Twentieth-century Catholic theologians: from neoscholasticism to nuptial mysticism

T W E N T I E T H - C E N T U R Y

Praise for T w e n t i e t h - C e n t u r y

C A T H O L I C

Catholic Theologians " W i t h characteristic l u c i d i t y and insight, Fergus K e r r narrates the story o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Catholic theology This i l l u m i n a t i n g and c o m p e l l i n g

T H E O L O G I A N S

account w i l l surely be appreciated b y a w i d e ecumenical readership." D a v i d Fergusson, University o f E d i n b u r g h "An

engaging biblio-biographical study designed to show the critical

influence o f t e n theologians i n transforming t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Catholicism. Kerr's keen

sense for trajectories

reveals h o w startling has been

From Neoscholasticism to Nuptial Mysticism

the

transformation — more than half had been disciplined by Vatican authorities In the face of these lives, no one w i l l ever be able to d o u b t the potential for intellectual regeneration, w h i l e the r i c h perspective they offer may also help defuse t r i v i a l tensions exacerbated by needless ideological polarization

Fergus K e r r

This narrative of t h e o l o g y - i n - a c t i o n is meant for literate faithful as w e l l as pastoral workers f r o m acolyte to bishop." D a v i d B u r r e l l , University o f N o t r e D a m e " K e r r , w i t h his usual oblique fluency, miraculously manages to include an attention to nuance and telling detail w i t h i n a short general account that is uner r i n g l y focussed o n w h a t , i n the previous century o f Catholic t h o u g h t , is still likely to matter i n the current one This v o l u m e w i l l surely become the standard i n t r o d u c t i o n to its subject matter." John M i l b a n k , University of N o t t i n g h a m " T h i s volume offers analysis o f some o f the most significant theologians o f the last h u n d r e d years by a theologian w i d e l y regarded as the most knowledgeable and insightful academic i n the field Simply invaluable." A l a n Torrance, St Andrews University

Blackwell Publishing

CONTENTS

© 2007 by Fergus K e r r BLACKWELL PUBLISHING 350 M a i n Street M a i d e n , M A 02148-5020. U S A 9600 Garsington R o a d , O x f o r d O X 4 2 D Q , U K 550 Swanston Street, C a r l t o n V i c t o r i a 3053. Australia T he r i g h t of Fergus K e r r l o be i d e n t i f i e d as the A u t h o r o f this W o r k has been asserted i n accordance w i t h the U K C o p y r i g h t , Designs and Patents A c t 1988 A l l rights reserved N o part of this p u b l i c a t i o n may be reproduced, stored i n a retrieval system or transmitted, i n any f o r m or b y any means, electronic, mechanical, p h o t o c o p y i n g , r e c o r d i n g or otherwise, except as p e r m i t t e d b y the U K C o p y r i g h t , Designs, and Patents A c t 1988 w i t h o u t the p r i o r permission o f the publisher

Preface

vii

First published 2 0 0 7 b y B l a c k w e l l P u b l i s h i n g L t d

L Before Vatican I I

1 2007 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication

Data

K e r r , Fergus T w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Catholic theologians: from neoscholasricism t o n u p t i a l mysticism / Fergus K e r r p. cm Includes bibliographical references and i n d e x I S B N - 1 3 : 9 7 8 - 1 - 4 0 5 1 - 2 0 8 3 - 8 (hardback: alk. paper) I S B N - 1 0 : 1-4051-2083-5 (hardback: alk. paper) I S B N - 1 3 : 9 7 8 - 1 - 4 0 5 1 - 2 0 8 4 - 5 (paperback: alk. paper) History—20th century 2 Theologians 1 Tide

1 Catholic C h u r c h — D o c t r i n e s —

B W 1 7 5 1 . 3 K 4 7 2007 230' 2 0 9 0 4 — d c 2 2 2006004748 A catalogue record f o r this title is available f r o m the B r i t i s h 1 ibrary Set i n 10

5ptBembo

by The R u n n i n g Head Limited Cambridge w w w therunninghead c o m P r i n t e d and b o u n d i n Singapore by Fabulous P r i m e r s Pre L t d The publisher's p o l i c y is to use p e r m a n e n t paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry p o l i c y and w h i c h has been manufactured f r o m pu]p processed using acid-free and elementary chlorine-free practices Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the t e x t paper and cover board used have m e t acceptable environmental accreditation standards For f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n on B l a c k w e l l Publishing visit our website: wwwblackwellpublishing com

1

2 Marie-Dominique Chenu

17

3 Yves Congar

34

4 E d w a r d Schillebeeckx

52

5 H e n r i de Lubac

67

6 KarlRahner

87

7 Bernard Lonergan

105

8 Hans U r s v o n Balthasar

121

9 HansKüng

145

10 K a r o l W o j t y l a

163

11 Joseph Ratzinger

183

12 A f t e r Vatican I I

203

Appendix-. The A n t i - m o d e r n i s t O a t h

223

Index

226

PREFACE

'There is no d o u b t that the outstanding event i n the Catholic t h e o l o g y o f our century is the s u r m o u n t i n g o f neo-scholasticism',

so Walter Kasper

declared, i n 1987. A n y o n e w h o began o r d i n a t i o n studies i n 1957, as I d i d , 1

w o u l d agree That the century ended w i t h a reaffirmation of nuptial mysticism by influential theologians, w e d i d not anticipate 'Neo-scholasticism',

Kasper

explains, 'was the attempt to solve

the

m o d e r n crisis o f theology by p i c k i n g up the thread o f the h i g h scholastic t r a d i t i o n o f mediaeval times. T h e a i m was t o establish a timeless, unified theology that w o u l d provide a n o r m for the universal c h u r c h . I t is impossible to deny this attempt a certain grandeur B u t i n the l o n g r u n a restoration o f this k i n d was b o u n d to fail*

2

For one t h i n g , neoscholastic Catholicism

depended o n 'metaphysics', and developments b o t h w i t h i n Catholic t h e o l ogy and outside l e d to 'the b r e a k d o w n o f metaphysics i n t h e i r classic f o r m ' . B y classical metaphysics Kasper means 'the study o f the f i n a l , alld e t e r m i n i n g and c o h e r i n g foundations, w i s d o m about the oneness and wholeness o f reality'. I n Catholic theology, this study was essential: ' I n the total theological t r a d i t i o n h i t h e r t o , metaphysics w i t h its universal categories had p r o v i d e d the i n s t r u m e n t w i t h w h i c h to render i n the m e d i u m of t h o u g h t a theologically appropriate and reflective account of G o d , the one reality that — itself a l l - c o m p r e h e n d i n g and all-deter m i n i n g — yet transcends all else' Obviously, i n selecting some e m i n e n t theologians to discuss, m a n y others are left aside, i n c l u d i n g those w r i t i n g i n Italian and Spanish, a deplorable omission Also, the neoscholastic theologians w h o resisted the t r e n d should

1

2

Theology and Church

( L o n d o n : S C M Press 1 9 8 9 ) : 1 .

C f . James A . W e i s h e i p l , ' N e o s c h o l a s t i c i s m a n d N e o t h o m i s m , New

( N e w Y o r k : M c G r a w - H i l l 1967)

vol

10:337

Catholic

Encyclopedia

P R E F A C E

P R E F A C E

VIII

iX

have been examined o n their o w n and f o r their o w n sake Since they

son O P and Rebecca H a r k i n read the text i n draft, for w h i c h I t h a n k them,

published mostly i n Latin, their w o r k is n o w largely unread

Regrettably,

w h i l e of course declaring t h e m free of blame f o r blemishes that r e m a i n and

they appear here o n l y as spectral adversaries, no d o u b t caricatured as adver-

for prejudices o f m i n e that were n o t overcome. I am grateful to m y friend

saries i n controversy often are Some o f the theologians h i g h l i g h t e d here

Jacinta O ' D r i s c o l l O P f o r essential technical assistance and t o Eileen Power for

suffered harassment by neoscholastic colleagues and ecclesiastical superiors.

her careful and sympathetic copy-editing. I cannot resist adding a w o r d of

The R o m a n Catholic C h u r c h , one should n o t forget, is a c h u r c h of

thanks to L a r r y Page and Sergey B r i n , founders of the Internet search engine

extremes: tolerant o f forms o f d e v o t i o n barely distinguishable f r o m 'supersti-

Google, w i t h o u t w h i c h m y claims to learning w o u l d be even more tenuous

t i o n ' , w i t h pastoral care sometimes verging o n 'tyranny', and o f t e n ferocious i n resisting intellectual i n n o v a t i o n . Moreover, the fate o f theologians 3

cannot be separated f r o m p o w e r struggles w i t h i n the C h u r c h , or f r o m events i n the w i d e r w o r l d : the First W o r l d War, the rise o f fascism and Soviet c o m m u n i s m , the Second W o r l d War, and the C o l d War. These are only alluded to w h e n they brush the lives o f o u r subjects W h i l e neoscholasticism

will

n o t be restored i n the foreseeable future, the philosophical problems f o r theology raised d u r i n g the m o d e r n i s t crisis i n the first decade o f the t w e n t i eth century seem as troublesome as ever. W h e t h e r the c o u n t e r - c u l t u r a l emphasis o n a certain nuptial mysticism, i n ecclesiology and theological anthropology and elsewhere i n Catholic C h r i s t i a n doctrine, w i l l carry us far i n t o the n e w century, remains to be seen These chapters derive mostly f r o m lectures at Blackfriars, O x f o r d . Versions o f chapter one were offered as the Saint Thomas Aquinas Lecture at the N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y o f Ireland, M a y n o o t h , i n M a r c h 2005; at the j o i n t m e e t i n g of the Society f o r the Study o f T h e o l o g y and the Irish Theological Society at D r u m c o n d r a , i n A p r i l 2005; and as the Glasmacher Lecture at Saint-Paul University, O t t a w a , i n N o v e m b e r 2005 The chapter o n Joseph Ratzinger derives f r o m the address w h i c h I gave w h e n receiving the Yves Congar A w a r d at B a r r y University, Florida, i n O c t o b e r 2005, w h i l e the chapter o n Yves Congar comes f r o m the D i s c e r n A n n u a l Lecture 2005 at the Institute for Research o n the Signs o f the Times i n M a l t a M y thanks go to D r Thomas A E Kelly, D r Paul D M u r r a y , D r R i c h a r d Feist, D r E d Sunshine and Fr M a r k W e d i g O P , and Fr Joseph Inguanez, respectively, for these invitations, and m u c h enjoyable hospitality Several friends have read parts of the text. V i v i a n B o l a n d O P , N e i l Fergu-

3

C f J o h n H e n r y N e w m a n ' s Preface t o t h e T h i r d E d i t i o n (187 7) o£ Lectures on the

Office of the Church the Anglican

Church,

viewed relatively to Romanism

and Popular Protestantism,

Prophetical

i n The 'Via Media'

of

e d i t e d b y H D . W e i d n e r ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n Press 1 9 9 0 ) : 10—57, i n

w h i c h he sees t h e d y n a m i c i n t h e C h u r c h i n t e r m s o f t h e t h r e e f o l d f u n c t i o n s o f w o r s h i p , t h e o l o g y a n d r u l e , t h e first t e n d i n g t o ' s u p e r s t i t i o n a n d e n t h u s i a s m '

the second t o ' r a t i o n a l -

i s m ' , a n d t h e t h i r d t o ' a m b i t i o n craft a n d c r u e l t y ' , each c o r r e c t e d b y t h e others i d e a l l y i n 'a ;

t r u c e o r a c o m p r o m i s e ' — ' t y r a n n y ' is N e w m a n ' s w o r d

Chapter One BEFORE VATICAN II

A c c o r d i n g to Pope J o h n Paul I I , w r i t i n g i n 1998, 'the m o r e distinguished o f the Catholic theologians of this century, to whose reflections and researches Vatican I I owes so m u c h ' , were all 'educated i n the school of t h e Angelic Doctor'

1

R e a s o n under O a t h The essential t h i n g , f o r Catholic theologians b o r n between 1890 and 1940, was that they should be g r o u n d e d i n 'thomistic philosophy' This was to inoculate t h e m against i n f e c t i o n by the idealist, subjectivist and positivist philosophies, w h i c h were held to have created 'the modernist crisis'

2

A c c o r d i n g to C a n o n Taw, clergy were required to attend lectures i n p h i l osophy

and theology, delivered i n L a t i n , by professors

who

treated

everything according t o the m e t h o d , d o c t r i n e and principles o f the Angelic D o c t o r , Saint Thomas A q u i n a s Moreover, all clergy, pastors, seminary p r o 3

fessors and so o n , swore the A n t i - m o d e r n i s t O a t h imposed i n 1910

'

P o p e J o h n P a u l I I , E n c y c l i c a l L e t t e r Fides

ct Ratio,

(see

15 S e p t e m b e r 1998 ( n u m e r o u s e d i -

tions): § § 5 7 - 9 2

T h e l i t e r a t u r e is i n u n e n s e ; see D i r r e l l j o d o t k (ed ) Catholicism

Roman

Catholic

Modernism

and Anti-Modernnm

in Historical

Context

Contending

with

Modernity.

(Cambridge: Cambridge

U n i v e r s i t y Press 2 0 0 0 ) 3

N o o n e i m a g i n e d t h a t lay m e n , let a l o n e w o m e n , c o u l d be t h e o l o g i a n s t h o u g h consider

M a r y D a l y ( b o r n 1928), w h o t o o k a different t u r n , b u t whose doctorates i n p h i l o s o p h y and t h e o l o g y w i t h t h e D o m i n i c a n s at t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f F r i b o u r g , S w i t z e r l a n d are g o o d examples o f n e o s c h o l a s t i c i s m : 77?i Problem of Speculative Natural 1966)

Knowledge

of Cod in the Philosophy

Jlieology

( W a s h i n g t o n : T h o m i s t Press 1965) and

of Jacques Maritain

(Rome: O f f i c i u m L i b r i Catholici

2

BEFORE VATICAN

BEFORE

I I

appendix) The philosophy examinations, to be passed before students p r o ceeded to theology, were framed i n terms o f the T w e n t y - f o u r Thomistic Theses. 4

Paradoxically, the revival o f Thomistic philosophy i n the wake o f Leo

VATICAN

3

II

w h a t the believer says, as i f the t r u t h s o f faith m i g h t differ f r o m the truths o f historical fact W e do n o t accept biblical exegesis that is supposedly 'neutral' and 'scientific' Finally, w e are most o f all concerned t o u p h o l d the n o t i o n o f there being absolute and unchangeable truths.

