soils. It is found growing on coastal to island sites, usually on dunes and beaches. Although it can withstand flooding for 'short periods but 'requires good drainage. The tree remains a small bush on dry light sandy soils but reaches a height of 3.5 to 4.5m on richer moist lands (Martin et al., 1987). ' : . " . . " , :' The fruit is eaten raw, boiled or as jam and candies. Seed is also cooked. Tannin'of the fruit is used to tan leather. The fruit has value for the treatment of diarrhoea. The tree is also planted as an ornamental plant as well as to stabilise dunes (Verheij and Coronel, ., 1991). .
Botany , It is a small tree or s~b and gro~s up to 5-8 m tall a~d has nuni.erou~ spines. The ' leaves are dark green, thick, leathery, alternate and 2.5-7.5 x 2.5-5 em in size, elliptic roood, : turning upwards. The flowers are small, greenish-white, borne in several clusters at leaf base. The fruit is elliptic or round, 2.5 cm long, pink, whitish or dark purplish drupe: It is .' longitudinally ridged with thin, fleshy, and spongy and creamy-white mesocarp with one' large seed that is 5-6 ridged containing the edible white kernel. A botanical variety, C. icaco var. pellocarpus 1. produces oval, 2.5 cm long fruits having dark purple, soft, spongy and· white flesh. '
or
J'.
' : '\
•
"
...... .
~
'.'
I
.. .. ,
,
. Fig. 32 : Chrysobalaltus icaco L., Coco plum (Little et al., 1974)
'r.i
"J:':'" -1.
.
66
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Culture Coco plum is propagated through the seeds or by cuttings. Cultural requirements for coco plum have to be standardized. The tree flowers in two or more flushes in a year. On ripening, the frUit turns pinkish or purple in colour. The fruit is harvested manually (Martin
et al., 1987).
34. COLA NUT Cola nut or kola nut (Cola acuminata (Beauv.) Schott. and Endl.) belongs to the family Sterculiaceae and is native of tropical Africa (Martin et al., 1987). It has been widely introduced into the tropics. The related species having edible fruits are C. nitida A.Chev. (bitter cola) and C. vertidllata (Thonn.) Stapf. ex A. Chev. (owe cola). It is cultivated in Nigeria, tropical America and Indonesia. It requires hot, wet tropical lowlands and cannot tolerate frost. Fertile, well-drained, medium acid soils, high in organic content are considered suitable for cola nut but it cannot tolerate high pH (Martin et al., 1987; Duke, 1989). Fresh seeds are used as masticatory and in beverages and drugs. These have also been used in drinks, baked foods, candies, frozen dairy desserts, gelatins and puddings. Cola nut has potential for the production of beverages and stimulants (Martin et al., 1987). Seeds are also used as a condiment. Nuts are used as diuretic, stimulant, heart tonic and masticatory and to resist fatigue, hunger and thirst. These are used as a viricidal to suppress the growth of polio, influenza, herpes and encephalitis. Large doses are carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic (Martin et al., 1987; Duke, 1989; Peters et al., 1992). The wood is used for shipbuilding and carpentry. Powdered bark is used to treat malignant tumors and cancer. The tree is often planted as an ornamental plant. . The fruit is reported to contain 5.9 g protein, 1.1 g fat, 90.8 g total carbohydrates, 3.8 g fibre, 156 mg calcium, 232 mg phosphorus, 5.4 mg iron, 67 p,g beta-carotene equivalent, 0.08 mg thiamine, 0.08 mg riboflavin, 1.62 mg niacin and 146 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g on zero moisture basis and provides 399 calories (Duke, 1989). Kolanuts contain 2.4 to 2.6 per cent of caffein.
Botany It is a long-lived, evergreen tree having smooth, green bark and grows up to 14-20 m tall. The leaves are alternate, 16-20 x 2.5-5 cm in size, leathery, obovate, acute and long acuminate with entire margin. Flowers are yellow, numerous, unisexual or bisexual, 15 or more and are borne in axillary or terminal panicles. Corolla is absent and the calyx is petaloid, 5-lobed, greenish yellow or white with purple markings on edges. Male flowers have slender corolla, shorter than calyx, bearing a ring of 10 bilobed, 5-celled ovary and 5,linear, reflexed and superimposed styles. Ovules are anatropous, attached in double row to the ventral surface of each carpel. The fruit is oblong-obtuse, rostrate, warty and coriaceous to woody follicle, 5-17 x 5-7.5 cm in size with brown surface resembling alligator skin. The thick and fibrous pericarp has cells filled with coloured, starchy and resinous matter. The seeds are 5-12 per fruit, 2.5-5 x 1.3 cm in size and are soft, yellow and internally whitish, pinkish or purple becoming brown on drying. The cotyledons, often 3, are flatly ovate or auriculate (Duke, 1989).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
67
Fig. 33 : Cola nitida. 1. Leaves; 2. Inflorescence; 3. Fruit; 4. Seed. (FAD, Wickens, 1995)
.'
Fig. 34 : Cola acuminata (Beauv.) Schott & Endl., Cola nut, fruit (above), Flowers and leaf (below) (Little et al., 1974) "
68
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Culture It is propagated from the seeds, 'which must be sown when perlect1y fresh. Softwood or mature-wood cuttings can also be used with bottom heat for vegetative propagation. The plants are spaced 6 to 8 m in the field. Light shade is required for good growth and fruiting. The trees respond to application of fertilizers and produce high yields if the weeds are controlled. They begin to flower 5 to 10 years after planting and commence full production by the 20 th year. In some areas, the trees flower and fruit throughout the year. However, the common flowering periods are from December to February and from May to July. Fruits require about 4 to 5 months to mature. The two peak fruiting periods are May to June and October to November. The follicles (fruits) are shaken off the tree when these turn chocolate brown and begin to dehisce and are then immediately gathered. The seeds are removed from the pods and then the seed coats are cut off leaving the bare cotyledons. The nuts are then carefully graded and packed in baskets lined with leaves and are wrapped in canvas to prevent from drying. A 10-year old kola tree produces 400 to 500 follicle pods annually. Poor yield in some years is due to poor pollination. The fungi Botryodiplodia theobrornae, Calonectria rigidiuscula, Cephaleuros rnycoides, Fornes lignosus, Marasrnius byssicola and Pleurotus colae attack the kola tree (Duke, 1989; Peters et al., 1992).
35. COUEPIA Couepia or pendula nut, castanha de pendula or castanha de cutia (Couepia longipendula Pilger) belongs to the family Chrysobalanaceae and is native of Brazil. It is found n~ar the rivers Manaus, Negro and Purus, spread up to the city of Oriximina in the State of Para. It occurs throughout central and western Amazonia and western Guiana shield. The relflted species that produce edible nuts are C. edulis Prance and C. bracteosa Benth. It is locally known as Pendula nut, Castanha de galinha or Castanha pendula (FAa, 1986; Wickens, 1995). . It is well adapted to the heavy, infertile clay oxisols of hot lowland forests in the Amazon basin receiving 2300 mm rainfall per annum and having a mild dry season. The species also occurs in lowlying areas that are periodically inundated (FAa, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993; Prance, 1994). - . The fresh kernels are eaten after 'extraction from the hard nuts. These are also eaten roasted or pounded and mixed with sugar and cassava flour. The kernel is also a source of oil. The flavour is pleasant and seems to be a mix of Brazil nut and pomegranate pips. The slightly raw flavour improves on storage as the high oil content oxidizes and becomes almost like that of Brazil nut. Further storage of moist kernels for a few weeks and of dry kernels for few months leads to a date-like flavour. The kernels contain 75 per cent of light greenishyellow oil that rancifies quickly. Seed oil is used for soap making. Oil residues contain 32.5 per cent protein, 10.6 per cent fibre and 8.3 per cent ash. The nut is an extremely rich source of calories as well. Its wood yields a heavy timber that is used in civil and naval constructions (FAa, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993). Couepia has a great potential to develop into fruit or oil crop (Leaky and Newton, 1994a,b).
Botany Couepia is a large tree growing up to 30 m or more in height with a straight trunk up to 1.8 m in diameter. The leaves are alternate, simple, oblong-elliptic to lanceolate,
69
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
glabrous, dark green, lightly verined, 16-16 x 3-7.5 cm in size with entire ll1argin. Flowers are borne in groups of 10-20 and appear in pendulous panicles with slender, 30-60 cm long peduncles. The flowers are bisexual, white and asymmetrical. The receptacle is tubularobconical and 10-15 mm long, and the 5 calyx lobes are rounded with 2 sessileext~rior glands. The lobes obscure the 5 small, white petals soon after falling .. Stamens are more than 30, pinkish purple and 1-2 cm long. Fruit is obovoid to ellipsoid drupe,S cm long, 4 cm in diameter, 28 g in weight and shaped like a hen's egg, pubescent with up to 1 mm long brown hairs and the epicarp peels to reveal a hard, woody and fi1?rous, 6 mm thick pericarp. The seed contains a white to light green kernel that is 3 x 2 cm in size, weighing 4-7 g having a thin pubescent testa surrounded by a thin membrane (FAO, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993). "
.,'
"
!
~,
•
Fig. 35 : Couepia 101zgipendula Pilger, 1. Fruitj 2. Leaves and flowering branchlet (Wickens, 1995)
Varieties No standard variety is known.
Culture It is generally propagated from the seeds that germinate within a few weeks on falling from the tree on the moist ground. They lose viability rapidly and do not store easily. Early growth is rapid with the large cotyledons rising above 'the ground supplying nutrients for root development. Couepia plants start flowering 4-5 years after planting during February to March. The newly formed fruits take about 6 months to' mature. At maturity, the nuts fall
70
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
to the ground and and must be gathered quickly before they start to germinate or rot. They can also be picked from the tree. Nuts are easily extracted from the meso carp with a knife. Dry nuts store for several months but moist nuts deteriorate rapidly at high temperatures. On an average, a well-developed tree pronuces about 300-1000 nuts per year. Such a tree yields over 100 kg (FAa, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993). The cultural requirements including fertilizer needs for couepia have to be standardized. Couepia trees are generally free from diseases and insect pests although anthrancnose disease attacks the cotyledons soon after germination under very moist conditions (FAa, 1986).
36. COW TREE Cow tree (Couma utiUs Muell. Arg. syn. C. guianensis Aubl., C. rigila Muell. Arg.) belongs to family Apocynaceae and is native of South America. Its other common names are couma, sorva and sorva pequena. The related edible species is C. macrocarpa Barb. It is found growing throughout the Amazon most frequently in non-flooded areas of Upper Amazon and Rio Negro at lower than 500 m elevation. Usually its fruits are collected from the wild. It is also cultivated. It grows well on poor soils. Fruit pulp is eaten fresh. The tree is a good source of latex used in industry for production of chewing gum (chicle), varnishes and paints. The latex, diluted in water, makes an excellent drink known as sorva. Native people also use the latex to control amoebiosis, diarrhoea, as an antihelminthic and to disinfect the navel of newborn babies.
Botany It is a fast growing tree and grows 2-12 m in height. Stem is thick with smooth bark. The leaves are long, elliptical, 8-20 em in size, glossy and dark green. The flowers are white, pentamerous with a 1 cm long tube. The fruits are borne in clusters. The fruits are round berries, 5-8 em in diameter and yellow when ripe. The exocarp is thin and the pulp is white, sweet and aromatic having numerous seeds (2-42/ fruit).
Fig. 36 : Couma utilis (Mart.) Muell. Arg.. 1. Stigma; 2. Gynoecium; 3. Flower; 4. Fruiting branch (FAD, 1986)
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
71
Culture It is propagated by seeds or grafting. The seeds are orthodox and take 22-33 days to
germinate. The plants start bearing three years after planting. The annual production of couma latex is 5000 to 1000 tonnes from the natural populations. In 1985, over US$l million worth of sorva latex was exported from Amazonia (Leaky and Newton, 1994a).
37. CUPUAZU Cupuazu or cupuacu, cupuaanor cupu-arju or cupuassu (Theobroma grandiflorum Schum.) belongs to the family Sterculiaceae and is native of Amazon basin of Brazil. It is cultivated in Amazonia. The related edible species are T. bicolor Humb and Bonpl. and T. subinanum Mart. It is an important fruit of the lower Amazonas (Para) of Brazil outside of which it is almost unknown (FAO, 1986; Martin et al., 1987; Briicher, 1989). It is also found in Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Costa Rica. Cupuassu is an important fruit in native area and there is a need to evaluate its potential in other areas (Martin et al., 1987). Cupuazu needs hot, wet tropical lowlands for good flowering and fruiting. It can be cultivated in the humid tropics with an average annual rainfall of 1800 mm and mean temperature of 23°C It prefers rich, sandy clays and loam soils with good drainage although it can withstand short periods of flooding. The tree grows the best in semi shade but withstands full sun when grown on good soils. It grows well in deep soils having high fertility. The fruit pulp is eaten fresh or is used to prepare drinks, juice, sweetmeats, ice cream and wine and is also stewed. The pulp has sub acid and aromatic flavour of high appeal. It is very popular in the Brazilian Amazonia to flavour juices, liquors, wines, jellies and ice creams. The seeds are sometimes used to make chocolate. They contain good quantities of the alkaloids caffeine and theobromine (FAO, 1986; Martin et aI, 1987; Briicher, 1989). The cupuazu fruit is very nutritive and contains 89 g water, 1.2 g proteins and 4-21 mg niacin per 100 g of pulp and provides 67.9 calories (FAO, 1986).
Botany It is small to medium sized evergreen tree growing up to 20 m in height with a canopy spread of 7 m. The leaves are alternate, simple, coriaceous, short-petioled, ellipticoblong, 15-60 x 5-16 cm in size, dark green above and pale green to brown below. The inflorescences each with 3 to 4 flowers are borne in the axils of leaves or along the bare branches. Each flower has a calyx composed of five triangular fused sepals, a corolla with 5 purple petals,S purple staminodes, 5 stamens and a 5-locular ovary. It is morphologically different from the other species because of absence of cauliflory and bearing flowers and fruits on the side branches. The fruit is ellipsoidal or oblong, 12 to 25 cm long, 10-12 cm in diameter and up to 1.5 kg in weight having about 50 seeds. It has a velvet brown skin and hangs on long pedicels. The woody pericarp is easily broken to expose the edible seeds, which are round, flat and have a certain similarity with the true cacao kernels, but have more fat having a consistency of cacao butter (FAO, 1986; Briicher, 1989).
72
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Fig. 37 : Theobroma grandoflorum (Willd. ex Spreng.) Schum., Cupuazu (Fruit Trees of Amazon Region)
Varieties There are no standard cultivars in spite of the presence of considerable variability with regard to yield, fruit quality, disease resistance, etc. The cupuassu types have been classified on the basis of fruit shape: i} Redondo is the most common type in which the fruit apex is rounded; ii} Mamorana has a pointed apex and a very thick rind (7-9 mm), iii} Mamau is a seedless clone found in Para. The seeded cupuassu fruit contains 46 per cent pulp, 38 per cent rind and 16 per cent seeds whereas the seedless fruit contains 67 per cent pulp which has somewhat less flavour. Seedless clones have lower productivity (FAO, 1986; Briicher, 1989). Germplasm collection of cupuazu has been made at EMBRAP A, Balem, Brazil and at Centro de Pesquisa Agroflorestal da Amazonia, Manaus, Brazil (100 seedlings) (Smith et ai., 1992).
Culture It is propagated from the seeds or by graftage. The plant has shown good regeneration capacity in the natural forests. The mucilage that surrounds the seeds inhibits their germination. The mucilage can be removed by light fermentation for 12 to 24 hours.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
73
The seeds are then sown in plastic bags or trays. Seeds germinate in 3-4 days. If mucilage is not removed, germination takes 12 to 17 days. Young seedlings are protected by 50 per cent shading from direct sun. Shading is removed when the seedlings are 5-6 months old. The recommended vegetative propagation methods are side grafting or green strip budding. For this, 4-6 months old seedling rootstocks are used. The plants are spaced 5-7 m apart by successive thinning until the seventh or eighth year. Mixture of 12-5-10 NPK fertilizer in combination with manure is applied. The bees carry out pollination in cupuassu. The rate of pod set is low owing to high incidence of flower bud abortion. Flower blJd deyelopment takes 15 days and the fruit matures months after fertilization. The plants start bearing four years after plantation. Flowering occurs from June to September and the fruiting from November to May with peak periods from January to March. The fruit on maturity turns brownish with yellOwish or whitish internal colour. The fruit must be collected off the ground within a day or two of dropping otherwise it starts rotting. Fruits do not ripen if harvested from the trees. The mature fruit can keep for about 10 days. A 4-5 year old tree produces 20 to 30 fruits and a mature tree of over 7 years can yield 60 to 70 fruits. . The plant is susceptible to several diseases and pests of cacao, e.g., black pod, witches' broom and wilt. Black pod disease (Phytophthora palmivora) not only destroys the ripe pods but also affects stems and leaves of even small seedlings. Treatment with copper fungicides gives only a limited control. The witches' broom is a serious disease caused by Crinipellis perniciosa. The most obvious symptom is hypertrophic growth of the shoots. There can be 200-300 broo~s on one ,tree, which cause early death of the plant. Application of fungicides gives onlyllmited control. Cutting the infected branches and burning them is considered to be the best solution. Wilt caused by Ceratocystis fimbriata results in wilting cif the plant and is transmitted by knives and hachets. Stem borers, bark destroying carambY,cids, mealy bugs and thrips are the main insect pests (FAO, 1986; Brucher, 1989).
38. CUSTARD APPLE Custard apple (Annona reticulata 1.) belongs to the family Annonaceae and is native of West Indies and tropical Central Amelica. It is a1&o known as bullock's heart, anon, ancina corazon. It was carried in early tjrnes through Central America to southern Mexico. It has long been cultivated and naturalized as far south as Peru and Brazil. It is commonly grown in Society Islands, Bahamas and occasionally in Bermuda and southern Florida. It has also been cultivated in India for long time (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987). Custard apple has fair potential as a fruit crop and can also be used as rootstock for other annona species. Custard apple requires hot tropical lowlands or subtropical climatic conditions with medium to high rainfall. It tolerates light frosts. Full-grown trees can survive as low temperatur~s as -2.78 to -2.22°C without serious harm. Custard apple is less tolerant to drought than sugar apple and prefers a humid atmosphere. It does the best in low lying, deep, rich soils with ample moisture and good drainage. However, it can be grown in a wide variety of soils but is less productive on less desirable sites (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). Fruit pulp is eaten fresh or is served with cream and sprinkling of sugar. It is also used in the preparation of desserts or 'processed into nectar, drinks, sherbets or ice cream. Leaves have been used for tanning which yield a blue or black dye. The leaf decoction is given as a vermifuge. Crushed leaves or paste 9f flesh may, be poulticed on boils, abscesses and ulcers. The unripe fruit is ric~ in tannin and is dJ;ied, pulverized and employed against
74
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
diarrhoea and dysentery. The bark is very astringent and its decoction is taken as a tonic and also as a remedy for qiarrhoea and dysentery. Fragments of the root bark are packed around the gums to relieve toothache. The root decoction is taken as a febrifuge. The seeds, leaves and young fruits have insecticidal properties. The leaf juice kills lice. Sap from cut branches is acrid and irritant and can severely injure eyes (Morton, 1987). Food value per 100 g of edible portion of custard apple indicates that it contains 68.3-80.1 g moisture, 1.17-2.47 g protein, 0.5-0.6 g fat, 20-25.2 g carbohydrates, 0.9-6.6 g crude fibre, 17.6-27 mg calcium, 14.7-32.1 mg phosphorus, 0.42-1.14 mg iron, 0.007-0.018 mg carotene, 0.075-0.119 mg thiamine, 0.086-0.175 mg riboflavin, 0.528-1.190 mg niacin and ascorbic acid and provides 80-101 calories (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is a semi-deciduous, erect tree growing up to 7 m in height with a rounded or spreading crown. The leaves are alternate, oblong or narrow-Ianceolate, 20-30 x 5-7 cm in size with conspicuous veins. Flowers are fragrant, slenqer with 3 outer fleshy, narrow petals, 2-3 cm long, light green externally and pale yellow with dark red or purple spot on the inside at the base. The fruit is 8-16 cm in diameter, 0.1-1.0 kg in weight, heart-shaped, lopsided or irregular or nearly round or oblate with a deep or shallow depression at the base. Fruit skin is thin but tough, yellow or brownish when ripe with a pink reddish or brownish red blush and faintly or distinctly reticulated. Fruit pulp is thick, creamy white, custard like, granular surround41g the moderately juicy segments; each of which contains a si!lgle, hard, dark-1:>rown or black, glossy, oblong, smooth, less ~an 1.25 cm long seed. A single fruit contairts 55-76 seeds (IBPGR, 1986; ,Morton, 19~7; Briicher, 1989):
Gil.
i'
Seed
• .scm
Fig. 38 : Annona reticulata 1. (ICUC, Pinto et al., 2005)
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
75
Varieties No named cultivars are reported although considerable variability exists. The yellowskinned types seem superior to the brownish types with regard to pulp and juice content. A purple skinned, purple-fleshed form called Mexico has been reported (Morton, 1987). Superior cultivars have been selected from Belize and Guatemala in Florida (USA). These are Tikal, Canul, Sartenaya, San Pablo, Benque, Caledonia, Camino, Real, Fairchild Purple, Young and Chonox (Hernandez Bermejo and Leon, 1994; Pinto et al., 2005). Genetic resources of custard apple have been maintained at Centro Agronomico Tropical De Investigacion Y Ensenanza, Turrialba, Costa Rica (64 accessions), Institute of Plant Breeding, Laguna, Philippines (11 accessions) and Subtropical Horticultural Research Unit, USDA, Miami, USA (13 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1992). Pinto et al.(2005) have given an updated list of countries and institutions having germplasm collections.
Culture It is generally propagated from the seeds or by budding or side grafting. Soaking of the seeds in gibberellic acid or distilled water improves germination. Its own seedlings or of soursop, sugar apple or pond apple can be used as rootstock for grafting. Soursop and custard apple rootstocks have been found to be the best in Mexico. The tree grows very fast and responds well to mulching, organic fertilizers and frequent irrigations during dry weather. The form of the tree can be maintained by judicious pruning. Fruit production starts in 4-5 years in trees raised from seeds and much earlier in grafted trees. The plants flower during May-June and the fruits mature in 200 or more days. The custard apple fruits ripen during winter and spring. Fruits are generally picked when they have lost the green colour. If picked at green stage, they will not colour well and will be of inferior quality. On an average, a mature tree produces 35-45 kg fruits per year. The short twigs shed after they have borne fruits (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987). The optimum condition for storage of custard apple fruits is 15-16QC with high relative humidity. The custard apple fruits are heavily attacked by chalcid fly, which leads to their mummification before maturity. Ripened fruits are also prone to attack of bats. Therefore, they should be covered with bags or nets. Dry charcoal rot caused by Diplodia annonae has been reported. The infection begins at the stem end and gradually spreads until it covers the entire fruit (Morton, 1987).
39. DURIAN The durian (Durio zibethinus Murr. syn. D. acuminatissina Merr.) of the family Bombacaceae is native of South East Asia (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). It is cultivated particularly in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and the Philippines (IBPGR, 1986; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Thailand is the largest producer followed by Indonesia and peninsular Malaysia. About 30 species belonging to the genus Durio occur in South East Asian rain forests, mainly in Borneo. The important species are D. kutejensis Becc., distributed in Borneo (Kalimantan, Sarawak and Sabah) in wild state and sometimes grown as an ornamental plant; D. oxleyanus Griff., distributed exclusively wild in south Sumatra and Borneo; D. graveolens Becc., distributed wild in east Borneo and rarely cultivated; and D. dulcis Becc.,
76
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
wild in Borneo. The odour of the fruits varies greatly among the five species. The fruits of D. graveolens Bece. are odourless. A variety of D. kutejensis has mild inoffensive odour. The fruits of D. kutejensis Griff. have flexible soft spines and are thus easier to handle and better in quality than those of the common durian. The wild species can contribute genes for resistance to diseases such as root rot, foot rot or patch canker, Phytophthora palmivora. D. acutifolius Kosterm. and D. griffithii Bakh. flower more regularly. D. wyatt-smithii Kosterm. can provide genes for shorter and slender spines on the fruit rind (IBPGR, 1986; Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Durian has excellent potential in humid tropics. The tree thrives only in warm, wet conditions of the equatorial tropics up to 300 m altitudes. It does not do well in dry areas. It grows the best where annual rainfall is 2000 mm or more and is evenly distributed. Durian prefers sandy clay or clay loam soil that is deep, rich and well-drained but has plenty of moisture. Heavy clay soils with poor drainage should be avoided as its root system is very sensitive to water stagnation. Temperatures below lOoC cause premature leaf abscission. It can tolerate as high temperatures as 46°C but cannot withstand drought for more than 3 months (IBPGR, 1986; Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruit is highly prized in the markets of South East Asia. The odour of the ripe fruit is repulsive but the custard like flesh has a unique and delicious flavour. The fruit is consumed fresh, is dried or preserved and is also used in cakes and to prepare jams and paste. The dehydrated pulp, called" durian cake", is boiled with sugar or fermented or salted. The dried aril is used to flavour ice cream, confectionery, pastry and soft drinks. Canned durian is also used to flavour ice cream and confectionery. The pulp of unripe fruit can be used as vegetable. The cooked or boiled seeds are edible. Different parts of the tree have medicinal uses. The fruit is believed to restore health of ailing humans and animals (FAO, 1982; IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Nakasone and Paull, 1998). It is aphrodisiac. The flesh serves as vermifuge. Roots are boiled and the decoction is used to relieve fever in Malaysia. Leaves are used for curing jaundice. Ground shells, rich in sulphur, are eaten to ease heartburn in Thailand and the durian shell is placed under beds to repel bed bugs (KayMing, 1990c). The fruit contains 58-67 g water, 2.5-2.8 g protein, 2.5-3.9 g fat, 23.8-31.1 g carbohydrates, 1.4-1.7 g fibre, 9-20 mg calcium, 37.8-63 mg phosphorus, 0.73-1.0 mg iron, 20-30 IV carotene, 0.27-0.35 mg thiamine, 0.20-0.29 mg riboflavin, 0.68-0.70 mg niacin, 2325.0 mg vitamin C per 100 g pulp and provides 144 calories (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Botany The durian tree is a rounded, large and buttressed evergreen tree, and grows up to 45 m in height in the forests but rarely more than 20 m in orchards. It has irregular dense crown with dark grey bark. The leaves are unifoliate, elliptic-obovate, alternate, and 6-25 x 2-91 em in size. They are dark green on the upper surface but tomentose on the lower surface. Malodorous, whitish to golden brown flowers are 5 to 7.5 cm in diameter. These are produced in bunches of up to 30 on the main branches. They open at about 15.00 hrs (3 PM) and remain open until dark. The calyx is composed of 2 parts: the exterior 2-3 free sepals and the interior 3-5 broadly cut fused sepals. The corolla consists of 4-5 free petals that are white streaked with green. Some varieties have red petals. The stamens are grouped in 5 lobes bearing up to 12 reniform anthers and a single large orange or yellow stigma. The
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
77
stigma remains receptive overnight and it is thought that small bats pollinate them. Durian trees tend to be self-incompatible. Therefore, two or more cultivars should be planted in close proximity to ensure cross-pollination and good fruit set. The durian fruit is large, weighing up to 4 kg at maturity. It has an olive-green or yellow woody exocarp covered with hard, sharp, hexagonal spines, which make the fruit difficult to handle. The fruit consist of 3 to 5 locules and contains highly aromatic aril having pale yellow, custard like pulp in which 1-7 large brown seeds of 25 cm size are embedded (FAO, 1982; Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 39 : Durio zibethinus Murr. (IBPGR, 1980)
Fig. 40 : Durio cutejensis (Hassk.) Becc. (IBPGR, 1980)
78
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties Altogether 19 cultivars of durian are recognized in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand (Table 5). Of the several clones identified in Malaysia, the following 5 cultivars have been recommended: i) D-2 (Dato Nina) has fruit with thick, golden yellow pulp of excellent flavour. Being poor yielder, it is suitable for limited planting only. ii) D-7 (Repok B-2) has yellow, creamy pulp with a pleasant flavour but poor keeping quality. iii) D-10 (Durian Hijau) has yellow, creamy pu1p similar to that of D-7 and poor keeping quality. iv) D-16 has light yellow creamy pulp and is a good yielder. v) D-24 has sweet, thick, creamy golden yellow pulp and large seeds. It is a good yielder. The other important cultivars in Malaysia are D-98 (Katoi), D-98, D-99, D-114, D116 (Batu), D-117 (Gom-bak), D-123 (Rim 2) and Hew 3. Sunan, Sukan, Hepe, Mas, Sitokong, Petruk, Sitokong, Bakul, Mas, Sitebel, Simanalagi and Simadat are the important cultivars of Indonesia of which 5 varieties, viz. Petruk, Sunan, Sitokong and Simas are popular. In Thailand, the popular cultivars are Geanyao, Chanee, Chompoorsi, Kan Yao (long stalk), Mon Thong, Kob, (Golden Pillow), Chanee, Deception, Frog, Gibbon, Kradum Thong and Luang (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Table 5 : Durian cultivars in South East Asia Cultivar
Yield
D.lO D.24
Medium Good high High Acceptable
D.99
High
Acceptable
D.123
High
Good
D.14S
Medium Superior high High Good
MDUR.78
Fruit quality
Susceptibility to Phytophthora stem canker Malaysia Susceptible Sensitive/ Tolerant Sensitive
Sensitive Resistant
Others
From Gombak Most popu1ar cultivar Widely planted, biannual, heavy bearing, good pollinizer for other cultivars Yellow flesh, medium to large fruit From Pahang Hybrid, tree small and shady, thick contd. ...
79
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS ... contd. Cultivar
Yield
Fruit quality
Susceptibility to
Others
Phu.tophthora stem canker
MDUR.79
Average Good
Resistant
MDUR.88
High
Tolerant
Acceptable
aril, orange, good keeping quality Hybrid, thick aril, fruit easy to open, aril sweet and nutty, smaIl tree Cross 024 x 010, vigorous, thick aril, golden colour, sweet and nutty, stores for long
Indonesia Suran
High
Good
Sukun
Very high Meidum high Medium high Moderate high
Acceptable
Sitokong Sunan Petruk
Cream coloured flesh Long fruit, yellowish white fruit Yellow fruit
Good Good
Oblong, bright yellow flesh Fruit egg shaped, medium size, yellow flesh difficult to open
Good
Philippines DES 806
Good
DES 916
Good
Ellipsoidal, good quality, high edible portion Ellipsoidal Thailand
Kob Kanyo Namthong Canee
High
Good Good Moderate Excellent high High Good
Medium-large Round, mild flavour Large fruit Yellow flesh, medium to large contd. ...
80
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
... contd. Cultivar
Yield
Fruit quality
Susceptibility to Others Phytophthora stem canker Brunei D. zibethinus is not commercially important, but the other species and their varieties are important D. graveolens-BD2, BD4, BD7 and BOlO D. oxleyanus-BD30 D. kutejensis-BD26, BD73 D. graveolens x D. zibethinus BD1, BD22, BD62
.
Source: Rao and Ramanathan Rao, 1998. Germplasm collections of durian are given in Table 6. Table 6: Germplasm collections of durian (Durio zibethinus L.) Country / Institution Australia Northern Territory Department of Primary Production, Darwin, Northern Territory Indonesia Bogor Agricultural University JI. Pajajaran, Bogor Lembang Research Institute for Food Crops, Marguhayu Lambang, West Java National Biological Institute, P.O. Box 110, Jln. Raya Juanda 18, Bogor Malaysia Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, GPO Box 12302, 50774, Kuala Lumpur Papua New Guinea Lowlands Agriculture Experimental Station Dept. of Primary Industry, P.O. Keravat, East New Britain Province Philippines Institute of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, UPLB, College, Laguna Thailand Dept: of Agriculture, Field Crops Div., Bangkhen, 10903 Bangkok Plew Horticultural Experimental Station, Chantaburi Province Bettencourt et al., 1992; Coronel, 1995
No. of accessions 10
86 20 Not specified
107
1
97
68 504 + 323 spp.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
81
Culture The durian is usually propagated from the seeds. Seed germination is rapid but its viability is very short, a few weeks or only a few hours, if exposed to sun. Budding and grafting can also be used for its propagation. Mature buds are used for budding. The buds are taken from the axils of the leaves about a week after their laminae have been removed . and the petioles abscise. The other methods of vegetative propagation are by cleft, whip or tongue grafting on 12-month old seedling rootstocks. D. Iowianus Scort. is used as rootstock as it is resistant to foot rot or root rot disease. Planting is done at a spacing of 14 m about one month before the start of rainy season. More than one clone or cultivar should be planted in the orchard to ensure cross pollination and good fruit set. Intercropping is normally not common. In Malaysia, old orchards have been observed to have interplantations of rambutan, mangosteen and langsat. The trees are trained by removing the orthotropic limbs including water shoots and by thinning out the plagiotropic laterals during the first year after planting. The trees bear the best on more or less horizontal limbs. Irrigation by 2 or 3 tricklers per tree discharging water near the drip line of the canopy is considered the best. Weeds between the rows are slashed and are retained to serve as mulch, but the area under the canopy is kept weed free. Nutrient removals by the durian tree are relatively low. In average soils, application of 100 g N:P:K fertilizer (14:4:3.5) during the first 5 years and thereafter 12:4:7 fertilizer twice in a year, progressively increasing every year from 4 kg per tree up to 12 years of age, is recommended. Seedling trees begin to bear 7 years after planting. The vegetatively propagated trees, however, commence fruiting after about 5 years. In the dry season of the subtropics, durian trees flower only once during March-April and the fruits mature from mid summer to autumn. But in the tropics it flowers twice a year. In Malaysia and Sumatra, where there are no defined wet and dry seasons, individual trees produce two crops in a year with two peak harvests in June and December. Flowers are produced in great numbers but only less than 1% develop into fruits. Flowers are self-incompatible and therefore hand pollination is done to obtain better fruit set (Rao and Ramanathan Rao, 1998). It is a regular practice in Thailand. Durian has low productivity and efforts should be made to find ways to raise the yield level through manipulation of the growth rhythm (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel,1991). The fruit takes about 3 months to develop and does not ripen fully until it drops from the tree. On an average, 50 fruits are produced per tree each weighing 1.5-4 kg. The average yield per hectare is 10-18 tonnes. The flavour is at its peak when the fruit abscises a few days later. To prevent its natural abscission, the fruit may be tied to the limb or harvested at maturity. Maturity is judged by appearance (fruit stalk thickness and its flexibility, abscission zone, carpel sutures, etc.) and a hollow sound when tapped with the finger. Fruit collected from the ground after falling are more subject to diseases and splitting and thus have a short shelf life (2-3 days) compared to 7-8 days when picked from the tree (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). The custard like pulp must be eaten shortly after harvest because it quickly turns rancid and becomes sour. The fruit starts decomposing quickly after ripening but can be stored for several weeks at 4 to 5°C at 89 to 90 per cent relative humidity. The fruit cannot be easily transported. Durian fruit can be stored at 3.9°C and 85-90% RH for 42-56 days (Sealand, 1991).
82
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Failure of the aril to soften or to soften evenly is a frequently observed disorder. Another disorder is watery aril with a flat and dull taste, which occurs especially during the rainy season. The cause of both disorders is unknown (Nanthachai, 1994). Patch canker, root rot or foot rot disease is caused by water mould (Phytophthora paimivora Butler) and invades the roots and stems of the seedlings. Selection of well-drained soil for planting seems to be the most effective means to avoid this disease. Application of the systemic fungicide Ridomil has been found effective. Other diseases are root rot (Pythium complectens and Rhizopus spp.), fruit rot and pink disease (Corticium saimonicoIour). A fruit-boring caterpillar (Hypoperiga Ieprostricts) eats the seeds. The hawk moth (Daphnusa ocellaris) is a serious pest of durian in Malaysia. The larvae feed on the leaves and causes complete defoliation. Sprays of insecticides should be done for its control. Mammals such as rats, swine and bears keenly eat its fallen fruits (FAO, 1982; IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Kay Ming, 1990c).
40. ELEPHANT APPLE Elephant apple or chalta (Dillenia indica L. syn. D. speciosa Thunb.) of the family Dilleniaceae is a native of India (Martin et al., 1987) and occurs along the banks of streams in the moist and evergreen forests of sub-Himalayan tract, from Kumaon and Garhwal to Assam and Bengal and to central and southern India. The other related species that has edible fruits is D. aurea Sm., found in north-eastern hills and Andaman Islands. Its fruits are used for seasoning. D. pentagyna Roxb. (karmal) is found throughout India and produces smaller fruits than those of chalta and are eaten raw or cooked. D. scabrella Roxb. is found in north-eastern India. It bears small globose berries and attractive foliage and flowers. D. megalantha Merr. (katmon bayani) is endemic in the Philippines and gives fruits that have acid taste. D. reifferscheidia Villar (Katmon-kalabau) is also endemic in the Philippines and its edible fruit has flavour of an acid-tasting apple and makes excellent jam. D. serrata Thunb. (dengilo) is endemic to Indonesia and its acidic fruits are used fresh or pickled as a substitute for lemon (Anon., 1952; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The tree thrives the best in tropical hot lowlands having medium to high rainfall (2000-5000 mm), damp situations and deep fertile soil. It can adapt to wide variety of soil types but needs sufficient moisture in the soil (Anon., 1952; Martin et al., 1987). Chalta holds little potential as food crop (Martin et al., 1987). Fleshy sepals are used for flavouring curries and to prepare jam and jellies. The acidic juice is sweetened to prepare a cooling drink. The fruit possesses tonic and laxative properties and is used to treat abdominal pains. The bark and leaves are astringent. Dried leaves are used as sand paper for polishing ivory and horn. Its planks and rafts are used for making tool handles, gunstocks and bottoms of boats. It is also grown as an ornamental and avenue plant. The chalta fruit contains 82.30% water, 0.8% protein, 0.2% fat, 0.8% minerals, 2.5%, fibre, 13.4% carbohydrates, 1.6% calcium and 2.6% phosphorus and provides 59 k calories per 100 g of pulp (Srivastava, 1996).
Botany Elephant apple is handsome evergreen tree growing up to 9-24 m in height and 2 m in girth producing a dense round crown. The leaves are oblong-Ianceolate, 20-35 cm long and 5-10 cm broad with pointed apex and toothed margin and are covered with hairs beneath. The white, fragrant flowers are large, 12.5-20 cm in diameter and are borne solitary.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
83
Five sepals are roundish, thick and fleshy enlarged enclosing the fruit. The petals are white, five in number, oblong, which surround the numerous yellow stamens and a yellow style with 20 narrow divisions radiating outwards. Inner stamens are larger arching over the shorter outer ones. The fruit is large, hard, 7-12 cm in diameter, consisting of 5 closely fitting imbricate sepals enclosing numerous seeds embedded in the glutinous pulp. The seeds are small, compressed and reniform with hairy margins (Anon., 1952; Bhattacharya et al., 2002).
Varieties There are no named or standard varieties under cultivation. However, two types of fruits are available in northeastern India: (a) large dusky yellow, and (b) smaller chocolate green (Bhattacharya et al., 2002).
Culture The plant is propagated through the seeds and by stem cuttings. Wild elephants eat the fruits and eject the seeds into the forest streams and thus the plants get dispersed. The streams often carry the buoyant fruits. The seeds are sown in May in the nursery and one year old 7-10 cm tall seedlings are transplanted at the commencement of monsoon. It is generally planted in the field at 7-8 m spacing. As it requires lot of moisture, it is generally planted near the riverbanks, water channels and close to the water sources. It can tolerate shade. In the second year after planting, 10 kg FYM and 100 g urea per plant is applied and the same amount should be increased every year. When the tree starts fruiting, 40 kg FYM, 500 g N, 300 g P and 200 g K is applied per plant (Srivastava, 1996). Cultural requirement for the cultivation of chalta has to be standardized. The seedling plants start bearing 8-10 years after planting. The tree flowers during May-August and the fruits ripen during September-February. Fruit should be harvested before it becomes too hard. The average yield from a full-grown dillenia tree is 150-200 kg. The fruit can be stored up to 12 days at ambient temperature of 21.7lC and for one month at 4.5Q C (Bhattacharya et al., 2002)
41. FIJIAN LONGAN Fijian longan or Pacific lychee (Pometia pinnata J. R. and G. Forst) belongs to the family Sapindaceae and is native of Malaysia. It is also known as taun, dawa or kasai. It originated in the region from Ceylon and Andaman islands through South East Asia including Papua New Guinea and the Pacific to Fiji and Samoa. It is most common in Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Western Samoa and Fiji. The tree is distributed in tropical areas within latitudes 20° north and south of the equator and is mainly confined to the zones with a minimum of 2500 mm evenly distributed mean annual precipitation. It grows the best under hot, wet tropical climatic conditions at low and medium altitudes (up to 300 m). It is found growing on open ridges and spurs in lowland rain forests. It is commonly found growing in poorly drained sites (Page, 1984). The fruit aril is sweet and eaten raw. The oily seeds are boiled or roasted before eating. Seed contains 4.4% fat, 4.4% protein and 39.9% fibre. It has little potential as food crops (Martin et al., 1987). The tree has ornamental foliage. The juice of the bark is used for treating maladies of the spleen and coughs. Its wood is used for construction and manufacture of rims of tennis rackets and tool handles (Page, 1984; Martin et al., 1987; Wickens, 1995).
84
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Botany It is a large tree growing up to 40 m in height with a trunk diameter of 90 cm. The bark is dark grey and smooth but flakes off in round or irregular patches leaving scars on the trunk. The leaves are alternate, even-pinnate with 4 to 9 pairs of leaflets. In young trees, up to 16 pairs of leaflets are borne on 100 cm long rachis. The broadly lanceolate or oblong leaflets are large; 12-18 x 4-7 cm in size, tomentose and light green but the new flushes are deep red. The small, cream white and unisexual flowers are borne on 50 cm long terminal racemes. The flower type is variable. Some trees may bear entirely functional male flowers while others may have predominantly functional females with some functional male flowers on the same panicle. The fruits are borne in clusters and have hard, smooth, 4 mm thick pericarp, green or red in colour, of round to oblong shape, 40-80 g weight and up to 7 cm diameter. The aril is semi-transparent, white and juicy. The seed is round and about 25 mm in diameter (Page, 1984).
3
OJ! 4
Fig. 41 : Pometia pinnata J. R. and G. Forst. 1. Branchlet with leaves amnd fruits; 2. Inflorescence; 3. Fruit; 4. Transeverse cross sectioin of fruit. (FAD, 1984)
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
85
Varieties The forms of P. pin nata are f acuminata, f alnifolia, f cuspidata, f glabra, f macrocarpa, f pinnata, f repandra and f tomentosa (Walter and Sam, 2002). Few selections have been made on the basis of fruit quality characteristics. Three varieties from Fiji and 8 forms based on , fruit colour (yellow to purple) from Papua New Guinea are reported. The best form of Papua New Guinea is Sepik District (Page, 1984).
Culture It is propagated from the seeds. The tree grows rapidly and is thus susceptible to damage by strong winds and should be planted in sheltered locations. Irrigation should be given during dry periods. The tree starts bearing at 6 year age if raised from seed. In Florida, flowering occurs in September and the fruit is ready for harvest in December. On ripening, the fruit skin turns from green to pale red or yellow. The ripe fruits are harvested by knocking the panicles with a long pole. Average fruit yield ranges from 700 to 1000 per tree. The fruit has good shelf life. No serious insect pests have been reported. In north Queensland (Australia), black beetle (Rhyparida sp.) has been observed to attack the leaves during summer and autumn (Page, 1984).
42. GALO NUT The galo nut (Anacolosa frutescens Blume syn. A. luzoniensis Merr.) of the Olacaceae family occurs in Myanmar, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, eastern Thailand, peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, north-eastern Sulawesi, Moluccas and the Philippines. Galo nut has potential for domestication (Mabberley, 1987). It grows well at low and medium altitudes up to 700 m in shady environment, which have no pronounced <;lry periods (Sleumer, 1984; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). . The fruit pulp and its kernel are eaten fresh, although the boiled fruit is more delicious. The kernel is also roasted. The nut resembles filbert. Owing to its thin shell, the recovery of pulp is high and ranges from 73 to 85 per cent. 1 he pulp and kernel respectively contain 9.5 and 10.7 per cent protein, 4.5 and 7.5 per cent fat and 70.8 and 75.5 per cent carbohydrates, providing 2733 calories per kg (Menninger, 1977; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). .. . The wood is heavy and used for house posts. Botany It is an erect shrub or tree growing up to 5-25 m tall. The leaves are elliptic or elliptic oblong to lanceolate and 7-15 x 4-6.5 em in size. Flowers are 5-15 per fascicle, b(;>rJ,l~ on short warts or tubercles. Calyx is cup-shaped with 5-7 short lobes and of 3 mm diameter; petals 6, ovate-Ianceolate, 2-3 x 1-1.5 mm and greenish-white; and stamens 5-7. Fruit is a drupe, obovoid-ellipsoid to oblongoid, 1.8-2 em lon~ 1.5-2 em in diameter, yellow to orange borne on stout, up to 8 mm long pedicel. The pulp is 3.5-5.9 mm thick. Fruit has one seed, which contains copious albumen (Sleumer, 1984; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). .
Varieties Galo nut trees exhibit a high degree of variability in fruit characters. On the basis of physical and chemical characters, two promising seedling trees have been selected in Los Banos, Philippines (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
"
86
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Fig. 42 : Anacolosa frutescens (Blume) Blume, 1. Fruiting branch; 2. fruit. (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
Culture It can be propagated from the seeds. The seeds take more than 100 days to germinate. Air layering and cleft grafting are also successful. Cultural practices for its cultivation have to be standardized. There is no serious insect pest of galo nut although borers sometimes damage the exposed roots (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
43. GANDARIA The gandaria or maprang or ma-praang (Bouea gandaria Blume syn. B. macrophylla Griff.) of family Anacardiaceae is a native of South East Asia. It has now spread to tropical America and Honduras (Martin et al., 1987): It is cultivated widely as a fruit tree in Sumatra, wetter part of Java, Borneo and Ambon, and in Thailand (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The gandaria tree grows in monsoon climate of hot tropical lowlands and at elevations fro.!!l5to 800 m on light and fertile soils (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Gandaria tree bears very sweet, tasty and attractive fruits and has lot of prospect for wider commercialization (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The sweet £n.iits are peeled and eaten fresh and are also used for the preparation of syrup, compote, juice, pickle, jam and chutney. Unripe fruits may be used as a substitute for tamarind. The fruits are often eaten with sambal fish or soya cake seasoned with chilli and. rice. The fruits are rich in vitamin A and C. Young leaves are eaten raw with rice. The wood is used as a building material and for carving. It is also grown as a decorative shade tree (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). A related species, B. oppositifolia (Roxb.) Adelb. syn. B. burmannica Griff. (plum mango), found growing throughout South East Asia, also bears fruits rich in vitamin A and
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL' HUMID REGIONS
87
C, which are eaten fresh as well as used to prepare jam, pickle and chutney (Martin et al., 1987).
The fruit contains 85 g water, 0.12 mg protein, 0.04 mg fat, 0.6 g fibre, 6 mg calcium, 10.8 mg phosphorus, 0.31 mg iron, 0.043 mg carotene, 0.031 mg thiamine, 0.025 mg riboflavin, 0.286 mg niacin and 75 mg vitamin C per 100 g of pulp (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Botany Gandaria is an evergreen tree. It grows to the size and shape of a mango tree, 10-27 m in height with a striright, cylindrical, low-branched ,trunk and a thick, dense and broadly ovoid crown. The young drooping branches are four angled. The dark green, oblonglanceolate leaves are opposite, short petioled, thick, leathery, 10-35 em long, 3-12 cm broad, shining above and dull light green beneath, glabrous with prominent midrib on both surfaces having acute or rounded base and entire margins. The panicles are borne in the axils of leaves. The andromonoecious tree has greater proportion of small male flowers having 3-5 merous parts. The staminate flowers are borne on short puberulent, yellow stalks and the perfect flowers are sessile. The sepals are erect, ovate, yellow and are pubescent externally. The petals are erect or spreading obliquely, obovate-ovate, light yellow and 0.15-0.2 cm long. The stamens alternate with petals and have very short filaments. The ovary in the perfect flowers is minute and glabrous. The oblong-ovoid or ellipsoid fruits are glabrous, obtuse or rounded at both ends and tum yellow or orange on ripening. These are 3-5 cn:t long, 3-4 em thick with a thin rind and contain thick, juicy pulpy, yellow or orange, subacid flesh (mesocarp). The endocarp is thinly coriaceous and woolly-fibrous externally and smooth within. The seed is 1.5-3 x 1.5-2 cm in size with a thin light brown testa adnate to the endocarp. The cotyledons are thick plano-convex, blue-violet in colour and astringent (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 43 : Bouea macrophylla Griffith, Gandaria, 1. Flowering branch; 2. Branch with fruits (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
Varieties , Varieties have been recognised based on taste of the fruits. Hintalu is a very sour cultivar. Ramania Pipit and Ramania Tembaga are red-fleshed sweet cultivars (Verheij and
88
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND
NuTs
Coronel, 1991). Germplasm collection of gandaria has been maintained at Subtropical Horticultural Research Unit, Miami, Florida (5 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1992).
Culture Gandaria is normally propagated from the seeds. It can also be propagated by air layering and grafting. Planting should be done at 10 x 12 m spacing. Shading is required to establish young plants. Application of manure and fertilizers improves growth and induces precocity in trees. The seedling plants start flowering 8-10 years after planting whereas the vegetatively propagated plants flower after 5-6 years. Flowering occurs from January to March and the fruit matures in 180 or more days. On ripening, the fruit turns yellow with yellow to orange flesh (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
44. GENIPAP Genipap or genipapo or genipa or marmalade box (Genipa americana L. syn. G. americana L. var. caruta (Kunth.) Schumann) belongs to the family Rubiaceae and is a native of West Indies and South America (Martin et al., 1987). It is also distributed in Central America, western Latin America and the Caribbean. It has been introduced in South East Asia (Morton, 1987). Genipap has potential for expanded production (Martin et al., 1987). It requires hot tropical lowlands with medium to high rainfall. It prefers rainfall between 1200 and 4000 mm with mean annual temperature between 18 and 28°C. The 'plant ' is injured at temperatures of a few degrees above freezing. It does well on deep, rich loamy soils but can grow on a wide range of soil pH. It can tolerate seasonal waterlogging as well as dry periods (Martin et al., 1987). The fruits are eaten fresh when overripe and are used to prepare beverages, cordials, syrup, alcoholic drinks, compote, jam, jelly, etc. The juice of unripe fruits is used as dye. Kuno or Choco tribes paint their whole body black with the unripe fruit juice. The bark is used for tanning and its fibre is used as forage. The wood is not durable but is used for indoor construction. The bark is used to treat diarrhoea and the fruit as a vermifuge and diuretic. The plant is ornamental and is suitable for soil conservation (FAO, 1984; Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987). Genipap contains 67.6 g moisture, 5.2 g protein, 0.3 g lipids, 9.4 g fibre, 40.0 mg calcium, 58.0 g phosphorus, 3.6 mg iron, 0.04 mg thiamine, 0.04 mg riboflavin, 0.50 mg niacin and 33.0 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion and provides 113 calories (Morton, 1987).
Botany Genipap is an erect tree growing up to 20-30 m in height. Leaves are shiny, dark, opposite, green and elliptic-obovate. Inflorescence is corymbose with 3-12 flowers. The flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic having 5-lobed calyx, yellow, 14-18 mm long gamopetalous and 5 lobed corolla, 5 epipetalous stamens, 1 pistil and inferior ovary. Fruit is an ellipsoid to ovoid and yellOwish brown berry, 9-15 x 7-9 cm in size and 5-8 em in diameter with sweet aromatic flavour and weighs 200-400 g. The flesh is whitish, filled with numerous, flat, yellow brown seeds of 0.8 x 0.7 em in size (Martin et al., 1987; Briicher, 1989).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
89
Fig. 44 : Genipa americana L. 1. Fruit; 2. Seed; 3. Section of fruit (FAO, 1986)
Varieties Some varieties bear throughout the year in Brazil. There is a shrubby form, "Jenipaporana or Jenipapo-bravo", no more than 3-4 m high that grows in swamps along the edges of rivers and lakes and bears small inedible fruit (Morton, 1987). Culture
/
It is propagated from the seeds and by grafting. The seeds retain viability for at least 90 days. Germination starts after 25 to 30 days. Initial growth of the seedling is slow and requires about one year to attain size of 20 to 40 cm for transplanting and &lldding. Marcottage also gives good results. Planting in the field is done at spacing of 10 x 15 m. Cultural requirements for genipap have to be standardized. Seedling plants start producing fruits 6 to 8 years after planting. Genipap flowers during May to September and fruiting occurs from September to April. At maturity, the fruit turns yellowish-grey in colour. The fruits fall to the ground when ripe. Trees of 15 to 20 years age produce 400 to 600 fruits. No disease or pest problems have been recorded (FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987).
45. GIANT GRANADILLA Giant granadilla (Passiflora quadrangularis 1.) is a native of South America and belongs to the family Passifloraceae. Wild population of giant granadilla occurs in Nicaragua and Colombia. It is distributed in the whole neotropics and has been introduced in other continents but is cultivated in West Indies, South and Central America, Hawaii, South East Asia and Australia (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Giant Granadilla needs hot humid tropical lowland conditions for good flowering and fruiting. Fruiting is observed to be poor at sea level and elevations of 200-500 m. At high elevation, the growth of the plant is slow. It is less cold tolerant than yellow passionfruit. It is also less tolerant to frost (Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989). It can grow on a wide range of soils provided they have good moisture and are well-drained. The growth is the best in ~ soils having more than pH 6. The green immature fruit is eaten as cooked vegetable. Its flavour is pleasant, aromatic and sub-acid. The fruits are not as tasty as of other passionfruits and are mainly used to prepare nectar, juices or syrup or soft drinks. Most parts of giant granadilla are used as emetic, diuretic and vermifuge. The fruit i~ used as an.~tiscorbutic and stomachic
90
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
in the tropics. Rind of the fruit is prescribed as sedative for relief in headache, asthma, diarrhoea, dysentery, neurasthenia and insomnia (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The giant granadilla pulp contains 88 g water, 0.9 g protein, 0.2 g fat, 10.1 g carbohydrates, 10 mg calcium, 22 mg phosphorus, 0.6 mg iron, 70 ill vitamin A, 2.7 mg niacin and 20 mg vitamin C per 100 g of pulp and provides 170 kJ energy (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). .
Botany The plants are perennial and vigorous climbers with enlarged fleshy tuberous roots h,,!-ving a fairly short life of 5 to 10 years. The most distinctive character is its winged, sharp, quadrangular stem with large, ovate leaves, which distinguish it from other Passiflora species. The leaves are alternate, big, 20-25 em long, oval with typical pale green colour. The solitary, pentamerous flowers are large, 10-12 cm in diameter with the characteristic complicated structure of coloured fleshy 5 sepals and red and white 5 petals covered by the corona. Stamens are 5 with large anthers, ovary on gynophore, l-locular, many ovuled, styles 3-5 with large stigmas. Its fruits are the largest among the Passiflora species, 15-30 x 10-15 cm in size, weighs 2.8 kg on average, yellow green and soft with thin pericarp over a fleshy insipid mesocarp. The cavity of the fruit is filled with seeds surrounded by yellowish juicy arils. Seeds are flat, obovoid, 1 cm long and dark brown (Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 45 : Passiflora quadrangularis L., 1. Flowering branch; 2. Fruit (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
Varieties Several types/forms are found in nature. In Trinidad, some hybrids with other
Passiflora species having better fruit taste have been produced. Eight accessions of giant granadilla have been maintained at Subtropical Horticultural Research Unit, USDA, Miami, USA (Bettencourt et al., 1992).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
91
Culture It can be propagated both from the seeds and by stem cuttings. Plants should b~ spaced at 3-7 x 2-3 m at in the field and trained on 2.5 m high trellises. Only two branches are allowed to grow and the others are removed. Adequate soil m0isture during flowering and fruit development is necessary to obtain maximum yield. It requires plentiful supply of fertilizers to maintain good growth and yield. Applications are generally done every four months. The seedling plants start production 1-2 years after planting whereas those raised from cuttings bear fruits within one year. Ripe fruits are harvested 60-80 days after flowering. In South East Asia, fruit is available throughout the year. Flowering occurs during summer on vigorously growing shoots at nodes some distance away from the shoot tip. Hence the main flowering season occurs following the period of maximum extension growth towards the end of the rainy season. The species appears to be self-compatible. However, some plants do not set fruits without hand pollination. To ensure good fruit set, hand pollination using a small brush is recommended. The fruit becomes ready for harvest on full ripening when the colour turns yellowish. The fruits have soft skin and are carefully clipped and packed in crates lined with soft cushioning material. An established vine can yield 25 to 120 fruits (70 to 150 kg) per year. Postharvest handling of the delicate fruit, its processing and marketing need attention (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Rats, bats and birds often cause considerable damage to fruits. Fruitflies, Dacus and Ceratitis, puncture the young fruits and cause premature abscission. Brown spot (Alternaria spp.), grease spot (Pseudomonas passiflorae) and bacterial spot cause heavy damage to leaves and fruits. Fusarium wilt causes death of the vines. The roots are damaged by Phytophthora cinnamoni. Woodiness caused by cucumber virus I is transmitted by aphids and leads to reduction in fruit size. No control measures are known except removal and burning of the infected plants (Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
46. GOVERNOR'S PLUM Governor's plum or ramontchi (Flacourtia indica Merr. syn. F. ramontchi L.'Her., F. sepia ria Roxb.) belongs to the family Flacourtiaceae and is a native of tropical Asia and Madagascar (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as Madagascar plum or Mauritius plum or Indian plum. It is distributed throughout the pantropic. It is a useful fruit plant for home garden and has little potential for commercial development (Martin et al., 1987). The tree grows well in hot, humid climatic conditions in lowland tropics on elevations below 1500 m. It is fairly resistant to drought. It can tolerate temperatures as low as -3.5°C. It can grow well on a variety of soils that are not waterlogged. On rich soils, it has a tendency to grow too vigorously, which is detrimental to flowering and fruiting (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). Its fruits are sweet and pleasant and are used to prepare jellies, preserves, syrup and jam. Leaves and roots are effective against snakebite and pulverized bark with sesame oil is used in rheumatism (Morton, 1987). Governor's plum contains 66.42-76.93 g water, 0.69-1.72 g protein, 1.26-1.8 g fat, 11.29-22.7 g carbohydrates, 3.4-4.7 g fibre, 100 mg calcium and 100 mg phosphorus per 100 g of edible portion and provides 82-114 calories (Morton, 1987; Gopalan et al., 1986). Botany It is a small, sprawling, shrubby, deciduous tree of 5-15 m height having a crooked, gnarly, furrowed, low-branched trunk. The young shoots are thin, finely pubescent and spiny.
92
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Later, these become nearly spineless. The cultivated forms are nearly or entirely spineless. The dark green leaves are 6-16 x 3-75 cm in size, alternate, oblong, ovate or elliptic having acuminate or obtuse apex and coarsely serrate-crenate margin, shiny above and pale green and dull beneath. The tree is dioecious. The flowers are small, pedicelled, usually unisexual, rarely bisexual, borne in axillary, four to many flowered racemes and have 3-6 broadly ovate green sepals but the petals are absent. The ovary of the female flower is large having 3 to 8 free styles with pubescent stigmas. The fruit is a subglobose or globose drupe, which becomes deep maroon on ripening. It is 2-2.5 mm in diameter and has yellowish white, juicy and acid pulp. The flat and orbicular kernels are numerous, arranged in one or two superimposed rows (Morton, 1987).
Fig. 46 : Flacourtia indica. 1. Female flowering branch; 2. Male flower; 3. Female flower; 4. Sepal; 5. Stamen; 6. Pistil; 7. Fruit; 8. Seed (Flora of Tropical East Africa, Booth and . Wickens, 1988)
Varieties Cultivated forms of ramontchi vary in fruit quality. Some are sweet and flavourful and the others are tart or acid.
Culture It can be propagated from the seeds or by cuttings, layering, grafting and root suckers. Budding is done on rootstocks of the same species or on seedlings of lovi-Iovi (F. inermis) or rukam (F. rukam). Planting is done 12 to 16 m apart in square system. Irrigation should be done during dry periods. Pruning is necessary to reduce overcrowding. Being dioecious, interplanting of one male plant for 15 females has been advocated. Fertilizer requirements for governor's plum should be determined. Governor's plum flowers during April-May in Florida and matures its fruit after 60-90 days. Fully ripe fruits are harvested, as they are astringent if picked at green stage. Unripe fruits are used for processing. Mediterranean fruitfly (Ceratitis capitata) attacks the fruit in India (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
93
47. GRUMICHAMA Grumichama or Brazil cherry (Eugenia dombeyi (Sprengel) Skeels syn. E. brasiliensis Lam., Myrtus dombeyi Spre.) belongs to the family Myrtaceae and is a native of Brazil (Martin et ai., 1987). It occurs in wild form and is cultivated in coastal southern Brazil (Parana, Santa Catarina). It is also cultivated in Paraguay and USA (Florida and Hawaii) (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Grumichama has better potential as a garden and ornamental plant than for commercial production (Martin et ai., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The other related species that produce edible fruits are E. aggregata Kiaerak. (cherry of Rio Grande), E. iuschinathiana Klotzsch (pitomba), E. uva!ha Camb. (uvala), E. foiiosa DC. (arrayan), E. ligustrina (Swartz.) Willd., E. kiotschiana Berg. (Pero do Campo), E. aherniana C.B.Robinson (tulanan) and E. scortechipii King. The grumichama requires humid, tropical to subtropical climate. Mature trees tolerate frost of -3°C for short periods, but young shoots are injured. It grows the best in deep sandy loam soil having good fertility but acidic rather than calcareous soils are preferred (Morton, 1987; Martin et ai., 1987). The fruits are eaten fresh or are processed into jams, pies or preserve. Its dark, glossy leaves, reddish young shoots and shapely canopy makes it an attractive ornamental plant. An infusion of 10 g leaves or bark in 300 ml water is used as an aromatic, astringent, diuretic and for the treatment or rheumatism. It can be grown as a garden plant (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruit contains 83.5-85 g moisture, 0.102 g protein, 0.6 g fibre, 0.3 g fat, 13.4 g carbohydrates, 39.5 mg calcium, 13.6 mg phosphorus, 0.45 mg iron, 0.039 mg carotene, 0.04 mg thiamine, 0.031 mg riboflavin, 0.336 mg niacin and 18.8 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Botany It is small, evergreen tree and grows up to 7-10 m tall with narrow and compact crown and short trunk having grey bark and sub-erect branches. The leaves are opposite, ovate to obovate-elliptic, 10-12 x 5-6 cm in size, leathery, glossy with recurved margin and 3-:4 mm long petioles. Flowers are solitary, axillary, 2.5 cm wide, white, slightly fragrant, having 4-8 mm long, green sepals and 4-15 mm long, white petals and 100 white stamens. Fruit is a subglobose to oblate berry hanging on long, slender pedicel, up to 3-5 em in diameter, with persistent sepals at the apex, bright red, dark purple to nearly black or white with thin and delicate skin, red or white, juicy, soft and sweet pulp. Seeds are one to several, globose to angular, about 1 cm in diameter, hard and light brown to grey green in colour (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Varieties Three botanical varieties have been distinguished based on fruit colour, E. dombeyi var. iocarpus Berg. (var. dombeyi) has deep violet fruits, E. dombeyi var. erythrocarpus Berg. has red fruits and E. dombeyi var. ieucocarpus Berg. has white fruits (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Genetic resources of grumichama have been maintained at Instituto Nacional De Pesquisas ba Amazonia, Manaus, Brazil (Bettencourt et ai., 1992).
94
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Fig. 47 : Eugenia dombeyi (Sprengel) Skeels, Grumichama, 1. Flowering branch; 2. Branch with fruits. (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
Culture The plant is generally propagated from the seeds. Seeds lose viability in about 6 weeks. It can be propagated easily by cuttings, air layering and grafting. Seedlings initially grow slowly unless raised with care and take 4-6 years to come into production. Application of organic manure and mulch are recommended in light soils. Light shade and protection from strong winds are advocated. Little or no pruning is required until the trees show crowding. The plants flower in February-March and the fruits ripen within one month. In the tropics, flowering and fruiting extend over several months. Limb dieback caused by an unknown pathogen has been reported from Florida. The Mediterranean fruitfly is a serious pest in Hawaii (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
48. GUARANA The guarana (Paullinia cupana Kunth) belongs to the family Sapindaceae and is native of the lower Amazon region of South America. It is now widely cultivated in Brazil. Guarana plants require dry to moist warm temperate through dry to moist topical to moist subtropical climatic conditions with plenty of sunshine. The minimum winter temperature should be above freezing. The plants grow in full sun on acidic and rich soils.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
95
The traditional uses of guarana are linked to the Maues Indians of Brazil. The ripe seeds are dried and a paste is prepared from the roasted and powered seeds by mixing in water. Guarana is the basis of an extremely popular non-alcoholic fizzy soft drink known as guarana or cupana. It has a fruity taste and pleasant aftertaste. It is widely sold in Brazil. The drink is known as Tai in USA and has also become popular in other parts of the world. Even its imitation brands have been produced and marketed but the original Brazilian brands are still the most popular. These fashionable energy drinks are rich in caffeine (4.2 %) and are therefore used as general tonic and to counteract fatigue. Guarana is also available in the form of chocolate bars, chewing gums, syrups, powders and tablets. The product allegedly has aphrodisiac properties and is used to help in weight loss programmes. Guarana has been listed as a functional food. The related species, P. yoco, is a source of the South American caffeine-rich drink called yoco. It is especially popular in Colombia.
Botany The woody climber (vine) has irregularly compound leaves and coiled tendrils by which it supports itself. The inflorescence is borne in leafaxils. The inconspicuous yellow flowers having five 5 mm long petals develop into small, bright red fruits containing shiny, dark brown seeds. The attractive rounded capsules (fruits) are 2-3 cm long and develop a red warty skin on ripening and contain 3 black seeds.
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--\.
,
/:
. .....
.-
A3
Fig. 48 : Paullinia cupana, Guarana, AI. Inflorescence on the raceme; A2. Fruitr in the capsule; A3.Trilocular ovary (Hernandez Bermejo and Leon, 1994)
96
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties Lot of variability occurs in the South American centre of diversity from which promising genotypes can be selected particularly for tolerance to the pronounced dry season.
Culture It can be propagated from the seeds. The yields are very low. Less than 140 kg/ha seeds has been obtained (Wickens, 1995; van Wyk, 2005).
49. HORSE MANGO Horse mango (Mangifera foetida Lour.) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and is native of South East Asia (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as bachang, machang, mamut and xoaihoi. It occurs wild in dipterocarp forests of peninsular Malaysia, peninsular Thailand, Sumatra and Borneo. It is apparently wild in Java. The horse mango requires hot tropical lowlands with monsoon climate (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Fresh fruit contains an irritant juice, which may inflame the lips and mouth. on maturity, the irritant juice is restricted to the skin so that the ripe fruit can be eaten fresh if peeled fairly thick. It is a rather savoury fruit. The fruit is a good source of vitamin A and C. Unripe fruit is washed in salted water and sliced for use in vegetable salads (rujak) and in a sour pickle (asinan). It is also used to prepare curries, chutneys and preserves. The leaves are said to be antipyretic and the seeds are used against trichophytosis, scabies and eczema (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruit contains 72.5 g water, 1.4 g protein, 25.4 g carbohydrates, 21 mg calcium, 15 mg phosphorus, 363 IU vitamin A, 0.03 mg thiamine and 56 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of pulp (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Botany Horse mango grows up to 30-35 m tall without buttresses. Bark is light brown to dark greyish brown, shallowly fissured containing irriatant whitish sap turning black on exposure. Leaves are elliptic-oblong, 15-40 x 9-15 cm in size, stiffly coriaceous, dark green above, clear green below with 1.5-8 em long, stout petioles, very swollen at the base. Panicles are subterminal, upright, pyramidal, 10-40 cm long having sparsely 5-merous, scentless flowers. Sepals are obovate, lanceolate and 6-9 x 1.5-2.5 cm in size. Of the 5 stamens, one is fertile, and each has 8 mm long pinkish-purple filament and dark violet anthers. Ovary is subglobose and yellow and style is excentric. Fruit is variable in size and shape and is an obliquely ovoid-oblong or almost globose drupe, 9-14 x 7-12 cm in size, dirty dark olive green or yellowish green, smooth, dull with brown lenticels and 5 mm thick skin. Flesh is pale orange yellow, fibrous, juicy with strong smell and taste of turpentine. Stone is plump, 6-5 x 3 cm in size and coarsely fibrous. Seed is monoembryonic (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Varieties Three forms of horse mango are found. Limus piit has small, globose fruit and is found in west Java. Local type has large, oblong fruit found in Malaysia. Limus tipung has large, oblong fruits, hardly fibrous and fine textured. Several other forms with variable fruit
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
97
characters are also found in Borneo particularly in south Kalimantan (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 49 : Mangifera foetida Lour. (IBPGR, 1980)
Culture It is generally propagated from the seeds. Spacing for orchard planting is 14-16 m. Cultural requirements have to be standardized. It flowers in May-June and the fruits ripen from September to November. Trunk borer (Rhytidodera simulens, a longicorn beetle) sometimes damages and kills branches, but the tree retains its vitality. The larvae of the mango weevil (Cryptorrhynchus mangiferae) feed in the flesh of the tree (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
50. ICE CREAM BEAN Ice cream bean or ingacipo (Inga edulis Mart. syn.I. alba Wild.) belongs to sub family Mimosoideae of the Leguminosae family and is originated in the tropical forest of Guyana, Venezuela and Brazil. It is also known as guaba or guamo or pois sucre. It is also found growing in Central America and West Indies. Several of the 300 taxa found in America were used by the Indians as food source as evident by the presence of Inga pods in Peruvian graves of Ancen and Paracas and the frequent use of Inga motifs on prehistoric ceramics. Inga species have collectively been called Chimbillo in Peru and Chalum in Central America (Martin et al., 1987; Brucher, 1989). Inga feuillei A.DC., peacy or pacae, is native of Peru and
98
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Bolivia and gives edible fruits. I. spectabilis (Vahl.) Willd., Cuabo real, grows in the area extending from the northern tropical South America through Panama to Costa Rica. The white pulp of its pods is edible. 1. paterno Harms., paterna or paterno, is native to Mexico, Central America and gives edible aril and its seeds are cooked. I. laurino (Sw.) Willd., guame or guabo, is native to Central and South America and West Indies. Its white, aromatic aril is eaten fresh. 1. cinnamomea Benth. grows wild in Amazonas region. Its cylindrical fruits have sweet pulp. I. tonduzii J. D. Smith is native of Central America and the Caribbean and gives edible fruits. I. macrophylla Kunth. grows wild in Amazon basin and is distributed throughout Brazil, Bolivia, Peru and Venezuela (Briicher, 1989). 'The trees require hot tropical climate with plenty of moisture and are found in subtropical dry to moist regions through tropical dry areas at altitudes up to 1500 m in the Andes. It can grow on the poorest oxisols and in flood plains that are waterlogged for 2-3 months. Well-drained light sandy to medium loamy soils are the best. The trees are remarkably tolerant to frost, drought and soil compaction (FAG, 1986). The succulent arils (testas) are eaten fresh after removing them from the seed. Although more attractive lightly cinnamon flavoured varieties are available, their seeds are bitter. The tree has open crown and rapid growth and is thus suitable for use as shade tree for cocoa, vanilla and coffee plantations. Being leguminous, it also fixes atmospheric nitrogen into the soil (FAG, 1986). The fruit pulp contains 83.0 g water, 1.0 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 15.5 g carbohydrates and 1.2 g fibre per 100 g of pulp and provides 60 calories. Seed of ice cream bean contains 63.3 g water, 10.7 g protein, 0.7 g fat, 24.0 g carbohydrates and 1.5 g fibre per 100 g of seed and provides 118 calories (Duke, 1989).