X I I I ' s directive, i n t e n d e d to keep m o d e r n philosophy o u t o f Catholicism, and especially G e r m a n R o m a n t i c i s m , kept to very m u c h the same canons o f

T h e Thomistic Theses

rationality as we f i n d i n the Enlightenment. The E n l i g h t e n m e n t ideal was to attain timeless, universal and objective conclusions by exercising a u n i t a r y and ahistorical form of reasoning. Similarly, neoscholastic theology ' i d e n t i -

I t is easy to see w h a t the p r o b l e m was: the nature of truth W h e t h e r i m p o s i n g

fied t r u t h and life w i t h i m m u t a b i l i t y and rationality; i t opposed being to

a f r a m e w o r k f o r the study o f philosophy i n the f o r m o f the T w e n t y - f o u r

5

history and i g n o r e d concreteness i n h u m a n life and i n the economy o f sal-

Thomistic Theses was a wise m o v e m i g h t w e l l be questioned.

vation'

For neothomists, as f o r E n l i g h t e n m e n t philosophers, appealing to

extent the average seminary philosophy course actually c o n f o r m e d to the

experience, t r a d i t i o n and historical studies was the w r o n g way to get to

pattern seems d o u b t f u l M o s t seminarians - straight f r o m school - were i n

truth

any case never destined to be competent i n philosophy They c o u l d do little

6

The w o r d ' m o d e r n i s m ' settled i n Catholic parlance i n the early t w e n t i e t h century, for example i n the encyclical Pascendi Dotninici Pope Pius X i n 1907

Gregis issued by

Setting aside the absurdly bombastic style of papal

documents i n those days, the m o d e r n i s m w h i c h the encyclical attacks is

To what

m o r e than learn the arguments o f f by heart, to reproduce i n the brief (always oral) examinations. The course was d i v i d e d i n t o ontology, cosmology, psychology and t h e o d icy: dealing, then, w i t h being, nature, soul and G o d , respectively

amazingly l i k e postmodernism: 'Postmodernity is a style o f t h o u g h t w h i c h

T h e p o i n t o f the eight theses i n o n t o l o g y was to secure the difference

is suspicious o f classical notions o f t r u t h , reason, i d e n t i t y and objectivity, o f

b e t w e e n that w h i c h is pure act and that w h i c h is composed of p o t e n c y and

the idea o f universal progress or emancipation, o f single frameworks, grand

act. P r i o r to any consideration o f the biblical doctrine o f creation, that is to

nar ratives o r ultimate grounds o f explanation'

say, the student learns h o w to explain that there is a radical difference i n

7

The A n t i - m o d e r n i s t O a t h asserts the R o m a n Catholic Church's c o m m i t -

b e i n g between G o d and e v e r y t h i n g else G o d is n o t a being i n the same

m e n t to intellect, and articulates fears o f the effects i n theology o f a n t i -

w a y as we are; G o d is i d e n t i f i e d as 'pure act o f being', ipsum esse subsisten.^

intellectualism

dependent o n n o e n t i t y or event to be G o d

The existence o f G o d , i t is asserted, may be k n o w n f o r

There is no p o t e n t i a l i t y i n

certain and proved by arguments f r o m cause and effect That is to say, we are

G o d ; that w o u l d mean G o d r e q u i r e d some other e n t i t y or event to c o m -

n o t dependent o n faith, feeling, i n t u i t i o n or instinct, f o r this belief There

plete H i m . There is n o 'possibility' i n G o d , potential that needs to be

are objective external criteria f o r the t r u t h o f Christianity; i t is n o t all a

realized This is a matter o f rational demonstration; n o t s o m e t h i n g we take

matter o f subjective psychological states. The i n s t i t u t i o n o f the C h u r c h ,

o n faith

i n c l u d i n g the papacy, was f o u n d e d by Jesus Christ, historically, p r i o r to his

Some beings composed of potency and act are corporeal, and some 'of

death. There is no such t h i n g as ' e v o l u t i o n o f d o c t r i n e ' , i f b y this is meant

these have souls, as the five theses i n cosmology m a i n t a i n Basically, the

change i n meaning. Faith is n o t a ' b l i n d feeling'; i t is real assent to true

p o i n t here was to secure proper understanding o f the (relative) a u t o n o m y o f

propositions. Those w h o swear this oath endorse the anti-modernist u t t e r -

the natural order, w i t h its intrinsic teleology This was i m p o r t a n t : the physi-

ances o f Pope Pius X , especially i n relation to 'the so-called history o f

cal w o r l d had to be s h o w n to w o r k o n its o w n natural principles — i t was not

dogmas'

sustained by regular infusions o f divine grace, i t was not a permanent miracle.

There is no distinction between w h a t the historian may say and

I n short, natural science is possible. I n some ways, cosmology was the decisive element o f the c u r r i c u l u m w h i c h secured the A r i s t o t e l i a n basis o f 4

See w w w v a x x i n e c o m / h y o o m i k / a q u i n a s / t h e s e s . e h t

5

Alasdair M a c h i t y r e Three Rival

6

T h o m a s F. O ' M e a r a O P Thomas Aquinas

for

Versions of Mora! Enquiry Theologian

L a t i n text and translation ( L o n d o n : D u c k w o r t h 1990): 65

(Notre Dame, I N , and L o n d o n : U n i -

versity o f N o t r e D a m e Press 1 9 9 9 ) : i 71 7

T P E a g l e t o n , The Illusions

ojPostmodernism

( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 1996): v i i

neoscholastic T h o m i s m The theses i n psychology m a i n t a i n that the h u m a n soul is b y nature i m m o r t a l (Thesis 15); there is n o body/soul dualism (16); yet the intellect operates independently of any b o d i l y organ (17); o u r minds have direct

4

B E F O R E

V A T I C A N

B E F O R E

I I

V A T I C A N

5

I I

knowledge o f the natures o f things (20); and the w i l l is subordinate to the

theological m o d e r n i s m , b y censorship, sackings and e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n - and

intellect (21)

the resurgence of issues that c o u l d n o t be repressed by such methods.

The w h o l e course culminates i n the three theses i n theodicy: the existence o f G o d is demonstrable b y cosmological arguments (22); the d i v i n e

Modernism

nature is appropriately i d e n t i f i e d as pure act or subsistent b e i n g (23); G o d alone may be said to create (24).. M u c h m i g h t be said about these theses. As the standard course books w o u l d show, cosmology i n c l u d e d consideration o f such terms as substance

The easiest access to the p r o b l e m set by theological m o d e r n i s m is

Medieval-

ism, the very readable b o o k published i n 1908 b y the f o r m e r Jesuit George

and accident, f o r m and matter, the philosophical t e r m i n o l o g y required (for

Tyrrell (1861-1909)

example) f o r the d o c t r i n e o f transubstantiation. Theodicy, obviously, covers

Catholic i n L o n d o n i n 1879 and entered the Society o f Jesus. Set to teach

only the o p e n i n g moves i n natural theology - n o t e x t e n d i n g to justifying

philosophy to Jesuit students he was soon transferred to other duties (jour-

the ways o f G o d i n the l i g h t o f the p r o b l e m o f evil.

nalism, c o n d u c t i n g retreats), o n the grounds that he was sponsoring 'pure

I n psychology the p r o g r a m m e was to e x p o u n d the metaphysical a r g u ments that prove that w e have i m m o r t a l souls - i t is not j u s t a matter of faith, or i n t u i t i o n . Independently o f w h e t h e r w e are to be raised f r o m the dead, there are metaphysical arguments that demonstrate h u m a n i m m o r t a l i t y Second, our k n o w l e d g e o f things is o f things as they are, n o t o n l y of h o w

9

B o r n i n D u b l i n , raised A n g l i c a n , he became a

T h o m i s m ' rather than the required 'Suarezianism'

H i s w r i t i n g s became

steadily m o r e u n o r t h o d o x H e was expelled f r o m the Society i n 1906. H e d i e d o f Bright's disease, ' f o r t i f i e d b y the rites o f the C h u r c h ' , absolved by three priests, denied a Catholic funeral (however) by the bishop since none c o u l d say that he 'recanted'

1 0

Cardinal Mercier, Archbishop o f Malines and Primate of B e l g i u m , had

they seem - w e are n o t prey to varieties o f phenomenalism that lay us o p e n to the anxieties over w h e t h e r w e have k n o w l e d g e o f a n y t h i n g outside o u r

addressed his f l o c k o n the subject of m o d e r n i s m

o w n heads.

t h e m that the heresies, p r i n c i p a l l y i n France and Italy, had scarcely a single

n

W h y , w h e n he assures

Finally, the existence o f G o d is philosophically demonstrable Here again,

adherent i n B e l g i u m , remains mysterious. M o d e r n i s m , anyway, Mercier says,

we are n o t dependent o n i n t u i t i o n i s m , a priori considerations o r mere faith.

is the v i e w that believers draw the object and motive o f their f a i t h f r o m

I t is possible to reason one's way to the t r u t h that G o d exists - this is n o t a

themselves, denying historically revealed t r u t h and thus also the teaching

t r u t h that w e learn f r o m the testimony or o n the a u t h o r i t y o f others, n o r

author ity of the C h u r c h . M o d e r n i s m is a f o r m of Protestantism: f a i t h under-

one that wells up f r o m w i t h i n , as the p r o d u c t o f instinct, feeling o r

stood as 'private judgment'. This Protestant spirit has infected Catholic

intuition

consciousness. Mercier singles o u t 'the English priest Tyrrell'. A g a i n , w h y he

I n short, theologians were expected to take their stand o n the realist metaphysics, philosophy o f science, epistemology and natural theology, framed no

d i d so, since few churchgoers i n B e l g i u m c o u l d have k n o w n o f his existence, let alone o f his w r i t i n g s , remains puzzling

1 2

U n d a u n t e d , indeed exhilarated, by this personal attack, Tyrrell, w i t h

d o u b t somewhat abstractly by the Thomistic Theses - w h i c h nonetheless show that the Christian faith, at least i n its Catholic f o r m , is n o t against all reason. O n the contrary, as every Thomist knows, 'Grace does n o t obliterate nature but perfects i t , just as natural reason subserves faith and the natural

9

inclination o f the w i l l yields to charity' (Summa Theologies 1 a

b r i d g e W e l l s : B u r n s a n d Oates 1994)

l,8ad2m).

I n their o w n way, the pastors o f the R o m a n Catholic C h u r c h were determ i n e d to u p h o l d the claims o f reason against a generation o f theologians w h o m they suspected o f o p t i n g rather f o r the a u t h o r i t y o f i n t u i t i o n , testimony, t r a d i t i o n , and especially 'experience'

8

The history o f t w e n t i e t h -

century Catholic theology is the history o f the attempted e l i m i n a t i o n o f

T h i r d revised a n d e n l a r g e d e d i t i o n 1 9 0 9 r e p r i n t e d w i t h f o r e w o r d b y G a b r i e l D a l y ( T u n -

1 0

Cf. Ellen M

L e o n a r d , George Tyrrell and the Catholic

Tradition

( L o n d o n : D a r t o n . T^ngman

a n d T o d d 1 9 8 2 ) ; N i c h o l a s Sagovsky, 'On God's Side': A Life of George Tyrrell ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n Press 1990) 1 1

D e s i r e M e r c i e r ( 1 8 5 1 - 1 9 2 6 ) t h e first professor o f T h o m i s t P h i l o s o p h y at L o u v a i n was a n ;

ardent p r o m o t e r o f neoscholasticism

a n d a valiant o p p o n e n t o f t h e G e r m a n o c c u p a t i o n

of

B e l g i u m i n 1 9 1 4 - 1 8 H e set u p t h e M a l i n e s C o n v e r s a t i o n s 1 9 2 1 - 5 . c u t s h o r t b y h i s death, t o respond to the A n g l o - C a t h o l i c r e u n i o n initiative 1 2

H

Alessandro M a g g i o l i n i ,

Magisterial teaching o n experience i n the t w e n t i e t h century;

f r o m t h e M o d e r n i s t crisis t o t h e S e c o n d V a t i c a n C o u n c i l ' , Communio

23 ( 1 9 9 6 ) : 2 2 4 - 4 3

A b b o t C o l u m b a M a r m i o n o f M a r e d s o u s h a d a p p r o a c h e d M e r c i e r about a c c e p t i n g T y r r e l l

f o r i n c a r d i n a t i o n i n M a l i n e s diocese; g r a t e f u l f o r M e r c i e r ' s interest his c o n d i t i o n s ( n o p r e a c h i n g o r p u b l i s h i n g )

I y r r e l l w o u l d n o t accept

6

B E F O R E

V A I I C A N

I I

B E F O R E

Mercier's permission, translated the pastoral so that he c o u l d reply A f t e r

V A I I C A N

7

I I

Tyrrell writes w i t h gusto. H e was a journalist, n o t a scholar, as he m i g h t

some p o l i t e remarks he w e n t o n the offensive: T n spite o f ail their t h e o -

have agreed i n Through Scylla and Charybdis

logical heresies and divisions, the religious interest still lives and grows i n

symbolic approach to religious t r u t h , w h i c h deprives the concept o f t r u t h of

Protestant countries, whereas i t languishes and dies a m o n g Catholics under

its meaning; and i n the posthumous Christianity

this m o d e r n craze f o r centralization and m i l i t a r y u n i f o r m i t y '

ages C h r i s t i a n i t y as developing i n t o a universal religion I n these books he

1 3

Whatever

(1907) he sympathizes w i t h a at the Cross-Roads

he envis-

the Cardinal says, i t is the vitality o f f a i t h that is the source and c r i t e r i o n o f

moves w e l l beyond Catholic o r t h o d o x y I n Medievalism,

d o c t r i n a l t r u t h , w h i c h is n o t the same t h i n g as i n d i v i d u a l subjectivity.

real questions, albeit i n an i n f l a m m a t o r y manner

Indeed, i f there is a subjectivism threatening the C h u r c h , i t is the ' i n d i v i d u -

dealt w i t h : governance i n the C h u r c h ; the d i g n i t y and role of laity; and the

alistic conception o f papal a u t h o r i t y ' . Since 1870, catechisms and seminary

concepts o f experience and t r a d i t i o n as l o c i o f t r u t h

textbooks have been revised to impose the heresy o f u l t r a m o n t a n i s m - 'to destroy the c o n s t i t u t i o n o f the C h u r c h ; to make ornamental nonentities o f the bishops; and to substitute, as the r u l e of faith, the private j u d g m e n t o f the Pope instead o f the p u b l i c j u d g m e n t o f the w h o l e C h u r c h as represented by the entire episcopate'.

14

T h e lay Catholic's place is n o t j u s t 'to

receive the faith passively as one receives a traveller's tale o f regions b e y o n d his ken; a tale w h i c h he repeats to others w o r d for w o r d f o r w h a t i t is w o r t h , b u t w i t h no guarantee o f personal experience or c o n v i c t i o n ' O n the c o n trary, 'the laity are part o f the C h u r c h ' : ' Y o u forget that every baptized Christian is commissioned apostle and teacher; and as such is no mere telephone, but must speak f r o m the fulness o f a l i v i n g personal interest i n the t r u t h o f his r e l i g i o n ' Teaching

1 5

O f course there is a distinction between the ' C h u r c h

and the ' C h u r c h

Taught' -

the hierarchy and the faithful

However, p r i o r i t y lies w i t h 'a D i v i n e Tradition o f w h i c h the entire C h u r c h ,

however, he raised

They w o u l d have to be

H e was n o t f o r g o t t e n at Vatican I I O n 1 October 1963, i n a powerful speech, Ernesto R u f f i n i , Cardinal Archbishop o f Palermo, a major figure at the C o u n c i l , i n f o r m e d the assembly that the idea o f the C h u r c h as a sacram e n t came from Tyrrell. H e was probably indebted to Joseph C Fenton, the most eminent A m e r i c a n theologian at the C o u n c i l , w h o complained that the w h o l e of the first chapter of Lumen Gentium, the document o n the nature :

of the C h u r c h , was composed i n the language o f Tyrrell. That the C h u r c h as hierarchical institution (chapter 3) should be treated after the C h u r c h as mystery (chapter 1) and as people o f G o d (chapter 2) w o u l d surely have seemed to Tyrrell a g o o d way o f laying o u t the doctrine That the likes of R u f f i n i and Fenton. significant members of the ultramontanist m i n o r i t y at Vatican I I , should f i n d Lumen however, a salutary thought

Gentium

to reek of modernist heresy is,

1 8

and n o t merely the episcopate, is the organ and depositary' ' Tradition is the faith that lives i n the w h o l e C h u r c h and is handed d o w n f r o m generation to

Alternatives to

generation, o f w h i c h the entire body, and n o t a mere handful of officials, is the depositary and organ o f transmission

O f this rule and l a w the H o l y

Spirit diffused i n the hearts o f the f a i t h f u l is the author; the episcopate merely the servant, the witness, the interpreter' .

1 6

Tyrrell attacks the ' n e w

theology', according to w h i c h a bishop i n his diocese is m e r e l y the delegate or vicar o f the Bishop o f R o m e .

H e defends the C h u r c h o f England

('We have m u c h to learn f r o m h e r ' ) . H e mocks the idea that he is 'leader' o f any movement. Finally, his ' m e t h o d o f i m m a n e n t i s m ' , w h i c h M e r c i e r denounces, is indebted, n o t to c r y p t o - K a n t i a n Protestantism, as alleged, b u t to the Exercises o f St Ignatius o f L o y o l a .

17

Even d u r i n g the decades w h e n T h o m i s t philosophy was mandatory, many significant theologians w o r k e d o n quite different lines

Medievalism:

1 4

I b i d : 50

1 5

I b i d : 59

43

I n Germany, for

example, neither Karl A d a m (1876-1966) nor R o m a n o Guardini (1885-1968) was Thomist, i n any sense. K a r l A d a m , trained as a patristic scholar at the U n i v e r s i t y of M u n i c h , w i t h books o n Tertullian's concept o f c h u r c h (1907) and Augustine's d o c t r i n e o f the eucharist (1908), taught all his life at Tübingen. B u i l d i n g o n t h e legacy o f the Catholic Tübingen S c h o o l ,

1 8

1 1

Neoscholasticism

G

19

he presented the C h u r c h as p r i m a r i l y a

A l b e r i g o a n d J A K o m o n c h a k ( e d s ) History

Second Period

and

Intersesiion

September

L e u v e n : Peelers 2 0 0 0 ) : 50 ( R u f f i n i ) , 3 0

of Vatican 11, v o l I I I The Mature

1963-September

1964

Council

( M a r y k n o l l , N Y : O r b i s , and

(Fenton)

F o r the C a t h o l i c T ü b i n g e n S c h o o l see James I i m s t e a d B u r t c h a e l l esc, i n N i n i a n Smart

1 6

I b i d : 61

a n d o t h e r s (eds) Nineteenth

1 7

I b i d : 104

U n i v e r s i t y Press 1 9 8 5 ) : 1 1 1 - 3 9

Century

Religious

Thought

in the West ( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e

8

B E F O R E

V A T I C A N

I I

B E F O R E

V A T I C A N

9

I I

c o m m u n i t y , indeed as 'mystical b o d y o f C h r i s t ' , contrasting this quite d e l i b -

C o u n c i l accepted m u c h o f the agenda that he had stood for all his life, he

erately w i t h the prevailing neoscholastic image o f the C h u r c h as a 'perfect

was sceptical about the likely results H e refused Pope Paul VI's i n v i t a t i o n to

society', and, o n the other extreme, w i t h liberal Protestantism's fuzzy eccle-

become a cardinal

siologies.. I n the 1920s he c o n t r i b u t e d t o the development o f 'kerygmatic theology', Verkündigungstheologie,

i n this instance steering b e t w e e n the syl-

Immensely influential, w i t h dozens of books, G u a r d i n i never engaged w i t h historical-critical biblical exegesis H e w r o t e about the C h u r c h w i t h -

logistically expounded C h r i s t o l o g y o f neoscholastic textbooks and the ' l i f e -

o u t r e f e r r i n g t o Vatican I.. H e w r o t e manifestly Catholic theology w i t h o u t

of-jesus research' o f liberal Protestantism.

frequendy c i t i n g papal encyclicals, as was the style o f the day. R e l a t i n g

A d a m , delated to R o m e (need i t be said?), revised several o f his books to reduce suspicions o f his o r t h o d o x y L i k e others i n the Tübingen t r a d i t i o n ,

theology to culture and literature, he w r o t e o n Dostoevsky, Pascal, Dante, Hölderlin, R i l k e , and m u c h else

w i t h its R o m a n t i c emphasis o n c o m m u n i t y , he was attracted, initially, i n the early 1930s, to the p a t r i o t i s m and f a m i l y values p r o c l a i m e d b y the N a t i o n a l

That neither K a r l A d a m n o r R o m a n o G u a r d i n i belonged to any religious order, is no accident — n o r that they had tenure i n G e r m a n universities

Socialist G e r m a n Workers' Patty Too o l d to play a part i n the r u n - u p to Vatican I I , his books nevertheless helped to prepare some o f his compatriots for the unexpectedly radical event

Neoscholasticism

2 0

R o m a n o G u a r d i n i , Italian by b i r t h , g i e w up i n M a i n z

2 1

H e studied at

Freiburg i m Breisgau and Tübingen, before g o i n g to the diocesan seminar)',

I n most seminaries and universities t h r o u g h o u t the Catholic w o r l d , however,

where he f o u n d the neoscholastic textbooks insufferable. Back i n Freiburg

philosophy and theolog)' were taught strictly ad mentem Sancti Thoma?

f o r doctoral studies, he w o r k e d o n Bonaventure's teaching o n r e d e m p t i o n

best account, by A n t h o n y Kenny, recalls his experience at the Gregoriana,

2 3

The

This choice o f topic, and unconcealed scorn for neoscholasticism, prevented

the great Jesuit university i n R o m e , f r o m 1949 to 1 9 5 6 .

his b e i n g appointed, as he had expected, to teach i n the diocesan seminary

Dezza, the Professor o f Metaphysics: 'sitting totally motionless, he enunci-

Anyway, parish m i n i s t r y soon gave way to m i l i t a r y service as a medical

ated rheumily, i n a barely audible voice, theses about t h e analogy o f being

orderly (1916-18). I n 1918, t h r o u g h his sympathy w i t h the B e n e d i c t i n e -

and the varieties of potentiality and actuality'.. Later, i n his theology years,

inspired liturgical m o v e m e n t i n Germany, he published his first, immensely

so K e n n y reports, neither the B i b l e n o r the Summa Theohgiee was m u c h

influential b o o k , Vom Geht der Liturgie

23

H e recalls Paolo

H e was i n v o l v e d w i t h the C a t h o l i c

studied H e d i d not appreciate Bernard Lonergan then as he d i d later, for his

y o u t h movement, centred at B u r g Rothenfels. I n 1923, he accepted a n e w l y

Aquinas books: he 'lectured w i t h an air o f b o r e d o m that q u i c k l y c o m m u n i -

established chair i n B e r l i n , t h o u g h his Protestant colleagues were so u n -

cated itself to his audience'

w e l c o m i n g that he agreed to the f i c t i o n that he was a visiting professor

grace, 'the best lecturer I have heard i n a l i f e t i m e o f l e c t u r e - g o i n g ' (no small

Breslau

from

I n M a r c h 1939, the N a z i regime abolished the post, forbade his

c o m p l i m e n t f r o m an O x f o r d don)

ministry w i t h y o u t h , and i n 1941 banned h i m f r o m speaking i n public A m o n g the first academics to be reinstated, he taught at Tübingen, before j o i n i n g the philosophy faculty at the U n i v e r s i t y o f M u n i c h , where he remained u n t i l retirement i n 1962

H e t o o k part i n the pre-Vatican I I

l i t u r g y commission t h o u g h n o t i n the C o u n c i l itself W h i l e seeing that the

H e tecalis M a u r i z i o Flick o n the t h e o l o g y of

Classes were huge N o one studied p r i m a r y sources Cyclostyled lecture notes became available as technology advanced The b r i g h t students relied o n secondary literature, i n Latin, such as the textbooks o f G r e d t

24

and Billot

Joseph A u g u s t Gredt (1863-1940), b o r n i n L u x e m b o u r g , a Benedictine m o n k , studied i n R o m e w i t h D o m i n i c a n Thomists such as A l b e r t o Lepidi, and Tbmmaso Zigliara. H e taught p h i l o s o p h y i n R o m e f o r 40 years. Interested i n physics and biology, he became a legend f o r his t w o - v o l u m e

2 0

See R o b e r t A

K r i e g , Kar! Adam:

Catholicism

in German

Culture

(Notre Dame, I N , and

2 1

See R o b e r t A

K r i e g Romano

Guardini

A Precursor

textbook, Elementa philosophies amtotelico-thomisticce, 1899 and 1901, reissued i n expanded editions i n t o the 1960s, 'the classical t e x t b o o k of thomisdc

L o n d o n : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e Press 1992) oj Vatican II ( N o t r e D a m e . I N and

L o n d o n : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e Press 1 9 9 7 ) . 2 2

Supervised by Engelbert Krebs

( 1 8 8 1 - 1 9 5 0 ) , w h o c o n d u c t e d his f r i e n d

Heidegger's

w e d d i n g i n 1917; p r i m a r i l y a m e d i e v a l i s t , be was r e m o v e d f r o m t e a c h i n g b y t h e N a z i s i n 1938

2 3

A Path from Rome. An Autobiography

( L o n d o n : S i d g w i c k a n d Jackson 1 9 8 5 ) : 4 7 ( D e z z a ) , 77

( L o n e r g a n ) 77 ( F l i c k ) 2 +

C f A W M i i l l e r i n New Catholic

Encyclopedia

V I ( 1 9 6 7 ) : 725

10

B E F O R E

V A T I C A N

I I

B E F O R E

V A T I C A N

I I

11

philosophy', still i n use 20 years after his death Gredt's p o s i t i o n was w o r k e d

Theobgiœ

out i n opposition to e x t e r n a l - w o r i d scepticism and the other problems o f

achievement

post-Cartesian philosophy. The problematic s h o u l d n o t be unfamiliar to

clarifications offered by a select b a n d of sixteenth-century

student theologians.

There was, however, n o p o i n t i n p a y i n g m u c h attention t o h o w his thought

- was an unsurpassed and unsurpassable speculative theological I t m i g h t , and indeed should, be studied i n the l i g h t o f the commentators

Louis B i l l o t (1846-1931), a French Jesuit, taught f o r years i n R o m e . H e

interacted w i t h that o f his contemporaries o r h o w i t was shaped by his

is perhaps best remembered f o r resigning as Cardinal i n 1927, unable to

inheritance f r o m earlier Christian thinkers (let alone Jewish and M u s l i m

accept the papal c o n d e m n a t i o n of the u l t r a - r i g h t w i n g m o v e m e n t Française

Action

Billot's books, massive and w e l l d o c u m e n t e d , f r o m his De Verba

ones). O n the other hand, g o o d students should w o r k o n A r i s t o t l e and Aquinas's commentaries

o n A r i s t o t l e Otherwise, k n o w i n g n o t h i n g o f

incarnato (1892) onwards, constitute by far the most impressive b o d y of

Aquinas's grandeur as a metaphysician, they w o u l d misunderstand h i m

Catholic theology as i t existed at the b e g i n n i n g o f the t w e n t i e t h century,

completely

covering all the m a i n topics Neglected, i f not completely f o r g o t t e n , Billot's w o r k w o u l d need to be explored i n any attempt t o w r i t e a balanced and comprehensive

history o f m o d e r n Catholic theology, w h i c h w o u l d do

N a t u r a l Metaphysics

justice to all sides.

There was no way of e n t e r i n g Catholic theology w i t h o u t first d o i n g philosophy — learning to master the d o c t r i n e laid o u t i n the 'perennial philosophy',

T h o m i s m at the A n g e l i c u m

and, secondarily, laying bare and r e f u t i n g all the w r o n g philosophies I n the key text, La synthèse thomiste (1946) w e can see Garrigou-Lagrange at his

The m o d e l T h o m i s t - n o t o n l y i n D o m i n i c a n m y t h o l o g y — was R e g i n a l d Garrigou-Tagrange

most characteristic

2 7

B o r n i n 1877, he had a conversion, w h i l e a medical

As regards the positive exposition, the author insists that, i n Aristotle,

student, t h r o u g h reading w o r k b y Ernest H e l l o ( 1 8 2 8 - 8 5 ) , the somewhat

Aquinas discovered the 'natural metaphysics o f h u m a n intelligence', a meta-

maverick, radically conservative ultramontanist B r e t o n w r i t e r . H e j o i n e d

physics w h i c h , b e g i n n i n g w i t h sense experience, rises progressively u n t i l i t

the French D o m i n i c a n s , studied and taught at Te Saulchoir before m o v i n g

reaches G o d , actus purus and noesis noeseos, 'sheer being' i n Aquinas's phrase,

to R o m e , w h e r e he lectured at the C o l l e g i o A n g e l i c o , the D o m i n i c a n u n i -

and ' s e l f - k n o w i n g ' i n Aristotle's As this argument unfolds i t delivers a

versity, f r o m 1909

H e supervised the doctoral

philosophy o f being, an ontology, d i f f e r i n g entirely f r o m philosophies of

research of M . - D C h e n u and the future Pope John Paul I I . H e gave the

appearance (phenomenalism), o f b e c o m i n g (evolutionism), and o f the ego

2 5

u n t i l he retired i n 1960.

retreat i n Paris w h i c h attracted Yves C o u g a r to leave the diocesan seminary

(psychologism) Phenomenalism is still o n the market, t h e others w e m i g h t

i n order to j o i n the D o m i n i c a n s

H e was a controversial figure, m u c h

be i n c l i n e d to relabel as process t h o u g h t and subjectivism; but the m a i n aim

admired b u t also o f t e n caricatured, even demonized His b i g b o o k o n G o d ,

o f philosophical studies for neophyte theologians had t o be to establish for

for example, is n o t as dreadful as some have asserted: 'the G o d o f the Bible

themselves a moderate f o r m of metaphysical, epistemological and moral

and the Gospel has been reduced to a caput mortuum o f frozen abstractions

realism.

overwhelmingly b o r i n g . tautology'

n o t h i n g b u t a gigantic and futile exercise i n

2 6

B e i n g , reality, w h i c h is w h a t intellect first apprehends, is not the b e i n g of G o d , n o r the being o f the cognizing subject, Garrigou-Lagrange insists. I n

For Garrigou-Tagrange, Thomas Aquinas's w o r k - chiefly the

Summa

other words, he suspects that the neophytes are strongly tempted to think that either G o d or oneself is the p r i m a r y d a t u m of knowledge. Against this, so he contends, we have to see that being, reality, exists i n t h e sense-

2 5

C f . R i c h a r d P e d d i c o r d , The Sacred Monster

of Reginald 2 6

Thus

Garrigou-Tagrange Louis Bouyer

of Thomism:

An Introduction

to the Life and

Legacy

O P ( S o u t h B e n d , I N : St A u s t i n ' s Press 2 0 0 5 )

(1913—2004). f o r m e r l y a L u t h e r a n pastor, p r i e s t o f the

French

perceptible w o r l d

This means that knowledge o f God's existence and

nature is mediated: i n k n o w i n g things i n the w o r l d we can argue f r o m effect

O r a t o r y h i m s e l f a m a j o r t h e o l o g i a n , N e w m a n scholar a n d l i t u r g i s t . w h o n e v e r e n d u r e d s e m i nary neoscholasticism:

cf.

The

Invisible

( E d i n b u r g h : I & L C l a r k 1999): 248

Fathei

Approaches

to the

Mystery

of the

Divinity

2 7

Reality

A

Synthesis

of Ihomistic

c h a p t e r s u m m a r i z e s this b o o k

Thought

(St L o u i s , M O : H e r d e r 1 9 5 2 ) : t h e rest o f this

12

B E F O R E

V A T I C A N

B E F O R E

I I

to cause - b u t i t is the w o r l d that w e k n o w i n the first place. W e do n o t have

Alternative

some basic innate k n o w l e d g e o f G o d n o r any k n o w l e d g e o f o u r o w n c o n sciousness, p r i o r to our engagement w i t h things i n the w o r l d w e inhabit. I t is o n l y by reflection o n its o w n act o f k n o w i n g things that the intellect comes t o k n o w the existence o f its cognitive acts and thus o f its being a subject, a centre o f consciousness The 'moderate realism' o f A r i s t o t l e and Aquinas is i n h a r m o n y w i t h c o m m o n sense, w h i c h is to say: our natural, spontaneous knowledge.. This

1

contemporary

philosophy, as

Garrigou-

agnosticism, w h i c h includes the neo-positivism of Carnap, Wittgenstein, 28

Here, too, belongs the p h e n o m -

enology o f Husserl, w h i c h holds that the object o f philosophy is the immediate datum o f experience. AH these philosophies are concerned, then, n o t w i t h being, reality but w i t h phenomena, 'appearances'. 2

e v o l u t i o n i s m , w h i c h , i n the wake of H e g e l , takes the f o r m o f idealism, represented by Gentile i n Italy, and by L e o n Brunschvicg i n France; and

the p r i n c i p l e o f n o n - c o n t r a d i c t i o n : the articulation o f o p p o s i t i o n between

w h e n g i v e n a twist towards the empirical, c o i n i n g o u t as the creative

being and n o t h i n g ' B e i n g is n o t n o t h i n g ' , we may say; 'one and the same tively considered, then, this is the p r i n c i p l e o f i d e n t i t y : ' I f a t h i n g is, i t is: i f i t

characterize

nalism o f H u m e and C o m t e rehashed.

to believe - rather, these are necessary laws of b e i n g , objective laws o f all

Posi-

that

Rougier, and of the group called the Vienna Circle, w h i c h is the n o m i -

to phenomena, merely experimental, as the neophytes seem to be i n c l i n e d

t h i n g , r e m a i n i n g such, cannot simultaneously b o t h be and n o t be'

Philosophies

Lagrange lists t h e m :

h a r m o n y appears most clearly i n the objective validity o f first principles,

R i s i n g i m m e d i a t e l y f r o m the idea o f being is the fir st p r i n c i p l e , w h i c h is

13

I I

This becomes m u c h easier to grasp w h e n w e come to the three p r i n c i p a l tendencies

w h i c h are laws, n o t o f the m i n d only, mere logical laws, n o r laws restricted

reality, o f all that is o r can be.