Botany The trees are fast growing up to 17 m tall with broad, spreading crown. The bark is brownish grey, thin and slightly rough. The trunk is contorted and 30 cm or more in diameter. Branches arise 1-2 m from the base. The leaves are alternate and compound pinnate. Stipules are awl-shaped and 1-2 mm long that soon fall. Rachis is 20-50 cm long and is conspicuously and broadly winged between the leaflets. The leaflets are opposite, 46 pairs, elliptic to elliptic-oblong, 5-15 x 2-8 cm in size with long acuminate apex and slightly . undulate margins. The flowers are hermaphrodite, fragrant, sessile, appear as short spikes arranged in crowded heads at the tips of stems and 2-4 cm long peduncles. The flowers may be solitary in upper axils and fasciculate and sub-corymbose below. Calyx is puberulent, tubular, 4-7 cm long, greenish, hairy outside with 5-deltoid teeth. Corolla is silky, greenish white, tubular villous and 10-15 mm long with 5-deltoid teeth, hairy outside. Stamens are 80 with slender filaments exerted 20-40 mm beyond the corolla tube, carpel is 1 and ovules are numerous. Fruit is a cylindrical pod, 50-100 cm long 3-4 cm in diameter, shortly tomentose with several, very deep longitudinal grooves, twisting and indehiscent and contain white, spongy, sweet, 0.5 cm thick, vanilla flavoured pulp surrounding the seeds. Seeds are purple to black, 10-20 in number, 3-4 x 1.5-2 cm in size with thin testa (FAG, 1986; Briicher, 1989).
Varieties There is no standard variety of ice cream bean. Varieties having cinnamon flavoured fruit and edible seed should be developed (FAG, 1986).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
99
Fig. 50 : lnga. edulis Mart. 1. Leaf and fruit; 2&3. Seed; 4. Flower. (FAD, 1986).
Culture It is generally propagated through seeds. Seeds usually start germinating in the pod when the testas are ripe. They are very hardy and root easily when thrown on top of moist soil. The plants grow rapidly giving out branches just above the ground level producing an open crown. Trees can reach a height of 5 m within 2 years and start producing fruits after a year under favourable conditions. Flowering and fruiting occurs 2-3 times in a year. The pods take about 3 months to develop and become available from September to June. On ripening, the pods become thick and soft and yellow slightly. The fruits are harvested manually by pulling off or cutting. Pods can be kept for one week after harvest without deterioration in quality and can easily be transported. On an average, a well-developed tree produces 150 to 200 kg fruit every year. A tree with a 10 m crown produces 20 to 100 pods at least twice a year (FAa, 1986; Martin et a/., 1987). Ice cream bean plants are short lived (20 years) and frequently show rotting in branches of over 15 cm diameter but regrowth of cut trees is extremely vigorous reaching 4 m in one year. The fungal diseases Bitzea ingae, Catacauma ingae, Fusarium semitectum var. majus, Perisporium truncatum, Peziotrichum saccharinum, Phyllosticta ingae-edulis, Ravenelia ingae, Rhizoctonia solani and Uredo ingae have been reported. A mosaic virus and witches' broom also infect the trees. Fruitfly larvae often damage testas especially at late maturity (FAa, 1986)
_
100
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
51. JACKFRUIT Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. syn. A. integrifolius non L. f.) of the family Moraceae originated in the rain forests of Western Ghats in India and has a long history of cultivation in the country. It was carried by the Arabs to the east coast of Africa and has been introduced in the New World relatively recently (FAO, 1982; IBPGR, 1986). It is cultivated at low elevations throughout India, Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Brazil, southern China, Malaya, Philippines, Kenya, Uganda and Mauritius (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). India is probably the largest producer (Thomas, 1980). Jackfruit has fair potential for wider cultivation in the tropics, but strong fruit odour, large size and unpredictable yield are the main limitations (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Jackfruit requires moist tropical climatic conditions for good growth. It flourishes in the humid climate of hill slopes up to the altitudes of about 1200 m. Poor flood tolerance limits the distribution of jackfruit to areas having more than 150 cm rainfall without a prominent dry season (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). It can tolerate light frosts. It does well on rich, well-drained alluvial soil or open textured loam or laterites. The tree exhibits moderate tolerance to saline soils (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991) Immature fruits are cooked as a vegetable and pickled or canned in brine. The pulp of ripe fruit is edible and can be used to prepare dehydrated leather, chutney, jam, jelly and paste or is preserved in syrup. The ripe flesh is fragrant and is used to flavour dried figs. The seeds (nuts) are also eaten after boiling or roasting. It has various uses in local medicine. Jackfruit pulp and seeds are considered cooling and nutritious tonic. Seed starch is used to relieve biliousness and the roasted seeds are regarded as an aphrodisiac. Heated leaves are placed on wounds and the ash of leaves burned with maize and coconut shells is used to heal ulcers. The bark is used as poultice. The wood has sedative properties whereas the root is used as a remedy against skin diseases and asthma and its extract is taken to treat fever and diarrhoea (FAO, 1982; IBPGR, 1986; Purseglove, 1987; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The latex is used as an adhesive and for medicinal purpose. The fruit rind and leaves are used as animal fodder particularly for sheep. A yellow dye is extracted from the wood and is used to dye silk and cotton robes. The wood has timber value. The timber is medium hard and is resistant to termite and fungal and bacterial decay. It is easy to season and takes polish beautifully and is considered superior to teak for the preparation of furniture, oars, implements and musical instruments. It is grown as shade tree in coffee and betel nut plantations. Ripe fresh jackfruit contains 72-77.2 g moisture, 1.3-1.9 g protein, 0.1-0.3 g fat, 18.925.4 g carbohydrates, 1.0-1.1 g fibre, 22 mg calcium, 38 mg phosphorus, 0.5 mg iron, 540 IU vitamin A, 0.03 mg thiamine, 4 mg niacin and 8-10 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion and provides 98 calories. Fresh seed contains 51.6-57.77 g moisture, 6.6 g protein, 0.4 g fat, 38.4 g carbohydrates, 1.5 g fibre, 0.05-0.55 mg calcium, 0.13-0.23 mg phosphorus and 0.002-1.2 mg iron (Morton, 1987).
Botany Jackfruit is a large evergreen tree growing up to 25 m in height. Young trees have a pyramid shaped crown but the mature trees have a broad crown. The leaves are oblong or oval or elliptic, elliptic-obovate or obovate in form, large, 10-15 cm long and leathery with their upper surface more glossy and shiny than the lower. The tree is monoecious and starts
101
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
bearing when 4 to 8 years old. Both male and female inflorescences are" borne on the sam:e tree on short lateral branches arising from the main trunk and large branches. Flowers are unisexual, composite, oval shaped and have a dull green surface: They are about 5 em long and 2 em in diameter. The male spike is produced singly and appears as a solid, elongated structure, has many densely crowded flowers, which may be sterile or fertile. Female spikes, on the other hand, are either solitary or paired. Female flowers are also borne on spike or head (composite) but are larger and bright green having a segmented surface. Each flower has a pair of perianth lobes and a single pistil. The ovary is oblong, compressed or coalesced. The fruits (syncarps) are large, from 4 to 30 kg in weight depending on variety. n~ey vary in flavour, seediness and shape. They are ovoid to oblong with a green rind composed of hexagonal fleshy spines, containing 100 to 500 seeds. Seeds are numerous, oblong-ellipsoid, 2-4 x 1.5-2.5 cm is size, 1-7 g in weight enclosed by horny endocarps and sub gelatinous exocarps (FAO, 1982; Morton, 1987; Acedo, 1992).
D B
Ie
Fig. 51 : Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk:, JackirUit, A. Shoot with male inflorescence; " B. Longitudinal section of male inflorescence; C. Longitudinal section of part of female inflorescence; D. Fruit (Purseglove, 1974)
102
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties Owing to seed propagation, protandry and cross pollination, the natural tree population shows great variability in growth rate, precocity and fruit quality. The smallfruited forms are known as Rudrakshi, which are widely grown in India but are ~onsidered inferior. Depending on softness and quality of pulp, two major types have been selected. The Koozha Chakka of south India, Vela of Sri Lanka, Khanum Lamoud of Thailand and Nangka Bubur of Indonesia and Malaysia generally have thin, fibrous, soft and mushy pulp which is acidulous to very sweet and emit a strong odour on ripening. The Koozha Puzham of south India, Varaka of Sri Lanka, Khanum Nang of Thailand, Nangka Salak of Indonesia, Nangka Bilulang of Malaysia have thick, firm or crisp and less odorous pulp. Both these major types have many cultivars. In peninsular Malaysia, 30 cultivars have been reported. Cultivar Na 2 has large, roundish fruit, which always splits at maturity and has yellow green, sweet to slightly acid and coarse pulp of hard texture einitting little odour and having poor storability. Na 29 has medium to large fruits containing little latex, yellow, thick and sweet pulp which is good for consumption. Na 31 has small elongated and long stalked fruits containing much latex, yellow and sweet pulp with fine texture and strong aroma and is suitable for canning. Some other important cu1tivars originated from Malaysia are J2, J27, J28, J29, J30 and J31, which are suitable for canning. A selection Palur-l made at Coimbatore gives higher yield than Panrutti and Singapore. The important varieties of Jackfruit in Philippines are J Torres, J0 1 and J02. Singapore Jack or Ceylon Jack from Sri Lanka is an early maturing variety and comes into bearing after about 18 months at low elevations but may take longer at higher elevations. The fruit is a hard fleshed Varikka. Germplasm collections of Jackfruit are mamtained at National Biological Institute, Bogor, Indonesia (30 accessions + 6 species), Lowlands Agriculture Experimental Station, Keravat, Papua New Guinea (2 accessions + 6 species), Institute of Plant Breeding, Laguna, Philippines (30 accessions + 14 species), Plew Horticultural Experimental Station, Chantaburi Province, Thailand (6 accessions) and Trichur, Krishna Nagar, India (66 accessions) (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Arora and Ramnatha Rao, 1995).
Culture It can be propagated through the seeds. The seed loses viability within 3 months after removal from the fruit and should be planted immediately (Chatterjee and Mukherjee, 1980). Vegetative propagation by budding or approach grafting on seedling rootstocks is preferred. Modified forkert or patch budding is successful during rainy season. Air layering and inarching have also given good success. Budding can be done on A. rigidus Blume, A. integer (chempedak), A. hirsutus and A. altilis (brea,dfruit). However, there are reports of graft incompatibility with A. altilis and A. hirsuta. Both stem cuttings and air layers are successful provided 5000 ppm rnA is applied on the etiolated tissue. Owing to large taproot, seedlings are difficult to transplant bare rooted. Jackfruit plants are generally transplanted in July-August at 6-12 ~ spacing. After planting, care is ,needed during the first three years. During summer months, young plants should be protected from dry winds and irrigation should be given at weekly interval. Two to three irrigations are sufficient in summer when the plants start fruiting. Judicious pruning is required during early years to develop a desirable low head. Later, pruning is done to induce
10~
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
"'-"
vigour for high productivity. Mulching helps to conserve moisture during the dry s~ason. Fertilizers are applied 2 times per year, first at the onset and then before the end ofthe rainy season. The recommended rates vary from 1 to 3 kg of compound fertilizer (N:P:K) pel' application. Application of FYM (37 kg/plant), 750 g ammonium sulphate, 62Q g ~ingle super phosphate and 300 g muriate of potash per plant per year in the seconc;i iind tlWd year after planting and in the fourth year an increased dose of 938 g ammonium sulphate, 781 g single .super phosphate and 375 g muriate of potash are found to increase growth and fruiting (Samaddar, 1990). Seedling trees start bearing 8-10 years after planting. Grafted plants bear in 4,5 years. In south India, even the seedling plants have been observed to bear in 4-6 ye~s. The male inflorescences mature 3-5 days before the female. The sticky yellow pollen releasef! sw~et scent that attracts small insect pollinators although the flowers may iilso pe winc;i pollinated (Sambamurty and Ramalingam, 1954). The fruits borne during the first few years·iiTe not so delicious. Their sweetness and delicacy improve with advancing iige. The" tree flowers iI1 June-July and December-February in Florida. Under favourable conditions, flowering is continuous giving fruits throughout the year but the production is the highest from Octob!,!l' to December. The fruit matures in 180-200 :lays. On ripening, the external aI1c;i P1llP coloW' turns yellow. A tree may produce 200-500 fruits annually. Ja~kfruit can be storeq ~t l3.3 0C and 85-90% RH for 14-45 days (Sealand, 1991). Mature fruits can be stor~d for 3=6 weeks at 11 to 12°C. Slices of fruit in 50 per cent sugar syrup with 0.5 per cent citric aqd frozen at -33.9°C can be stored for one year at -27.8°C. . . In Malaya, bacterial dieback caused by Erwinia carotovora is causing losses in botn jackfruit and chempedak. The disease first affects the growing shoots, spreads downw~A and eventually kills the tree. Some fungal diseases and borers ~iHlse damage, Pink rot (Pellicularia salmonirolor), soft rot (Phytophthora palmivora), fruit rot (Mi?op~s arfocarpl) and male inflorescence rot (Rhizopus artocarpi) are the main cUseases. Affected parts are prun~d and cut ends are pasted with Bordeaux mixture at an interval of three weeks c;iuring January to March. Among the pests, caterpillars of Diaphania caesali~ (shoot borer) tqnnel into th~ bqqs, young shoots and fruits. Removal of the affected parts breaks the life cycle of the ins~t;t since the caterpillar pupates in the tunnel. Bark eating caterpilliil' can ge controlled. \:>y fumigation in the holes. Swarms of spittlebug, Cosmoscarta relata feed on young leav~s, Maggots of fruit flies (Dacus dorsalis) infest the fruit. To control the pest the fruit is bagged, ripe and overripe fruits are not left around and buried deep in the ground iind bait spraY!l may be used. Margaronia ceasalis Walker, the stem borer, is found Assam, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Spraying BHC can control it. A brown weevil (Ochyromera artocarpi Marshall) is found in Assam, Kerala and Kamataka, whi~h bQres into the tender buds and fruits causing their drop. Kerosene or para-dichlorobenzene should be sprayed into the holes to control it (Morton, 1987; Samaddar, 1990; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
m
52. JAMAICA CHERRY Jamaica cherry or Panama berry or Japanese cherry or jam fruit or capulin (Muntingia calabura L.) of the family Elaeocarpaceae is a neotropical species which has become pantropical. It is cultivated all over the tropics. It grows on roadsides all over South East Asia where it was introduced in the 19th century.
104
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Jamaica cherry thrives well in tropical lowlands and also at elevations up to 100 m. Plants are drought hardy. It is not tolerant to salinity but can grow on a wide range of soils having pH 5.5 to 6.5 including stony soils (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Its fruits are eaten and are also used to prepare jam and tarts. Its flowers are used to- prepare an infusion against headache, colds, etc. The pliable bark can be used for rough cordage. It is a good roadside shade tree (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Jamaica cherry fruit contains 77.8 g moisture, 0.324 g protein, 1.56-g fat, 4.6 g fibre, 124.6 mg calcium, 84.0 mg phosphorus, 1.18 mg iron, 0.019 mg carotene, 0.065 mg thiamine, 0.037 mg riboflavin, 0.554 mg niacin and 80.5 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is a very fast growing evergreen slender tree reaching 7.5-12 m in height with spreading and nearly horizontal branches. The leaves are alternate, lanceolate or oblong, 512.5 cm long, dark green and minutely hairy on the upper surface, grey or brown hairy on the underside and irregularly toothed. It produces flowers continuously on fan like branches, which become erect after leaf fall. The horizontal branches are pendent towards the tip. Inflorescences emerge along with the 'growing shoot subtending the leaf. The flowers are borne in groups of 1-3 in supra-axillary fascicles. These are hermaphrodite, pentamerous with white petals, 1O-2~ stamens in the first emerging flower and more than 100 in the last fascicle. The fruit is a dull red berry, 15 mm in diameter with severru thousand tiny seeds i,n th~ soft pulp. The fruit matures shortly before the leaf fall (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). .
Fig. 52 : Muntingia calabura L., Capulin (Little et al., 1974)
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
105
Varieties . Yellow and white-fruited types are known. There is a lot of scope for selection of superior types from the natural variability.
Culture Jamaica cherry is usually propagated from the seeds. Germination of the seed is enhanced by its passage through the digestive tract of birds and bats that fondly eat the fruit. Seed germination also improves under high temperature and light conditio!,s. Air layering is also practised. Cultural requirements for Jamaica cherry have to be standardized. The seedling tree flowers within two years after planting. The bees pollinate the . flowers. The £rlli.t ripens in 6-8 weeks after anthesis. Rich moist soils ensure continuous production. Productivity is sustained by replacement pruning. No serious diseases or pests have been reported apart from the bats. However, fruits are infested with the larvae of the Caribbean fruitfly. Leaf spot caused by Phyllosticta sp. and Pseudocercospora muntingiae has been observed and the tree is subject to crown gall infestation (Agrobacterium tumefaciens) (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
53. JAVA ALMOND Java almond or canary nut (Canarium indicu.m L. syn. C. amboinen.se Hochr.) pelongs to the family Burseraceae and is native of Malaysia to Melanesia. It is also known as. canarium nut, kanari or galip, ngali nut. It is found growing in Indonesia (Sulawesi, Moluccas, Irian Jaya), Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands. It is often cultivated in Melanesia (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The related edible species is C. haroeiya Seemann found growing in Oceania. Java almond is found growing in tropical rain forest at low altitudes. It requires annual temperatures of 24-27'C with annual precipitation of 1800 mm. Young tree surivives 'cyclone with little damage. It can grow in soils with high pH and can tolerate pH of 5.3 to 8.1 (Duke, 1989; Wickens, 1995). Seeds are highly esteemed as food in Melanesia (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Seeds are eaten raw or roasted or made into bread. Oil from the seed is used as a ·substitute of coconut oil for cooking an<;l illumination. The bark is used in traditional medicine for treatment of vomiting and the young leaves for the treatment of scabies. Resin from the stem yields "Manila elmi" used as an incense and fixative in perfume industry and for varnishes. Timber is used for making canoes and paddles or as construction timber (Walter and Sam, 2002). It is planted as a shade tree in nutmeg plantations and as a roadside tree (Verheij and Co'ronel, 1991; Duke, 1989; Wickens, 1995). . Seeds contain 3.8% moisture, 19.6% protein, 72.8% fat and 3.8% ash (Duke, 1989). The oil contains 10.2% stearic, 30.5% palmitic, 39.9%. oleic, 18.7% linoleic and 0.4% linolenic acid.
Botany Java almond is a tall, dioecious tree growing up to 40 m in height with buttressed trunk. Leaves are compound, glabrous, with persistent ovate to oblong stipules having 3-8 pairs of leaflets that are oblong-Ianceolate, 7-35 x 3-16 cm in size, herbaceous to coriaceous
106
l)NDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
blades. Inflorescence is terminal, many flowered,' 15 to 40 ~ long and minutely tomentose. Male flowers are subsessile, female flowers are short stalked! calyx in male flowers 5 to 7 mm long and 7-10 mm in the females; 3 cream coloureq petals; stamens are free in male flowers and adnate to the disk in female flowers; pistil ~n m~le flower is minute or none. Fruit is drupe, ovoid-round in shape, slightly triangular in cross section, 3,5 to 6 cm long and 2 to 4 cm in diameter, green in colour and contains a white kernel (3.5 x 2 cm in size) covered with a thick brown skin or membrane (Duke, 1989; Verheij anq Coronel, 1991).
Varieties Several races are cultivated in Melanesia, varying in fOI'!l1 and size of fruit, Two botanical varieties are recognised - var. ind/cum h~s branchlets up to 13 !Urn thick, stipules up to 6 x 5 cm in size and dentate, leaflets up to 28 x 11 em in size anq heroa,ceous, and fruit 6 x 3 cm in size and is more widespread as culqva,ted variety; imd val:'. pZatycerioideum Leenhouts has branchlets up to 2.5 cm thick, stipules sometimes ~serted on the bases of the petiole only, leaflets 25-35 x 13-16 cm in size, fruits 6. x 3,~-4 crn size and is found only in New Guinea up to altitudes of 30 m (Duke, 1989). Elite plaI1t types should be selected from the natural variability (Wickens, 1995).
m
!-:
~ (.: ;, p:
~~:t:~/ "
"
B
~ Fig. 53 : Canarium indicum L. var. indicum, canarium nut. A. Branch with leaves, stipules and inflorescence with flowers (male + herma'phrodite)i B. nuts in-shell from different cultivars (Stevens et al., 1996)
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
107
Culture It is generally propagated through the seeds. Larger seedlings are planted. Cultural requirement for Java almond .has to be developed. It flowers from October to December and fruiting occurs from July to December. There are two main fruiting peaks, i.e. from August to October and February to April in Santa Cruz, Solomon Islands. Large fruited forms or species in Santa Cruz, Solomon Islands are reported to yield fewer fruits than the smaller fruited forms. On ripening, the fruit turns blaCk in colour. In Moluccas, the leaves shed when fruit ripens. Fruits are harvested from the tree by khocking them down with sticks. For extraction of nut, pulp is removed by hand after soaking in water for 2-3 days. Soaking time can be reduced if water is heated to 40-50°C. Mechanised nut extraction method should be developed (Wickens, 1995). Nuts are thoroughly washed and the floating nuts are discarded. Nuts are sun dried and bagged for storage. Nuts do not keep well for long time. The fungi that attack Java almond are Aedicium pulneyensis, Meliola cinarii, Oudemansiella capri, Skierka canarii and Ustilina zonata and can be controlled by fungicidal sprays (Duke, 1989; Wickens, 1995).
54. JAVA ROSE APPLE Java rose apple or wax apple or java apple (Syzygium samarangense (BI.) Merr. and Perry syn. Eugenia javanica Lam.) belongs to the family Myrtaceae. It is also known as wax jambu, samarang rose apple or jamrul. It is a native of South East Asia and is distributed in the Andaman Islands and is also grown in parts of south India and West Bengal. Java rose apple is widely grown throughout the tropics. These often occur in home gardens with limited commercial production in Malaysia, Australia and Central and South America. Taiwan has more extensive industry around Pingtung at the southern end of the island (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). The related species that produce edible fruits are found growing in tropical Africa (Syzygium guineense A. DC, water berry), the Philippines (S. calubcob Merr., kalubkob; S. cordatilimbum Merr., kara; S. polycephaloides Merr., lipote; S. simile Merr., malaruhat; and S. xanthophyllum Merr., malatampoi), and Indonesia (S. curranii Merr., gewok; S. pycnanthum Me",:"r. and Perry. syn. S. densiflora (Blume) Duthie, kelampok) (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). ·It needs hot and humid climatic conditions and can grow up to 1200 m elevation. It does not tolerate frost. It does the best in areas with a fairly long dry season but requires assured water supply. The trees prefer heavy, deep fertile soils with an easy access to water and not the light soils having deep water table (Morton, 1987; Nakasone and Paull, 1998). The fruit is eaten fresh usually with salt or sauce, used in fruit salads (rujak) and preserved as pickle (asinan). Leaves are used for the treatment of ulceration of the tongue in the Philippines and of fevers in Cambodia. The wood is reddish and hard and is used in construction. The tree can be grown in home gardens and also along the driveways (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The ripe Java rose apple fruit contains 91 g water, 0.6 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 8.0 g carbohydrates, 0.7 g fibre, 6 mg calcium, 16 mg phosphorus, 0.4 mg iron, 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.03 mg riboflavin, 0.3 mg niacin and 13 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of pulp and provides 80 calories (Nakasone and Paull, 1998).
108
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Botan}"
It is a 5-15 m tall evergreen tree with wide irregular canopy, short and crooked trunk, 25-50 em in diameter, often branched near the base. The leaves are opposite, elliptic to elliptic oblong, 10-25 x 5-12 cm in size, coriaceous, rather strongly aromatic when bruised and with thick and 3-5 mm long petiole and pellucid, dotted and thin margin. Inflorescences having 3-30 flowers are borne in the axils of fallen leaves. The white or pinkish flowers are self compatible, 3-4 cm in diameter having 1.5 cm long calyx tube and 3-5 mm long lobes; 4 orbicular to spathulate, 10-15 mm long petals; numerous 3 cm long, yellow-white stamens; and pistil with 3 cm long style. The fruits of water apple and wax jainbu are very similar and cannot be easily distinguished. Fruit is a broadly pyriform berry, 3.5-5.5 x 4.5-5.5 cm in size and bright red to white in colour, crowned by the fleshy calyx with incurved lobes and has a wax like glossy skiii. The flesh is white, spongy, juicy, aromatic and sweet sour in taste having 0-4, mostl~ suppressed, globose seeds which are up to 8 mm in diameter (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Nakasone and Paull, 1998).
Varieties Forms having red, pink and white fruits exist in Indonesia and India. In West Bengal, a white form, known as Albes, bears seedless fruits and the pink form contains one or two seeds. Percy-lancaster and Bose described a hybrid of Alba form of E. javanica with rose apple (E. jambos), which has prolific fruiting habit of Alba and fragrance and sweetness of rose apple but the fruits are seeded and larger than of either parents. In Thailand, wax jambu clones have been recognized as cultivars, e.g. green-fruited Khiew Savoey (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Taiwan has clones having pink, deep red, light red, white. and green with pink fruit skin colour, which are grown on large extent (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). The Institute of Plant Breeding, Los Banos has several clones of wax jambu (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 54 : Syzygium samarangense (Blume) Merr. & Perry, Java rose apple, 1. Flowering branch; 2. Branchlet with fruits (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID RFGIONS
109
Culture It is generally propagated from the seeds and by budding. Air layering is also successful. Forkert method of budding gives 90 per cent success during wet season. It has been possible to graft it on E. jambos rootstocks. In Java, jambu klampok or kpo (S. pycnanthum) is recommended for use as rootstock owing to its hardy nature and resistance to termites. The plants are spaced 5-10 m apart in the field. The trees require regular water supply. Fertilization improves new flushes and is recommended after the inflorescences have formed. Leaf analysis can be used to control fertilizer application (Wang, 1989). The large fruits get easily bruised and necessitate planting of windbreaks for protection from high wind. Pruning or thinning may be required to develop tree shape and to induce the· flower buds to open. The formation of flower buds does not mean early flowering (Yang et al., 1991). Cultural practices such as pruning and thinning, root pruning, girdling, flooding and fertilization coupled with chemical sprays (cycocel, ethephon, sodium naphthalene acetate, etc.) have been followed to control tree vigour and to induce preformed flower buds to flower. The flowering can be triggered by a number of protocols, which have been developed in Taiwan. These protocols take into account the fact that flower panicles are borne at the tips of shoots and in the axils of fallen leaves and that new flushes are necessary for additional flowers to form (Shu et al., 1996). The forcing treatment has, however, to be related to tree vigour and field and weather conditions (Shu et al., 1990). The forcing protocol can increase fruit yield by 153%. A common forcing treatment consists three sprays of ethrel (500 JLI ml-1) at 3 weekly interval. Girdling is also used to alter flowering period (Shu et al., 1996). Wax apple commonly flowers early or late in the dry season. Seedling trees start bearing 7 years after planting whereas the air layered trees start fruiting in 3-5 years. Fruit production occurs from May t
55. KITEMBILLA The kitembilla or ketembilla (Dovyalis hebecarpa Warb.) belongs to the family Flacourtiaceae and is also known as Ceylon gooseberry. It is indigenous to Sri Lanka (Martin et al., 1987). The related species, O. abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb. (African gooseberry), a native of Ethiopia, has better quality fruits than both kei apple and kitembilla. It has been widely introduced into the tropics but is not common outside its native home (Morton, 1987; Martin
et al., 1987). It requires hot, humid climatic conditions and grows the best in tropical lowlands up to an elevation of 800 m. It is less hardy than the kei apple but withstands light frosts or
110
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
freezing temperature for short periods. It can grow in a variety of soils including acid and calcareous soils but requires well drained conditions (Morton, 1987). The fruit is eaten fresh as well as after cooking and is also preserved. It js a good source of vitamin C and protein. The juice from its berries is of intense red colour and makes excellent jelly, jam and beverage. The skin of the fruit is bitter and has to be removed before processing. The plant is well suited for hedge planting (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Kitembilla fruit contains 81.9-83.6 g moisture, 0.17-0.20 g protein, 0.64-1.02 g fat, 1.7-1.9 g crude fibre, 12.6-13.3 mg calcium, 24.5-26.8 mg phosphorus, 0.91-1.41 mg iron, 0.1250.356 mg carotene, 0.017 mg thiamule, 0.033-0:042 mg riboflavin, 0.261-0.316 mg niacin an4 91.7-102.5 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany Kitembilla is an evergreen and arborescent shrub reaching a height of 4-6 m. It has long, slender, arching, spreading and spiny branches. The leaves are alternate, lanceolate to oval, 5-10 cm long, acute, entire or slightly toothed, light green and velvety when young. The trees are dioecious. The flowers are unisexual or sometimes perfect, axillary and inconspicuous. Flowers are greenish yellow and 1.25 cm wide. The fruits are nearly round, subglobose berry, 2.5 cm or less in diameter, solitary, maroon-purple in colour and are covered with a velvety pubescence. The flesh is soft, purplish, subacid to acidic, juicy and having several small, soft and flattened seeds (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 55 : Dovyalis hebecarpa (Gardn.) Warb., Kitembilla, (Little et al., 1974)
Variety There is no established cultivar but selections can be made from the variability that occurs in fruit taste ranging from sweet to astringent.
111
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
Culture It can be propagated from the seeds. Plants grown from the seed show variable characters and male or female plants cannot be distinguished by growth characteristics. Therefore vegetative methods of propagation such' as cuttings, budding and grafting should be used. Bud wood and cuttings should be taken from selected mother trees' having perfect flowers and good quality fruits. , Planting is done at a spacing of 6 to 8 m. Few male plants should also be planted throughout the orchard to obtain better fruit set. Irrigation should be done during dry weather. The fruit size and quality is good if soil moisture is sufficient during the fruit development period. It is often necessary to prune out the tops of older plants to alleviate ' overcrowding by the numerous branches. • In Florida, the plants flower during May-June and fruiting occurs in OctobeiNovember. At ripening, the fruit turns from green to brownish purple. Fruits generally get infested with the larvae of the Caribbean fruit fly (Anastrepha suspensa) (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
56. KOKAM
.
Kokam or kokam butter tree (Garcinia indica Choisy) is native of India and is found, in the tropical rain forest of western Ghats from Konkan to Mysore, Coorg and Wynad. It belongs to the family Guttiferae. It is also known as mangosteen oil tree and brindonia tallow tree. It commonly planted in south Gujarat and in Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. Another related species of Indian origin is G. cowa Roxb. (cowphal), which yields edible fruits and its bark yields yellow dye (Anon., 1956). Kokarn requires hot and humid tropical climatic conditions for good growth. It grows the best in well-dr~ed laterite soils. Coastal areas having warm cIirnate with high humidity receiving over 250 cm annual rainfall are most suited for its cultivation. Low temperature is not favourable for its growth and'fruiting. ' '. . The fruit has an agreeable flavour and a sweetish acid taste. It is used in Konkan chiefly to prepare kokarn by repeatedly soaking the sun-dried outer rind in the juice of the pulp. Kokam contams about 10% malic; acid and a little tartaric or citric acid. It is used as a garnish to give an acid flavour to curries and 'for preparing,cooling syrups for drinks during hot months. Ripe fruits make excellent beverage and squash. The fruit is known to reduce obesity and regulate blood cholesterol. The fruit has cooling effect on the body and' purifies blood owing to the presence of hydroxy citric acid. It is anthelmintic and cardiotonic and is useful in the treatment of piles, dysentery, tumours an<;l pains. The syrup made from the fruit juice is given in bilious affections. The seeds yield 23-26 per cent valuable edible fat known in commerce as kokam butter. The cottage industries, after washing the kernels, boil the pulp in water and skim off the .fat from the top of the crushed pulp by churning with water. Kokarn butter has oily taste and light grey or yellowish colour and is greasy. It is nutritive, demulcent, astringent and emolient. It can be used in ointments, suppositories and other pharmaceuticals. It is used for local application to ulcerations and fissures on lips and hands. It is also used as confectionery butter, for candle and soap manufacture and in cosmetic and textile industries. The seeds of G. morella Desr. (Indian gamboge tree or tarnal) a:nd G. cambogia Desr. (goraka) also yield 30-31 per cent edible fat resembling the. kokam butter (Anon., 1956; Arora and Pandey, 1996). It can be used in avenue plantation.
112
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Ripe kokam fruit contains 87.5 g moisture, 16.44g TSS, 3.36 g acidity, 8.15 g total sugars and 9.40 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g.
Botany' Kokam is a slender evergreen handsome tree with drooping branches. The leaves are ovate or oblong-Ianceolate, 6-9 x 2.5-3.8 cm in size, dark green above and pale beneath. The tree is dioecious. The flowers are small. Male flowers are borne on terminal pedunculate cyme in clusters of 3 to 7. The bisexual flowers are solitary. Stamens are 10-18, coherent in 4 bundles alternating with the petals. Fruits are globose or spherical, 2.5-3.7 em in diameter, dark purple when ripe enclosing 5-8, large seeds (Anon., 1956).
Varieties Much variation occurs in size and quality of fruit (flavour, colour and acid taste of pulp, fat content and rind thickness) in natural habitats as well as in the cultivated trees, particularly in Maharashtra and Karnataka (Arora and Pandey, 1996). Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli has developed a variety called Konkan. Amruta. It is an early maturing variety with average fruit yield of 138 kg per tree. The fruit is 35 g in weight and has good shelf life (Dumbre, 1997). Genotypes such as. MLDK-5, MLDK-2, MLDK-3, MLDK-l0 and MLDK.,.4 have been identified for their precocity and yield at ARS, Sindhudurg (Gawankar
et al., 2004). Culture It is generally propagated from the seeds. Fresh seeds are sown immediately after .' extraction as they have very short viability. The germination percentage varies between 70 and 80. Different grafting techniques like inarching, side and softwood grafting have been tried with considerable success. The planting is done in the field during rainy season. Owing to 'upright growth habit, kokam can be planted in close spacing of 6x3 m. Pits of 30x30x30 cm are dug in summer and are kept exposed for 15 days and refilled with a mixture of topsoil. and 20 kg FYM. Young plants need regular irrigation during post-monsoon and summer months but once established, they do not need any irrigation. The seedling trees come into bearing about 7 years after planting. It flowers in November-February and the fruits ripen in April-May. Fruits are individually picked with the help of a picker. An yield of 50-70 kg fruits can be qbtained per tree and well maintained orchard can yield up to 25 tonnes fruits per hectare. Fruitfly is the main pest, which can. be controlled by sprays of 1 per cent lebacid (Anon., 1956).
57. KUWINI Kuwini or kuini (Mangifera odorata Griffith) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae ·and is native of South East Asia (Martin et al., 1987). It is known as kuini, manguier odorant, bembem and kaweni. The species possibly represents hybrid forms between M. indica and M. foetida (Ding Hou, 1978). It is commonly cultivated in Borneo, Sumatra and Java. It is also found in peninsular Thailand, south Sulaweri and the Philippines. The kuwini is a popular fruit, having local economic significance in areas where mango (Mangifera indica L.) c~ot be grown satisfactorily. It deserves wider recognition and dissemination not only as substitute for mango in wet areas but also for its attractive fruits.
;'
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
113
It requires hot tropical lowlands with monsoon climate and fairly heavy rainfall, evenly distributed throughout the year. It grows even with a moderate rainfall of 1200 mm provided there are no prolonged dry periods. It is found on dry islands of the western part of Sulu Archipelago. It can grow on a variety of soil conditions (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Kostermans and Bompard, 1993). Fruits are eaten fresh or used for making curries, chutney, preserves and pickles. Fruits with less fibre and smell are much appreciated as table fruit. These are rich in vitamin A and C. They must be peeled thick because the skin has acrid juice. Steeping in diluted lime water before eating also reduces the acridity. In Java, a kind of flour is made from the seed kernels, which are used for the preparation of delicacies such as dodol (based on glutinous rice) (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruit provides 69.3 k calories and contains 80 g water, 0.9 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 11.9 g carbohydrates including fibre, 600 ill vitamin A, 0.04 mg thiamine, 0.06 mg riboflavin, 0.7 mg niacin and 13 rrtg vitamin C per 100 g of pulp (Verheij and Coronel, 1992).
Botany It is a medium to large tree growing up to 10-24 m in height with globose or broadly ovoid crown. The sap of its bark has a strong resinous smell. Leaves are oblong lanceolate, 12-35 x 4-10 cm in size, coriaceous, shortly acuminate with prominently reticulated veins especially on the lower surface. Flowers are borne on 10-50 cm long, densely flowered terminal panicles. Rachis is yellowish green tinged reddish brown. Flowers are whitish to yellowish, pentamerous, 6 mm wide and fragrant. Sepals are ovate, 3-4 mm long, brown red or partly green. Petals are lanceolate, 5-6 x 1.2-2 mm in size, yellowish at the base and pale pinkish towards the apex. Stamens are reflexed, 1.5-2 mm long, 5-6 of which only 1 is fertile. Ovary is subglobose, yellowish with 3-5 mm long and dark red style. Fruit is an obliquely ellipsoid oblong, hardly flattened drupe, 10-13 x 6-9 cm in size, 300-450 g in weight, green to yellowish green, sparingly spotted with dark brown lenticels having rather thick (3-4 mm) rind and orange yellow, firm, fibrous, sourish sweet, juicy flesh which has a pungent smell and taste of turpentine. Stone is 8-10 x 4.5-5 x 2.5-3 cm in size and is covered with rather soft fibres. Seeds are frequently p~lyembryoni: (Verheij and Coronel, 1991):
Fig. 56 : .Mangifera odorata Griff. (IBPGR, 1980)
114.
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties Kuwini is a polymorphic species. Several forms are distinguished in west Java. • Bembem is an inferior form having fruits with a strong smell and taste of turpentine, reminiscent of the fruit of M. foetida. Kuwini fruits with less fibrous flesh and mild taste of turpentine are palatable and are considered as the best form. Gandarassa is a rare form, which is said to be superior to kuwini. It is less sweet but more juicy and has less strong smell (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Kuwini germplasm collections have been maintained at the Institute of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Laguna, Philippines (4 accessions), National Biological Institute, Bogor, Indonesia (9 accessions) and Department of Agriculture, Bangkok (34 species) (Bettencourt et al., 1992). Because of the flavour and firmness of its fruit and its ability to grow in moist areas, kuwini deserves attention in breeding programmes (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Culture It is usually propagated from the seeds. Grafting and marcotting are possible but are difficult. Budding on mango has proved successful. M. indica used as the scion on kuwini rootstock shows symptoms of incompatibility after two years. Planting in the field is done at 12-14 mspacing. Fruit production in seedling trees starts 6-9 years after planting. Fertilizer and irrigation requirements have to be standardized The "flowering season depends on latitude and climatic conditions. Kuwini can produce two crops in a year in areas where two dry seasons "prevail. Major fruiting season in west Java is from August to November. Flowers appear from June to September and the fruit matures after 150 days. On average, yield of 125 kg/plant is obtained from 25 years old tree. The fruits are commonly damaged by larvae of the mango weevil (Cryptorhynchus gravis), which feed on the flesh and occasionally on the seed. Caterpillars of Philotroctis eutraphera and Noorda albizonalis also bore into the fruit (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel,1991).
58. LANG SAT "
-
The langsat or lanson or lanzon or duku (Lansium domesticum Correa) is native to South East Asia and belongs to the family Meliaceae (Martin et al., 1987). It is one of the finest fruits of the Malayan Peninsula and is common in Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Java. The fruit is little known outside South East Asia. It is cultivated on a small scale in India, Burma, Sri Lanka, Hawaii, Australia, Surinam and Puerto Rico. Langsat has high potential for wider cultivation in the hot tropics. The langsat is a tree of tropical lowland rain forest and needs humid tropical conditions for growth and fruiting. It requires sheltered lowland humid conditions preferably up to 800 m elevation. It does not thrive well in areas prone to frost occurrence and prolonged dry season. It grows yVell in areas having average yearly temperature of 27°C with little monthly variations. Although it is not so exacting in soil requirements, rich, deep, well drained soils are considered ideal (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruit may be eaten fresh and can be processed as syrup, jelly or candy. The fruits may also be canned or frozen either whole or as segments. The peel of fruit emits an aromatic odour when burnt and is used as a mosquito repellent in Java. The dried peel
115
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
yields. a dark coloured oleoresin, which is not toxic and is useful in the treatment of diarrhoea and intestinal spasms. The bitter seeds are used as vermifuge and febrifuge. The wood is durable, tough and elastic and is used for preparation of tool handles and house posts (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991) . . The edible flesh of langsat contains 85.6 g moisture, 0.8 g protein, 9.5 g carbohydrates, 2.3 g fibre, 20.0 mg calcium, 30.0 mg phosphorus, 13.0 IU vitamin A, 89 J.Lg thiamine, 124 J.Lg riboflavin and 1.0 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton,
.
1~~.
Botany
,,_
The tree is slender, tall and up to 30 m in height with hollow trunk and green bark. The leaves are pinnately compound, 30-50 cm long with 5 to ialtemate leaflets, obovate or elliptic-oblong, dark green and glossy on the upper surface and paler and yellow beneath. The flowers are produced in clusters, borne in hairy spikes arising from the trunk and large branches. The flowers are sweet smelling and attractive, solitary, yellow, bisexual and subsessile. Sepals are five; 5 petals are joined to a tube of ten fused stamens; and the single style carry a 5-lobed stigma. The fruits resemble loquat to some extent except that these have a dull straw or brownish yellow colour with pubescent leathery skin. The flavour of the fruit is very pleasant. The fruits are oval, 2.5-5 em in diameter, densely pubsecent and develop on spikes of up to 25 fruits. They have yellow leathery skin, which does not adhere to the flesh and contain milky white latex. The flesh consists of arli, which is white, translucent, sweet and juicy and separate into five segments and may contain a green coated seed firmly attached to the flesh (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987).
. Fig. 57 : Lansium domesticum Correa, Langsat (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
..
116
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties It is a polymorphic species. The reproductive and vegetative characters are very similar but two or three distinct types are present (Rao and Ramanatha Rao, 1998). Three main groups of types have been recognised: a) Duku: The tree is more spreading with less latex. The fruits are 4-12 per cluster, oblong globose, relatively large in size and with thick rind and at maturity become pale yellow with thick, very sweet aril and few seeds. Cultivars of this group have been named after their place of origin, e.g. Du1, Menteng, Depok, Rejoso, Long Khong and Karangkajen. b) Langsat: The fruits are ovoid and smaller, 15-20 in a cluster having thin rind with more latex, develop pale yellow colour at maturity and has less sweet aril and larger seeds. Cultivars of this group are Paete, ~dango and Uttaradit. c) The smaller seedless and sweetish types: These are valuable for edible purpose (IBPGR 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Fruit and growth characters of duku and langsat varieties are given in Table 7.
Table 7 : Growth and fruit characters of langsat and duku varieties
Tree
. Fruit
Varieties
Langsat Slender Upright branches Sparse dark green foliage More adaptable Spikes long (10-30 cm) 15-25 fruits per spike Ovoid (30-50 mm) Thin skinned Latex until fully ripe Subacid taste Uttarodit (Thailand) Paete (Thailand)
Duku Spreading Dome-shaped Bright green leaves Humid tropics Short spikes 4-12 fruits per spike Round (60-100 mm) Thick skin (up to 6 mm) Low latex Sweet and aromatic DU-1 (Malaysia)
7'
Source: Nakasone and Paull, 1998. The varieties collected at Sri Wijaya University, Palembang and Sumatra are intermediates or close relatives of the two major varieties of duku and langsat. All have local names- Rasuan, 1105, 1089, 1092, Komering 3, 12, 17, Palembang 175, 176, 358, 561, Lonijang-2, Bulat and Penyandigan. The varieties in Java are Duku Condek and Duku Metesih. Many sub-varieties have local names like Duku Johore and Duku Trengganu. One seedless variety of Thailand is Longkong Norathiwat (Rao and Ramanatha Rao, 1998). Germplasm collections of langsat have been maintained at National Biological Institute PO Box.110, Jln.Raya Juanda 18, Bogor, Indonesia (several accessions); Lowlands Agriculture Experimentql Station, Dept. of Primary Industry, PO Keravt, Keravat, East New Britian Province, Papua New Guinea (one accession); Institute of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, UPLB, College, Laguna, the Philippines (3 accessions); Plew Horticultural
'.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
117
Experimental Station, Chanthburi Province, Thailand (296 accessions) (Rao and Ramanatha Rao,1998).
Culture Seed propagation is common. Seed should be sown immediately after removal from the fruit. Methods such as modified forkert budding, layering or cleft or side grafting on seedling rootstocks can be used for its vegetative propagation. Scion wood is selected from mature shoots, which have been defoliated about a week in advance. Planting is done at a spacing of 8-12 m. Since roots may be damaged during transplanting, care is required to prevent desiccation. Irrigation is essential for both the species in drier areas. Trees are rarely pruned except for the removal of dead and crossing branches. Shade promotes growth and better flowering and fruiting. Shading should be done during the initial few years after planting. Two kg fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium may be given to each tree every 3 months. Hand weeding around the tree is recommended or herbicides such as diuron could be used. Seedling trees are slow growing and may take up to 15 years to bear. However, grafted trees start fruiting in 5-6 years earlier. Fruits ripen 14-17 weeks after anthesis. Parthenocarpy is the rule as apomixis is common (Salma and Razali, 1987). Maturity is judged by skin colour (green turning yellow) and lack of latex. When mature, whole bunch is harvested from April through September. Fruit yield is 10-100 kg/tree, on an average 7 t/ha. The fruits take-about 3 months to mature. These are perishable and last for about 4 days after harvest These can be stored for about 2 weeks at 15°C and 85-90 per cent relative humidity. Few ~ases arid pests attack langsat trees. Copper fungicides can be used to control collar rot (Stibella cinnabarina) and anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloesporioides) that causes fruit spotting and premature drop. In Indonesia, a weevil attacks the fruits during ripening and a scale insect causes malformation and dieback of twigs. Sugarcane root borer (Diaprepes abbreviatus), scales and spider mite (Tetranychus spp.) are the main pests in Puerto Rico (IDPGR, 1986; Martin et al., 1987, Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
59. LOVI-LOVI Lovi-Iovi (Flacourtia inermis Roxb.) belongs to the family Flacourtiaceae. It is also known as tomi-tomi, martinique plum and batoko plum. It seems to have originated in South East Asia (Martin et al., 1987). The tree is cultivated in the Far East and other tropical areas of the world both for fruit as well as for ornamental purpose. Lovi-Iovi holds potential for commercial development (Martin et al., 1987). It needs hot humid climatic conditions and can be cultivated at elevations beiow 1300 m in the tropics. It is very susceptible to frost injury. It can grow in varied soil types (Martin et al., 1987). The fruit is eaten fresh but is largely used for making jelly, jam, syrup or preserve. Its leaves are extremely decorative and the flushes of new growth are produced throughout the year (Martin et at., 1987).
Botany It is a deciduous spineless tree growing up to 5-15 m in height and has a grey or brown and smooth bark and a dense and rounded croWn. The branches are thin and are
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
covered with short pubescence. The leaves are alternate, ovate-oblong with long, acuminate or obtuse apex, 8-20 x 4-12 cm in size and are glabrous on both surfaces. The apetalous flowers are bisexual, borne on short axillary racemes, has 3-5 sepals covered with short hair, 15-20 stamens and 4-5 celled ovary. The fruit is a berry, 2 cm in diameter, subglobose, dark red when ripe with yellow, sour or sweet pulp. The seeds are numerous and are placed in two superimposed rows (Morton, 1987).
Fig. 58 : Flacourtia inermis Roxb., Lovi-Iovi ( Little et al., 1974)
Varieties There are numerous local forms of which some are sweet and others are sour in taste. Sweet types become insipid on ripening.
Culture It can be propagated from the seeds. But marcottage or budding should be used. There is no graft incompatibility with F. rukam, F. inermis and F. indica which could be used as rootstocks. Planting should be done at 12-16 m spacing in the field. Irrigation should be done during the fruit development period. Flowers appear during May-June in Florida and in January-February in Malaysia and the fruits mature about 60 days later, which are harvested when red in colour. Average fruit yield is 40-100 kg per tree per year. Mediterranean fruitfly (Ceratitis capitata) attacks the fruit and the lepidopteran Icthyura restitura defoliates the tree (Martill et al., 1987; Morton, 1987).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
119
60. LUCUMA Lucuma or lucmo or ruema (Pouteria obovata (R. Br.) Baehni, syn., P. Iucuma Kunth, Achras Iucuma Ruiz. and Pavon., Lucuma obovata Kunth) belongs to the family Sapotaceae and is native of South America (Andes). At the time of Spanish Conquest, the lucuma was wild as well as cultivated on the lower slopes of the Andes and on the Pacific coast from the equator to northern Chile where it seems to have originated. It is grown in Ecuador, Peru and Chile (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987). It has fair potential for commercial production but is less popular than the canistel (Martin et al., 1987) Lucuma is a cool tropical plant and does not grow well under hot and humid conditions. It can grow in the subtropics provided the areas are frost-free. It grows at elevations between 2700 and 3000 m. It can withstand drier climates having low rainfall and can be grown 'on a wide range of soils with good drainage but cannot tolerate waterlogging. Lucuma is similar to the canistel in nq.tritional value. It is rich in protein and carbohydrates but is m0ister. The fruit is eaten fresh or is used in pies, cakes, bread, pudding, preserve, etc. It can be processed into a dried meal, which can be added to desserts and icecream and the seed is also. edible (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987).
Botany The evergreen tree is 6-15 m tall. The leaves are entire, often coriaceous, ellipticovate or obovate and 10-25 x 5-8 cm in size. Flowers are solitary or borne in groups of 2-3 in leafaxils. The hermaphrodite flowers are 2xl cm in size having 8-12 mm long; ovate sepals; up to 15 mm long and yellowish green fleshy corolla, with 5 lobes; 5 stamens, 5 staminodes, pistil as long as the corolla and ovary 7-8 mm long and 4-5 celled. Fruit is a round or ovate, glabrous, 7.5 cm long and green berry with a prominent point 'on the stylar end which starts yellowing towards maturity. The berry has yellow to deep orange flesh and 1-2, ovoid or spherical seeds (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987).
Varieties The botanical varieties have been distinguished. Cultivars B1, B2 and B3 have been selected in Peru from a l~rge population of seedling trees. The Peruvian cu1tivars are high yielding and have small seeds and other desirable attributes. Germplasms have been collected at Can arias Centre For Research and Agrarian Technology, Tenereif, Spain (Bettencourt et al., 1992) .
Culture It is usually propagated from the seeds. Freshly extracted seeds are sown. Soaking the seeds in gibberellic acid solution enhances seed germination. It has been successfully propagated by side veneer grafting, chip budding and by rooting of cuttings under mist. Newly grafted trees need special care until the graft union is well formed. The plants are trasnplanted at a spacing of 4 to 6 m in the field. Newly planted trees need regular irrigation but can stand short periods of drought. Mineral fertilizers at the rate of 50 g per tree should be applied four times in the first year. Weeds must be .. controlled for good growth of the tree. Seedling trees take 8 years or more to start bearing.
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. UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
The trees bloom during June-August and the fruit matures in about 180 days. At maturity, the fruit colour turns from green to light green or brownish orange depending on the cultivar. Mature fruits should be harvested and allowed to ripen in storage for 6-10 days. On an average, 500 fruits per tree are harvested. Powdery mildew and fruitfly have been reported to cause some damage (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987).
61. MADRONO Madrono (Rheedia madruno Planch. and Triana) belongs to the family Guttiferae and is native of South America (Martin et al., 1987). It is distributed in Golfo Dulce region of Costa Rica, the Atlantic slope of Panama and northern South America from Colombia and Ecuador through Venezuela to Guyana and Bolivia. It is particularly common in the Cauca valley of Colombia. The related species that produce edible fruits are Rheedia brasiliensis Planch and Triana (bakupari), growing wild iIi Rio de Janerio and Paraguay, and mameyito (R. edulis Planch and Triana) and bacuripari (R. macrophylla Planch and Triana), growing wild in the humid forests of Surinam and Brazil to northern Peru (Morton, 1987). Madrono holds good potential for wider trial in tropics (Martin et al., 1987). Madrono grows the best in hot humid tropical lowlands' up to the elevation of 1200 m. White juicy ari1 is eaten fresh or preserved. Its flavour is subacid, pleasant and.has high appeal. The yellow latex of the tree is used in Panama to treat ulcers and other sores (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987.) Madrono fruit contains 87.2 g water, 0.6 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 11.9 g carbohydrates, 1.1 g fibre, 12 mg calcium, 22 mg phosphorus, 0.4 mg iron, 0.06 mg thiamine, 0.04 mg riboflavin, 0.3 mg niacifl and 6 mg vitamin C per 100 g of pulp and provides 46 calories (Wilson and Wilson, 1988).
Botany Madrono tree is erect and compact with pyramidal or rounded crown growing up to 8 m in height and has much gummy yellow latex. Leaves are opposite, elliptic to oblong, wedge-shaped at the base and rounded or pointed at the apex, 6-20x2-7.5 cm in size, dark green above and paler beneath with numerous conspicuous veins on both the surfaces. The fragrant male and female flowers are borne on separate trees in clusters of up to 14 in the leafaxils and have 4 reflexed, pale yellow petals. The male flowers have 20 to 30 light yellow stamens. The fruit is round or ellipsoidal with a prominent nipple at each end, !;i-7.5 cm long with thick, leathery, warty, greenish yellow rind containing a deep yellow resinous latex. The white translucent, juicy, sweet-acid, aromatic pulp adheres tightly to 1 to 3 ovate or oblong seeds, which are 2 cm long (Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989).
Varieties . No standard variety is known.
Culture It is propagated from the seeds. Cultural requirement for madrono has to be standardized. In Costa Rica, flowering occurs in December to February and fruit matures during May to August. On ripening, the fruit colour turns yellow and the flesh becomes white.
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Fig. 59 : Rheedia macrophylla (Mart.) 'Planch & Triana (FAD, 1986)
62. MALABAR CHESTNUT Malabar chestnut (Pachira aquatica Aubl.) belongs to the family Bombacaceae and is native of tropical America. It is also known as Guiana chestnut or saba nut. It appears to have been domesticated by the Indians in Central America. It is grown in Congo and is also found in Panama and Paraguay (Brucher, 1989). The related edible species are P. macrocarpa Walp. (cayenne nut), growing in Mexico and Costa Rica and P. insignis Sav. (maranno nut), found in Trinidad, Tobago and Venezuela and known as shaving brus~ tree. Malabar chestnut needs hot and humid climatic conditions. It grows along waterways and on swampy rivers and can withstand as low temperature as -2.2°C and is very ;resistant to drought. It tolerates a wide range of temperature and humidity variations in the tropics. It can grow well on sandy or sandy-clay soils (FAO, 1986). Its fruits serve as useful supplement to the diet. The pleasant flavoured seeds are sometimes called chestnut of America. Seeds are eaten raw or after roasting or fried in oil. Seeds contain 50% oil. The high amount of cyclopropionic acid in its oil is known to be toxic and may even be carcinogenic. Young leaves and flowers are eaten as vegetable. Bark is used as a source of red dye and fibre for cordage. Wood is suitable for making paper. The tree is highly ornamental. Being fast growing and rustic, it is useful as live fence and shade tree (FAO, 1986). P. macrocarpa provides 560 calories, 16.9 g protein, 41.4 g fat, 37.9 g total carbohydrates, 13.1 g fibre, 87.7 mg calcium, 302.3 mg phosphorus, 4.0 mg iron, 1300 mg I
'
•
.
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
beta-carotene equivalent, 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.06 mg riboflavin, 4.02 mg niacin and 25.4 mg ascorbic acid from 100 g seeds (Duke, 1989).
Botany It is an evergreen tree growing up to 15 m in height and has buttressed trunk. Leaves are alternate, palmate (digitate), with 6-8 leaflets, elliptic-Ianceolate, strongly glabrous and 5-28.5x2.4-14.5 cm in size with acuminate to rounded apex. Fragrant bisexual flowers are 17.5 em long, greenish white to pink petals, with many red stamens. The fruit is large, oblongellipsoid, 30 cm long, 12.5 cm in diameter with brown skin and flesh. The seeds are 10-25 per capsule, 1 cm in diameter.
Fig. 60 : Pachira aquatica Aubl. 1.1 Fruit and leaf; 1.2. Seeds; 2. Tree; 3. Leaves and immature fruit; 4. Mature fruit; 5 Section of fruit and seeds (FAD, 1986)
Varieties There is no standard variety but selections can be made from the variability existing in nature with regard to tolerance to drought and waterlogging.
Culture It is propagated from the seeds or by cuttings. Seeds germinate within 6 to 8 days and make rapid growth so that the seedlings attain 60 cm height within 15 days after germination. Cultural requirements have to be standardized. Flowering starts after 4-5 years. Flowers open in night and wilt by early morning. The flowering and fruiting occurs throughout the year with a maximum towards the end of dry season and in the beginning of monsoon. On ripening, the large fruits split open like walnut and discharge many seeds <'.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
123
to the ground. These seeds should be collected as soon as possible otherwise they germinate very quickly. A tree yields 50-80 fruits per year (FAO, 1986). No insect pest and disease is known to affect Malabar chestnut.
63. MALAY ROSE APPLE Malay rose apple or malay apple or mountain apple (Eugenia malaccensis 1. syn. E. domestica Bailey, Jambosa malaccensia (1.) DC, Syzygium malaccense (1.) Merrill and Perry) belongs to the family Myrtaceae. It is known as Ohia in Hawaii. It is native of South East Asia and is grown in the tropics and subtropics (IBPGR, 1986; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It is found growing in Java, Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and central and South America. It has been introduced into Cuba, Florida (USA), Honduras, India, Philippines, western Africa and West Indies (Morton, 1987). Malay apple is a popular fruit and has ready market (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It requires hot and wet tropical climatic conditions but cannot tolerate frost and can grow up to an elevation of 1200 m. It grows the best where the fertile soil stays moist and has good drainage but is not suitable for high pH soils. Malay apple is damaged under prolonged drought conditions (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). Ripe fruit can be eaten raw or are made into sauce, preserve or wine. Fruits are also stewed with cloves or other flavouring substances and served with cream as dessert. Slightly unripe fruits are used for making jelly and pickle. Wood of the tree is used for construction, railway ties and fashion bowls and poi boards in Hawaii (Morton, 1987). Fruits, seeds, bark and leaves have shown antibiotic activity and provide some relief in blood pressure and respiratory ailments. The root bark is useful against dysentery and serves as emmenagogue and abortifacient. Cambodians take decoction of the fruit, leaves or seeds as febrifuge. The fruit contains 90.3-91.6 g moisture, 0.5-0.7 g protein, 0.1-0.2 g fat, 0.6-0.8 g fibre, 5.6-5.9 mg calcium, 11.6-17.9 mg phosphorus, 0.2-0.8 mg iron, 3-10 IV vitamin A, 15-39 ILg thiamine, 20-39 ILg riboflavin, 0.21-0.40 mg niacin and 6.5-17.0 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is an evergreen tree of small to medium size, 15-20 m in height, straight trunk, branched near the base with broadly ovoid and dense crown. Leaves are dark green, opposite, shortly stalked, thick, coriaceous, elliptic-oblong or obovate-oblong, 15-30 x 7-20 cm in size with entire margin and 0.5-1.5 cm long petioles, which are thick and red when young. Inflorescences are borne exclusively on defoliated twig parts and are short, dense and 1-12 flowered. Flowers appear in cluster of 3-5 on older branches, which are very short-stalked, brilliant red, 5-7 cm in diameter. Calyx is oblong-campanulate or turbinate and the calyx tube is 1.5-2 cm long with 4-8 cm long and broad lobes. Four petals are dark wine red, 1220 mm long and oblong-ovate or orbicular ovate. Stamens are numerous, up to 2 cm long and with red filaments. The style is 3-4.5 cm long and red. The ovary is oblong and red. Fruit is ellipsoid-globose or pear-shaped berry, 5-8 cm in diameter, crowned by fleshy calyx segments which on ripening become dark red, pink or pale yellow with purple streaks, rarely uniformly yellowish white, I-seeded, usually 5-8 cm long and 5-6 cm in diameter. The flesh is 0.5-2.5 cm thick, juicy, white with fragrant savoury. Seed is globose, brown, 2.5-3.5 cm in diameter and polyembryonic (FAO, 1982; IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Cornonel, 1991).
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Fig. 61 : Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & Perry (IBPGR, 1980)
Varieties From the rich variability, following types have been identified: (a)
Red fruits,
(b)
Light red fruits,
(c)
Dark red fruits having longitudinal stripes,
(d) White oblong to pear-shaped fruits, and (e)
White fruits with 90 per cent seedlessness.
Kingston Pride has large fruit, small seeds and superior flavour. The Institute of Plant Breeding, Los Banos, Philippines has collected several clones of malay apple (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
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Culture It is propagated from the seeds. The seeds are polyembryonic. They lose viability quickly and should be sown immediately after extraction from the fruit. Air layering, cuttings and budding are also successful. Modified forkert method is recommended for budding. In Java, kopo (5. pycanthum Merr. & Perry syn. 5. densiflora (Blume.) Duthie.) is used as rootstock owing to its resistance to termites. The trees are spaced 6-8 m apart in the field. One or two years after planting, they need little attention. Weeding, mulching and watering ensure rapid increase in tree volume. Bearing trees should be supplied with compound fertilizer after fruit harvest and as top dressing as soon as the inflorescences are formed. The tree starts bearing after 5-6 years when raised from seed and after 3-4 years when raised by vegetative propagation methods. In Florida, flowering occurs once a year in May-June. The trees are induced to bloom by wet weather following a dry period. The fruits ripen about 60 to 90 days after bloom. The fruits have poor keeping quality. The fruit yield per tree is 20-85 kg per year. Sooty mould, leaf spot, rust and blight diseases have been observed on the trees. Leaf eating insects, fruit fly and termites often attack the trees (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel,1991).
64. MAMMEE APPLE Mammee apple (Mammea americana 1.) belongs to the family Guttiferae. It is also known as mamme or mammey apple or mamey or South American apricot or mamey do santo Domingo'. It is often confused with the sapote or mamey Colorado (Caiocarpum sapota Merr.) of Sapotaceae, which is commonly called mamey in Cuba. It is native of West Indies and northern South America and is cultivated in the Bahamas Islands and the Greater and Lesser Antilles. It is sparingly grown in E1 Salvador and in the lowlands of Costa Rica and Guatemala as ornamental shade tree. Its cultivation is scattered through the Guianas, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, northern Brazil and southern Mexico. It has been introduced into West Africa, South East Asia, Java, Philippines, USA (California, Florida) and Hawaii (Morton, 1987). Marney apple has fair potential for wider use in fresh and processed form (Martin et ai., 1987). The related edible species is M. africana Sabine (African apricot), which is native to Africa. Mammee apple needs hot and humid tropical climatic conditions up to 1000 m altitudes and prefers deep, rich and well-drained soils for good growth and fruiting. It does the best where the rainy season is heavy and extended followed by pronounced dry season. It is adaptable to the shallow and sandy terrain. In subtropical conditions, it requires protection from cold during early years of establishment. It is more susceptible to cold than the mango. Temperatures lower than 5°C may kill the trees (Morton, 1987). The fruits can be eaten fresh or stewed. These are also processed into sherbet, jam, preserve and sauce. There are reports of poisoning by eating mamey pulp adherent to the seed covering. In this regard, its fruit is comparable to that of akee. All parts of the plant, especially the leaves, seed, bark and gum, are known to contain the toxic principle and are used as insecticides to control mole crickets, cut worms, ticks, flies, lice, mites, termites, ants, cockroaches, mosquitoes, diamond back moth and aphids in plants and animals. Wood is used for cabinetwork and for construction and fencing. The stem and branches exude yellow latex from which the natives prepare tinctures for medicinal purposes. Powdered seeds and gum are used in the treatment of parasitic I
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
skin diseases. Gum is also used in controlling itch. An infusion of the fresh or dry leaves is used to control intermittent or remittent fever and is claimed to be effective where quinine fails. Ground seed without embryo is considered convulsent and is employed as an anthelmintic (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987; Briicher, 1989). The fruit provides 44.5-45.3 calories and contains 85.5-87.6 g moisture, 0.47-0.08 g protein, 0.15-0.99 g fat, 11.52-12.67 g total carbohydrates, 0.80-1.07 g fibre, 4.0-19.5 mg calcium, 7.5-14.5 mg phosphorus, 0.15-2.51 mg iron, 0.043-0.37 mg vitamin A, 0.017-0.030 mg thiamine, 0.025-0.068 mg riboflavin, 0.16-0.73 mg niacin and 10.2-22.0 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of fresh pulp (Morton, 1987).
Botany The mamey is an evergreen, handsome and large tree growing up to 18-25 m in height. It has a short trunk and ascending branches forming an erect and oval head, which is densely foliaged with opposite, glossy, leathery, dark green and broadly elliptic leaves of 20xlO cm size. The flowers are fragrant and have 4 to 6 white petals, numerous orange stamens and 2-4 called ovary and are borne singly or in groups of 2 or 3 on short stalks in the axils of young shoots. Male, female and hermaphrodite flowers occur together or on separate trees. The fruit is round or somewhat irregular in shape with short thick stem end and a more or less distinct tip having a diameter of 10 to 15 cm. The fruit is heavy and weighs up to several kg and remains hard until fully ripe. The skin is about 3 mm thick, bitter, light brown or greyish brown with small scattered, warty or scurfy and leathery areas. Beneath the skin, a thin, dry, whitish membrane or rag is present which adheres to the flesh and is astringent or bitter in taste. The flesh is light or golden yellow to orange, non-fibrous and may be firm and crisp or sometimes dry to tender, melting and juicy. The fruit is more or less free from seed, though bits of seed cover remain with it, which are bitter in taste. The ripe flesh is fragrant, pleasantly sub-acid and resembles the apricot or red raspberry in flavour. Fruits of poor quality may be sour or mawkishly sour. Small fruits are usually single seeded. The seeds are 1-4, russet brown, rough, ovoid or elliptic and about 6 cm long. The juice leaves an indelible stain (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Varieties Sweet and sour type varieties are available. There is a lot of scope for selecting superior types as lot of variation occurs in nature in fruit size, yield and quality (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987).
Culture Vegetative propagation by semi-hardwood cuttings, budding, or terminal grafting is generally preferred. This cuts short the long juvenile period and helps to avoid too many male or poor quality trees in the orchard. The seed germinates in two months when kept in leaf mulch under the tree. Planting should be done at 10 m spacing. Young trees require shading and ample moisture in the soil. Regular weeding and fertilizer application are needed. Seedling trees take 6 to 8 years to come into bearing. However, vegetative propagated trees start fruiting much earlier. The fruits begin to ripen in April and continue for several weeks. The season extends from May through August giving two crops between June and December. A light yellowing of the skin indicates fruit ripening. If this is not apparent, scratching the fruit surface very lightly with fingernail should show yellow beneath instead
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
127
of green. Fruits should not be allowed to fall when ripe to avoid bruising and spoilage. They should be harvested along with a small portion of fruit stalk. Good trees produce 300400 fruits per year (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991) ..
65. MANGOSTEEN Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L. syn. Mangostana garcinia Gaertn.) belongs to the family Guttiferae. It is native of Sunda Islands and Malay Peninsula (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It is an allotetraploid, hybrid of G. hombroniana and G. malaccensis (Richards, 1990). It has been observed to occur wild in Malaysia. Its cultivation has long been confined to South East Asia from Indonesia eastwards to New Guinea and Mindanao via Malaysia into the southern parts of Thailand, Myanmar, Vietnam and Cambodia. It has been introduced into Sri Lanka, south India, Brazil, Ivory Coast, Madagascar, Central America and Queensland, Australia (Almeyda and Martin, 1976; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Long time taken to start bearing and long harvest period resulting in high cost of picking are the major constraints in its commercial production (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Yaacob and Tindall, 1995). Garcinia is a large genus consisting of a number of species having edible fruits. Those occasionally grown in South East Asia are G. dulcis (Roxb.) Kurz., G. xanthochymus Hooker f. syn. G. tinctoria (Choisy) W.F. Wight.), G. cambogia Desrouss., G. pirainiana King., G. livingstonei T Anders and G. atroviridis (Griff.) T. Anderson. Mundu (G. dulcis Kurz) is a native of the Philippines, Borneo, Java and Thailand. It is a medium sized, dioecious tree with 10-30 x 3-15 cm in size and dark green leaves. The fruit is round, 5-8 cm in diameter, and contains 1-5 large brown seeds enveloped in the orange pulp. Pulp is eaten fresh or made into jam or is candied. Gamboge or asam kandis (G. tinctoria W. F. Wight) is a native of India, Myanmar and Thailand. The tree is medium sized. The leaves are opposite, 7-15 x 4-6 cm in size. Male flowers are pink to red in colour. The fruit is a small subglobose berry, 3-6 cm in diameter and turns yellow when ripe. It is edible or is made into sherbets, jam and used to flavour other foods. Gorakha or gamboge (G. cambogia Desrouss) is a native of Sri Lanka. It is a small or medium sized tree with dark green, elliptic obovate leaves. The fruits are ovoid,S cm in diameter and yellow or red in colour with 6-8 grooves. The dried rind of gamboge is used as a condiment for flavouring curries. Cerapu (G. prainiana King) is a native of Malaysia and Thailand. Its trees are small or medium sized. Leaves are large and elliptic in shape. The fruits are round and smooth, rather flattened, small and 2.5-4.5 cm wide. Som-Khack or asam gelugur (G. atrovirdis Griff. ex T. Anderson) is a native of peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar and Assam (India). The tree grows to height of 20-30 m and has long trunk, smooth grey bark and drooping branches. Leaves are dark green, narrowly oblong and abruptly tapered at the apex. Flowers are dark red. The fruit is large, 6-10 cm wide, nearly round, fluted with 12-16 ribs and grooves. Fruits are cut into slices and dried and used as a substitute for flavouring. Imbe (G. livingstonei T. Anders.) is a native of eastern and southern Africa. It is an evergreen small tree or a shrub up to 10 m in height with dense spreading growth and twisted trunk. The fruits are ovoid, globose, 2.5-3.5 x 2.5-3 cm in size, orange to reddish in colour with acid sweet pulp. The fruit is eaten raw or cooked. Mangosteen is suited to the hot, humid climatic conditions of the tropics. Conditions of high temperature, high humidity and an uninterrupted water supply with short dry season (15-30 days) are required to stimulate flowering. Shade during the early years and shelter throughout the life of the plantation are required. It cannot tolerate temperatures neither below 5°C nor above 38°C. It requires clay loam soil with high organic matter content
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and cannot grow in calcareous and poor sandy soils. In spite of its weak root system, it can grow in heavy soils, where water movement remains impeded, provided transpiration is kept limited by sheltered site and high humidity (Campbell, 1967; Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; Kay-Ming, 1990a; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Yaacob and Tindall, 1995). The mangosteen is probably the most highly prized tropical fruit. Fruit aril is eaten fresh since preserved forms are far less appealing. The fleshy and juicy arils can also be canned, cooked or made into squash or syrup. Fruit rind can also be used to prepare jelly. The fruit rind contains tannin and dye. Both the rind and bark have several applications in traditional medicine. The dark red wood is heavy, coarse and very strong and is used to make rice pounders (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Yaacob and Tindall, 1995). Mangosteen fruit contains 80.2-84.9 g moisture, 0.50-0.60 g protein, 0.1-0.6 g fat, 14.3-15.6 g total carbohydrates, 5.0-5.1 g fibre, 0.01-8.0 mg calcium, 0.02-12.0 mg phosphorus, 0.20-0.80 mg iron, 0.03 mg thiamine and 1.0-2.0 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion and provides 60-63 calories (Morton, 1987).