V A I I C A N

evolution o f Bergson. 3

the m o d e r n G e r m a n school - rather a m i x e d bag, i t has to be said v o l u n t a r i s m as i n M a x Scheler; natural philosophy i n D r i e s c h , w h o

is n o t , i t is n o t ' To this p r i n c i p l e o f n o n - c o n t r a d i c t i o n is subordinated the

(however) leans o n A r i s t o t l e ; and o n t o l o g y i n H a r t m a n n , w h o gives a

p r i n c i p l e o f sufficient reason: ' E v e r y t h i n g that is, has its raison d'être, i n itself,

Platonic t w i s t to Aristotle's metaphysics — accordingly, for a Thoinist

i f of itself i t exists; i n something else, i f o f itself i t does n o t exist'

like Garrigou-Lagrange, these philosophies are w o r t h engaging w i t h ,

These are the principles o f our natural intelligence, first manifested i n

precisely w h e r e they l i m p towards A r i s t o t l e and Plato

that spontaneous f o r m o f intelligence w h i c h we call c o m m o n sense, that is, the natural aptitude of intelligence, to judge things sanely — before we have been initiated into a certain philosophical

culture

Garrigou-Lagrange's map o f m o d e r n philosophy need n o t be accepted i n every detail Nonetheless, as a r o u g h guide, he is by no means completely at

E x p o s i t i o n of the principles o f o n t o l o g y takes up the greater part o f Garrigou-Lagranges b o o k I t cannot be said to be easy going. O n the c o n -

sea. O n the contrary, he had a m o r e i n f o r m e d and better-balanced picture than many philosophers, let alone Thomists, had at the time.

trary, i t seems, at least to an analytic philosopher's eye, all t o o m u c h like the exposition, h i g h l y abstract and syllogistic, o f a set o f quasi-Euclidean t h e o rems. The c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f metaphysical principles seems very m u c h l i k e

Theology without Thomistic

setting o u t the rules o f a game. F r o m the p o i n t o f v i e w o f a m o r e text-based way o f studying philosophy, metaphysics seems treated like a k i n d of m a t h ematics. O n the historical side, concepts seem to come f r o m nowhere, they have n o background or context O n e way to keep one's head up, however, is to keep r e m i n d i n g oneself that, f o r Garrigou-Lagrange, the abstract structure w h i c h he expounds is actually i n t e n d e d to seem perfectly natural, once we clear away the mistaken philosophical theories

w h i c h distort and

occlude our c o m m o n sense. H i s metaphysics, one may say, is intended to let

Philosophy

W h a t goes w r o n g w h e n Catholic theologians t u r n away f r o m metaphysics? L i p service is, o f course, p a i d to Thomas Aquinas, Garrigou-Lagrange says, sarcastically Catholic theologians have to pretend to be Thomists. Yet, he asks rhetorically, is one a Thomist by accepting the dogmas defined by the C h u r c h , w h i l e f o l l o w i n g Descartes o n the spiritual life — b y privatizing one's relationship w i t h God? O r w h i l e , w i t h H u m e , denying the p r i n c i p l e of

things appear to us as they w o u l d i f our minds were n o t c l o u d e d by p h i l o sophical theorizings 2 t i

L o u i s R o u g i e r ( 1 8 8 9 - 1 9 8 2 ) , t h e F r e n c h l i n k w i t h t h e V i e n n a C i r c l e , a sort o f l o g i c a l

e m p i r i c i s t , o r g a n i z e d t h e Paris I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress o f S ci e n t i f i c P h i i o s o p h y

1935.

14

B E F O R E

V A T I C A N

B E F O R E

I I

causality and hence the validity o f cosmological proofs f o r the existence

V A T I C A N

15

I I

Garrigou-Lagrange becomes extremely eloquent Are w e to suppose that the dogma o f the I n c a r n a t i o n affirms that Jesus is G o d , a statement o f fact -

of God? A h - w e m i g h t naively ask — are n o t the truths o f c o m m o n sense a s u f f i -

or a pious e x h o r t a t i o n , that we must act towards Jesus 'as i f he were God? Is

cient f o u n d a t i o n for Catholic philosophers and theologians? Indeed they

Christ really present i n the eucharist, o r do w e only act as i f he were so?

are, Garrigou-Lagrange replies, w a r m i n g to his theme - the p r o b l e m is that

Succumbing to the allurements o f pragmatism, he fears, w e forget h o w to

the truths of c o m m o n sense are t o o o f t e n overlaid b y m o d e r n philosophical

understand dogmas defined by the C h u r c h as true, immutable, and as con-

theorizings. The minds o f neophyte theologians, so he thinks, are so soaked

f o r m i n g to the extramental reality w h i c h they express. W h a t they express is

i n phenomenalism, idealism, positivism, pragmatism, and so o n , that, w i t h -

n o t o u r religious experience. As regards the dogma o f the Incarnation,

o u t serious engagement w i t h these philosophies, they r e m a i n under t h e i r

Garrigou-Lagrange asks, w i t h r o u g h h u m o u r , ' W h o can c l a i m to experience

spell, w h i c h means i n the end that they discount reason

the hypostatic u n i o n ? ' W e may experience, n o t the mystery itself, b u t its

H e t h e n goes o f f i n t o something o f a rant. W h e n theologians choose history o f doctrine as their specialism, and abandon metaphysics, w h i c h he seems to regard as the unavoidable effect, then relativism creeps i n t o the teaching o f d o c t r i n e Pope Pius X was r i g h t to h i g h l i g h t , i n many C a t h o l i c ' theologians, i n his day, a gaping v o i d : the lack o f philosophy N e a r l y f i f t y years later, i n the 1950s, so Garrigou-Lagrange thinks, the same v o i d lies gaping open

effects i n us - i f y o u like: ' T h e Spirit H i m s e l f g i v e t h testimony to o u r spirit that we are the sons of G o d ' (§1384). Thomas Aquinas w o u l d agree to that, no d o u b t a l l o w i n g that the Spirit evokes i n us a filial affection, w h i c h (if you like) y o u may say y o u 'experience' Yet even this 'experience', G a r r i g o u Lagrange says, deflatingly, w o u l d be difficult to distinguish f r o m

mere

sentimental affection Bemused by this pragmatist c o n c e p t i o n o f t r u t h , another theologian has

Recently, for example, Garrigou-Lagrange reports, one theologian has asserted that, w h i l e speculative

theology no d o u b t p r o d u c e d beautiful

claimed that theology is at b o t t o m a spirituality, w h i c h has f o u n d concepts adequate to its religious experience. This p o s i t i o n comes from the G e r m a n

systems i n the M i d d l e Ages, i t n o longer has a role: serious w o r k is n o w all

Romantic

i n positive theology - historical scholarship, that is to say - rather than i n

Here, however, as we shall see i n the next chapter, Garrigou-Lagrange is

Tübingen School, and especially f r o m Johann A d a m M ö h l e r

metaphysical system-building. A n o t h e r proposes t o p u t the treatise o n the

attacking his f o r m e r student M a r i e - D o m i n i q u e C h e n u

This is t h e claim

T r i n i t y before the de Deo uno, w h i c h i n any case he w o u l d cut d o w n to size.

that L h o m i s t theology w o u l d be the expression o f D o m i n i c a n spirituality,

As regards the relationship between nature and grace, another w o u l d r e t u r n

Scotism that o f Franciscan spirituality, M o l i n i s m that of lgnatian spirituality,

to w h a t he holds to be the true p o s i t i o n o f the Greek Fathers before the

and so o n These three schools of spirituality, i t w o u l d be said, are tolerated

t i m e o f Augustine - as i f the labours o f Aquinas, and seven centuries o f

i n the Catholic C h u r c h , and so the theologies, w h i c h are their conceptual

Thomists, were o f no value! For the likes o f Garrigou-Lagrange, there was

expressions, each being i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the particular religious experi-

no p o i n t i n studying earlier authors whose w o r k was absorbed i n t o , or r e n -

ence, w h i c h is its source, w o u l d all be equally 'true'. A t times, however,

dered redundant by, Aquinas's achievement. Pragmatism is a great t e m p t a t i o n : ' A doctrine according to w h i c h t r u t h is

Garrigou-Lagrange protests, these theologies contradict one another — what is to be said about this?

a relation, entirely i m m a n e n t to h u m a n experience, whereby k n o w l e d g e is

This 'spiritualization' o f theology, r e d u c i n g i t to a religious experience,

subordinated to activity, and the t r u t h o f a p r o p o s i t i o n consists i n its u t i l i t y

deprives i t o f all 'scientific' o b j e c t i v i t y This is the morass i n t o w h i c h we

and satisfactoriness'.

are l e d i f we abandon t h e n o t i o n o f t r u t h as c o n f o r m i t y w i t h

29

D o g m a becomes a n o r m , regulatory, a practical

objective

prescription: ' I n y o u r relations w i t h G o d , act as y o u do i n y o u r relations

reality, p r o p o s i n g rather to define t r u t h as c o n f o r m i t y w i t h

constantly

w i t h people'. D o g m a , that is t o say, w o u l d n o t be true by its c o n f o r m i n g to

developing experience, m o r a l and religious

transcendent d i v i n e reality, b u t b y its relation to the i n t e r n a l religious ex-

c o n c e p t i o n o f t r u t h as correspondence w i t h reality is t o unsettle a l l f o u n -

perience o f the person. ' T h e dogmas o f faith are t o be retained o n l y i n the

dations, n o t o n l y i n theology, i n metaphysics, b u t also i n the sciences, and

practical sense, i e : as preceptive norms o f action, but n o t as norms o f

i n f a i t h : ' T h e enthusiasm o f hope and charity, i f i t is not to remain a beauti-

b e l i e f w h i c h is a thesis that has been condemned by the C h u r c h (§1371).

ful dream of religious e m o t i o n , must rest o n a faith w h i c h is i n c o n f o r m i t y

To abandon the traditional

w i t h reality, n o t merely w i t h the exigencies o f o u r i n n e r life, or even w i t h Reality:

§1367

S u b s e q u e n t page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n t h e t e x t

our best intentions'.

16

B E F O R E

V A T I C A N

I I

Chapter Two

Back, t h e n , to w h e r e w e were before, so Garrigou-Lagrange counsels us. A c t i o n , practice, experience, can never be the first c r i t e r i o n o f w h a t is true. Rather, the first c r i t e r i o n must be ontological, that objective reality f r o m

MARIE-DOMINIQUE

w h i c h reason draws first principles The first act o f the intellect is to k n o w , n o t its o w n action, n o t the ego, n o t phenomena, b u t objective and i n t e l l i -

CHENU

gible being (§1398). Unless w o u l d - b e theologians free themselves o f the philosophies b y w h i c h Garrigou-Lagrange takes i t f o r granted they are captivated, t h e i r theology w i l l inevitably subvert true Catholic d o c t r i n e

Conclusion M u c h m o r e m i g h t be said, o f course Garrigou-Lagrange published many

W h i l e Garrigou-Lagrange w a n t e d h i m to r e m a i n i n R o m e , i n 1920, as his

books o n dogmatic theology and spirituality H i s exposition o f Thomistic

assistant at the A n g e l i c u m , the y o u n g C h e n u chose rather to r e t u r n to Le

philosophy o f being, one may concede, is so abstract as to be almost i m p o s -

Saulchoir, the French D o m i n i c a n college t h e n i n exile i n B e l g i u m .

sible f o r beginners nowadays to get into. W h a t he perhaps intended as

younger m a n w a n t e d to develop a radically different way o f reading Thomas

merely a supplementary historical sketch o f the types of philosophy i n

Aquinas f r o m the one inculcated at the A n g e l i c u m T h e conflict o f inter-

vogue w h e n he was w r i t i n g is a far m o r e accessible p o i n t o f e n t r y i n t o the

pretations w h i c h divided t h e m so b i t t e r l y soon emerged.

1

The

questions about t r u t h and reality, realism, idealism, phenomenalism, and so

M a r c e l - L e o n C h e n u was b o r n o n 7 January 1895 at Soisy-sur-Seine, and

o n , w h i c h any w o u l d - b e Catholic theologian still needs to sort out. I r o n i -

died i n Paris o n 11 February 1990. H i s parents, bakers near C o r b e i l , eventu-

cally, w h e n this inveterate adversary of the histórico-contextualist approach

ally r u n n i n g a m e t a l w o r k i n g business, were never fiee o f financial anxieties

considers the philosophical options adopted by philosophers i n his o w n day,

H i s maternal grandparents, state school teachers, especially his grand-

he becomes a m o d e l o f h o w to engage w i t h the philosophical issues about

m o t h e r , encouraged his aptitude f o r study As a 15-year-old, v i s i t i n g Le

being, t r u t h , and so o n , w h i c h may perhaps always remain o n the t h e o -

Saulchoir, he fell i n love w i t h w h a t he saw as 'a very beautiful l i t u r g y w i t h a

logian's agenda, but w h i c h , i n any case, haunt the theologies w e are n o w to

life of study and a c o m m u n i t y d i s c i p l i n e ' .

examine.

The next step is to consider h o w differently the t h o u g h t o f

Garrigou-Lagrange, already gone to R o m e . I n 1913, after some m o n t h s i n a

Thomas Aquinas was approached by Garrigou-Lagrange's p u p i l : M a r i e -

diocesan seminary, he was clothed as a D o m i n i c a n fr iar, receiving t h e name

Dominique Chenu.