Botany Tree is evergreen, rather slow growing, 6-25 m in height with a straight trunk, symmetrically branched forming a regular pyramidal crown. All parts of the plant exude yellow latex when damaged. Leaves are opposite with short petioles clasping the shoot so that the apical pair conceals the terminal bud. Leaf blade is 15-25x7-13 cm in size, oblong or elliptic, thick, leathery, entire, glabrous and olive green above, yellow-green beneath with pale green central nerve and cuspidate apex. The tn'~ is dioecious. Flowers are solitary or paired, borne at the apices of branchlets with short and thick pedicels. The female flower is 5.5 cm in diameter having 4 sepals arranged in 2 pairs, 4 thick, fleshy and yellow green petals with reddish edges, usually many, 1-2 seriate and sessile staminodes, 4-8 celled ovary with prominent and sessile and 4-8 lobed stigma. The fruit develops parthenocarpically. Fruit is a globose and smooth berry capped by prominent calyx at the stem end, round, 68 cm in diameter with purple or reddish purple external colour (FAO, 1982; Morton, 1987;_ Verheij and Coronel, 1991 Yaacob and Tindall, 1995). Seeds are apomictic, brown and 2.02.5 x 1.5-2.0 cm in size.
Garcinia dulcis (Roxb.) Kurz, Mangosteen, 1. Flowering branch; 2. Branch with fruits (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
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Fig. 63 : Garcinia livingstonei (FAD, 1988)
Varieties Some distinct forms have been reported which possibly developed as a result of differences in growing conditions. Germplasm collections of mangosteen have been made at National Biological Institute, p.o. Box 110, Jln. Raya Juanda, 18, Bogor, Indonesia (several), Lowlands Agriculture Experimental, Station, Dept. of Primary Industry, P.O. Keravat, Keravat, East New Britain, Province, Papua New Guinea (3), Institute of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, UPLB, College, Leguna, Philippines (10), Plew Horticultural Experimental Station, Chantaburi Province, Thailand (440), (Rao and Ramanatha Rao, 1998). ,
Culture True-to-type plants of mangosteen can be multiplied from the seeds owing to nucellar embryony. The seed is short-lived and thus should be sown immediately after extraction. Its viability can be retained for a few weeks by leaving it in the fruit. Only large seeds from the main crop of heavy bearing trees are taken for sowing. Proper drainage by adding shredded coconut fibre and liquid cowdung manure and providing high humidity and shade of coloured polythene tunnels in the nursery increases seedling growth. Each seed has the potential to give rise to 4-8 seedlings if the seed is cut transversely and the segments are used. Leaf, stem and cotyledon tissues both from juvenile and mature plants proliferate and give rise to shoots in vitro. On separation, these can be rooted producing plantlets in large numbers (Rao and Ramanatha Rao, 1998). G. tinctoria Choisy and G. morella Desr. have shown promise as rootstocks. Inarching on G. tinctoria rootstocks greatly enhances the growth of both root and top of mangosteen. Cuttings are taken fram mature branches and planted under mist to induce rooting. Planting in the field should be done quickly without exposure and undue loss of roots. A plant requires an area of 25-50 m 2 depending upon the growing conditions and
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should be planted at 5.5 to 11 m spacing. The newly planted saplings should be shaded and watered regularly. Shade has to be provided for several years, gradually reducing it as the tree grows. The slow growth makes the plant very vulnerable to weeds particularly under the shade screen. Heavy mulch around the tree is beneficial. In South East Asia, it is planted in mixed orchards with durian or rambutan as the dominant species and not ill pure stands to provide the necessary shelter. To establish it in the regions outside its traditional area, addition of yeast extract (rich in vitamin BI ) has been found to be more useful than the use of mineral nutrients or rich potting mixtures. During the first few years, 25 g of complete fertilizer (20-20-20) should be applied three or four times a year to each tree. Later, application should be done twice a year, once when the growth begins at the start of the rainy season and then at the beginning of flowering. About 6-8 kg of mineral fertilizer per tree is needed for a mature tree. Mangosteen benefits from irrigation even in rather wet areas. Under dry conditions, more frequent irrigations are needed. Trickle irrigation may be ideal. Mangosteen has exacting water requirement. Pruning is desirable but its branching habit makes the operation difficult. Complete removal of some branches from the trunk and later from the subsequent regrowth can be done. The juvenile phase is extremely long (12-20 years) but under favourable conditions, trees grow faster and may come to fruiting much earlier. Boosting ~he growth rate in the early years by nitrogen fertigation can shorten the unproductive period. Slow growth is attributed to a week root system characterized by the absence of root hairs and poor development of laterals. Trees tend to bear in alternate years and bearing varies from tree to tree. Trees tend to flower after the vegetative growth flushes, especially after dry weather. Flowering can occur twice a year depending upon number of growth flushes. Two flowering periods have been observed in India, once during the monsoon Guly-October) and another from April to June (Krishnamurthi et al., 1964). Trees show 2-4 flushes of shoot growth in a year. The flowers are borne on twigs that did not partake in the previous flush. The time taken from appearance of the buds until petal fall is 25-30 days and the fruit ripens 100-120 days later. Trees can remain productive for several years. The purplish colour of the fruit increases with maturity. When the pericarp softens slightly, the fruit can be picked. Ripe fruits eventually drop. Thus mulching below the tree canopy protects the falling fruits from bruising. Fruits should, however, be picked as soon as the colour changes. The fruit ripens over a period of more than 2 months and the intervals between harvests are usually too long. For harvesting, bamboo poles with a V-shaped cut at the top to hold a single fruit are used in Malaysia. Use of ladders and picking baskets is more efficient. The high cost of picking due to the long ripening sea"on is a major constraint in its commercial cultivation (FAa, 1982; Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The main harvesting season in Malaysia is from June to August. But it varies with the dryness in the season. Timing of the harvest also appears to be influenced considerably by the altitude and shade. Often a small second crop is produced in December in Malaysia. The yield per tree varies from 200-2000 fruits of about 100 g each. Fruits are graded for size removing the damaged fruits. These are either sold in baskets or are strung in long cartons (5 kg). Keeping at 5-10°C after fungicidal dips is recommended for long-term storage, up to 8 weeks (Augustin and Azudin, 1986). Fruits can be stored at 13.3°C and 85-90% relative humidity for 14-25 days (Sealand, 1991). Owing to its thick shell, fruits can remain in transit
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for about 21 days after harvest. Fruits travel well to other countries. Immature fruits can be canned. Mature fruits tend to lose flavour on canning but can be dried successfully. A common disorder of the fruit is gamboge canker. Yellow spots of exudates of the skin may seep into the flesh giving it a bitter taste. Any physical damage to the latex vessels as a result of punctures by sucking insects (Capsids), strong wind, rough harvesting and handling brings about this disorder. If the fruits are left on the tree, the disorder gradually disappears during ripening. Fruit cracking may also occur because of excessive absorption of moisture. Several leaf eating caterpillars feed on its young leaves. Damage by sucking insects may lead to fruit drop. A number of fungal diseases have been identified of which the red root rot (PheZZinus noxius) and the brown root rot (Ganoderma pseudojerreum) sometimes become serious. No control measures are known (IDPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Thread blight (PellicuIaria koIeroga) has been reported to be a common disease in Puerto Rico. The affected leaves begin to lose their lustre, tum brown, dark brown and finally black leading to their fall. Bordeaux mixture (5:5:30) sprays can keep the disease in check. Wilt (ZignoeZZa garciniae) is a common disease in Malaysia, which results in wilting and death of plants. The best method of control is to cut and destroy such branches well in advance (Rawal, 1998).
66. MARANG Marang (Artocarpus odoratissimus Blanco) belongs to the family Moraceae and is native of South East Asia and the Philippines (Martin et aI., 1987). It is found growing wild in Mindoro, Mindanao, Basilin and the Sulu Archipelago. It is cultivated in Philippines and Sarawak (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It is one of the most highly prized fruits in the genus. Low yield and short shelf life of the fruits are the limiting factors in the expansion of this fruit (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It requires hot and wet tropical lowlands and grows up to 1000 m altitudes. It is found in partially shaded locations from sea level to 800 m elevation (Martin et aI., 1987, Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It grows the best in regions with abundant and equally distributed rainfall on rich loamy and well-drained soils. Fruit pulp is eaten fresh or cooked as vegetables or used as an ingredient in cakes. The fruit is said to have a finer and more delicate flavour than the jackfruit. The seeds are eaten roasted or boiled. Young fruits are also cooked in coconut milk and eaten as a curried vegetable (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Marang provides 63-112 k calories and contains 65.7-84.2 g moisture, 0.8-1.47 g protein, 0.2-0.3 g fat, 32.4 g carbohydrates, 0.6-0.77 g fibre, 17 mg calcium, 35 mg phosphorus, 2.1 mg iron and 30 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g edible portion (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
Botany Marang is an evergreen tree growing up to 25 m tall with 40 cm trunk diameter. Twigs are 4-10 mm thick with long, yellow to red, spreading hair and stipule-scar rings. Leaves are broadly elliptic to obovate and 16-50 x 11-28 cm in size, with entire or shallowly crenate margin, often 3 lobed upper half, both surfaces roughly hairy and 2-3 cm long petioles. It is a monoecious tree. Inflorescences are solitary borne in leafaxils. Male heads are ellipsoid to ovate and 4-11 x 2-6 em in size. Female heads with pubescent and peltate
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bracts that mostly shed, simple styles are exerted 1.5 mm. Fruit is syncarp, subglobose, 16x13 em in size, green-yellow and densely covered with stiff, hairy processes of about 1 cm length having white, juicy and fragrant flesh and 5-14 cm long peduncle. Seeds are ellipsoidal in shape and about 12 x 8 mm in size.
2
Fig. 64 : Artocarpus odoratissimus Blanco, Marang, 1. Flowering branch; 2. Fruit. Lecythis (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
Varieties No standard cultivar is available. Wide variation in growth and fruit characters has been observed in wild population. Culture Marang is generally propagated through the seeds or by grafting. Seed germinates in about 4 weeks time. The marang can be budded or grafted on gumihan (A. elasticus) and inarched with breadfruit (A. altilis). Plants are set 12-14 m apart in the field at the onset of rainy season. The tree can become very large with spreading canopy. Regular weeding and irrigation during the first 2 or 3 dry seasons ensure good growth. Plants are fertilized with 100-200 g ammonium sulphate after planting and towards the end of the rainy season. Bearing trees are given 0.5-1 kg complete fertilizer per tree twice a year. The trees start bearing at an age of 4-6 years when propagated through seed. The flower heads are borne on the emerging shoots. In the Philippines, the fruiting season is in May-July at Luzon and in
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August-December at Mindanao. In northern Queensland, Australia, the fruit is harvested ever a 2-month period with a peak in February, from flowering in October-November. The average yield in Philippines is 4.6 t/ha. The fruits are borne at the ends of the long flexible branches. The ripe fruits are heavy, fragile and difficult to reach for harvest. Mature fruits are usually harvested by hand with the help of a curved knife attached to the end of a long bamboo pole. The delicate fruit should be caught before it drops on the ground and breaks. The fruits are graded and taken to the market in bamboo baskets or sacks as soon as possible as the shelf life of ripe fruits is very short. No serious pests and diseases have been observed apart from the maggots of the oriental fruit fly (Dacus umbrosus) found in fruits. Bait sprays may be effective (Verheij and Coronel,1991).
67. MATISIA Matisia or chupa-chupa (Matisia cordata HBK syn. Quararibea cordata (Humb. and Bonpl.) Garc. et Hem.) belongs to the family Bombacaceae."It is also known as South American sapote, zapote chupa and sapote Colombiano. It is a native of the hot lowland forests of the lower Andes in Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Peru. It is found growing in western Amazonia, Cauca and Magdalena valleys and Colombia (Morton, 1987). This fruit of the Amazon deserves much attention as it has potential to be developed as food crop beyond its native area (Martin et al., 1987; Leaky and Newton, 1994a,b). It requires hot humid tropical lowland conditions and is very susceptible to frost. The sapote performs the best from sea level to 1000 m altitudes, its production declines between 1000 and 1400 m altitudes and growth is severely limited above 1600 m. It needs plenty of water and heat in early stages of growth together with shelter from wind. Deep well-qrained ap.d non-flooding clay soils having high organic matter and up to pH 8 are preferred (Page, 1984; FAO, 1986; Martin et al., 1987). Fruit pulp is eaten fresh or made into juice or nectar and desserts. It is rich in vitamin A and C. It is also grown as ornamental tree (FAO, 1986; Briicher, 1989). Per 100 g edible portion of matisia fruit contains 85.3 g moisture, 0.129 g protein, 0.10 g fat, 0.5 g fibre, 18.4 mg calcium, 28.5 mg phosphorus, 0.44 mg iron, 1.056 mg carotene, 0.031 mg thiamine, 0.023 mg riboflavin, 0.33 mg niacin and 9.7 mg ascorbic acid (Morton, ". 1987).
Botany It is a fast growing erect tree of 20 m height with a relatively small and spreading . crown and pagoda shaped branching system. Bark is smooth and light brown grey in colour.. Leaves are alternate, simple, cordate, 50x40 cm in size, coriaceous and glabrous. Flowers are bisexual and emerge from mature branches in groups of 3 to 10 and are 6 to 7 cm long. The calyx is large and green occupying about three-eighth of the total length of the flower, consisting of 5 sepals. The corolla, consisting of 5 creamy petals, is slightly larger than the calyx. Stamen filaments are fused to form an elongated column protruding beyond the petals and :tn:anches ,above into 5 spreading arms, each bearing a series of paired anthers. The OVOId fruits are up to 12 cm long and 8 cm wide with persistent calyx. The fruit skin is hard, thick and green brown with woody surface and fibrous and yellowish flesh containing 5 big seeds that are connected with thin strings. Its flavour is sweet and pleasant and seems
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a composite of carrot, melon, mango and papaya. Seeds are angular, bean-shaped, 2-4 cm long and without endosperm (Page, 1984; FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989).
Fig. 65 : Quararibea cordata GB and H. 1. Leaf; 2. Flower; 3. Fruit; 4. Seed. (FAD, 1986)
Varieties There is no standard variety. Superior variety with low fibre is required (Page, 1984; FAO, 1986). Genetic Resources of matisia have been maintained at Instituto Nacional De Pesquisas Da Amazonia, Amazonas, Brazil (13 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1992).
Culture . The trees are usually raised from the seeds. Wedge and side veneer grafting are also successful. Seed should be sown immediately upon removal from the fruit when the germination percentage is high. The seedlings make the best growth in soils rich in organic matter. Before transplanting to the field from a shaded nursery, the seedlings require hardening. Irrigation is necessary for proper establishment of the plants. Organic mulches are founa. to be useful. The plants should be protected from wind damage. A fertilizer mixture of N, 'p and K is applied. In Florida, flowering in matisia trees occur during January-February and the fruits become ready for harvest during November taking 270-300 days to mature. The fruit is considered ready for picking when a light coloured ring becomes visible on fruit skin at the junction of the persistent calyx and the fruit. The fruits are able to withstand transportation
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135
owing to the thick skin. A well-developed tree produces 3000 fruits per year. Fruits can be stored at 6-9°C and 90-95% RH (Amezquito, 1973). The matisia is very susceptible to attack by leaf cutting ants, whitefly and black beetles. Cuban May beetle incidences on the leaves have also been reported (Page, 1984; FAa, 1986; Morton, 1987).
68. MIRACLE FRUIT Miracle fruit or miraculous berry (Synsepalum dulcificum Daniell. syn. Sideroxylon dulcificum A. DC.) belongs to the family Sapotaceae. It is native of tropical West Africa and has been introduced into other tropical areas (Martin et al., 1987). Miracle fruit holds good potential for the production of natural sweetener. The other related species is S. attenuatum Hutch., which is native of Nigeria and produces edible fruits (Martin et al., 1987; Tripp, 1985). It needs hot and wet tropical lowlands and light shade for good growth but is not tolerant to frost. It produces more leaves under full sunshine. Acid soils having good organic matter content are suitable for its cultivation. Fruit pulp is eaten with other foods to counter sour or bitter flavours. It is also used to flavour palm wine and for the development of artificial sweetness. The fruit has potential for use in dessert, sauce and salad. Its fruit has great prospects for use to make chewing gum. The miracle berry contains glycoprotein, a huge molecule consisting of protein with attached sugar groups with a molecular weight of 44, 000. In the presence of an acid, the attached sugar groups stimulate the sweet taste receptors. Until the enzymes present in saliva hydrolyze the glycoprotein, which takes about 90 to 120 minutes, an acid food will taste sweet but no sugar is absorbed and there is no after taste.
Botany It is an evergreen shrub or tree of about 6 m height with slender and glabrous branchlets. Leaves are petioled, ex stipulate, obovate-cuneate, obtuse, subcoriaceous and glabrous. Flowers are few, borne in a cluster and have pilose pedicels. Calyx is tomentose with 5 oblong obtuse segments. The corolla is five lobed, whitish and little longer than the calyx. Five stamens have very short filaments, oblong anthers and setaceous staminodes as long as the stamens. Ovary is subglobose with style reaching the top of corolla. Fruit is berry, ovoid, glossy red, of the size of a gooseberry and is glabrous, succulent and I-seeded.
Fig. 66 : Synsepalum dulcificum, Miracle fruit (CRFG, 1996)
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Varieties A heavy yielding strain giving 10 times more fruits has been selected.
Culture Propagation is generally done from the seeds and by cuttings. Cultural requirement for miracle fruit have not been developed. The plants start flowering 4-5 years after planting when raised from seed and much earlier if vegetatively propagated. The plants flower several times in a year but the main fruiting seasons are December and July. On ripening, the fruit turns red and should be picked immediately as these are perishable (Martin et al., 1987; Tripp, 1985).
69. MONKEY POT Monkey pot (Lecythis elliptica H.B.K.) of the family Lecythidaceae is also known as coco de mono, tocari and marmite-de-singe. It is native of South America and is found wild in the Orinoco and Amazonas basin. Monkey pot holds good potential for development as a commercial crop (Martin et al., 1987). It requires hot humid tropical climatic conditions. Deep fertile soils are the best for its cultivation (Martin et al., 1987). Monkey pot seeds are eaten fresh or after roasting. Their flavour is excellent and has high appeal. These are tastier than Brazil nuts and are rich in oil, protein and vitamin B complex (Martin et al., 1987; Briicher, 1989).
Botany The tree attains 18-22 m height and has large, coriaceous, broadly oblong-oval leaves. Hermaphrodite sessile flowers are borne on paniculate inflorescence. Of the 6 petals, two are longer. Androecium covers the ovary with many sterile appendages. The dark brown fruit is globose, roughly verrucose and 10-15 cm in diameter with convex margin at the orifice and enclosing 8 seeds. The seed kernels are of dark brown colour, 3-5 cm in size and enclose small cotyledons with big hypocotyls containing the reserve substances required for quick germination (Briicher, 1989).
Fig. 67 : Lecythis elliptica, Monkey pot (Briicher, 1989)
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Culture It is propagated from the seeds. Cultural requirements fQr monkey pot have to be developed. The trees start flowering after attaining 2 m height and continue throughout the year. The fruits take 14 to 18 months to mature and are usually harvested during JanuaryMarch.. At maturity, the fruit capsule (pyxidium) becomes woody and brown and open their lid-like pot shedding the seeds. The monkeys often try to open the hard shells before maturity. 70. NAMNAM Namnam (Cynometra cauliflora L.) is also known as namu-namu, kopi anjing or nang-ai. It belongs to the family Leguminosae. It is native of South East Asia. It occurs in India, Malay Peninsula and Indonesia (Martin et al., 1987). Namnam is an important loal fruit crop. It grows well in wet tropical lowlands but is more fruitful in monsoonal climates having a distinct dry season. It prefers full sun but tolerates shade. An annual rainfall of 1500-2000 cm and daily temperatures of 22-35°C are desirable. The tree can withstand strong winds (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The mature sourish fruit has pleasant flavour and is eaten fresh or is cooked with sugar to make sweets (compote). It also makes good fruit salad and pickle. The tree is attractive and ornamental bearing pinkish or whitish red foliage and is grown as an ornamental plant (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Botany It is a shrub or small tree of about 7 m height with rather dense crown and warty . trunk. The leaf has one pair of leaflets, which are ovate-oblong, 5.5-16.5 x 1.5-5.5 cm in size, almost sessile and drooping. The inflorescences are cauliflorours and 4-5 small racemes are crowded together in hard knots on the trunk. The four sepals are 2-4 mm long and pinkish white. Petals are 5, 3-4 mm long and white. Stamens are 8-10 and style is 5-6 mm long. The fruit is a fleshy, brownish green and kidney-shaped pod of 3-9 x 2-6 x 1.4 cm size and has one seed. The flesh is juicy, fragrant, pale yellow and tastes sourish sweet. The seed is flattened, kidney-shaped, 3-6x2.4 em in size and brown in colour (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Varieties In Celebes, one sweet and another sweet sour type is known.
Culture It is propagated from the seeds. The seeds remain dormant for about 3 months but germinate well thereafter. It can also be propagated by budding or approach grafting. The seedling trees start flowering after about 6 years. In Indonesia, the main flowering season is between August and November. However, some flowers are formed throughout the year. The pod matures 2 months after flowering. The tree bears rather poorly (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruit is picked when the skin turns yellowish brown and flesh becomes yellow. Its taste resembles that of apple. Borers attack the pods and the black aphids infest the young leaves (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
t·
t
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
;
Jan ]
Fig. 68 : Cynometra call1iflora L. (IBPGR, 1980)
71. NANCE Nance or golden spoon or manero or manteco or murci (Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) H.B.K syn. B. cubense Juss., Malpighia crassifolia L.) belongs to the family Malpighiaceae. It is native of Mexico, Central and South America and West Indies (Martin et al., 1987). It is found wild from southern Mexico through Pacific side of Central America to Peru and Brazil and also in Tri.J.¥dad, Barbados, Curacao, St. Martin, Dominica, Guadeloupe, Puerto Rico, Haiti and the Dominican Republic and throughout Cuba and the Isles of Pines. The nance is one of the popular Amazonian fruits and appears to have great economic potential. It requires hot tropical lowland climatic conditions for good growth and fruiting. In Central and South America, the tree is found from sea level to an altitude of 1800 m. It prefers an annuclI rainfall in excess of 2000 mm and annual temperatures above 20°C, It is highly drought tolerant and can survive under seasonal dry periods. Nance is also adapted to a wide variety of soil conditions. In Mexico, the tree is often found on rocky lands. It grows well in sandy and alkaline soils. It is well suited for restoration of infertile and inferior lands (Martin et al., 1987). The fruit is eaten raw or cooked as dessert or used in soup or for stuffing meats. It has potential for a wide range of industrial products (FAG, 1986; Morton, 1987). The fruits are often used to prepare carbonated beverages or an acid, oily, fermented beverage known as chicha, which is an assorted beer-like drink. Liquor similar to rum, called crema de nance, is also prepared from the fruits in Costa Rica. The green fruits are sometimes used for dyeing. The fruit skin imparts a light brown hue to cotton fabric. The bark yields a strong fibre and
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is used for tanning leather to a light yellow tone. The wood is used for the preparation of tool handles, cabinetwork and furniture and in turnery and small-scale construction. Nance is an excellent plant for apiculture as it yields nectar during June. The astringent bark infusion is taken to halt diarrhoea and as a febrifuge. It is considered beneficial in pulmonary complaints and leucorrhoea. The pounded bark is poulticed on wounds (1vIartin et al., 1987; FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987). Nance fruit contains 79.3-83.2 g moisture, 0.10-0.12 g protein, 0.21-1.83 g fat, 2.55.8 g fibre, 23.0-36.8 mg calcium, 12.6-15.7 mg phosphorus, 0.62-1.!J1 mg iron, 0.002-0.060 mg carotene, 0.009-0.014 mg thiamine, 0.015-0.039 mg riboflavin, 0.266-0.327 mg niacin and 90.0-192.0 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (MQrton, 1987). Botany The nance is a slow growing, large, evergreen shrub or tree of 10 m height varying in canopy form from round-topped and spreading to narrow and compact. The trunk is short or tall and crooked or straight. Young branches are densely coated with russet hair. Leaves are opposite, ovate to elliptic or oblong elliptic in shape, 3.2-17x4-7 em in size, rounded or pointed at the apex, blunt or pointed at the base, leathery, usually glossy on the upper surface and more or less brown or grey hairy on the underside. The flowers are borne in thinly or consipicuously red hairy and erect racemes, which are 10-20 cm long and 1.2-2 cm wide. The petals are 5, which are yellow at first and then change to dull orange red. Fruit is aromatic, orange-yellow, round, 8-12 cm wide with thin skin and white, juicy and oily pulp varying in flavour from insipid to sweet, acid or cheese-like. Seeds are 1-3, white with fairly large stone (FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987; Brucher, 1989).
Fig. 69 : Byrsollima crassifolia (L.) Kunth. 1. Fruiting branch; 2. Flowering branch; 3. Flower; 4. Fruit; 5. Nut (FAD, 1986)
\
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Culture It is propagated from the seeds. The seeds genninate in 12 to 14 days. Grafting seems to have given good results. The seedlings can be planted in the field after 100 to 120 days in the nursery. Planting is done at 7x7 m spacing (FAO, 1986). Their growth in-the field is rapid. The plants start flowering very early, frequently right in the first season after one year growth in the field. In Mexico, the tree blooms from April through July and the fruits mature in September and October. In Puerto Rico, the tree blooms and fruits continuously from spring to fall and;.in Brazil from December to April. On ripening, the fruit changes its colour from green to yellow. The fruits fall to the ground when fully ripe. The fruits are very perishable but can be kept in good condition for several months by storing submerged in water. A four year old tree yields 15 to 20 kg fruits per season.
72.0KARINUT Okari nut (Terminalia kaembachii Warb. syn. T. okari C.T. White) belongs to the family Combretaceae and is native of Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands. It is distributed in South East Asia and pacific Islands (Hawaii). Okari nut is found growing in tropical lowlands (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It is an excellent nut valuable for use as a multipurpose species (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It requires hot tropical lowlands and grows up to 1260 m altitudes. It grows well under great variety of soil conditions including coastal sands. The species tolerates poorly drained soils and wet climates (Martin et al., 1987; Walter and Sam, 2002). Okari nut produces palatable kernels of the largest size (1.5-10 g) among the members of family Combretaceae and is considered a prize nut. It is one of the best flavoured tropical nuts and the most favoured item of diet. Seeds are eaten fresh or roasted and are good source of protein. Its wood has good timber value (Martin et al., 1987).
Botany It is a handsome tree growing up to 20-45 m in height and has large spreading crown and grey bark. The twigs are often massive and hairy when young with leaves clustered towards the tips, which are obovate or narrow obovate, 15-28 x 6-13 cm in size, thick, usually acute at apex and tapering at the base. Petioles are up to 2 cm long and the undersurface of leaf and petioles have persistent reddish brown hair. Flowers are borne in erect spikes. The buds are- globular and 8-10 mm long. Calyx has triangular and downy lobes. Stamens and pistil are fairly long (2 em). Fruit is a large, ellipsoid and slightly flattened drupe, up to 9-11 x 6-8 x 5-6 cm in size, coated with short reddish brown hair when young and becomes red, fleshy and glabrous on ripening and contain a massive woody stone. The stone splits open into two equal halves exposing the edible seed. Kernels are white, spindle shaped, varying in size from 3 x 1 cm to the size of small hen's egg. Cotylendons are 3-4, thin and are wrapped around each other. .
Culture It is easily raised from the seeds. The seeds rapidly lose their viability. Cultural requirements for okari nut have to be standardized. The trees start flowering at 20 years age. Flowering is induced more by the seasonal changes in day length than by temperature
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, or rainfall. The fruits are collected from beneath the tree or are picked from the tree when ripe (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 70 : Terminalia kaernbachii Warb., okari nut. A. Tree; B. Flowering branch with fruit; C. Leaf; D. Cross sectiOn of kernel; E. Longitudinal section of fruit (Stevens et al., 1996)
73. ORINOCO -APPLE . Orinoco apple, orinoko apfel, cubiu, cocona, topiro or topiru (Solanum topiro Humb. et Bonpl.) belongs to the family Solanaceae. It is native of upper Amazon in South America (Martin et al., 1987). European travellers observed this fruit plant several hundreq,years ago in the upper Orinoco valley. Isolated plants often grow at the edges of the abandoned fields or near the rivers. Orinoco apple has little potential because of limited adaptability (Martin et al., 1987). ' Orinoco apple is of tropical origin and grows best in hot and humid conditions. The plants are very susceptible to frost. It needs light, well-drained soils. It is not tolerant to root-knot nematodes. The fruits are consumed raw and are used to prepare many forms of refreshing conserves (Briicher, 1989). Fruit is eaten fresh or made into jelly, sweetmeats and preserves (Martin et al., 1987).
Botany The orinoco apple is.a robust shrub having many-branched bushy growth of 1-2 m height. The whole plant is covered with hairy indumentum. Leaves are large (50-60 cm),
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
simple and cordiform with strong nervature and slikhtly lobed margins and are borne on short petioles. Inflorescence has 5-8 spiral shaped flowers with 0.2 to 0.5 cm long floral peduncles. One to three fruits arise from the branches at each group of three leaves. Fruit is ovoid, 7-10 cm in diameter enclosed in a tough, yellow or orange red and slightly pubescent skin. The pulp is creamy yellow and has a pleasant sweet acid taste, very similar to that of peaches containing 500-2000 oval and flattened seeds. Varieties From the variability found with regard to fruit characters and yield, some types have been identified at Dept. de Genetica et Caracas, Argentina.
Culture It is propagated from the seeds. Seedlings are transplanted at 1.0 x 1.0 m or 1.3 x 1.3 m spacing. Cultural requirements for orinoco apple should be standardized. The fruit skin turns from green to white or yellow with purple markings ?t the time of maturity. Average yield is 20-30 kg per plant (Briicher, 1989). 74. ORINOCO NUT Orinoco nut (Caryodendron orinocense :Karst.) belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae and is native of Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela. It is also known as palo de nuez, cacay or inche. It is also found in humid tropical parts of Brazil and Ecuador. The other related species are C. amazonicum found in Ecuador and Colombia, C. grandifolium found in Brazil, and C. angustifolium found in Panama. Efforts have been made to cultivate this nut in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador. It requires tropical humid climatic conditions (Briicher, 1989). It thrives in areas with temperatures between 12°C and 29°C and annual rainfall between 800 and 5000 mm. It occurs on a wide range' of soils at altitudes from sea level to 2300 m. Its trees can withstand few months of mild drought as well as brief waterlogging (Reckin, 1983; FAa, 1986). Seed kernel of the nut is edible and contains considerable amount of oil (45-54%) and protein (20%). The oil content compares favourably with that of coconut and cashew nut. It is rich in linoleic acid, havrng chemical constitution similar to that of heavy seed oil. The oil is valued for a wide range of uses from cooking to soap making and cosmetics. It is used to treat skin afflictions. Half-ounce dose of oil is taken as a laxative. Its wood is hard and has fine texture and is used in Venezuela for making furniture.
Botany Orinoco nut is a large tree of 20 m height having yellowish trunk, which produces watery and pinkish-yellow latex. Leaves are alternate, glabrous, elliptic or obovate, 12-25 x 4-10 cm in size and biglandular at the base of the blade. Both monoecious and dioecious trees occur. Flowers are unisexual and are' borne on separate inflorescences. Male flowers are borne on terminal racemes, with 3 cm long concave sepals, 4 conical and glabrous stamens, and white disk. Female flowers have 5 to 6 ovate sepals, trilocular ovary, short and trilobite stigma and annular disk. Fruit is a globose-oblong and 3-seeded nut, 5-6 x 45 cm in size. Seed kernel is 3x1.7 cm in size (Reckin, 1983; FAa, 1986; Briicher, 1989).
-
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~.~ .2
. 3
@ 4
Fig. 71 : Caryodendron orinocel1se. 1. Leaves and fruit; 2. Female flower; 3. Male flower; 4. Longitudinal section of fruit to show seed.'(FAO, Wickens, 1995)
Varieties
o
From the variability in Colombia and Ecuador, the strains that do not open their fruit shells early (indehiscent types) have been selected. Hybrids between C. orinocense and the related species may prov~ valuable to develop cultigens with higher oil content. Germplasm collections have been maintained at University of Naro and by Corporation Araracuara at San Jose d' Guaviare, Colombia (FAD, 1986, Wickens, 1995).
Culture The plant is propagated from the seeds. Seed should be sown immediately after extraction as it loses viability very fast. It is planted in the field at 6-10 m spacing. rnterplanting with Azadirachta indica (neem) and Derris spp. is recommended (Reckin 1983). Shade is required in the first year but on attaining 50 cm height by the onset of the following rainy season it should have full exposure to the sun. Plants grow rapidly. Cultural requirements for orinoco nut have to be standardized. Fruit set occurs by wind pollination. Fruiting may start 4-5 years after planting but usually in the seventh year. Nuts ripen at the onset of monsoon. They either fall down on the ground or can be shaken off. A 10-year old tree produces 100-250 kg nuts. An annual production of 3500-5000 kg oil per hectare has been obtained in Colombia. At maturity, the thin and brown shells surrounding the kernels can be easily blown with the fingers (Reckin, 1983; FAD, 1986; Duke, 1989). In Colombia, caterpillars are extremely serious pests causing complete defoliation of the trees (Wickens, 1995).
*
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
75.·0TAHEITE GOOSEBERRY Otaheite gooseberry or malay gooseberry (Phyllanthus acidus L.) Skeels syn. P. distichus Muell. Arg., Cicca acida Merr., C. disticha (L.) belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae and is native of Madagascar (Martin et ai., 1985). It is also known as country or star gooseberry, grosella or chermai. It is commonly grown in Indonesia, South Vietnam, Laos, not:f:hern Malaysia and India. It has long been naturalized in the Philippines, southern Mexico and lowlands of Central America (Morton, 1987). Otaheite goose1?erry has potential for widespread cultivation as a fruit crop (Martin .et ai., 1987). Otaheite gooseberry requires hot humid tropical lowland conditions for good growth and fruiting but can also be grown in the subtropics. It thrives up to an elevation of 1000 m in E1 Salvador. It tolerates seasonal dry periods. It can be grown on a wide range of soils but prefers moist sites (Martin et ai., 1987). Fruit pulp is eaten or processed as sauce, chutney, jelly, preserve, syrup and beverage. It is also mixed with other fruits for making chutney and jam. The young leaves are cooked as greens in India and Indonesia. In India, the fruits are taken as liver tonic and to enrich the blood. The syrup is prescribed as a stomachic and the seeds are cathartic. The leaves with pepper are poulticed in sciatica, lumbago and rheumatism. A decoction of the leaves is given as a sudorific. The root is drastically purgative and is regarded toxic in Malaya. Its stem is boiled and inhaled to relieve cough and headache. The root infusion is taken in very small doses to alleviate asthma (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Per 100 g of edible portion contains 91.9 g moisture, 0.155 g protein, 0.52 g fat, 0.8 g fibre, 5.4 mg calcium, 17.9 mg phosphorus, 3.25 mg iron, 0.019 mg carotene, 0.025 mg thiamine, 0.013 mg riboflavin, 0.292 mg niacin and 4.6 mg ascorbic acid.
Botany Otaheite gooseberry is an ornamental shrub or small tree growing up to 2-9 m in height with a spreading crown. At the branch tips, clusters of deciduous, greenish or pinkish, 15-30 cm long blanchlets are borne. The thin leaves are alternate, short petioled, ovatelanceolate, 2-7.5 cm long and green and smooth on the upper surface and blue green with a bloom on the underside. It is monoecious. Male, female and some hermaphrodite 4-merous rosy flowers are borne together in little clusters arranged in 5-12.5 cm long panicles. The. fruit is oblate with 6 to 8 ribs, 1-2.5 cm in width and pale yellow to nearly white in colour when fully ripe. It is waxy, fleshy, crisp, juicy and highly acidic. A hard and ribbed stone containing 4-6 seeds is tightly embedded in the centre (Morton,-1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Varieties No standard variety is known but there is lot of scope to select superior types from the existing genetic variability.
Culture It is generally propagated from the seeds but can also be multiplied by budding, green wood cuttings or air layers. The seedlings start producing substantial crop from the fourth year. In Florida, flowering occurs during February-April while in south India, it
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blooms twice, once in April-May and again in August-September. The fruit matures in 90100 days after flowering. The otaheite gooseberry is prone to attack by the phyllanthus caterpillars in Florida, which eat the bark and young leaves causing total defolition within a few days (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 72 : Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Skeels, Otaheite gooseberry (Ochse, 1977; Vegetables of the Dutch East Indies, Survey of the indigenous and foreign plants serving as pot herbs and side dishes; A. Asher & Co., BV, Amsterdam)
76. PANDANUS About 600 Pandanus species are found in the region from West Africa to Madagascar, the Indian Ocean Islands, India, South East Asia, throughout Malaysia into the Pacific and in the Pitcairn and Henderson Islands. It belongs to the family Pandanaceae. The important species that produce edible fruits are P. brosimos Merr. and Perry. (karuka), P. conoideus Lam. (marita or red pandanus), P. leram Jones ex Fontana (Nicobar breadfruit), P. dubius Spreng (pandanus), P. julianettii Martelli (highland pandanus) and P. tectorius Sol. ex Balf. f. (screw pine) (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Pandanus julianettii is found in the highlands of New Guinea between 1450 and 2800 m altitudes (Walter and Sam, 2002). Pandanus is grown for domestic uses. Developing new uses of fruits, seeds and other plant parts can enhance its value. Karuka can be developed as fruit cum nut crop particularly in New Guinea and where it is growing in highland above 2000 m (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Pandanus requires hot and humid climate with more than 300 cm annual rainfall. Karuka grows only at higher altitudes, flourishing in the New Guinea highlands between 2000 and 3300 m and rarely seen below 2000 m. It is an important component of the upper mountain vegetation. Marita (P. conoideus) is chiefly a lowland plant in New Guinea Moluccan but has been found up to 2000 m altitudes . It scarcely overlaps the altitudinal zone of karuka. Screwpine is found in South East Asia and south Pacific Islands and Nicobar breadfruit and P. andamanansium are found growing in Nicobar, Andaman and Maldive Islands on sandy soils at the seashores. However, none of these do well at upper altitudes or on heavy, poorly drained loam soils (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Pandanus species provide food products and textile fibres. The red or yellow oily flesh (pericarp) of marita is edible. The pericarp of ripe fruits of Nicobar breadfruit is eaten after breaking down the large amounts of calcium oxalate crystals in them, which irritate the mouth, by cooking and boiling. The fruits of marita are boiled and seeds (stones), fibres and core are filtered out to obtain the mushy paste of oily texture which is almost tasteless and used as a sort of butter for starchy foods especially sweet potato. A similar mush is prepared from the fruits of better types of P. tectorius in Micronesia and Polynesia. The pulp is a rich source of carbohydrates. Karuka fruits, if not consumed immediately after harvest, can be dried and stored up to 2 years. The edible seeds of karuka of New Guinea are oily and contain a fair amount of protein and are considered equivalent in value to the coconut. Screwpine seeds are also eaten fresh or cooked. Its fruit pulp is mixed with coconut milk or grated coconut and the paste baked into thin flat cakes. The powder made from this is used as such or in preparing other dishes (Singh, 1997). The seeds of P. julianettii are eaten raw, smoked and cooked. The commercial use is largely limited to the leaf fibres of P. odoratissimus and screwpine which are used for making baskets, bags, hats, pocket books, mats, etc. In India, perfume and beverages from the staminate inflorescences of P. odoratissimus are produced commercially (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Screwpine fruit contains 80 g water, 0.4 g protein, 0.3 g fat, 19.0 g carbohydrates, 0.3 g fibre, 1.43 mg phosphorus and 0.03 mg iron per 100 g of pulp (Pareek et al., 1998). Botany It is an evergreen and woody plant with an erect to decumbent branched stem, usually forming rigid prop roots from the leafaxils. Stems are often knobby or prickly showing leaf scars. The bark is thin, often green just below the epidermis. The leaves, spiralled in three series, are linear and undivided, usually M-shaped in cross section and with prickles along the margins. The plants are dioecious and strictly unisexual. Staminate inflorescences are ephemeral, bracteate, usually spicate consisting of perianthless flowers. Flower is a cluster of stamens having mostly white to yellowish and often scented pollen. Bracts are mostly white to cream or yellow and sometimes orange to purplish. The inflorescence gets depleted of pollen and decay within 3-4 days. Pistillate inflorescence is either a globose to cylindrical head or a spike. The upper bracts in the head are early caducous. Each head consists of either massed unilocular carpels ripening as drupes or of 2 to many seed chambers. Stigmas ar.e always distinct on the apex of each carpel. The fruit is .::yncarpous and becomes yellow, orange, red or occasionally purplish red on ripening. Fruit can grow up to 30 cm in diameter and 15 kg in weight. It contains 50 or more fibrous segments each with two to four edible seeds. The exocarp of each carpel is firm to fleshy. The mesocarp is always fibrous towards the base and the endocarp is bony. Seeds are endospermous, contain between 10-60 % oil according to species and are always retained within the thin to massively thick and bony endocarp (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Varieties Selections of superior types have to be made. Conservation of its biodiversity is urgently required to save from the deforestation going on at an alarming rate. Five species of pandanus have been conserved at Subtropical Horticultural Research Unit, Miami, Florida (Betterncourt et al., 1992).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
Fig. 73 : Pandanus leram Jones - Fruiting plant. (PROSEA No 2, 1991)
Fig. 74 : Pandanus utilis Bory, Screwpine, Male flowers (upper left), Leaf and single fruit (below), Multiple fruit (lower right) (Little et al., 1974)
147
148
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Culture Pandanus is usually grown from stem cuttillgs in Micronesia. Suckers are cleanly removed from the leafaxils and are planted either as such or after rooting them in a sand medium. Seedlings develop more rapidly from the previously weathered drupes or syncarps. Scarification is required to accelerate germination. Pandanus is usually grown intermixed with other species. Seedlings tend to produce erect trunk while the plants raised from cuttings may be permanently decumbent but bear fruits 2-3 years earlier. Flowering season varies according to temperature and rainfall. In some species fruiting may occur in the 4th or 5th year, but in karuka it occurs 1 or 2 years later. The fruit head is 30-40 cm long in marita and 12-15 cm long in Nicobar breadfruit. Fruiting is often biennial in karuka and may be sporadic in other species. Parthenocarpy is common in pandanus. In P. tectorius and P. odoratissimus, pistillate trees even when grown in isolation produce viable seed, which must obviously be apomictic. Very few diseases and pests afflict pandanus. Leaf miners, pine beetle larvae and moth larvae cause some damage (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). 77. PANIALA
Paniala or puneala plum or prunier .malagache (Flacourtia jangomas Raeusch. syn. F. cataphracta Roxb. ex Willd.) belongs to the family Flacourtiaceae and is native of India. It is also known as Indian plum. It is cultivated in tropical Africa and Asia especially in home gardens. It is found growing in northern districts of UP and in Bihar, Assam, Bengal, Orissa, Tripura and south India. The other related species that yield fruit are F. indica Merr. (kantal or governor plum) and F. montana Garh. F. indica is found throughout India whereas F. montana Garh. is mainly distributed in Western Ghats (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Paniala requires hot humid climatic conditions. It grows the best in tropical lowlands up to 600 m altitude. However, it does not tolerate waterlogged conditions. Since paniala is a drought resistant tree, it can grow well in semi-arid and arid regions. Sandy loam and laterite soils of the hills or submontane tracts appear to be the best for its cultivation. The fruits are eaten fresh or are used to make jelly, jam, syrup, pickle, marmalade and preserve. Tbe fruit contains fairly good amount of pectin and moderate sugar and vitamin contents. The fruit is recommended to relieve bilious condition. The leaves and young shoots taste like rhubarb and are astringent and stomachic. The leaves and bark are useful to treat bleeding gums and toothache. The wood is orange or red in colour and is used for agricultural implements (Martin et al., 1987). Fruit analysis shows that 100 g of pulp contains 77.7 g moisture, 0.5 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 0.8 g minerals, 1.0 g fibre, 19.9 g carbohydrates, 43 mg calcium and 25 mg phosphorus per 100 g of pulp and provides 83 calories (Gopalan et al., 1986)
Botany Paniala is a deciduous small shrub or a spreading tree. It grows up to 6-7 m in height with sharp decompound spines on the trunk. Leaves are alternate, glossy, ovateoblong and 5-11 x 2-5 cm in size. It is dioecious. Flowers produced in axillary racemes are . unisexual, pale yellow and· small and are borne on new branches in clusters. The fruits are round or ellipsoid, 1.5 to 3 cm in diameter with deep maroon skin and pleasant tart flavour.
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149
The flesh is firm, brownish green and fairly juicy. The fruit contains 4-10 small seeds (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Variety No standard cultivar is available but superior types having sweet taste can be selected from the available variability.
Culture Propagation is usually done from the seeds. The best time for sowing the seed is July-August. The seeds take a long time to germinate. However, vegetative propagation is preferred and can be done by air layering, budding and inarching. Inarching can be done on its seedlings. Planting is done at 8-9 m spacing during the rainy season. It is necessary to plant some male trees in the orchard to ensure good fruit set. Irrigation during summer helps in proper fruit development and checks drop of immature fruits. It does not require frequent irrigations. The tree flowers with the beginning of rains in June-July and the fruits ripen from October to January. It starts producing fruits 8 years after planting. A full-grown tree can produce 60-80 kg fruits. Rubbing the fruit between hands has been observed to render it less astringent and more palatable. Mediterranean fruitfly (Ceratitis capitata) causes some damage and can be controlled by application of insecticides' (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
78. PARADISE NUT Paradise nut (l£cythis zabucajo Aubl.) belongs to the family Lecythidaceae. It is native of Brazil and is distributed throughout South America (Martin et ai., 1987). Other related species that produce edible fruits are L. elliptica Kunth. (monkey pot, olla de mono, sapucaia), L. usitata Miers (sapucaia), L. ollaria L. (monkey pot, olla de mono), L. pisonis Camb., L. Ianceolata Poir., L. tuyrana Pitt., L. grandiflora Aubl. and L. amp1a Mier. These are common in the rain forests of Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil and Panama. Paradise nut has good potential for development as food crop (Martin et al., 1987). It grows the best under humid tropical conditions. It can be grown in a range of soils but deep, moist alluvial soils near water courses are the best. It does not thrive in areas subject to regular or extensive flooding. The edible seeds are eaten fresh or after roasting. They have excellent flavour and are rich in oil, protein and vitamin B complex (Martin et al., 1987). Wood is used in construction, especially bridges, and in the manufacture of wheel spokes.
Botany It is a large tree, growing up to 50 m high with a straight trunk. Leaves are simple, elliptic, unifoliate, 15 cm long, acuminate that shed towards the end of the dry season. The white flowers are borne on terminal racemes. The fruits are urn-shaped, 15-20 cm long, 2226 cm in diameter having a thick woody lid containing nuts of about 5 x 2.5 cm size with less sharply angled, thin, brown shells than those of Brazil nut, and with longitudinal ridges. The kernel is ivory-white, 5 ern long and almost creamy in texture. It is sweeter than Brazil nut. It bears fruits all over the canopy unlike the Brazil nut, which fruits only on its topmost branches.
150
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Culture It is propagated through the seeds. Seedlings are planted at 12 m spacing. Cultural requirements for paradise nut have to be standardized. Seedling trees take 7 to 10 years to produce fruit. The trees flower over a long period and the nuts take 14 to 18 months to mature. At maturity, the thick woody lid of the fruit is shed releasing the nuts, which fall to the ground. This occurs as a result of shriveling and decay of the slender fleshy funiculus supporting each nut. The nuts are dried, washed and then re-dried before marketing. A mature tree yields up to 300 fruits.
79. PASSIONFRUIT Passionfruit or maracuja (Passiflora edulis Sims.) belongs to the family Passifloraceae and is indigenous to southern Brazil (Morton, 1987). There are two distinct forms, forma edulis (purple passionfruit), which occurs in cool environments at higher altitudes, and forma jlavicarpa (yellow passionfruit, which is found in the tropical lowlands. The yellow fruited form, P. edulis f. flavicarpa Deg. is a chance mutant inferior in flavour but resistant to Fusarium wilt and woodiness virus (Martin and Nakasone, 1970). The two types got distributed throughout the tropics and the subtropics via Europe and Australia during the 19th century. The purple and yellow passionfruit and hybrids between the two are valuable in international commerce. Commercial plantations of purple and yellow passionfruit exist in Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Kenya, Uganda, South Africa, India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Vietnam, Brazil, Jamaica and West Indies, Papua New Guinea, Hawaii, Peru and Ecuador (Menzel et al., 1990). The other important edible species are P. mollissima Bailey syn. P. tomentosa var. mollissima Tr. and Planch. (banana passionfruit, tacso, curuba, poka, parcha, curuba de castilla), P. antioquiensis Karst. (banana passionfruit), P. laurifolia L. (water lemon, yellow granadilla or bell apple), P. ligularis Juss. (sweet granadilla, curuba), P. maliformis L. (sweet calabash, curuba), P. serratodigitata L. (tagua, tagua-tagua) and P. caerulea L. (blue passionfruit). The passionfruit requires tropical or subtropical climate with well-distributed rainfall. The purple form grows the best in the highlands, but the yellow form can be grown in lowlands. Passionfruit does not tolerate frost or high winds. It does not set fruits if the mean temperature is too high. Rainfall during flowering reduces fruit set owing to poor pollination. It requires rich well-drained sandy loam or loam soils with pH 5.5-6.8. Poor drainage and waterlogging are harmful. The aromatic fruit aril is eaten fresh or is processed into soft and alcholic drinks, punr.hes, jam, jelly, preserve, sweets and sherbet and used in salad dressing and a variety of desserts. Fruit is rich in vitamin A and C. The seeds of both the forms give 23 per cent oil, which is similar to sunflower or soybean oil. Passionfruit juice is digestive, stimulant and is used in the treatment of gastric cancer (FAO, 1982; IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Nakasone and Paull, 1998). Purple passionfruit provides 90 calories and contains 75.1 g moisture, 2.2 g protein, 0.7 g fat, 21.2 g carbohydrates, 13 mg calcium, 64 mg phosphorus, 1.6 mg iron, 700 IV vitamin A, 0.13 mg riboflavin, 1.5 mg niacin and 30 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
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Botany It is a vigorous climber with a life of 3-10 years, forming thick woody stems supported by many spirally coiled and long axillary tendrils. The somewhat leathery and glabrous leaves are deeply three lobed, 10-20 cm wide with 5 cm long petioles. Large, solitary and showy flowers of 7.5-10 em diameter are borne in the leafaxils on 5 cm long peduncles, which carry three, 1-2 cm long and ovate bracts. Calyx is tubular with 5 large sepals, which are 2-3 cm long and 1-2 cm wide. Five petals are white and elliptic. Corona is formed by two rows of waving, sterile and thin filaments of different colours. These have several rows of purple tipped papillae at their bases, which enclose the androgynophore. Five fertile stamens enclose a gynophore with a superior ovary. There are 3 large horizontal styles. Some nectar is secreted at the base of the androgynophore, which is self-incompatible. Honeybees, carpenter bees and humming birds carry out pollination. The fruit is a globose berry which is 5-9 cm long and deep purple or bright yellow. The pericarp is thin (5 mm) with greenish yellow mesocarp. The seeds arE" attached with short funiculi at the ovary wall surrounded by thin walled arils, which contain the aromatic juice. The growth and fruit chracters of the purple and yellow passionfruit are given in Table 8. Purple passionfruit has deep purple fruit, 4-5 cm in diameter, green tendrils and leaves whereas yellow passionfruit has yellow fruits, 6-12x4-7 cm in size, reddish purple tinged tendrils, larger leaves and more showy flowers with deeper purple coronas (FAO, 1982; IBPGR, 1986; Briicher, 1989).
Fig. 75 : Passiflora edulis Sims (IBPGR, 1980)
152
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Table 8 : Growth and fruit characteristics of purple and yellow passionfruit (Knight, 1980) Characteristics Ecology Vine vigour Leaf size Flowers Fruit Juice Chromosome number Meiosis Ovules, pollen grains Compatibility
P. edulis (Purple passionfruit) Cooler high altitudes Less vigorous Smaller Smaller, fragrant, less protandry, anthesis (AM) Purple, small Mild acid 2n=18 Normal Fully viable Self compatible
P. edulis f. flavicarpa (Yellow passionfruit) Lower altitudes Vigorous Larger Larger, stronger fragrance, strong protandry, anthesis (PM) Yellow, large Acid 2n=18 Normal Fully viable Self incompatible
Varieties Many commercial varieties of purple passionfruit mostly developed in Hawaii, Florida and Australia are Australian Purple or Ned Kelly, Bali Hai, Black Purple, Common Purple, Crackerjack, Perfecta. Purple Gold, Lacey E-23, M 2171 A (hybrid developed at Florida) and Kaveri (hybrid developed at Bangalore). The important varieties of yellow passionfruit are Brazilian Golden, Golden Giant, Waimanalo, Noel's Special (tolerant to Alternaria brown spot), Sevick Selection, Yee Selection, University Selection (B-74) (Hawaii) and Mirirn or Hawaiina (South America). Several selections have been made in Brazil including 'Muico', 'Peroba' and 'Pintado' (all purple) and the yellow 'Miram' and 'Grande'. In Colombia and Venezuela, the yellow passionfruit "Hawaiiana" is grown along with some Brazilian selections. Hybrids have been developed and released in Taiwan of which Tainung No.1 is the most common (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). Disease resistant varieties should be developed (Martin et al., 1987; Menzel et al., 1990). Germplasm collections are maintained at Subtropical Horticultural Research Unit, USDA, Miami, Florida (51 accessions), National Clonal Germplasm Repository, Hilo, Hawaii (16 accessions), Unisersidad Nacional Agraria, La Molina, Lima (16 accessions) and Institute Agronomico Do Parama, Parana, Brazil (7 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1992).
Culture It can be propagated through the seeds or by cuttings, air layering and by grafting on seedling rootstock. Seedlings of wilt resistant strains of yellow passionfruit are used as rootstock for whip or side wedge grating. Seeds are washed to remove pulp, dried in shade and sown immediately or stored at 1O-13°C for future use. The plants are spaced 4 to 5 m and trained on trellises spaced 3 m apart. The trellis is the principal component of the cost of production. There are a number of different trellis types, varying in height, number of strands and placement of wires and length of the crossarms. The two most commonly used types are the grape or fence trellis with one to several
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
153
wires strung parallel and the 'T' or cross type trellis with three strands of wires, one running on top of the posts and the other two attached at the ends of each cross arm (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). The trellis runs in north-south direction. Wooden stakes or anchored twines are used to train the young vines to reach the wires. All shoots from below the graft union are removed. One or two superior leaders are selected for training along the wires. The tops of leaders are pinched off to encourage laterals, which are also pruned to encourage secondary laterals. Replanting is done after every three years. Adequate soil moisture is required to sustain vegetative growth and production. Supplemental irrigations are required if the rainfall is not well distributed. Floral buds are not initiated under dry conditions as the vine extension and growth are curtailed. Irrigation should be done during flowering and fruiting. Water stress at any stage of fruit development markedly affects yield. Suggested rate for manuring the vines is 500 kg N, 100 kg P and 500 kg K per hectare (for 850 vines) per year. Phosphorus should be applied in split applications, once in the spring and the second in late summer. NPK (20:4:20) is applied in the second and subsequent years at 85 g per plant four times a year. Nitrogen and K are applied monthly from September to May and P is applied in split applications from spring to late summer. Purple passionfruit is self-pollinating but the yellow form is self-sterile and needs cross pollination by bees. In the absence of bees, hand pollination is carried out. The plants raised from seeds start flowering 1-2 years after planting. Vegetatively propagated plants flower 6-8 months after planting. The fruits ripen 70-80 days after pollination and can be picked from the vine or collected from the ground. Manual harvesting is expensive and account for approximately 40-50% of the cost (Chapman et al., 1978). Normally, fruits are allowed to ripen on the vine and abscise. Fallen fruit are gathered once or twice per week, depending upon the quantity of fruit. Dropped fruits are picked every 2-3 days in order to avoid sunburn. Purple passionfruit yields 6-12 tonnes fruits per hectare. The yellow type gives 5 times more yield in humid regions (20-25 t/ha). Fruits are graded for size, colour. For the fresh market, fruits are carefully packed in 5-10 kg fibreboard cartons. Shelf life of passionfruit is 4-5 weeks if waxed and stored at 5°C and 90 per cent relative humidity (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). Yellow form of passionfruit can be stored at 12.2 QC and 9095% RH for 14-21 days (Sealand, 1991). Pulp is extracted from the fruits and juice is expelled by centrifugation. The aroma and flavour of the juice are sensitive to heat and therefore preservation by freezing is preferred (Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Serious pests of passionfruit are the fruitflies (Da,cus dorsalis, D. cucurbitae and Ceratitis capitata), red scale, passion vine mite and mealy bugs. The main diseases are Alternaria spot (Alternaria passijlorae), Septoria spot, brown rot and Phytophthora blight. Woodiness virus causes damage to the leaves and is transmitted by aphids. Use of P. edulis f. jlavicarpa rootstock has proved to be an effective protection against Phytophthora infestation. Nematodes, especially the root knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica and M. arenaria) are the most serious pests. Crop rotation and the use of tolerant rootstock are the practical control measures (IBPGR, 1986).
80. PATAUA PALM Pataua palm (jessenia bataua (Mart.) Burret syn. J. polycarpa Karst., Oenocarpus bataua Martius) of the family Palmae is a native of tropical South America. It is also known as Seje, Mil Peros, Jagua and Ungurahui. It is distributed in Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam,
154
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru and Brazil. It is found growing in tropical rain forest and also in inland forest up to 1000 m altitude. The palm needs to be domesticated and commercially exploited (FAO, 1986). O. bacaba has very small seeded and thick fleshed parthenocarpic fruits and O. multicaulis has faster growth and precocity (FAO, 1986; Wickens, 1998). Pataua requires hot and humid climatic conditions and thrives well in waterlogged or seasonally inundated sites such as riverbanks. When young, it can grow under deep shade. It is usually associated with areas having high humidity and a mean temperature of about 25°C. It can grow on very poor sandy soils. Its trees are found scattered on welldrained upland soils but forms extensive aggregations in seasonal swamp forests on gleyic podzols (FAO, 1986; Balick, 1988; Duke, 1989). Pataua palm provides nutritious item of diet to the Amerindian tribes living in its large groves. The fruits are used to prepare nutritious milk like beverage. High quality oil is extracted from its mesocarp. The physical and chemical composition of the oil is virtually identical to that of olive oil. The protein from pataua is better than that from several legumes. The oil is used as food and in the manufacture of soap and cosmetics. Leaves are used for thatching. Leaf and petiole yield soft and stiff fibres. The oil is used for the treatment of tuberculosis, flu, leprosy, parturition, asthma, cough and respiratory problems such as bronchitis and catarrh. It is also a good species for agroforestry uses (FAO, 1986; Balick, 1988; Duke, 1989; Clay and Clement, 1993). Per 100 g of fruit contains 3.3 g protein, 12.8 g fat, 47.2 g carbohydrates, 31.5 g fibre and 1300 mg carotenoids and provides 317.2 kcal energy (AguIar et ai., 1980).
Botany It grows as a solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic feather palm with a diameter of 25-45 cm and has spineless trunk. Leaves are pinnate, 6-8 m long with 4-6 m long rachis. Leaflets are alternate, lanceolate, acute and 40 to 75 mm wide. The palm is monoecious. Spathe is 1 m long and woody. The cream coloured flowers are borne in triads, one inner pistillate and two outer staminate, on the proximall/3-l/ 4 of the rachillae, distal to which are found only staminate flowers and rachillae attenuate towards the apex. Staminate flowers are 56 mm long having 3 sepals, 3 petals, and 8-16 stamens and owe-shaped filaments. Pistillate flowers have three imbricated sepals and petals and no stamens. Panicles may contain 1000 fruits each weighing 10-15 g. The fruit is an ovoid to ellipsoid drupe, 2.5 to 4 cm long, deep purple when ripe with ruminate endosperm (Fig. 25 on Page 46 Briicher, 1989).
Varieties Two types are known, one with whitish mesocarp and the other with purplish or pinkish mesocarp. A variant with reddish inner skin tissue has been recognised. A field gene bank has been established at EMBRAP A, Belem, Brazil.
Culture It is propagated from the seeds. Seed germinates after one month and seedling grows slowly. The seedling becomes ready for planting in about 18 to 24 months when they attain 30 cm height. Plant growth is improved by providing sufficient amount of water and partial shade. The tree comes into bearing 10 to 12 years after planting and produces two panicles per year. It bears heavily in alternate years. Flowering occurs from December to July and fruits ripen 6-8 months later. The fruit ripens from April to November in Colombia and from
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
155
September to January in Brazil. On an average, the tree produces 14 kg fruits per season. Harvesting of fruits is done either by shaking or picking. Fruits can be stored only for few days as they start rotting. No pests or diseases have been noticed (FAa, 1986).
81. PEJIBA YE The pejibaye or peach palm (Bactris gasipaes Kunth syn. Guilielma gasipaes (HBK) L. H. Bailey, Gasipaes chantadura Triana., G. microcarpa Hub., G. utilis Oersted. G. macana Mart. and G. ciliata (R. and P.) Wend!.) is native of Amazonia, Peru. Pejibaye may have originated from wild relatives, possibly as hybrid, in the south-west portion of Amazon Basin and has been widely dispersed by humans in South and Central America (Clement, 1988; MoraUrpi, 1996). It probably evolved from pupunha (B. microcarpa) of eastern Peru. The pejibaye grows in forests on slopes too steep for agriculture in Peru and Ecuador. It is rarely cultivated outside the central and northern South America and the West Indies. It is commercially cultivated in Costa Rica. Pejibaye is an important traditional fruit crop. Since its fruit is very nutritious and has high yield potential, it may have competitive advantage with the other basic food crops and perhaps oil crops in humid tropical environments (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Thus there is considerable scope for commercialization of peach palm for its fruit and palm heart for economic development in Central and South America. The related edible species are B. maraja Mart., B. guineenses H.E.Moore and B. major Jacquin. Pejibaye palm is a tropical species and requires hot and wet tropical lands. The palm grows well up to 700 m and is occasionally found even at 1,500 m elevation. The optimum temperature for its growth is 18-24°C. An evenly distributed annual rainfall of 3000 to 4000 mm is required. Drought is deleterious as most of the roots are produced near the soil surface. Its growth and productivity greatly depend upon soil type. It is most productive on relatively deep, fertile and well-drained soils at low to medium altitudes « 800 m above mean sea level), with abundant but well-distributed rainfall (2000-5000 mml year) and average temperatures above 24°C. It produces relatively well on low fertility soils but does not tolerate waterlogging (Mora-Urpi et ai., 1997). It can grow on heavy soils but loamy soil developed from river alluvium is considered the best (FAa, 1986, IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The pulp is edible when cooked. It is customary to boil the fruits for 3 hours in salted water before marketing. Boiling makes the flesh to separate easily from seed and usually the skin. The preboiled fruit is sometimes deep fried or roasted and served as snack garnished with mayonnaise or cheese dip. It has twice the starch content as that in potato but also contains high oil, protein and carotene contents. The starch is used for making tortillas, a staple food in central America usually made with maize flour. Commercially produced flour from fruit mesocarp has been introduced into the Costa Rican market for use in infant food, baked goods, soups and other products (Mora-urpi et al., 1997). The seeds that are oily with nutty flavour are eaten fresh or cooked. The heart of the young palm or palmi to is also edible. A wine is tapped from the stems and beer is made from the cooked and mashed immature fruits. The outer 2.5-5 cm of the stem can be used for reinforcing concrete. The palms are also grown for shade in cocoa and coffee plantations. Leaves are used for thatching (FAa, 1986; IBPGR, 1986; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Pejibaye fruit mescarp contains 56 g water, 3.01 g protein, 6.14 g fat, 33.05 g carbohydrates, 1.02 g fibre, 0.88 gash, 44.6 mg calcium, 101.8 mg phosphorus, 2.76 mg iron, 1.28 mg carotene, 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.455 mg niacin and 0.068 mg riboflavin and provides 194 calories per 100 g pulp (Perez Vela, 1985).
156
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Botany Peach palm is a multistemmed, unarmed and pleonanthic feather palm. It develops a straight, slender, 13 m tall stem after 10-15 or more years. The circular leaf sheath is normally covered with black spines. A new leaf (frond) is formed after every 2-4 weeks depending on the vigour of the palm. Fronds are 2.4-3.6 m long and spirally arranged around the trunk with a phyllotaxy of 110°. The leaflets (pinnae) are linear-Ianceolate with a bristly or prickly margin. The petiole normally has short and firm spines in 3 longitudinal strips on its lower surface, especially near the basal attachment. Typically, there are 10-13 fronds per palm. Suckers emerge during the first 5 years. Old palms may also produce suckers from the stump after felling. Usually about 8 offshoots are produced on a palm with a maximum of 18 of which 2-4 are normally allowed to develop. The monoecious palm develops inflorescences in the leafaxils of older fronds or very occasionally above the leaf scars just below the crown. The inflorescence is about 50 cm long with a central stalk (rachis) to which branchlets (rachillae) are attached. The small, sessile, cream-coloured flowers are borne on the rachillae with female flowers scattered between the more abundant male flowers. They have an annular and leathery calyx, a small, round, 3-toothed corolla and a trilocular ovary with 3 sessile stigmas. Male flowers are cream light yellow, 2-6 mm in length and width with six stamens arranged in pairs on the side of corolla. Female flowers are irregularly arranged among male flowers. Female flowers are usually yellow or rarely green, 3-13 mm long and 4-12 mm wide. The gynoecium is syncarpous and trilocular. The male flowers normally drop within 24 hours of releasing the pollen. Small weevils carry out pollination. The bunch of 50-100 fruits weighs 10-15 kg. The fruit is a cylindrical drupe, 2-6 cm in diameter, usually of orange colour but may be green, yellow, orange red to brown. Average weight of fruit varies from 29 to 100 g. The base of the fruit is nearly covered by the green leathery calyx. The nut is conical, about 2 em long and has a 1-2 mm thick, hard and black shell enclosing a white kernel. Average weight of the nut is around 3 g. The seed kernels may have oil rich endosperm. Seedless fruits (pejibaye macho) are produced in some palms (FAO, 1986, IBPGR, 1986, Morton, 1987, Briicher. 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
~@
AI
:;
® A
• A3
Fig. 76 ;' Bactris gasipaes, Peach palm, AI. Racemes with fruit in a drupe; A2. Cross-section and profile of the fruit; A3. Spine-covered internodes on the stem. (Hernandez Bermejo and Leon, 1994)
157
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
Varieties Since pejibaye has been in cultivation for more than 500 years, numerous varieties exist particularly in Costa Rica but have not been described. These have variations in pericarp colour, fruit size, flesh thickness and texture. Mora-urpi (1984) divided the known landraces into two subcomplexes: the occidental group includes the landraces found north and west of the Andes mountains and the oriental group includes landraces from the Amazon and Orinoco Basins. Landraces of the occidental group have stouter and harder stems, more and stronger spines, larger leaves and better anchorage in the soil when young compared with those of the oriental group. The oriental and occidental sub complexes are further divided on the basis of fruit size into microcarpa, mesocarpa and macrocarpa landraces. Macrocarpa landraces have larger fruit size (Mora-urpi et al., 1997). There are germplasm banks at Experiment Stations in Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Panama and Peru (Table 9). Three major germplasm collections exist in Brazil (Manaus), Colombia (Vallecuacano) and Costa Rica (Guapiles). The largest germplasm collection (over 1,100 accessions) is maintained by the University of Costa Rica at Guapiles; INPA, Manaus maintains 450 accessions; and CATIE, Colombia holds 400 accessions (Smith et al., 1992). Costa Rica has organised an intensive research programme for breeding (FAa, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij an~ Coronel, 1991). Seedlessness and spinlessness are partly heritable. It can be hybridized with other Bactris species (Morton, 1987). Table 9. Peach palm germplasm banks (Mora-urpi et al., 1997). Location Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil Manaus, Amazona, Brazil
Accessions Counhies (number) 43 Brazil, Costa Rica, Peru Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, 450 Ecuado~Panama,Peru
Una, Bahia, Brazil
27
Bolivia, Brazil, 'Colombia, Costa
?
Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru Colombia Colombia Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Honduras, Panama, Peru, Venezuela Costa Rica, Peru Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Panama, Peru Colombia, Ecuador, Peru Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru Costa Rica, Panama, Peru Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru Costa Rica, Venezuela Costa Rica, Venezuela Venezuela
~ca
Bajo Calima,Buenaventura, Colombia Florencia, Caqueta, Colombia Santuaria, Caqueta, Colombia Guapiles, Limon, Costa Rica
58 38 1207
Turrialba, Cartago, Costa Rica Turrialba, Cartago, Costa Rica
50 650
Napo-Payamino, Napo, Ecuador E1 Recreo, Rama, Nicaragua Las Pavas, Panama Iquitos, Loreto, Peru Yurimaguas, Loreto, Peru Saman Moche, Carabodo, Venezuela San Nicolas, Portugues, Venezuela Cataniapo, Puert Ayacucho, Venezuela ,
322 40 54 113
142 42 42 31
158 Culture
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Pejibaye is usually propagated by seeds, which are germinated under shade in trays' containing a mixture of moist coconut fibre and sand. Germination is slow and starts in 30- . 70 days. The shoot emerges in 10-14 days. These are planted in the nursery after one month and the seedlings at 2-leaf stage are planted in the field 3-5 months later. Vegetative shoots (offshoots) in the axils of basal leaves should be used to propagate true-to-type plants. Offshoot formation can be enhanced by removing apical dominance and by treating the young palms with 10 ppm flurenol. Root production in the offshoots and their survivcil. in the field can be improved by application of IBA (indole-3-butyric acid). Planting in the field is done at spacing of 5.5 x 5.5 m. For palm heart production, planting is done at 1.5 -2 m spacing. The palm begins to flower when 3-4 years old. Flowering takes place during April-June and the fruits ripen about 6 months later. To a young plant, 25 g N is applied twice in a year. Fertilizer application to provide 200-250 kg N, 50-100 kg P and 60-150 kg K per ha-1 year-1 is recommended. Harvesting is done manually, which is awkward because not only the fruit bunches but the stem, heart of the palm and leaves also have very sharp spines and the fruits are borne 10-12 m above the ground (Mora-urpi et al., 1997). Harvesting can also be done by shaking the palms. Fruit yield depends on tree age, planting density and environmental factors. A 4-year old palm yields about 6.7 tonnes fruit per hectare while a mature palm can yield 10.5 t/ha. The fruit can last for several months on the palm. The mature fruits are generally marketed in bunches. Fresh fruit has several weeks shelf life. It can be dried after processing and can be stored up to 6 months (FAO, 1986; IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987). The major limitations in cultivation of this fruit are related to management and marketing.. Pests and diseases do not seriously limit the production of pejibaye. Diseases such as basal rot (Diplodia spp.), white rot (Monilia spp.), tizon de racimo (Graphium sp.), black rot (Ceratocystis spp.) are known to infect the palm. The Phytophthora fungus may attack the stem. Fungi attacking the leaves include Pestaliopsis spp., Mycosphaerella spp. and Colletotrichum spp. Various fungicides and bactericides are used to control the pathogens. The pests that attack the pejibaye are the sugarcane weevil (Metamasius hemiphterus), basal . stem weevil (Strategeus aloeus) and foliage mite (Retracus johnstom) (FAO, 1986; IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Mora-urpi et al., 1997). Gopher (Orthogeomys cherriel) causes economical losses in peach palm plantations in Costa Rica. It eats the roots and stem tissues of the young palm but can be controlled by pesticides and traps.