M a r i e - D o m i n i q u e , according to the custom i n those days U n f i t f o r military

2

H e just missed

meeting

service, he was packed o f f to R o m e i n late 1914, w i t h others, w h e n the G e r m a n advance i n t o B e l g i u m led to the suspension o f teaching at Le Saulchoir

Thus C h e n u completed the w h o l e seven years of neoscholastic

philosophy and theology at the A n g e l i c u m . R e g i n a l d Garrigou-Lagrange supervised his doctorate dissertation. I n L a t i n , o f course, i t is an analysis of

1

D e s p i t e P o p e L e o X I I I s call t o F r e n c h C a t h o l i c s t o s u p p o r t t h e R e p u b l i c t h e y f a i l e d to d o

so l e a d i n g , especially u n d e r E m i l e C o m b e s , p r i m e m i n i s t e r 1 9 0 2 - 5 , t o a serious a t t e m p t t o destroy t h e p o w e r o f t h e C h u r c h a n d t o t h e e x i l e o f r e l i g i o u s orders 2

F o r details see C h r i s t o p h e F P o t w o r o w s k i Contemplation

Marie-Dominique

Chenu

and Incarnation:

The

Theology

oj

( M o n t r e a l a n d K i n g s t o n : M c G i l l - Q u e e n ' s U n i v e r s i t y Press 2 0 0 1 ) ,

w i t h b i b l i o g r a p h y l i s t i n g 1,396

items

18

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

C H E N U

19

C H E N U

w h a t Aquinas says about c o n t e m p l a t i o n , m o t i v a t e d , however, b y the desire

I n effect, C h e n u was d e n y i n g any need to master Thomistic philosophy

to challenge the assumption (then), allegedly, that spirituality is p r i m a r i l y t o

before being allowed to enter i n t o Aquinas's w o r k as a w h o l e O l d e r c o l -

do w i t h a person's soul and o v e r c o m i n g sin, rather than concerned

with

leagues at Le Saulchoir, as w e l l as Garrigou-Lagrange, were dismayed at

I n effect, this

w h a t seemed to t h e m neglect o f speculative theology i n favour o f ('mere')

reconstruction of Aquinas's account o f c o n t e m p l a t i o n was designed to

historical scholarship, the slippery slope to relativistic notions o f t r u t h and

retrieve a theocentric

thus to m o d e r n i s m C h e n u was undismayed. I n 1937 he issued a manifesto:

contemplative self-submission to the objectivity o f G o d

3

c o n c e p t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n spirituality over against

m o d e r n , at any rate late n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y concentration o n the state o f

Une École de théologie: Le Saulchoir H e had just passed the S T M examination,

the individual's spiritual progress

the highest degree w i t h i n the D o m i n i c a n Order. H e had been appointed

A f t e r these years i n R o m e , w h i c h he f o u n d uncongenial, C h e n u was impatient to get back to Le Saulchoir.

H i s reluctance

to w o r k

with

Garrigou-Lagrange, however, suggests that he already had a different way o f e x p o u n d i n g Aquinas i n m i n d . Back at Le Saulchoir, his first course (to fellow D o m i n i c a n s l i t t l e younger than himself) was o n 'the patristic sources o f the t h o u g h t o f St Thomas'. T h i s was n o t unprecedented, and i n any case he was charged w i t h teaching the history o f d o c t r i n e , n o t w i t h any of the m a i n courses o n dogmatic and m o r a l theology These were, of course,

R e g e n t , head o f the college. A t 42 he was o n the b r i n k o f great things. The college itself had just been granted the r i g h t t o award p o n t i f i c a l degrees, i n addition to i n t e r n a l D o m i n i c a n qualifications The result of his manifesto, however, was a summons to R o m e i n 1938 to be interrogated b y a handful o f his f e l l o w D o m i n i c a n s , headed b y Garrigou-Lagrange. T h e y b u l l i e d h i m so severely that: T gave i n t o a sort o f psychological pressure, I let myself be intimidated. O n e o f t h e m - no d o u b t to pacify R o m a n i r r i t a t i o n s — asked m e to sign a series of t e n propositions I signed'.

taught by m o r e experienced professors, and t o o k the f o r m (well i n t o the

6

Clearly, as a glance at t h e m shows, i n their fabulous absurdity, the p r o p o -

1960s) o f l i n e - b y - l i n e exposition o f the Summa Theologies, w i t h reference to

sitions reveal the senior D o m i n i c a n s ' fear that Chenu's

the c o m m e n t a r y b y Cajetan b u t w i t h l i t t l e or no allusion to the sources o f

recreating the historical context meant that t r u t h was n o t 'absolute and

Aquinas's views, i n patristic o r other literature..

i m m u t a b l e ' ; that theology was o n l y an expression of religious experience

emphasis

on

I n t e n years, w h a t began as an ancillary course b y a j u n i o r professor

and n o t a 'true science'; and so on. I t may seem incredible that g r o w n men

entirely redirected the way o f reading Aquinas. I n 1936—7 C h e n u lectured

w o u l d come up w i t h the p r o p o s i t i o n that ' I t is glorious f o r the C h u r c h to

o n Bonaventure's Itinerarium Mentis in Deum:

have the system of Saint Thomas as t r u l y o r t h o d o x ' , and suchlike, and

obviously n o t o n l y relating

Aquinas to his greatest c o n t e m p o r a r y b u t also i m p l y i n g that, i n its o w n quite different way, the Summa

Theologies c o u l d , and should, be read as a

k i n d o f ' j o u r n e y o f the m i n d i n t o the d i v i n e m y s t e r y ' . Just as challengingly, 4

w e f i n d C h e n u l e c t u r i n g , i n 1938-9, o n 'Augustine and Denys: the t w o Platonisms o f St Thomas'.

5

The difference between the theologies o f Aquinas

and Bonaventure expressed a difference i n 'spiritualities'. The c o n t r i b u t i o n

6

T h e t e n p r o p o s i t i o n s C h e n u signed w e r e as f o l l o w s : 1 F o r m u l a : d o g m a t i c s e n u n c i a n t ver-

i t a t e m a b s o l u t a m et i m m u t a b i l e m 2 P r o p o s i t i o n e s vera: et certa;

sive i n p h i l o s o p h i a sive i n

t h e o l o g i a . firma; s u n t et n u l l o m o d o fragiles 3 Sacra L r a d i t i o novas veritates n o n creat. sed firm i t e r t e n e n d u m u t d e p o s i t u m revelationis sen c o m p l e x u m v e r i t a t u m d i v i n i t u s r e v e l a t a r u m , c l a u s u m fuisse m o r t e u l t i m i a p o s t o l i

4 Sacra T h e o l o g i a n o n est q u í d a m s p i r i t u a l i t a s qua;

o f Denys and Augustine was as significant as that o f A r i s t o t l e i n shaping

i n v e n i t i n s t r u m e n t a sua; e x p e r i e n c i a ; r e l i g i o s a ; ada;quata; sed est vera scientia, D e o

Aquinas's w o r k . I n these, and several other ways, Chenu's ancillary course

c e n t e s t u d i o acquisita, cujus p r i n c i p i a s u n t a r t i c u l i F i d e i et e t i a m o m n e s veritates revelata;

edged o u t the standard way of e x p o u n d i n g Aquinas F r o m the start he broke completely w i t h the style o f e x p o u n d i n g the T h o m i s t synthesis as practised b y Garr igou-Lagrange.

q u i b u s t h e o l o g u s f i d e d i v i n a saltern i n f b r m i , adhœret. 5 V a r i a systemata t h e o l o g i c a i n q u i b u s ab i n v i c e m d i s s e n t i u n t n o n s u n t s i m u l vera systema S. T h o m a ;

q u o a d ea

6 G l o r i o s u m est E c c l e s i a m habere

t a m q u a m valde o r t h o d o x u m , i e

7 Necesse est veritates t h e o l o g i c a s p e r S

benedi-

v e r i t a t i b u s F i d e valde

conforme.

S c r i p t u r a m et t r a d i t i o n e m d e m o n s t r a r e ,

e a r u m n a t u r a m et i n t i m a m r a t i o n e m p r i n c i p i i s et d o c t r i n a S. T h o m a ; i l l u s t r a t e 8 S

necnon Thomas,

etsi p r o p r i e t h e o l o g u s p r o p r i e e t i a m p h i l o s o p h u s f u i t ; p r o i n d e , p h i l o s o p h i a eius i n sua i n t e l l i 1

'De contemplatione

( A n g e l i c u m 1 9 2 0 ) , L a L h è s e m é d i t e d u P. M . - D . C h e n u ' , e d i t e d b y

C a r m e l o G i u s e p p e C o n t i c e l l o , Revue

des

Sciences Philosophiques

et Théologiques

75

(1991):

F o r t h e finest a c c o u n t a l o n g these lines: A N W i l l i a m s , ' M y s t i c a l T h e o l o g y R e d u x :

P a t t e r n o f A q u i n a s s Summa Theologies', i n Modem 5

Cf

Aquinas:

Fran O ' R o u r k e ,

Theologyi3

Lhe

9

Theologo

i n processu s c i e n t i f i c o

suo v a l d e n e c e s s a r i u m

( L o n d o n : S C M Press 2 0 0 3 ) : 2 4 7 - 7 9 .

est

metaphysicam

10 D e aliis s c r i p t o r i b u s et

d o c t o r i b u s p r o b a t i s s e r v a n d u m est m o d e r a m e n reverentiale i n m o d o l o q u e n d i et s c r i b e n d i , e t i a m s i i n q u i b u s d a m d e f e c t u m i n v e n i u n t u r T h e L a t i n needs n o t r a n s l a t i o n ; i t w o u l d s o u n d

(1997):53-74

A q u i n a s a n d P l a t o n i s m ' , i n Fergus K e r r O P (ed.)

On the Varieties ojInterpretation

absolutas

S. T h o m a ; a d h i b e r e et ad regulas dialéctica; d i l i g e n t e r attendere

363—422: extracts, w i t h c o m m e n t a r y 4

g i b i l i t a t e et v e r i t a t e n o n p e n d t t ab ejus t h e o l o g i a , nec e n u n c i a t veritates m e r e relativas sed

Contemplating

e v e n m o r e absurd i n E n g l i s h ; t h e t e x t is i n t h e h a n d , i t is said, o f M i c h a e l B r o w n e (see f a c s i m ile Une Ecole de théologie:

le Saulchoir (Paris: C e r f 1 9 8 5 ) : 35)

20

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

C H E N U

badger C h e n u i n t o p u t t i n g his signature to such p o p p y c o c k - b u t that is

' o p t i m i s m ' o f the c o n s t i t u t i o n Gaudium

symptomatic o f the theological pathology o f those days.

C h u r c h and the M o d e r n W o r l d ' .

21

C H E N U

et Spes, the d o c u m e n t ©n 'The

Chenu's critics, besides Garrigou-Lagrange, i n c l u d e d M a r i a n o C o r d o v a n i

I n the aftermath, C h e n u was m o r e dismayed by the failure to i m p l e m e n t

(1883-1950), t h e n recently a p p o i n t e d Master o f the Sacred Palace, personal

the reforms that he expected, rather than by the surrender to the attractions

theologian to the pope; and M i c h a e l B r o w n e (1887-1971), R e c t o r of the

o f secularism that distressed many others i n his generation H e d i e d i n Paris

A n g e l i c u m and future Master o f the D o m i n i c a n O r d e r and a leader o f

o n 11 February 1990, receiving a splendid funeral i n N o t r e - D a m e , w i t h

the ultramontanist m i n o r i t y at Vatican I I

many bishops i n attendance.

These three were f o r m i d a b l e

theologians, d e t e r m i n e d enemies o f any tendency i n Catholic theology that c o u l d be accused o f m o d e r n i s m , and very capable exponents o f the A r i s t o t e l i a n - T h o m i s t synthesis. T h e i r views were certainly representative o f

Baroque Scholasticism

the m a j o r i t y o f Chenu's f e l l o w D o m i n i c a n s at the t i m e I n 1942, i n G e r m a n - o c c u p i e d Paris, C h e n u heard o n the radio that his

C h e n u , then, c o m p l e t e d the f u l l seven years o f mandatory Thomistic p h i l -

Thomas

osophy and theology at one o f the leading institutions i n R o m e . T h e worst

Philippe, f o r m e r l y a colleague at Le Saulchoir b u t teaching i n R o m e since

excesses o f the a n t i - m o d e r n i s t campaign were curbed w h e n Pius X died

1936, ar rived w i t h a u t h o r i t y f r o m the Master of the O r d e r to deprive C h e n u

and was succeeded i n September 1914 by Benedict X V

o f his post as R e g e n t at Le Saulchoir (back i n France, i n the south-east

recently retired f r o m his chair at the Gregorian University, was b y far the

suburbs of Paris, since 1938), d e n o u n c i n g h i m explicitly as a 'modernist', f o r

most authoritative theological presence i n t o w n

playing d o w n the role o f reason i n d o i n g theology, and advocating the study

O a t h and the T w e n t y - f o u r T h o m i s t i c Theses had recently been imposed (in

little manifesto was n o w o n the I n d e x o f P r o h i b i t e d B o o k s .

7

o f T u b i n g e n School theologians, i n particular o f Johann A d a m M o h l e r

8

C h e n u never again taught at Te Saulchoir Friends got h i m a post at the E c o l e des Hautes Etudes i n Paris, w h i c h o n l y c o n f i r m e d the j u d g e m e n t that, w h i l e perhaps suited to historical research, he was n o t a reliable e x p o nent o f Aquinas B y t h e n , however, as a friar-preacher, he was i n v o l v e d w i t h the beginnings o f the w o r k e r - p r i e s t m o v e m e n t , and its attempt to evangelize the anti-clerical i n d u s t r i a l suburbs o f Paris. Eventually, i n 1953, C h e n u was a m o n g the French D o m i n i c a n s disciplined by the Master o f t h e i r O r d e r (Suarez), supposedly to save t h e m f r o m worse treatment by the Vatican.

9

1 1

1 0

Louis B i l l o t sj,

The Anti-modernist

1910 and 1914 respectively). Years later, C h e n u w o u l d a d m i t to r e m a i n i n g marked by the T w e n t y - f o u r Theses. The i m p o s i t i o n o f the Theses o n all doctorate candidates he saw as one o f the w o r s t abuses o f papal authority, distorting the practice o f Catholic theology P r i m a r i l y a historian, a n d never a metaphysician, he w o u l d always have developed a different reading of Thomas Aquinas f r o m that elaborated by Garrigou-Lagrange His approach, one may say, a little summarily, was very m u c h a reaction against the project (as i t seemed to h i m ) o f extracting metaphysical theorems f r o m Aquinas's w o r k , t a k i n g t h e m o u t o f theological as w e l l as historical context, creating (as he used to say) a 'sacred metaphysics' C h e n u used to say that he p r o f i t e d f r o m Garrigou-Lagrange's

N e v e r an official 'expert' at Vatican I I , b u t employed as adviser to French-

lectures

speaking A f r i c a n bishops, C h e n u instigated the Message to the W o r l d

However, he regarded h i m as a d i v i d e d m i n d : a master o f spirituality, versed

(20 O c t o b e r 1962), o n the grounds that the C o u n c i l should display f r o m

particularly i n St John o f the Cross, the Spanish Carmelite mystic, and yet an

the outset that the C h u r c h is concerned n o t o n l y w i t h herself b u t p r i n c i -

inflexible Aristotelian i n philosophy, d e t e r m i n e d to keep spirituality and

pally w i t h the destiny o f the w o r l d . H e had a g o o d deal to do w i t h the 1 0

G i a c o m o D e l i a C h i e s a (1854—1922), a p a t r i c i a n a n d career d i p l o m a t was said t o have

f o u n d a secret file d e n o u n c i n g his o w n ' m o d e r n i s t ' heresies w h e n h e sat d o w n at t h e papal 7

C r e a t e d b y t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n o f t h e i n q u i s i t i o n i n 1557 t o c o n t r o l l i t e r a t u r e c o n t r a r y t o

f a i t h o r m o r a l s ; a b a n d o n e d i n 1966 8

desk 1 1

T h o m a s P h i l i p p e ( 1 9 0 5 - 9 3 ) later b e c a m e c h a p l a i n t o a n i n s t i t u t i o n f o r m e n w i t h d i s a b i l i -

A c c o r d i n g t o C h e n u , B i l l o t s t h e o l o g y is i d e o l o g y ; c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r a n t a n d careless o f the

historicity o f the Christian economy

w i t h n o interest i n b i b l i c a l sources, i n d i f f e r e n t t o the

ties, w h i c h s u b s e q u e n t l y i n s p i r e d Jean V a n i e r t o f o u n d L ' A r c h e , a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l n e t w o r k o f

pastoral e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e C h u r c h a n d o f t h e C h r i s t i a n p e o p l e :

such communities..

entirely defined by conceptual and juridical authority, w i t h no methodological guidance from

9

F o r this s h a m e f u l s t o r y see F r a n ç o i s L e p r i e u r Quand Rome condamne. Dominicains

ouvriers (Paris: P i o n / C e r f

1989)

et prêtres-

t h e m y s t e r y w h i c h is nevertheless its o b j e c t ' , see Jacques Duquesne théologien

en liberté. (Paris: C e n t u r i o n 1 9 7 5 ) : 3 1 .

a t h e o l o g y o f t h e faith interroge le Pére Chenu:

Un

22

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

C H E N U

speculative theology completely separate. For C h e n u , b y contrast, Catholic Christian theology c o u l d n o t be practised except w i t h continuous reference

23

C H E N U

the objectivity o f speculative theology as a quasi-scientific discipline i n favour (as they feared) o f a morass o f piety, subjective experience and fideism.

to the historical economy of the mystery o f G o d incarnate - w h i c h meant, as a matter o f course, that theological activity was g r o u n d e d i n the liturgical

L e S a u l c h o i r : A S c h o o l of T h e o l o g y ?

life and contemplative asceticism w i t h w h i c h he had fallen i n love as a youngster. C h e n u was n o m o r e interested than Garrigou-Lagrange was i n historical scholarship f o r its o w n sake (whatever that m i g h t be) H e saw the

To w h a t extent Le Saulchoir ever was, even i n 1937, 'une école', as i f all the

revitalization o f Catholic study o f Scripture by the application o f the histor-

D o m i n i c a n s o n the teaching staff at the t i m e had a single v i s i o n , is dis-

ical critical methods o f biblical scholars, his f e l l o w D o m i n i c a n Marie-Joseph

putable Some o f his colleagues, at least, were i n f u r i a t e d by Chenu's magis-

Lagrange i n p a r t i c u l a r .

terial exposition of w h a t they stood for, collectively

12

The same approach, w i t h appropriate differences,

w o u l d open up the theology o f the medievals and especially that o f Aquinas,

Moreover, i n retrospect, Une école de théologie was needlessly polemical.

so C h e n u believed, far m o r e f r u i t f u l l y than neoscholastic T h o m i s m c o u l d

For example, C h e n u d e r i d e d the c u r r i c u l a at seminaries and colleges (no

ever achieve. Aquinas s v i s i o n o f the Christian revelation o f G o d was, i n a

d o u b t i n c l u d i n g the A n g e l i c u m ) : neoscholastic philosophy and theology

way, incarnate i n his w r i t i n g . To ignore the historical context, the genesis

textbooks were pervaded b y ' W o l f f i a n rationalism' H e peppered his text

and texture, o f this w r i t i n g was to miss the vision

w i t h insults N a t u r a l theology as practised i n Catholic institutions had no

C h e n u w r o t e as follows:

m o r e religious character than eighteenth-century D e i s m The Augustfnian

Those who enclose themselves i n a scholastic I h o m i s m hardened by generations of textbooks and manuals (and marginalized by the intrusion of a massive dose of Baroque scholasticism) oblige themselves thereby to summary condemnations o f positions o f which they are largely ignorant. This would certainiy not be the path for disciples of Thomas Aquinas. A n d less helpful is the way o f those who, colluding strangely w i t h anti-modernism, hand the memory of the medieval doctor over to a positivist intellectualism, keeping for themselves a I h o m i s m which is only a paragon of their own pseudoreligious integrist position But this exploitation of Thomism (which some naively view to be salutary) cannot hide the real intentions of others, penetrated w i t h the spirit o f Thomas and w i t h the highest requirements of scientific or theological work They meet honesdy the problems legitimately posed by the philosophy of religion, biblical exegesis, and the history of dogma Illumined by the experience of their teacher they know how to discern in new terrain the relationships o f reason and faith Precisely this is the intellectual regime o f Catholicism.

Aquinas's theology Catholic theology needed to be disinfected o f 'baroque

Chenu's c o n t r i b u t i o n is all there, already, i n 1931. For Garrigou-Lagrange,

j e c t e d t h e C h u r c h t o t h e state: o n e o f t h e spectres h a u n t i n g t h e V a t i c a n at V a t i c a n I - q u i t e an

however, and many w h o shared his view, Chenu's project risked forfeiting

arcane i n s u l t !

sap and the D i o n y s i a n mysticism had been allowed to leak away f r o m Scholasticism': Joseph I I ' .

1 4

'the philosophy o f clerical functionaries at the c o u r t o f

T h e ' T h o m i s t o r t h o d o x y ' o f Cardinal Zigliara, the greatest

o f the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y D o m i n i c a n Thomists i n R o m e , was ' c o n t a m i nated b y W o l f f i a n i s m ' ; i t suppresses the 'Platonic' interpretation o f (say) Lepidi

1 5

C h e n u w o u l d prefer Pierre Rousselot's b o o k , L'lntellectualisme

Saint Thomas, 'despite its faults'

1 6

de

Esoteric as these boutades n o w sound, they

c o u l d n o t b u t anger most Catholic theologians at the time, G a r r i g o u Lagrange above all. I n short, so Chenu's charge ran, neoscholastics paid n o attention to 'the problems o f existence, action, the i n d i v i d u a l , b e c o m i n g , and t i m e ' , preferr i n g 'a philosophy of essences, i n w h i c h w h a t counts is the n o n - c o n t i n g e n t , the universal, ideal and i m m u t a b l e relations - fine matters for definitions'

13

1 4

1 5

J o s e p h I I (1 7 4 1 - 9 0 ) H a b s b u r g E m p e r o r , a n d leader o f t h e C a t h o l i c E n l i g h t e n m e n t , sub-

Tomasso M a r i a Z i g l i a r a O P ( 1 8 3 3 - 9 3 ) t a u g h t i n R o m e f r o m 1 8 7 0 t o 1893 a n d was t h e

c h i e f e x p o n e n t o f A r i s t o t e l i a n I h o m i s m A l b e r t o L e p i d i O P ( 1 8 3 8 - 1 9 2 5 ) , b y contrast, w h o 1 2

Marie-Joseph

Lagrange ( 1 8 5 5 - 1 9 3 8 ) f o u n d e d a centre o f b i b l i c a l studies i n Jerusalem i n

1 8 9 0 a n d was t h e greatest C a t h o l i c b i b l i c a l scholar A t t a c k e d b y colleagues f o r his s u p p o r t o f m o d e r n i s m , h e t u r n e d f r o m O l d t o N e w Testament studies, less liable (then) t o raise suspicions 1 3

' L e sens et les l e ç o n s d ' u n e crise religieuse'. La Vie intellectuelle

T h o m a s F O ' M e a r a OP. Thomas Aquinas o f N o t r e D a m e Press 1999:

182

Theologian

(Notre Dame

13 ( 1 9 3 1 ) : 3 8 0 translated i n I N , and L o n d o n : University

t a u g h t i n France and B e l g i u m , stressed t h e A u g u s t i n i a n s t r a n d i n A q u i n a s Z i g l i a r a a n d L e p i d i represented r a d i c a l l y d i v e r g e n t t r a d i t i o n s e v e n w i t h i n t h e D o m i n i c a n O r d e r 1 6

C h e n u , a D o m i n i c a n , r e c o m m e n d i n g a b o o k b y a Jesuit, was o f c o u r s e b e i n g p r o v o c a t i v e .

P i e r r e R o u s s e l o t Sj ( 1 8 7 8 - 1 9 1 5 ) r e d i s c o v e r e d a p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s t p h i l o s o p h y o f k n o w l e d g e and l o v e i n t h e w o r k o f A q u i n a s , m a k i n g A r i s t o t e l i a n T h o m i s m i r r e l e v a n t ; see his 1 9 0 8 thesis translated as The Intellectualism

of St Thomas ( L o n d o n : Sheed a n d W a r d 1935)

Sorbonne

24

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

C H E N U

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

Provocatively, as he must have realized, the second chapter of Chenu's

25

C H E N U

and i n the contemplation, which, goal o f both, guarantees the fervour, the method, the purity, and the freedom o f their s p i r i t

manifesto begins w i t h a q u o t a t i o n f r o m a letter f r o m George Tyrrell {whose

18

name he misspelled) to F r i e d r i c h v o n H u g e l w r i t t e n i n 1904, i n w h i c h he remarks that i t is not o n this or that article o f the Creed that they differ f r o m

This is, obviously, exactly w h a t Garrigou-Lagrange rejected. For a theo-

their adversaries, they differ over the w o r d credo, o n the m e a n i n g o f the

logian, C h e n u goes o n , c o n t e m p l a t i o n is n o t a practice i n w h i c h he may

w o r d ' t r u e ' as applied to dogma. This remark C h e n u takes to show that

engage f r o m t i m e to t i m e , 'a burst o f fervour, beyond his studying, as i f an

there c o u l d be n o d o u b t about 'the intellectual and religious crisis that cut

escape f r o m its object and its m e t h o d ' . Rather, c o n t e m p l a t i o n is the theo-

across Christianity at that t i m e ' Nevertheless, he i m m e d i a t e l y says, m u c h

logian's everyday environment, w i t h o u t w h i c h theology w o u l d be arid

has been achieved, i n Catholic scholarship. H e reels o f f the famous names:

and pointless. Garrigou-Lagrange w o u l d n o t have dissented. B e h i n d what

Duchesne, B a t i f f o l , Lagrange, Mercier, and B l o n d e l — 'the fruits o f this

C h e n u is saying, however, there lies a longstanding dispute about h o w to

extremely fecund a c t i v i t y presided over b y Pope Leo X I I I '

A l l i n all, as

divide up the day: does a theologian spend an h o u r on his knees w i t h o u t a

this litany was meant to demonstrate, there was a h a l f - c e n t u r y o f Catholic

b o o k o f any k i n d and t h e n go to the library to study or to the aula to

scholarship to celebrate (always a booster, C h e n u , never a knocker) - w h a t -

lecture; or is the hour's m e d i t a t i o n dependent o n a text and the research and

ever 'controversies and incidents' there had been.

teaching always contemplatively practised? C h e n u , i t seemed to his critics,

1 7

Interestingly C h e n u makes n o attempt to discuss the concept o f t r u t h , w h i c h Tyrrell assumes that he and v o n H u g e l share, over against the concept

failed to make the proper distinction between study and prayer, and was thus, Unsurprisingly liable to confuse theology and spirituality

held by their critics Tyrrell is m a k i n g the crucial p o i n t that, philosophically,

I n the chapter o n philosophy C h e n u raises the perennially d i f f i c u l t ques-

his conception o f t r u t h is quite different f r o m that i n neoscholastic theology

t i o n o f the status o f philosophy w i t h i n Christianity This is a practical as well

C h e n u does n o t endorse Tyrell's remark, n o r o n the other h a n d does he

as a theoretical question. As standard seminary pedagogy required, should

seem to see any reason to question it.

philosophical studies precede entry i n t o theology? Neoscholastic apologetics,

The message o f Chenu's manifesto lies, most provocatively, i n the layout: the chapter o n philosophy comes after the one o n theology

the c r o w n o f the philosophy course, mistakenly regarded as 'traditional',

I n effect,

completely misrepresents the relationship between reason and faith, 'as i f i t

There is no

was a matter o f t w o worlds outside one another, for w h i c h happy concor-

need to be able to defend the T w e n t y - f o u r Theses before one is allowed to

dances had to be f o u n d ' . N o d o u b t this seemed to make sense, as a reaction

pass i n t o theological studies.

reconstruct

to the deism o f the Enlightenment. B u t i t is a mistake: ' A Christian doing

Aquinas's historical context than to master the metaphysical theorems that

philosophy does n o t cease to be a Christian; a Christian philosopher does not

supposedly he at the basis o f his theology

cease to be a p h i l o s o p h e r ' .

Thomas Aquinas is to be read as a theologian f r o m the outset I t is far m o r e i m p o r t a n t to

T h e key passage runs as follows:

19

C h e n u is sceptical about the n o t i o n o f a 'perennial philosophy'

The

phrase itself — philosophic! perennis — was invented by a certain A. Steuchus, Theological systems are only the expression of spiritualities . The greatness and the truth o f Bonaventuran or Scotist Augustinianism are entirely i n the spiritual experience of Saint Francis which became the soul i n his sons; the grandeur and the truth of Molinism are i n the spiritual experience of Saint Ignatius's Exercises A theology worthy o f the name is a spirituality, which finds the rational instruments adequate to its religious experience It is not the luck of history that Saint Thomas entered the Order o f Saint Dominic; and it is not by some desultory grace that the Order of Saint Dominic received Saint Thomas Aquinas The institution and the doctrine are closely allied w i t h one another, in the inspiration that carried the one and the other into a new age,

C h e n u i n f o r m s us, i n a characteristic

display o f self-mocking erudition—

'this Renaissance philosopher w h o wanted, w i t h this phrase, to reconcile the Paduan theism w i t h medieval scholasticism'

2 0

The p r o b l e m w i t h the

phrase, however, is that i t suggests that philosophy is a set of 'characterless and shapeless principles', énoncés dépersonnalisés et avachis, the least c o m m o n denominator, so to speak, o f philosophical projects w h i c h (however) actually

1 K

Ibid:

1 9

I b i d : 153

148-9

2 0

A g o s t i n o S t e u c o ( 1 4 9 6 - 1 5 4 9 ) was a C a n o n R e g u l a r o f the L a t e r a n and r a n t h e Vatican

L i b r a r y H i s w o r k s i n c l u d e Philosophia

Perennis ( w r i t t e n 1540) w h i c h sees all r e l i g i o n s as m a n i -

festations o f a p e r e n n i a l p h i l o s o p h y that is o n e a n d e t e r n a l ; t h e phrase was t o b e p i c k e d up b y 1 7

Le Saulchoir' Une. école de théologie

(Paris: C e r f 1 9 3 7 ) : 115

Leibniz

26

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

C H E N U

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

differ considerably, ' i n i n t u i t i o n and i n systematization'

I n brief,

neo-

C H E N U

27

t h e o r y o f knowledge, is the object o f k n o w l e d g e as i t is outside th'e knower

scholastic philosophy — 'under the patronage o f L e i b n i z ' — adopted a false

i n its proper existence Yet, as he goes o n to say, there is n o k n o w l e d g e of

'ideal of i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y '

the reality except t h r o u g h w h a t there is of this reality i n the knower. A n a l o -

2 1

gously, the d i v i n e reality obviously exists independently o f us; but o u r minds receive i t i n o u r o w n way, that is to say by c o m b i n i n g and d i v i d i n g , by way (then) o f propositions

C h e n u on T h o m a s Aquinas on Faith

As a historian C h e n u delightedly re-creates the controversy, i d e n t i f y i n g C h e n u had ambitious plans to study Thomas Aquinas i n historical context

the disputants w h o m Aquinas never names. Clearly, however, his m o t i v a t i o n

i n such a way as to cast l i g h t o n current theological matters. Perhaps the

is to demonstrate a m e t h o d o f reading Aquinas w h i c h , far f r o m l o s i n g spec-

outbreak o f w a r i n 1939 w o u l d have i n t e r r u p t e d h i m anyway, b u t ecclesias-

ulative theology i n the dust o f historical research, or (worse) i n a morass of

tical sanctions d i d n o t help. H i s first p u b l i c a t i o n , back i n 1923, shows the

relativism, actually enables Aquinas's solution o f the t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

k i n d of w o r k he wanted to do..

dispute to bear o n m o d e r n disputes.. We do n o t have t o choose between

I n this article C h e n u offers a reading o f Aquinas's consideration i n his Summa Theologies o f the object o f f a i t h .