82. PILI NUT Pili nut or Philippine nut (Canarium ovatum Engler) belongs to the family Burseraceae and is native of the Philippines. Bicol region of Philippines is the centre of diversity of pili nut. It is distributed throughout the tropics. It is cultivated in Malaysia, Hawaii, Brazil and Honduras.' The other species of the genus Canarium that bear edible nuts are C. pimela C. Koenig. (Chinese black olive), C. album Reauch. (Chinese white olive), C. indicum 1. (canary nut or Java almond) and C. schwemfurthii Engler (incense tree). These have originated in Asia and South East Asia. The species that are found in Australia are C. australeanum (in Aruhem land), C. harveyl Seemann (around Atherton tableland) and C. haileyanum (LisIl1ore through Queensland). It requires hot humid climatic conditions. The plants are very sensitive to frost. It is a typhoon resistant species (Coronel, 1996). It grows on wide range of soil conditions including very acid ~oils.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
159
Fruit pulp is pickled, roasted or eaten fresh. The seeds of all the four species are edible and are used in various preparations .. Nuts of C. mehenbethens, C. solomonense, C. commune and C. nungi are eaten extensively in New Guinea, the Solomons and the New Hebrides. C. megalanthum Merr. (kedondong keruing) is cultivated for its edible and very large seeds. Pili nut kernel is eaten raw or roasted, fried or sugar coated. It is frequently used as an ingredient in cakes, puddings and ice cream, and when cooked in syrup makes a good preserve. The roasted kernel is sometimes used to make chocolates. The green pulp can be made into pickle. It is one of the sources of the commercial resin traded as "Manila elemi" which is tapped from the tree trunk. Elemi is used as an ingredient in plasters and ointments. It is a valuable raw material in the manufacture of adhesives, printing inks, fire proof and waterproof materials, paints, varnishes, etc. It makes an excellent avenue and border tree and shade tree (Duke, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Coronel, 1996). The seeds are rich in oil and protein. The seed is reported to contain 12.2-15.6 g protein, 73.2-75.9 g fat, 6.0-10.8 g total carbohydrates, 2.3-3.5 g fibre, 13-18 g calcium, 7.159.1 g phosphorus, 2.9-4.8 mg iron, 26-35 p,g ~-carotene equivalent, 0.75-1.04 mg thiamine, 0.07-0.13 mg riboflavin, 0.44-0.58 mg niacin and 0-25 mg ascorbic acid and provides 699714 calories per 100 g of kernel on zero moisture basis (Duke, 1989). Wickens (1995) reported that the nut, on raw basis, contains 6.3 g water, 11.4 g protein, 71.1 g fat, 5.7 g carbohydrates, 2.7 g fibre, 14 g calcium, 54.4 g phosphorus, 48.9 g potassium, 3.4 mg iron, 40 IU vitamin A, 0.88 mg thiamine, 0.09 mg riboflavin and 0.5 mg niacin and provides 699 calories per 100 g of the edible portion. Botany It is a fairly large evergreen tree growing to a height of about 20 m with a trunk, diameter of 40 cm. Leaves are alternate, compound with opposite smooth leaflets rounded at the base and pointed at the apex. The leaflets are 10 to 20 cm long. It is dioecious. The flowers are borne in rather large terminal clusters. Flowers are 3-merous, unisexual, subsessile having cupular calyx, 3 petals and 6 stamens. The ovary contains 3 locules, each with 2 ovules but nearly always only one of the 6 ovules develops. The fruit consists of a single, 57 cm long, nearly cylindrical, oily, pleasantly flavoured kernel, hard and thick endocarp and a thin layer of soft pulp. It develops a glossy dark purple skin on ripening. The pulp is edible but is not tasty. Oil can be extracted from the pulp (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 77 : Canarium ovatum Eng!. - 1. Fruiting branch; 2. Fruit. (PROSEA No.2, 1981).(Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
16,0
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties Several varieties have been selected from the seedling trees in Los Banos, These are Katutubo, Oas, Mabunga, lbalon and Isarog. Lot of variability occurs in nature with regard to fruit and kernel weight. The National Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory of the Institute of Plant Breeding at the University of the Philippines, Los Banos, the Philippines has collected and evaluated fruits of about 260 accessions, 180 of which are from the Bicol region (Coronel, 1996).
Culture . It is propagated by seeds or by asexual methods such as marcotting, grafting and budding. Being dioecious, vegetative propagation is considered better. Two seedlings should be planted at one spot in the field at a spacing of 12 m. As soon as the sex of the seedlings is determined, all male plants should be removed leaving only one for 20-25 female trees. Vegetatively propagated trees should be planted at 8 m spacing. Application of 3 kg ammonium sulphate, 0.52 kg superphosphate and 1.23 kg muriate of potash should be done to a mature tree of pili nut. Cultural requirements for pili nut should be standardized (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Little pruning seems necessary. The seedling trees start fruiting 4-5 years after planting whereas asexually propagated trees start fruiting 2-4 years after planting. In Philippines, the plants flower during May-June and fruits mature in late summer or in early winter. A lO-year old tree produces 30 to 40 nuts in Honduras. However, up to 100 kg yield per tree has been reported from Philippines. At ripening, the colour of fruit turns black and the flesh turns white. Harvesting is traditionally done by repeatedly thrashing the fruiting shoots. The pulp of the fruit is removed by h~d either by fermentation or soaking in water at 40 to 50°C. Higher temperatures can cause premature breakdown in the nuts. Dried nuts store well but moist nuts go rancid vdthin 1 to 2 days. The kernel is extracted by cutting the shell with a knife. The testa of the kernel can also be removed by hot water. Mechanical cracking has not been reported. Pili nut is resistant to insect pests and diseases (Rosengarten, 1984; Duke, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Coronel, 1996).
83. PITOMBA Pitomba (Eugenia Iuschnathiana Klotzsch ex Berg syn. Phyllocalyx Iuschnathianus Berg.) belongs to family Myrtaceae and is native of Brazil. It is also called Uvalha do Campo in Brazil. Pitomba is cultivated to a limited extent locally in Bahia State of Brazil. It is a very rare fruit outside Brazil (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). Pitomba is a good home garden fruit crop and has limited potential for commercial production (Martin et al., 1987). Pitomba requires tropical to warm subtropical climatic conditions. It does not tolerate drought especially at the time of bloom and fruit development. It can grow in normal soils (Martin et al., 1987). Fruit pulp is eaten or made into jelly, preserve and carbonated preserve (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987).
Botany It is an attractive evergreen slow growing tree of 10 m height. Leaves are short petioled, oblong lanceolate, 2.5-7.5 cm long, glossy and dark green on the upper surface
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
161
and paler beneath. The phyllotaxy is opposite. Solitary flowers are long stalked (pedicel 23 cm), 4-petalled, white and borne in the leafaxils. Fruit is broad ovate, faintly 4 lobed, 2.53.2 cm long, bright orange yellow with 4 or 5 green sepals, 1.25 cm long, protruding from the apex. The skin is thin, tender and the pulp is golden yellow, apricot-like texture, soft, melting, juicy, aromatic and slightly acid and with faintly resinous flavour. There may be one round seed or 2 to 4 irregular angular seeds, light tan and 1-1.6 em in diameter (Morton, 1987).
Varieties Lot of variability occurs in nature with respect to fruit size providing scope to select superior types (Morton, 1987).
Culture It is generally propagated through seeds or by grafting. The plant comes into flowering early if grown in well-fertilized soil and is heavily irrigated frequently. Flowers appear in late spring and early summer in Florida and the fruit takes 60 days to mature. Fruits start ripening during November-December. At maturity, the fruit turns orange in colour and becomes ready for harvest. There is no report of insect pest attacking pitomba plants (Morton, 1987).
84. PITOMBERIA Pitomberia (Talisia esculenta (St. Hil.) Radlk. syn. Sapindus esculentus St. Hil.) belongs to the family Sapindaceae and is native of South America (Martin et al., 1987). It is distributed from the State of Amazonas up to the State of Rio de Janeiro as well as in Paraguay and Bolivia. It is found growing from north-west- Argentina, Bolivia to Brazil and Mexico. The related edible species are T. ovaliformis Radlk., T. intermedia Radlk. and T. guianensis Aubl. Scope for its wider cultivation seems limited (Martin et al., 1987). It requires hot wet tropical lowland conditions and can be 'grown on a wide range of soils except those that are seasonally flooded, substantially rocky or sandy (FAO, 1986; Briicher, 1989). The white tasty pulp (arll) is eaten fresh. Its flavour is subacid and has moderate appeal. A pleasant drink is prepared from the pulp. The seeds are very astringent and when cooked are used to treat chronic diarrhoea (FAO, 1986)..
Botany Pitomberia is a medium sized tree growing up to 4-12 m in height with brown, thick and rough bark. Leaves are alternate, I-pinnate, exstipulate, 2-4 subopposite to alternate pairs of leaflets, narrowly elliptic to oblong-elliptic, 7-13 x 3-:6 cm in size. Inflorescence is borne terminally on the branchlets. Flowers are bisexual with 5 sepals, elliptic, 3 mm long; petals 5, white or pinkish, fragrant; stamens 8, filaments hairy arising from within a glabrous disk at the base of ovary; ovary ovoid; apiculate berry, 2.5 cm in diameter, yellowish green with coriaceous exocarp; seeds 1-2, enveloped by a white, fleshy, edible arll with thick, superimposed cotyledons (FAO, 1986).
162
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS
AND, NUTS
2 r-
19 ·,,~
O '",'
,
3 . ;.~.,,,
Fig. 78 : Talisia esculenta (St. Hil.) Radlk., Pitomberia, 1. Flowering branch; 2. Fruit; 3. Seed (FAD, 1986)
Varieties No standard variety is known in pitomberia.
Culture , It is generally propagated from the seeds. There is little information about its ' cultivation practice. The flowering takes place during September-November or sometimes extending to December. Fruit matures in 120 days after flowering. On ripening, the fruit skin changes to yellow in colour. It is common to use a ladder and a pruning hook or pruning shear to harvest the fruits. No insect pests are known to infest the pitomberia (FAO, 1986; Martin et al., 1987).
85. PULA SAN Pulasan (Nephelium ramboutan-ake (Labill.) Leenh. syn. Nephelium mutabile Bl. belongs to the family Sapindaceae and is native of west Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra (Page, 1984). It is cultivated on large scale in the western part of Java with fewer plantings in rest of Indonesia,.Thailand and Malaya. The other related species producing edible fruits are N. erio'petalum Miq. Ootong, found growing in South East Asia), N. hypoleucum Kurz. (kyet-monk, found growing in Indo China), N. uncinatum Radlk. ex Leenh. (namun, found growing in Indonesia), N. acuIeat,um Leenh. (distributed in Sabah, Borneo), N. juglandifolium Blume. Oungsir, found growing in peninsular Malaysia), N. meduseum Leenh. (distributed in Borneo), N. melanomiscum Radlk. (parih, found growing in Borneo and Philippines), N. melliferum
163
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
Gagnepain (distributed ill peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam), N. reticulatum Radlk. (buah stagok, distributed in Borneo) and N. maingayi Hiern. (ridden) found growing in Indonesia'and Malaysia (Morton, 1987). Pulasan has good potential for wider cultivation in hot tropics because of regular bearing (Martin et al., 1987). The tree seems to thrive only in warm and humid climatic conditions on rich, welldrained moist. soils. It grows largely on hills, ridges and slopes on sandy, sandy clay or clay soils. It is more exacting in its climatic and soil requirements than the rambutan. It grows well in areas below 350 m altitudes having an annual rainfall of 300~ mm. Fruits are eaten fresh and are also used in stews as compote or to prepare jam. Boiled or roasted seeds are used to prepare a cocoa like beverage (Morton, 1987). Pulasan fruit contains 84.5-90.8 g water, 0.82 g protein, 12.86 g carbohydrates, 0.14 g fibre, 0.55 g fat, 0.01-0.05 mg calcium and 0.002 mg iron per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987). Botany It is a medium-siZed tree growing up to 10-15 m in height with a round, smooth, low-branched trunk, brown bark and irregular crown. The branchlets are thin, terete, densely rusty and pubescent when young and glabrescent. The leaves are alternate, petioled and even-pinnate or spuriously odd pinnate by atrophy of one of the terminal leaflets. The leaflets are opposite, short stalked, oblong lanceolate or elliptic lanceolate, entire, coriaceous, dark green and glabrous above with short silky hair below. The trees may be dioecious. The inflorescences are axillary and terminal, erect, clothed with short yellowish or brown pubescence and are 10-12 em long. The flowers are polygamous or unisexual, apetalous, fascicled or solitary along branches of inflorescence. The calyx is cup shaped, 4-5 lobed and membranous. There are 6-8 stamens in the male flower. The ovary is obcordate, two or three lobed and coarsely hairy. The fruit consists of one well developed nutlet (drupe) with one or two abortive ones at its base. The fruits are oblong, dark red or occasionally yellow and are covered with coarse, short but poiIited tubercles or soft spines. The pericarp is thick and shiny and yellowish white inside. The aril is clear, yellowish white and juicy. The seeds are ovoid-oblong or ellipsoid, compressed laterally and 2-3.5 x 1.5-2 cm in size . •' •
~
I
I
, ~
Fig. 79 : Nephelium mutabile BI. (IBPGR, 1980)
.
164
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties There are numerous varieties.of pulasan in Java. These are divided into two main groups, one having dark red fruits with crowded tubercles and an ari1 which separates from the seed and the other having lighter coloured fruits with widely set tubercles and an ari1 which adheres firmly to the seed. The best forms of the first group have about 7 to 8 cm long and 4 to 5 cm broad fruits which have a yellowish or light greyish white and about 1 cm thick aril. The fruits of the second group are usually smaller. Around Bogor (Inaonesia), there arethree forms, characterized by the colour of the fruits, namely dark red, red and yellow. Superior varieties are Asmerah Tjoplok and KapooIasan Mera Tjoplok (Morton, 1987). Most widely planted pulasan cultivars are PI, P4, P6, P8, P22, P28, P54, P63 and Lee in Malaysia; Merah, Poetih, Sibaba~ and Koeneng in Indonesia; and Sibabat in Philippines (Page,1984). Gene banks of pulasan have been maintained at Centro Agronomico Tropical De Investigacion y Ensenanza APDO, Turrialba (16 accessions) and National Clonal Germplasm Repository, USDA-ARS, Hilo, Hawaii (Bettencourt et al., 1992).
Culture Pulasan is propagated by seeds or by marcotting or bud grafting on the seedlings of other species of Nephelium. Cultural requirements for the cultivation of pulasan should be standardized. Planting densities used per hectare are 80 to 120 trees. Flowering occurs during June to August and ripe fruits become available in October-December. Fruit yields are much higher than in rambutan. Powdery mildew often infects the fruits but does not seriously affect their quality. No other diseases or pests have been reported (Morton, 1987).
86. PUMMELO The pummelo or shaddock (Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck syn. C. maxima Merril., C. decumana L.) originated in South East Asia. It is widely distributed in the Asian tropics, particularly Thailand, Myanmar, Malaysia and Indonesia and southern China. It is grown in China, Indonesia, Thailand, Japan and India. Three variants of the species are C. grandis . var. megaloxycarpa R. Singh and Nath; C. grandis var. keem and C. grandis var. rugosa (Anon., 1992). Pummelo grows the best under hot humid climatic conditions. It is more frost tolerant than lime and can grow in both wet and dry regions of the tropics. It thrives well in mountain areas up to 1000 m above sea level. It requires light, humus-rich soil but can grow even in soils not usually used for agriculture (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). In Thailand, it grows in heavy soils with high water table and tolerates high salinity. The fruit is eaten fresh as dessert or sn.ack and is also used for preparation of juice. Its rind is often used to make candy. The bitter oil of the seeds is used for soap preparation. In Vietnam, the aromatic flowers are used to make perfume. The wood is used to make tool handles. Leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds are useful for the treatment of cough, fever and gastric disorders (Morton, 1987) . . ' Pummelo provides 25-58 calories and contains 84.8-94.1 g moisture, 0.5-0.74 g protein, 0.2-0.56 g fat, 6.3-12.4 g carbohydrates, 0.3-0.82 g fibre, 21-30 mg calcium, 20-27 mg phosphorus, 0.3-0.5 mg iron, 20 ru vitamin A, 0.04-0.07 mg thiamine, 0.02 mg riboflavin, 0.3 mg niacin and 30-43 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of fruit (Morton, 1987).
165
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
Botany It is evergreen, round-topped and almost thornless tree growing up to 5 to 19 m in height. The central trunk is divided into principal branches having brown bark. Its leaves, flowers and fruits are usually larger than any of the citrus types (Davies and Albrigo, 1994). New pubescent twigs are angled and often have long spines. The leaves are thick, coriaceous, shiny, alternate, large and ovate or ovate-elliptic,.5-20 x 2-12 cm in size, with blunt tip, broadly rounded or sub-cordate base and the principal vein is frequently pubescent. The petiole wings are broadly extended and are sometimes continuous with the leaf blade. The flowers are large and 3-7 em in diameter. They emerge in small groups in the axils of the leaves or as subterminal inflorescences. They are white~or cream and have 5 sepals, 5 petals, 20 to 25 stamens with large anthers and a globose ovary of 12 to 18 segments. The fruit is globose, oblate or pyriform, 20 to 25 cm in diameter and 10 kg in weight. The peel is very thick, green, yellow green or yellow and is easy to remove. The segments of the fruit are easily separated and the tough membrane also easily separates from the juice sacs without spilling the juice. The pulp is white, pale green, pink or red. The seeds are large, thi~ and rough (Morton, 1987).
'I
Fig. 80 : CitnlS maxima (Burm.) Merr. syn. C. grandis (1.) Osbeck (IBPGR, 1980)
Varieties There are many local recognized varieties of pummelo. They can be divided into three groups - Chinese, Thailandese and Indonesian. Fruits in the Thai group are generally " smaller than those in the Chinese group (Saunt, 1990). Major cultivars in the Thai group are Chandler (pink fleshed), Kao Panne and Kao Phuang (white fl~shed)i those in the Chi!1ese group are Goliath, Mato and Shatinyu (all white fleshed); and those in the Indonesian group are Banpelyu (white fleshed) and Djeroek Delemma Kopjar. These are
166
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
distinguished by their form and quality. The principal varieties of the western hemisphere are Nakhon, Kao Panne, Kao Phuang, Thong Dee, Siamese Sweet{ Chandler, Reinking, Mato Butan, Amoy, Banpeiyu, Hirado Buntan, Pandan Bener, Pandi'm Wangi, Red Sha.ddock, Webber, Tambun and African. The important varieties of Australia are Ryan (early maturing in April-June), White Fleshed, Bosred (mid to late season with pink flesh) and Termat (mid season). The most famous cultivar in China is Shatien. Other important varieties of Thailand are Stamese, Bangkok, Khao Yai and Khao Jeep. The two hybrids between Pummelo and grapefruit gro~ to a limited extent in California and Israel are 'Melogold' and 'Oroblanco', which have intermediate characteristics (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; Davies and Albrigo, 1994). Pummelo germplasm banks have been maintained at Instituto Agronomico De Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo (46 accessions), Institute of Citrus Research, Beipei, Sichuan Province, China (79+21 accessions), Malang Research Institute for Food Crops, Malang, East Java, Indonesia (8 accessions), Citrus and Subtropical Fruit Research Institute, Nelspruit, Transvaal, South Africa (28 accessions), Chulalongkorn University, Faculty of Science, Bangkok (148 accessions) and Deptt. of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California (56 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1992).
Culture Pummelo is generally propagated from the seeds but the fruit quality in seedling trees is variable. Propagation by bud and terminal grafts, cuttings and air layering are successful. Plants are normally raised in plastic containers for field planting. Young trees are planted 7 to 10 m apart during the rainy season. Trees should be watered at planting time and regularly thereafter at 7-14 days interval. About 100 g of balanced mineral fertilizer should be applied to established plants every 4 months. Spray of copper, zinc and manganese should be done if the trees show deficiency symptoms. Young trees should be trained keeping a few principal branches to develop a spreading form (Martin et al., 1987). Fruit maturity is judged by the colour and appearance of the peel. The peel colour changes slightly as the fruits ripen which is more pronounced in a cool climate. The oil glands in the fruit skin become more prominent and shiny. This change starts near the tip of fruit and as progresses towards the stalk, the fruit attains full taste for harvest. The average yield greatly depends on cultivar and environment. On an average, 70-100 fruits per tree (20 t/ha) per year are produced. Quality of fruits picked at early stage of ripening for distant markets improves somewhat during storage for 1-2 months. Pummelo is particularly susceptible to bacterial canker. It infects both young shoots and fruits. Frequent sprays with copper fungicides have not given adequate control. Root rot and gummosis on the trunk and brown rot of the fruit, caused by Phytophthora sp. destroys the whole tree. Several pests such as leaf miners (Phyllocnistis citrella), leaf eating caterpillars, fruit boring caterpillars (Citripestis sp.), scales, red mites, fruitflies, nematodes and rats cause damage to pummelo trees (Morton, 1987).
87. RAKUM PALM Rakum palm or sala (SaZacca wallichiana C. Martius) belongs to the family Palmae and is native of the lowlands of southern Myanmar, peninsular Malaysia and the coastal provinces in Thailand from Bangkok eastwards. In Thailand, it grows wild and is cultivated in hot and humid areas (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMiD REGIONS
~equires ~ot
167
The pahn lowlands having annual rainfall of 2500-3000 mm with 5-6 dry months. Dry ,.eather is needed for good fruit set. Spadices emerging during the rainy season tend to rot and have poor viability of pollen. The optimum temperature range is 2232°C. Flowering is'reduced under lower temperatures. The pahn thrives in sandy loam to heavy clay soils and grows well in low-lying wet lands. It can withstand drought very well but for good yield, irrigation is needed in dry season. It can also tolerate shade (Verheij and Coronel,1991). Rakum pahn is grown for the edible sarcotesta of the fruit. The sour unripe fruit can be a substitute for lime in cooking. The ripe fruit is sweet. It is grown as a fruit-bearing fence and is a major source of cork, thatch and other construction materials (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). ~
Botany It is a creeping and tillering pahn, growing in clumps with very spiny leaves. The creeping stem can reach 3-4 m height with an erect terminal 1 m leaf bearing part having many adventitious roots. The leaves are 3-7 m long, pinnate, bearing flat spines ahnost perpendicular to the leaf sheaths. Leaeets are 60-75 x 6-8 cm in size. The pahn is dioecious. Male inflorescences are about 1 m long, branching into many reddish spadices. The flowers have 3 sepals, 3 petals and 5 stamens with anthers containing yellowish functional pollen. Female inflorescences are 1-2 m long with 3-8 reddish spadices each having staminate and hermaphrodite flowers in 1:1 ratio, both without functional pollen. Staminate flowers have a reddish, tubular corolla and 5 staminodes borne on the corolla throat. Hermaphrodite flowers have 3 pink sepals fused at the base, trilocular hairy ovary with a short, trifid, dark red stigma and 5-6 staminodes borne on the corolla throat. Fruit is an obovoid, 2.5 cm long drupe occurring in dense heads. The fruit skin (epicarp) consists of orange brown scales with reflexed brittle points and the endocarp is not differentiated. Seeds are 1-3, covered with a fleshy sarcotesta (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 81 : Salacca wallichiana C. Martius, Rakum palm, 1. Part of female plant with inflorescences and infructescence; 2: Infructescence (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
168
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties The important cultivars are Sala Mor, Sala Sane, Sala Noenwong and the spineless Sakum. Sala Mor and Sala Sane originated from rakum palm grown near Bangkok. A germplasm collection is maintained at the Chantaburi Horticulture Research Centre, Chantaburi, Thailand (10 accessions) (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Culture It is readily propagated from the seeds. However, vegetative propagation is recommended. Stem sections of 1-2 m length taken from aging and high quality clones are bU1ied in the soil and are covered with rice straw. The soil is kept moist. The plantlets are separated from the stem and nursed in polythene bags for one year before planting out during the beginning of rainy season. Propagation by separating rooted suckers from the mother palm is Jess common. Depending upon cultivar, 200 to 400.palms are planted per hectare. In mixed orchards, palms are planted between the tree rows. Six to seven per cent male palms are considered sufficient for good pollination, which is carried out mainly by insects. Xenia effects are noticed. Thus hand pollination with a good pollinizer results in higher yields. Weed control is most important during the first 1-3 years. Suckers should be removed from time to time in non-bearing orchard. One or two stems per clump are sufficient. Irrigatio~ during the dry season together with application of manure and 3-4 kg of a complete fertilizer (low N) to each clump improves yield and fruit quality considerably. The palm starts bearing 5-6 years after planting. Flowering continues throughout ..... the year but heavy fruit set occurs in November-December. The fruits are harvested from June to August in Thailand. The skin colour of the fruit turns orange on ripening. The flesh of 10-19 weeks old fruits is white and turns light yellow when they are 20-22 weeks old. As the fruit grows, it gradually assumes a more yellow-orange colour. At harvest, each fruit cluster or the entire inflorescence is cut with a hooked knife or pruning shears ha~g long handles. The average yield varies from 6 to 12 t/ha per year depending on cultivar. Growing rakum palm is profitable. However, research efforts are required on management of the dense and spiny palms and to develop post harvest techniques that would extend its market potential (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Some diseases and pests have been observed. Fruit rot occurs especially during the rainy season. The insects like weevil, fruit eating worms have been reported. Rodents cause serious damage to the fruits (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
88. RAMBUTAN Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L. syn. Euphoria nephelium DC.) belongs to the family Sapindaceae and is native of South East Asia (Martin et al., 1987). The species is distributed from southern China through Indo-China, Malaysian Peninsula, Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi) to the Philippines. The trees occur in the lower or middle storey in differe~t types of primary and secondary forests ranging from drylands to the swamps. It is cultivated throughout the humid tropics of Asia (Sri Lanka to New Guinea) and in small numbers in the humid tropics of America, Africa and Australia (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Rambutan has good potential for expansion of commercial production in hot tropics (Martin et al., 1987).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
169.
Rambutan thrives well in the humid tropical lowlands within 12° from the equator receiving rainfall of 2500 mm/year. It does not do well ip the subtropical areas and does not tolerate frost. Exposure to dry wind causes browning of the leaf margins and thus sheltered locations or windscreens are recommended. Deep well-drained fertile sandy loam or clay loam soils having pH 4.5-6.5 are preferred. Iron and zinc deficiences are common at higher pH (Martin et al., 19~7; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The white, translucent, subacid-sweet juicy sarcotesta around the seed is eaten. The sweet sour types are stewed. The sarcotesta can be canned or used for the preparation of jam or jellies or syrup but loses lot of its flavour in the process. The seed kernel (embryo) can be used for the production of rambutan tallow, a solid fat similar to cacao butter, which is edible and is also used for making soaps and 'candles. The seed is eaten after roasting but is bitter and narcotic. The fruit is said to be astringent, stomachic and anthelmintic. The roots are used in decoctions for treating fever. The bark is used as an astringent for diseases of the tongue. The leaves are used in poultices for headache. The fruit wall contains a toxic saponin, which in Java is dried and used as a medicine (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The wood is suitable for general construction. Young shoots are utilized as a green dye for silk. The fruit walls together with tannin-rich parts of other plants are used to dye the silk black after a preliminary red staining. Leaves are utilized, together With mud, as an impermanent black dye. Rambutan fruit contains 82.3 g n:toisture, 0.46 g protein, 16.02 g total carbohydrates, 0.24 g fibre, 10.6 mg calcium, 12.9 mg phosphorus and 30 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany Rambutan is a large, round topped, much branched evergreen tree. The wild trees are fairly large (13 m in height) whereas the clonal trees are 4-7 m high and usually have spreading growth. Leaves are alternate, paripinnate having ovate to obovate 3-4 pairs of leaflets of 5-28 x 2-10.5 cm size, usually horizontal, glabrous above or sometimes slightly hairy on the midrib and variably hairy beneath. Both monoecious and dioecious tree types occur. The inflorescences are pseudo-terminal to terminal. The actinomorphic, whitish, yellowish or greenish flowers are either male (having well developed sfamens or have stigma that fails to open) or hermaphrodite or female (having small stamens that lack anther dehiscence). The 4-5 sepals are nearly free more than halfway, connate and 0.7-2.1 mm long. Petals are usually absent or sometimes up to 4 develop but remain reduced in size not exceeding 1.6 mm. Disc is completely hairy or glabrous. In malE; flower, 5-8 stamens are , exerted with filaments having dense long hair at least in the basal part and anthers de~g lengthwise. In hermaphodite flower, the pistil is 2 or rarely 3 merous, densely hairy and well developed; the ovary is warty with well developed style and spreading stigma. The fntits are ellipsoid to subglobular, 6 x 3.5 cm in size, weighing 20-95 g and having short pedicels. The pericarp is red or yellow and is covered with smooth appendages that look like curved thorns but are soft and flexible. The interior aril is smooth, white, translucent, juicy and sweet. The seed is ellipsoidal and 2-3 em long (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
170
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Fig. 82 : Nephelium lappaceum L. (IBPGR, 1980)
Varieties The cultivars originated by cloning superior plants from the wild variety of rambutan. Popular varieties in Malaya include Chooi Ang, Peng Thing Bee, Ya Tow, Azimat and Ayer Mas {Morton, 1987}). Important cultivars in Thailand are Chompoo, Rongrien, Bang Yi Khan, See Tong and Nam Tan Kruad. In Ja va, cultivars Labakbulus, Binjay, Tankue, Rapish and Simacan have dominated the nurseries since the thirties. In the Philippines, cultivars introduced from Indonesia (Simecen, Sinyonya, Maharlika) are grown. The cultivars are distinguished by characters such as 'thickness, colour, juice content and aroma of the flesh and its adherence to the seed (clingstone or free stone) and whether the papery skin of the seed comes off with the flesh. The wild varieties pa1ler!s and xanthioides could be used for cultivar improvement (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). About 20 clones of rambutan cultivated in different countries of South East Asia originated from six varieties of N.lappaceum (var.lappaceum, pallens, xanthoides (restricted to Borneo), cuspidatum, eriopetalum and robustum). The recommended clones are R3 (Peng Thing Cheng), R134, R 156 (Muar Gading), R 160 (Khaw Tow Bak), R 161 (Lee Long), R 162 (Oh Heok) and R 170 (Deli Cheng) in Malaysia; Rapiah, Tankuweh and Binjai in Indonesia; and Rognrian and Seechompoo in Thailand (Rao and Ramanatha Rao, 1998). The other common clones grown in Indonesia are Seematjan, Seenjonja, Seetangkooweh, Seelengkeng and Seekonto. Promising cultivars selected in Hainan, China are B-R-1 and B-R-2 (Kay-Ming, 1990b).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
171
Germplasm collections of rambutan have been maintained at Plew Horticultural Experimental Station, Chantaburi, Thailand (275 accessions), Institute of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Laguna, Philippines (105 accessions), Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia (70 accessions), and Northern Territory Department of Primary Production, Darwin, Australia (20 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1992).
Culture It is generally propagated through seeds or by asexual methods such as budding, inarching and air layering. The seed loses viability very quickly and should be sown immediately after removal of the sarcotesta. Commercial plantations are done with clonal trees raised by modified forkert budding on seedling rootstocks. Seeds are pre-germinated and the seedlings are grown under shade for about two months before transplanting in nursery rows for budding within a year. Budwood is defoliated 10-40 days before use to induce the development of axillary buds. Budding should not be done before flowering time, as it would result in flowering of the budlings. Layering and inarching are also successful. Planting density ranges from less than 100 (10 x 10 m) to about 300 (7 x 5 m) trees per hectare. The spacing depends on vigour of the stock-scion combination and growing conditions. Shading of young trees after planting is necessary. Mulching should be done to maintain soil moisture (Kay-Ming, 1990b). Pruning is done to control tree size. Pruning all shoots that grow in the interior of the tree without opening the canopy is common in Thailand and Indonesia. After harvest, only the remains of panicles are pruned to stimulate growth of lateral shoots. These lateral shoots are less likely to flower next time. This also develops less productive long base limbs due to yearly extension growth. Therefore, the branches that have fruited should be trimmed after harvest as their removal keeps the canopy open and brings the flowering terminals into prominence. This pruning system keeps the trees small and their branching pattern simple. Techniques to control tree size and to induce flowering should be improved (Verheij . and Coronel, 1991). . Irrigation is desirable as water stress after flowering results in low fruit set and reduced sarcotestCl development. Clean cultivation is practised and organic mulching under the trees is beneficial. ill Malaysia, nutrient removal by 7300 kg fruit harvest per hectare has been found to be 15 kg N, 2 kg P, 11.7 kg K; 5.9 kg Ca and 2.7 kg Mg. Regular fertilization of young trees is recommended. Applications of mineral fertilizer should be gradually increased to a maximum of 8 kg per tree per year. Rambutan is dioecious. Usually female trees that produce few or no functional male flowers are planted. Hence, special measures are required to ensure pollination. In some Thai orchards, spot treatment with naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) is done to increase the proportion of male flowers. However, interplanting with functional male trees and training them to have tall trunks is considered more reliable to ensure effective pollination. Bees and flies are the usual pollinating agents. Seedling trees start bearing 5-6 years after planting and the budded trees after 8-10 years. In the seedlings, periods of fast and slow growth alternate. The terminal inflorescences put an end to extension of the axis and the lateral shoots on the twigs, that have borne the crop, produce branches. Flowering occurs during the dry season. Well developed inflorescences on vigorous shoots generally show good fruit set and retention. Bloom may
172
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
continue for several months as in cultivars Lebakbulus, extending the harvest period. The fruit ripens about 110 days after bloom during the rainy season. Most of the vegetative growth (terminal as well as lateral) occurs after fruit harvest. The most vigorous of these early shoots carry the next crop. . . The fruit is non-climacteric and has to be harvested when fully ripe by cutting the entire panicle or cluster. This may have to be done twice a week for 2-8 weeks and sold as bunches or as individual fruits. The tree may produce 5-10 kg fruits two years after planting. Fruit yield of 2.5-6 t/ha in Malaysia and 7.5 t/ha in Thailand is obtained. However, excellent orchards in Thailand have produced 170 kg fruits per tree or 20 t/ha during the 11th year. The shelf life of the fruit is only a few days because the filments and the skin turn black. Keeping the fruits moist and shaded extends their shelf life slightly. Cold storage at 5-lOoC and fungicidal treatment may extend their shelf life to several weeks. Storing the fruits in sealed polythene bags at 19°C and 95% RH keeps the fruits in fresh conditions for 12 days. Sulphur treatments are done in Thailand during the period from bloom to fruit set for control of powdery mildew (Oidium nephelii) infection. Stem canker (Dolabra nepheliae) causes loss of limbs and disfigures the surface of branches and twigs. Its incidence can be reduced by proper air circulation in the canopy. The other injurious insects are litchi sting bug (Tessaratoma papillosa), litchi bark borer (Arbela spp.), fruit weevil, stem borer, leaf rollers, ruteline beetle (Anomale spp.) and scale insects (Kay-Ming, 1990b). Fruit piercing moth or cacao pod borer (Acrocercops cramerella) is a common pest. Mealy bugs may take shelter in the fruit panicles. Ants and sooty mould grow on the honey dew secretion. Fruitflies attack the overripe fruits. The fruits are also damaged by bats, rodents and monkeys (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
89. ROSE APPLE The rose apple or malabar plum (Syzygium jambos (1.) Alston. syn. Eugenia jambos 1., Jambosa vulgaris DC.) belongs to the family Myrtaceae. It is a native of Indo-Malayan region. It has a long history of cultivation in Malaysian Archipelago and India and grows wild in these areas. Domestication probably occurred in Malaysia from where it moved to southern and later north-eastern India where it is now naturalized (IBPGR, 1986). The rose apple has been introduced in Cuba, USA and Brazil including Sierra Leone where it is seminaturalized. In India, it is grown in Assam, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Gujarat (FAO, 1982; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It grows equally well in warm moist tropics and cooler and drier subtropics. It thrives up to 1200 m above sea level. At much higher elevations and towards its limits in the subtropics, it bears no fruit. It is fairly hardy and can tolerate temperatures as low as -4°C and high wind velocity..It prefers a deep loamy soil but performs well even in poorer soils. It cannot tolerate a high water table. Plants show chlorosis in highly calcareous soils having pH 8. The rose scented fruits are eaten raw or are used to prepare preserves, candies and jellies. The fruit is rich in pectiri. A yellow essential oil can be steam-distilled from the leaves, which is used in perfume industry. The heartwood is heavy and hard and is suitable for use as construction timber but is very susceptible to termite attack. The bark is used for tanning and dyeing. It is tonic and diuretic. The rose apple is also grown as a useful melliferous and ornamental plant (FAO, 1982; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
173
Per 100 g of edible portion of rose apple provides 56 calories and contains 84.589.1 g moisture, 0.2-0.3 g protein, 14.2 g carbohydrates, 1.1-1.9 g fibre, 29-45.2 mg calcium, 11.7-30 mg phosphorus, 0.45-1.2 mg iron, 123-235 IV carotene, 0.01-0.19 mg thiamine, 0.0280.05 mg ri~oflavin, 0.52-0.8 mg niacin and 3-37 mg ascorbic acid (Morton, 1987). Botany Rose apple is an attractive evergreen tree and grows up to 9 m high. The young leaves are dark green, glossy, oblong-Ianceolate, 10-20 cm long, acuminate, thick and shortpetioled. The flowers are greenish white, 6-8 cm in size and appear in short terminal coryrnbs. The calyx has 4, suborbicu1ar sepals of 10 x 7 rnrn size. Four petals are suborbicu1ar, up to 10 x 7 mm in size and white to greenish white in colour. The stamens are 400 in number and 4 ern long; the style is also up to 4 ern long and the pedicel is up to 1.5 ern long. The fruit is a round or oval berry, 2-5 cm in diameter, greenish to pale yellow and flushed with yellow with a taste rather like that of apricot and an aroma of rose. Seeds are grey, 12 and lie loose in the cavity of a succulent pericCLrp and are polyembryonic producing 1-2 plants (FAO, 1982; IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 83 : Syzygium jambos Alston, Rose apple, 1. Twig with flowers and young fruit; 2. Mature fruit; 3. Fruit in cross-section (Ochse , 1977; Vegetables of the Dutch East Indies, Survey of the indigenous and foreign plants serving as' pot herbs and side dishes; A. Asher & Co., BV, Amsterdam)
Varieties There ~re no standard cultivars available but selections can be made from the available variability. Genetic resources of rose apple have been maintained at Institute of Technical and Fruit Crops, Vinh Dhu, Vietnam (2 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1992).
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UNDERUTILIZED F"RUITS AND NUTS
Culture The rose apple is propagated by seeds, which are polyembryonic. The sexual and asexual seedlings are difficult to distinguish. Budding and layering methods have been developed but are not widely used. Shield and forkert budding are also successful during the rainy season. S. pycnanthum Merr. and Perry and S. samarangense (Blume) Merr. and Perry can also serve as rootstocks. Planting is done at 6-8 m spacing. Adequate shade must be prOvided to the plants during the early stages of growth to avoid drying out by the sun. Timely weeding and regular fertilization are needed to produce good crops. The tree starts bearing 5-6 years after planting when raised from seed and after 34 years if vegetatively propagated. Flowering occurs during February-March and the fruit ripens 3 months after bloom. The rose water smell of the fruit is distinctive. The average yield is low (2 kg per tree per year) and the fruits are susceptible to bruising and have short shelf life. These are serious handicaps to make this fruit crop commercially feasible (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruits should be handled carefully and marketed as quickly as possible as they get bruised easily and rapidly lose their crispness. It is a non-climacteric fruit and does not change colour during storage. The fruis are infested by fruitflies (Anastrepha spp. and Ceratitis spp.). Fungal diseases like black spot or black mildew, sooty mould and mushroom root-rot are observed but none of them are serious (IBPGR, 1986; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
90. RUKAM Rukam or Indian prune (Flacourtia rukam Zollo et Mor.) belongs to the family Flacourtiaceae and is a native of Philippines and Malay Archipelago (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as Indian plum. It has been introduced into Indo-China, India, Fiji, Thailand and American tropics and subtropics (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Rukam requires hot humid tropical climatic conditions. It can grow up to 1500 m above sea lev~l. It is found growing wild even up to 2100 m elevations. Its natural habitat is primary or secondary forests often along the rivers. The tree grows in shade as well as in full sun. It is fairly adaptable to a range of temperature, rainfall and soil conditions (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Rukam can be grown in calcareous soils. The ripe fruit can be eaten raw or used to prepare jam or jellies. It is rubbed between the palms to eliminate astringency in the flesh. It is also served in rujak, a fruit salad with spicy sauce, and is pickled or sweetened with sugar to make jam or confectioneries. Immature fruit is used in traditional medicine against diarrhoea and dysentery. The juice of the leaves is applied to inflamed eyelids. In Philippines, women take decoction of its roots after childbirth. The wood is hard and strong and is used to make household utensils and furniture (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coron~l, 1991). The fruit provides 82.8 calories, 76.93 g moisture, 1.72 g protein, 1.26 g fat, 3.71 g fibre, and 11.29 g carbohydrates per 100 g of pulp (Morton, 1987).
Botany Rukam is a evergreen, tall tree growing up to 10 m in height with twisted trunk. It closely resembles ramontchi (F. indica Merr.) except that it tends to be more upright and its leaves are narrower. Simple or branched woody spines, up to 10 cm in length, are present
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on the young stem and branches. Spines are usually absent in clonally propagated trees. Leaves are ovate-oblong or elliptic to oblong-Ianceolate, 10-15 x 4-7 cm in size, glabrous or puberulous on the midrib and nerves, often shiny dark green above and brownish red and drooping when young with a coarsely toothed margin and 5-8 mm long petioles. Inflorescences are borne in few-flowered, short, axillary, fine, pubescent racemes having 34 mm long pedicels. The flowers are greenish yellow and are usually unisexual having 4, rarely 3-6, sepals. Petals are absent. Male flower has 8, orange or yellow-white and fleshy disk lobes and numerous stamens. Female flower is usually without stamens, 4-6 free styles and indistinctly bilobed stigmas. Fruit is a globose, depressed-globose to obovate berry, 22.5 cm in diameter and light green to pink or purplish green in colour and turns dark red at maturity. The pulp is whitish, juicy and acidic, crowned by the 4-6 small, peg-like styles set in a circle having 4-7 flat seeds (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
[1 cm
Fig. 84 : Flacourtia ntkam Zoll and Mar. (IBPGR, 1980)
Varieties No standard cultivar is available. Selection of superior trees with respect to yield and quality of fruit and thornlessness of the tree should be made based on the studies of the'
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
pattern of growth, flowering and fruiting (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Rukam types also vary with respect to the shape and size of leaves and the amount of pubescence on them. Big leaved forms belong to F. megaphylls Ridley and F. euphlebis Merr. and the narrow leaved forms to F. peninsula Elmer. These species, originally described as distinct, are now considered to fall within the natural variation of F. rukam (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Culture Rukam is usually grown from seeds but the root suckers or cuttings can be used for vegetative propagation. Budding or grafting is possible. Other Flacourtia species can be used as rootstocks. In Jndonesia, budding is done on F. inermis Roxb. Planting is done at 8-12 m spacmg in the field. Bisexual flowers are rare and, therefore, male trees shoulc!- be planted to ensure pollination, which is carried out by insects attracted by the nectaries in the flower. The rukam tree flowers in May-June in Florida and the fruit matures in 60-90 days. The trees are generally quite prolific. Production for processing should receive emphasis (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Fruitflies and stem borers have been found to cause damage in Indonesia. The leaf eating caterpillars, Pygaera restitura and Cupha erimanthis, are found specifically on rukam (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
91. RUMBERRY Rumberry (Myrciaria floribunda Berg. syn. M. protracta Berg., Eugenia floribunda West ex Willd.) belongs to the family Myrtaceae and is native of Mexico, West Indies and South America (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as guava berry, mirto or murto. The rumberry occurs wild over a broad territory in Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, St. Martin, St. Kitts, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Trinidad, South Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, EI Salvador to northern Colombia and also in Guyana, Surinam and French Guiana and eastern Brazil. It has been cultivated in Burmuda. The plant has been introduced into Philippines, Hawaii and Miami, USA (Morton, 1987). The other related species M. dubia Mc Vaugh (camu-camu) grows wild in swamps along the rivers and lakes, especially in Amazonian Brazil and Venezuela. Fruit has limited potential for commercial cultivation (Martin et al., 1987). . The rumberry grows naturally in dry and moist coastal forests from sea level up to an elevation of 220 m. It requires warrri tropical lowlands with relatively dry to moist conditions. It can be grown on a variety of soils but has poor growth in high pH soils (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). The fruits are eaten fresh and are used to prepare jam, jellies, preserves and for flavouring alcoholic beverages. Half ripe fruits have been found to contain 1,950 to 2,700 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g edible portion. .
Botany It is an attractive evergreen shrub or slender tree reaching 10-15 m in height having reddish brown branchlets with flaking bark but is downy when young. Leaves are ovate elliptic or oblong lanceolate, pointed at the apex, 2.5-8 x 0.8-3 em in size, wide, glossy, slightly leathery and minutely dotted with oil glands. The flowers borne directly on the trunk (cauliflorous) in small, axillary or lateral clusters are white, silky-hairy having about 75
.~
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177
prominent white stamens. The fruit is round or oblate, 8-16 rom in diameter, dark red or yellow orange, highly aromatic and of bitter sweet, balsam-like flavour having one globular seed.
Fig. 85 : Myrciaria floribunda (West ex Willd.) Berg, Guava berry (Little et al., 1974)
Varieties There are 3 or 4 varieties in the dry hills of St. Croix. They vary in size and colour but all are intensely aromatic (Morton, 1987) ..
Culture The plant is generally propagated through the seeds. Cultural requireme~t for rumberry should be standardized. It starts producing fruit in 6-8 years after planting. Flowering generally occurs during May-June and the fruits mature in 60 days. On ripening the fruit turns red or yellow in colour (Martin et al., 1987). .
92. SALAK PALM Salak palm or salak or snake fruit (Salacca zalacca) (Gaertner) Voss syn. S. edulis Reinw.) belongs to the family Palmae and is native of South East Asia. It grows wild in southwestern Java and southern Sumatra but its place of origin is not known precisely. It is found growing as understorey palm in tropical rain forest. It is cultivated throughout
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Malaysia and Indonesia as far as the Moluccas and has been introduced into New Guinea, the Philippines, Ponapa Island and is also reported to occur in the Fiji Islands (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Salak thrives under humid tropical lowlands having average annual rainfall between 1700 and 3100 mm. Yield and quality of fruit is observed to diminish above 500 m altitudes in Java. Because of its superficial root system, the palm requires regular irrigations if rains are insufficient but it does not stand flooding. It is grown on wet heavy soils of rain forests and likes shady locations (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Salak palm is cultivated for its fruits, the bulk of which are consumed fresh when fully ripe. In Indonesia, the fruits are also candied (manisan salak), pickled (asinan salak) and fresh unripe ones may be used in rujak (a spicy unripe fruit dish). Mature fruits may be canned. The kernels (seeds) are edible. Palm heart is also edible. The leaflets are used for thatching and weaving. The bark of the petioles may be used for matting. The palm forms an impregnable hedge (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruit contains 1.8 g protein, 95.0 g carbohydrates, 127.3 mg calcium, 81.8 mg phosphorus, 19.1 mg iron and 0.18 mg thiamine and provides 345 calories per 100 g of pulp (Atchley, 1984).
Botany The palm is relatively small, compact, very spiny, creeping and tillering, growing in compact clumps resulting from successive branching at the base. Roots are not deep. The leaves are pinnate having 3-7 m long leaf sheaths. Petioles and leaflets are armed with numerous, long, thin, grey to blackish spines. Leaflets are 20-70 x 2-7.5 em in size. The palm is dioecious. Inflorescence is an axillary compound spadix, stalked and enclosed by spathes. Male inflorescence is 50-100 cm long, consisting of 4-12 spadices, each of 7-15 x 0.72 cm size. The female inflorescence is 20-30 cm long, composed of 1-3 spadices, each 7-10 fm long. The flowers emerge in pairs in the axils of scales. The staminate flowers have reddish, tubular corolla and 6 stamens borne on the corolla throat besides a minute pistillode. The pistillate flower has tubular corolla, which is yellow green outside and dark red inside, a trilocular ovary with a short trifid red style and 6 staminodes borne on the corolla throat. Each spadix has 15-40 fruits, which are globose to ellipsoid, 5-7 x 5 cm in size, taperingtowards base and rounded at the top. The epicarp comprises numerous yellow to brown, united, imbricate scales, each ending in a fragile prickle. Usually, there are 3 seeds per fruit, with 2-8 mm thick, fleshy, cream-coloured sarcotesta and a smooth, stony inner part of 2329 x 15-27 mm size, which are blackish brown and trigonous having two flat and one curved surface. Endosperm is homogeneous and white (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
. Varieties The salak palm grown in northern Sumatra is considered a distinct species, S.
sumatrana Becc. S. zalacca, cultivated in Indonesia, is divided into two botanical varieties, zalacca from Java and amboinensis (Becc.) Mogea from Bali and Ambon. In Indonesia, at least 20 types are distinguished according to their place of origin and cultivation, e.g. Condet, Pondoh, Bali and Suwaru, which may develop into distinct cultivars in due course (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Germplasm collections of salak palm have been maintained at Plew Horticultural Experimental Station, Chantaburi, Thailand (209 accessions), Subtropical
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FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
Horticultural Research Unit, Miami, USA (3 accessions) and Salacca Breeding Laboratory, Bogor, Indonesia (Bettencourt et al., 1992).
••
~
-4cm
Fig. 86 : Salacca zalacca (Gaertn.) Voos syn. Salacca edulis Reinw. (IBPGR, 1980)
Culture Seeds are sown directly in the field or in the nursery. Seeds should be obtained from a tree giving high yield of good quality fruit and from a fruit that has two or more seeds because the seed from single-seeded fruits produce mostly male palms (Martin et al., 1987). In the nursery, 2-5 seeds are sown in 5 cm deep holes. Few months old seedlings are transplanted in the field during the rainy season. Propagation by removing rooted lateral offshoots from the old plants is less common. Layering or air layering 3-6 month old shoots is also done. Young palms require heavy shade until one year. Weeding is necessary till the trees develop full canopy. Intercropping with banana, mango and jackfruit may be done in young orchards. Basal suckers are usually removed in order not to lower the fruit yield of the mother palm. Aging plant parts are cut which are either buried between the palms or burnt. To rejuvenate the palm, farmers usually push the
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
stem back into the ground and earth it up. Farmyard manure as well as urea, triplesuperphosphate and muriate of potash are applied. Exclusive use of urea is said to produce larger but perishable fruits and induces excessive growth that increases the risk of toppling of the palms. Irrigation is necessary during the dry season. In the orchard, 2-20% male palms are evenly spread. In many places, manual pollination is practised. Fruit bunches are thinned to increase fruit size. Fruit bunches are harvested when these are 5-7 months old. To avoid damage by rains, these can be harvested a little earlier. The fruits can stand 2-3 days of transportation if harvested at not too ripe stage. An annual fruit yield of 5 to 15 t/ha is obtained. In Java, a fungal disease identified as Mycena sp sometimes occurs, especially during the wet season. White mycelium overgrows the bunch and the fruits finally rot. The fungus Pestalotia sp. causes black spots on the leaves and can be checked by cutting and burning the affected leaves. Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor) can cause serious loss to fruits and plants. Control depends largely on reducing the infection pressure by early removal of the diseased parts. A monophagous beetle Calispa elegans, a polyphagous caterpillar Ploneta diducta, a scale insect Ischnaspis longirostris and rodents such as rat cause considerable damage (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
93. SANSAPOTE Sansapote or sanzapote or zapote cabillo (Licania platypus Fritsch syn. Moquilea platypus Hemsl.) belongs to the family Chrysobalanaceae and is native of Central and South America (Martin et al., 1987). It grows wild in dense forests from southern Mexico to Panama and in northern Colombia. It is planted as an ornamental and shade tree throughout Central America. It is also grown in South America and the Philippines. It requires hot tropical lowlands with seasonal dry periods. Sanasapote is locally important fruit crop and has little potential for extensive cultivation (Martin et al., 1987). The fruit is eaten fresh. Its pulp is dry and sweet. The wood is fine grained, very heavy and strong and is suitable for fine furniture and cabinetwork (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). Sansapote fruit contains 64.6-67.4 g moisture, 0.23-0.29 g protein, 0.26-0.49 g fat, 0.9-2.5 g fibre, 10.5-33.2 mg calcium, 24.5-29.1 mg carotene, 0.005-0.16 mg thiamine, 0.010.027 mg riboflavin, 1.46-1.53 mg niacin and 11.0-35.6 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is a handsome, erect tree reaching 30-50 m in height and has a rounded crown. Leaves are alternate, occasionally spiralled, elliptic to narrow lanceolate, pointed at both ends, 10-30 x 3-9 cm in size with thick midrib indented above and prominent beneath. New foliage is bronze or red purple and very showy. The fragrant flowers are borne terminally. Flowers are densely hairy, with recurved petals and numerous protruding stamens. Only one to three fruits develop from each panicle. The fruit is obovoid or pyriform, 13-20 x 1014 cm in size, having a thin dark brown or reddish, warty rind covered with white lenticels. The average weight of fruit is 900 g. The flesh is somewhat pumpkin scented, yellow or orange yellow, soft, fibrous, dry or juicy and of subacid or sweet flavour. Usually, there is a single rounded or ovate-oblong, flattened, and 6-10 cm long seed (Morton, 1987).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
181
Culture It is generally propagated by seed and takes 10 years to start fruiting. There is little information on the cultural requirement of sansapote. It flowers during November and December and the fruit matures in about 250 days. On ripenin& the external colour of the fruit turns greenish brown and the flesh becomes orange yellow (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987).
94. SANTOL Santol (Sandoricum koetjape (Burm. f.) Merrill. syn. S. indicum Cav.) is a well known fruit of the family Meliaceae. It is a native of South East Asia (Martin et al., 1987). It is found throughout Myanmar, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Borneo and the Philippines. It is cultivated in Thailand and the Philippines. It has good potential for wider cultivation (Martin et al., 1987). Santol requires hot and wet monsoonal climate with dry winter and early spring. It is relatively cold tolerant and is grown in Java up to an altitude of 1200 m. The tree can survive and produce fruits in areas with 800 m annual rainfall. Although it does not require high soil fertility, well-drained acid soils are preferred. If soil pH exceeds 7, the tree shows severe iron deficiency (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The juicy and translucent yellowish flesh is eaten fresh. The fruit can also be preserved by bottling in syrup or used for making jam and jelly. The fresh leaves when applied to skin is sudorific and the decoction is used to cure fever. Its wood can be used for construction purposes and the bark is used for the treatment of skin diseases. It is also a good shade tree (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The yellow type of santol fruit contains 87.0 g moisture, 0.118 g protein, 0.10 g fat, 0.1 g fibre, 4.3 mg calcium, 17.4 mg phosphorus, 0.42 mg iron, 0.003 mg carotene, 0.045 mg thiamine, 0.741 mg niacin and 86.0 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible pulp (Morton, 1987).
Botany Santol trees are semi-deciduous, quick growin& reaching 30 m in height with a smooth, pinkish and straight trunk. Vegetatively propagated trees tend to be smaller and have more bushy growth. The dark green leaves are alternate, compound with 3 leaflets each up to 30 cm long. The lightly scented bisexual flowers are small, greenish and arise in loose panicles from axillary buds along the branches. The 5 sepals form a small cup and the 5 petals are reflexed and separate, and 10 stamens join into a tube. Pistil is with a large stigma with 5-celled ovary. The fruits are round, slightly flattened, 50 to 100 mm across with a thick, firm and downy rind and slight lengthwise indentations. The rind colour varies from dull to golden yellow, sometimes with a tinge of pink. The aril is relatively thin (up to 15 mm), white, juicy and translucent and attached with 3 to 5 seeds, which are about 15 to 20 mm long (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Varieties The santol is of two general types, i.e. yellow and red. The yellow santol has 15 cm long leaflets that turn yellow when old, pinkish yellow flowers in panicles up to 15 cm lon& the fruit with a thin rind and 0.6-1.25 cm thick typically sweet pulp around the seeds. The fruit may not fall when ripe. The red santol has 30 cm long leaflets that are velvety
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
beneath and turn red when old, greenish flowers in panicles up to 30 cm long, the fruit with a thick rind, less pulp around the seeds that is sour in taste. The fruits fall when ripe (Morton, 1987). In Thailand, Kan Taong, Barngklarng, Eliar, Tuptim, Teparod and Tab Tim varieties produce large fruits of excellent quality. The other selections are No. 3298 and Native (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Santol germplasm collections have been maintained at Institute of Plant Breeding, University of Philippines, Los Banos, Philippines (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). There is good potential for making superior selections (Martin et ai., 1987).
Fig. 87 : Sandoricum koetjape (Bunn. F.) Merr., Santol, 1. Flowering branch; 2. Branchlet with fruits (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
Culture The plants can be propagated from the seeds or by vegetative propagation methods such as air layering, approach or wedge or whip grafting, side veneer grafting and T or modified forkert budding. Wild trees can be topworked during dormant season. Windbreaks are required to protect the trees from limb breakage. In Thailand, tree spacing ranges from 8 x 5 m to 12 x 12 m. Close planting is preferred. Pruning is not done. Irrigation is necessary for maximising yield in very dry areas, but in areas with regular summer rainfall, irrigations may not be required. Use of organic mulches helps in conserving soil moisture. Young bearing tree requires application of 200-500 g complete fertilizer twice in a year. Vegetatively propagated trees start bearing from third to fifth year after planting. Flowers appear during spring and the fruits mature about 120 days after flowering in summer. On ripening, the fruit colour turns from green to yellowish orange and the flesh becomes white. Fruits are picked following the commencement of the natural drop. A 30-
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
183
year old seedling tree in the Philippines produces 1800-24000 fruits each year or 14-19 t/ ha per year. The tough and thick skin of the fruit prevents damage during post harvest handling. The main pest of santol is the gall forming mite (Eriophyes sandorici) which attacks the fruits and makes them unfit for eating. Fruit spotting bug (Amblypelta lutescens) also damages stems of flowers and young fruits. Pink disease caused by the fungus Corticium salmonicolor is a common disease of santol. The cankers can be thoroughly removed and the wounds dressed with copper fungicides. Nursery plants may be blighted by Phytophthora phaseoli. Soil sterilization or fungicides can control the blight (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
95. SAPUCAIA NUT Sapucaia nut (Lecythis pisonis Cambess syn. L. urnigera Mart. ex Berg) belongs to family Lecythidaceae and is native of South America. It is also known as monkey nut, cream nut or paradise nut. Sapucaia is distributed throughout Brazilian Amazonia, Colombia, Orinoco Basin of Venezuela and the Guyanas. It is also cultivated on small scale in Brazil, Guianas, West Indies and Malaysia. The related edible species are Lecythis zabucaja Aubl., L. elliptica Kunth, L. ollaria Loefl., L. minor Jacq., L. elliptica Kunth. and L. ustiata Miers. Sapucaia nut requires tropical moist to wet climatic conditions with a minimum annual rainfall of 2000 mm and temperature range of 24 to 25°C It occurs in the rain forest on fertile flood plains tolerating several months of waterlogging but grows on drier oxisols as well having pH 4.5 to 5.5 (Prance and Mori, 1979; FAa, 1986; Duke, 1989). Kernels are eaten raw or roasted and are occasionally used to make candies or cakes. The kernels contain 51-64% light yellow almond flavoured edible oil, 16% protein and 8% fibre. The oil is used locally for making soap and as an illuminant. The oil is regarded as antipodagric and cardiotonic. The infusions of bark and pericarp are used in local medicine in liver complaints. Seeds may contain toxic quantities of selenium when grown on soils high in selenium (Prance and Mori, 1979; FAa, 1986; Duke, 1989). Sapucaia nut holds great potential for nut and timber production.
Botany Sapucaia is a deciduous tall tree growing up to 30-40 m tall with 60-80 cm trunk diameter. Leaves are simple, petiolate and ovate to widely elliptic in shape, 2.5-12 x 1.5-5 cm in size, herbaceous to coriaceous in nature. The bisexual flowers are small, borne in terminal racemes. The flower consists of 6 unequal and ovate sepals, 6 unequal petals and numerous stamens present within a hooded androecium. The hood of androecium is flat with proximal appendages bearing anthers and the distal ones being antherless. Pollen turns yellow or white or black after 24 hours. Ovary is inferior and the styles are short with an annular expansion towards the apex. Fruit is a large woody, dehiscent, bell-shaped, pendent capsule up to 25 cm long with 1-2 cm thick woody pericarp borne in groups of 30-40. Large operculum (circular lid) detaches on maturity leaving the capsule dangling by a slender fleshy funicle that decays and allows the seeds to fall. The 30-40 irregularly wrinkled seeds are oblong, 5 cm long with creamy white texture (Prance and Mori, 1979; FAa, 1986; Duke, 1989; Mori and Prance, 1990).
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Fig. 88 : Lecythis pisonis. 1. Leaves; 2. Ovary; 3-4. Stamens; 5. Androecium; 6. Fruit and operculum; 7 Transeverse section of ovary; 8. Seed. (FAO, Wickens, 1995)
Varieties Extensive variability occurs in the wild from which selections can be made for genotypes having high and consistent yield of the indehiscent fruits (Wickens, 1995).
Culture It is generally propagated through the seeds. Seeds germinate within 7-10 days after sowing. The seedlings grow fast and attain 60 cm height after one year and 4 m after 5 years. Attempts on grafting sapucaia on the closely related brazil nut and vice versa have failed. Trees start bearing fruit when 8-10 years old. Flowering is sporadic. Some trees flower in alternate years while the others at 5-year intervals. It flowers during October-November in its natural habitat. The carpenter bee (Xylocopa frontalis) helps in pollination. Fruiting occurs during March-April. A mature tree may yield up to 80 kg nuts per tree. The fruit matures in approximately 18 months after flowering when the capsule lid drops off, eventually releasing the nuts after the funicle has decayed. Exposed nuts are liable to be eaten by bats, parrots and monkeys. The nuts are generally collected from open capsules or are gathered in its natural habitat from the ground. No insect pests are known to infest the sapucaia nut (Prance and Mori, 1979; FAa, 1986; Clay and Clement, 1993; Duke, 1989). In Trinidad, bats (Phyllostomus hastatus) remove the nuts and drop them after eating the ariI, either while flight or under their roosts.
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
185
96. SEAGRAPE Seagrape (Coccoloba uvifera L.) belongs to the family Polygonaceae and is native of South America. It is found along the shoreline of practically the whole of tropical America. It occurs from central to south Florida throughout the Antilles and from northern Mexico to Colombia and Venezuela (FAO, 1982). Seagrape requires warm tropical lowland climatic conditions. It is tolerant to a wide range of rainfall and soil conditions including salinity in soil. The plants are very susceptible to frost (Martin et al., 1987). The fruits are eaten raw or made into jam, jellies and wine. It is also an excellent melliferous plant. On account of its good tolerance to saline soils, it is frequently utilized for windbreaks and in avenues near the sea (FAO, 1982). Seagrape can be developed into an important ornamental plant (Martin et al., 1987). Botany It is an evergreen shrub or small tree and can attain as much as 12 m height. Bark is smooth and grey and peels off in small scales. Leaves are alternate, entire and shortly petiolate with a sheathing reddish-brown stipular growth at the base of the petiole. It is dioecious. The racemose inflorescence bears numerous small greenish white scented flowers. The male flowers have rudimentary pistil while the female flowers contain non-functional stamens (staminodes). Fruit is 2 cm in diameter, ellipsoid or ovoid, purple and occur in clusters resembling a bunch of grapes and is composed of 1 cm long achene surrounded by edible acidulous sweet flesh.
Fig. 89 : Coccoloba uvi/era (L.) Jacq. (Briicher, 1969)
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Culture It is easily propagated from the seeds and by layering or cuttings. Vegetative propagation through cuttings is preferred because it is dioecious. Cultural requirements for its production should be standardized.
97. SONCOYA Soncoya (Annona purpurea Moe. and Sesse ex Dunal syn. S. manirote HBK., A. involucrate Baill.) belongs to the family Annonaceae and is native of southern Mexico and central America (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as cabeza de negro and cabeca de negro. It is found growing on the coastal lowlands from southern Mexico to Panama, Colombia and Venezuela. It has been introduced into Philippines, Puerto Rico and other parts of tropical America (Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989). The related edible species are A. scleroderma Saff. (poshte), A. montana Macfad. (mountain sop) and A. glabra L. (alligator's apple or pond apple). The sonocoya requires hot tropical lowlands having medium to high rainfall. It never occurs at altitudes higher than 1200 m (Martin et al., 1987). The fruit pulp is eaten fresh or used to prepare juice and refreshing beverage. In Mexico, soncoya juice is regarded as a remedy for fever and chills. It is also given to relieve jaundice. Its bark decoction is effective against dysentery and a tea of the inner bark is administered in cases of oedema. The seed extract destroys fleas (Morton, 1987).
Botany The deciduous tree is small to medium, of 6-10 m in height with short trunk of 45 cm diameter and spreading branches that are rusty woolly when young. The leaves are alternate, simple, short petioled, oblong elliptic, oblong lanceolate, 20-30 x 10-14 cm in size, acuminate, brown, hairy on both surfaces and have prominent veins beneath. Strong scented flowers emerge with the new leaves which are solitary, fleshy, large, conical, held at the base by a rusty, hairy, 3 parted calyx and have 3, very thick outer petals, brown hairy outside and yellowish and purple mottled within, and 3 smaller, thinner inner petals, creamy white outside and purple inside. The fruit is thick stalked, ovoid or nearly round, 15-20 cm wide, set with hard, somewhat 4-sided and conical protuberances, each tipped with a curved hook and coated overall with a brown felt. It has a mild agreeable flavour. Seeds are numerous, obovate, 2.5-3 cm long, dark brown and each enclosed in a thin close fitting membrane. The fruit carpels separate easily when ripe (Morton, 1987; Brucher, 1989).
Varieties No cultivars are known. Gene banks of sonocoya have been maintained at Centro Agronomico Tropical de Investigacion y Ensenanza, Turrialba, Costa Rica (6 accessions), Dept. de Horticultura FCA VJ /UNESP, Rodovia Carlos Tonanni Km 5, Caixa Postal 145, 14870-00 Jaboticabal, Sao Paulo, Brazil (Bettencourt et al., 1992).
Culture It is propagated from the seeds. Cultural requirements for its cultivation should be standardized. On ripening, the fruit skin turns brownish to grey with orange pulp. The
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
187
fruit ripens during August in Yucatan and generally by the fall in Central America (Morton, 1987).
98. SOUARI NUT Souari nut or piquia or butter nut (Caryocar nuciforum 1. syn. C. villosum Pers.) belongs to the family Caryocaraceae and is native of South America. It is found growing wild in the forests of Guiana, Venezuela and Brazil. It has been introduced in Nigeria, Singapore and Sri Lanka and is cultivated in the West Indies. It grows well in lowland moist tropical climatic conditions and requires rich deep loams or alluvial soils. The kernels have a pleasantly nutty taste and are eaten fresh or used in confectionery and fruit dishes. It has high oil content in the pericarp and kernel. The wood is durable and is used in shipbuilding and construction activities.
Botany Souari nut is a handsome lofty tree and can attain a height of 25-45 m. The leaves are large, alternate, lanceolate and trifoliate with the terminal leaflet 12-30 x 6.0-18.0 cm in size and the lateral ones equal or slightly smaller. Inflorescences of clustered racemes consist o~ hermaphrodite flowers. Calyx is campanulate, 2.0 cm long, glabrous, 5-lobed; corolla 6.0 to 7.0 cm long, elliptic, glabrous, deep red on the exterior and paler within; stamens are numerous (>700), united at base; ovary is globose, 4-locular and glabrous on the exterior; and 4 filamentous, 8-9 cm long and glabrous style. Fruit is subglobose to sublobate, 15 cm long and 300 g in weight having thick and fleshy pericarp detaching from the mesocarp and endocarp. The endocarp enveloping 1-2 subreniform seeds forms a large stone of 5 x 7 cm in size.
Fig. 90 : Caryocar nuciferum L. 1. Leaf; 2. Fruit; 3. Seeds. (FAD, 1986)
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties No standard cultivar is available at present but selections can be made from the variability with regard to fruit size available in South America.
Culture It is propagated from the seeds. Cultural requirements should be standardized.
99. SOURSOP The soursop or guanabana (Annona muricata L.) is the largest fruit of the Annonas having a unique aroma and flavour. It originated in tropical America and belongs to the family Annonaceae (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It grows wild and is cultivated from sea level to 1065 m altitudes from southern Mexico to Brazil and in the West Indies. It has been introduced in the Old World tropics and is now distributed from southeastern China to Australia, the warm lowlands of eastern and western Africa and the Pacific Islands. It is grown commercially for its juice in Philippines, Puerto Rico and Venezuela (Morton, 1987). It is commonly found on subsistence farms in South East Asia and was established very early in the Pacific Islands. It is grown extensively in Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Jamaica, Panama, Peru and Mexico, from Culiacan to Chiapas and from Veracruz to the Yucatan Peninsula in the Gulf region (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). At present it is largely confined to home gardens because of erratic yield and short shelf life. It appears to have excellent potential for good quality juice and other products (FAa, 1986; Martin et al., 1987). Its cultivation can be expanded if the techniques of intensive pollination, growth regulation, protection and harvesting are standardized (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Soursop is widely grown in the tropics up to about 1000 m altitudes. A warm humid climate with high rainfall is required for its successful cultivation. Rainfall and high humidity during the peak flowering season greatly enhance fruit production by preventing desiccation of stigmas, prolonging their receptive period and increasing fruit set and early fruit development. Frost kills the young trees but older trees show some tolerance (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). It is susceptible even to a light frost. It can be grown on a wide range of soils but does the best on deep well-drained soils (Morton, 1987;Verheij and Coronel, 1991. The fruit is used fresh or processed for juice. It may also be frozen or canned or preserved when the pulp still retains its aromatic flavour. It can be used for flavouring ice cream, sherbets and jelly. A number of medicinal properties are attributed to the leaves and juice of soursop. Insecticidal properties in different parts of the tree and fruit are reported (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Soursop provides 247 kJ energy and contains 80.1 g water, 0.69 g protein, 0.39 g fat (lipid), 18.23 g carbohydrates, 0.95 g fibre, 9 mg calcium, 320 mg potassium, 29 mg phosphorus, 0.82 mg iron, 0.07 mg thiamine, 0.120 mg riboflavin, 1.52 mg niacin and 16.40 mg ascorbic acid in 100 g edible portion (Wenkam, 1990).
Botany The tree is small, evergreen, low branching, usually growing 5 to 10 m in height. The leaves are glossy, leathery, oval or rectangular and dark green, 1.5 to 2.5 cm in length and give a characteristic smell when crushed. The flowers are solitary, yellow,
189
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
hermaphrodite, thick and fleshy, almost globular, up to 3 cm in diameter, borne on small axillary shoots or directly on trunk of the tree. The flower has 3 green, almost free sepals, 6 petals in two rings enclosing a central torus bearing numerous short thick filaments. The fruit is a syncarpium, rounded or elongated, 30 cm long and up to 1-5 kg in weight. The fruit skin is green having numerous, more or less woody spines. The flesh is white and juicy and has a unique musky rather sub-acid flavour and smells somewhat like pineapple. It contains numerous black seeds of 2 x 1 cm size, which are poisonous and can be readily separated from the flesh (Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989, Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
jlfl0-20cm
AndrUI!Cium
o
1= 2.5 em
~
~II
O.S-l.Oem
Flower
Fig. 91 : Annona muricata L. (ICUC, Pinto et al., 2005)
Varieties In Puerto Rico, the forms and types of seedling soursop are divided into 3 general classes: sweet, subacid and acid. Nakasone and Paull (1998) have separated soursop clones into groups such as acid and low acid or juicy and non juicy. Fourteen different types are known in Puerto Rico. In Cuba, guanabana sin fibre (fibreless) varIety is grown. Guanabana dulce (sweet) is an important variety of Dominican Republic. In EI Salvador, two types are distinguished, i.e. the guanabana azucaron and the guanabana aciela, which is very sour and is used only for the preparation of drinks. In Indonesia and the Philippines, sweet and sour fruited types are known. A sweet type in Indonesia is Sirsak Ratu, which has small and few seeded fruits with a subacid flavour. To induce cold resistance, attempts have been
190
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
made to develop hybrids with the mountain soursop, A. montana Macfad. (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Gene banks of soursop have been maintained at Estacao experimental De fruitcultura Tropical- Bahia, Brazil (12 accessions), Centro Agronomico Tropical De Investigation y Ensenanza Turrialba, Costa Rica (65 accessions) and Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture Science, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico (25 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1992). Pinto et al. (2005) have given a list of Institutes having germplasm collections.
Culture The soursop is usually grown from seeds. The seeds should be sown in flats or containers and kept moist and shaded. Germination takes about 15 to 30 days. BudcUng and grafting is done on seedling rootstocks. Pond apple (Annona glabra L.) has proved to be a 9.warfing rootstock. Trees are planted at 5 m spacing. Trials in Hawaii showed that the spacing should be 4.6 x 6.0 m without affecting growth or interferance with the cultural practices. SOuISOp plants should be trained to central leader system. Young trees should be protected from weed competition by timely weeding, mulching and use of contact herbicides. Application of compound fertilizer (N:P:K:Mg) at 100 g per tree every 3 months has been recommended. The tree starts bearing 3-5 years after planting and may produce several crops in a year. Thus, fruits are available from February or March through September but mostly from June through August. Fruit set is often a problem. The stigmas are receptive when flower first opens and numerous anthers ripen and shed pollen either in late afternoon of the same day or tip to three days later. Beetles are considered to be the main pollinating agents. Misshapen fruits are formed when pollination is inadequate. Hand pollination is required for good fruiting. Fruit matures in 70-120 days after flowering. Fruit yield in Hawaii on marginal fields is approximately 43 kg from 4-year old tree increasing to 83 kg from 6 year old tree. At Paramaribo, Surinam, fruit yield of 54 kg tree-1 with density of 278 trees per hectare is reported (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). The fruits are highly perishable. Soursop fruit is climacteric and respiration rate rises within a day after harvest and reaches the peak during 6th to 8th day (Paull, 1983). Once ripe, the fruit rapidly spoils and ferments. Therefore, these should be picked when fully developed but still firm. Harvested fruit should be handled with care to prevent bruising of skin. For processing, firm fruits should be kept after harvest at room temperature for 4-7 days. The recommended sto!age conditions are 15° C and 80-90% RH. Anthracnose disease develops on flowers and fruits in exceptionally humid areas, which is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz. Mealy bugs, fruit borers, and scale insects also cause damage. The fruits are also attacked by fruitflies (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
100. SPANISH JOINT FIR Spanish joint fir or two leaf (Gnetum gnemon L.) of the family Gnetaceae is native of Malaysia (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as melinjo two leaf and mennjau. It occurs in a wild state in rain forests at elevations up to 1200 m and is common on riverbanks in New Guinea. It is distributed from Assam to Caroline Islands and Fiji (Walter and Sam, 2002). Some related species having edible fruits are G. costatum K. Schumann (found growing in Papua New Guinea), G. latifolium Blume (found growing in Malaysia to Philippines) and
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
191
G. tenuifolium Ridley (found growing in Malaysia). It holds much potential as a food crop (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Its cultivation can be expanded if the techniques of intensive pollination, growth regulation, protection and harvesting are standardized (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It requires hot wet tropical climate with distinct dry season for its cultivation. The tree is very tolerant to shade and resistant to cyclones (Walter and Sam, 2002). No preference is observed with regard to depth and type of soil but there should be good drainage (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruit is eaten raw but is usually roasted, boiled or fried or cooked or preserved to prepare cakes. The seed, rich in protein and carbohydrates, is heated and pounded to prepare cake. The cake is sun dried and packed. The young leaves, rich in vitamin A, calcium and iron, are used as vegetable. The inflorescence is also cooked to prepare vegetable dishes. A high quality fibre is extracted from the inner bark and is used for making carrying bags, fishing lines and nets (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Wi~kens, 1995). Melinjo provides 253.3 calories and contains 30 g water, 10.9-11 g protein, 1.6-1.7 g fat, 50.0-52.9 g carbohydrates and 0.9 g fibre per 100 g of kernel (Morton, 1987; Duke, 1989 and Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Botany It is a slender evergreen 5-10 m tall tree having a straight trunk. The leaves are simple, elliptical, opposite and of 7.5-20 x 2.5-10 cm size. The tree is dioecious. The inflorescence is solitary and axillary, 3-6 cm long, pale yellow, emerging also from older wood and bearing flowers in whorls at the nodes. Female flowers are globose and tipped, 5-8 at each inflorescence node. Fruit is nut-like, ellipsoid, 1-3.5 cm long, shortly apiculate, velvety and is yellow turning red to purple on ripening with one large horny seed. The seed is covered with a tough husk (seed coat) and a thin edible rind (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 92 : Gnetum gnemon L. - 1. Branch with female inflorescences; 2. Male inflorescence; 3. Branch with fruits. (PROSEA No.2, 1991) •
192
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties Of the six botanical varieties, only G. gnemon var. gnemon has tree form and bears large fruits and is cultivated in the Philippines, Sulawasi, Sumba, New Guinea and Fiji. The others are shrubs and bear very small fruits. G. gnemon var. tenerum is a 3 m tall shrub with oblong beaked flower and the fruit has acute apex with much smaller fruits.
Culture The tree is propagated from seeds or vegetative~y by air layering, cuttings and grafting. Planting is done at 2 m spacing. It is also interplanted between durian, rambutan, Parkia sp., etc. Regular pruning is done to induce new growth flushes used as vegetable and also to restrict tree height and spread. Cultural requirement for spanish joint fir should be standardized. The tree begins to flower 5-8 years after planting. Flowering and fruiting continues throughout the year in Malaysia. A tree yields 20,000 to 25,000 fruits. The fruits are harvested manually. Although no serious pests or diseases are seen but borers and sucking insects cause some damage (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
101. SPANISH TAMARIND Spanish tamarind (Vangueria madagascariensis J.F.Gmel. syn. V. acutilobe Robyns) belongs to the family Rubiaceae and is native of Africa and Madagascar (Martin et al., 1987). It is Widely distributed in Tanzania. It is also locally known as voo vanga. Spanish tamarind has been introduced in many areas in the tropics. It holds little potential for wider cultivation (Martin et al., 1987). It requires hot wet tropical lowlands and cannot tolerate frost. It grows the best on ligh! soils (FAO, 1983; Martin et al., 1987). The fruit pulp is eaten fresh and is also used in beverages and other foods. Flavour of the fruit is sub acid aromatic and has a pleasant chocolate like taste (FAO, 1983; Martin
et al., 1987).
Botany It is a profusely branched shrub or small tree growing up to 5 ni. in height with smooth grey bark. The leaves are of 7-20 x 2-11 cm size, opposite, elliptic-ovate, dark green above and paler beneath, glabrous or rarely slightly pubescent with acuminate or rarely obtuse or acute apex. Flowers are greenish, fulvous pubescent borne in dense axillary cymes. The fruit is globose, 3-4.5 x 2.5-4.2 cm in size .having hard seed coat.
Culture It is genl7rally propagated from the seeds or coppices. Little information is available about cultural practices. Spanish tamarind flowers between October and January. The fruit ripens at different times depending on variety. The ripe fruits are persistent and have to be picked from the tree. Unripe fruits may be picked and stored for several days for ripening (FAO, 1983; Martin et al., 1987).
193
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
d~ o
,
40mm ,
a
o
!
20mm ,
b, c & d
Fig. 93 : Vangueria edulis vahI. syn. V. madagascariensis GmeI. a. Branchlet; b. Inflorescence bearing flower buds and flowers; c. Fruiting .branchlet, d. Seeds. (FAO, 1983)
102. STAR APPLE The star apple or caimito (Chrysophyllum cainito L.) is native to the West Indies and Central America and belongs to the family Sapotaceae (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as caimito or golden leaf tree, pomme surette. The other related edible species is C. oliviforme L. (caimitillo or satin leaf) from tropical America. It is cultivated in South America, Mexico, Florida and to a limited extent in Hawaii. It also occurs in Sri Lanka, Singapore, South India, tropical Africa, Queensland (Australia), Thailand, Vietnam and Philippines (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The star apple is a tropical fruit and thrives well in humid conditions with relatively high temperature throughout the year. Young trees are more susceptible to frost injury and may be killed at -O.5°c. Mature trees may withstand temperatures as low as -1.6°C for several hours. The trees grow successfully in rich and deep soils but can adapt well to .the light sandy soils if well nourished. Star apple fruit is usually consumed fresh and is also used in ice-cream and sherbets. The bark, latex, fruit and seeds possess medicinal properties. The reddish brown wood is suitable for construction and the mature branche~ are used as a support to grow orchids.
194
U NDERUTILIZED
FRUITS AND NUTS
The tree also has ornamental value (Mo~on, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It is more popular as a characteristic garden tree for the relatively dry lowland areas and much less as a commercial orchard fruit (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Star apple fruit provides 67.2 calories and contains 78.4-85.7 g moisture, 0.72-2.33 g protein, 14.65 g carbohydrates, 0.55-3.30 g fibre, 7.4-17.3 mg calcium, 15.9-22.0 mg phosphorus, 0.30-0.68 mg iron, 0.004-0.039 ing carotene, 0.018-0.08 mg thiamine, 0.013-0.04 mg riboflavin, 0.935-1.340 mg niacin and 3.0-15.2 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany The star apple tree is strinkingly handsome, ornamental and evergreen, growing up to a height of 30 m. The leaves are alternate, oval, 5-16 x 3-6 cm in size, shiny, dark green above and silky, coppery gold beneath. The young shoots are coppery gold in colour and are heavily pubescent. The small yellow purplish white flowers are borne in axillary umbellate clusters scattered along the mature twigs. The flower has 5 circular to ovate sepals, 5 tubular and lobed corolla, 5 stamens and 7-11 lobed stigmas. The fruit is smooth skinned, round, oblate or ellipsoid, 5-10 cm in diameter. The core is star shaped. The white pulp is sweet containing 3-10 glossy, flattened dark seeds loosely placed in the cavities. The Unripe fruit contains viscous latex of unpleasant taste. The flavour of properly ripened fruit is agreeable (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 94 : ChnJsophyllum cainito 1., Star apple, 1. Flowering branch; . 2. Fruiting branch. (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
195
Varieties There are two races or types of star apple, distinguished by the colour of the ripe fruit. The one with reddish purple skin has slightly more flavour. The other type has green skin and is sweeter. Considerable diversity in green-fruited form is found in Guatemala. A few named cultivars are Grimal, Haitian, Publico, New Combe, Florida, Weeping, Lunti and Lila (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Germplasm collections of star apple have been maintained at Centro Agronomico Tropical de Investigacion y Ensenanza, Turrialba, Costa Rica (27 accessions), Institute of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Laguna, Philippines (31 accessions), Subtropical Horticultural Research Unit, Miami, Florida (16 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1992).
Culture The propagation of star apple is commonly done from the seeds. This results in wide variation in fruit size, yield and quality. Seeds are sown in light sandy loam soils immediately after extraction from the fruit. Seeds take about six weeks to germinate. Marcottage, cleft grafting, inarching and cuttings are the successful vegetative propagation methods. Removal of the leaves from the scion shoots a week prior to grafting enhances the success in grafting. C. oliviforme is a compatible rootstock. Planting is done at 10-12 m spacing in the field with the onset of rainy season. Regular weeding and irrigation during the rainless period ensures uninterrupted growth. Application of 200 g ammonium sulphate is done twice a year to a non-bearing tree. With the start of fruiting, 500 g of complete fertilizer is applied every year. Full-grown trees may require 3 kg or more of complete fertilizer every year. The fertilizer is applied at the onset and towards the end of the rainy season in a ring or in shallow holes beneath the tree canopy. Trees are pruned to a desirable shape by allowing only 2-3 branches and removing the sagging and inter-lacing branches and water shoots. Fruit production starts in 8-12 years in seedlings and after 4-5 years in grafts. The flowers are pollinated by insects and are usually self-fertile. Flowering is associated with the main shoot growth period and normally occurs during August-October. The fruit ripens 4-6 months later. Fruiting occurs from late December to March-April in Philippines and up to May-July in Indonesia. Fully ripe fruit should be picked when the skin colour changes to light green or yellowish brown in the green form and to pale to dark purple in the purple form. Harvesting is done several times, as all the fruits do not ripen at the same time. Harvesting is done by cutting the stalk by a pair of clippers or by using a long bamboo pole with nets (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). A full-grown tree produces as many as 1000 or more fruits per season (70 kg per tree). The protruding stalk is clipped off and unblemished fruit is packed in bamboo baskets lined with banana leaves and delivered immediately to the market. Ripe fruit keeps only for a few days but can be stored for a few weeks at 3-6DC and 90% relative humidity. Lasiodiplodia theobromae fungus causes dry sooty rot in fruits. This can be controlled by use of copper fungicides. Fusarium solani kills the young tree and affects limbs of older trees. The Oriental fruitfly (Dacus dorsalis) is a serious pest of ripening fruit and makes it unfit for human consumption. The damage can be minimised by wrapping the young fruits and collecting and destroying the infested ones. Birds and bats also cause considerable damage to ripe fruits (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
196
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
103. SUGAR PALM The sugar palm or areng palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb.) Merr., syn. A. saccharifera Labill. ex DC. ) belongs to the family Palmae. It is thought to be indigenous to South East Asia where its occurrence is the most common. It is also known as ejow, kaong, black sugar palm, gomuti and toddy palm. It is distributed throughout South Asia and South East Asia. The sugar palm grows the best in warm conditions under maximum amount of light and abundant water supply on soils of high fertility. It can, however, grow under a wide variety of climatic conditions, both in wet and seasonal climates, from sea level up to 1400 m altitudes. All parts of the palm are used. The inflorescence stalks are tapped to obtain juice, which is used both fresh (nira) and fermented (toddy and vinegar). The palm juice contains 5-21 per cent sugar that crystallizes easily into a dark red palm sugar. The palm sugar is used in several dishes, sweets, drinks and preserves. The leaves of Garcinia and bark of Xylocarpus koen can be added to flavour its juice. An alcohol is distilled from the core of the trunk by repeated washing and settling. This is used in food preparations. The green peel of the fruit is poisonous and can cause serious skin injury on contact. Immature seeds are edible and are cooked and eaten in the Philippines or boiled in sugar and made into a sweetmeat. Palm cabbage and palm heart are eaten raw or cooked (Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1984; Johnson, 1997). Fibres are extracted from the root pith, trunk and leaf stalks. The most important long black grey fibre of the trunk is coarse but is extremely durable even in sea water and has frequently been used for cordage on ships and sea water and to protect wooden poles kept in soil and sea water from worms and insects. The fibre is also used to make sieves, heavy-duty brushes and broom bristles, to construct roofs and to reinforce concrete. Stout bristles between the thin fibres near the leaf bases are used as pens and arrows. Short ropes can be used as a portable fire lighter since it can stay aglow in all weathers. A bundle of these can make a veritable torch, burning brighter when swung producing beam of light as the core burns deeper and glows more intensely. Fibres from the leaf stalks and roots are used for fishing lines and fine matting. The leaves are used to construct temporary shelters and for decorations during festivities. The leaflets are used to make baskets. The large leaf stalks are used as brooms, for firewood and to make walking sticks and musical instruments. Walking sticks are made from the inflorescence stalks also. The trunk has a soft starchy core and a woody cylinder. The attractive black and yellow wood is used for flooring and to make furniture, tool handles and as fuelwood of high calorific value. The trunk base is easily hollowed to make a durable barrel or a water conduit. The palm can be incorporated into different agroforestry systems.
Botany It is a moderate to tall, unbranched, pleonanthic, solitary feather palm without root suckers. The roots are black, very strong, extending more than 10 m from the trunk and going as deep as 3 m. The trunk is 10-20 m high and 30-65 cm in diameter, covered by base of broken off leaves and long black grey fibres. Its crown is dense having 12-20 erect to spreading leaves that are 6-10 m long and pinnate with 1-1.5 m long petioles and sheaths at the base. The leaflets are numerous (80-130), strap-like, 140-180 x 8-11 cm in size, crowded along the rachis and held in several planes with auricles at the bases. The palm is
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
197
monoecious. The inflorescences are usually unisexual, pendulous, often more than 2 m long arising from leafaxils and peduncle breaking up into a number of flower bearing spikes. Female inflorescences are 3-7, formed at the top and male ones are 7-15 appearing later on the lower portion of the stem. The flower has 3 coriaceous sepals and a tubular, 3-lobed corolla. The number of male flowers is up to 11500 per inflorescence with many stamens that are greenish to bronze when still closed and yellowish when open. Female flowers are up to 15000 per inflorescence and have globose trilocular ovary. The fruit is globular, 5-8 cm long, fleshy, turning from green to yellow and black after falling and contain 2-3 black seeds (FAO, 1984).
Fig. 95 : Arenga pinnata (Wurmb.) Merr. 1. Pinnate leaf; 2&3. Sections of inflorescence bearing fruits; 4. Vertical section of fruit; 5. Transeverse section of fruit. (FAO, 1984)
Culture The palm naturally regenerates from seeds or by suckers. Sometimes wild seedlings are collected and transplanted in a nursery. Seeds are collected either from ripe black fruits of superior palms or those left behind from the decayed fruits. These are cleaned in water and the light and infected seeds are discarded. The selected seeds are then scratched on a rough stone to scarify the outer thin and black layer down to the underlying brown layer close to the pore. The seeds are sown with the germpore directed downwards in coarse sand. The soil is kept moist and air humidity is kept high for good germination. About 75 per cent seeds germinate after 3 weeks. The seedlings are transferred to plastic containers when the germ tube is 2-3 cm long and before the upward growing roots are formed since these break easily. The seedlings stay alive in heavy shade but hardly grow under these conditions. Direct sunlight stimulates early appearance of the first leaf. When the second
198
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
leaf has unfolded, the seedling can be planted. The young seedlings should be hardened off in the nursery before planting. The palms are spaced 6 x 7 m in the orchard. In the newly planted orchard, intercropping with legumes is advisable to provide shade to the young palms. Windbreaks may be needed in exposed sites to prevent breakage of leaves. Occasional weeding may be needed. Manures, fertilizers and crop protection chemicals are normally not used although appreciable amounts of nutrients, particularly Nand K, are removed through the tappings. The starch is harvested in the same way as that of the sago palm. Each palm that fails to respond to tapping treatments are used to obtain 100-125 kg sago. The thick very hard woody zone surrounding the pith makes it very laborious to open the stem. A preparation called kolang kaling is made from the immature fruits. For this the fruits are burned or cooked and then peeled and finally boiled with sugar. Pre-treatment for tapping starts when first male inflorescence appears. Both female and male inflorescence stalks can be tapped but the former are much tougher and thus pretreatment is necessary to induce satisfactory flow of juice. When the inflorescence is almost fully expanded, the scales covering the common peduncle are removed. Beating and swinging of the peduncle is done to cause some internal ruptures so that the juice continues to flow after cutting. Beatings for 3-7 days allow a productive period of 2-3 months. The pre-treatment and the cutting of the stalk are timed in accordance with the condition of the male flowers. The inner perianth with stamens of flower bud is removed to observe the development stage. When a watery sap oozes from the wound, the stalk is almost ready to be cut. Gradually the sap becomes more viscous until it turns into a hyaline yellow sap. This is the stage to cut the peduncle. Shortly after this stage, the flowers open. A single stroke makes a clean cut close to the point where the stalk b~iurcat~ into the spray of flowering spikes. The length of the remaining stalk determines the maximum duration of tapping period. To produce toddy, a piece of bamboo pipe is fixed under the dripping stalk and it is inoculated with some old toddy having Saccharomyces yeast. Sometimes, additives are used to obtain a specific taste or strength. When sugar is to be produced from the sap, the bamboo vessels must be cleaned each time these are replaced by drying them in the smoke of fire or by rinsing with boiling juice. For sugar production, a very thin slice is cut from the stalk twice a day as this results in less but sweeter sap. For toddy, the slices are thicker, depending on the desired alcohol content. If thick slices are cut, a large palm may yield 60 litre of fairly sweet juice per day for several months but this often results in signs of over-tapping, sagging leaves which eventually fall down and massive drop of unripe fruits occurs. After each cut, the stalk end is covered with a large leaf to protect it from the sun and to increase the sap flow. The juice is evaporated in open pans. To prevent the liquid from boiling over, some fatty or oily material is added, e.g., castor beans, coconut endosperm and tung seeds. As soon as the liquid turns dark red and begins to set, the sugar is poured into mould. Because of impurities, palm sugar does not store well. Keeping quality may be improved by adding sodium bisulphite during the evaporation process. In Malaysia, about 70 kg sugar per hectare per day (25 t/ha/year) is produced. No serious diseases and pests are known to occur. In Java, a locust species, Valanga nigricornis, has been observed to attack the leaves. Caterpillars of Artona catoxantha, Elymias hypermnesta-nesaea and Hidari irava have been observed eating the young leaves. Flies of Atherigona arenga also cause damage to the leaves (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
199
104. SWEET CALABASH Sweet calabash (Passiflora maliformis L.) belongs to the family Passifloraceae and is native of West Indies and South America (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as water lemon and ceioby cimarron. It is also found wild in Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Venezuela, Colombia and northern Ecuador. It is cultivated in Jamaica, Brazil and Ecuador (Morton, 1987). It requires warm wet tropical climatic conditions. The vine grows and fruits well in altitudes up to 1700 m. Fertile well-drained loam soils are the best suited (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). Fruit aril is eaten fresh and is served with wine and sugar. The strained juice is used for making cold drinks and other beverages. Snuffboxes are made of the shell of the hard type of sweet calabash (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987).
Botany Sweet calabash is an evergreen woody vine climbing to 10 m or more on trees, walls and small buildings by means of tendrils arising from leafaxils. The leaves are ovate-cordate or ovate-oblong, fairly thin, light green, 6-15 cm long, with a short recurved point at the apex and with two round and flat glands at about the middle of the petiole. The peduncle bears 3 thin, ovate, pointed, 5 cm long bracts that enclose the unopened bud and form an ivory-hued background for the opened flower. The flower is fragrant, 5-6 cm wide with keeled, green, maroon-dotted sepals and 5 small, greenish white petals dotted with red or purple. The corona is 3-ranked and variegated white, purple and blue. The fruit is oblate to nearly round oval or apple shaped. It is 4.5-5 cm long and 3.5-4 cm wide. The thin rind is yellow to brow:lish when fully ripe and may be rather flexible and leathery to hard and brittle. The pulp is greyish or pale orange yellow, juicy, sweet or subacid and pleasingly aromatic containing many black, flat, ovate and pitted seeds (Morton, 1987).
Varieties There is no standard variety of sweet calabash.
Culture It is generally propagated from the seeds or by cuttings. The vines start fruiting in one or two years if propagated by seed and in less than one year when raised from cuttings. Cultural requirements for sweet calabash have to be standardized. The fruit ripens during September to December in Jamaica. The fruit has better keeping quality than that of passionfruit owing to the very hard rind. Sweet calabash is noted for its resistance to pests and diseases (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987).
105. SWEET GRANADILLA Sweet granadilla (Passiflora ligularis Juss.) belongs to the family Passifloraceae and is native of Central and South America. The species is considered to be the finest of all passionfruits. It is found wild from central Mexico to Venezuela and from Peru to Bolivia at altitudes between 1000 and 3000 m. It has now been introduced into many parts of the world and grows wild particularly in east Africa. It is widely cultivated throughout Central America, Hawaii, Africa and Australia (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987).
200
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Sweet granadilla requires cool tropical or subtropical climatic conditions with welldistributed, medium to high rainfall. It can grow well at elevations of 900 to 2700 m. At higher elevations, it flourishes and blooms but will not fruit. Similarly, it does not grow or fruit well in hot tropical lowlands. It can be grown on thin volcanic soils provided they are moist. It is adapted to high rain forests (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). Fruit arils are eaten fresh or used to prepare beverages and desserts. It is sometimes called the true granadilla. The fruit is regarded as the most delicious of all passionfruits (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). Per 100 g of edible portion (pulp and seeds) contains 69.9-79.1 g moisture, 0.340.47 g protein, 1.50-3.18 g fat, 3.2-5.6 g crude fibre, 5.6-13.7 mg calcium, 44.0-78.0 mg phosphorus, 0.58-1.56 mg iron, 0-0.035 mg carotene, 0.06-0.12 mg riboflavin, 1.42-1.81 mg niacin and 10.8-28.1 mg ascorbic acid (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is a vigorous and large climber and can grow up to 5 m high. Leaves are broadly heart-shaped, pointed at the apex, 8-20 x 6-15 cm in size, conspicuously veined, medium green on the upper surface and pale green with a bloom on the underside. Glands spar:ed along the petiole are 4-6 in pairs or scattered, liguliform or filiform and 3-10 mm long. In the leafaxils, there are paired, leaf-like, ovate-oblong 72.5 cm long and 1.25 cm wide stipules which are more or less finely toothed. Flowers are large, 4 cm wide and showy white pink with sweet and musky odour, usually 2 to a node. The peduncle bears 3 leaf-like ovate oblong and pointed bracts that are 4 x 2.5 cm in size and faintly toothed. The sepals are greenish white and lanceolate. The petals are pinkish white. The filaments in 2 rows are white and horizontally striped purple blue. Fruit is braod elliptic, 6-7.5 cm long and green with purple blush on the sunny side. These are minutely dotted when unripe and become orange yellow with white specks when ripe. The rind is smooth, thin, hard and brittle externally and white and soft inside. The pulp (aril) is whitish yellow or more or less orange, mucilaginous, very juicy with sprightly aromatic flavour and encloses numerous black, flat, pitted, crisp but fairly tender seeds (Morton, 1987; Brucher, 1989).
Culture Sweet granadilla can be grown from seeds or cuttings. Information is not available on cultural requirement for sweet granadilla. The fruits ripen in May-June in Bolivia. Generally, it produces single crop per year. On ripening, the colour of rind changes to yellow, orange or purplish. Despite its hard shell, the fruit has poor keeping quality and starts deteriorating soon after harvest. Squirrels have been found damaging the fruit. Rodents also eat away the sown seeds.
106. TAHITI CHESTNUT Tahiti chestnut (Inocarpus edulis Forst. syn. I. fagiferus Fosb.) belongs to the family Leguminosae and is native of Malaysia and Pacific Islands (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as Otaheite chestnut and Polynesian chestnut. It is distributed throughout South East Asia and Pacific Islands (Duke, 1989). It holds potential for trial in other areas (Martin
et al., 1987).
201
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
It requires hot humid tropical lowland conditions and thrives along the banks of streams and even in swamps. It can grow on soils with pH 6-8 (Martin et al., 1987; Duke, . , . 1989).' Seeds are eaten after roasting and boiling and taste like chestnut. Somoans make purees from the cooked seeds. Leaves are used as cattle feed. It is useful for the treatment of blood-shot eyes, diarrhoea and hemorrhage (Martin et al., 1987; Duke, 1989; Wickens, 1995). Tahiti chestnut is a good source of protein. Per 100 g of seed on zero moisture basis is reported to contain 6.7 g protein, 7.9 g fat, 82.8 g.total carbohydrates, 4.4 g fibre, 0.46 mg thiamine and 4 mg ascorbic acid and provides 426 calories"(Duke, 1989).
Botany It is a 25 m tall tree with deeply furrowed, fluted or buttressed trunk. The leaves are' simple, entire, large, oblong-Ianceolate short-petioled and leathery. Flowers are white, cream or yellow and fragrant and are borne on simple or branched spikes. The calyx is tubular, campanulate and membranous and 2-5 toothed. The petals are 4 to 6, usually 5 with stamens twice the number of petals having small uniform anthers and subsessile or short-stalked ovary with 2 ovules, very short style and o'!Jlique stigma. Fruit is oblique-obovate, flattened, 2-valved, subdrupaceous, leathery, indehIScent and one-seeded (Duke, 1989).
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Fig. 96 : Inocarpus lagiler (Park. ex Zoll.) Fosb. ex Solomon Islands, Polynesian chestnut. A. Tree; B. Branch with fruit; C. Inflorescence (Stevens et ai., 1996)
202
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties A lot of variability is found with regard to tolerance towards waterlogging, saline and swampy conditions.
Culture It is propagated from the seeds. The fruiting starts at the age of about eight years. Two major harvests are made in a year. Nuts are stored with the intact fibrous pods after cooking in large earthen ovens (Duke, 1989).
107. TELFAIRIA NUT Telfairia nut (Telfairia occidentalis Hook. f.) belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae and is native of tropical west Africa. It is also known as fluted p~mpkin, fluted gourd and calabaza costillada. It is extensively cultivated in Nigeria, Ghana and Sierra Leone. Telfairia nut requires lowland humid tropical climatic conditions for good growth and fruiting. It can grow up to elevations of 1000 m and on a wide range of soil conditions although fertile soils with good moisture retaining capacity are preferable. It is fairly drought tolerant and can be grown in shade or full sun (Duke, 1989). Seeds are ground for use in soups or are boiled and eaten as a nut. Seeds contain 30 per cent protein and a high percentage of non-drying oil. The young vigorous shoots of female plant are used as a vegetable and are eaten in variety of dishes. Per 100 g of seeds contain 21.9 g protein, 48.0 g fat, 25.1 g total carbohydrates, 2.3 g fibre, 9.0 g calcium and 61 g phosphorus on zero moisture basis and provide 57 calories. Seed oil contains 37% oleic acid, 21 % palmitic acid, 21 % stearic acid and 15% linoleic acid.
Botany It is a vigorous fast growing perennial vine growing up to 10 m in length. The five angled ridged stem, petioles and leaf blades are covered with multicellular hair. Stem is stout and woody having tendrils branched with coiled tips. Leaves have 3-5 palmately arranged leaflets and 2-3 cm long petioles. The terminal leaflet is asymmetrical and the remaining pairs are symmetrical, ovate and shortly acuminate. The terminal leaflet is up to 15 cm in length and the lower epidermis is sometimes scabrid. The plant is dioecious. Flowers are small and white with dark purple mark at the inside base of the five petals borne in racemes with 7-10 cm long pedicels. Male plants produce smaller leaves. Male inflorescences project conspicuously from the stE:m on 5-25 em long peduncles. Female flowers are solitary and short-stalked produced in the axils of leaves and are often screened by the leaves. Corolla lobes are cream or white, basal area dark purple with short stiff bristles. Fruits are pale green with waxy deposit, strongly ribbed (10) at maturity, up to 25 cm in diameter, 3-6 kg in weight with light yellow and fibrous flesh. There are 30-70 dark red seeds per fruit, which are flattened, 35-49 mm in diameter attached by a slight projection to the placenta (Duke, 1989; Okolia and Mgbeogu, 1983).
Varieties No standard variety is available. Several types showing tolerance to drought, low pH, poor soil and shade are known (Duke, 1989).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS -
203
Culture It is generally propagated from the seeds but the seeds are short lived. Seeds are sown directly in holes or ridges 75-90 cm apart each way. Seedlings raised in containers may also be transplanted 30 days after sowing. Support by poles or a trellis is required. Terminal shoots should be pruned to encourage lateral branching. Irrigation is required at regular interval for optimum growth. A complete fertilizer should be applied before sowing or planting. The first harvest of female shoots and leaves may begin 80-90 days after sowing. Male plants produce fewer edible shoots. Male plants flower about 90 days-after sowing whereas the female plants take 120-150 days. Fruits mature in 120-150 days after sowing. Only 2-5 fruits are produced per plant since many female flowers do not reach full maturity (Duke, 1989). Seeds are large, somewhat circular, flat, red, 35-45 mm in diameter and 15 mm thick. Seed yield in southern Nigeria ranges from 2.5 to 3.0 t/ha. Fluted pumpkin is attacked by cotton leaf roller (Sylepta derogata F.). Leaf spot (Cercospora citrulIus), anthracnose (Collectotrichum lagenarium (Pass.) Ell. and Hals.), Fusarium wilt and mosaic virus cause considerable damage (Duke, 1989).
108. TOMATILLO Tomatillo or Mexican husk tomato (Physalis philadelphica Lamk. syn. P. ixocarpa Brot.) is a native of Mexico and belongs to the family Solanaceae. It is also known as tomate de cascara and tomate verde. It was domesticated in pre-Columbian times and is found as a weed in Mexico and Guatemala. It is widely cultivated in Ecuador, Colombia and Mexico. The fruit is reported to have potential in southern part of USA. The other species are P. pruinosa L. (ground cherry, husk tomato). It requires hot humid climatic conditions with well-distributed rains. It thrives well on sandy loam soils having good drainage. Rain during ripening time destroys the crop. The fruit is not eaten raw and is normally cooked before it is consumed. It is used for making chilli sauce, pickle and Mexican sauce and as dressing for popular dishes such as tacos and enchilades. It is richer in ascorbic acid (36 mg/1oo g), nicotinic acid (3.5 mg/100 g) and soluble solids (9%) than tomato (Morton, 1987). Tomatillo fruit contains 90.4-91.7 g moisture, 0.171-0.7 g protein,O.6 g fat, 5.8 g carbohydrates, 0.6-1.7 g fibre, 6.3-10.9 mg calcium, 21.9-40 mg phosphorus, 0.57-1.4 mg iron, 80 IU vitamin A, 0.05-0.10 mg thiamine, 0.02-0.05 mg riboflavin, 2.1-2.7 mg niacin and 2.04.8 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is a perennicil plant having herbaceous stem and short to elongated rhizomes. The leaves are usually broadly ovate to linear and are generally alternate. The solitary flowers are borne in the axils of leaves, which have campanulate to rotate corolla with reflexed petal borders. The usually yellow petals have a dark purple spot near the base. The calyx is united with the lobes at more than one half its length. The ovary is two carpellate. The androecium has five stamens with the filaments attached to the base of the corolla tube. The anthers are ovate oblong and dehiscent by lateral slits. The fruit is a many seeded berry, 12-60 x 10-48 mm in size (Morton, 1987).
204
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS'
Fig. 97 : Physalis
philadelp~ica,
Tomatillo (Hernandez Bermejo and Leon, 1994)
Varieties Lot of variability exists with regard to size of the husk and colour and flavour of fruit. Green to yellowish green or even purple fruits are found having sweet to acid sweet flavour. Two types are found having sweet to acid sweet flavour. Of the two types, Criollas and Rendidora, Rendidora type gives higher yield (25,000 kg/ha). The Mayan husk tomatillo selection at Iowa is semi-prostrate, vigorous, branching at a height of 10-15 cm and produce round and yellow fruits with firm flesh and mild acid flavour (Motton, 1987). The gene bank at INIFAP, Mexico has approximately 190 collections of Physalis species and that at the University of San Carlos has 41 accessions. Culture It is generally propagated from the seeds. Four-week old seedlings at 4 or 5-leaf stage should be transplanted in the field. Before transplanting, the field should be ploughed twice up to 25-30 em depth and fertilized with 50 kg/ha NPK mixture (15-15-15) and covered with black plastic mulch. Planting should be done at 120 x 60 cm spacing during June-July. Tomatillo is self-incompatible and needs cross pollination for good fruit set. Insects carry out pollination. Harvesting starts after 6 weeks and is done at 10 days interval to be able to
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
205
obtain seven harvests during the plant cycle. The estimated yield is 1.3 t/ha. The unhusked fresh fruits can be stored in single layers in a cool dry atmosphere for several months. Fruit is attacked by stem and fruit borers and can be controlled by insecticidal sprays. Several viruses attack tomatillo. The infected plants should be burnt and destroyed (Morton, 1987).
109. TONKA BEAN Tonka bean (Dipteryx odorata (Aubl.) Willd. syn. Coumarouna odorata Aubl.) belongs to the family Leguminosae and is native of South America (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as tonga, cumaru or tonquin. Its trees are abundant along the tributaries of Orinoco River in Venezuela and are common in the Brazilian States of Amazonas, Para and Mato Grosso. It has been introduced in the West Indies, Trinidad and Dominica. Tonka bean holds little potential for expansion (Martin et al., 1987). It requires hot humid tropical lowland climatic conditions. The tree thrives in shady and damp situations, especially along the riverbanks where the annual rainfall is 150-280 cm. It is calcifuge and tolerates poor, well-drained soils but grows the best on more fertile soils rich in humus having pH 5-8. Tonka bean grows under annual percipitation of 135403 cm and temperature of 21.3-26.6°C. It is cultivated for the seed that yields coumarin used to give pleasant fragrance to tobacco, delicate scent to toilet soaps and piquant taste to liquors. Extract is used in cakes, candies and preserves as a substitute for vanilla, as a fixing agent in the manufacture of colouring materials, in snuffs and in the perfume industry. Pulp is eaten fresh. Seed is eaten after removal of the toxins by boiling. It is said to be used for the treatment of cachexia, nausea, whooping cough and narcotics. Seed extracts are used to treat schistosomiasis (FAO, 1986; Martin et al., 1987).
Botany It is a compact evergreen tree, 25-30 cm tall having a trunk of 1 m diameter. The bark is smooth and grey. The leaves are alternate, pinnate with 3-6 leaflets that are leathery, glossy, dark green and have winged rachis projecting beyond the leaflets. Inflorescence is a terminal panicle consisting of many flowers. Flowers are showy rose coloured with 10-12 cm long corolla. The fruit is 7-10 cm long and 3-6 cm broad indehiscent pod, yellow brown to mahogany at maturity with one seed. The dark seed is 3-5 cm long and 1-2 cm wide weighing 2.9 g.
Varieties The variety Sarapia has very large fruits. Angasture is a Venezuelan type and Para is a Brazilian type. Dwarf forms could be used as rootstocks. Some cultivars are reported to exhibit tolerance to insects and adaptation to poor soil, shade and waterlogging.
Culture It can be propagated from the seeds and by budding, cuttings and marcottage. Seeds lose viability soon after ripening. Whole seeds germinate in 4 weeks whereas it takes 1-2 weeks after endocarp removal. No particular cultivation practice is followed in the native regions.
206
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
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Fig. 98 : Dipteryx odorata (Aubl.) Willd., Tonka bean (Duke, 1983) The plants start fruiting 5 years after planting, The flowers emerge during MarchMay and the pods mature in June-July about 9 months after flowering. Fallen pods are collected during January-March but fresh pods can be harvested in June-July. Hard outer shell is removed and the kernels (beans) are spread out for 2-3 days to dry, For export, the dried beans are soaked in 45-67 per cent alcohol for several days, drained and again dried till they get coated with a white crystalline deposit of coumarin, To extract the highly aromatic liquid rich in coumarin, the beans are ground and soaked in rum for about 3 months and then decanted. This liquid is sprayed over tobacco to give it the distinctive fragrance, Average yield of beans per tree is 1-3.5 kg per year, Bats eat the pulpy flesh of the fruit and are the worst pests. The fungi that attack tonka bean are Anthostomella abdita, Diatrype ruficarnis, Macrophoma clavuligera and Myiocopron
cubense.
110. TREE BEAN Tree bean (Parkia roxburghii G. Don syn, p, javanica (Lam.) Merrill.) belongs to the sub-family Mimosaceae of Leguminosae family and is native of north-eastern India, It grows wild in forests of Manipur, Assam and Burma, It is cultivated in Manipur. A related edible species is p, biglandulosa Wight and Am., which is native of Malaysia, The tree bean requires hot humid climatic conditions for good growth and fruiting. Well-drained rich soils are considered suitable (Barooah and Meitei, 1977), People of Manipur and hill tribes of north-eastern India eat the fruits. The fruit is used for preparation of chutney and delicious curry. Both green immature as well as dried
207
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HU!\lID REGJONS
fruits are used. It is rich in vitamins and minerals and has very high protein content (33 to 36%). Its bark and leaves are used for making lotions for the treatment of skin diseases and ulcers. Bark, leaves and roots are reported to be cyanophoric. Wood is used for construction (Barooah and-Meitei, 1977). The leaves are a good source of fodder and green manure. It is also grown as shade tree in -tea estates and coffee gardens. It can also be grown for afforestation of degraded hilltops. ' tender pod contains 83.3 g-moisture, 10.80 g crude fibre, 0.25 g crude fat, 18.12 The g crude protein, 10.2 mg vitamin C, 240 ing phosphorus and 46.6 mg iron 'per 100 g of edible portion (Arora, 1981).
Botany
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It is a 9-12 m tall tree having spreading branches and pubescent shoots. The bark of the tree is light grey to brown with white patches. The branchlets have raised lenticels. The leaves have bipinriate main rachiS, whiCh is pubenilous or glabrescent. The length of the rachis is 30-60 em with a gland below the lbwer pair of pinnae and a few between the upper pinnae. The pinnae are in 8-30 pairs, opposite ail.C~_ the secondary rachis is 7-15 em long. The leaflets are in 40-80 pairs, sessile, linear-oblong and slightly curved towards the acute tip, base is unequally truncate, lower half sub-hastate, dark green above and ptiberulous on the margin. The flowers are in dense turbinate or clavate long peduncled heads of 3.75-5.63 x 1.88-3.0 em size. The peduncles are 25-40 em long. The head is sterile t9wards the bottom. The bracts are up to 0.75 em long, spatulate_and silky pubescent outside. The calyx is tubular, 0.63-0.75 em long, 5 cleft and tomentose. Corolla is pale yellow, tubular, upper portion free and segments extruded above the sub-valvate calyx. TI:te 10 stamens are excerted. The filaments are connate beloyv and adnate to the.corolla tube. The,anthers are narrow without glands. The ovary has many ovules, style is filiform and the stigma is capitate. The smooth and dark brown pods are 25-50 x 3.75 em in size (Barooah ~nd'Meitei, 1977).
Fig. 99 : Parkiajavanica(Lam.) Merr. (Ochse, 1977; Vegetables of the Dutch EastIndies, Survey of the indigenous and foreign plants serving as pot herbs and side dishes; A. Asher & Co., BV, Amsterdam)
208
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Culture The tree bean is propagated from seeds. It can also be propagated vegetatively . through cuttings .. The cuttings of 100 cm length from branches of 7-8 em diameter are used. The planting is done at a spacing of 7x7 m during May-June. Application of 10-15 kg compost is done annually along with chemical fertilizers at the time of mulching (Kumar et al., 2002). Flo~ering occurs during September-October. The fruits become available during October to April. A tree of 8-20 years gives an income of about Rs.250-500 (Barooah and Meitei, 1977).
1;11. TUCUMA Tucuma or star nut palm (Astrocaryum aculeatum G. F. W. Meyer) belongs to the family Palmae and is native of Amazonia. The related species A. jauari Mart., A. murumuru Mart., A. vulgare Mart. and A. auri Mart. are useful and deserve more attention (FAO, 1986). It has spread throughout the whole of Amazonia, Guyana, Peru and Colombia. The plants . are abundant especially in disturbed areas (Leaky and Newton, 1994). The species is important as a source of fruit and fibre from the leaf epidermis. Tucuma holds tremendous potential as an oil crop ijohnson, 1997). The palm is exceptionally tolerant to poor degraded soils and can withstand periods of drought for a few montns. It requires tropical climatic conditions and is grown in areas . receiving over 1600 mm annual rainfall (FAO, 1986; Briicher, 1989). . The fruit has an edible mesocarp that is rich in vitamin A and oil content (15-75%). It is also made into mash and is used to flavour ice cream, beverage and confections. The kernel is hard and contains 37% oil excellent for cooking and soap making. The residue is used to make a useful cattle feed. A very high quality twine is made from the fibre of young leaves. The fibre is also used for making strong fishing nets and hammocks. The fruit provides 474 kcal energy and contains 5.5 g protein, 42.7 g fat, 6.8 g carbohydrates, 19.2 g fibre, 3,500 f.Lg carotenoids per 100 g of pulp (Aguiar et al., 1980) Botany Tucuma is a single stemmed and tall pleonanthic feather palm growing up to 20 m in height. The younger part of the stem is armed with whorls of black and 1-10 cm long spines. The leaves are usually 10-15 in the crown, reduplicately pinnate and 4-5 m long having 100 pairs of leaflets grouped and held in different planes that are linear, 60-100 x 34 cm in size, dark green on upper surface. The palm is monoecious. Inflorescence is 2 m long bearing 200-300 rachillae, 30-40 cm long. The rachillae bear 1-5 female flowers in the basa1lO cm and densely packed male flowers along the remaining length. Male flower is 4 mm long with cream coloured sepals and petals and 6 stamens with purple filaments and white anthers. Female flower is cream coloured, 15 mm long. The fruit is usually 1-seeded, globose or broadly ellipsoid, 4-6 cm long, 3-5 cm in diameter, green turning yellow brown, often 200-400 in the infructescence or even up to 100; epicarp is smooth, 70 to 90 g in weight and hard; mesocarp is 2-5 mm thick, fibrous, oily and orange yellow; endocarp is very hard, woody, black, 2-3 mm thick with star-like pores; endosperm is homogenous with a central hallow filled with fluid (FAO, 1986; Briicher, 1989; Fig. 25 on page 46).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
209
Varieties No standard variety is available. There is lot of variability available in the wild with regard to fruit size, weight, quality, pulp thickness and yield. Selections should aim at oily varieties with thicker pulp, longer harvest period, faster growth and precocity. There is also need to select better types having spineless stem, sweet nutty flavour, medium oil and low fibre contents and thick plip (FAO, 1986; Briicher, 1989).
Culture It is generally propagated from the seeds. Seed germinates very slowly and may take from 8 months to 2 years even when freed of their hard shells. No information is available on cultural practices. Tucuma plants flower during March and July and fruiting usually occurs between January and April. Bunches are pulled down with a hooked stick soon after the first fruit ripens and falls. Fruit must then b~ left for about 3 days in sacks to ripen completely and for the pulp to soften slightly. These must then be eaten within 3 or 4 days before they start to dry and rot particularly when bruised. A tree produces about 50 kg fruits per year. No pests or diseases hav~ been noted but wasp nests and termites are observed on the trunk (FAO, 1986).
112. UVILLA Uvilla (Pourouma cecropiaefolia Mart.) is a small tree of the western Amazon (Brazil, Colombia, Peru) and belongs to the family Moraceae. It is also known as Mapati, Amazon tree grape, Amazon grape, guarumo, imauba do vinho and caimaron. Several edible Pourouma species are found in the rain forests of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Guyana and East Africa. Other related species are P. guianensis Aubl., P. mollis Trec., P. aspera Trec., P. acuminata Mart. and P. sapida Karst. Some of them may be identical species. P. aspera Trec. is the oniy species of central American origin while the others belong to the humid hot region of South America (FAD, 1986; Briicher, 1989). Uvilla is one of the most promising fruit plants that should receive high priority for domestication (Leaky and Newton, 1994a,b). This species is already popular in Bora Indians and in various agroforestry systems of Amazonia Peru. The uvilla needs hot and humid tropical climatic conditions. It grows in wet equatorial forests. It can be easily grown under pantropical climate. It has moderate wind tolerance and little cold and drought tolerance. Uvilla grows the best on deep and fertile loamy soils but also does extremely well on sandy to medium heavy clay soils with relatively-lower nutrient levels (FAO, 1986; Martin et aI., 1987). Fruit is consumed raw or is used to prepare wine and jelly. The wood is light, coarse and not durable and is used only for making charcoal (Morton, 1987). Amazon tree grape provides 64 calories and contains 82-92 g water, 0.3-0.5 g protein, . 0.3 g fat, 6-16 g carbohydrates, 0.4-0.9 g fibre, 10-34 mg calcium, 4-10 mg phosphorus and 0.2-0.6 mg iron per 100 g pulp (FAO, 1986).
Botany Uvilla is a fast growing short-lived tree bearing grape-like tasty and juicy fruits. It is a small to medium sized evergreen tree growing up to 5~12 m in height. Leaves are alternate, simple, 15-40 x 10-20 cm in size, coriaceous, dark green, often slightly glossy above, pale
210
, UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
green to greyish and densely felted below having palmately lobed 6-12 oblanceolate lobes. The tree is dioecious. Inflorescence is narrow, erect, many flowered and axillary panicle up to 10 cm in length. The flowers are' unisexual, male and female flowers borne on different trees. Male flowers have 4 free, dark brown and star-shaped hairy sepals and 4 or more stamens. Female flowers have cup-shaped fleshy perianth. Ovary is I-celled, narrowing to a short style with a terminal, obscurely lobed stigma. Fruit is an ovoid to spherical drupe, 2-4 cm long, 1-4 cm in diameter, resembling grape in appearance and having rough skin turning from green through violet to black on ripening and the pulp is juicy, gelatinous and sweet, slig~tly fibrous, surrounding a single, 0.9-1 cm long ovoid seed (Page, 1984; FAa, 1986; Morton, 1987). '
Fig. 100 : Pourollma cecropiae/olia Mart. 1. Leaf; 2. fruiting branch. (FAO, 1986)
Varieties .
.
!
.
As uvilla hybridizes very easily, lot of ,variability o<;curs in nature. Selections should be done to obtain fast growing types giving high yield of large 'and sweet fruits. "
#
..
Culture
•
(
. ' "
It is propagated from the seeds. Seeds should be sown immediately as they lose
viability very quickly. Seedlings make very fast growth and become ready for transplanting w~thi:r:t 3 to 5 months. The planting dista~ce i~ the field should be 6-8 x 6-8 m. Since it is dioecious, male trees mus,t b~ interplant~d to,ensure good P?llination. Regul.ar irrigation is necessaIY, during ~rought periods,
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
211
Uvilla plant grows very fast and begins to fruit three years after planting. It has prolific fruit set and produces heavily for several months during the wet season. Flowers emerge during March to June and occasionally again from June to August. The fruit ripens in autumn in Florida and over a 3-month period in the wet season of South America. The fruits tur.1 purple in colour on ripening. The fruits borne at the top of the tree ripen earlier than the others. A forked branch is used for harvesting. The fruit skin is acrid and inedible and must be peeled off before eating. A tree yields 13-45 kg fruits per season. The fruit should be immediately disposed to market as it is very perishable and starts fermentation immediately (Page, 1984; FAO, 1986; Morton, 1987).
113. VELVET APPLE Velvet apple or mabolo (Diospyros blancoi ADC syn. D. discolor Willd., D. philippensis (Dear.) Guerke) belongs to the family Ebenaceae. It is also known as mabola, butter fruit and pommier velours. It is native of the Philippines where it is commonly found at low altitudes (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It is cultivated in Taiwan and Indonesia. It has been introduced throughout the eastern tropics. In India, it is grown in southern parts of the Peninsula and in Bihar and Assam. Velvet apple has fair potential for wider cultivation (Martll:t et al., 1987). It requires hot humid tropical lowlands and grows well at 800 m elevations and can grow on almost any soil. It is very resistant to typhoons (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel,1991). The fruit is usually eaten fresh when ripe. It tastes rather sweet but is quite dry. The pulp can also be diced or preserved and used with other fruits in salads. The smooth, durable and black wood is used for making combs and handicrafts. The tree is also planted as an avenue or shade tree. It can be used as a rootstock for persiminon (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Seedless type of velvet apple contains 71.95-86.04 g moisture, 0.82-2.79 g protein, 0.22-0.38 g fat, 5.49-6.12 g carbohydrates and 0.74-1.76 g fibre and provides 504 calories per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is an evergreen tree growing up to 7-15 m in height and about 50 cm in diameter and has a conical crown. The leaves are alternate, oblong, 8-30 x 2.5-12 cm in size, entire, coriaceous, usually with rounded base, pointed apex, silvery hairy upper surface and with 1.7 cm long petioles. The tree is dioecious. Male flowers are borne 413-7 flowered axillary cymes having short pedicels, tubular but deeply 4-lobed, about 1 cm long calyx, slightly larger tubular and 4-lobed corolla, 24-30 creamy white stamens which are united in pairs at the base. The female flowers are solitary, axillary and subsessile, slightly larger than male flowers with 4-5 staminodes. The fruit is a globose or depressed berry, 5-12 x 8-10 cm in size, velvety and brown reddish, capped at the base with the peristent stiff calyx, having thin skin densely coated with golden brown hair giving a strong cheese-like odour. The flesh is whitish, firm, rather dry, sweet astringent and aromatic having 4-10 wedge-shaped brown seeds of 4 x 2.5 x 1.5 cm size (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
212
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Fig. 101 : Diospyros discolor Willd. - 1. Flowering branch; 2&3. Fruit. (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
Varieties Seedling trees exhibit a high degree of variability in leaf characters, shape and size of fruits, flesh colour and seedlessness. White-fleshed and sweet cultivar is popular in the Philippines. The superior types, Manila and VaIesca, have been selected in the Philippines (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Gennplasm collection of velvet apple has been maintained at the Institute of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Laguna, Philippines (5 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1992).
Culture It is usually propagated from the se,eds. The seeds take up to 24 days to germinate. Vegetative propagation can be done by marcotting, budding and grafting. Cleft graftirig is commercially used in the Philippines. Grafted plants are planted at 8-10 m spacing at the onset of rainy season. Seedlings are planted as avenue at a spacing of 10-15 m. Once established, the trees hardly need much care. Water sprouts and interlacing branches are occasionally removed. Seedling trees start fruiting 6-7 years after planting and the grafted trees bear after 3-4 years. Flowering occurs during March-May and the fruits mature during June-September. Some insects that are reported to feed on the shoots and leaves are toy beetles, leaf rollers,
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
213
slugs, tussock caterpillars, bagworms and red scales. No s~rious disease has been reported. Male trees must be interplanted for effective pollination. The fruits are considered mature when they tum from greenish brown to dull red. After harvest, these are usually wiped with a piece of cloth to remove the hairy bloom to make them attractive. The fruits start softening and become aromatic within 3-4 days after harvesting. Fruit takes 150-180 days from flowering to maturity (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987).
114. WATER LEMON Water lemon (Passiflora Iaurifolia 1. syn. P. tinifolia Juss.) belongs to the family Passifloraceae and is native of West Indies and South America (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as yellow granadilla, vinegar pear, Jamaican honey suckle, belle pear, bell apple, and sweet cup. Originally wild in the West Indies, Venezuela and eastern Brazil, now it is also found wild in Tonga, Fiji, New Guinea, Malaysia and East Africa (Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989). Water lemon has li~tle potential for wider cultivation (Martin et al., 1987). It requires hot wet tropical lowland conditions for good performance. A warm and dry atmosphere is essential for early ripening of stigmas. Best yields are obtained at 457 m elevation. It can grow well on sandy and limestone soils (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). The fruit arils are eaten fresh and are also used to make bev,erages and desserts. It is also grown as an ornamental plant in the Caribbean Islands. The stems are used to make baskets as they become hard and tough when dried. The rind, leaves and seeds contain cyanogenic glycoside and the leaves and roots contain ascorbic acid and are used as a vermifuge. The seeds can be used as a sedative but when used mexcess are hypnotic (Martin et al., 1987). '
Botany Water lemon is a tall climber growing up to 10-15 m in height in tropical forests. Stem is terete and bears entire, ovate oblong or oblong, thick and 7.5 - 12 cm long leaves with acute or obtuse apex. The stipules are linear and about 0.3 em long. The fragrant, solitary, 5-petalled flowers are 7.4-10 em across when expanded; have bell shaped calyx and oblong, red or purple red sepals and petals. Corona filaments are 6 ranked, banded with red, blue, purple and white. The fruit is ellipsoid or ovoid, 5-8 cm long, 4-6 cm wide, orange yellow, clasped at the base by 3 large green, leaf like bracts, toothed and edged with conspicuous glands. The rind is leathery, 3 mm thick, white and spongy within and becomes hard when 'dry. Pleasantly rose-scented, translucent and white pulp is juicy and subacid in taste. Seeds are numerous, flat and minutely ribbed (Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989).
Fig. 102 : Passiflora lauri/olia 1. , Yellow granadilla, 1. Branch with flower and fruit; 2. Fruit in cross section (Ochse, 1977)
214
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties There is no known standard cu1tivar of water lemon. Its genetic resources have been maintained at the Subtropical Horticultural Research Unit, Miami (14 accessions) (I3ettencourt et ai., 1992).
Culture the water lemon grows readily from seeds or cuttings. Its flowers open only in the afternoon. Cross pollination is required for good fruiting. Hand pollination is done to obtain good fruit set if the pollinator carpenter bees are not present at the right time. Vines are fairly resistant to root-knot nematodes (Martin et ai., 1987).
115. WEST INDIAN LOCUST West Indian locust or jatoba (Hymenaea courbaril 1.) belongs to subfamily Caesalpinioideae of the family Leguminosae and is native of Central and South America and the West Indies. It is distributed throughout the Central and South America. It is also known as Latin American locust or stinking toe (FAO, 1986; Martin et al., 1987). West Indian locust is of local importance with limited potential for development (Martin et ai., 1987). West Indian locust requires hot tropical climate. It is widespread on the poor, light and heavy oxisols of the higher flood plains and dry transitional forests of the Amazon Basin. It can grow on poor fertility soils. It can tolerate water stagnation as well as 4 months or more of drought in areas receiving 1500 to 3000'mm annual rainfall and temperatures typical of the wet lowland tropics (FAO, 1986; Martin et ai., 1987). The pulp is eaten fresh or is powdered to prepare gruel or cakes. It has a peculiar smell and sweet flavour, slightly reminiscent of bananas. West Indian locust is a good so~ce of resin in South America, in Brazilian Para or Demerara Copal or Jutaicica. The hard resin '" exudes slowly from all parts of the tree when damaged. It trickles from the holes drilled in the trunk and is often dug up in a half fossilized form from the base of the tree where it collects. It is transparent to yellow brown and is used to prepare a poor quality varnish. It produces hard and rough wood considered the best for making furniture and musical instruments (FAO, 1986). .
Botany West Indian locust tree grows up to 30-40 m in height and 2 m in diameter. Bark is usually smooth, greyish, 1-3 em thick and reddish internally. The leaves are alternate, compound and 2-foliate. Stipules soon fall. The petioles are 12-30 mm long. The leaflets are· 2, ovate to lanceolate, 3-12 x 1.5-7 cm in size with acute to obtuse apex, entire margin and with small glands and prominent veins on the glabrous, shining and leathery undersurface. Inflorescence is a short terminal panicle with few branches and flowers. The flowers are bisexual with 3-10 mm long pedicels. The sepals are 4, which are concave, oblong/obovate and 12-22 mm long. The stamens are 10 with 3-8 mm long anthers. Ovary is 1-10 locular with 6-10 or more ovules. Fruit is an indehiscent, oblong pod, 8-15 x 3-5 cm in size having dull brown hard, woody, 5 cm thick pericarp. Seeds are 1-6, light to dark brown, hard, flattened, obovoid to ellipsoid, 1-2 cm long and surrounded by a dry creamy brown or greenish pulp (FA,O, 1986; Briicher, 1989).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
215
Fig. 103 : Hymenaea courbaril L. 1. Flowering branch; 2. Fruit. (FAO, 1986)
Culture It is propagated from the seeds. The seeds can be stored for as long as 12 months in dry condition with little loss of viability. The seeds germinate in about 3 or 4 weeks and the seedlings grow rapidly. Cultural requirement for West Indian locust should be standardized. The plants start producing flowers 8 to 12 years after planting. Flowering generally occurs during January-February and the pods start ripening from June to October. Pods drop to the ground when ripe and must be collected within a few days before the edible pulp rots. On an average, the tree can produce 1000-3000 pods. No insect pests and diseases of any significance are known to damage the West Indian locust (FAO, 1986) .
. 116. WILD CASHEW Wild cashew (Anacardium giganteum Banc. ex Engler) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae. It is native of Amazonian Brazil and Guyana rain forests. It is grown as a forest tree. It is also known as caju gigante, caju assu and anacardier geant (FAO, 1986; Briicher, 1989). Wild cashew is almost unexplored and unexploited (Martin et ai., 1987). It needs hot humid tropical climatic conditions and grows the best in lowlands in regions 1500 m below mean sea level. It prefers clay soils but can be grown in other soil types also. It thrives the best in regions receiving about 2000 mm annual rainfall and a mean annual temperature of 28°C (FAO, 1986; Martin et al., 1987). The nuts are small and edible. Peduncle (pseudofruit) is also eaten fresh or as juice which has sweet or acid flavour and is astringent and refreshing. The nut is rich in protein and oil. The peduncle is rich in vitamin C. It is considered better than the common cashew nut. Wood is used for building work (FAO, 1986). Botany It is a large :tree growing up to 22-30 m in height with thick and slightly rough bark. Leaves are alte'mate, simple, obovate, 20 x 12 cm in size, coriaceous, glabrous having rounded apex and entire margins. It has a terminal inflorescence bearing fragrant flowers. The male flower consists of 5 calyx lobes, 5 ovate-lanceol~te petals that are greenish-white
216
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
or pink turning red and 8 stamens, 1 fertile with 7-8 mm long filments, the remainder shorter and sterile. Ovary is obliquely ovoid and has 1 ovule. Fruit is a kidney-shaped drupe, 2.5 cm long with a resinous mesocarp attached to and slightly immersed in an enlarged, reddish and succulent pedicel of 7 cm length and 5 cm diameter (FAO, 1986; Briicher, 1989).
f~·."';Jtt;.."_
5] ~
5
~~~ii 51 ~ ~ N"
"
. ".
6 " Fig. 104 : Anacardium giganteum Hanc. Engler (FAD, 1986)
Varieties No standard variety is known.
Culture It is generally propagated through the seeds. Seeds germinate within 6 to 8 days. Little information is available on the required cultural practices. The trees of wild cashew start flowering 15 years after planting during November to "February onwards when the rains start. Fruiting occurs in December to April during the rainy season in Amazonia (FAO, 1986; Martin et ai., 1987).
117. YELLOW MOMBIN Yellow mombin or tapereba (Spondias mombin 1. syn. S.iutea 1.) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and is native of tropical America (Martin et ai., 1987). It is also known as hog plum, Spanish plum, gully plum or ashanti plum. It is common in the moist lowland forests from southern M,exico to Peru and Brazil and the West Indies. It has been planted in Bermuda and is grown to a limited extent in Indonesia and has been naturalized in tropical Africa (Morton, 1987). It requires hot tropical lowlands having high rainfall with" a marked dry season. It is not found growing above an elevation of 1000 m in South America. It is well adapted to arid as well as humid zones and to a variety of soil conditions. Yellow mombin has good potential in lowland tropics (Martin et al., 1987).
FRUITS FOR TROPICAL HUMID REGIONS
217
Fruit pulp is eaten fresh or is used to prepare juices, ice creams, jellies, sherbets or beverages. In Amazonas, the fruit is used mainly to prepare a wine called vinhode taperiba. In Guatemala, the fruit is used to make a cider like drink. Mexicans pickle the green fruits in vinegar, which are eaten like olives with salt and chilli (Martin et ai., 1987). The fruit juice is diuretic and febrifuge. The decoction of the astringent bark serves as an emetic, a remedy for diarrhoea, dysentery and hemorrhoids and for the treatment of gonorrhoea and leucorrhoea. It is believed to expel calcifications from the bladder. The powdered bark is applied on wounds. A tea of the flowers and leaves is taken to relieve stomachache, biliousness, urethritis, cystitis and eye and throat inflammation. The gum is used as an expectorant and to expel tapeworms. The wood is used in carpentry and for manufacture of matchsticks and matchboxes. Bark is used for tanning and dyeing. It is extensively planted as a living fence and for shade. It is grown as a shade tree (FAO 1982, 1986; Verheij and Coronel,1991). Per 100 g of edible portion of yellow mombin provides 21.8-48.1 calories, 72.8-88.5 g moisture, 1.28-1.38 g protein, 0.1-0.56 g fat, 1.16-1.18 g fibre, 8.7-10.0 g carbohydrates, 31.4 mg calcium, 2.8 mg iron, 71 IU carotene (vitamin A), 95 J1.g thiamine, 50 J1.g riboflavin and 46.4 mg ascorbic aicd (Morton, 1987). Botany The yellow mombin is an erect deciduous tree up to 20 m tall with 60-70 cm trunk diameter having buttressed, up to 2 em long spines or knobs. The leaves are alternate, pinnate, 20-45 cm long, hairy, often with pinkish petioles and 9 to 19 sub opposite, ovate or lanceolate and pointed leaflets which are 5-15 cm long and oblique at the base. Inflorescence in 15-30 cm long terminal panicles has small, polygamous and fragrant flowers that emerge after the new leaves. The fruits are aromatic, ovoid or oblong, 3.2-~ x 1 cm in size having thin and tough skin and medium yellow, translucent, fibrous, very juicy, musky and very acid pulp often with little turpentine flavour and attached to the white, fibrous or corky stone (Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 105 : Spondias mombin L. (FAO,1982)
218
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties Selections from the rich genepool of wild growing biotypes in Brazil, Venezuela and the Carribean islands should be undertaken (Briicher, 1989).
Culture It is usually propagated by large cuttings. The cuttings root readily. The plants grow very fast under full sun (Martin et al., 1987). Cultu,ral requirement for yellow mombin should be standardized. The seedling plants start bearing in 4-6 years and those raised from the cuttings start fruiting in 2-3 years. Flowering takes place in March-April in Florida. In Costa Rica, the tree blooms from November to December and in Jamaica in April-June. Fruit matures in 180 days after flowering. The fruits are available from August to November in Florida. They fall to the ground when fully ripe. Each tree produces approximately 1000 fruits. Fruitfly larvae often infest the fruits (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987).
DOD
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS TROPICAL HUMID REGION .-------~_BE------------EE~------__.
p=~------~~~.r~--~7._.~~
Fruiting twigs of buriti palm (Mauritia vinifera)
Fruits of sweet calabash
Fruits of okari nut
Fruiting in velvet apple
Fruiting in ceriman
Cut open fruits of salak palm in background
Fruits of acai palm
Fruiting in African breadfruit
....
r---~~--~~~----
UNDER UTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS TROPICAL HUMID REGION
~~-.-----.
Fruit clusters of Spanish joint fir (Gnetum gnemon)
Fruits of star apple
Pods of tree bean (Parkia speciosa)
Fruits of abiu
Fruits of tucuma (A strocanJum standley anum)
Fruit clusters of sugar palm (A renga pinnata)
Fruiting in babassu (Orbignya phalerata)
Nuts of Java almond (Canarium indicum)
UNDERUTlLIZED FRUITS AND NUTS TROPICAL HUMID REGION
..
.--------------.~~
~~-
Fruiting branch of cupuazu
Fruiting in elephant apple
Fruits of genipap
Fruiting in giant granadilla
Fruiting in Governor's plum
Fruiting in grumichama
Fruits of guarana
Fruiting in Jamaica cherry
UNDER UTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Fruiting in lovi-Iovi
Fruits of lucuma
Fruiting branch of madrono
Fruiting in Malay rose apple
Fruits of matisia
Fruits of namnam
Fruits of orinoco apple
Fruits of rakum palm
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS TROPICAL HUMID REGION
A fruiting passionfruit vine
Fruit clusters of peach palm
Fruiting branch of pili nut
Fruiting in pulasan
Fruit clusters of pummelo
Fruits of rambutan
African plum tree (DacnJodes edulis)
A fruit of soursop
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS TROPICAL HUMID REGION
Fruiting in breadnut (Brosimum alicastrum)
Fruiting in bush mango
Fruits of camu camu
Fruits of canis tel
Fruiting in carambola
Fruit clusters in cashew
Fruiting in custard apple
Fruits of durian
UNDER UTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Fruiting twig of African walnut (Coula edu lis)
Fruits of akee
Fruit bearing in ambarella
Fruit clusters of Baccaurea courtallensis
Fruiting in bignay (Antidesma bunius)
Fruiting in bilimbi
Fruiting in borojo
Brazil nut
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS TROPICAL HUMID REGION
~~~~£I~~~
Fruiting branch of Malabar tamarind
Fruits of mammee apple
Fruiting in mangos teen
Fruits of marang
Fruiting in jackfruit, cut open fruit (inset)
Fruiting in nance
Fruiting in otaheite gooseberry
Fruits of paradise nut
/ EDI
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS TROPICAL HUMID REGION
' r....... -- ~ ~~~ ~ i . ~ < ', , k~- .~~ .. ,.'
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--_
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-
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Fruits of bakuri
Fruiting in Barbados gooseberry
Fruiting branch of black sapote
Fruiting in breadfruit
Fruiting in burahol
Fruits of cassabanana
Fruiting in coco plum
Fruits of cola nut
UNDER UTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS TROPICAL HUMID REGION
~~~
Fruiting in Fijian longan and fruit (inset)
Fruits of galo nut
Flowering and fruiting in Inga vera
Fruits of Mysore gamboge (Garcinia cambogia)
Java apple fruits
Fruits of kokam
Fruits of langsat
Fruiting in Pandanus tectorius
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
1. AFRICAN FAN PALM African fan palm or ron palm (Borassus aethiopum C. Mart. syn. B. flabellifer (Mart.) Warb. var. aethiopum) belongs to family Palmae and is native of Africa. It is also known as deleb palm or black rum palm (Martin et ai., 1987). It is distributed throughout the Savannas of the semi-arid and subhumid tropics in western Africa from Senegal to Nigeria and in a belt southwards from Sudan to Mozambique and Transvaal (FAO, 1988). It is a fruit crop of local importance and presently holds little potential for expansion (Martin et ai., 1987). The palm requires hot tropical climate with low to medium rainfall and temperature 24-28°C. Alluvial soils and silty sands are found suitable for African fan palm (Martin et ai., 1987; FAO, 1988; Herzog et al., 1996). The fruit is eaten fresh or after dehydration. The endosperm of immature seed is eaten fresh. Its roasted germ is appreciated because of the bitter taste. Sap from cut inflorescences is used to make sugar or wine. The root powder mixed with shea butter is used to treat sore throat and bronchitis. The flower is useful against aphonies and young leaves are used to stop hemorrhages. Palm wine is considered an aphrodisiac and stimulant (Martin et ai., 1987; FAO, 1988; Herzog et ai., 1996). Main trunk of the palm is used as posts and for construction of bridges. Leaves are used for thatches, baskets, mats, fans, umbrellas, etc.