2 2

T h e question is w h e t h e r the object

saying that o u r faith is i n propositions and saying that i t is i n the reality of the divine W o r d I n the 1920s, as now, there were disputes over w h e t h e r our

i n the f o r m o f a

minds are c o n f i n e d w i t h i n language or capable o f transcending directly to

proposition, o r first t r u t h itself, Veritas prima, that is to say: G o d , w h o is i n n o

reality Catholics believed i n propositions w h i l e Protestants had f a i t h i n a

way composed of parts Is faith i n propositions or i n God?

person, so i t was often claimed For C h e n u , Aquinas dissolved this putative

o f faith is something composite, per modum enuntiabilis,

A c c o r d i n g to C h e n u , the interest o f this has been missed, because c o m -

d i l e m m a l o n g ago, i n a paradigmatic way H e r e , less t h a n three years since

I f we re-create the

leaving R o m e , C h e n u was demonstrating a way o f studying the text o f

controversy we can see the permanent importance o f the p o s i t i o n Aquinas

Aquinas quite different (he does n o t need to say) f r o m the way practised by

takes The controversy originates i n the question of the i d e n t i t y o f faith

Garrigou-Lagrange

between O l d and N e w Testaments: the i m m u t a b i l i t y of faith t h r o u g h its

adds, dreamed o f by D e n i f l e

mentators

d i d n o t place i t i n historical context

This is the k i n d o f historical theology, Chenu cheekily 2 3

development. For Aquinas, there was c o n t i n u i t y between C h r i s t i a n and Jewish faith

Some o f his predecessors h e l d that, since faith is a k i n d o f

knowledge, i t must have propositions as its object. H e is happy to agree,

I n t r o d u c t i o n to T h o m a s A q u i n a s

since this allows h i m to insist o n the h u m a n conditions of the act of faith: 'the way o f k n o w i n g t r u t h proper to the h u m a n m i n d is by an act o f c o m b i n i n g and separating'

For C h e n u , this should legitimate o u r m o d e r n

interest i n the psychological conditions o f faith

I t should also r e m i n d

writers about spirituality — 'against all i l l u m i n i s m ' — that even the gifts o f the H o l y Spirit do n o t exempt the C h r i s t i a n f r o m the regime o f gradual, u n e n d i n g and expanding enlightenment. Faith does n o t s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n t e l ligence; o n the contrary, i t incarnates the divine t r u t h i n the very substance o f our minds

Bizarrely i t required some ecclesiastical m a n o e u v r i n g for C h e n u to be allowed to publish his i n t r o d u c t i o n to the study o f Thomas Aquinas

2 4

' H i g h e r authorities' sought to b l o c k i t since, after all, his little manifesto remained o n the Index o f P r o h i b i t e d Books.. C h e n u contends, i n w h a t remains one o f the best i n t r o d u c t i o n s , half a century later, that we cannot understand Aquinas w i t h o u t detailed study o f the histor ical context to w h i c h he belonged, and of the histor ical conditions under w h i c h he w o r k e d : the D o m i n i c a n Order, the University o f Paris, the

However, others held that the object o f faith was G o d , absolutely

They

academic institutions and literary f o r m s of the day, the legacy o f Augustine,

are o f course correct, so Aquinas argues: the reality k n o w n , according to his 2 i

2 1

U C h e n u , Le Sauichoir.

2 2

' C o n t r i b u t i o n à l ' h i s t o i r e d u traité de la f o i C o m m e n t a i r e h i s t o r i q u e de H a I l a e , q. 1 , a 2'

Mélanges

154-5

thomistes (Le S a u l c h o i r : K a i n . 1 9 2 3 ) : 1 2 3 - 4 0 ; r e p r i n t e d i n C h e n u , La Parole de Dieu

La Foi dans l'intelligence (Paris: C e r f T 9 6 4 ) : 31—50

H e i n r i c h Seuse D e n i f l e O P (1844—1905), p a t h - b r e a k i n g m e d i e v a l i s t ( t h o u g h h e predates

t h e C a t h o l i c a p p r e c i a t i o n o f L u t h e r ) , was t h e greatest D o m i n i c a n h i s t o r i a n o f t h e d a y î.

2 4

Introduction

a I'etude de S. 'Tltomai d'Aquin

(Paris: V r i n 1950. s e c o n d e d i t i o n 1 9 5 4 ) , trans-

l a t e d b y A - M L a n d r y a n d D H u g h e s as Towards Understanding

Saint Tltomas w i t h a u t h o r i z e d

c o r r e c t i o n s a n d b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l a d d i t i o n s ( C h i c a g o : H e n r y R e g n e r y 1964).

28

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

C H E N U

C H E N U

29

Denys, and the neoplatonic t r a d i t i o n , and so o n , as w e l l as Aquinas's critical

generally o m i t t e d i n expositions i n class of the doctrine C h e n u invites us to

engagement w i t h the recently discovered w o r k s o f Aristotle. H e highlights

notice h o w considering r e l i g i o n , d e v o t i o n and piety, and so o n , i n the

the diversity o f Aquinas's w o r k : commentaries o n A r i s t o t l e , o n Scripture,

context o f the m o r a l v i r t u e o f justice, perhaps points o u r conception o f spir-

disputations, m o r e than one summa, and so o n , each genre w i t h its o w n

ituality i n an unusual direction.

logic and relevance f o r spirituality T h o u g h t and text, expression and t r u t h ,

I n short, i n a list o f examples, C h e n u opens up a quite different approach

go together. Above all, however, Aquinas w o r k e d his thoughts o u t , most

to reading the Summa

Theologies f r o m the one inculcated by the lecture

characteristically, i n the classical f o r m o f the quœstio: considering every issue

courses and textbooks

supposedly composed

as raising questions. I t was just n o t the same t h o u g h t , C h e n u means, w h e n

Failure to allow f o r the context w h i c h he t o o k f o r granted — the Christian

Aquinas's solution to the question is reformulated as a 'thesis', as i f the

mystery, liturgically p e r f o r m e d , l i v e d i n disciplined c o n t e m p l a t i o n — leaves

objections that he considers to his v i e w c o u l d be left aside

the Summa Theologies as arid an exercise as most seminarians f o u n d i t Far

C h e n u 's was the first major effort to h i g h l i g h t the dramatic history, so to speak, w i t h i n w h i c h Aquinas's w o r k c o u l d disclose its riches

The

Summa

Theologies c o u l d no longer be treated, credibly, as a self-standing system t r a n scending all history and t i m e O n the c o n t r a r y like any classic, w e may say, i t

ad mentem Sancti

Thomcs.

f r o m reducing the rigorously intellectual achievement o f the Summa, Chenu was o u t to demonstrate that w e miss the achievement altogether unless we get to k n o w the m i n d the fruits o f whose c o n t e m p l a t i o n are set d o w n — incarnated, so to speak - i n the texts w h i c h w e have i n h e r i t e d

is precisely as b e l o n g i n g to the setting i n w h i c h i t is composed that i t c o n -

For all the importance of Aristotle, C h e n u insists, Aquinas should not be

tinues to disclose h o w p e r m a n e n t l y vital and valuable i t is We need n o t fear

read as i f he repudiated his inheritance f r o m Augustine. T h o u g h references to

that, the deeper we get i n t o the genesis and c o m p o s i t i o n o f a text, the m o r e

the platonici are usually critical, this should n o t occlude h o w m u c h he takes

slippery w i l l be the slope to relativism - just the opposite.. ' T h e t r u t h is n o

f o r granted f r o m the neo-Platonic tradition H e cites Denys as m u c h as A r i s -

less true for being inscribed i n t i m e ' .

totle We need to remember the t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y Renaissance, the presence

2 5

C h e n u combats the t h e n standard division of labour i n e x p o u n d i n g the Summa Theologies Far f r o m reflecting a decision to complete w h a t may be

o f lslamic culture, the evangelism o f the Friar s, and m u c h else that students of Thomas Aquinas n o w regard as an essential part of understanding his w o r k

demonstrated about G o d by reason before considering w h a t may be said

I t is salutary to remember that the approach w h i c h C h e n u pioneered 50

solely i n v i r t u e o f revelation, the fact that Aquinas deals w i t h the questions

years ago was t h e n regarded as a threat to the standard neoscholastic exposi-

de Deo uno and then w i t h those de Deo trino, 'results f r o m an o p t i o n charac-

t i o n o f T h o m i s m and thus to the maintenance o f o r t h o d o x y i n Catholic

teristic of L a t i n theology, w h i c h implies a spiritual itinerary towards the

theology

G o d of revelation'.

26

H o w e v e r pervaded w i t h metaphysics (he admits), the

questions de Deo uno deal w i t h the G o d of the B o o k o f Genesis, n o t the god o f Aristotle's Physics: the G o d o f A b r a h a m , Isaac and Jacob, w h o points us

Wolffianism at V a t i c a n I I

towards Christ. We have to retain the religious character o f this text, C h e n u insists, never reducing i t to a 'deist' theodicy H e refers us to a classic (though

In 1973, reflecting o n w h a t was achieved at Vatican I I , Chenu r e t u r n e d to

neglected) article by his colleague R e n é M o t t e .

the charge that neoscholastic theology was pervaded b y ' W o l f f i a n i s m ' The

2 7

T h e l i n k between the questions o n G o d and the theology o f creation,

unexpected rejection b y the m a j o r i t y of the bishops, i n N o v e m b e r 1962, o f

thus between the d i v i n e mystery and the w o r l d o f space and t i m e , is made

draft texts i n w h i c h he detected signs of ' W o l f f i a n metaphysics', was the final

by the key question o n the 'missions' o f the Son and o f the Spirit (Summa

defeat o f the neoscholastic T h o m i s m to w h i c h he was subjected i n R o m e i n

Theologice 1.43)

his y o u t h O n c e and f o r all, the spirit o f eighteenth-century rationalism was

T h r o u g h o u t the first part of the Summa, Aquinas keeps

i n c o r p o r a t i n g biblical material about creation — w h i c h , C h e n u notes, was

expelled f r o m Catholic t h e o l o g y

2 8

This was an irreversible shift i n theo-

logical sensibility, w i t h immensely i m p o r t a n t implications, however l o n g i t m i g h t take to w o r k i t all o u t 2 5

Introduction

à l'étude

de S. Thomas d'Aquin:

6, m y t r a n s l a t i o n

2 6

I b i d : 275

2 7

R A M o t t e , ' T h é o d i c é e et t h é o l o g i e c h e z S T h o m a s d ' A q u i n , Revue

sophiques et Théologiques

2 1 ( 1 9 3 7 ) : 5—26

des Sciences

Philo-

2 i î

M . - D . C h e n u , V é r i t é évangélique et métaphysique w o l f i e n n e à Vatican I S , Revue des Sciences

Philosophiques

et Ihéologiques

5'7 ( 1 9 7 3 ) : 632—40

30

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

C H E N U

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

I t is n o t clear h o w m u c h o f the prolific w o r k s o f the G e r m a n Lutheran theologian C h r i s t i a n W o l f f (1679-1754) C h e n u ever read. N o d o u b t he k n e w that W o l f f w a n t e d to g r o u n d theological truths o n evidence o f quasimathematical certitude

N o t o r i o u s l y , W o l f f s Pietist L u t h e r a n colleagues

were enraged by a lecture w h i c h he gave i n 1721, instancing the m o r a l p r e cepts of Confucius as evidence o f the p o w e r o f h u m a n reason to attain by its o w n efforts to m o r a l t r u t h

rationalism

31

C H E N U

Indeed, this explains the acrimonious controversies

i n the

decade 1940 to 1950, w h e n French D o m i n i c a n s and Jesuits, contesting the neoscholastic theology w h i c h p u t w o u l d - b e 'scientific' deductivism against the ressourcement of theology to be f o u n d i n the study o f the h i s t o r y and economy of salvation, and so i n the pastoral and missionary presence o f the w o r d o f G o d i n the C h u r c h , were persecuted b y the ecclesiastical a u t h o r i ties, removed f r o m teaching posts and prevented f r o m publishing. The

W o l f f invented the courses o n logic, ontology, rational psychology, natural

phrase 'new t h e o l o g y ' was applied, abusively, b y Garrigou-Lagrange and his

theology, m o r a l philosophy, and so o n , w h i c h shaped Catholic seminary

cohort i n R o m e to those (like C h e n u and H e n r i de Lubac) w h o questioned

t r a i n i n g i n t o the 1960s, as w e l l as university philosophy faculties every-

the neoscholastic rationalism, w h i c h cut Catholic theologians off f r o m their

where

inheritance - the 'traditional t h e o l o g y ' w h i c h the so-called ' n e w theo-

This division o f labour fragmented philosophy i n the sense o f a

sapiential exercise, a 'love o f w i s d o m ' , and gave rise to the specialisms w i t h

logians'were actually retrieving.

w h i c h w e are familiar i n professional philosophy For many years Gilson had been c l a i m i n g that 'WolfEanism' had i n f i l trated the w o r k of Garrigou-Lagrange, an outrageous suggestion as many thought. This is, as Peddicord says, 'preposterous'.

29

c l a i m seems to be that, i n his first major b o o k Le Sens commun (1908), Garrigou-Lagrange declares a debt to A f r i k a n Alexandrovich Spir (1837-90), whose b o o k Denken

unci Wirklichkeit:

T h e o l o g y w i t h o u t Philosophy?

The basis f o r Gilson's

Versuch einer Erneuerung

der kritischen

Philosophic (1873) he read i n French translation, the c o n d u i t t h r o u g h w h i c h , supposedly, he i m b i b e d W o l f f i a n rationalism. I h e genuine T h o m i s t understanding o f b e i n g - b e i n g as existence, n o t essence — was lost a r o u n d 1729, the year w h e n Wolff's Ontologia appeared. The act o f b e i n g as such - ipsum esse subsistens - w h i c h is so central to Aquinas's metaphysics, disappears f r o m m o d e r n philosophy, so Gilson's o f t e n rehearsed story goes. I t w o u l d take us t o o far to untangle all this here - the p o i n t is o n l y that Garrigou-Lagrange was being dismissed as a rationalist, as a self-styled T h o m i s t w h o failed to grasp the fundamental T h o m i s t i n t u i t i o n

Chenu invites us to examine the text o f the chapter De cognitione veritatis i n the De deposito fidei pure custodiendo drafted for Vatican I I H e r e w e f i n d , i n this w o u l d - b e key text o n 'keeping the treasure o f faith authentically', a certain theory of 'knowledge o f t r u t h ' (epistemology) at w o r k : t r u t h is allied w i t h inimutability, necessity, universal rationality, and suchlike.. Moreover, the p h i l osophy of being is contrasted favourably w i t h a philosophy of becoming. The dimensions of t i m e and history, i n knowledge o f truth, are totally absent I n short, the wholesale rejection of these drafts b y the C o u n c i l fathers opened the way to a renewal o f Catholic theology, 'beyond the aporias o f neoscholasticism, of w h i c h W o l f f i a n rationalism was n o t the least avatar'. A t last, 30

once and for all, C h e n u contends, at Vatican I I , the Catholic C h u r c h rejected the rationalism that prevented authentic understanding o f Thomas Aquinas, as

True e n o u g h , Garrigou-Lagrange attached great importance to the p r i n -

w e l l as all theological engagement w i t h the problems of m o d e r n life,

ciple of sufficient reason: ' E v e r y t h i n g w h i c h is, has a sufficient reason f o r existing'. That no d o u b t sounds Leibnizian, t h o u g h Garrigou-Lagrange always held that we d i d n o t need Leibniz to formulate this p r i n c i p l e This is the p r i n c i p l e , i n the Thomistic Theses, o n w h i c h the proofs for the existence o f G o d are based.

Consider, however, w h a t C h e n u t h e n says. The t r u t h o f biblical revelat i o n cannot be reduced to the f o r m a l t r u t h o f the propositions that state i t G o d is revealed i n actions and events as w e l l as i n words.. These events are n o t b r u t e facts, illustrating d i v i n e ideas (as w h o m i g h t have thought?)

They

are God's actions i n history It's n o t g o o d e n o u g h 'to study the abstract con-

Anyway, d o i n g little m o r e than Gilson to d o c u m e n t the claim, C h e n u

ditions of the possibility o f a revelation, deductively', as Garrigou-Lagrange

contends that the version o f I h o m i s m to w h i c h he was exposed at the

d i d , so C h e n u says, ' i n the f r a m e w o r k of a metaphysical conception of

A n g e l i c u m f r o m 1914 u n t i l 1920

truth'.