230
UNDERUTlLlZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Botany African fan palm has a crown up to 8 m wide formed by IS-30 fan shaped leaves. The leaves including the leaf stalk are up to 4 m long. The leaf blade is divided about the middle into numerous linear-Ianceolate folded segments about 3 cmat the base. The palm is dioecious. The inflorescences bear yellowish flowers. Male flowers are clustered in a branched spadix up to 1.S m in length. Female flowers are borne on unbranched short spadix. The fruit weighing up to 1 kg is a round ovoid drupe, ISxI2.5 cm in size, greenish yellow to orange in colour with the base enclosed in 6-7 cup shaped bracts and contains 3 hard coated seeds surrounded by fibrous deep yellow pulp. Seeds are creamy brown, segmentshaped, weighing about 100 g (FAG, 1988; Herzog et al., 1996).
Fig. 106 : Borassus aethiopum, African fan palm, (F AO, 1988)
Culture The palm is generally propagated through seeds. Seed germination takes about one month and the seedling takes about 10 years for development into a complete tree. Systematic cultural practices are not followed. A female palm may produce 20-S0 fruits per inflorescence with individual fruits weighing about 1 kg each. Fruits take 12-13 months to reach maturity and generally ripen in the rainy season. The fungus, Phytophthora palmivora, attacks the terminal shoot (FAG, 1988).
2.
AFRICAN
LOCUST
BEAN
African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa Gacq.) Benth.) belongs to family Leguminosae and is native of West Africa. It is also known as West African locust bean or nere. It is
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
231
found growing wild in Savanna forests. The related edible species are P. clappertona Keay, P. filicoidea Welw. ex Oliv., P. bicolor A. Chev. and are native of tropical Africa. P. speciosa Hort. ex Hassk (Pete) is distributed in Malaysia and Indonesia. African locust bean is distributed in western Africa from Senegal to northern Cameroon and in Sudan. It is an important market product in Mali and Upper Volta (FAO, 1988). It is also cultivated in tropical America and the West Indies (Martin et al., 1987, FAO, 1988; Carolowitz, 1991). African locust bean requires tropical climate having 24-282C temperature and rainfall from 500 to 700 mm of the semi-arid regions to 1200 mm/year of the sub-humid regions. It requires deep, heavy sands, clays or silts and can also survive on poor rocky, stony or gravelly sites but strongly alkaline soils are unsuitable. Plants are moderately tolerant to drought but are sensitive to frost (Martin et al., 1987; FAO, 1988; von Carolowitz, 1991; Hall
et al., 1997). Yellow floury pulp that surrounds the seeds in pod is eaten raw. The flour prepared from pulp is used in local dishes including soups and porridge. Cakes made from the flour keeps well. When mixed with water and fermented, it makes a refreshing drink. Young pods are cooked as vegetable. A type of vegetable cheese is made from the seeds, which has a strong distinctive flavour. This cheese, known as "dawadawa", is much appreciated for flavouring sauces in local cooking. Young leaves are occasionally eaten as vegetable. Leaves are used as poultices for bums and hemorrhoids. Bark is used for the treatment of colic, diarrhoea, sterility, bronchitis, pneumonia, leprosy, venereal diseases, bad breath, skin irritations, guinea worm, swellings and rickets. The leguminous tree is valuable in soil improvement programmes as it has ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. It is also grown for its ornamental value (Martin et al., 1987; FAO, 1988).
Botany African locust bean is a deciduous tree. It grows up to a height of 10-20 m with large umbrella shaped crown. Leaves are dark green, pinnate, the smallest division measuring about 1-1.5 cm x 5 mm. Leaf stalks are greyish brown and velvety. Flower head is a ball of red or orange flowers about 5 cm in diameter hanging on a long stalk up to 30 cm in length. Inflorescence is biglobose capitulum having distal part with fertile flowers and smaller proximal part with staminodal nectariferous flowers. Hermaphrodite flowers are orange or red in colour having 10-13 mm long calyx, 10-14 mm long corolla with very short lobes, 13 mm long filaments exserted about 4 mm beyond the calyx mouth. Nectar secreting flower has 6-7 mm long calyx. Staminodal flower occurs on the same capitulum and has 5.5-7 mm long calyx, filaments exerted 2-3 mm beyond the calyx mouth and only a rudimentary gynoecium. The bats carry out pollination. Fruits are long pods, 45 x 2 cm in size, slightly curved, hanging in clusters from the flower stalks. The pods contain up to 30 seeds, embedded in a yellow pericarp. The pods split open when mature. Seeds are red brown to black, flattened and embedded in a yellow floury pulp (FAO, 1988; Hall et al., 1997).
Varieties No standard variety is known. There is, however, a lot of scope to select superior genotypes bearing large pods with good quality seed.
232
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Fig. 107 : Parkia biglobosa Benth. (VITA, 1988)
Culture It is generally propagated through seed. The seeds should be collected from freshly fallen pods from strong, healthy trees. Viability of the seed is very short. Therefore, it is best to sow the seeds as soon as possible. Germination of seed is improved by soaking overnight in hot water. Seedlings raised in pots become ready for planting in the field after 10-14 weeks. Grafting or budding or cuttings can be used for vegetative propagation. The trees are generally planted in the field at 5 x 5 m spacing. From 8th to 10th year after planting, thinning is done to retain a population of 100 trees/ha. The trees start fruiting by about 8th year after planting. Flowering and fruiting take place during the dry season. A 15-20 year old tree yields about 25-100 kg fruits per year. Pods are picked from the tree. After harvesting, seeds are removed from the dry pulp and the pulp filled husks are stored in large granaries. Seeds are also collected from the ground after the pods have been blown down by high winds or have split open. No reports are known of any insect pest occurrences in African locust bean (FAO, 1988; Booth and Wickens, 1988).
3. AMRA Amra (Spondias pinnata (Linn. f.) Kurz) is a member of the family Anacardiaceae and is native of tropical Asia. It is also known as wild mango or hog plum (Martin et al., 1987). It grows wild from the Himalayas in the north to the Andaman Islands (Morton, 1987). It is also found in Myanmar, thailand and Sri Lanka. It requires hot tropical lowland climatic conditions. Amra is a fruit crop of local importance (Martin et al., 1987) but the potential of its cultivation outside,.the native area has to be assessed. The green fruits are used as a vegetable and the ripe fruits are used as a condiment and to prepare chutney, stews, pickles, preserve and jams. The fruit is stated to be useful in
233
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
bilious dyspepsia. The bark is aromatic, astringent and refrigerant. It is useful in the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea a:t;ld is also given to prevent vomiting. Its paste is used as an embrocation for both articular and muscular rheumatism. A decoction of bark is reportedly given in the treatment of gonorrhea. The root is considered useful in regulating menstruation, and the leaves are applied in earache. It is also grown as an ornamental and shade tree (Anon., 1976; Morton, 1987). Proximate food value of amra is 90.3 g water, 0.7 g protein, 3.0 g fat, 4.5 g carbohydrates, 1.0 g fibre, 36 mg calcium, 11 mg phosphorus, 3.9 mg iron, 450JU vitamin A, 0.02 mg-thiamine, 0.02 mg riboflavin, 0.3 mg niacin and 21 mg ascorbic acid providing 48 calories per 100 g edible portion (Gopalan et al., 1986) .
.Botany
m.1t
It is a deciduous mediu...'ll sized tree growing up to a height of 8-10 has slender but strong wO,ody stem having branches covered with grey, aromatic bark and altern~te, pinnate leaves. The leaf has 5-11 leaflets, which have mango like smell. Its polygamous flowers are white or greenish white and are borne in large terminal panicles. The fruits are ovoid, medium sized (4.5 x 3.2 em) with a depression at the basal end. The fruit is olive green when unripe but turns yellow at maturity. The pulp is fairly juicy, orange coloured and pleasant in flavour. The oblong elliptic seeds are 1-3 (Anon., 1976).
3~
'" ." . I
Fig. 108 : Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz., Amra (Ochse, 1977)
I
234
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Culture It is propagated by cutting or through seeds. Stem cuttings taken from mature wood are planted during December - January in permanent locations. These cuttings set immediately. Seeds are sown in the nursery beds of light soil at a depth of about 3 cm. The seeds germinate within four to six weeks. Fertilizer and irrigation requirements of amra should be determined. Vegetatively propagated plants start bearing 3 years after plantation but those raised from seeds take 6-7 years to fruit. Flowers appear during March-April and the fruits attain maturity in 6 to 7 months. A six-year old tree yields 20 to 3q kg fruit (Anon., 1976).
4. AVOCADO Avocado (Persea americalUl Mill. syn. P. gratissima C. F. Gaertn., P.IeiogylUl S. F. Blake) belongs to family Lauraceae. It is also known as avocado pear, aguacate and alligator pear. It is a native of central and South America and Mexico. Spanish explorers recorded its cultivation from Mexico to Peru. It is now grown extensively in Mexico, the Philippines, South Africa, USA, Dominican Republic, Australia, Madagascar, Israel, Spain, Indonesia, Peru and Haiti (Martin et al., 1987). The related edible species are P. schiedeana Nees (coyo) and Beilschmiedia anay Kosterm (anay). . The avocado requires tropical or subtropical climatic conditions depending on race. It grows well in medium to high rainfall regions. The cultivars belonging to West Indian race are particularly susceptible to frost during flowering but those of Mexican race are less susceptible. Humid conditions during flowering and fruit set period is harmful. The weather should be dry and free of strong winds during fruit development. Hot and dry winds or dry soil any time during flowering and fruit development can cause excessive shedding. It can grow a variety of soils but well-drained sandy loam soils having pH 6-7 are the best. The avocado trees are susceptible to root rot fungus, salinity and waterlogging (ffiPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The avocado is considered a nutrient dense fruit, rich in antioxidants and is one of the richest sources of fibre (Bergh, 1990). The fruits are usually consumed fresh as a salad. They constitu~e a staple ingredient of the diet in many Latin American countries. The fruit pulp has high oil (3-30%) and low sugar contents. Owing to low sugar content, the fruit can be recommended as energy food for diabetics. The oil is digestible and is also used for cosmetics and after refining as high value food oil. The fruit pulp is also frozen along with lemon juice and spices (guacamole), and used as a cheese like fermented food ijacobsberg, 1988). The pulp is used as sandwich filling or spread and in ice creams and milk shakes. Oil extracted from the seeds is used in cosmetics and high quality soaps (ffiPGR, 1986; Nakasone and Paull, 1998). The wood is used for construction, boards and turnery (Duke and Ducellier, 1993; Bergh, 1990). Avocado pulp contains 65.7-87.7 g moisture, 5.13-19.8 g fat (ether extract), 1.0-2.1 g fibre, 3.6-20.4 mg calcium, 20.7-64.1 mg phosphorus, 0.025-0.475 mg carotene, 0.033-0.117 mg thiamine, 0.065-0.176 mg riboflavin, 0.99-2.20 mg niacin and 4.5-21.3 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
m
Botany Avocado is an evergreen and erect tree growing up to 20 m in height. Leaves are simple, elliptic or ovate-oblong, 5-30 x 3-15 c~ in size and are spirally arranged. Flowers
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
235
are small, bisexual, fragrant, greenish yellow, apetalous, borne on compact axillary panicles crowded at the ends of the branches. Flower has 6 perianth segments, 9 stamens, arranged in three series; the innermost whorl is of 3 staminodes, surrounding a one-celled superior ovary having single ovule. The fruit is a large pyriform or globose fleshy, single-seeded berry, 7-20 cm long, 200-2000 g in weight, having yellow green to purple and leathery skin, yellow or yellowish green or purple or red mesocarp of a butter like consistency and nutty flavour. The seed is large, globose having two seed coats and two large fleshy cotyledons enclosing a small embryo (Bergh, 1975, 1976; Briicher, 1989; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 109 : Persea americana Miller, Avocado, A. Leafy shoot; B. Flower from above; C. Longitudinal section of flower; D. Stamen of inner whorl with nectaries; E. Longitudinal section of fruit (Purseglove, 1974)
Varieties There are several hundred varieties of avocado but only a few are commercially important. The cultivars belong either to the three races or are hybrids between them: a) West Indian (P. americana Mill. var. americana), having large fruits and mature leaves of yellow green colour. These are susceptible to cold. b) Guatemalan (P. nubigena var. guatemalensis L. Wms), having large fruits, young leaves with reddish tinge. These are susceptible to cold. c) Mexican (P. americana var. drymifolia Blake), having small fruits, young leaves are light green in colour, crushed leaves give strong aniseed aroma. These are resistant to cold.
236
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Mexican Guatemalan hybrids, having dark green leaves. These are resistant to cold. The three races mainly differ in tolerance to cold and soil salinity, time of fruit maturity, skin thickness and oil content of fruit (Table 13). The cultivars grown in different parts of the world are listed in Table 10. The important varieties are Sharwil, Pinkerton (Guatemalan and Mexican), Fuerte, Rincon, Zutano, Bacon, Jim and Santana (Mexican and Guatemalan). The important varieties of Mexican race are Mexicols, Zutano, Duke, Ganter, Gottfried and Mexicola. Thick-skinned varieties of West Indian type are Lula, Booth Pollack, Waldin, Butler, Fuchs, Ruehle and Choquette and of Guatemalan type are Reed, Nabal, Hass, Hazzard, Edranol, Wurtz. Cultivars of the tropical area are Cardinal, De Leon No.1, Calms, Booth 8, Lula, Peterson and Waldin. The cultivars Duke and G6 are moderately resistant to blight. Selection within open-pollinated seedlings has resulted in many valuable rootstock cultivars, e.g., GA-13 and Maoz, highly tolerant to saline conditions and Duke-7 to Phytophthora cinnamoni (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Table 11 gives germplasm collections of avocado in different parts of the world. d)
Culture Traditionally, avocado is propagated from seeds. The seeds must be sown soon after removal from the fruits. Now the plantations of selected cultivars are established by vegetative propagation methods such as shield budding and veneer and cleft grafting on seedling rootstocks. Rootstock seedlings of the West Indian race are more adapted to warm tropics while those of Mexican race grow better in the cooler subtropics. Rootstocks used in Florida are largely West Indian or hybrids of West Indian and Guatemalan. In Israel, where salinity tolerance is more important, West Indian cultivars are used as rootstock (Nakasone and Paull, 1989). Grafting with mature scion wood may be done on rootstock seedlings when these have reached 10 ern height and 5 mm diameter. Planting may be done at a spacing of 10 to 12 m depending on varieties and local conditions. Avocado tree is easily damaged by winds and should be grown in sheltered sites. Newly planted trees should be protected from frost by covering with guards. Avocado cannot tolerate water stress and excess moisture especially when drainage is inadequate. Water stress reduces yields, fruit size and tree vigour. Young avocado trees are sensitive to herbicides. Therefore, weeding is usually done manually. Black polythene mulch around the tree is effective in suppressing the annual broad leaf weeds (Nishimoto and Yee, 1980). Trees should be irrigated every 21 days from fruit set through the dry summer. A dose of 0.5, 1 and 1.5 g of N:P:K (10:6:10) fertilizer should be applied to 1,2 and 3 year old trees respectively. A bearing tree may be given 2 kg fertilizer at quarterly intervals. Avocado plants require no pruning. Pruning is done only to remove dead branches or for training during the initial years to obtain spreading trees. The grafted plants start flowering 3 to 6 years after planting whereas the seedlings may take up to 10 years to produce the first crop. Flowering occurs during February-March in Florida. The avocado exhibits protogynous diurnally-synchronized dichogamy. The flowers open twice, first when the stigma is receptive but the stamens are not yet mature and then when the pollen is mature but the stigma is no longer receptive. On the basis of flowering pattern, avocado may be grouped into two classes. The flowers of class 'A' trees
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
237
open first in the morning and again in the following afternoon and those of class 'B' trees open first in the afternoon and again the next morning (Table 12). The flowering mechanism also depends upon weather conditions. Cross pollination is necessary unless the two stages overlap. The honeybees often carry out pollination. Fruits mature 5 to 14 months after flowering depending on variety. The cropping may be erratic owing to poor fruit set as a result of low temperature. Thus, biennial bearing occurs in varying degrees in most areas in some varieties. A five-year old tree may yield 80 kg fruit, which may be up to 6-12 tonnes per year (100-500 fruits per tree). Fruit is picked by hand from the tree once it has reached maturity. Several harvests are made removing larger fruits first. The time of harvest depends upon the variety. Mexican types ripen in 6-8 months from bloom while Guatemalan types take 12-18 months. Maturity of fruit is judged by oil content. Commercial standards require the fruit to contain not less than 8% oil before harvest. Even when retained on the tree after maturity, fruits do not soften and become edible until 5 to 15 days after harvest. Mature fruits of most varieties can remain on the trees for several months but eventually their seeds begin to germinate and the fruit pulp breaks down. Fruits are usually packed in corrugated paper cartons, ventilated for good air circulation, in single or double layer. Pads or styrofoam trays with cup impressions may be used to prevent bruising. Avocado fruits can be stored for 3 weeks at 1O-18°C without deterioration. A number of diseases cause severe damage to avocado trees. Among these, Verticillium wilt, stem end rot (dothiorella; Botryosphaena ribis), Cercospora spot, scab, Annillaria root rot, Phytophthora cinnamoni and the viroid sun blotch (VSV) are the most serious. Trees show a gradual decline and leaves shed becoming smaller, yellow-green in colour. Soil fumigants and sanitation are helpful. Resistant rootstocks such as Morton Grandee, Thomas, Barr-Duke and 09 have been developed (Babor et al., 1990). The use of resistant rootstock should be integrated with hygiene, sanitation and cultural methods (Coffey, 1987). The attack of sun blotch makes the plant stunted, with cracked bark, necrotic streaks on the branches and white or light green areas on the fruit. The disease is transmitted through seedling rootstocks used for the propagation of trees. In major avocado growing countries, indexing techniques have been developed to identify healthy scion wood and rootstock trees (Broadley, 1991). Anthrancnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) causes considerabl~ fruit loss in warm humid climates. Resistant cultivars should be used. Under moist conditions, copper sprays may be necessary to produce marketable fruit. Cercospora spot on fruit is a serious disease in some countries for which satisfactory control measures are required. Several insect and mite species attack avocado but these are much less serious. Chemical control methods are generally effective. Insects attacking avocado fruit are fruitfly, black coffee twig borer (Xylosandrus compactus), Chinese rose beetle (Adoretus sinicus), fuller rose beetle (Pantomorus godmani), spotting bug, leaf rolling caterpillars (jortria, Amorbia) and scale (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Avocado brown mite and 6 spotted mites attack avocado trees. Sprays of miticides can be used to control these. Avocado has been a source of nourishment for the people of Central America. It is now considered an important commercial fruit being a good source of oil and nutritive minerals. There is good potential for expansion of its cultivation using the improved growing techniques and by improvements in post harvest technology and marketing (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
238
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Table 10 : Cultivars in major avocado growing countries ( Nakasone and Paull, 1998) California (USA) Fuerte Hass Zutano Bacon Reed Pinkerton Gwen
Florida (USA) Pollock Simmonds Nadir Booth 8 Lula Hardee Ruehle
Australia
Israel
Zutano Sharwil Bacon Fuerte Hass Wurtz
Fuerte Hass Nabal Ettinger Horshim
South Africa Fuerte Hass Edranol Ryan Zutano
Spain
Mexico
Fuerte Hass Hass Bacon Bacon Fuerte Reed Reed Criolla (Local)Zutano Reed Gwen
Table 11 : Germplasm collections of avocado and its near relatives (Bettencourt et aL, 1992) Location
P. americana Near relatives accessions (No.) (sEecies) 343 P. indica
Dept. de Horticultura, Faculdad Ciericias Agrarias E Veterinaris, Jaboticabal, UNESP, Rodovia Carlos Tonami, km 5 Caixa Postal 145, 14870, Jaboticabal, Sao Paulo, Brazil CSIRO, Merbein, Victoria, Australia 294 Direction de Investgaciones de Citros y Otros Frutales, Calles ,-th y 42 Miramar La Havana, Cuba Intitute of Plant Breeding, University of Philippines, Los Banos, Philippines Doi Muser Horticultural Research Station, Tak Province, Thailand Institute of Horticulture, The Volcani Centre, Bet Degan, Israel Subtropical Horticulture Research Unit, US Department of Agriculture, Miami, Florida, USA University of California, Riverside, USA Centro de Investigaciones Agricolas de EI Bajio, Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico
Number of accessions 1
P. indica, P. schiedeana
11
Persea spp.
7
Persea spp. P. cinerascens, P. indica, P. schiedeana
20 125
280
246 227 211 204
200 177
239
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION Table 12 : Classification of selected avocado cultivars according to flower types (Nakasone and Paull, 1998) Type A Hass Simmonds Guatemala Ruehle Nadir Lula Rincon Choquette Rodringues
Type B Bacon Fuerte Zutano Gwen Nabal Regina Ruehle Hardee Sharwil Table 13: Characteristics of horticultural races of avocado (Bergh, 1975; Bergh and Ellstrand, 1986)
Trait Climate Cold tolerance Salt tolerance Leaf anise Leaf colour Bloom to fruit maturity Fruit size Colour of fruit Skin thickness Skin surface Seed size Seed cavity Oil content Pulp fibre Pulp flavour
West Indian Tropical Least Most Absent Pale yellow 5 months Variable Green or reddish Medium Shiny Variable Variable Low Less common Sweet, mild
Guatemalan Subtropical Intermediate Intermediate Absent Green with red tinge 12 months or more Variable Green Thick Rough Small Tight High Less common Rich
Mexican Semi-tropical Most Least Present Green 6 months Small Often dark Very thin Waxy bloom Large Loose Highest Common Anise-like, rich
5. BARBADOS CHERRY The Barbados cherry or acerola or West Indian cherry (Malpighia glabra 1., syn. M. punicifolia 1., M. emarginata DC.) is native to West Indies and South America and belongs to Malpighiaceae family (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as Jamaican cherry, Puerto Rican cherry, Cereza or French cherry. It is called acerola in Costa Rica. It is grown in southern USA and southern part of South America and is of minor importance in West Indies, Florida, Hawaii and parts of northern South America. It is cultivated in Puerto Rico. In recent years new plantings of acerola are increasing worldwide, the maximum being in Brazil. It has been introduced into India and South East Asia (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
240
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
The acerola is a tropical plant, thriving in warm lowland climate but can also be grown in the subtropics. Young plants are killed by frost, but mature trees survive brief exposures to as low temperature as _2°e. In low rainfall areas, it may be deciduous and remains green only during the rainy season. It is quite drought resistant. Good growth and fruiting occurs in areas receiving 1800 mm annual rainfall. It can grow on a wide range of soils including stony soils but optimum growth and production occurs in rich, deep welldrained soils hav'.ng abundant moisture. In Puerto Rico, heavy soils are preferred since they are usually less infested with nematodes (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Acerola fruit is well known for its commercial potential because of the very high vitamin C content (10 to 33 g kg-I) in the fruit pulp. It is being used increasingly worldover as a natural source of vitamin C for nutritional supplements. The other Malpighia species rich in vitamin Care M. souzae (20 g/kg) and M. shaferi (5 g/kg) (Asenjo, 1980) whereas M. mexicana A. Juss. produces large edible fruits. The acerola fruits are used for juice, fruit punch, sauce or jelly making. It is not eaten raw due to large stones. The vitamin C content of the fruit is high (1-4.6g/100g pulp). The fruits can be powdered or frozen. The fruits are considered beneficial against liver problems, diarrhoea, dysentery, cough and colds. The tree also produces a gum used in folk medicine. The bark has high tannin content. Its wood is hard and can be used for small utensils (IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The acerola is a suitable fruit plant for home gardens. It has ornamental value and is very suitable for backyard and for hedges (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Barbados cherry fruit contains 81.9-91.1 g moisture, 0.68-1.8 g protein, 0.19-0.09 g ether extract, 0.60-1.2 g fibre, 0.18-0.1 g fat, 6.98-14.0 g carbohydrates, 8.2-34.6 mg calcium, 16.2-37.5 mg phosphorus, 0.17-1.11 mg iron, 408-1000 IV carotene (vitamin A), 0.024-0.040 mg thiamine, 0.038-0.079 mg riboflavin and 0.34-0.526 mg niacin and provides 59 calories per 100 g of edible pulp (Morton, 1987).
Botany Acerola is a dense, spreading, glabrous shrub or small tree, growing up to 6-8 m in height. Leaves are simple, opposite, ovate, almost sessile, entire and 8.5 x 5 em in size. Flowers are bisexual, zygomorphic, 1-2 cm in diameter, pinkish to reddish, regular, borne in groups of 2-4 in umbel-like racemes. Calyx with 8-10 large sessile stands, petals 5, rosy red, stamens united below. Fruit is a 3-pyrenous drupe, red or scarlet in colour, depressed ovoid, slightly 3-lobed, 1-3 cm in diameter and acidic with thin skin. Seeds are 3, subcordate, often somewhat 3-lobed, 1 cm long, rugose and crested on outer surface (Page, 1984; IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Varieties Germplasm collections have been maintained at National Clonal Germplasm Repository, USDA, ARS, Hilo, Hawaii (6 accessions), Institut de Recherche Sur les Fruits et Agrumes, ClRAD, Guadaloupe, France (129 accessions), Direccion De Investiggciones De Citros y Otros Fruitales, La Habans, Cuba (3 cultivars) (Bettencourt et al., 1992). Barbados cherry genotypes can be classified into two groups, sweet and acid. Sweet type fruits weigh less than 10-20 g and the acid types are up to 29 g. Manoa Sweet, Tropical Ruby and
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
241
Hawaiian Queen are the sweet types whereas the acid types are Maunawili, J.H. Beaumont, C.F. Rehnborg, F. Haley and Red Jumbo (Nakasone et al., 1968). The important cultivars selected in Puerto Rico are B-17 (tart-variety), A-14, A-21, B-6, B-7, B-8 and B-15 (high in vitamin C). Florida Sweet (K-7) is a selection made at Homestead, Florida and Selection Maunawili and Selection No.4 have been made in Hawaii (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987).
4 Fig. 110 : Malpighia punicifolia L. 1. Leaves; 2. Flower; 3. Fruit; 4. Seeds (FAD, 1986)
Culture The acerola is easily grown from seeds despite poor germination because of the stonyendocarp and many seeds have non-viable embryos. Vegetative propagation by cutting, budding and grafting is successful. Hardwood cuttings treated with indole-butyric acid and kept in rooting medium root satisfactorily in 2 months. Constant or intermittent mist prevents dehydration of cuttings and hastens rooting. Air layering (marcottage) with sphagnum moss and vinyl plastic is useful if limited number of plants is needed. Planting is done at 5 m spacing. Irrigation is necessary to maintain production and fruit size. Plants are trained to a single trunk system, with scaffold branches 60-90 cm above ground level. This facilitates weed control and harvesting of fruits. Nitrogen deficiency adversely affects growth and fruiting (Landrau and Hernandez-Mendina, 1959). Weed control can be achieved by heavy mulching with organic materials or black polythene sheets.
242
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Seedling trees commence flowering when they are 6 months old. In Florida (USA), flowering occurs during April-October. Fruits mature 30 days after flowering. The trees may continue to bloom round the year depending on climatic conditions and thus the tree may carry flowers and fruits at the same time. Self-incompatibility is common and occasional cases of parthenocarpy have also been reported. Therefore pollination is necessary as lack of pollination results in poor yields. Bees carry out pollination in nature. The average yields range from 20 to 25 kg per tree in different cultivars, whereas yields per hectare per year may vary considerably, from 15 to 25 tonnes. The harvest season extends over 3 to 7 months when fruit must be picked on alternate days. The fruit is considered ready for harvest when it develops pink or red colour. Hand harvesting is done as fruit skin is thin and is easily damaged. After harvest, the fruits are packed in boxes or baskets and stored in shade as the fruits left in the field exposed to sun can lose as much as 25% of the vitamin C within 8-hour period (Nakasone et al., 1968). Completely ripe fruits spoil quickly after harvest and cannot be transported. Processing of fruits should also be done without delay or these should be refrigerated immediately (Alves et al., 1995). The fruits can be stored at O°C and 85-90% RH for 50-58 days (Sealand, 1991). Half ripe fruits will hold for several days under refrigeration. Frozen juice or pieces of fruit appear to keep for long periods. Vacuum dehydrated concentrate powder keeps for over 12 months in cans under refrigeration if a desiccant bag is added. Fungal diseases do not seem to be a great problem. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp.) and Cercospora leaf spot are the major pathogens to which the cultivars 269-2 and Florida Sweet have shown some resistance. Insect pests such as scales, Caribbean fruitfly (Anastrepha suspensa), aphids, mealy bugs, mites, leaf eating caterpillars and soil-borne insects often cause damage and may be controlled by insecticides. Root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) is probably the most serious pest of acerola. M. suberosa L. has been used as a nematode resistant rootstock (Page, 1984; IBPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
6. CHIRON]I Chironji or cuddaph almond or almondette, hamilton mombin or charoli (Buchanania Ianzan Spreng syn. B. Iatifolia Roxb.) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and is native of India and Myanmar (Martin et al., 1987). The genus Buchanania consists of 20 species of trees and shrubs, six of which occur in India. The other related species is B. angustifolia Roxb., grown for the edible nuts. The tree is found on the hillsides in dry deciduous forests of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa in India, and in Malaysia and Myanmar. It requires hot, tropical monsoon climatic conditions and grows up to 900 m elevations. It does well both in areas with very high rainfall having warm and humid climate as well as in dry, hot and low rainfall (250 mm) regions. It can grow on a wide range of soil types including stony soils (Martin et al., 1987; Anon., 1988; Anon., 1990). The kernels of chironji are eaten raw or roasted and are used in sweetmeats. These hold fair potential as a substitute for almond kernels (Martin et al., 1987). The kernels are delicious with a combination of almond and pistachio flavours and are thus known as "almondettes". They contain 50 per cent oil and 21.6 per cent protein. The oil is light yellow, sweet, has a mild and pleasant aroma and can be used as a substitute for olive and almond oil. The leaves are used as fodder. The wood is used to prepare boxes, bedsteads, yokes,
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
243
posts, doors and furniture and is also considered suitable for matchstick manufacture. The bark is used for tanning and yields a black varnish. The gum exude from the trunk is used for dressing textiles and in printing cloth and dyeing. It is also used in traditional medicine against leprosy (Martin et al., 1987; Anon., 1988; Anon., 1990). The chironji contains 3.0 g moisture, 19.0 g protein, 59.1 g fat, 3.8 g fibre, 12.1 g carbohydrates, 279 mg calcium, 528.0 mg phosphorus, 8.5 mg iron, 0.69 mg thiamine, 0.53 mg riboflavin, 1.5 mg niacin and 5.0 mg vitamin C per 100 g of kernel and provides 656 calories (Anon., 1990).
Botany It is a medium sized evergreen tree, attaining a height of 8-15 m. The dark grey bark is thick and resembles crocodile hides. The leaves are thick, alternate, simple, oblong and 12-25 cm long, leathery and softly hairy beneath. The flowers are sessile, small, greenish white and are borne in dense, many flowered panicles. Calyx is short, persistent with ciliate lobes, petals are 4-5, 2.5 mm long, oblong recurved, 8-10 stamens are free and inserted at the base of disk. The fruit is a black, single seeded drupe, 8-12 mm in diameter. The stone is hard and 2-valved, containing one kernel. The kernels are pear-shaped and 10 cm long (Anon., 1990; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 111 : Buchanania lanzan, Chironji (Srivastava, 1996)
Varieties There is no standard variety of chironji. Its wild population in peninsular India shows variation in panicle and fruit size and quality of kernels (Arora and Pandey, 1996).
244
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Culture It is propagated through the seeds during rainy season. One-year old seedlings are planted at 5 m spacing during the rainy season. It is generally planted as an intercrop between mango and tamarind trees. Well decomposed FYM or compost (5-10 kg per tree) is applied at the beginning of monsoon and a fertilizer mixture of 100 to 250 g is added when the soil is wet during the rainy season. The tree starts fruiting about 5 to 6 years after planting but good yield is obtained after 7 to 10 years. Flowering occurs during February-March and the fruits ripen in May. The fruits develop black colour on ripening. A full-grown tree yields about 10-15 kg fruits. The pulp has sweet flavour and is eaten fresh or after dehydration. The ripe fruits are kept in water for few hours and then the pulp is separated to extract the stones, which are dried in shade and then broken to extract the seed kernels. A well developed tree yields 1 to 2 kg seed kernels (Anon., 1988).
7. DOWNY MYRTLE Downy myrtle (Rhodomyrtus tomentosa Wight.) belongs to the family Myrtaceae and is native of tropical Asia (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as hill gooseberry or rose myrtle. It grows wild and is also cultivated in South East Asia, India, Sri Lanka and southern China. Downy myrtle has some potential for wider cultivation (Martin et al., 1987). Downy myrtle requires cool tropical or warm subtropical climate and can tolerate temperatures as low as _6°C. It has been observed to thrive on degraded sandy sites along the shores and on riverbanks. It can tolerate strong Sl.}n and flooding. The variety tomentosa is generally found in waterlogged areas up to elevations of 300 m but rarely up to 1300 m. The variety parviflora occurs in mountainous woodlands and grasslands at 1800-2700 m altitudes. Moist and acid soils are generally preferred. The plant is not well adapted to limestone soils (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Fruit is edible and is also used to make jam, jelly, pies and preserves. It contains sugars, vitamins and minerals. It is also used in the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea. A decoction of the roots or leaves is prescribed for the treatment of diarrhoea and stomachache and as a protective medicine after birth. It is also planted as an ornamental plant (Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Downy myrtle is a very showy shrub when in bloom and thus the prospects for its use as an ornamental plant are better than as a fruit crop (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Botany It is an evergreen shrub or a small tree growing up to 3-4 m in height. The young leaves and inflorescences are densely white or yellowish tomentose. The leaves are elliptic to oblong elliptic, 4.5-8 x 2.3-4 cm in size, opposite, coriaceous with 3 conspicuous longitudinal veins, glossy and glabrous upper surface and whitish or yellowish tomentose lower surface. The flowers are solitary or occur in 3-flowered dichasia in the axils of upper leaves with up to 1 cm long peduncles and 0.5-2.5 cm long pedicels. The bracts are elliptic, leaf-like and 6-12 mm long. Bracteoles are elliptic or ovate, 2-3 mm long and persistent. Calyx is campanulate, 5-7 mm long, tomentose, 5-10 ribbed, 5-lobed and persistent. Petals are 5, broadly obovate, 15-18 x 9-13 mm in size and red or pink. Stamens are numerous, 10-15 mm long with pink filaments. Style is 13-15 mm long and ovary is 3-10-locular. The fruit is oblongoid berry, 10-15 x 8-10 mm in size, puplish-black, tomentose and crowned with calyx
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
245
lobes. The pulp is sweet having many seeds in 6 pseudo-locules and divided by thin and false septa (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 112 : Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Aiton) Hassk., Downy myrtle, 1. Flowering and fruiting branch (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
Varieties Two important varieties are found, i.e., tomentosa (Myrtus canescens Lour.) occurring in South East Asia, southern China and Indo-China and characterised by white tomentose leaves, and parviflora (Rhodomyrtus parviflora Alston.) occurring in India and Sri Lanka having cream or yellowish tomentose leaves (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Culture The shrub is usually propagated from the seeds or by division of crown and cuttings. Plants raised from cuttings bear fruits in about two years after planting. Flowering occurs in July-August and the fruits mature in September-October. The fruit takes about 60 days to mature (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
8.
DRUMSTICK
Drumstick tree (Moringa oleifera Lam. syn. M. pterygosperma Gaertn, M. nuxben Perr.) belongs to the family Moringaceae and is native of India. It is also known as horseradish
246
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
tree, moringa, sohnja or senjana. It has spread throughout the tropics and has naturalized or occurs in semi-wild state in several countries. It is widely cultivated in tropical Africa and America, Sri Lanka, India, Mexico, Malaysia and Philippines. The related edible species is M. stenopetaIa (Bak.) Cuf., which is an indigenous tree of semi-arid and sub-humid Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya. It is an important crop in India, Sri Lanka, Ethiopia, Sudan and many countries of Asia and Central America (Duke, 1989; Palada, 1996). Moringa thrives well in subtropical and tropical climatic conditions. It can grow well in areas having annual precipitation of 400 to 2250 mm and temperatures of 18.7 to 28.5°C. It grows the best on dry sandy soils and can grow on all types of soils having pH 4.5-8 but not on stiff clays and waterlogged soils. Moringa is a drought tolerant plant. Young pods are cooked as a vegetable or used for pickle. Moringa leaves are eaten as greens, in salads, in vegetable curries, as pickles and used for seasoning. The seeds are eaten like peanuts in Malaya. Seeds yield 38 to 40% of non-drying oil known as ben oil, which is used for lubricating watches and other delicate machinery. Its bark can be used for tanning and yields a coarse fibre. Thickened root of moringa is used as a substitute for horseradish. Flowers are eaten as potherb or are cooked. The flowers, leaves and roots are used in folk remedies for tumors and the seed for abdominal tumors. Leaves are rich in vitamin A and C and hence are useful for the treatment of scurvy, beri-beri and catarrh. A leaf paste is applied externally on wounds. Flowers are used as a tonic and diuretic. Seeds are antipyretic. Seed oil is applied in gout and rheumatism. A powder of the pounded dried seeds is used for purifying water. Roots yield oil, which is pungent, anti-spasmodic, stimulant and expectorant (Hocking, 1993). Drumstick is also planted as melliferous species, as a living fence and as ornamental species (FAO, 1982; Duke, 1989; Hocking, 1993; Palada, 1996). Moringa is a multipurpose tree and requires research and development efforts (Palada, 1996). The leaves contain 75 g water, 6.7 g protein, 1.7 g fat, 14.3 g carbohydrates, 0.9 g fibre, 440 mg calcium, 70 mg phosphorus, 7 mg iron, 11300 IV vitamin A, 120 f-Lg vitamin B, 0.8 mg nicotinic acid and 220 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g weight (Duke, 1989). Moringa pods contain 86.9 g water, 2.5 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 8.5 g carbohydrates, 4.8 g fibre, 2.6 gash, 30 mg Ca, 110 mg P, 5.3 mg Fe, 184 IV vitamin A, 0.2 mg niacin and 120 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g pods.
Botany It is a medium-sized, short, slender, deciduous, perennial and nitrogen-fixing tree growing up to 10 m tall and has drooping branches. The bark of the tree is thick (2.5 cm), soft, white, corky and has deep fissures. The leaves are feathery, opposite, pale green, compound, tripinnate, 30 to 60 cm long with many, small, 1.3 to 2 cm x 0.3-0.6 cm wide leaflets. Flowers are fragrant, white or creamy white, bisexual, 2.5 cm in diameter, borne in pendulous axillary panicles with 5 sepals, 5 petals and yellow stamens. Pods are pendulous, brown, triangular, splitting lengthwise into 3 parts when dry, 30 to 120x1.8 cm in size, containing about 20 seeds embedded in the pith. The pods taper at both ends and are 9ribbed and contain seeds that are 1 to 2 cm wide, dark brown with 3 papery wings (Ramachandran et aI., 1980; Duke, 1989).
247
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
4
Fig. 113 : Moringa oleifera. 1. Flower; 2. Longitudinal section of flower; 3. Cross section of ovary; 4. Fruit; 5. Portion of fruit opened; 6. Seed (Booth and Wickens, 1988).
Varieties Several cultivars are grown. Bombay, having curly fruits, is one of the best cultivars. Other cultivars have 3-angled or nearly round fruits. The variety "Jaffna" has 60 to 90 cm long fruits. "Chavakacheri murunga" has 90 to 120 cm long fruits. In Thirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu, cultivars Palmurungal (thick pulp, bitter taste) and Punamurungai are grown. In Trichy district of Tamil Nadu, variety Kodikalmurungai is grown which bears very short fruits. Cultivar PKM-1 has been released for cultivation (Ramachandran et al., 1980).
Culture Moringa is generally propagated from the seeds and by stem cuttings. Usually branches or limbs (1 to 2 m long having 14-16 cm circumference) are planted in situ at a spacing of '3 to 5 m during June to August to raise new plantation. Regular watering is done in the initial stages until the plants are well established. Young plants are susceptible to frost, drought, browsing and fire and need special care. Research conducted at TNAU, Coimbatore reveal that application of 7.5 kg FYM and 0.37 kg ammonium sulphate per tree during December gives three-fold increase in pod yield. Pruning is done to promote branching and facilitate harvesting. The tree starts bearing pods 6 to 8 months after planting but regular bearing commences after the second year. In India, main fruiting seasons are during March-April and September-October. The tree bears for several years. Fruits or other
248
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
parts of the plant are usually harvested as needed. A 3-years old tree yields more than 600 pods per year and about 10 metric tonnes pods per hectare can be obtained. One drumstick pod contains about 200 seeds, each weighing 300 mg, giving a seed yield of 6 kg per tree and oil yield of 2 kg per tree. Moringa plants are more or less free from insects and diseases. Fruitflies (Gitana spp.) infest the fruit, which leads to drying out of the tip and rotting. Leaves of young plants and freshly planted stumps are attacked by several species of weevils (Myllocerus discolor var. variegatus, M. pustulatus, M. tenuiclavis, M. viridanus and Ptochus ovulum). The fungi that attack the moringa tree are Cercospora moringicola (leaf spot), Sphaceloma moringae (spot anthracnose), Puccinia moringae (rust), Oidium sp., Polyporus gilvus, Leveillula taurica (papaya powdery mildew) and root rot (Diplodia spp.) (Ramachandran et al., 1980; Duke, 1989; Palada, 1996).
9. HISSING TREE Hissing tree or mupunda or parinaire (Parinari curatellifolia Planch. ex Benth.) belongs to the family Chrysobalanaceae and is native of tropical Africa. It is found in the area from Senegal to Sudan, Zaire to Uganda and southwards through Central and Eastern Africa. The tree needs to be domesticated. The hissing tree occurs in Savanna and woodlands especially along water courses. It requires tropical climate and light soils for good growth and fruiting (FAO, 1982; Martin et al., 1987; FAO, 1988). The fruit is considered to be one of the best among those found wild in tropical Africa. The pulp of the fruit has sweet and pleasant flavour and is eaten fresh or made into beer or wine. The seed is roasted and used as an almond substitute or pounded in soup. The seed contains a drying oil, which can be used in varnish or paint. The oil cake is used as manure. The fruit has medicinal value as an infusion against fever and for application on fractures. Its wood is used in traditional construction and as firewood (FAO, 1982; FAO, 1988; Peters et al., 1992). Oil cake of the kernel of fruit contains 5.1 g moisture, 11.0 g protein and 51.5 g fat (FAO, 1982).
Botany It is an evergreen shrub or small tree growing up to 7.5 to 9 m high with stem diameter of 0.5 m. The bark is greyish black, lenticellate, rugose and deeply fissured. Leaf is simple, entire, oblong-elliptic, coriaceous, shining on the upper surface and the lower surface is covered with a greyish or reddish tomentum. The inflorescence is a terminal panicle bearing many white flowers on long pedicels, which are tomentose and thickened towards the top. Flowers are small (4-8 mm), white or mauve, with velvety rust coloured or greyish hair making the colour of the petals. Fruit is a reddish brown, ellipsoid drupe, 3-4 cm long and 2.5-4 cm in diameter with a fibrous skin bearing greyish lenticels, a hard kernel and tasty reddish mesocarp (FAO, 1982; FAO, 1988).
Culture It is propagated from the seeds and root suckers. Cultural requirements for the cultivation of hissing tree should be standardized. The plants flower during DecemberFebruary and the fruit matures in about 180 days. At ripening, the external colour of the
249
UNOERUTILIZEO FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
skin turns reddish brown with internal red pulp. Fruits are collected from the ground. Large quantities of fruits are sold in the town markets (Martin et ai., 1987; FAO, 1982; FAO, 1988). 0 I
a, c,•d
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I
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40mm I
b (.
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Fig. 114 : Parillari curatellifolia Planch. ex Benth. a. Branch bearing irtflorescence, b. Fruiting branchlet, c. Fruit part section showing seed, d. Longitudinal section through seed. (FAO, 1983)
i,: '" .
Fig. 115 : Parillari capellsis, (FAO, 1988)
250
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
10. lLAMA The ilama or papauce or annona blanca (Annona diversifolia Safford) belongs to the family Annonaceae and is native of central America and Mexico (Martin et al., 1987). It grows in the foothills from the southwest coast of Mexico to the Pacific coast of Guatemala and EI Salvador. Its distribution is very limited because of its poor adaptability (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). It has been introduced in USA (Florida), Puerto Rico, St. Croix and various parts of tropical America, Asia and Philippines (Morton, 1987). llama holds fair potential for cultivation in tropical lowland areas (Martin et al., 1987). The related edible species is A. scleroderma Saff. (Poshte), which is grown in south western Guatemala and is notable for its tough skin allowing better handling and resistance to insect attack (Hernandez Bermejo and Leon, 1994) The ilama need~ hot tropical lowlands with low to medium rainfall and grows naturally at altitudes not higher than 610 m in Mexico. ~t is cultivated up to 1500 m in EI Salvador and up to 1800 m in Guatemala. It seems to perform the best under long dry season followed by plentiful rainfall. The plants are very susceptible to frost. In areas where the rainfall is scanty, the tree has to be irrigated. It requires rich, loose, well-drained soils. In Florida, it performs better on deep sands than on limestone (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). Fruit pulp is eaten fresh, in sherbets and other desserts. It is also chilled and served with a little cream and sugar to intensify the flavour or with lime or lemon juice (Martin et
al., 1987). nama fruit contains 71.5 g moisture, 0.447 g protein, 0.16 g fat, 1.3 g fibre, 31.6 mg .:..:. calcium, 51.7 mg phosphorus, 0.70 mg iron, 0.011 mg carotene, 0.235 mg thiamine, 0.297 mg riboflavin, 2.177 mg niacin and 13.6 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is a spreading or erect tree growing up to a height of 7.5 m, often branching from the ground with pale, brownish grey and furrowed bark. Leaves are glossy, thin, elliptic to obovate or oblanceolate and 5-15 cm long. One or 2 leaf-like, nearly circular, glabrous, 2.53.5 em long, bracts clasp the base of the flowering branchlet. Flowers are solitary, long stalked and maroon which open to the base and have small rusty, hairy sepals and narrow, blunt, minutely hairy 3 outer petals. The fruit is conical, heart-shaped or ovoid globose, 12-15 cm long and 450-900 g in weight. The pulp is white, pink or reddish flesh with a typical aroma and an exquisite flavour. The fruit is studded with more or less pronounced, triangular protuberances. The riI).d is pale green to deep pink or purplish, coated with a dense, velvety grey white bloom, about 6 mm thick, leathery, fairly soft and granular. Seeds are 25 to 80. The seed is hard, smooth, brown and cylindrical, 2 x 1 em in size, enclosed in a close fitting membrane which easily slips off when split (Morton, 1987).
Varieties There are generally two types: (a) green with white and sweet flesh, and (b) pink having pink tinge near the rind and around the seed, all pink or even deep rose and tart in flavour. A cultivar named Imery has been released from EI Salvador. Its fruit is large and pink fleshed but not as flavourful as the white fleshed type from Guatemala (Morton, 1987).
251'
UNDERUTILIZEO FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
Important cultivars of 'llama are Fairchild, Rosendo Perez, Guillermo and Gramajo (thick skinned, greyish green fruit), Imery (big fruit with thinner skin), Pajapita (pink surface), Nilito (irregular surface), Romen (small fruit with hard skin), Genova White (smooth, white green skin) and Efrain (Hernandez Bermejo and Leon, 1994). Germplasm collections of llama have been maintained at Subtropical Horticultural Research Unit, Miami, Florida, USA (3 accessions) and Centro Universitario de Sur Occidente, Universitidad de San Carlos, Suchitepequez, Guatemala (3 accessions) (Pinto et al., 200~).
E
F
Fig. 116 : A. Annona scleroderma; B. A. diversifolia; C. A. reticulate; D. A. cherimola; . E. A. muricata; F. A. squamosa. (Hemand~z Bermejo and Leon, 1994)
Culture It is generally propagated through seeds or by grafting. llama seeds taken from tne" ripe fruits remain dormant for several weeks or even months. Even after that the germlnation rate is low. Application of 350 ppm gIbberellic acid greatly increases germination. Higher concentrations cause malformation in the seedlings. Whip or cleft grafting on custard apple' (A. reticulata) rootstocks is successful. The tree starts producing fruits after 7-8 years if propagated from seed and after 34 years if raised from grafts. Flowering occurs during April-May and the fruit matures in 150 days. The llama is self-fertilizing, an exception to other domesticated Annona species. The harvesting season generally starts from July to December in Florida. The fruits are not picked until they have begun to crack but they can be picked a little earlier and held for about 3 days to soften. The fruit does not ripen if harvested early (Morton, 1987; Martin et
'\,
252
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
al., 1987). A tree generally bears 85 to 100 fruits in a season. The ilama is not susceptible to the chalcid fly as are its relatives (Morton, 1987). .
11. INDIAN ALMOND Terminalia catappa 1. is commonly known as Indian almond or tropical almond. It belongs to the family Combretaceae. It is also known by other names such as Barbados almond, bastard almond, Bengal almond, country almond, Demarara almond, Malay almond, sea almond, Singapore almond and West Indian almond. The tree is believed to have originated in Malaysia and Pacific Islands and reached the Andaman Islands through the fruits carried by ocean currents. It is cultivated throughout India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand and is also common throughout the Old World tropics including east and West Africa, the Pacific Islands and in the lowlands near the coasts of all the countries of tropical America (Martin et al., 1987; Duke, 1989; Wickens, 1995). The related edible species are T. ferdinandiana Exell (hilly goat plum or green plum), endemic to northern Australia; T. impediens Coode, native to New Guinea; T. litoralis Seemann, native to Fiji and Tonga; T. microcarpa Decne, native to the Philippines; T. samoensis Rechinger, found growing in North Sulawesi, New Ireland, Soloman Islands, Vanuatu, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Samoa, Society Islands, Tuamotu; and T. sepicana Diels., found growing in northeastern New Guinea, New Britain, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. The Indian almond survives only in tropical and near tropical regions up to an altitude of 400 m. It grows well in medium shade or full sun and is frost and drought resistant. The tree is well adapted to sandy and rocky coasts and flourishes on colitic limestone. It can do very well on all terrains providing there is good drainage. It is remarkably tolerant to shallow and saline soils and can withstand flooding. It cannot stand tornadoes or windy climates (FAO, 1982; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The outer flesh of some types is edible. Defleshed and throughly sun-dried fruits can be readily cracked to obtain the sweet oily kernel. The air-dried kernels contain 52 per cent fat, 25 per cent protein and yield 38-54 per cent bland yellow, semi-drying oil which is edible but becomes turbid on standing. The oil is a substitute for almond oil. It is also taken to relieve abdominal inflammation. The leaves are astringent and are used for the treatment of dysentery. Applied externally, they have a sudorific effect. They are poulticed on rheumatic joints. The juice of young leaves is taken as a remedy for headache and colic and when cooked with the kernel oil, it is employed in treating leprosy, scabies and other skin diseases. The bark is astringent and bitter and is commonly used in the treatment of dysentery, fever and thrush. It is also regarded as diuretic and cardiotonic and is applied externally on skin eruptions. The leaves provide a black dye and ink and are sometimes employed for tanning. The wood is used to make pillars, bridge timbers, flooring, boxes, rafters, plywood, furniture and cabinets. It is used more as an ornamental tree than as food crop (Martin et al., 1987). The tree provides shade and can be grown in areas where salinity in the soil occurs (FAO, 1982; Morton, 1987; Duke, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Per 100 g of seeds are reported to contain 2.7-6.0 g water, 19.1-25.4 g protein, 52-56 g fat, 14.9-17.2 g total carbohydrates, 1.8-14.6 g fibre, 32-497 mg calcium, 789-957 mg phosphorus, 2.4-9.2 mg iron, 0.32-0.71 mg thiamine, 0.08-0.28 mg riboflavin and 0.6-0.7 mg niacin and provides 547-607 calories (Duke, 1989).
UNOERUTILIZEO FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
253
Botany The tree is deciduous or sometimes semi-evergreen, erect, reaching 15 or even 25 m high with 1 to 1.5 m trunk diameter. The bark is rough, greyish brown, the branches are whorled and the stem is often buttressed. Leaves are short-petioled, alternate, spirally clustered at the branch tips, obovate, 15-30 x 8-24 em in size, leathery, glossy and dark green above and paler beneath. The flowers are greenish white, very small, solitary and borne on 10-17 em long, slender and axillary spikes having fusiform calyx; 5-6 cream white and small (0.4-0.8 em) petals, and 10-12 stamens. Most of the flowers are generally male and are borne towards the apex while a few hermaphrodite flowers appear below. Some spikes have only male flowers. The fruit is a 4-7 cm long and 2.5 - 3.8 cm wide ellipsoid drupe. The skin is smooth, waxy and thin which, on ripening, turns from green to yellow with a red tinge. Beneath is a layer of juicy, whitish to pink, slightly sweet, subacid or distinctly acidic flesh which is 3-6 mm thick and adheres to a fibrous, corky, buoyant, cream coloured to bright pink nut containing 1 or 2 oily seeds which resemble an almond (FAO, 1982; Morton, 1987; Duke, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Wickens, 1995).
~--......... ["
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Fig. 117 : Tenninalia catappa, Indian almond (Wickens, 1995)
Varieties The varieties found in India differ in the shape of leaves and colour and qucility of the fruits. Variations in kernel and tree size have been observed in Florida. It can be developed as a multipurpose tree crop if good selections are made.
Culture The seeds remain viable for a long time and germinate readily, splitting away one third of the husk, even after floating in salt water. Entire fruits are often sown in the nursery
254
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
in July, which give 25 per cent germination. In Brazil, the seeds are sown at 25 x 25 cm spacing. The young plants are transplanted with soil ball and are kept for some time in nursery before being set out in the field. Field planting is done in the rainy season or in winter when the plants are leafless. In poor soils, 15-20 litres of horse manure per hole is applied before planting together with a mixture of 200 g superphosphate, 150 g chloride of potassium, 300 g bone meal, 100 g ammonium sulphate and 500-800 g of lime. In southern India, there are two crops in a year, once in spring (April-May) and the other in OctoberNovember. The kernel yield is about 5 kg per tree. Fruit is hard and difficult to crack and the kernels have to be extracted by cracking the defleshed and sun-dried nuts along the keel (Morton, 1985). If the kernel market is to expand, an improved method for defleshing the fruits and extracting the kernel needs to be developed (Morton, 1985). Beetles, grasshoppers, leaf rollers and leaf miners defoliate the unprotected seedlings. The tree is also a host of the Caribbean fruitfly (Morton, 1987; Duke, 1989). 12. KEI APPLE Kei apple «Dovyalis eaffra (Hook. f. et Harv.) Warb. belongs to the family Flacourtiaceae and is indigenous to southwestern Africa. It is also known as wild apricot and umkokola. The other related species that produce edible fruits are D. abyssiniea Warb. (African dove plum), D. abyssiniea x D. hebeearpa (hybrid dovyaIis, Florida gooseberry or tropical apricot) and D. hebecarpa Warb. (Ceylon gooseberry or kitembilla).1t is distributed in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Mozambique, Kenya and Zambia (FAO, 1988). It has been widely introduced into tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Kei apple has potential for development (Martin et al., 1987). Kei apple is adapted to the semi-arid tropical and subtropical conditions and thrives at and above 800 m altitudes. It tolerates high rainfall conditions, hot weather and as low temperature as _8°C. It grows well on almost all types of soil that do not have high water table. It is extremely drought resistant and tolerates saline soil and saIt spray and is valued as coastal hedge (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987). The fruits are too acidic to eat out of hand even when fully ripe. The fruit cut in half, peeled, seeded, sprinkled with sugar and allowed to stand for few hour~ before serving as desserts or in fruit salads. Kei apple is processed into jam, jelly, pickle or syrup (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987). The fruit contains 83 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of pulp (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is an evergreen vigorous, large, dense and spiny shrub reaching 6 m in height. The axillary thorns are long, stiff and sharp. The leaves are oblong ovate, about 5 cm long, obtuse, entire and dark green and are often clustered around the thorn. It is a dioecious plant. The flowers are unisexual, greenish yellow and inconspicuous and are borne in the axils of the leaves. Female flowers are 3 mm long, light green, solitary or in groups of 1-3 on short stalks. Male flowers are borne in dense clusters. The fruits are oblate or nearly round, about 2.5 em in diameter~ solitary and bright golden yellow. The juicy, aromatic and acidic pulp surrounds 5-15 small, brown and flattened seeds (Morton, 1987; FAO, 1988).
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
255
Fig. 118 : Dovyalis caffra Warb., Kei apple (Ochse, 1977; Vegetables of the Dutch East Indies; Survey of the indigenous and foreign plants serving as pot herbs and side dishes; A. Asher & Co., BV, Amsterdam)
Culture It is propagated from the seeds or by layers, cuttings or budding. In the orchard, planting should be done at 3 m spacing or can be double set in hedgerows. To ensure pollination, one male plant per 10-15 female plants should be provided. Kei apple hedge must be trimmed twice a year. Weeding is not required. Irrigation and fertilizer requirements have to be standardized. In plants raised from seed, fruit production starts in 5-6 years whereas it starts within 2-3 years in vegetatively propagated plants. The flowering occurs in February and fruits mature about 90 days after flowering, mostly in June. The fruits are allowed to fully ripen before picking. The flesh is always tart acid even when the fruits are fully ripe. The trees are generally free from insect pests and diseases (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987).
13. KHIRNI Khirni (Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.» Dubard syn. Mimusops hexandra Roxb.) belongs to the family Sapotaceae and is also known as ralu and rayan. It is believed to be native of India. It is found growing in central India and Deccan Peninsula. It is cultivated throughout India for fruit as well as ornamental purpose. The trees are widespread in the tropics. The other related species that give edible fruits are Manilkara kauki (1.) Dub3.rd. (wongi, kauki), M. huberi (Ducke) Chev. (macaranduba), M. rufula (Miq.) H. J. Lam. (macaranduba) and M. salzmannii (A. DC.) H. J. Lam. (macaranduba). These are native of Brazil and are grown in homesteads (Anon., 1962). Khirni can be grown in tropical and subtropical climatic conditions (Arora and Pandey, 1996). It is drought tolerant but in extremely dry situations, its growth gets stunted and the trees become shrub-like. It can be grown in sandy and laterite soils.
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Ripe fruits are eaten fresh or after dehydration. The seeds yield edible oil known as rayan oil. The leaves are used as cattle fodder. The bark contains 10 per cent tannin and can be used for tanning. It is used in fevers and as a general tonic. The bark retards the fermentation of toddy. The seed oil is considered demulcent and emollient. The seeds are used as tonic and are prescribed for leprosy and delirium. Khirni is used as rootstock for sapodilla. Its trees are also planted in parks and gardens. Its wood is strong and dense and has timber value and can stand contact with water and is resistant to termite. It is used in the construction of agricultural implements (Anon., 1962). Khirni fruit contains 68.61 g water, 0.48 g protein, 2.42 g fat, 27.74 g carbohydrates, 83 mg calcium, 17 mg phosphorus, 0.92 mg iron, 675 IU vitamin A, 0.07 mg thiamine, 0.077 mg riboflavin, 0.66 mg niacin and 15.67 mg vitamin C per 100 g of pulp (Anon., 1962).
Botany The tree is evergreen and long-lived, of small to medium size, 10-12 m in height with a spreading crown and straight and massive bole. The bark is grey and deeply furrowed. Leaves are elliptic-obovate or oblong and coriaceous. White or pale yellow solitary flowers are borne in fascicles in the axils of leaves. The berry is ovoid or ellipsoid, 1.5-2 cm long and reddish yellow in colour. It contains usually one or rarely 2 seeds, which are ovoid, 11.5 cm long, reddish brown or black and shining.
Fig. 119 : Manilkara hexandra, Khirni (Srivastava, 1996)
Varieties No standard cultivars are known. Variability in fruit size and quality occurs in the western plains particularly in Gujarat and sporadically in central India (Arora and Pandey, 1996). Selection for large fruited, fleshy and sweet types can be made.
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257
Culture The trees are propagated from the seeds during July-August but the seedling trees have very long juvenile period of about 15 years. Vegetative propagation methods such as inarching and softwood grafting are also successful. These plants start bearing within 5 yt:ars. The plants should be spaced at 12x12 m in the field. Young plants need regular irrigation, but once established, these can tolerate drought. Cultural requirements for khirni have to be standardized. In northern India, flowering starts in November··December and the fruit is ready for harvest during April-May. Individual fruits are plucked when the fruit skin turns yellow. Fruits become ready for eating 1-2 days after harvest. The shelf life of fresh fruits is short. Ripe fruits can be dried and can be kept for one year. The tree is usually not damaged by any insect pest. In north India, leaf roller and bark eating caterpillar have been reported to cause some damage (Chundawat, 1990).
14.
MACAUBA
Macauba (Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.) Mart. syn. A. sderocarpa Mart.) belongs to the family Palmae and is native of Brazil. It is also known as gru-gru nut, coco de catarro and mucaja. It is widely distributed in Minas Gerais where it grows in dense groves and is also found in Paraguay, Caribbean Islands (Duke, 1989). The related species giving edible fruits are A. totai Mart. (gru-gru nut, Paraguay coco-plum), A. tucuma Mart. (tucuma) and A. mexicana Karw. (Duke, 1989). Macauba occurs in very dry regions. It can be grown in wet tropical to dry subtropical climatic conditions. It thrives well on good soils but is also seen on slopes, highlands and less fertile soils. The slimy and soft mesocarp and the seed are edible. The mesocarp oil can be used as cooking oil without refining if extracted from fresh or properly stored fruits. The kernel oil has a sweet taste similar to that of coconut oil and is used in the preparation of margarine. The oil can also be used for soap making. The epicarp, mesocarp and kernel respectively yield 0.96, 6.96.and 1.18 tonnes oil per hectare. The fruit is used as a purgative and vermifuge. Palm cabbage is also edible. Leaves are used for browse, thatches and baskets (FAO, 1986; Wickens, 1995). Botany It is solitary, spiny, pleonanthic and armed feather palm, 11 m in height. Leaves are pinnate and armed like the trunk. It is monoecious. Inforescence has very sharp fine spines. The fruit is a reddish-yellow edible drupe, 4 em in diameter and having mulcilaginous pulp surrounded by a tough woody kernel. The fruit weighs about 18 g with 20 per cent outer shell, 41 per cent mesocarp pulp, 29 per cent inner shell and 10 per cent kernel (Duke, 1989).
Culture It is propagated from the seeds. The plants start flowering and fruiting when 4 years old. After harvesting from the panicles, the fruits are sterilized to inactivate the enzymes present in the mesocarp since these enzymes cause deterioration of the oil through lipolysis. The fruits are macerated to separate the oily pulp from the kernels. To release the oil, the
258
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
pulpy mass is pressed with a hand press. The oil is allowed to rise through a layer of boiling water and is then skimmed off. Palm kernel cake is rich in protein and can be used for human consumption or as an animal feed (Duke, 1989).
\
»w'...il!~~ fJ~Fig. 120 : Acrocomia sclerocarpa Mart, Gru-gru nut (Duke, 1989)
15. MAMEY SAPOTE The mamey sapote or sapote or mamey Colorado or marmalade plum (Pouteria sapota (Jacq.) HE. Moore and Steam syn. Calocarpum sapota (Jacy) Merr., C. mammosum (L.) Pierre, Lucuma mammosa Gaertn.) belongs to the family Sapotaceae and is native of Central America and Mexico. It is found growing in the tropical forests of Guatemala and is cultivated in Central America, Mexico, Nicaragua and West Indies (Briicher, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Mamey spaote has good potential for commercial development in hot tropics (Martin
et al., 1987). Marney sapote is adapted to the tropical lowlands with medium rainfall and seasonal dry period but is also found in the subtropics. It is rarely planted above 1000 m altitudes. It is susceptible to frost but mature trees show only light damage even when exposed to -2°C for few hours. It requires fairly deep and acidic soils having moderate permeability, good drainage and average fertility. However, it has been found growing even in sandy calcareous soils and heavy clays. The tree is injured by flooding and requires good drainage (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). The fruit pulp is eaten fresh or is processed as preserve, marmalade, sherbet, ice cream and other desserts. The seed is used to prepare products similar to chocolate. Its pulp is rich in vitamin A and C. The trunk is tapped to obtain "chicle". The timber is used in construction and for making carts and furniture. Milky sap of bark and green fruit is used as an anthelmintic and emetic to remove warts and to cure fungal skin diseases. The seed contains white semi-solid oil called" sapuyulo" or "zapoyola" which was formerly used to fix paintings on handicrafts and gourds. It is used as a sedative in ear and eye ailments
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
259
and as a skin tonic and hair revitalizer. It is also used as a shade tree for coffee (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Per 100 g of edible portion of mamey sapote provides 114.5 calories and contains 55.3-73.1g moisture, 0.18-1.97 g protein, 0.09-0.25 g fat, 1.41-29.7 g carbohydrates, 1.21-3.20 g fibre, 28.2-121.0 mg calcium, 22.9-33.1 mg phosphorus, 0.52-2.62 mg iron, 0.045-0.665 mg carotene, 0.002-0.025 mg thiamine, 0.006-0.046 mg riboflavin, 1.57-2.58 mg niacin and 8.84.0 mg ascorbic acid (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is an attractive tree of medium size growing up to 50 m in height and tends to be uniform and hemispherical. The leaves are entire, obovate or oblanceolate, 20 to 45 cm long with dark green and shiny upper surface, yellowish veins and light green undersurface. These are grouped in whorls of 8 or 10 near the ends of young ~ranches. The branches are covered vvith a brown pubescence. The small, hermaphrodite and sessile flowers develop in large numbers along the bare branches below the young leaves. The calyx consists of 810 imbricate sepals. The corolla has 5, white petals united in a tube enclosing five fertile stamens, five staminodes and a conical and pilose pistil terminating into a simple stigma. The ovary has five carpels with single ovule in each cell. The fruit is ovoid or ellipsoid in shape having persistent calyx at the base and sometimes with the remnants of the pistil at the apex. It is large (10-25 x 18-12 cm) in size with a thin, brown, lignified and hard epicarp and a rough and rusty brown surface. The pulp is salmon to reddish brown, thick and very sweet and aromatic. The fruit contains one ellipsoid or spindle-shaped seed, which is glossy brown, 5 to 6 cm or more long having oily kernel and a hard, shiny testa and a large creamcoloured or opaque hilum. In some varieties, 2 or 3 seeds per fruit are seen (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 121 : Pouteria sapota (Jacq.) H. E. Moore & Steam, Marney sapote, Leafy twig (above), flowers and fruit (lower right), (Little et al., 1974)
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties From the large variability with respect to form and size of the fruit and colour and quality of pulp, several varieties have been selected. In El Salvador, cultivar Magana is known for its very large fruits, which are up to 1.5 kg in weight having pink flesh of excellent quality. This is now commercially cultivated in Florida. The other varieties grown in Florida are Copan, Mayapan, Pantin and Tazumal. Cubana No.1 is a selection, having 23 cm long fruits of 1 kg weight, made in Florida. Cuban No.2 is another selection. Cayo Hueso is an important variety of Dominican Republic. The fruit of Copan variety is of medium size and has red flesh of excellent quality containing 1 seed (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Gene banks of mamey sapote have been maintained at Centro Agronornico Tropical de Investigacion y Ensenanza, Turrialba, Costa Rica (242 accessions) and at Subtropical Horticultural Research Unit, USDA, Miami, Florida (26 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1991). Azurdia (2005) have reported a list of institutions having collections of germplasm of mamey sapote.
Culture The plants can be raised both by seed and by vegetative propagation methods. The seed is sown soon after extraction as they lose viability very quickly. To obtain increased and uniform germination, the seed should be sown in sterile medium after removing the testa. Although asexual propagation is difficult, it is preferred to avoid variability. Approach and side veneer grafting have given some success. The grafted trees are transplanted at 6-8 m spacing in the beginning of rainy season. Seedlings require wider spacing. Liquid fertilizer (20-20-20) should be applied during the first year at the rate of 25 g per tree after every 3 months. The dose should be gradually increased to about 5 kg per year and half the quantity should be applied with the beginning of flowering. Deficiencies of Zn and Mn are corrected by sprays or by soil application of chelated compounds. Although the mamey sapote is somewhat resistant to drought, young trees should be watered regularly. Very little pruning is necessary. The seedling trees begin to produce 8-10 years after planting while the grafted trees come into bearing in 4-5 years. Flowering occurs in April-July in Florida and the fruits mature after 10 to 15 months. Often, flowers as well as immature and mature fruits occur simultaneously on a tree. The fruit maturity is judged by size of fruit and by a slight internal colour change, which can be seen on scraping the fruit skin. An immature fruit is green inside and the mature one shows yellow or reddish colour. The fruits are picked when mature but still hard. They start ripening in a few days. The pulp is normally consumed fresh, but it is also used in drinks or milk shakes and in jellies and preserves. Besides termites, one or more species of bark infesting scale insects attack the young trees. Malathion or carbaryl can be used to control these insects. Sugarcane root borer (Diaprepes abbreviatus) damages the roots. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gIoeosporioides) is rarely seen but can be severe. Other diseases are leaf spot (Phyllosticta sapotae), black leaf spot (Phyllachora sp.) and root rot (Pythium sp.) (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
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261
16. MANILA TAMARIND Manila tamarind (Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth) belongs to the family Leguminosae (sub-family Mimosoideae) and is native of Central America and Mexico. It has been naturalized throughout the tropics. It is also known as Madras thorn, guayamochil and sweet inga. The Portuguese introduced it in Indonesia and the Spaniards into the Philippines. It is also common in India, Malaysia and Thailand (Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Hocking, 1993). Manila tamarind is mainly grown as a hardy roadside tree or hedge plant. Its potential as a fruit has not been utilized (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The related species, which are grown for fruit are P. bubalinum Gack) Benth. (in Malaysia) and P. jiringa Gack) Prain (in Myanmar to western Malaysia). Manila tamarind thrives in dry warm climates where annual rainfall is 400-1650 mm. It is not exacting in its climatic requirements and can grow under the extreme temperature conditions from freezing point to 48°C. It can grow well at low and medium· altitudes in both wet and dry areas under full sunlight. It has wide adaptability to different types of soil. It can thrive on poor sites with shallow, skeletal, sandy or gravelly, saline and infertile soils. It is reported to thrive even when its roots are in brackish water (Hocking, 1993). Although well-drained soil is the best, it can successfully grow in deep and fertile heavy clays (Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Brewbaker, 1992). The aril of manila tamarind is eaten fresh or made into lemonade. The seed oil is edible and is also used for soap making while the seed meal can be used as animal feed. Leaves and seeds are source of tannin. Wood is used as fuelwood. The leaves when applied as a plaster can allay pain of venereal sores and relieve convulsions. When taken with salt, they can cure indigestion but can also induce abortion. The root bark is used to cure dysentery and also to soften leather and to dye fishnets. Tree is also grown for shade and hedges (Mabberley, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Hocking, 1993). Manila tamarind is mainly 'grown as a hardy roadside tree or hedge plant. Its potential as a fruit tree has not been utilized (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Manila tamarind aril contains 75.8-77.8 g moisture, 2-3.3 g protein, 0.4-0.5 g fat, .1~.Z-19.6 g carbohydrates, 1.1-1.2 g fibre, 13 mg calcium, 42 mg phosphorus, 0.5 mg iron, 25 IU vitamin A, 0.24 mg thiamine, 0.1 mg riboflavin, 0.6 mg niacin and 13.8 mg vitamin C per 100 g of pulp and provides 78.8 calories (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Botany It is a medium-armed shrub or tree growing up to 10 m in height with gIabrescent . rough branchlets armed with straight, paired, stipular and 4-10 mm long spines. The leaves ·are abruptly bipinnate with 1-2.5 cm long rachis and single pair of pinnae, each 2-2.5 x 12 cm in size. The rachis of pinna is up to 7.5 mm long and has small, terminal stipular spines, two leaflets per pinna which is opposite, sessile, ovate 1.5-3.5 x 1-2 cm in size and glabrous. Inflorescences are borne in terminal panicles, up to 10 cm long·having 1-2 cm long peduncles and bearing globular heads with 15-20 sessile whitish flowers. Calyx and corolla are tubular. Filaments are white. The fruit is a flattened pod, linear-oblong but curled up, 1 em wide, fleshy, coriaceous and reddish brown. The seeds are flattened, obovate, 9x7x2 mm in size and blackish with a thick spongy and rather dry aril (Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Hocking, 1993).
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Fig.
1~2
: Pithecellobium dulce Sw (Little and Wadsworth, 1964)
Varieties No standard cultivars are available. Lot of variability oc::curs in nature with regard to size of pod and seed and colour and fleshiness of the aril (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Genetic resources of manila tamarind have been maintained at the Institute of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Laguna, Philippines (15 accessions). .
.
.
Culture It is usually propagated from the seeds. The seeds take about 2 weeks to germinate. It can also be propagated vegetatively by marcotting, grafting and budding. Occallional p~;.ming is required. Seedling trees take 5-8 years to start bearing fruits. It flowers during April-June and the pods ripen 2-3 months later from June to August. The pods are either manually picked by hand or with the help of a long bamboo pole. When mature, the fruit splits open at the lower suture exposing the aril. Therefore, the shelf life of the fruit is not long and has to be used within a few days. No information is available about the pests and diseases affecting this tree (Verheij and'Coronel, , . 1991).
17. MASUKU Masuku or mahobohoba (Uapaca kirkiana Muell. Arg.) belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae and is native of South Africa. It is found growing in lowland forests. It requires
263
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
tropical semi-arid or arid climatic conditions receiving 500-1270 mm annual rainfall up to 1900 m altitudes. The plants can grow on poor, shallow and gravel soils but well-drained sandy loam soils are found to be good. Fruit pulp is eaten fresh or in processed form as juice, squash, wine, beer, porridge, jam and cake. In Zambia, popular brands of wine "Masan" and "Mukingnzi" are produced commercially and sold in supermarkets. The root is used to treat indigestion. The wood is termite resistant and is used to make furniture (FAO, 1983; Leaky, 1999). Masuku fruit contains 86.5% total carbohydrates, 8.4% fibre, 1.1 % fat, 1.8% crude protein and 16.8 mg/ 100 g ascorbic acid.
Botany Masuku is a small to medium sized evergreen or deciduous tree growing up to 13 m in height with dense and round crown. The short and stout stem has rough, dark grey or blackish, thick and deeply and closely reticulate and fissured bark. Leaves are alternate, leathery, obovate or obovate-elliptic in shape, 7-27 x 4-15 cm in size in 12-16 pairs. Their under surfaces are floccose-pubescent with short curly hair when young which later become almost glabrescent. Flower is yellow, borne on short, slender, fascicular and axillary pedicels. Fruit is sub-globose and fleshy, up to 3.3 cm in diameter, dull yellow when ripe containing up to 3 white seeds, up to 2 cm long and 1.3 cm thick.
•
Fig. 123 : Uapaca kirkiana, Masuku (Deborah and Eckmen, 1993)
Culture Masuku plants regenerate naturally from seeds, coppices and root suckers. Fresh seeds have good germination capacity but lose viability quickly. Coppice shoots are produced
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
on felling the trees. Cultural requirement for masuku has to be standardized. Flowering takes place during the rainy season and the fruits ripen in September-December (FAa, 1983).
18. MONKEY JACK Monkey jack or barhai or iakuch (Artocarpus iakoocha Roxb.) is a member of the family Moraceae. References of its cultivation can be found in early medical works like charaka samhita and sushruta samihita. It is indigenous to the humid sub-Himalayan region of India. It is also found wild in Assam, UP, Western Ghats and in the sub-Himalayan areas of India and Malaysia (Anon., 1985; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The trees grow well in warm, moist weather but can also be grown in dry areas. It can grow up to 1200 m altitudes. The trees are susceptible to frost especially during active growth period and need protection. Monkey jack can be grown in almost any soil, but makes the best growth in deep loamy soils having good drainage. Ripe fruits are delicious and are eaten raw. The unripe fruit is used as vegetable and for chutney and pickle making. It is sliced, dried and used in place of tamarind particularly when tamarind is forbidden during the course of medical treatment. Male flowers are used for pickle and vegetable making. Both seeds and milky chokeberry latex are purgative. The bark is applied on skin ailments. The fruits are believed to act as a tonic for the liver. It provide~a valuable waterproof timber for making furniture and boats. Its bark is used as a substitute for betel nuts. The wood and roots are good source of colouring matter. Its large leaves are used for making pattai (trays) or as animal fodder. It is a good shade or ornamental tree (Anon., 1985; Morton, 1987). The fruit contains 89.4 g moisture, 1.6 g protein, 1.2 g fat, 1.1 g minerals, 2.8 g fibre, 13.9 g carbohydrates, 67 mg calcium and 25 mg phosphorus per 100 g of pulp and provides 73 calories (Gop alan et ai., 1986).
Botany Monkey jack is a large deciduous tree with a clear straight stem, generally 6 to 9 m in height and up to 2.5 m in girth having dark brown bark exfoliating in small round woody peels exposing the inside reddish colour. Leaves are alternate, simple, large, leathery, 13-37 x 6-21 cm in size, entire and ovate elliptic in shape. Monkey jack is monoecious and bears male and female flowers on separate drooping catkins. Male catkins are more profuse. Male flowers are small, elongated, yellow and taste like tamarind. Female flowers are borne on shorter and thicker peduncles compared to male flowers. Fruit is round irregular shaped multiple fruit, 5-12.5 cm wide, velvety, dull yellow tinged with pink and sweet-sour pulp. Seeds are endospermic, white and are bold in size (Anon., 1985, 1990).
Culture It is propagated from the seeds but can also be multiplied by cuttings, root suckers and air layering. The growth is slow initially but becomes rapid afterwards. Planting should be done at 10 to 13 m spacing. The pits should be filled incorporating heavy dose of manure before planting. The cultural practices should be followed as for jackfruit. In north India, flowering starts in April and the fruits mature in July. In south India, flowering and fruiting occur throughout the year. On maturity, the fruit turns from dark
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
265
green to yellow. The pulp of ripe fruit is crimson in colour, sub-acid in taste and has a peculiar smell. A full-grown tree yields 7-11 q fruit. No insect pest is known to attack monkey jack. The plant is susceptible to Alternaria tenuia Nees ex Pers. (Anon., 1985).
Fig. 124 : Artocarpus lakoocha, Barhal (Srivastava, 1996)
19.
OYSTER
NUT
Oyster nut (Telfairia pedata (Smith ex Sims.) Hook. f.) belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae and is native of tropical East Africa. It is also known as Zanzibar oil vine, kweme nut and Mkweme. It is cultivated in East and Central Africa at elevations up to 100 m. It requires tropical hot climatic conditions and is tolerant to drought and shade. It can grow on a wide range of soils including high pH, poor laterite soil (Duke, 1989). Oyster nuts are excellent to eat with a little salt. The nuts may be pounded and cooked in water and eaten as porridge. Seeds are normally roasted before use. They may also be used in cooking, confectionery and for manufacture of chocolate and sweets. A high quality cooking oil (62%) is extracted from the seeds, which is also used for salad dressings and in the manufacture of soaps, cosmetics, paints and candles. Fruits are used in soup. Oyster nuts are laxative. The seed oil is used to treat stomach ailments and rheumatism in east Africa. Leaves and shoots are also edible (Duke, 1989; Peters et al., 1992). The kernel is reported to contain 4.4 g water, 29.7 g protein, 63.3 g fat, 10 mg calcium, 57 g phosphorus and 4.1 mg iron per 100 g of kernel (Duke, 1989).
Botany It is a perennial woody vine growing about 30 m in length. The stem is stout and woody having 2-branched tendrils. Leaves are alternate, digitate and 5 to 7 foliate. The leaflets
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
are 13 x 6 cm in size, lanceolate, elliptic or narrowly ovate or obovate, penninerved and obscurely minute toothed. It is dioecious. Male flowers are borne on racemes of 20 cm length having purple mauve petal with frilled margins. Female flowers are solitary having red petals, green at base, and white stigma. The fruit is a large pepo, 45-60 cm in length, 20 cm in diameter and weighing up to 15 kg having 10-12 deep longitudinal ridges and the fruit stalk constricted near the attachment. Seed is circular, flattened, 38 x 12 mm in size, yellow or brown with no obvious rim and covered with a network of fibrous material. Each fruit contains 60 to 200 seeds. Two shells, of which the outer can be peeled or removed by burning and the inner one splits with a blow, protect the kernel. Sometimes, a machine is used to open the nuts (Duke, 1989; Peters et ai., 1992).
Fig. 125 : Teltairia pedata, Oyster nut (Duke, 1989)
Varieties There is no known standard variety of oyster nut. However, lot of variability exists in nature with regard to resistance to drought, high pH, poor soil and shade (Duke, 1989).
Culture Oyster nut is propagated by seeds or by cuttings. The seeds should be sown within 3 months as the oil in the kernel dries out causing loss in germinability. The seeds are soaked in water for 5 days before sowing in the nursery. Germination starts in about 21 days. About 5 cm tall and 2 to 3 months old seedlings are transplanted near the base of trees meant to provide support. Plants can also be raised by sowing 880 seeds per hectare directly in the field at 2 x 4 m spacing. Cuttings taken from the stem of female vines can be used to raise true-to-type plants. Green manure and compost should be used at planting. Bone and fish
'UNOERUTILIZEO FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARIO REGION
267
manures are also used to promote good growth and fruiting. When male and female plants are distinguished on start of flowering, 10-15 male vines are kept per hectare. The vines are' trained on 2 m high trellis, 4 to 5 m apart and connected by double rows of plants trained in opposite directions. It is, however, expensive and is considered suitable only in mountainous region. . The plants start fruiting 2 years after planting and continue to bear for 20-25 years. On poor soils, the vine dies out in three years. Fruit matures within 4 months after flowering. Plants produce 1 or 2 crops in a year and may bear mature fruits while they are also flovyering. The fruits are picked by hand. On an average, 1000 to 2000 kg nuts are pr.oduced per hectare. The major fungi attacking the oyster nut are Armillaria mellea, Colletotrichum sp:, Didymella lycopersici and Oidiopsis taurica. Lime dressing at the seedling stage can be used to control the nematode, Heterodera marioni. Ground squirrels, and porcupines also dig up the recently sown seeds (Duke, 1989) .
.20. PALMYRA PALM The palmyra palm or toddy palm (Borassus flabellifer 1. syn. B. flabelliformis Roxb.)' is native of tropical Asia and is also known as toddy or wine palm. It is distributed from southern Asia to Myanmar and is found in India, Burma, Sri Lanka, Vietnam and Malaysia. In India, it is found growing in coastal areas of the peninsula and in Bihar and Bengal. In the 'Sanskrit works of Valmiki and Kalidasa, it has been referred to as tola . It is usually grown in strictly seasonal tropical or subtropical climates and can grow up to 800 m altitudes. Palmyra palm is found growing well in dry areas with 500-900 mm average annual rainfall and is quite drought resistant. It also grows in perhumid areas receiving average annual rainfall up to 5000 mm and 'survives waterlogging quite well. The optimum mean annual temperature for the palm is around 30°C but it withstands extreme temperatures of 45°C and O°C as well. It can grow on a variety of soils but prefers alluvial soil rich in org~nic matter. It is found growing in sandy soils of coastal areas (Sarangi and Chattopadhyay, 1996; Kovoor, 1983). The palmyra palm is wellknown for over 800 uses. The main products are the sap for sugar and toddy. Juice or nira (sugary sap) is tapped from the inflorescences of both male and female trees. It is an extensively used refreshing and inexpensive beverage. It is stimulant and antiphle~atic. Palm jaggery is prepared by boiling the juice immediately after its tapping from the palm. A brown sugar candy is also prepared from the juice. The yellow, soft and pulpy tissue under the outer skin of the fruit is eaten. Its juice is squeezed out and is dried in thick layers (sheets) into an edible preparation called punatoo. The dried sheets are used in home made confectionery. The soft translucent kernel containing a sweet milky liquid is nutritious and is sold in the name of "tadgole". Leaves are used for thatching and basketry. The leafstalks are highly fibrous and contain large number of strong wiry fibres of considerable length. These are suitable for cordage and for the preparation of brushes and brooms. the palm is used as house posts, pillars and water conduits. It' has good agrofon!stry potential (Davis and Johnson, 1987; H'ocking, 1993), Per 100 g of the mature fruit contains 87.6 g water, 0.8 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 10.9 g total carbohy'drates, 2.0 g fibre, 27 mg calcium, 30 mg phosphorus, 1.0 mg iron, 0.04 mg thiamine, 0.02 mg riboflavin, 0.3 mg niacin and 5 g ascorbic acid and provides 43 calories (Duke, 1989). Fresh 100'ml nira (sweet sap) contains 0.35 g protein, 10.93g total sugar, 0.14
.
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g phosphorus, 0.4 giron, 13.25 mg ascorbic acid and 3.9 IU vitamin Bl (Davis and Johnson, 1987). Palmyra sugar ,Gaggery) contains 8.6% moisture, 1.7% protein, 0.08% fat, 1.8% ash, 88.5% carbohydrates (Anon., 1988).
Botany The palmyra palm is solitary, unarmed and pleonanthic fan palm and has good girth and height of 12 to 25 m with a rough black trunk having scars of leaves. The crown is made up of 30 to 40 large fan-shaped leaves with very thick petioles. The bases of the petioles are expanded encircling the stem and are closely packed together. The palm is dioecious and develops its inflorescences (spathes) from November to March. The male and female greenish yellow flowers are borne on different palms. The male inflorescence appears to be finger-like projection while the female inflorescence looks like a bunch of small dark green fruits. Pollination is carried out by wind. A large quantity of sugary sap exudes when inflorescence axis is tapped. The fruit is globular, large (12 to 15 cm in diameter) and dark purplish black in colour. Pulp is fibrous containing usually 3 nut-like portions each of which contains a seed.
Fig. 126 : Boras$us flabellifer L.~ Palmyra palm, 1. Female palm; 2. Male palm; 3 Leaf; 4. 'Mille inflorescence; 5 Female inflorescence; 56. Infructescence; 7. Fnj.it with 3 pyrenes (Flach and Rumawas, 1996)
Varieties No standard variety is known. A wide range of variability with respect to fruit and seed characters is found which can be exploited for its improy'ement through selection.
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269
Culture Palmyra palm can be propagated from the seeds. Germination of seeds is hastened by soaking them in hot water for long time. Large healthy seeds are sown 10 cm deep at 36 m spacing, preferably directly in the field because the seedlings are difficult to transplant. Once established, the palm does not require much attention. It is usually planted as windbreak along the border of an orchard or cropland. Exclusive palmyra orchards are rare. It responds well to water supply and applications of manure. The plant takes 15 years to attain maturity and flowers during March-April and the fruits mature in about 120 days. Tapping of inflorescences to obtain nira normally starts when the palm is 25-30 years old and may continue for about 80 years. The sap flow of an individual tree may continue for 3-6 months per year but tapping season usually extends from February to May. For this, the tapper climbs the palm trunk just before the inflorescence opens, cuts off its stalk and hangs a bucket made of palm leaf to collect the oozing sap. Each morning, the tapper climbs the palm, removes the bucket with sap and replaces it with another bucket. For each tapping, a new slice as thin as possible is cut off from the tapped end of the stalk with a razor-sharp knife kept especially for this purpose. Generally female inflorescences are tapped as they give higher yield. The daily yield of sap or IJira from a tree is about 0.5 gallon giving a total yield of 40 gallons per season. The annual production of sap varies from 100 to 600 litres and sugar yield from 16 to 70 kg per palm. Fresh nira contains about 12 per cent sucrose and thus, unless suitably treated, it immediately starts fermenting into toddy. On maturity, the colour of fruit turns greenish yellow to deep yellow or black. An adult tree produces 80 to 100 fruits. The fruit takes about 7 to 10 days for ripening and can be stored for 5-7 days under room temperature depending upon maturity of fruit. Keeping the fruits under low temperature, treating them with growth regulators and waxing can increase their shelf life (Sarangi and Chattopadhyay, 1996). Insects like rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil and black-headed caterpillar cause damage to the palm. Pythium palmivorum fungus causes bud rot destroying the growing point consequently killing the tree.
21. PEQUI Pequi (Caryocar brasiliense Cam.) or piqui or piquia oil plant belongs to the family Caryocaraceae. It is a native of Brazil where it is found growing extending westwards from the State of Maranhao to Bolivia, eastern ·Paraguay to northern Argentina. Its pure groves occur in the plateaus and valleys of the tropical savanna, Cerrado, and elsewhere its plants are found scattered (FAO, 1986; Araujo,1995). Pequi is a potential oil crop for areas having poor soil and long dry season. The pequi requires a tropical climate and is adapted to nutrient poor heavy clays, especially iron and aluminium rich soils in areas with an annual rainfall of 1000-1500 mm and 3-5 months dry season with relative humidity as low as 13% (FAO, 1986; Wickens, 1995). The mucilaginous and nutritious fruit is a famine food. Its mesocarp is oily, sweet and edible. It is also used to flavour rice or alcoholic liquor. The kernels are generally ignored because of the spiny endocarp. Oil extracted by crushing and boiling is used for cooking and soap manufacture (FAO, 1986; Wickens, 1995). High melting point of its kernel oil makes it a potential substitute of coco butter (Wickens, 1995). The yellow coloured wood is used in
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construction, wooden machinery parts, furniture, fences and as fuelwood or to make charcoal. The leaves, bark and fruit pulp contain tannin (FAO, 1986; Briicher, 1989). The pequi fruit contains 81 g water, 2.7 g protein, 8.0 g fat, 6.7 g carbohydrates, 200 IV vitamin A and 7.27 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of pulp (FAO, 1986). Botany The small pequi tree is a twisted shrub growing up to 10 m tall. Leaves are alternate, up to 18x12 cm in size with rounded apex and base, without stipules, 3-foliate. Leaflets are elliptic-ovate. Inflorescence is a terminal raceme. Calyx is broadly cup-shaped, 10-13 cm long, lobes 5-6, rounded, corolla white to yellow, 5-6 lobes, stamens numerous, ovary globose and 4-locular. Fruit is irregular, ovoid globose, usually 1-2 locular, 4-5 cm in diameter, exocarp more or less smooth, pericarp thick, fleshy and attached to the mesocarp; the mesocarp and endocarp envelop the seed to farm an oval stone, 2.5-3 cm in diameter; endocarp is spiny, up to 2-3 cm long and contains 1-4 kidney shaped kernels. The kernel is white and oily (FAO, 1986; Briicher, 1989; Wickens, 1995).
Fig. 127 : Caryocar brasiliensis Cam. 1. Flowering branch; 2 Fruitiung branch; 3. Fruit section. (FAO, 1986)
Varieties No standard variety of pequi is known. Collection and evaluation of the genotypes should be done to identify high yielding, precocious plant types having larger fruits and high pulp and oil contents.
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271
Culture It is generally propagated through seeds. Seeds take more than a year to germinate. Stratification of the endocarp is recommended. Seedlings can be planted when 25 cm tall. Vegetative propagation by grafting and marcottage has given good results. Application of fertilizer and timely irrigation give good response. Pequi is a slow growing tree. It flowers during June to October and the fruit develops during November to March. It is difficult to determine ripeness of the fruit and therefore only fallen fruits are usually gathered. Large tree may yield as many as 2000 fruits. The fruits should be immediately utilized as they become rancid on storage. No insect pests and diseases are known to attack pequi (Wickens, 1995).
22. RED MOMBIN Red mombin (Spondias purpurea L., syn. S. dulcis Blanco) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and is native of tropical America. It is also known as Spanish plum and purple mombin. It is found wild and also cLlltivated from southern Mexico through northern Peru and Brazil particularly in arid zones. The related species is S. tuberosa Arruda ex Kost., which yields juice. It has been introduced into other tropical and warm subtropical countries and has gained some economic importance as a fruit crop in southern Mexico, Peru, Brazil and Philippines (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Macia and Barford, 21)00). Red mombin requires hot tropical lowlands and does equally well in both dry and wet sites, but better quality fruit is produced in places having a long dry season. Red mombin is a very hardy tree and can grow successfully in dry areas not suitable for many fruit trees. It thrives at elevations up to about 600-2000 m. It has high resistance to drought and is sensitive to cold. The tree can grow in different soil types and can be easily produced even in poor soils (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The ripe fruit is usually eaten fresh but can also be processed into syrup or jelly. The green mature fruit can be used to prepare pickle. The leaves are used as cattle fodder. A decoction of the bark is used for the treatment of dysentery and infantile tympanitis. The light and soft wood is suitable for making canoes and paper pulp (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruit is a good source of vitamin C and minerals. The fruit contains 65.9-86.6 g moisture, 0.09-0.26 g protein, 0.03-0.17 g fat, 0.2-0.6 g fibre, 6.1-23.9 mg calcium, 31.5-55.7 mg phosphorus, 0.09-1.22 mg iron, 0.004-0.089 mg carotene, 0.033-0.103 mg thiamine, 0.0140.049 mg riboflavin, 0.54-1.77 mg niacin and 26.4-73.0 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is a small deciduous tree and grows up to 10 m in height with 30 cm trunk diameter. The branches are thick and brittle. Leaves are alternate, pinnately compound having 4-12 pairs of leaflets, 6-12 cm long rachis and 2.5-4 cm long petioles. The leaflets are obliquely elliptic to elliptic oblong, 2-5.5 x 1-2.5 cm in size with entire or obscurely crenulate margin. Inflorescences consisting of unisexual and bisexual flowers appear before the leaves.
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These are axillary, paniculate or racemiform and up to 4 cm long. The flowers are reddish or purplish with triangular calyx lobes, 4-5 ovate-oblong petals of 3-4 x 1.5-2 mm size, 8 or 10 stamens and 4 or 5 styles. Fruit is a oblongoid to ovoid drupe, 2.5-5 cm long, 30-30 gin weight, purple red and dark purple in colour having yellow, aromatic and juicy flesh and oblongoid stone which is up to 2 cm long, rough, fibrous and hard containing up to 5, usually abortive seeds (Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 128 : Spondias purpurea L. 1. fruiting branch; 2. Halved fruit.(Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
Varieties Purple and yellow-fruited forms occur. A tree with exceptionally large fruits and small seeds has been reported from Philippines. In Florida, at least 6 cultivars have been selected based on fruit characterstics and harvest season. Some of these cultivars have been named after the area of origin, e.g., Campechana in Cuba. A variety called Jacote de Corona of Guatemala having flattened fruits that are somewhat shouldered at the apex is said to be
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
273
of superior quality. Jocote Tronadur is nearly as good (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Germplasm collections of red mombin have been maintained at Empresa Pernambucana de Pesquisa Agropecuaria, Pernambuco, Brazil (10 accessions) and at Centro Agronomico Tropical de Investigacion y Ensenanza, Turrialba, Costa Rica (5 accessions) (Bettencourt et al., 1992).
Culture Red mombin seeds are not viable. It is propagated by stem cuttings. The mature stem sections of about 50 em length are either planted in the nursery or directly in the field. Propagation under mist using softwood cuttings treated with a root promoting growth substance may prove better. Marcotting is successful but takes 8-9 months. Grafting on seedlings of S. pinn~ta (L.f.) Kurz. is also possible. The rooted stem cuttings are set in the field at the onset of rains. The plants are spaced 7-9 m. Once established, the trees need little care. Pruning is done every year since the flower buds appear on the current year's branches. Adequate fertilization and irrigation during flowering and fruit development are highly beneficial. Fruit production starts 2-3 years after planting. The trees flower during March-April and the fruits ripen in May-June in 120 or more days. In Philippines, red mombin trees bear flowers having small stamens that produce no pollen but the occurrence of parthenocarpy ensures good fruit production. The fruits are considered ripe when they tum from green to greenish yellow or reddish purple. All the fruits on a tree do not ripen at the same time. Therefore, ripe fruits are harvested manually usually with the help of a wire hook and the net bag fixed on a long pole. The ripe fruits with attractive colour have ready market. No serious diseases or pests have been reported to cause damage to red mombin. Minor pests observed in the Philippines are twig borers, toy beetles, slug, tussock caterpillars, grey and cottony cushion mealy bugs and scales. Fruitflies (Ceratitis capitata) may become serious if ripe fruits are allowed to remain on the tree. In Florida, the foliage shows anthracnose caused by Sphacelf}ma spondiadis, which can be controlled by fungicidal sprays (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
23.
SHEA BUTTER TREE
Shea butter tree or karite (Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. f. syn. Butyrospermum paradoxum (Gaertn. f.) Hepper.) is a native of tropical west Africa and belongs to the family Sapotaceae. It is also known as shea nut and butter seed. It is widely distributed from West Africa (Liberia, Gold Coast, Nigeria, Tongo, Dahomey, Senegal, and Sierra Leone) to Sudan and Uganda and from southern to eastern Congo (Booth and Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988). It is found growing in dry to wet subtropics and dry to moist tropical zones. Shea butter tree holds good potential in Africa in areas where oil palm does not grow well (Martin et al., 1987; Hall et al., 1996). It requires hot tropical lowlands, with low rainfall and definite dry season, from 950 to 1500 m altitudes. It grows well in areas receiving annual rainfall of 600-1000 mm with a marked dry season of 6-8 months or of 900-1800 mm with a shorter dry season of 45 months. Annual average temperature of 24-32°C with a minimum of 21°C and a maximum of 36°C is preferred (Booth and Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988). It can grow well in poor lateritic and stony soils having pH 4.9 - 6.5 and cannot tolerate flooding (Martin et al., 1987; FAO, 1988).
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It is an important oil-producing tree and yields shea butter vegetable fat from its ripe seeds, which is used as cooking fat, an illuminant, and for medicinal ointment, hair dressing and soap making. The oil content of a kernel varies from 40 to 60% depending on a variety of factors such as climatic conditions, size, age, and watering prior to processing. The bark, root and leaves are used in traditional medicines. Shea nut meal contains 60 per cent carbohydrates and 12 per cent protein and is used as hog feed. Its wood is dull red, very heavy, termite proof and difficult to work, but takes good polish and is very durable (Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1982; Booth and Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988). Fruit pulp contains 196.1 mg vitamin C, 3-6 g sugar, 36.40 mg calcium and 1.93 mg per 100 g. Per 100 g seed is reported to provide 622 calories and contains 7.3 g protein, 52.6 g fat, 38.2 g total carbohydrates, 5.6 g fibre, 107 mg calcium, 43 mg phosphorus, 3.2 mg iron and 0.56 mg thiamine on zero moisture basis (Duke, 1989).
Botany It is a stout, much branched, 20 m tall tree with a spreading crown. Its bark is usually grey or blackish, deeply fissured splitting into square or rectangular corky scales. The leaves are oblong to ovate-oblong, 10-25 x 4.5-14 cm in size, rounded at apex, acute to broadly cuneate at base with both surfaces either pubescent or glabrescent. Flowers are fragrant and are borne in dense clusters at the tip of branchlets. The outer sepals are lanceolate, 9-14 x 3.5-6 mm in size and pubescent. The inner sepals are slightly smaller. The corolla is creamy white, glabrous externally and 7-11 x 4.5-7 mm in size and with broadly ovate lobes. The filaments are 7 to 12 mm long, anthers are 4.5 mm long, staminodes are 8 mm long and the style is 8 to 15 mm long. The ovary is superior, 5-10 locular, each containing a single anatropous ovule. The fruit is ellipsoid, greenish and up to 6.5 cm long, 4.5 cm in diameter and has sweet pulp surrounding the seeds. Seed is 5 cm long and 3.5 cm in diameter and is usually solitary but sometimes up to three per fruit. It is shining and dark brown with a large white scar on one side (Booth and Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988).
Fig. 129 : Butyrospermum parkii Kotschy (VITA, 1988)
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275
Varieties From the rich variability two types or sub-species have been recognized. These are
Vitellaria paradoxa subsp. parkii (G. Don) Hepper. and V. paradoxa subsp. niloticum (Kotschy) Hepper. The former has less dense plants with shorter indumentum, smaller flowers whereas the latter has densely ferrugineous parts with corolla tube pilose externally having 9.5 to 11 m long lobes.
Culture It is generally propagated from the seeds. The seeds lose viability very quickly and should be sown immediately after extraction. It can also be propagated from the root suckers. Owing to deep taproot, transplanting of seedlings is difficult. The seedlings grow very slowly. Recommended spacing is 2 x 8 m to 15 x 15 m or 8 m in triangular pattern. Thinning is done to keep final stocking of 30-50 trees per hectare. Application of fertilizers has been found useful. The plants take 12 to 15 years to start fruiting but full bearing occurs after 30 years. Flowers appear during December-February and the fruits become ready for harvest after about 90 days during the rainy season (July-september). Fallen ripe fruits are immediately gathered from the ground. The fleshy pulp rots and splits to expose the nut. The process can be hastened by burying the fleshy gathered fruit for a few days in a pit. The average production of a tree is around 20 kg, although certain trees are known to bear 200 kg fruit. Shea butter is prepared by pounding the roasted kernels in a mortar into a coarse pulp and then grinding it to prepare a fine oily paste having chocolate aroma. In some areas, this mass is further worked up with a little water in a large pot followed by kneading and washing in cold water. It is then boiled to extract butter by skimming. It is again boiled to purify and is then transferred into moulds. Locally the nuts are boiled before cracking and the extraction is done from sun-dried kernels. Ordinary oven-drying causes no loss of oil. Clean nuts may be roasted until the latex coagulates and the dry nuts are stored. In other areas, fruits are spread in the sun until the pulp separates or these are moistened and fermented for several weeks or months in earthen jars. The nuts are then roasted. By the native processing technology, 4 kg kernels yield 1 kg butter. The kernel normally contains 45 to 55 per cent fat. It may yield as high as 60 per cent fat and 9 per cent protein (Booth and Wickens, 1988; FAa, 1982, 1988). The main diseases that attack shea butter tree are Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. tamarri, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Cephaleuros mycoides, Cercospora butryospermi and Helminthosporium coffeae. The caterpillars of Cirina butyrospermi and Bostra glaucalis cause defoliation of the tree (Duke, 1989; Hall et al., 1996).
24.
SPANISH
LIME
Spanish lime (Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq. syn. Melicocca bijuga L.) belongs to the family Sapindaceae and is also known as Jamaica bullace, quenep, honeyberry, kenep or mamoncillo. Melicocco means honeyberry owing to its typical flavour. It is a native of West Indies, central and South America and has been introduced into the tropics. It is cultivated in West Indies, Haiti, Grenada and Florida and South America and is a popular fruit in Puerto Rico and Cuba (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). Spanish lime holds good potential
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for home garden and local marketing but little potential for commercial cultivation (Martin
et ai., 1987). Spanish lime requires hot, tropical lowlands with low to high rainfall. The plant is very resistant to drought but does not tolerate frost. Mature trees can, however, withstand several degrees of frost. It can be grown even on poor, sandy, rocky and calcareous soils. The plants also show tolerance to alkaline soils (Martin et ai., 1987; Morton, 1987). The aril of fruit is eaten fresh or used in jellies, jam, marmalade and beverages. The flavour of aril is sweet to subacid. The seed is edible after roasting (Morton, 1987). Spanish lime fruit provides 58.11-73 calories and contains 68.8-82.5 g moisture, 0.501.0 g protein, 0.08-0.2 g fat, 13.5-19.2 g carbohydrates, 0.07-2.60 g fibre, 3.4-15 mg calcium, 9.8-23.9 mg phosphorus, 0.47-1.19 mg iron, 0.02-0.44 mg carotene, 0.03-0.21 mg thiamine, 0.01-0.20 mg riboflaviJ), 0.15-0.90 mg niacin and 0.8-10 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is slow growing, large, upright tree with .grey trunk and grows up to 20 m in height. The leaves are alternate, compound with 4 lightgreen to blue green leaflets. The flowers, borne on terminal panicles, are small, greenish white and unisexual. The tree is dioecious. Occasionally hermaphrodite plants also occur. Owing to lack of pollination, is.olated trees seldom produce fruit. Best fruiting occ;urs when the flowering time of staminafe trees synchronises with the receptive period of female trees. Fruits are borne in,dense clusters that are small, green, round or oblong, 2-3.5 cm in diameter and weigh 10-25 g each. At maturity, the fruit has a thin, tough, leathery pericarp surrounding a juicy white cream or light orange, translucent pulp (aril), which encloses a'single oval seed (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987; Brucher, 1989).
Fig. 130 : Melicocca bijuga L. (Briicher, 1989)
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277
Varieties Some selections have been made in Florida and Puerto Rico, which give heavy and regular yield of large fruits having thick aril, small seed, high sugar content and good flavour. These are Aree 1, Queen, Newcomb and Montgomery. Important varieties of Puerto Rico are Puerto Rico 1, Puerto Rico 2, Puerto Rico 3 and Puerto Rico 4. In Florida, Newcomb, Montgomery, Cuban No.1, Cuban No.2 and Queen are considered to be the best (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987). Germplasm collection has been maintained at Subtropical Horticultural Reseach Unit, Miami, USA (8 accessions).
Culture It is generally propagated by seed but can also be propagated by layering and grafting. Approach grafting is the most common method. Air layering is also successful. The need to provide male functional flowering trees for pollination can be avoided by treating the panicles of female trees with 10 to 50 ppm NAA. In low rainfall region, irrigation during fruit development and new lateral growth phase may be beneficial. However, irrigation in autumn and winter is undesirable since induced vegetative growth in this period precludes normal seasonal flowering. The seedling trees take 7-10 years to flower while those raised by vegetative means bear after 4-5 years. In Florida, flowering takes places in April and the fruit matures in 90150 days, i.e., in August-October. At maturity, the external colour of fruit becomes green whereas the flesh colour turns yellow to orange. The whole panicles are removed at maturity. Owing to the leathery skin, the fruit remains fresh for a long time and ships and markets well. The tree is a host of the citrus blackfly. In Florida, Armillariella tabescens causes mushroom root rot; Fusarium and Phyllosticta cause leaf spot and Cephaleuros virescens causes algal leaf spots and green scurf (Morton, 1987).
25. STRAWBERRY PEAR Strawberry pear or pitaya or night blooming cereus or dragon's fruit (Hylocereus undatus (Haw.) Britt. and Rose syn. Cereus ulldatus Haw.) belongs to the family Cactaceae and is native of tropical rain forests of northern South America, Central America and Mexico (Martin et al., 1987; Mizrahi et al., 1997). It is found growing in southern Mexico, the Pacific side of Guatemala and Costa Rica and EI Salvador. It is commonly cultivated and is naturalized throughout tropical American lowlands, the West Indies, the Bahamas, Bermuda, southern Florida, Israel, Vietnam and Australia and the tropics of the Old World. The related genera that produce edible fruits are Selenicereus megalanthus (yellow pitaya), Hylocereus polyrhizus and S. megalanthus (pitaya amarilo). It requires warm tropical lowlands with low to high rainfall and prefers well-drained soils. The ripe strawberry pear is much appreciated especially if chilled and cut in halves so that the flesh can be eaten with a spoon. The juice is enjoyed as a cool drink. Syrup made from the whole fruit is used to colour pastries and candies. The unopened flower buds can' be cooled and eaten as a vegetable. It is also grown as an ornamental plant (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987). It has become a low input and high value crop in Vietnam from where the fruits are exported to Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan. Strawberry pear fruit contains 82.5-83.0 g moisture, 0.15-0.23 g protein, 0.21-0.61 g fat, 0.7-0.9 g crude fibre, 6.3-8.8 mg calcium, 30.2-36.1 mg phosphorus, 0.55-0.65 mg iron,
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UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
0.005-0.012 mg carotene, 0.28-0.43 mg thiamine, 0.04 mg riboflavin, 0.29-0.43 mg niacin and 8-9 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is a terrestrial or epiphytic woody vine cactus. The stem is heavy, 3-sided, green, fleshy, much branched with flat wavy wings having horny margins that may reach 3 m in length. The stem clings to a wall by means of numerous strong aerial roots. There are 2 to 5 short spines on each areole. The flowers are magnificient, night blooming, very fragrant, bell-shaped, white, up to 35 cm long, 22.5 cm wide having a thick tube bearing several linear, 4-7.5 cm long green scales above which is a circle of recurved, greenish-yellow, linear, 10 cm long and 3.2-4 cm wide segments. Numerous cream coloured stamens form a showy fringe in the centre and at the apex of the thick perianth tube. The non-spiny fruit is oblong oval, 10 x 6.25 cm in size and is coated with bright red fleshy or yellow and ovate bases of scales. White, juicy and sweet pulp contains innumerable tiny black and partly hollow seeds.
Varieties A yellow form of strawberry pear has been reported in Mexico (Morton, 1987).
Culture It is commonly propagated by seeds or by cuttings. The plants are grown on inexpensive trellises. Organic manures are applied to plants. The flowers are thinned to produce 1-2 fruits of uniform size and quality per branch for export market. Strawberry pear is a long day plant. At Darwin (Australia), flowering occurs from October to April. The scented white flowers attract bats and moths. Bees and other insects also visit the flowers before dusk as the petals begin to close. Fruit set is visible 10 days after flowering and the fruit is ready for harvesting after 25 days. The fruit can be left on the stem up to 15 days at this stage. Four years after planting, the fruit yield is 20 t/ha (Mizrahi et al., 1997). The strawberry pear blooms and fruits mainly during August-September (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987).
26. SUGAR APPLE Sugar apple (Annona squamosa L.) belongs to the family Annonaceae and is native of West Indies and tropical America. It is also known as sweetsop, anon, anona blanca, etc. It is commonly cultivated in tropical South America, Africa, Asia and the Pacific. In Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Barbados and in dry regions of north Queensland and Australia, it has escaped from cultivation and is found wild in pastures, forests and along roadsides. The Spaniards probably carried its seeds from the New World to the Philippines and the Portuguese are believed to have introduced it in southern India. Its cultivation is now most extensive in India. The sugar apple is one of the most important fruits in Brazil (Morton, 1987). The sugar apple tree requires hot tropical lowlands or subtropical conditions with medium rainfall. It is less tolerant to low temperatures than the Cherimoya but is more tolerant than soursop (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). It is highly drought tolerant and does the best in dry areas. The tree can also survive light frosts. During the blooming season, drought interferes with pollination. Sugar apple requires high atmospheric humidity but no rain during flowering. In severe drought, the tree sheds its leaves and the fruit rind
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hardens but splits with the advent of rain (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). Sugar apple is not fastidious to soil conditions and performs well on sandy, limestone and heavy loam soils having good drainage. Water logging is harmful. It can grow on shallow soils but does not do well in saline soils (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987). . The fruit pulp is eaten fresh or is used to prepare ice-cream, sherbets and other desserts. It contains moderate level of vitamin C. Sugar apple tree has medicinal value. The crushed leaves are sniffed to overcome hysteria and fainting spells. These are also applied on ulcers and wounds. Leaf decoction is used in cases of dysentery and is imbibed either as an emmenagogue, febrifuge, tonic, cold remedy and digestive or to clarify the urine. The decoction is also used in baths to alleviate rheumatic pain. The green astringent fruit is used to treat diarrhoea in EI Salvador. In India, the crushed ripe fruit mixed with salt is applied on tumors. The bark decoction is given as a tonic and to halt diarrhoea. The seeds are acrid and poisonous. The bark, leaves and seeds contain an alkaloid anonaine. Powdered seeds and pounded dried fruits serve as fish poison and insecticide in India. A paste of the seed powder has been applied to kill lice but must be kept away from eyes since it is highly irritable and can cause blindness. It also causes abortion if applied to the uterus. Heat extracted oil from the seeds has been used as pesticide. The fibre extracted from the bark has been used for cordage. The tree serves as a host for lac insects (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruit provides 360 kJ energy and contains 75.97 g water, 1.89 g protein, 0.57 g lipid (fat), 20.82 g carbohydrates, 1.41 g fibre, 17 mg calcium, 54 mg phosphorus, 0.30 mg iron, 0.10 mg thiamine, 0.06 mg riboflavin, 0.89 mg niacin and 35.9 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g p.ulp (Wenkam, 1990). .
Botany The deciduous sugar apple tree grows up to 3-6 m in height with an open crown consisting of irregular spreading branches and somewhat zigzag twigs. The aromatic leaves are alternately cm-anged on short hairy petioles and are lanceolate or oblong, blunt-tipped, .:. 5-15 x.2-~ cm it;i size, ,dull green on the upper side and pale with a bloom below. Flowers are fragrant, hennapmodite, borne singly or in groups of 2 to 4 along the branch tips opposite the leaves. The flower is oblong, 2.5-3.8 cm long, never fully opens, on 2.5 cm long and drooping stalk and has 3 fleshy outer petals, yellow green on the outside and pale yellow inside with purple or dark red spots at the base. The inner petals are merely tiny scales. Flower has numerous stamens and carpels. The fruit is globose or conical pesudocarp, 5-10 em in diameter, fonned of loosely cohering or almost free carpels, the rounded ends projecting to render the surface tuberculate. Surface is greenish yellow having a powdery bloom and the pulp is white tinged yellow. Seeds are dark brown or black and 1.25 cm long. There may be. a total of 20 to 38, or perhaps more seeds in one fruit. Some trees, however, bear seedless fruits (Morton, 1987; Brucher, 1989).
Varieties In India; the ~ecommended varieties are Washington, Barbados, British Guiana, Balanagar, Local Sitaphal, Mammoth and Red Sitaphal. In'the Philippines, three types of sugar apple are grown: (a) common green fruited seeded type (b) purple fruit (c) green seedless fruit. The common cultivars ill Thailand are green "Fai" and yellow easy to peel
.
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"Nahang". In Florida, the important variety is Seedless Cuban, which produces malformed " ". fruits with mere vestiges of underdeveloped seeds. Its flavour is less appealing than that of the normal fruit. The important cultivars of Egypt are Beni Mazar having round large fruits weighing 150-180 g having 56-60 per cent flesh and 15-30 seeds, and Abd EI Razik having light green or reddish rind and fruits nearly round, large, weighing 236 g with 69.5 per cent flesh and 14 seeds. Cuban Seedless is a seedless cultivar with medium-sized fruit developed in Cuba. Another Cuban cultivar has low fibre content (Nakasone and Paull, 1998). Arka Sahan developed at IIHR, Bangalore (India) is an inter-specific hybrid (A. atemoya x A. squamosa) which yields very sweet, fragrant, low seeded fruits having long shelf life (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The important cultivars of sweet apple are IPA Selection, Molate, Lobo, Noi, Mc Pherson, Mossaman, Negrito, Ott, Perry Vidal, Pierce, Reretai, Whaley and White (Pinto et al., 2005). Genetic resources of custard apple have been maintained at Empresa Pernambucans De Pesquisa Agropecuaria, Pernambuca, Brazil (26 accessions), Centro Agronomico Tropical de Investigacion y Ensenanza, Turrialba, Costa Rica (65 accessions), Institute of Plant Breeding, Laguna, Philippines (43 accessions) and IIHR, Bangalore, India (10 accessions), Battencourt et al., 1992). Pinto et al. (2005) have given updated list of institutions having collections of germplasm of sugar apple.
Fig. 131 : Annona squamosa 1. (ICUC, Pinto et al., 2005)
Culture Sugar apple is generally propagated from the seeds. Sugar apple seeds remain viable fot 3 to 4 years. However, germination is better if sown within a week after removal fr0I?
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the fruit. Germination may take 30 days or more but can be hastened by soaking the seeds in water for 3 days or by scarification. It can also be propagated by budding, grafting and inarching. Veneer and softwood grafting have been found to be better. Softwood grafting is done during March at Anantapur. One-year old seedlings of sugar apple can be used as rootstock for budding or grafting. A. reticulata seedlings are considered good as rootstock in India. A. senegalensis is used as a rootstock in Egypt. A. glabra is also suitable but is less hardy. In India, budding is best done during January-March and June. Shield budding gives good success. Sugar apple trees are planted closer at 3 m spacing in Egypt, which improves pollination owing to elevated atmospheric humidity. In Palestinian region, trees are spaced 5 x 3 m. In India, planting is done during rainy season at a distance of 5 m adopting square system. No pruning is required in sugar apple except during initial years to promote strong framework of the tree and some judicious pruning during spring season. On light soils, 6080 kg manure per tree is applied annually. Application of commercial fertilizer containing 3 per cent N, 10 per cent P and 10 per cent K has been recommended. Application of 250 g N/tree has been found to increase productivity (Pareek and Vishal Nath, 1996). On the basis of nutritional trials carried out at Rahuri, fertilizer dose of 250 g N, 125 g PzOs and 125 g Kz0 per plant has been recommended (Rathore, 1990). Irrigation during the dry season and fruit ripening period increases fruit size. The grafted tree starts producing fruits in 3-5 years. Flowering generally occurs in April-May and fruits mature 120-150 days after flowering. A 5-year old tree may yield 50 fruits in late summer and fall. The low fruit set in sugar apple is due to poor pollination. High and low humidity at the time of flowering, soil moisture stress, competition between vegetative and floral growth, hypogyny, dichogamy, poor pollen germination and absence of insect pollinators are the factors responsible for poor pollination. Plant growth regulators such as NOA, NAA, 2,4-0, 2,4,5-T and GA3 have been tried to increase fruit set and reduce fruit drop. Hand pollination also increases fruit yield. The fruit does not ripen but just turns black and dry if picked before the white, yellowish or red tint appears between the rind segments. If allowed to ripen on the tree, the fruit falls off. Stone fruit formation is a physiological disorder. Affected fruits fail to attain full size and remain small and become brown. The main factor causing stone fruit formation has been suggested to be competition among the developing fruits. Fruits packed in straw ripen in 5-6 days and can keep for 4-5 days. Ripening can be delayed by storage at temperature of 15-20DC and 85-90 per cent relative humidity under low oxygen environment. Lower storage temperatures cause chilling injury. The moth Anoaepestis bengatella, Oemanus ortygnus attacks the fruits in the Philippines and Caribbean region. In Florida and Caribbean region, seed borer (chalcid fly or Bephratelloides cubensis) infests the seeds and an associated fungus mummifies the partly grown fruits on the tree. Similar damage is caused by B. ruficollis in Panama and by B. paraguazyensis in Paraguay. The soft scale, Philephedra sp. attacks leaves and twigs and deposits honeydew on which sooty mold develops. Ambrosia beetles lay eggs on young stems and the larvae induce dieback during winter (Morton, 1987; Martin et al., 1987). Mealy bug (Planococcus pacifius) is the main pest of sugar apple. Green tree ant is a nuisance as it makes nests in the tree. Birds and animal predators also damage the fruit. Covering the trees with nets helps in controlling the damage. Leaf spot (Alternaria spp.) disease appears in the month of November at the fag end of harvesting causing considerable loss in
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production. Leaf blight caused by Colletotrichum annonicola is serious. Fruit rot caused by Glomerella cingulata has also been reported which causes discolouration at one end, which turns brown or black within 4-5 days. Two or three days later, the entire fruit starts to rot and gets covered with grey-black mycelium and spherical bodies (Morton, 1987; Rathore, 1990).
27. SURINAM CHERRY The Surinam or Brazil or pitanga cherry (Eugenia uniflora L., syn. E. michelli Lam.) is native of Brazil and belongs to the family Myrtaceae. It is also found growing in Surinam, Guyana and French Guyana to Uruguay and Paraguay. It is widely distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). It is a plant of tropical and subtropical climate. The young plants may need protection from frost but mature ones can withstand temperatures of _3°C. It grows successfully up to 1650 m altitudes. It grows and fruits better in the warm moist climate than in the drier regions. It thrives the best in full sun, requires only moderate rainfall and can withstand a long dry season. It grows on almost any soil and can withstand temporary waterlogging but cannot tolerate salinity (FAO, 1982; Morton, 1987, Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The fruits are excellent for making jams, jellies, syrups and sherbets. A tea prepared from its tender leaves and alcoholic extract of leaves and fruits are used to treat disorders of the stomach. The leaves yield 0.14 per cent essential oil containing citronellal, geranyl acetate, geraniol, cineole, terpenes, sesquiterpenes and polyterpenes. The oil is used as an insect repellent. A leaf infusion is used as a stomachic, febrifuge and astringent. Fruits are used to reduce blood pressure. The bark is rich in tannin and is used to treat leather. In Florida and Hawaii, it is valued for its fruit and especially as an ornamental shrub and hedge plant (FAO, 1982; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Martin et al., 1987). Surinam cherry fruit provides 43-51 calories and contains 85.4-90.7 g moisture, 0.841.10 g protein, 0.4-0.88 g fat, 7.93-12.5 g carbohydrates, 0.34-0.6 g fibre, 9 mg calcium, 11 mg phophorus, 0.2 mg iron, 1,200-2,000 IU carotene (vitamin A), 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.04 mg riboflavin, 0.03 mg niacin and 20-30 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany It is evergreen shrub or tree growing up to 7 m tall with spreading branches. The leaves are opposite, ovate to lanceolate, 2.5-6 x 1.5 em in size with rounded or slightly cordate base, obtuse to shortly acuminate apex, glabrous, glossy, bronze when young and dark green when mature turning red in cold dry weather. The flowers are 1 cm in diameter, creamywhite, fragrant and are borne 1-4 together in leafaxils having a 4-lobed tubular calyx, 7-11 mm long white petals and 50-60 stamens. The fruit is a pendulous berry, depressed globose in outline, 1-4 cm in diameter, 7-8 ribbed, greenish when young and turning orange and then bright red to blackish on maturity. The skin is thin and the flesh is orange-red, juicy, acid to sweet and slightly resinous having a single large round seed. The fruit may occasionally contain 2-3 small and flattened seeds (mPGR, 1986; Morton, 1987; Briicher, 1989; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Germplasm of Surinam cherry has been preserved at Empresa Pernambucana de Pesquisa Agropecuaria, Pernambuco, Brazil (41 accessions) and
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National Clonal Germplasm Repository, USDA Agriculture Research Station, Hilo, Hawaii, USA (2 accesions) (Bettencourt et ai., 1992).
Fig. 132 : Eugenia uniflora L., Surinam cherry, 1. Flowering and fruiting branch; 2. Fruit (Verheij and Coronel, 1991)
Varieties Two distinct forms of Surinam cherry are recognized, one with bright cherry red fruits and red tinged leaves and the other with deep crimson to almost black fruits and black tinted leaves. Seedlings have variable fruit size and quality. The black-fruited type is rare and tends to be sweeter and less resinous (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Culture It is usually propagated from the seeds. The seeds remain viable for about one month and take 3-4 weeks to germinate. It can also be propagated by layering or grafting. The plants are spaced 3-4 m apart or planted in hedgerows at spacing of 5 x 1-2 m. For maximum yield, the shrubs should not be pruned. Fertilizers and water must be supplied in the drier season and weeding must be done to obtain good yields. The trees start fruiting from the third or fourth year after planting. The plants flower during March-May. Besides the main crop in a year, the trees may bear a subsidiary crop. The fruits mature in 3-6 weeks after flowering. The fruit should be picked when fully ripe since before that they might still be resinous. Picking is done once or twice a day. A pruned
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bush yields 2.7-3.6 kg fruit while an unpruned bush yields up to 11 kg fruit. Fruitflies, scale insects and caterpillars attack Brazil cherry. Sometimes diseases such as leaf spot, thread blight, anthracnose, twig dieback and root rot also occur (FAG, 1982; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
28. TAMARIND Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L. syn. T. occidentalis Gaertn., T. officinalis Hook.) belongs to the family Leguminosae and is native of tropical Africa (Martin et al., 1987). It grows wild throughout Sudan, Kenya, Ethiopia and Tanzania. Arabs call it tamar hindi (Indian date). The fruit was wellknown to the ancient Egyptians and the Greeks in the fourth century Be. The tree has long been naturalized in India and the Islands of Pacific and was introduced into tropical America and the West Indies (Morton, 1987). It is cultivated to some extent in India, Thailand, Mexico and Brazil (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). India is exporting tamarind to 62 countries of the world (Naidu et al., 1997). Tamarind requires hot climatic conditions and can withstand drought and some frost. Young plants are susceptible to frost but older trees are surprisingly hardy. It grows well where annual precipitation is less than 4000 mm and monthly mean temperature does not drop below 21°e. In tropical humid conditions where rainfall occurs evenly round the year, the tree does not bear and fails to grow unless the soil is well drained. It sets little fruit under subtropical conditions of north India. It can grow on a great variety of soil types from deep alluvial to rocky, sandy and alkaline. It also thrives in sodic, saline, ravinous and degraded lands. It withstands salt spray and can be planted fairly close to the seashore (FAG, 1982; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Hocking, 1993; Gunasena and Hughes, 2000). Every part of the tree is used. Leaves, flowers and immature pods are used as vegetable. Fruit pulp is used in juice, paste, chutneys, candies, sauce, sherbets and pickle. It is also used for flavouring foods and sauces. The ripe pulp is rich in calcium, phosphorus, vitamin B, riboflavin, niacin and thiamine. The pulp of tamarind has been used as a source of tartaric acid (6-18%) and alcohol and pectin. Seeds are rich source of pectin. Kernel powder is used in textile and jute industry for sizing and as filling for adhesive in plywood industry. Colours extracted from the leaves are used in textile dyeing. Its wood is used to make toys and in shipping industry. The wood is highly prized being heavy, durable and insect proof. Seeds are a source of food in famine days. Tamarind is an important shade and avenue tree. Tamarind preparations are refrigerant in fevers and are laxative and carminative. Its pulp is digestive when eaten alone or in combination with lime juice, honey, milk, dates, spices or camphor and is used as a remedy for biliousness and bile disorders and as an antiscorbutic. The pulp is also applied to inflammations, used as gargle for sore throat and taken mixed with salt as a liniment in rheumatism. It is also given to alleviate sunstroke. The leaves and flowers, dried or boiled, are used as poultices for swollen joints, sprains and boils. Lotion and extract made from them are used in conjuctivitis and as antiseptic and vermifuge for the treatment of dysentery, jaundice, erysipelas and haemorrhoids and various other ailments. The powdered seeds are applied as paste for drawing boils. An infusion of the roots is believed to have curative value in chest complaints and is an ingredient of the prescriptions for leprosy (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
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The edible portion of ripe pod contains 63.3-68.6% moisture, 1.6-3.1 % protein,0.270.69% fat, 22.0-30.4% total sugars, 0.1-0.8% sucrose, 2.0-3.4% cellulose and 1.2-1.6% ash (Shankaracharya, 1997). Morton (1987) reported that ripe pulp provides 11.5 calories and contains 28.2-52 g moisture, 3.10 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 5.6 g fibre, 67.4 g carbohydrates, 35-170 mg calcium, 54-110 mg phosphorus, 1.3-10.9 mg iron, 15 IU vitamin A, 0.16 mg thiamine, 0.07 mg riboflavin, 0.6-0.7 mg niacin and 0.7-3.0 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible portion (Morton, 1987).
Botany The tamarind is a handsome long-lived evergreen tree of 12 m height, 12 m spread and 7 m trunk circumference. It is slow growing and wind resistant having strong and supple gracefully drooping branches and dark grey and fissured bark. The leaves are alternate, even pinnate, 8-15 cm in length, each having 10 to 20 pairs of oblong leaflets, 1232 x 3-11 mm in size, which fold at night. Inconspicuous, 2 em wide flowers are borne in small recemes that have 5 petals of which two are reduced to bristles and are yellow with orange or red streaks. The flower buds are distinctly pink due to the outer colour of the 4 sepals that shed when the flower opens. Flowers are entomophilous, protogynous and selfincompatible, 2-2.5 cm in diameter, zygomorphic, hypogynous with four sepals and three petals, 3 stamens and superior ovary with 18 ovules. The fruits are flattish and bean-like irregularly curved pods borne in great abundance and are usually 5-18 cm in length and 2 to 4 cm in diameter. The pods are cinnamon brown or greyish brown externally. At first, the pods are green having highly acidic flesh and soft whitish underdeveloped seeds. As they mature, these get filled with somewhat juicy, acidulous and brown or reddish brown pulp. The skin becomes brittle and gets easily cracked and the pulp dehydrates naturally to a sticky paste endosed by a few coarse strands of fibres extending lengthwise from the stem. The shiny, red brown seeds are hard, flat, and roughly square and 1.25 x 0.4 cm in size. The pods are indehiscent and remain on the tree for a year if left unpicked. The pods produced on a tree vary greatly in size and shape and contain from 1 to 10 seeds (FAa, 1982; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Varieties Three varieties of tamarind have been identified on the basis of fruit characterstics. Thailand varieties have shorter pods and sweet pulp. The pods of West Indian type (T. occidentalis) are three times longer than wide and contain 1-4 seeds. The pods of East Indian type (T. indica) are shorter, up to six times or more longer than wide and contain 6-12 seeds. The greatest diversity of tamarind types is found in the African savannas. It has tolerance to drought, wind, poor soils and waterlogging. There are several cultivars that differ mainly in colour and sweetness of the flesh. In Thailand, named cultivars of sweet type (Makahm Wahn) are grown in orchards, e.g. Nuen Chon& Nazi Zad and Sichompoo. Manila Sweet is a cultivar of the Philippines. The other important cultivars in Philippines are Cavite, Batangas, Bulcan and Laguna. Cultivar PKM 1 has been released by TNAU, Periyakulam. It exhibits precosity and regular bearing giving good quality fruit (Azhakiamanavalan and Vadivel, 1997). In India, several superior selections such as T-3, T-6, T-9, T-lO, T-l1, T-12, T-13, Urigam and Cumbum have been made. Other promising types are Pratisthan and Yogeshwar. Hanamashetty and Sulikeri (1997) have made some promising selections of tamarind in Dharwar (Karnataka) in India.
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Tamarind is a highly cross-pollinated crop and variation in seedling types is anticipated. A large genetic diversity occurs in nature from which superior types can be selected. Types that produce exceptionally large well-filled, sweet and red-fleshed fruits should be selected from the extensive variability. Germplasm collections of tamarind have been maintained at ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (4 species), RRS, Aruppukottai (16 accessions) and Institute of Plant Breeding, Los Banos, Philippines (46 accessions) (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Arora and Ramnatha Rao, 1995). A germplasm reserve of 24 cultivars is being maintained at various field gene banks in India (Anon., 1998).
Fig. 133 : Tamarindus indica L., Tamarind, A. Cluster of mature fruits; B. Vertical section of fruit; C. Seeds; D. Flower; E. Pistil and stigma; F. Corolla tube (Gunasena and Hughes, 2000)
Culture Tamarind is generally propagated from the seeds. The seeds remain viable for six months. Seeds are generally sown during March-April. Vegetative propagation methods such as cutting, shield and patch budding, side veneer grafting, cleft grafting and air layering are also successful. Patch budding is done during July-August. Mature shoots are air-layered with the aid of 2500ppm rnA (indole butyric acid) during June to August (Nachegowda, 1997). In situ softwood grafting on new growth of one year old seedling rootstocks with activated scion shoot during the summer season has been found highly successful. Planting is done initially at a spacing of 5 x 5 or 13 x 13 m. Young trees need protection from occasional freezing weather. A full bearing tree should receive 2-3 kg of NPK complete fertilizer each
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year, the formula depending upon the nutritional status of the tree. The trees may live for 200 years. Grafted trees start bearing within 3-4 years after planting. Flowering in north India occurs in April-June and the fruits ripen in November-December. More information should be generated on tree phenology, floral biology, husbandry and genetic diversity (Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Gunasena and Hughes, 2000). Fruit takes 300-360 days to mature. The pods are allowed to ripen on the tree. The outer shells are removed manually using wooden stick. The pulp is separated from the seeds and fibres and dried in sun to reduce its moisture level. The pod has 55% pulp, 34% seeds and 11% shell and fibres. A well-developed tree can yield about 200-300 kg pods or 12-16 t/ha fruit. Tamarind fruit can be stored at 7.2°C and 90-95% RH for 21-28 days (Sealand, 1991). In the Philippines, the fruits of sour types are harvested at green stage for flavouring and at full ripe stage for processing. The fruits of sweet cultivars are also harvested at two stages, viz. half-ripe or malasebo stage and at ripe stage. At the half ripe stage, the skin easily peels off and the pulp is yellowish green and has the consistency of an apple. At the ripe stage, the pulp shrinks because of loss of moisture and changes to reddish brown and becomes sticky. If the whole pod is to be marketed, the fruit should be harvested by clipping to avoid damage to the pods. Eventually the pods abscise naturally. CFTRI, Mysore has developed processes for the manufacture of juice concentrate and pulp powder. The trees are somewhat resistant to insect pests. However, in some seasons, fruit borers cause serious damage to the maturing fruit. Mealy bug (Planococcus lilacinus) is the main pest of tamarind in India causing leaf fall and sometimes shedding of young fruits. Scale insect (Aonidiella tamarindi) also sucks the sap of buds and flowers and reduces production. The major diseases that infect tamarind are leaf spot, powdery mildew, stem rot and collar rot.
29. WATER APPLE The water apple or watery rose apple or bellfruit (Syzygium aqueum Burm. f. (Alston) syn. Eugenia aqueum (Burm. f.) Alston) is native to South East Asia and belongs to the family Myrtaceae (Martin et al., 1987). It is grown mainly in South East Asia (Malaysia, Borneo and Pacific Islands). It is found in south India, Assam, Sikkim and Meghalaya. It has limited potential in South East Asia (Martin et al., 1987). The water apple makes good growth and gives the best fruiting under wet tropical climatic conditions up to 1200 m elevations but cannot tolerate temperatures below freezing. Water apple does the best in areas with fairly long dry season. The trees prefer light or heavy well-drained and mild acid soils (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). The fruits are eaten fresh as a dessert or in salads. They are juicy and are good thirst quenchers. Ripe fruits may also be used in syrup and beverage or can be pickled. In Malaysia, water apple salad is served in the ceremony after childbirth. Indonesians use water apple leaves to wrap snacks of fermented rice (Page, 1984; Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Botany The tree grows up to 3-10 m in height and develops a short and crooked trunk, which is 30-50 cm in diameter and often branched near the base making an irregular canopy.
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The leaves are opposite, elliptic cordate to obovate oblong, glossy, dark green, 7-25 x 2.5-16 cm in size having 0.5-1.5 mm long petioles. Inflorescences are terminal as well as axillary and 3-7 flowered. The flower is 2.5-3.5 cm in diameter having 5-7 mm long calyx tube, 4 spathulate petals which are up to 7 mm long and yellow white, numerous, 0.75-2 cm long stamens and 17 mm long style. The fruit is a turbinate berry, pyriform in shape, 1.5-2 x 2.53.5 mm in size, crowned by the fleshy calyx segment and is white to red and glossy. The flesh is very juicy and watery having 1-2, rounded and small seeds (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Water apple contains 90 g water, 0.3 g protein, 3.9 g carbohydrates, 1.0 g fibre and 253 IU vitamin A and provides 19 calories per 100 g pulp (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Fig. 134 : Syzygium aqueum (Burm. F.) Alston (IBPGR, 1980)
Varieties There are two forms of watery rose apple, one has red and the other bears white fruits. Seedless cultivars are preferred. Sweet and sour types are found of which sweet ones are preferred (Morton, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
Culture It is propagated from the seeds or by marcottage and air layering. Seeds lose viability quickly and should be sown fresh from the fruit. Modified forkert budding during rainy season is successful. The trees are planted at 6-8 m spacing. Ample organic matter and inorganic fertilizers should be added at planting time. The tree produces fruits even when
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289
quite small and gives two crops in a year. Timely weeding should be done. The seedling trees start fruiting after 7-8 years and after 3-4 years when raised from layers. In Florida, flowering occurs during May-July and the fruit matures after 30-40 days. The trees flower twice a year in July and September giving fruits during August and November respectively. The fruits have thin and delicate skin and need to be picked by hand and should be consumed or preserved within a few days after harvest. The tree is often attacked by leaf eating insects, which can be controlled by insecticidal sprays (Morton, 1987; Martin et ai., 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
30. WEST AFRICAN EBONY West African ebony (Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A. DC) belongs to the family Ebenaceae and is native of tropical Africa. It is also known as African ebony or swamp ebony (Martin et ai., 1987). It has widespread distribution in tropical Africa, south of the Sahara, from Senegal to Sudan and down to southern Africa. West African ebony has local importance and holds little potential for expansion (Martin et ai., 1987). It requires hot tropical lowlands receiving low to medium rainfall. It grows well in areas with mean annual minimum and maximum temperatures of 16° and 2~C respectively. It grows the best on heavy soils but can also grow on sandy, rocky sands with clay or alluvium, loamy or volcanic soils (FAO, 1988). Fruits are eaten fresh or dried or also made into wine. The wood is fine-grained and termite resistant and is used for making railway sleepers, tool handles, furniture, implements, etc. Bark infusion gives a dark blue dye for cloth (FAO, 1983; Martin et ai., 1987; FAO,1988). West African ebony fruit contains 69.0 g water, 1.1 g protein, 0.4 g fat, 22.0 g carbohydrates, 6.2 g fibre, 96.0 mg calcium, 27.8 mg phosphorus, 1.03 mg iron 0.01 mg thiamine, 0.04 mg riboflavin, 0.24 mg niacin and 24.6 mg ascorbic acid and provides 96.5 calories per 100 g of pulp (Wickens, 1998). Botany West African ebony is an evergreen or semi evergreen tree growing up to 20 m in height having greyish black bark. Leaves are simple, alternate and oblong to elliptic in shape, leathery with dull shine, 4-17 x 1.5-5.5 cm in size. The tree is dioecious and thus male and female flowers are borne on different trees. The flower is pentamerous, white, hairy and fragrant. Male flowers are borne in clusters whereas female flowers are solitary, shortly pedicellate and axillary. Fruit is round, 3 cm in diameter, greenish and hairy when young, yellow or purplish and smooth on ripening and contains 4-6 dark brown seeds (FAO, 1983; FAO,1988). Varieties No standard variety is available. Culture It is generally propagated from the seeds or from coppices and root suckers. Seeds require high moisture for germination. Information is scanty on agronomic requirements for
290
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
West African ebony. The plants start flowering during April-May and the fruit matures during October to February. Fruit development reqaires 6-8 months from fertilization to ripening. The fruit maturity period is-shorter in warm areas than in humid conditions. Ripe fruits are usually collected from the ground but may also be picked from the tree. Fruits can be kept for a long time if dried. No insect pests are known to infest the crop (FAO, 1983; FAO, 1988).
Fig. 135 : Diospyros mespili/ormis, West African ebony, (FAD, 1988)
31. WILD CUSTARD APPLE Wild custard apple (Annona senegalensis Auct. non Pers., syn. A. chrysophylla Boj.) belongs to the family Annonaceae and is native of East and West Africa (Martin et al., 1987; Pinto et al., 2005). It is also known as abo or wild soursop. This species is widespread throughout the sub-Sahelian tropical Africa from the Cape Verde Islands and the Nile and upper Guinea to the Transvaal and Zulu land (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987). The fruit has local importance at present (Martin et al., 1987). A related species A. stenophylla Engles and Diels occurs in Botswana, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Malawi and is used as a seasonal staple food (FAO, 1983). The distribution of wild custard apple is limited to the hot tropical area up to an elevation of 1500 m and thrives the best wherever its roots can reach water. The wild custard apple is found in the areas having temperatures ranging from 15 to 30°e. It grows on a wide range of soils and can tolerate waterlogging. It is well adapted to poor soils in less
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
291
moist areas C\IlQ remains leafless for several months in the dry season (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; FA'O, 1988). _ The fruit pulp has an apricot flavour and is edible. It is one of the best .fruits of tropical Africa. Unopened flower buds are used in soups and to season native dishes. The leaves are also eaten. The dried fruits are applied on Guinea worm sores. The parched green fruits are taken to relieve diarrhoea and dysentery. A tea of the young leaf twigs or of the roots is taken to alleviate pulmonary complaint.s. An infusion of the leaves is a popular eye lotion. Dried and powdered leaves are regarded as purgative and a remedy for mucous diarrhoea. The bark is chewed to relieve stomachache. It is an emetic and a vermifuge and is given to overcome convulsions in children. The root bark is considered an antidote for snakebite and is used in Nigeria as a cancer remedy. Fresh leaves are used as fodder for animals. The bark yields a yellow or brown dye. It is pounded in water and the extract is used for hairdressing. The wood is used for poles and tool handles (FAO, 1983; von Maydell, 1986; Morton, 1987; FAO, 1988).
Botany It is a deciduous sprawling shrub or tree of 6-11 m height having smooth silvery bark. The leaves are aromatic, simple, alternate, blue green, broad elliptic or broad ovate, 7.5-17.5 x 4-10 cm in size, blue green above and downy and prominently veined beneath. The flowers are borne singly or in pairs in leafaxils on 2.5-4 cm long stalks, clasped by a 3parted calyx and have 3 triangular, thick, waxy, velvety and whitish outer petals, 3 pale yellow inner petals and numerous stamens. The fruit is rounded oval, 2.5 to 10 cm long, fleshy, yellow or orange when ripe and seedy (FAO, 1983; Morton, 1987; FAO, 1988).
o
, a &;
c'
Fig. 136 : Annona senegaiensis L. (ICUC, Pinto et ai., 2005)
292
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Varieties The most common botanical variety in Ghana is deltoides. It has elliptic to oblong elliptic leaves, which are rounded to broadly deltoid at the base. Variety Porpetac of Ugcmda has oblong elliptic, oval-elliptic or elliptic leaves which are rounded obtuse or broadly cuneate at the base. In a dwarf form, the fruits are borne so low that they touch the ground and are of better quality than those of taller types (Morton, 1987; Pinto et al., 2005).
Culture It is propagated by seeds or through root suckers. The seeds should be scarified in order to improve germination. The plants should be spaced 5 m in the field. Compound NPK fertilizer and Mg at rates of up to 100 g/ tree should be applied every 3 months. Cultural practices for wild custard apple should be standardized. The plants flower during FebruaryApril and the fruits mature in 120 days. On ripening, the fruit turns yellow in colour. Ripe fruits should be harvested. Average fruit yield per tree ranges from 20 to 30 fruits, each weighing about 25 g. Green mature fruits are also collected and stored for few days to ripen. No pest or disease has been reported to infest the wild custard apple (FAO, 1983; Martin et al., 1987; FAO, 1988; Herzog et al., 1996).
DOD
/ DI
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS TROPICAL SEMI ARID REGION
~--~~~~~~-=~----~--
Fruiting in wild custard apple (Annona senegaiensis)
Fruiting in Surinam cherry (Eugenia uniflora)
Fruit clusters of Indian almond
Fruiting in Spanish lime
African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa)
Fruiting in monkey jack
Fruiting in kei apple
Pequi fruits
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS TROPICAL SEMI-ARID REGIO N
,...=t1_ .------..
Fruits of manila tamarind
Fruiting branches of masuku (Uapaca kirkiana)
Palmyra palm in fruiting
Fruits of shea nuts
Fruits of strawberry pear
Fruiting in sugar apple
Fruit clusters on tamarind tree
Fruit clusters of water apple
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS TROPICAL SEMI-ARID REGION ~r-~~7A~~~.r~~
Fruits and leaf of amra
Fruiting in avocado and cut fruit (inset)
Fruiting in Barbados cherry
Fruiting chironji tree and fruits (inset)
Fruiting in drumstick
Fruits of hissing tree (Parinari curatellifolia)
Fruiting branch of khimi
Fruiting in mamey sapote (Pouteria sapota)
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS TROPICAL ARID REGION
Drum palm (Hyphaene thebaica)
Argan tree in fruiting
Fruiting in baobab
Fruiting in black plum (Vitex doniana)
Fruiting in kaffir orange (monkey ball)
Fruiting in marula nut
Fruiting branch of mogongo nut and nuts (inset)
Fruits of African dove plum
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL ARID REGION
1. AFRICAN DOVE PLUM African dove plum or Abyssinian gooseberry (Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb.), also known as African gooseberry or koshum, belongs to the family Flacourtiaceae. It is a native of Ethiopi~ and Kenya where it is most common in the forests. ' The tree is adapted to hot dry tropical climate and is tolerant to high rainfall conditions. Although it grows in wide range of soil conditions, but makes poor growth on, calcareous soils. Its natural hybrid, Florida gooseberry (D. abtjssinica x D. hebecarpa) has adaptability to wider range of soil and climatic conditions, but its fruits are more acidic (Morton, 1987; FAO, 1988). African dove plum has little potential for wider cultivation (Martin et ai., 1 9 8 7 ) . ' , The fruit is eaten fresh, stewed and preserved. Ripe fruit is used to make a very agreeable jelly and fruit punch. The shrub can be used as a hedge plant (Morton, 1987; FAO,1988). '
Botany It is an evergreen dioecious thorny shrub or tree, which grows up to 10 m in height.. It is not spiny as the kei apple. Leaves are alternate, medium green, ovate, 5-7.5 em in length,
light green, glossy and wavy. Flowers are unisexual, greenish-yellow, small and are borne axillary. Flowers have somewhat fleshy petals. Male flowers are covered with short soft
298
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
hair and have dirty white stamens clustered in leafaxils. The female flowers are borne solitary. The fruit is ovoid, 2.5 cm in diameter, apricot or light orange in colour when ripe with yellow pulp and contains several small seeds (Martin et al., 1987; Morton, 1987; FAO, 1985).
Fig. 137: Dovyal!s
abys~inica,
(FAO, 1988)
Culture Plants can be raised either by seeds or cuttings. The plants are spaced 8 to 12 m apart while planting. Pruning is done in older plants to remove the overgrown branches and those touching the ground. Irrigation is given during fruit development. Fruit production starts at 5-6 years of age in seedlings and in 2-3 year old vegetatively propagated plants. Flowering occurs in February-May and the fruit is harvested in June. Fruits are harvested when they attain full size but are still firm. The fruits have poor keeping quality. Incidence of West Indian scale has been reported in Kenya, which can be controlled by release of predators, Aphytis roseni and Habrolepis rouxi (Morton, 1987; FAO, 1988).
2. ARGAN TREE The argan tree (Arganiaspinosa (L.) Skeels syn. A. sideroxylon Roem. and Schultes, Sideroxylon spinositm L.) belongs to the family Sapotaceae and is native of southwestern Morocco where it grows wild. It is also known as arga, argania, Morocco ironwood or arganier. The argan has been introduced into other Mediterranean countries, Australia, South Africa, Haiti ,and Miami, USA (Morton and Voss, 1987; Bouachrine, 1994). Argan tree requires hot arid and semi-arid climatic conditions and can be successfully grown in regions receiving 250-600 mm annual rainfall. The tree is drought .
.
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL
ARID
REGION
299
hardy and is resistant to fire but sensitive to frost injury. Under prolonged drought conditions, it sheds its leaves and remains dormant for several years (Baumer, 1983; Morton and Voss, 1987; Bouachrine, 1994). It can grow well in light sandy to medium loam soils having good drainage. It can be grown on calcareous as well as acidic and shallow soils (50 em depth) but not on drifting sands and waterlogged soils. It can grow from sea level to 1500 m altitudes. Argan tree seed contains about 80 per cent unsaturated fatty acid of which 31.5 per cent is linoleic acid making it outstanding from nutritional standpoint. The seeds yield yellow edible oil. The oil is highly appreciated in Morocco, where it commands a price as high as that of olive oil. The unsaturated fatty acid fraction of argan oil is comparable to that of olive oil but has higher linoleic acid and lower oleic acid content (Fannes et al., 1984).. The oil contains four sterols, two methyl sterols and five triterpenic alcohols having ~xcellent frying and organoleptic qualities. The presence of tocopherols ilJ appreciable quantity provides the oil high degree of resistance to oxidation. Argan tree oil can be mixed with· almond paste and honey to prepare delicious almond butter or kneaded with grilled wheat germ and honey to make a breakfast gruel called 'samatar'. The strong flavoured edible oil may also be used for making soap. The oil is a remedy in Berber medicine for treating stomach and intestinal ailments. The young seedlings are good forage for goats and other herbivores. The wood is yellow, very hard, heavy and durable and is used for making ploughs, implements and various utensils. The tree is considered suitable for soil conservation (Morton and Voss, 1987; Bouachrine, 1994). The argan tree oil contains 45.2-46.9 per cent oleic acid, 31.8-34.6 per cent linoleic acid, 13.5-13.9 per cent palmitic acid and 5.6 - 5.7 per cent stearic acid.
Botany It is a thorny multi-stemmed evergreen tree or shrub growing up to 4.5 to 9 m in height. The rough bark is grooved longitudinally and transversely. Although the tree is evergreen but sheds leaves during dry season. Leaves are simple, alternate, clustered, brightgreen when young and dark green on both ~urfaces when mature, conspicuously veiny, oblong-spatulate to oblanceolate, 2-2.5 x 0.8 cm in size, leathery, hairless and sessile or nearly so. Flowers are bisexual, greenish,S mm wide, each subtended by two bracts. The corolla is bell-shaped and deeply five lobed. The five hairy sepals are slightly connate at the base. The five slightly protruding stamens alternate with the five staminodes, which are sometimes fertile. ,The superior and hairy ovary is surmounted by a single style as long or longer than the stamens. Argan flowers are partially dichogamous and cross pollination improves fruit set (Nerd et al., 1998). The olive sized fruit is round or ovoid to conical and turns bright yellow on ripening. The thick, acrid, bitter, gummy, unpleasant peel (epicarp) contains a layer of pulp (meso carp) having milky latex. There may be 1-3 seeds, often only one, as the others abort. The seeds are oval-brown, smooth and 2 cm long. The testa is composed of thick sclerified cells. The very brittle, oil rich white kernel is surrounded by a very thin, tangled network of loose, woody vascular Wrinkles imprinted on its outer surface. The seeds are polyembryonic (Baumer, 1983; !Morton and Voss, 1987; Bouachrine, 1994). .
Culture The plant is propagated through se~d, cuttings and air l~yering. The, seeds are polyembryonic. Scarification of seeds is done by hydrochloric acid for good germination.
300
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Argan trees begin to bear fruits when five years old. Maximum production reaches at 60 years age. Flowers generally appear in spring. There may be a second bloom during the fall extending the fruit bearing period from May to October. Fruits ripened nine months after anthesis exhibit bisigmoidal growth curve (Nerd et al., 1998). The average fruit yield is 8 kg per tree. For harvesting, the fruits are shaken down from the trees and are gathered in September. These are dried in sun, which gives 50 per cen~ recovery. The husks (dried skin and pulp) are fed to cattle. The hard shells of the seeds are difficult to crack. The nuts are cracked by hand using anvil. The oil extracted on first pressing of the seed kernels is edible while that on second pressing is used for cooking. Traditionally, for oil extraction, the seeds are firs.t roasted, and then ground manually to paste. Tepid water is added to the mixture and the oil that floats to the surface is decanted off. Modem methods of oil extraction use small oil presses. On an average, 100 kg seeds yield 1 to 2 kg oil, 2 kg press cake and 25 kg dry husk. No' serious insect pests or diseases are known to cause damage to the argan tree (Morton and Voss,1987).
.
i
.
,. Fig. 138 : Argania spinosa. 1. Fruiting branch; 2. Fruit. (FAO, Wickens, 1995).
3. BAOBAB Baobab or monkey bread (Adansonia digitata L.) belongs to the family Bombacaceae and is also known as baobab tree or cream of tartar tree. It is native of tropical Africa and is distributed in Australia, Oceania including Papua New Guinea and eastern, southern and tropical West Africa (Martin et al., 1987). The genus Adansonia contains eight species, six endemic to Madagascar, one to mainland Africa and one to northwestern Australia (Sidibe and Williams, 2002). In South East Asia, it is cultivated in Java and the Philippines. The seafaring traders intr:oduced it into India.
'"
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL ARID REGION
301
Baobab tree requires dry tropical climatic conditions for good growth and fruiting. The plant is drought hardy and fire resistant (Sidibe and Williams, 2002) but is susceptible to frost (FAO, 1982; Duke, 1989). Light sandy to medium loam and well-drained soils with acid to neutral pH is found to be the best. It does not do well on heavy clays. The tree can tolerate seasonal waterlogging and soil compaction. The fruit pulp is farinaceous, dry and acidic and possesses lemon flavour. The pulp is regarded as cream of tartar and is an important source of vitamin C (175-445 mg/lOO g) (Sidibe et al., 1996). The dried pulp is a rich source of calcium and vitamin Bl and B2 . The pulp is also used as a food seasoner and an appetizer. A refrigerant drink is made from the . pulp after boiling in water and is given as diphoretic in fever, diarrhoea and dysentery. The dry pulp administered with water gives considerable relief in chronic dysentery and to promote perspiration. Seeds are eaten as nuts, either roasted or soaked and fermented and taste like almonds. Seed yields oi! that is used in cooking. The seeds are used as febrifuge and to treat dysentery. Leaves are rich source of vitamin A. Shade dried small leaves from young trees contain 27.2 mg/ g retinol equivalent (Sidibe et al., 1998). The young leaves are edible a)ld are used in soup and as mucilaginous condiment and seasoner in inflammatory conditions, in insect bites and guinea worm sores. The young shoot and stem bark is eaten in Senegal. Its soft wood is suitable for match industry. Bark is used for cordage and cloth making. It is grown as an avenue and ornamental tree (FAO, 1982; Duke, 1989, Peters et al., 1992; Sidibe and Williams, 2002). ,/ Per 100 g of fruit pulp on dry weight contains 8.7 g moisture, 2.7 g protein, 0.2 g fat, 73.7 g carbohydrates, 8.9 g fibre, 335 mg calcium, 167 mg magnesium, 2.65 mg iron, 0.62 g vitamin B1, 0.14 g vitamin B2' 209 mg vitamin C and provides 1792 kcalories. On fresh weight basis, the kernel contains 8.10% moisture, 33.7% protein, 30.6% fat, 4.6% carbohydrates, 16.9% fibre, 273 mg/1oo g calcium, 640 mg/lOO g magnesium, 1275 mg/100 g potassium and provides 1803 kcal /l00 g (Sidibe and Williams, 2002).
Botany Baobab is an erect, medium sized, thornless, long-lived and deciduous tree and grows up to 20 or 25 m in height and 2-7 m in girth with a relatively short, swollen trunk and spreading branches. Bark is smooth and greyish, often with purplish tinge. The shape of trunk can be cylindrical, bottle shaped, gnarled or tapering. Leaves are digitately 5-7 foliate. Leaflets are three in young plants and five or seven in older plants, which are 5x12.5 cm in size and obovate oblong or lanceolate in shape, dark green above and sparsely pubescent on the lower surface. Flowers are hermaphrodite, solitary, and 15 cm in diameter and are borne in long axillary peduncles. Flowers are deeply lobed, leathery and silky hairy with 5 narrow petals, many white stamens with purple dot like anthers spreading 5 cm across from a 4 cm high tube. Pistil has a bristly stigma and 7-10 celled ovary with slender style. Fruit is a pod; globose, ovoid or oblong-cylindrical in shape, 20-30 x 10 cm in size, woody, grey with soft yellowish felt outside and having farinaceous, whitish or yellowish and sometimes pink tinged pulp. Seeds are reniform, shining brown or blackish with thick testa (FAO, 1982; Duke, 1989; Sidibe and Williams, 2002).
Culture It is propagated from the seeds and by budding. The seeds retain their viability for a long time, probably for several years. Before sowing, the seeds require pretreatment by
302
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
immersion in boiling water. One to two years old seedlings grown in a well-watered nursery may be transplanted in the field during August-September. Young plant requires adequate soil moisture to establish properly. The trees have been observed to start prodUcing fruits after 8 years in West Africa and after 23 years in Zimbabwe. One reason for the variation seems to be climatic differences. The flowering time appears to differ due to climatic differences. The baobab trees flower during May-June in western Africa. The flowers open during the night and are pollinated by the bats. After a short spell of flowering, the tree gets laden with fruits. In the initial years, plants should be protected from grazing by cattle and damage by rodents (FAO, 1982; Duke, 1989). In general, the fruits abscise in late rainy season but may persist on the tree for several months. Ripe pods, however, can be stored unopened or uncracked for a number of months without refrigeration in humid climates (Sidibe and Williams, 2002).
.. ~~~~'"' " ! " ;
"-'"
...... -:.---....:..... .... ~
Fig. 139 : Baobab. Palmate leaf and stem showing clamped. hairs. Flowere showing the flower bud and calyx, and the fruit showing the mealy pulp inside the hard outer shell. (ICUC, Sidibe and Williams, 2002)
4. BLACK PLUM The black plum (Vitex doniana Sweet syn. V. cuneata K. .Schum. et Thonn., V. cienkowskii Kotschy et Perr.) belongs to family Verbenaceae and is native of Africa. It is also known as African oak, prune noire and koro. It is distributed in Sahelian, eastern and tropical Africa (Martin et al., 1987). The related edible species are taruma (V. triflora Vahl.), found growing in subtropical part of Brazil and Paraguay, V. flexuosa Thunb., distributed in Japan, China, Indonesia and Philippines and V. pentagona Diels. and Gilg., found growing in China and Indo-China. Fruit is widely used in native area and has little potential for cultivation elsewhere (Martin et al., 1987).
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR 1HE TROPICAL ARID REGION
303
It requires hot tropical climatic conditions and is found growing in savanna deciduous forests having low to medium rainfall. It adapts well in light sandy to medium loam, well-drained soils with acid and neutral pH. '. The pulp of fruit is eaten fresh or is candied with other fruits. The leaves of new flush are used as vegetable or for making sauce,and in medicines to treat dysentery. Its wood is used for light woodwork and for building small boats. Ink is made from different parts of plant. Dye is also made from bark and roots for fabrics (von Maydell, 1989; Martin et al., 1987; FAO, 1988). " -
Botany It is a small or medium, 'semi-deciduous tree of 10-12 m height with stout, obscurely pubescent branches. Leaves are opposite, 4-foliate, subcoriaceous and glabrous on both sides. Leaflets are obovate-cuneate, entire, obtuse and shortly stalked. The white to yellow flowers are borne axillary on compound cymes. Calyx is' campanulate, densely villose with minute teeth. Corolla is 2-3 times the length of calyx and very hairy outside. Fruit is a smooth, globose, 2 em long, black drupe with hard, 4-celled endocarp. The flavour is sweet and resembles . that of prune. Seeds are obovate and oblong (FAO, 1988).
Fig. 140 : Vitex doniana Sweet. a. Leaf; b. branchlet with leaves removed, bearing young inflorescence, c. Cluster of young fruits; d. Mature fruit; e. Part of skin removed to show fruit pulp; f. S~ed. (FAD, 1983)
Culture It is propagated from seeds or by cutting, budding and root suckers. Germination of seed is poor, erratic and slow due to parthenocarpy. Freshly sown seeds may take over 3 months to germinate. Vegetative propagation is preferred. It takes about 5-10 years to start bearing fruits. Fruit takes 8-10 months to reach maturity. Fruit ripens from April to August in Zambia, from January to April in Tanzania and from December to June in the Sahel. No insect pests are known to attack the crop (FAO, 1988).
304
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
5. DOUM PALM Doum pahn (Hyphaene thebaica (L.) Mart.) of the family Pahnae is native of northern and western Africa. It is also known as ginger bread pahn and is found growing in dense stands along the rivers in hot and dry valleys of tropical Africa, in the Middle East and in western India. It is very common in the coastal regions of East Africa and Eritrea. The related edible species are H. coriacea Gaertn., H. compressa Wendl. and H. petersiana Mart. These species are found growing in East Africa (FAO, 1988). It requires dry tropical or subtropical climatic conditions and rich sandy loam soils. It can grow very well in desert and semi-desert conditions up to 600 m altitudes Q"ohnson, 1997). Its growth, flowering and fruiting are luxuriant in moist places. The fruits remain small in dry places. It can tolerate saline soil~ and prefers soils of pH 6.5-7.6 (FAO, 1988; Duke, 1989). Unripe kernels are edible and are rich in protein and oil. The rind of the fruit is dry and sweet, which is edible in some types and inedible in others. Although the fruits (mesocarp) are fibrous and tough, but have a pleasant flavour suggestive of carob or ginger bread. Sap is obtained by tapping the growing point of the pahn. The leaves (fronds) are used to make mats, hats, thatches, baskets, fans, bowls and ropes. Resin from the trees is diphoretic and diuretic and is reconuriended for the treatment against tapeworm and bites of poisonous animals (FAO, 1988; Duke, 1989; Peters et al., 1992).
Botany The pahn is pleonanthic, 10 m tall and dichotomously branched, 1 or 2 or more times. The leaves are large, flabellate with linear lanceolate lobes and numerous upwardcurved hooks on the petioles. The pahn is monoecious. Pointed bracts surround the male spadices. Branches of female spadix are stouter. Flowers are small and whitish. Fruits are yellowish-brown, globose, 5 x 5 cm in size with a strong fibre surrounding the hard seeds (FAO, 1988; Duke, 1989).
Fig. 141 : Hyphaene thebaica, Doum palm (FAO, 1988)
UNDERUTILIZEO FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL ARID REGION
305
Culture It is generally propagated through seeds or offshoots. The palm starts bearing fruits 6-8 years after planting. The fruits take 8-12 months to ripen (FAO, 1988; Duke, 1989). Proper management of the wild stands can provide sustainable source of commercial and subsistence products in c!ry areas (Tuley, 1990). But its crop husbandry has to be developed.
6. KAFFIR ORANGE Kaffir orange (Strychnos spinosa Lam.) belongs to the family Loganiaceae and is native of Africa. It is also known as monkey ball or monkey orange or elephant orange. It is distributed throughout the drier parts of tropical Africa from Senegal and Sierra Leone, eastward throughout the southern Sahel to southern Ethiopia, and from east to South Africa (Martin et al., 1984; FAO, 1988). It has little potential for cultivation as food crop (Martin et al., 1987). The related edible species are S. innocua Del. and S. cocculoides Bak. Kaffir orange requires hot dry ~opical or subtropical savanna receiving more than 500 mm rainfall and tolerates light frosts. It can grow well in sandy soils (Martin et al., 1984; FAO, 1988).. Fruit pulp is eaten raw or cooked and made into a sweet porridge or dissolved to make a sweet drink. It is also fermented to prepare an alcoholic beverage. The seeds and rind are poisonous. The wood is used as stakes and to make boxes, house fumitur~ and tool handles (Martin et al., 1984; FAO, 1988). .
Botany Kaffir orange is a spiny semi-evergreen shrub with grey brown scaly bark growing up to height of 9 m. Branches are flexible to fairly stiff, smooth or hairy, armed with paired spines about 7 rrun long with a black tip and slightly curved backwards. Leaves are opposite, broadly ovate to round, up to 10 cm long, hairy and 3-5 nerved. Flowers are small and whitish green borne in terminal cymes. Fruit is spherical, 5-12 cm in diameter, green,light brown at maturity, sometimes prickly and has hard shell containing many seeds. The seeds are compressed, up to 2 cm in diameter and embedded in fleshy pulp (FAO, 1988).
Fig. 142 : Fruit and leaves of Strychnos cocculoides. Monkey orange. (ICUC, Mwamba, 20~6)
306
VNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Fig. 143 : Strychnos spinosa, Kaffir orange (FAO, 1988)
Varieties Two forms of S. spinosa are distinguished by the quality of fruits. The sweet form bears fruits clustered on short stalks whereas the bitter form has long fruit stalks and narrow· leaves (FAO~ 1988). .
Culture It is generally propagat~d through the seeds, coppices and root suckers. Cultural practices for kaffir orange should be developed. In Zambia, flowers appear in SeptemberNovember and the fruits ripen about a year later in December. The fruits are harvested individually with the help of knife or scissors as they are strongly attached to the tree. The fruits do not keep well (FAO, 1988).
7. MARULA NUT Marula nut (Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst. syn. S. caffra Sond.) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and is native of eastern and southern Africa (Martin et al., 1987). It is also known as kaffir plum, cat thorn and inarvala plum. It is distributed throughout the tropical Africa and Madagascar (Martin et al., 1987). S. birrea has a vast geographic range, incorporating three subspecies: caffra in south, birrea further north and in West Africa and multijoliolata, which occurs only in comparatively small areas where the ranges of the other two subspecies overlap (Hall et al., 2002). Marula nut has been introduced in USA (Florida), Israel, India, Oman and Australia. It should be developed for the production of fleshy fruits (Wickens, 1995). Kernels are valuable but are difficult to extract from the stones. It requires tropical and subtropical dry savanna conditions and grows up to 1500 m elevation. Both subsp. birrea and caffra require mean annual rainfall 500-1250 mm. It does not tolerate frost and thrives especially in hot dry regions and is rarely found in high rainfall areas. It grows the best on sandy or sandy loam soils with pH 6 (Arnold et al., 1985).
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL
ARID
REGION
307
The fruit pulp is very juicy and aromatic and is eaten fresh or processed. Good quality jam, jelly, preserve, syrup, juice and alcoholic beverages (beer, cider, wines) are prepared from it. The pulp is used to flavour arula, an alcoholic liquor. Kernels have a delicious nut like flavour and are eaten raw or dried and are ground and added to soups, stews, cakes and lean meat. These are rich in oil (53-61 %), protein, vitamins and minerals. Oil extracted from the kernels is used for cooking and as a base for cosmetics. The fruit has aphrodisiac and contraceptive qualities. The bark decoction is used to treat diarrhoea, dysentery, rheumatism and malaria and to clean the wounds. Wood is fairly soft, durable and used for making canoes, boxes and furniture. It is grown for shade and as an ornamental tree (Arnold et al., 1985; FAO, 1988; Hall et al., 2002). Per 100 g of fruits is reported to provide 361 calories and contain 6.0 g protein, 1.2 g fat, 90.4 g total carbohydrates, 6.0 g fibre, 72.3 mg calcium, 229 mg phosphorus, 1.2 mg iron, 0.36 mg thiamine, 0.60 mg riboflavin, 2.41 mg niacin and 819 mg ascorbic acid on zero moisture basis (Duke, 1989). Per 100 g of nuts on raw basis contain 4.0 g water, 28.3 g protein, 57.3 g fat, 3.7 g carbohydrates, 2.9 g fibre, 118 mg calcium, 808 mg phosphorus, 601 mg potassium, 3.81 mg sodium, 462 mg magnesium, 4.87 mg iron, 2.81 mg copper, 5.19 mg zinc, 0.72 mg niacin, 0.42 mg thiamine and 0.12 mg riboflavin and provide 2703 kJ energy (Wickens, 1995; Arnold et al., 1985).
Botany Marula J1ut is a small to large, much branched and deciduous tree, up to 20 m tall with a spread of 10 m. Bark is pale, nearly smooth and peeling in disk-shaped flakes. Leaves are alternate, imparipinnate, crowded towards the apex of the stem, up to 30 cm long with 7-13 leaflets that are petiolate, ovate to elliptic, blue green and have serrate margins in juvenile but smooth in older plants. The tree is dioecious. Male flowers are borne on terminal reddish spikes or racemes. The flower has 4, dark crimson sepals, 4 pinkish petals and 12 to 15 stamens, inserted around the fleshy and depressed disk Female flowers are long peduncled, borne singly or 2-3 together at the ends of young shoots having sub-globose, 2 to 3 locular ovary. Fruit is a fleshy, obovoid-subglobose, 3-5 cm in diameter, 2 to 3 celled and yellow drupe containing a seed in each cell and with an eye through which embryo can grow out of the shell. Seed or stone is hard, light brown, smooth, oval-shaped, 3-4 g in weight and 2.5x1.5 cm in size (Aronld et al., 1985; Kokwaro, 1986; Hall et al., 2002).
Varieties
. ,.....
A lot of variability occurs with regard to quality of fruit besides drought, heat and insect tolerance. The Department of Horticulture, University of Pretoria, South Africa has selected improved clones that produce large fruits weighing up to 100 g and a variety of skin colour. .
Culture The plant is propagated from the seeds and cuttings. The seeds germinate very easily. The seedlings are then transplanted in the field. Cuttings of 10 to 12.5 cm thickness root easily if planted during early spring. Wedge grafting is another means of propagation. Cultural requirements should be standardized for marula nut.
308
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
The tree starts producing fruits 3 years after planting in Israel (Cherfas, 1989). Marula trees flower in August and the fruits ripen from December to March. A single full grown tree produces 2100-91,000 fruits. On an average, the tree yields up to 2 tons of fruits. Fungi like Cercospora caffra and GIoeosporium sclerocaryae are known to attack the trees (Arnold et al., 1985; Duke, 1989). Marula fruit falls down from the tree at green stage and ripening occurs on the ground. Fruits cannot be stored for more than a week. They bruise easily. Therefore, the fresh fruits are difficult to transport. These can be dried for storage (FAO, 1988).
~ '.,'~
..
Fig. 144 : Sclerocarya birrea Hochst. (VITA, 1988)
Fig. 145 : Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra. 1. Leaflet showing venation; 2. Habit; 3. Flower; 4. Cross sectioin of ovary; 5. Fruit. (FAD, Wickens, 1995)
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL ARID REGION
309
8. MOGONGO NUT Mogongo nut (Schinziophyton rautanenii (Schinz.) Radcl-Sm. syn. Ricinodendron rautanenii Schinz.) belongs to family Euphorbiaceae ~d is native of northern South Africa. Mogongo nut is distributed in Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. The related species, Ricinodendron heudelotii Pierre., known as manketti nut, essang nut or juk nut, also produces edible nuts and is found growing throughout tropical Africa (Duke, 1989; Peters et al., 1992; Ayuk et al., 1999b). It requires tropical and subtropical climatic conditions. It is a drought tolerant species, often occurring as large groves on dune crests and is widely distributed through the open woodlands of southern Africa in areas ~eceiving 150-1000 mm summer rainfall (Wickens, 1995). It grows well on sandy soils having pH 6 to 8 (Duke, 1989). Mogongo nut is a much-prized species with edible fruits that are a staple food of Africans and Bushmen who eat them raw, cooked or fermented into beer. The thin and fleshy portion under the tough skin may be eaten raw or cooked as a sweet porridge. The kernel has a sweet, milky and nutty flavour and can be eaten raw, pounded and fried or mixed with lean meat. The stones can be roasted whole or cracked. The kernels are pounded into a coarse meal, which is eaten dry with meat or other roots. Fruit contains 7-9 per cent protein. The kernels are rich in fats (40%) and protein (38%) and are an important component of the diet of the Kung San people of the Kalahari Desert. The kernels yield 30-40% of an edible and quick drying oil, which in the past has been used in margarine. The oil is reported to deteriorate rapidly on storage or heating due to high eleostearic acid content. The oil is used .' as a traditional cosmetic to soften and moisturize th~ skin. It is grown for shade, windbreaks, dune stabilization and live fencing. The timber is yellowish, light and soft and is used for . carving bowls, cups and ornamental figures of animals and birds (Duke, 1989; Wickens, 1998). . Fruit pulp of mogongo nut contains 8.6 g moisture, 7.8 g protein, 0.5 g fat, 75.0 g carbohydrates, 2.9 g fibre, 85.0 mg calcium, 74.3 mg phosphorus and 2.54 mg iron per 100 g of pulp and gives 1410 calories. The kernel ofmogongo nut contains 4.2 g moisture, 26.3 g protein, 58,1 g fat, 4.6 g carbohydrates, 2.7 g fibre, 22.3 mg calcium, 869 mg phosphorus, 3.42 mg iron per 100 g of kernel and gives 2715 calories.
Botany Mogongo nut is a large, spreading and deciduous tree, up to 24 m in height and 1 m diameter. Leaves are alternate, stipulate, digitately compound with 3 to 7 leaflets and pubescent and 15 cm long petioles. Leaflets are broadly lanceolate to ovate, 5 - 13 x 2.5 - 9 em in size, dark green above and pale yellow on the underside. The tree is dioecious. Male flowers, borne in slender loose panicles, are whitish whereas female panicles are shorter and few flowered. The fruit is plum shaped, 4 em long and is hairy when young. The stone is exceedingly hard containing one or two light coloured kernels (Duke, 1989; Wickens, 1998).
Culture It is propagated from the seeds or by truncheons. Cultural requirements for magongo nut have to be standardized. It flowers in spring and the fruits ripen in February-March. The fruits abscise from tree when green and mature and start ripening few days later. On ripening, the fruit colour turns bro~ and the pulp softens (Duke, 1989).
310
UNOERUTILIZEO" FRUITS ANO NUTS
Fig. 146 : Ricinodendron heudelotii. Ndjanssang. 1. Branch showing arrangement of leaves on stem; 2. Detail of leaf showing leaflet venation and stipules; 3. Stem containing mature fruits. (ICUC, Tchoundjeu and Atangana, 2006)
Fig. 147 : Ricinodendron rautanenii (Charles, 1987)
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS FOR THE TROPICAL ARID REGION
311
9. YEHEB NUT Yeheb nut (Cordeauxia edulis Hemsl.) belongs to subfamily Caesalpinioideae of the family Leguminosae. It is also known as ye-eb, ye-eb nut, hebb or yehib. It is native of the arid and semi-arid desert region between Somalia and Ethiopia. It has been introduced on an experimental scale in Israel, Kenya, Tanzania, Sudan, Yemen and the USA (Booth and Wickens, 1988; Duke, 1989). Yeheb has the potential for development as a food resource in the semi arid and desert regions (Booth and Wickens, 1988). Yeheb nut plants face a great danger of extinction owing to their over exploitation and recurrent drought conditions. Its selected stands must, therefore, be protected from grazing and over exploitation. Seed orchards could also be established. It grows in Somalia from 100 to 1000 m altitudes where the daily temperature exceeds 25°C and the mean annual temperature is 26.3-30°C on coarse, deep red sands having water table at 6.5-25.5 m depths. It grows in arid and semi arid climatic conditions and is also adaptable to a wide range of soil conditions but does not tolerate waterlogging. It is extremely drought resistant and can grow even in tropical region receiving 150-200 mm annual rainfall. It also tolerates shade and alkaline soils (Booth and Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988). The seeds are eaten raw or cooked and have a smooth consistency and taste. The flavour resembles that of chestnut. The seeds are very nutritious and form a balanced diet as they contain 37 per cent starch, 24 per cent sugar, 13 per cent protein, 11 per cent fat and various minerals. The protein in its seeds contains higher lysine and lower methionine than in other leguminous plants. The leaves contain a brilliant red dye that stains the hands. Livestock are very fond of its leaves. Leaf extracts along with some metals form fast and insoluble dyes and have been used to dye fabrics. The wood is used as firewood (Wickens and Storey, 1984; Booth and Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988). Per 100 g of seeds contain 12.1 g protein, 13.5 g fat, 71.9 g total carbohydrates, 1.6 g fibre, 36 mg calcium, 208 mg phosphorus and 7.2 mg iron and provides 448 calories (Duke, 1989).
Botany Ye-eb is a bushy, unarmed, multistemmed, evergreen shrub, usually 1.6 m in height. Under favourable locations, it may grow up to 2.5 m tall. Leaves are paripinnate, ovate to oblong-ovate in shape with numerous red glands below having 4 pairs of leaflets. Flowers are bisexual, yellow in colour borne in clusters at the ends of the branches. The fruit is a indehiscent pod which contains 1-4 round or ovoid seeds of the size of a macadamia nut or a large filbert (hazelnut) (Wicknes and Storey, 1984; Booth and Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988).
Varieties Two varieties Moqley and Suley are recognized in Somalia. The latter has fewer and larger leaves and less sweet and smaller fruits (Wickens, 1998). There is an urgent need for surveys to collect the genetic material and establishment of gene bank (Wickens, 1995).
Culture It is propagated from the seeds. The seeds give more than 80 per cent germination. The plants established from nursery-raised saplings make poor growth as they lose the
312
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
taproot. Direct seeding in the field is, therefore, considered the most satisfactory. The plants begin to bear well 3-4 years after planting. Flowering occurs few days before rainy season. Fruit development depends on the quantity and pattern of rainfall. Fruits may develop wjthin 2 weeks from the start of the rains but the development gets arrested if the rainfall ceases and resumes when the rains start again 4-5 months later. Water harvesting techniques should help to increase yields. Humid conditions, however, result in only vegetative growth. Average yield is 5 kg per tree. The shrub is free from insect pests but the larvae of weevils and moths attack the nuts. Roasting or boiling of the freshly picked nuts is done to kill the insects and to harden the shell to make them less penetrable. The tree is considered resistant to termites (Wickens, 1995).
Fig. 148 : Cordeauxia edulis. 1. Flowering branch; 2. Flower partly dissected; 3. Petal; 4. Stamen; 5. Apex of style and stigmas; 6. Fruit; 7. Fruit (nut); 8. Seed with outer coat removed. (FAD, Wickens, 1995).
DOD
EPILOGUE Nature has generously provided an enonnous diversity of edible fruits and nuts on the planet Earth. Nearly 3000 tropical and 2400 temperate species have been reported to be growing here (Vietmeyer, 1990; Westwood, 1993). But only about 30 species received ii1tensive human efforts and can be considered as utilized to satisfactory extent. Among the remaining wealth of species, nearly 250 fruits and nuts appear to have considerable potential for exploitation, as these already form important component in the local consumption and production systems being highly adapted to these agro-ecological niches/marginal areas. But these have not been given due attention in the national policies relating to biodiversity conservation and agricultural, research and development. Consequently, they lack suitable base required for systematic cultivation and utilization and thus their potential has not been exploited on economically sustainable basis. Such neglect has resulted in shrinking of the fruit basket that had been an asset for the survival of the humankind and has caused deterioration in their quality of life. The neglected and underutilized fruit crops can immensely contribute to solve the enonnous problems of hunger and poverty confronting the local communities by providing ample opportunities for food, nutrition and health security, income generation, non-material benefits and biodiversity and environmental sustenance. These species can be more widely and effectively deployed to address the problems of malnutrition, poverty and environmental degradation. Besides being essential biological assets of the rural poor these can contribute to improving the well being of urban populations as they provide improved health care options through better knowledge of the medicinal properties of a wide range of plants amongst health practitioners, particularly for the vulnerable groups such as pregnant women, breastfeeding mothers, children and the elderly. Therefore, rather than restricting
314
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
to the very narrow species focus, diversification is required to utilize the potential of the neglected and underutilized fruits and nuts to ensure global food and income security, utilization of marginal and wastelands and preservation of cultural identity of the humankind. Since the underutilized fruit species have social value, their promotion process must involve participation of the stakeholders, mainly the farmers. For this reason, the stakeholders such as farmers, NGO' s and research and developmental organizations must devise the strategic work plan from a careful/production to consumption' constraint analysis followed by participatory execution. The promotion process should incorporate activities related to documenting the traditional knowledge on their diverSity, distribution, culture and uses; maintenance of genetic diversity through complementary ex situ and in situ approaches to ensure their access to all users including farmers and breeders; establishing germplasm collections as advocated in the Global Plan of Action of FAO (FAO, 1996); closely linking conservation and use (Le. /conservation through use') in production systems; using the species having multiple uses such as food-medicinal-ornamental to meet different production environments and user needs; value addition; linking farmers to final end-users; etc. (Padulosi et al., 2002). Participatory approaches are also important for access to existing materials and researches to obtain improved materials through breeding and to resolve production and marketing constraints. The activities suggested as follows, and others, may be helpful to develop the work plan: 1. Availability and access to information should be ensured to create awareness about the need to promote the underutilized fruits. Gathering and sharing information among people, organizations and all stakeholders is essential to promote greater use of underutilized fruits. The organization like FAO, IPGRI, ICUC, AVRDC, NAS, PROSEA, IPK, etc. have already made important contributions in documenting information on these crops. 2. In situ and ex situ conservation sites of the unique genetic resources of the underutilized fruits should be maintained and kept well used for future generations keeping in view their eco-geographical distribution, genetic diversity and the available local knowledge and considered as national and regional responsibilities. Coordinated efforts by all stakeholders are needed to safeguard erosion of the resource base of neglected and underutilized fruit species. Local people and farmers will be the most important actors in reversing the decline in use and arresting the genetic erosion. Capacity building and partnerships among all the stakeholders at national and regional levels in both formal plant genetic resources institutions and civil society organizations will be required for surveys, taxonomic identification and analysis of the extent and distribution of genetic diversity, together with work on local and traditional knowledge. Using this information, complementary conservation strategies can be developed for in situ conservation along with ex situ conservation back-up systems a~d material for access by other users. 3. The neglected and underutilized fruit species should be incorporated in sustainable and diverse land-use systems, allowing farmers to harness existing biodiversity without eroding valuable existing genetic resources.
EPILOGUE
315
4.
Cermplasm supply system should be set up along with appropriate information and germplasm exchange protocols to protect individual, national and regional intellectual property rights. 5. Supply of improved varieties and clean elite planting materials must be ensured. 6. Improved genotypes/ cultivars and production technology relating to training, pruning, gro~th and development regulation, nutrition, irrigation, plant protection methods, etc. have to be developed. 7. Strategic alliances need to be sought with agencies or organizations that have experience in marketing, processing and product development with a view to identify (i) opportunities to add value through development of low cost processing technologies, (ii) commercialization by industrial applications, (iii) marketing activities including user and market-niche definition and improving price, distribution and presentation, (iv) opportunities to develop new products keeping in view the nutritional composition and therapeutic value, (v) ways to ensure recognition of the nutritional contributions of selected underutilized fruits and their integration into the national nutritional programmes, (vi) market opportunities, (vii) consistent marketing chains, and (viii) practical interventions, entrepreneurial training and public-private partnerships at all stages of the value chain to improve the supply and demand of underutilized fruits and their products ensuring consistency in marketing chain. 8. Farmers need to be linked to end-users. Close operational linkage between stakeholders such as farmers, NCO's, development organizations, processors, industries, consumer's cooperatives, etc. needs to be established using participatory approaches, that adequately recognize the interests of farmers and communities. 9. Public awareness activities should be undertaken for crops and products at local and national levels by holding workshops and training courses for all stakeholders, besides site demonstrations, targeted campaigns, publishing success stories, developing school curricula, etc., integrating such work in development-related activities such as in situ and on-farm conservation parks and home gardens. 10. Awareness actions among policy makers should be undertaken to improve legal and policy frameworks for creating legal and policy environments in which underutilized fruit species can be better utilized to benefit the poor. Influencing policy at all levels should remove barriers to their production and marketing and support the re3earch, cultivation and commercialization of these fruit species.
000
REFERENCES
Acedo, A. L. (1992). Jackfruit biology, production, use and Philippine Research Monograph Number 1. Multipurpose Tree Species Network Research Series. Forestry /Fuelwood Research and Development (F /FRED) Project, Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development, Thailand. pp.12. Aguiar, J. P. L., Marinho, H. A., Rebelo, Y. S. and Shrimpton, R (1980). Aspectos nutritivus de alguns frutos da Amazonia. , 10: 755-758. Aiyelaagbe, I. O. 0., Adeola, A. 0., Popoola, L. and Obisesan, K. O. (1988). Agroforestry potential of Dacryodes edulis in the oil palm-cassava belt of southeastern Nigeria. Agroforestry Systems, 40 : 263-74. Alves, R R, Chitarra, A. B. and Chitarra, M. I. F. (1995). Post harvest physiology of acerola (Malpighia emarginata DC.) fruits, maturation changes, respiratory activity and refrigerated storage at ambient and modified atmospheres. Acta Horticuiturae, 370 : 223-229. Almeyda, N. and Martin, F. W. (1976). Cultivation of Neglected Tropical Fruits with Promise. Part 1. Mangosteen. ARS - S - 155, US Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, USA. Amezquito, G. A. (1973). Almacenamiento Refrigerado de Frutas y Hortalizas. Departmento de Mercadeo, Pro desarrollo, Federacion National de Cafeteros de Colombia, Bogota, 36 pp. Anderson, A. B. (1988). Use and management of native forest dominated by acai palm (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) in the Amazon Estuary. In: The palm - tree of life (ed.) M. J. Balick. Advances in Economic Botany, 6 : 144-154.
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Shu, Z. H., Wang, D. N. and Sheen, T. F. (1996). Wax apple as a potential economic fruit crop for the world. In: Proceedings of an International conference on Tropical Fruits, 23-26 July, 1996. MARDI, Kuala Lumpur, pp. 69-73. Sidibe, M., Scheuring, J. F., Kone, M., Hofman, P. and Frigg, M. (1998). The baobab tree as a source of vitamins. A and C for Africa. Agroforestry Today, 10 (4) : 7-9. Sidibe, M., Scheuring, J. F., Tembely, D., Sidibe, M. M., Hofman, P. and Frigg, M. (1996). Baobab - homegrown vitamin C for Africa. Agroforestry Today, 8 (2) : 13-15. Sidibe, M. and Williams, J. T. (2002). Baobab, Adansonia digitata L. International Centre for Underutilised Crops, Southampton, UK, 96 pp. Singh, D. B. (1997). Pandanus. Indian Horticulture, April-June, p. 9. Singh, H. B. and Arora, R K (1978). Wild Edible plants of India. ICAR Publication, New Delhi, 88pp. Singh, H.P., Balasubramanian, P.P. and Hubballi, V.N. (eds.) (2003). Indian Cashew-issues and strategies. Proceedings of 5th National Seminar on Indian Cashew in the New Millennium held at Visakhapatnam during 12-13 April, 2002. Directorate of Cashew and Arecanut Development, Kochi/Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi, pp. 761-770. Sleumer, H. (1984). Olacaceae. In: Flora Malesiana, Ser. I, 10, 1 : 1-29. Kluwer Academic Publisher, Dordrecht. Smith, N. J. H., Williams, J. T., Plucknett, D. L., Talbot, J. P. (1992). Tropical forests and their crops. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca and London, 568 pp. Srivastava, S. S. (1996). Suskha phalodyaniki (Dryland fruit culture). Central Book House, Raipur, India, pp. 275-278, 278-280 and 339-342. Stevens, M.L., Bourke, RM. and Evans, B.R. (ed.) (1996). South Pacific Indigenous Nuts. Proceedings of a Workshop held from 31 October to 4 November, 1994 at Le Lagon Resort, Port Villa, Vanuatu. ACIAR Proceedings No. 69, pp. 29-35. Tabora, P. c., Balick, M. J., Bovi, M. L. A. and Guerra, M. P. (1993). Hearts of palm (Bactris, Euterpe and others). In: Underutilized crops Pulses and Vegetables. (Ed.) J. T. Williams. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 193-218. . Tchoundjeu, Z. and Atangana, A. R. (2006). Ndjanssang (Ricinodendron heudelotii), Monograph. ICUC, Southampton, UK 74 pp. Tripp, N. (1985) The Miracle Berry. Horticulture, January, 1985, pp. 58-72. Tuley, L. (1990). The harvest from the rainforest. Food Manufacture, 65 (10) : 29-30. UNEP (1993). Land degradation in South Asia: its severity, causes and effects upon the people. World Soils Research Report No. 78, Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization, 100 pp. UNEP. (1995). Global Biodiversity Assessment. United Nations Environment Programme, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. van Wyk, Ben-Erick. (2005) Food Plants of The World. Briza Publications, South Africa, 72 pp. Verheij, E. W. M. and Coronel, R E. (eds.) (1991). Plant Resources of South East Asia No.2. Edible Fruits and Nuts. Pudoc, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 447 pp. Vietmeyer, N. (1990). The New Crops Era. In: Advances in New Crops. Proc. First National Symposium - New Crops: Research, Development, Economics. Indianapolis, Indiana.
328
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Oct., 1988. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. (eds.) Jules Janick and J.E. Simon, pp. 2326. VITA (1988). Reforestation in Arid Lands. Fred R. Weber and Carol Stoney. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, 1815 North Lynn Street, Arlington, Virginia, USA. Walter, Annie and Sam, Chanel (2002). Fruits of Oceania. ACIAR Monograph No. 85, Canberra, 329 pp. Wang, D. N. (1989). Nutrition and fertilization of wax apple. In: Fruit tree nutrition and orchard soil management. (ed.) L. R. Cheng. Taichung District Agricultural Improvement Station Special Publication No. 20 Taichung, Taiwan, pp. 119-132. Watson, B. J., George, A. P., Nissen, R. J. and Brown, B.I. (1988). Carambola: a star on the horizon. Queensland Agricultural Journal, 144 : 45-51. Wenkam, N. S. (1990). Foods of Hawaii and the Pacific Basin Fruits and Fruit Products. Raw, Processed and Prepared, Vol. 4, composition. Research Extension series No. lID, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, p. 96. Whitney, P. J. (1988). The microbiology of breadfruit and cassava preservation by pit fermentation. Tropical Science, 28 : 43-50. Wickens, G. E. (1995). Edible nuts. Non-wood forest products 5, FAO, Rome, 198 pp .. Wickens, G. E. (1998). Ecophysiology of economic plants in arid and semi-arid lands. SpringerVerlag, Berlin, Heidelberg. Wickens, G. E. and Storey, I. N. J. (1984). Cordeauxia edulis Hemsley. Survey of the economic plants of the arid and semi-arid tropics (SEPASA T). Dossier No.5 (revised). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (mimeo). Williams, J. T. (1993). Introduction. In: Underutilized Pulses and Vegetables (ed.) J. T. Williams, Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 1-9. Wilson, E. O. (1992). The Diversity of Life. Penguin, London, UK, 432 pp. Wilson, D. and Wilson, I. (1988). Tropical food composition table. Rare Fruit Council of Australia Newsletter, 51, 5-9. Wooten, M. and Tumalii, F. (1984). Breadfruit production, utilization and composition - a review. Food Technology Australia, 36 (10) : 464-465. Yaacob, O. and Tindall, H. D. (1995). Mangosteen cultivation. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper No. 129, 100 pp. Yang, R. M., Lin, T. S., Wang, D. N. and Lee, C. L. (1991). Studies on bud morphogenesis in wax apple (Syzygium samarangense Merr. & Perry). In: Proceedings of the 2nd symposium on Forcing culture of Horticultural crops. (eds.) H. S. Lin and L. R. Chang, Nan Ton Taiwan, Taichung District Agricultural Improvement Station Special Publication No. 23, Taichung, Taiwan, pp. 137-151. (in Chinese).
DOD
INDEX A A. altilis 102, 132 A. atemoya 280 A. auri 208 A. bilimbi 52 A. camansi 38 A. champeden 62 A. chrysophylla 290 A. cohune 18 A. colenda 18 A. communis 38 A. dallachyanum 27 A. elasticus 132 A. glabra 186, 281 A. hirsuta 102 A. hirsutus 102 A. integer 102 A. integrifolius 100 A. involucrate 186
A. A. A. A. A. A. A. A. A. A. A. A. A. A. A. A. A. A. A. A.
jauari 208 luzoniensis 85 mariannensis 38 mexicana 257 montana 186, 190 murumuru 208 niger 275 reticulata 251, 281 rigidus 64, 102 saccharifera 196 sclerocarpa 257 scleroderma 186,250 senegalensis 281 sideroxylon 298 squamosa 280 stenophylla 290 tamarri 275 totai 257 tucuma 257 vulgare 208
330 Abiu 3 Acai Palm 6 Achras caimito 3 Achras lucuma 119 Acrocercops cramerella 172 Acrocomia aculeata 257 Acrotelium lucumae 52 Adansonia 300 Adansonia digitata 300 Adoretus sinicus 237 Aedicium pulneyensis 107 African Breadfruit 7 African Dove Plum 297 African Fan Palm 229 African Locust Bean 230 African Plum Tree 9 African Walnut 11 Agrobacterium tumefaciens 105 Akee 12 Aleurodicus cocoas 34 Alternaria 91, 152, 153, 281 Alternaria passiflorae 153 Alternaria tenuia 265 Ambarella 14 Amblypelta lutescens 183 Amboinensis 178 Amorbia 237 Amra 16,232 Anacardium giganteum 215 Anacardium occidentale 55 Anacolosa frutescens 85 Anastrepha 6, 174 Anastrepha mombinpreoptans 16 Anastrepha suspensa Ill, 242 Annona 251 Annona deliciosa 32 Annona diversifolia 250 Annona glabra 190 Annona muricata 188
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Annona purpurea 186 Annona reticulata 73 Annona senegalensis 290 Annona squamosa 278 Annonas 188 Anoaepestis bengatella 281 Anomale 172 Anthostomella abdita 206 Antidesma bun ius 27 Aonidiella tamarindi 287 Aphytis roseni 298 Apis mellifera 11 Araca-Boi 16 Arbela 172 Arenga pin nata 196 Argan Tree 298 Argania spinosa 298 Armillaria 237 Armillaria mellea 267 Armillariella tabescens 277 Artocarpus altilis 38 Artocarpus heterophyllus 100 Artocarpus hirsutus 41 Artocarpus integer 62 Artocarpus lakoocha 264 Artocarpus odoratissimus 131 Artona catoxantha 198 Arula 307 Aspergillus flavus 275 Astrocaryum aculeatum 208 Atherigona arenga 198 Attalea speciosa 18 Averrhoa bilimbi 29 Averrhoa carambola 52 Avocado 234 Azadirachta indica 143
B B. angustifolia 242 B. bernadetteae 42
331
INDEX
burmannica 86 cubense 138 dulcis 20, 21 flabellifer 229 flabelliformis 267 galactodendron 42 griffithii 20, 22 guineenses 155 B. latifolia 242 B. latifolium 42 B. macrocarpa 20 B. macrophylla 86 B. major 155 B. maraja 155 B. microcarpa 155 B. motleyana 20, 21 B. oppositifolia 86 B. paraguazyensis 281 B. racemosa 20, 22 B. ramiflora 20, 22 B. ruficollis 281 B. sapida 20 B. terrabanum 42 B. wallichii 20 Babassu 18 Baccaurea 20, 22, 23 Baccaurea dulcis 20 Bactris 157 Bactris gasipaes 155 Bakuri 23 Bambangan 24 Baobab 300 Barbados Cherry 239 Barbados Gooseberry 25 Barhal 264 Beilschmiedia anay 234 Bephratelloides cubensis 281 Bertholletia 36 Bertholletia excelsa 36 B. B. B. B. B. B. B. B.
Bignay 27 Bilimbi 29 Binjai 31 Biriba 32 Bitzea ingae 99 Black Plum 302 Black Sapote 34 Blighia sapida 12 Borassus aethiopum 229 Borassus flabellifer 267 Borojo 36 Borojoa patinoi 36 Bostra glaucalis 275 Botryodiplodia theobromae 68, 275 Botryosphaena ribis 237 Bouea gandaria 86 Brazil Nut 36 Breadfruit 38 Breadnut 42 Brosimum alicastrum 42 Buchanania 242 Buchanania lanzan 242 Burahol 44 Buriti Palm 45 Bush Mango 47 Butyrospermum paradoxum 273 Byrsonima crassifolia 138
c C. C. C. C. C. C. C. C. C. C.
album 158 amazonicum 142 amboinense 105 angustifolium 142 australeanum 158 catrea 11 commune 159 decumana 164 disticha 144 edulis 68
332 C. grandifolium 142 C. grandis 164 C. guianensis 70 C. haileyanum 158 C. harveiya 105 C. harveyl 158 C. icaco 65 C. indicum 158 C. macrocarpa 70 C. mammosum 258 C. maxima 164 C. megalanthum 159 C. mehenbethens 159 C. nitida 66 C. nungi 159 C. oliviforme 193, 195 C. orinocense 143 C. pimela 158 C schwemfurthii 158 C. solomonense 159 C. verticillata 66 C. villosum 187 Calispa elegans 180 Calocarpum sapota 125,258 Calonectria rigidiuscula 68 Camu Camu48 Canarium 158 Canarium indicum 105 Canarium ovatum 158 Canistel50 Carambola 52 Caryocar brasiliense 269 Caryocar nuciforum 187 Caryodendron orinocense 142 Cashew 55 Cassabanana 60 Catacauma ingae 99 Cephaleuros mycoides 68, 275 Cephaleuros virescens 29, 277
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Ceratitis 91, 174 Ceratitis capitata 92, 118, 149, 153, 273 Ceratocystis 158 Ceratocystis fimbriata 73 Cerconota anonella 34 Cercospora 38,237 Cercospora anonae 34 Cercospora butryospermi 275 Cercospora caffra 308 Cercospora citrullus 203 Cercospora moringicola 248 Cercosporae averrhoae 55 Cereus undatus 277 Ceriman 61 Chalta 82, 83
Champedak 62 Charaka samhita 264 Chironji 242
Chrysobalanus icaco 64 Chrysophyllum cainito 193 Chutney 29, 86, 232 Cicca acida 144 Cirina butyrospermi 275 Citripestis 166 Citrus grandis 164 Coccoloba uvifera 185 Coco Plum 64
Cola acuminata 66 Cola Nut 66
Collectotrichum lagenarium 203 Colletotrichum 7, 42, 158, 242, 267 Colletotrichum annonicola 282 Colletotrichum gloeosporioides 52,55,59, 190, 237, 260
Colletotrichum gloesporioides 117 Cordeauxia edulis 311 Corticium 42 Corticium salmonicolor 180, 183 Corticium salmonicolour 82
333
INDEX
Cosmoscarta relata 103 Couepia 68
Couepia longipendula 68 Coula edulis 11 Couma utilis 70 Coumarouna odorata 205 Cow Tree 70
Cratasomus 6 Cratosomus bombina 34 Crinipellis perniciosa 73 Cryptorhynchus gravis 114 Cryptorrhynchus mangiferae 25, 97 Cucurbita odorifera 60 Cupha erimanthis 176 Cupuazu 71 Custard Apple 73
Cynometra cauliflora 137
o D. abyssinica 109, 254, 297 D. acuminatissina 75 D. acutifolius 76 D. aurea 82 D. buettneri 9 D. cucurbitae 153 D. dulcis 75 D. ebenaster 34 D. edulis 10 D. graveolens 75, 76 D. griffithii 76 D. hebecarpa 254, 297 D. igaganga 9 D. klaineana 9 D. kutejensis 75, 76 D. lowianus 81 D. macrophylla 9 D. megalantha 82 D. oxleyanus 75 D. pentagyna 82 D. philippensis 211
D. reifferscheidia 82 D. scabrella 82 D. serrata 82 D. speciosa 82 D. wyatt-smithii 76 Dacryodes edulis 9 Dacus 91 Dacus dorsalis 103, 153, 195 Dacus umbrosus 133 Daphnusa ocellaris 82 Deltoides 292 Derris 143 Diaphania caesalis 103 Diaprepes abbreviatus 117, 260 Diatrype ruficarnis 206 Didymella lycopersici 267 Dillenia indica 82 Diospyros blancoi 211 Diospyros digyna 34 Diospyros mespilijormis 289 Diplodia 158, 248 Diplodia annonae 75 Dipteryx odorata 205 Dolabra nepheliae 172 Doum Palm 304 Dovyalis abyssinica 297 Dovyalis caffra 254 Dovyalis hebecarpa 109 Downy Myrtle 244 Drumstick 245 Durian 75 Durio 75 Durio zibethinus 75
E E. aggregata 93
E. E. E. E.
aherniana 93 brasiliensis 93 dombeyi 93 domestica 123
334 E. foliosa 93 E. jambos 108, 109 E. javanica 108
E. klotschiana 93 ligustrina 93 luschinathiana 93 michelli 282 precatoria 6 E. scortechipil 93 E. stipitata 17, 18 E. uvalha 93 E. E. E. E.
Elephant Apple 82
Eisinoe lepagei 52 Elymias hypermnesta-nesaea .198 Enchilades 203 Eriophyes sandorici 183 Erwinia carotovara 64, 103 Eugenia aqueum 287 Eugenia dombeyi 93 Eugenia floribunda 176 Eugenia jambos 172 Eugenia javanica 107 Eugenia luschnathiana 160 Eugenia malaccensis 123 Eugenia stipitata 16, 17 Eugenia uniflora 282 Euphoria nephelium 168 Euterpe edulis 6 Euterpe oleracea 6
F F. F. F. F.
F. F. F. F. F.
acuminata 85 alnifolia 85 cuspidata 85 euphlebis 176 glabra 85 indica 118, 148, 174 inermis 92, 118, 176 macrocarpa 85 megaphylls 176
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
F. F. F. F. F. F. F. F.
montana 148 peninsula 176 pinnata 85 ramontchi 91 repandra 85 rukam 92, 118, 176 sepiaria 91 tomentosa 85
Fijian Longan 83
Flacourtia 176 Flacourtia indica 91 Flacourtia inermis 117 Flacourtia jangomas 148 Flacourtia rukam 174 Fornes lignosus 68 Forma edulis 150 Forma flavicarpa 150 Fusarium 42, ISO, 203 Fusarium semitectum 99 Fusarium solani 195
G G. americana 88 G. atrovirdis 127 G. atroviridis 127 G. cambogia Ill, 127 G. ciliata 155 G. costatum 190 G. cowa 111 G. dulcis 127 G. gnemon 192 G. hombroniana 127 G. latifolium 190 G. livingstonei 127 G. macana 155 G. malaccensis 127 G. microcarpa 155 G. morella 111, 129 G. pirainiana 127 G. tenuifolium 191
335
INDEX
G. tinctoria 127, 129 G. utilis 155 G. xanthochymus 127 Galo Nut 85 Gandarassa 114 Gandaria 86 Ganoderma pseudoferreum 131 Garcinia 127, 196 Garcinia indica 111 Garcinia mangostana 127 Gasipaes chantadura 155 Genipa americana 88 Genipap 88 Giant Granadilla 89 Gitona 248 Gloeosporium 52 Gloeosporium sclerocaryae 308 Glomerella cingulata 34, 282 Gnetum gnemon 190 Governor's Plum 91 Graphium 158 Grumichama 93 Guanabana acida 189 Guanabana azucaron 189 Guanabana dulce 189 Guanabana sin fibre 189 Guapeba caimito 3 Guarana 94 Guilielma gasipaes 155
Horse Mango 96 Hylocereus polyrhizus 277 Hylocereus undatus 277 Hymenaea courbaril 214 Hyphaene thebaica 304 Hypoperiga leprostricts 82
H
J
H. compressa 304
f. polycarpa 153
H. coriacea 304 H. petersiana 304
Habrolepis rouxi 298 Helminthosporium coffeae 275 Helopeltis antonil 59 Heterodera marioni 267 Hidari irava 198 Hissing Tree 248
I alba 97 barteri 47 cinnamomea 98 fagiferus 200 gabonensis 47 I. laurino 98 1. macrophylla 98 1. paterno 98 1. spectabilis 98 1. tonduzii 98 Ice Cream Bean 97 Icthyura restitura 118 llama 250 Imauba do vinho 209 Inga 97 Inga edulis 97 Inga feuillei 97 Inocarpus edulis 200 Irvingia gabonensis 47 Irvingia wombolu 47 Ischnaspis longirostris 180
1. 1. 1. 1. 1.
Jackfruit 100 Jamaica Cherry 103 Jambosa malaccensia 123 Jambosa vulgaris 172 Java Almond 105 Java Rose Apple 107 Jessenia bataua 153 Jortria 237
336
K
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Lovi-lovi 117 Lucuma 119
Kaffu Orange 305 Kei Apple 254 Khimi 255 Kitembilla 109 Kokam 111
Lucuma caimito 3 Lucuma mammosa 258 Lucuma obovata 119 Lucuma salicifolia 50
Kolang kaling 198
M
Kuwini 112
M. africana 125 M. arena ria 153 M. cauliflora 49 M. deliciosa 61 M. dubia 176 M. emarginata 239 M. foetida 112, 114 M. huberi 255 M. indica 114 M. javanica 153 M. mexicana 240 M. nuxben 245 M. paraensis 48 M. perusa 61 M. protracta 176 M. pterygosperma 245 M. punicifolia 239 M. pustulatus 248 M. rufula 255 M. salzmannii 255 M. souzae 240 M. spruceans 48 M. stenopetala 246 M. suberosa 242 M. tenuiclavis 248 M. vinifera 45 M. viridanus 248 Macauba 257 Macrophoma clavuligera 206 Madrono 120 Malbar Chestnut 121
L ampla 149 elliptica 149, 183 grandiflora 149 laeteviridis 50 lanceolata 149 minor 183 nervosa 50 ollaria 149, 183 palmeri 50 pisonis 149 sphaerocarpa 50 tuyrana 149 urnigera 183 usitata 149, 183 Labaitia caimito 3 Lakuch 264 Lalab 27 L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L.
Langsat 114
Lansium domesticum 114 Lasiodiplodia theobromae 195 Lecythis 36 LeGythis elliptica 136 Lecythis pisonis 183 Lecythis zabucajo 149, 183 Leveillula tau rica 248 Licania platypus 180 Limus piit 96 Limus tipung 96 Local type 96
337
INDEX
Malay Rose Apple 123 Malpighia 240 Malpighia crassifolia 138 Malpighia glabra 239 Marney Sapote 258 Mammea americana 125 Mammee Apple 125 Mangifera 25 Mangifera caesia 31 Mangifera foetida 96 Mangifera indica 32, 112 Mangifera odorata 112 Mangifera pajang 24 Mangostana garcinia 127 Mangosteen 127 Manila Tamarind 261 Manilkara hexandra 255 Manilkara kauki 255 Marang 131 Marasmius byssicola 68 Margaronia ceasalis 103 Marula Nut 306 Masuku 262 Matisia 133 Matisia cordata 133 Mauritia flexuosa 45 Mecocorynus loripes 59 Melicocca bijuga 275 Melicoccus bijugatus 275 Meliola cinarii 107 Meloidogyne incognita 153, 242 Metamasius hemiphterus \158 Mimusops hexandra 255 \ Miracle Fruit 135 Mogongo Nut 309 Monilia 158 Monkey Jack 264 Monstera deliciosa 61 Moquilea platypus 180
Moringa oleifera 245 Multifoliolata 306 Muntingia calabura 103 Mycena 180 Mycosphaerella 158 Myiocopron cubense 206 Myllocerus discolor 248 Myrciaria dubia 48 Myrciaria floribunda 176 Myrtus canescens 245 Myrtus dombeyi 93
N aculeatum 162 eriopetalum 162 hypoleucum 162 juglandifolium 162 lappaceum 170 maingayi 163 meduseum 162 melanomiscum 162 melliferum 162 reticulatum 163 uncinatum 162 Nephelium 164 Nephelium lappaceum 168 Nephelium mutabile 162 Nephelium ramboutan-ake 162 Nira 267, 269 Noorda albizonalis 114 N. N. N. N. N. N. N. N. N. N. N.
o bacaba 154 martiana 18 multicaulis 154 speciosa 18 Ochyromera artocarpi 103 Oemanus ortygnus 2~1 Oenocarpus bataua 153, Oidiopsis taurica 267 O. O. O. O.
338
Oidium 248 Oidium nephelii 172 Okari Nut 140 Orbignya phalerata 18 Orinoco Apple 141 Orinoco Nut 142 Orthogeomys cherriei 158 Otaheite Goosesberry 144 Oudemansiella capri 107 Oyster Nut 265
P P. acuminata 209 P. affinis 16 P. americana 235 P. andamanansium 145 P. antioquiensis 150 P. aspera 209 P. bicolor 231 P. biglandulosa 206 P. brosimos 145 P. bubalinum 261 P. caerulea 150 P. caimito 3 P. clappertona 231 P. conoideus 145 P. distichus 144 P. dubius 145 P. edulis ISO, 153 P. filicoidea 231 P. gratissima 234 P. guianensis 209 P. insignis 121 P. ixocarpa 203 P. javanica 206 P. jiringa 261 P. julianettii 145, 146 P. laurifolia 150 P. leiogyna 234
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
P. leram 145 P. ligularis 150 P. lucuma 119 P. macrocarpa 121 P. maliformis 150 P. mollis 209 P. mollissima 150 P. nubigena 235 P. odoratissimus 146, 148 P. pereskia 25 P. pin nata 85 P. pruinosa 203 P. sapida 209 P. schiedeana 234 P. serratodigitata 150 p. speciosa 231 P. tectorius 145, 146, 148 P. tinifolia 213 P. tomentosa 150 p. yoco 95 Pachira aquatica 121 Pachylobus edulis 9 Pachymerus nucleorum 20 Palmyra Palm 267 Pandanus 145, 146 Pandanus julianettii 145 Paniala 148 Pantomorus godmani 237 Paradise Nut 149 Parinari curatellifolia 248 Parkia 192 Parkia biglobosa 230 Parkia roxburghii 206 Parviflora 90, 244, 245 Passiflora edulis 150 Passiflora laurifolia 213 Passiflora ligularis 199 Passiflora maliformis 199 Passiflora quadrangularis 89
339
INDEX
Passionfruit 150 Pataua Palm 153 Pattal 264 Paullinia cupana 94 Pejibaye 155 Pellicularia koleroga 131 Pellicularia salmonicolor 103 Pequi 269 Pereskia aculeata 25 Perisporium truncatum 99 Persea americana 234 Pestaliopsis 158 Pestalotia 180 Peziotrichum saccharinum 99 Phellinus noxius 131 Philephedra 281 Philotroctis eutraphera 114 Phomopsis 42, 55 Phyllachora 52, 260 Phyllanthus acidus 144 Phyllocalyx luschnathianus 160 Phyllocnistis cihclla 166 Phyllosticta 52, 55, 105 Phyllosticta ingae-edulis 99 Phyllosticta sapotae 260 Phyllostomus hastatus 184 Physalis 204 Physalis philadelphica 203 Phytophthora 42, 153, 158, 166 Phytophthora cinnamoni 91, 236, 237 Phytaphthora palmivora 73, 76, 82, 103, 230 Phytophthora phaseoli 183 Pili Nut 158 Pithecellobium dulce 261 Pitomba 160 Pitomberia 161 Planococcus lilacinus 287 Planococcus paciftus 281 Platonia esculenta 23
Platonia insignis 23 Platycerioideum 106 Pleurotus colae 68 Ploneta diducta 180 Polyporus gilvus 248 Pometia pinnata 83 Pommier velours 211 Pondontia 16 Pourouma 209 Pourouma cecropiaefolia 209 Pouteria caimito 3 Pouteria campechiana 50 Pouteria obovata 119 Pouteria sapota 258 Pseudocercospora 42 Pseudocercospora muntingiae 105 Pseudomonas passiflorae 91 Ptochus ovulum 248 Puccinia moringae 248 Pulasan 162 Pummelo 164 Punatoo 267 Pygaera restitura 176 Pythium 42, 52, 260 Pythium complectens 82 Pythium palmivorum 269
Q Quararibea cordata 133
R R. edulis 120 R. macrophylla 120 R. orthopetala 32 R. salicifolia 50 R. sieberi 32 Rakum Palm 166 Ralu 255 Rambutan 168 Ravenelia ingae 99
340 Rayan 255, 256 Red Mombin 271 Retracus johnstoni 158 Rheedia brasiliensis 120 Rheedia madruno 120 Rhizoctonia solani 99 Rhizopus 42, 82 Rhizopus artocarpi 103 Rhodomyrtus parviflora 245 Rhodomyrtus tomelltosa 244 Rhyncophorus 7 Rhyparida 85 Rhytidodera simulens 25, 97 Richardella nervosa 50 Ricinodendron heudelotii 309 Ricinodendron rautanenii 309 Rollinia mucosa 32 Rose Apple 172 Rosellinia 42 Rotylenchulus reniformis 55 Rujak 14 Rukam 174 Rumberry 176
S S. attenuatum 135 S. birrea 306 S. caffra 306 S. calubcob 107 S. cocculoides 305 S. cordatilimbum 107 S. curranii 107 S. cytherea 14 S. densiflora 107, 125 S. dulcis 271 S. edulis 177 S. indicum 181 S. innocua 305 S. lutea 14, 216
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
S. mangifera 16 S. manirote 186 S. megalanthus 277 S. mombin 14 S. pinnata 273 S. polycephaloides 107 S. purpurea 14 S. pycnanthum 107, 109, 125, 174 S. samarangense 174 S. simile 107 S. spinosa 306 S. sumatrana 178 S. tuberosa 14,271 S. venulosa 14 S. xanthophyllum 107 S. zalacca 178 Saccharomyces 198 Salacca wallichiana 166 Salacca zalacca 177 Salak Palm 177 Sambal 14, 25, 31 Sandoricum koetjape 181 Sansapote 180 Santol181 Sapindus esculentus 161 Sapucaia Nut 183 Schinziophyton rautanenii ,309 Sclerocarya birrea 306 Segrape 185 Selenicereus megalanthus 277 Senjana 246 Shea Butter Tree 273 Sherbet 150 Sherbets 14, 193, 282, 284 Sicana odorifera 60 Sideroxylon dulcificum 135 Sideroxylon spinosum 298 Silvestris 63 Skierka canarii 107
341
INDEX
Sohnja 246 Solanum topir~ 141 Soncoya 186 Souari Nut 187 Soursop 188 Spanish Joint FIR 190 Spanish Lime 275 Spanish Tamarind 192 Sphaceloma moringae 248 Sphaceloma spondiadis 273 Spondias dulcis 14 Spondias mombin 216 Spondias pinnata 16, 232 Spondias purpurea 271 Star Apple 193 Stelechocarpus burahol 44 Stibella cinnabarina 117 Strategeus aloeus 158 Strawberry Pear 277 Strychnos spinosa 305 Sugar Apple 278 Sugar Palm 196 Surinam Cherry 282 Sushruta samihita 264 Sweet Calabash 199 Sweet Grandilla 199 Sylepta derogata 203 Synsepalum dulcificum 135 Syzygium aqueum 287 Syzygium guineense 107 Syzygium jambos 172 Syzygium malaccense 123 Syzygium samarangense 107
T T. T. T. T.
bicolor 71 ferdinandiana 252 guianensis 161 impediens 252
T. indica 285 T. intermedia 161 T. litoralis 252 T. microcarpa 252 T. occidentalis 284, 285 T. officinalis 284 T.okari 140 T. ovaliformis 161 T. samoensis 252 T. sepicana 252 T. subinanum 71 Tacos 203 Tahiti Chestnut 200 Talisia esculenta 161 Tamar hindi 284 Tamarind 284 Tamarindus indica 284 Telfairia Nut 202 Telfairia occidental is 202 Telfairia pedata 265 Terminalia catappa -252 Terminalia kaernbachii 140 Tessaratoma papillosa 172 Tetranychus 117 Theobroma grandiflorum 71 Tola 267 Tomatillo 203 Tomentosa 244,245 Tonka Bean 205 Treculia africana 7 Tree Bean 206 Tripospermum 16 Tucuma 208
u Uapaca kirkiana 262 Uredo artocarpi 42 Uredo ingae 99 Ustilina zonata 107 Uvilla 209
342
V V. acutilobe 192 V. cienkowskii 302 V. cuneata 302 V. flexuosa 302 V. paradoxa 275 V. pentagona 302 V. triflora 302 Valanga nigricornis 198 Vangueria madagascariensis 192 Velvet Apple 211 Verticillium 237 Vinhode taperiba 217 Vitellaria paradoxa 273, 275 Vitex doniana 302 Voo vanga 192
W Water Apple 287
UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND NUTS
Water Lemon 213 West African Ebony 289 West Indian Locust 214 Wild Cashew 215 Wild Custard Apple 290
X Xanthioides 170 Xylocarpus koen 196 Xylocopa frontalis 184 Xylosandrus compact us 237
y Yeheb Nut 311 Yellow Mombin 216
z Zalacca 178 Zignoella garciniae 131
000