2 9

R i c h a r d P e d d i c o r d , The

Reginald

Garrigou-Lagrange

Sacred Monster

Qv ( S o u t h B e n d

was infiltrated by this E n l i g h t e n m e n t

of Thomistn • An Introduction

to the Life and Legacy of

I N : St A u s t i n s Press 2 0 0 5 ) : 103

footnote

70

3 1

'This analysis connects neither w i t h the historical c o n d i t i o n o f man

3 0

C h e n u . 'Vérité évangélique':

3 1

I b i d : 637

636

32

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

M A R I E - D O M I N I Q U E

C H E N U

33

C H E N U

n o r w i t h saving t r u t h ' I t is the 'purely extrinsic m e t h o d o f a certain f u n d a -

context, he brings o u t Aquinas's evangelical i n t e n t i o n and its actuality for

mental theology, rendered obsolete by the C o u n c i l ' .

today

3 2

W h a t we want, C h e n u goes o n , is a conception o f ' b i b l i c a l t r u t h , evangelical t r u t h , according to the H e b r e w m i n d ' - i t 'connects directly n o t w i t h w h a t is b u t w i t h w h a t comes about, w i t h that of w h i c h one has e x p e r i ence'

3 3

'Greek t h o u g h t developed b y reflecting o n the substance o f beings,

and issues i n t o a philosophy o f i m m u t a b i l i t y and permanence. I t left o u t the proper characteristic o f biblical t h o u g h t : time, the

fragility

o f things and

persons B i b l i c a l t h o u g h t is t u r n e d n o t to essences b u t to destinies; i t questions itself about the feeblenesses and the promises o f l i f e ' .

3 4

True, he allows, i t w o u l d be g i v i n g i n to a pernicious and historically

3 5

As f o r Chenu's legacy, i t may n o w be traced i n the w o r k o f many

theologians, such as Jean-Pierre Tbrrell, Gilles Emery, Gregory P. Rocca, and M a t t h e w Tevering, w h o take i t for granted that Aquinas needs to be studied i n historical context — w h i c h does n o t mean he has n o t h i n g to say that bears o n matters o f great theological interest today - just the opposite

3 6

The second v o l u m e o f Terrell's magnum opus presents Aquinas as 'spiritual master' - his theology as clearly o r i e n t e d towards contemplation as his spirituality expresses itself i n his theology T h o u g h he obviously owes far more to Chenu's example, perhaps Chenu's and Garrigou-Lagrange's versions o f T h o m i s m reach a degree o f reconciliation i n TorreHs b o o k .

controversial dualism to oppose the historical and concrete t r u t h o f the

T h e n , given the place o f n e o - A r i s t o t e l i a n ' v i r t u e ethics', at the c u t t i n g

Gospel to the abstract t r u t h o f G r e c o - T a t i n philosophy, defined as this latter

edge o f English-language m o r a l philosophy, as w e l l as i n C h r i s t i a n ethics,

is by adequatio rei et intellectus, i n a j u d g e m e n t w h i c h relates a statement w i t h

the best testimony to Chenu's advocacy of historical-contextualist studies as

the t r u t h o f being as being. .

the way to retrieve and appropriate Aquinas's t h o u g h t most creatively may

A n d he goes o n i n this strain, p l a y i n g off a

supposedly evangelical concept o f t r u t h against the concept of t r u t h i n h e r -

be f o u n d i n the w o r k o f the Belgian D o m i n i c a n Servais Pinckaers

i t e d f r o m ancient Greek philosophy A d m i t t e d l y , 30 years ago, the difference

doctoral dissertation - ' T h e V i r t u e o f H o p e f r o m Peter L o m b a r d to Thomas

between H e b r e w and Greek ways o f t h i n k i n g , and between biblical and

Aquinas' - was supervised by Garrigou-Lagrange - and he invited C h e n u to

metaphysical concepts o f t r u t h , was something of a commonplace,

w r i t e the preface to his first major b o o k , Le Renouveau de la morale (1964)

a m o n g Catholic theologians

even

His

3 7

N o d o u b t i t was h i g h t i m e that the grip o f

M o s t Catholic theologians, however, do n o t f i n d i t attractive, or even

neoscholastic rationalism was b r o k e n . B u t o p t i n g f o r a biblical n o t i o n of

necessary, to study Aquinas i n Chenu's or anyone else's way Outside the

t r u t h over against a metaphysical concept was a m o v e that w o u l d have

English-speaking w o r l d , especially, recourse to Aquinas seems mere anti-

excited Garrigou-Lagrange's suspicions, n o t altogether unjustifiably

quarianism, a failure to face up to the unavoidable implications o f p o s t m o d ernism. I n the most i n f l u e n t i a l m o v e m e n t currently i n Catholic theology, the Song o f Songs and the patristic and medieval commentaries

Conclusion Chenu's lasting achievement

thereon

play a m u c h m o r e significant role than Thomas Aquinas's w o r k

was to challenge from inside the standard

reading of the Summa Theologies Unbelievable as i t may seem to theologians i n other c h u r c h traditions, as w e l l as to Catholic theologians o f the postVatican I I era, fears that his approach led to relativism, and so to m o d e r n i s m , were so prevalent a m o n g his f e l l o w D o m i n i c a n s that he was dismissed

from

3 5

O r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 5 9 , r e c e n t l y translated w i t h a n i n t r o d u c t i o n b y P a u l J. P h i l i b e r t

O P ; see Aquinas 3i>

and His Role in Theology ( C o l l e g e v i l l e , M N : T h e L i t u r g i c a l Press 2 0 0 2 )

Jean-Pierre T o r r e l l O P Saint

Thomas

Aquinas,

vol

2 Spiritual

teaching i n any D o m i n i c a n i n s t i t u t i o n simply f o r insisting that Thomas

M I : Sapientia Press 2 0 0 2 ) ; G r e g o r y P R o c c a O P . Speaking

Aquinas's exposition o f the t r u t h o f C h r i s t i a n faith becomes all the more

Aquinas

enlightening as we read h i m i n historical context The best access to Chenu's distinctive approach to Aquinas is to be f o u n d i n a recently translated b o o k , i n w h i c h , by reconstructing the historical

Master

C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y o f A m e r i c a Press 2 0 0 3 ) ; Gilles E m e r y O P Trinity on the Interplay

of Positive and Negative

the Incomprehensible

Fulfilment

D a m e , I N : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e Press 2 0 0 2 ) , a n d Scripture

3 7

of Trinitarian

God'

Thomas

of Torah and Temple and Metaphysics'

(Notre

Aquinas

and

Theology ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 2 0 0 4 ) .

B o r n i n 1925 i n B e l g i u m Servais P i n c k a e r s j o i n e d t h e D o m i n i c a n s i n 1945. t a u g h t at the

University o f Fribourg

S w i t z e r l a n d , f r o m 1973:

E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g e w o r l d see

The

Sources of Christian

his i n f l u e n c e is o n l y n o w r e a c h i n g Ethics

3 2

Ibid

v e r s i t y o f A m e r i c a Press 1 9 9 5 ) ; a n d especially J o h n B e r k m a n a n d C r a i g Steven T i t u s

Ibid

The Pinckaers

Ibid : 637-8

sity o f A m e r i c a Press 2 0 0 5 )

Reader:

Renewing

Tlwmistic

Moral

Theology

the

(Washington D C : Catholic U n i -

3 3

3 4

DC:

(Ypsilanti

Theology ( W a s h i n g t o n D C : C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y

o f A m e r i c a Press 2 0 0 4 ) ; M a t t h e w L e v e r i n g , Christ's the Renewal

(Washington

in Aquinas

(eds)

(Washington. D C : Catholic U n i v e r -

Y V E S

Chapter Three

35

C O N G A R

political m o v e m e n t attractive to Catholics w h o deplored the anti-clericalism o f the socialist politicians of the T h i r d R e p u b l i c and sometimes even wanted /

YVES

to restore the monarchy, as w e l l as the influence o f the Catholic C h u r c h .

CONGAR

4

The D o m i n i c a n s at L e Saulchoir, however, they regarded as treating the study o f Thomas Aquinas m o r e as an exercise i n historical scholarship intended to impress the medievalists at the Sorbonne, rather than the t i m e less system o f speculative theology w h i c h most D o m i n i c a n s at the t i m e t o o k i t to be. Congar's year o f m a n d a t o r y m i l i t a r y service (1924—5) was spent i n the R h i n e l a n d . H e forsook the diocesan clergy i n order to enter the D o m i n i c a n Order, where i n a year o r t w o he fell under C h e n u s spell. His first publica5

tions suggest he was destined f o r a future as a medievalist I t soon became clear to h i m , however, that his vocation lay i n w o r k i n g f o r Christian A c c o r d i n g to the A m e r i c a n Jesuit theologian A v e r y Dulles, i n an obituary, 'Vatican I I c o u l d almost be called Congar's C o u n c i l '

1

Yves Congar was b o r n o n 13 A p r i l 1904, at Sedan, i n the Ardennes region of north-east France, a f e w miles f r o m the frontier w i t h B e l g i u m . H i s father 2

Georges C o n g a r was a bank manager. H i s very devout m o t h e r L u c i e read The Imitation of Christ to the children and o n Saturday evenings the n e x t day's gospel text They had Jewish friends as w e l l as Protestant neighbours,

reunion. H i s first b o o k Chrétiens désunis appeared i n 1938, the first v o l u m e i n the series he f o u n d e d under the name Unam Sanctam - a series he saw as c o n t r i b u t i n g to C h r i s t i a n r e u n i o n , principally, i n the b e g i n n i n g anyway, by retrieving f o r g o t t e n themes o f Catholic t r a d i t i o n . A n anonymous article i n 6

UOsservatore

Romano

attacked the b o o k ; and the Provincial o f the Paris

D o m i n i c a n s was s u m m o n e d to R o m e to explain w h y the b o o k had been p e r m i t t e d to appear.

unusual f o r Catholics i n France i n those days Back i n the sixteenth century

As a reservist Congar was m o b i l i z e d i n September 1939. H e was captured

the local princes were Protestant E v e n i n the early t w e n t i e t h , w h e n the

i n M a y 1940, w h e n France surrendered T h e next five years he spent i n

pr inces were o f course l o n g gone, there were Protestants and Catholics and

high-security prisons, t w i c e at C o l d i t z Back f r o m the war, he was impatient

even a f e w Jews l i v i n g peaceably together i n the t o w n R i g h t i n the path o f

to c o n t i n u e his interest i n p r o m o t i n g C h r i s t i a n reunion. Few Catholics i n

the G e r m a n a r m y i n 1914, the t o w n was besieged, and the C a t h o l i c church

the English-speaking w o r l d understand the traumatic effects i n t h e ancient

b u r n e d d o w n . The Catholics were allowed b y the R e f o r m e d pastor to use

Catholic countries o f western E u r o p e of the serial catastrophes o f Nazism,

the local Protestant church f o r Sunday worship. Congar's father was a m o n g

m i l i t a r y occupation, collaboration, the r o u n d - u p of Jews, the invasion and

the m e n deported by the Germans to L i t h u a n i a , occupied b y the G e r m a n

the b o m b i n g , and so on. I n 1945 the C h r i s t i a n faith, and especially the

army i n September 1915

Catholic C h u r c h , was rising f r o m the dead, r e t u r n i n g f r o m hell t o n e w life

Encouraged by a local priest, Congar entered the diocesan seminary I n

I n 1950 Congar published Vraie et fausse réforme dam l'Eglise

1

This went

1921 he m o v e d to Paris, to study philosophy H e attended courses by Jacques M a r i t a i n , the lay m a n w h o was soon to become one o f the leaders of

4

the renaissance o f T h o m i s m

t h e T h i r d R e p u b l i c w h i c h was e x t r e m e l y a n t i - C a t h o l i c

3

H e w e n t to retreats conducted near Paris b y

R e g i n a l d Garrigou-Lagrange. They were all d r a w n to A c t i o n Française, a

A c t i o n Française was f o u n d e d i n 1898 at t h e h e i g h t o f t h e D r e y f u s affair a n d was hostile t o I h e b e s t - k n o w n leader

Charles

M a u r r a s ( 1 8 6 8 - 1 9 5 2 ) . j o u r n a l i s t , p h i l o s o p h e r , m o n a r c h i s t , m i l i t a n t atheist a n d a n t i - S e m i t e , o n l y b e c a m e a C a t h o l i c i n b i s last years I n 1926 P o p e P i u s X I f o r b a d e C a t h o l i c s t o s u p p o r t t h e m o v e m e n t because o f its e x t r e m e n a t i o n a l i s m a n d m i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f C a t h o l i c d o c t r i n e

1

A v e r y D u l l e s SJ ' Y v e s C o n g a r : I n A p p r e c i a t i o n ' America

2

F o r details see A i d a n N i c h o l s O P , Yves Congar

E l i z a b e t h Teresa G r o p p e , Yves Congar's Theology

H i s a c t i o n p r o v o k e d a grave crisis o f c o n s c i e n c e f o r m a n y clergy a n d f a i t h f u l

173 (15 J u l y 1 9 9 5 ) : 6 - 7 .

( L o n d o n : Geoffrey C h a p m a n 1989); and

of the Holy

Spirit ( O x f o r d : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y

Press 2 0 0 4 ) 3

Jacques M a r i t a i n

5

6

(1882-1973), a French

I h o m i s t p h i l o s o p h e r , h e l d chairs at

Paris,

T o r o n t o a n d P r i n c e t o n . H e a p p l i e d I h o m i s t p r i n c i p l e s t o m e t a p h y s i c s , m o r a l , social a n d p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y , t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f e d u c a t i o n , h i s t o r y , c u l t u r e a n d art.

As a n o v i c e h e was g i v e n t h e n a m e M a r i e - J o s e p h , e v e n t u a l l y d r o p p e d ; his e a r l y p u b l i c a -

t i o n s are a t t r i b u t e d t o M -J. C o n g a r Chrétiens

Divided 7

désunis:

Christendom:

Principes

d'un

Vraie et fausse réforme dans l'Église

revised e d i t i o n

1969

'oecuménisme'

catholique

A Catholic Study of the Problem of Reunion

(Paris: C e r f 1937)

translated as

( L o n d o n : C e n t e n a r y Press 1939)

(Paris: C e r f 1 9 5 0 ) ; never translated i n t o E n g l i s h ; second,

36

Y V E S

C O N G A R

Y V E S

C O N G A R

37

t o o far - the very idea o f ' r e f o r m ' , w h e t h e r true or false, i n the C a t h o l i c

1958 Congar was allowed to publish his b o o k Le Mystère du temple - a study

C h u r c h , was a provocation The papal n u n c i o i n Paris, A r c h b i s h o p A n g e l o

o f the history of the presence o f G o d i n the w o r l d f r o m Genesis to the

R o n c a l l i , inscribed i n his o w n copy the question ' A r e f o r m o f the C h u r c h -

Apocalypse - the p r o d u c t of some months o f exile i n Jerusalem There was

is i t possible?' Less than t e n years later, w h e n he had b e c o m e Pope

no possibility o f republishing, even w i t h revisions he wanted to make, any o f

John X X I I I , the idea that the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h c o u l d be r e f o r m e d

the three great books

-

r enewed, anyway - was f i r m l y o n the agenda. I n 1953, as i f anticipating that renewal, Congar b r o u g h t o u t Jalons pour une théologie du laicat

T h e n , to everyone's amazement and many people's dismay, Pope John

8

X X I I I announced i n January

laid out w h a t

c o u n c i l , the Second Vatican C o u n c i l - to r e f o r m the C h u r c h e x p l i c i t l y i n

w o u l d , quite unexpectedly, dominate the agenda f o r Vatican I I : a f o r m o f

order to b r i n g about r e u n i o n a m o n g Christians I n July 1960 Congar was

ecumenism acceptable to Catholics; acceptance o f the t r u t h that the C h u r c h

a m o n g the first appointed by John X X I I I t o draft texts for the bishops to

was always i n need o f r e f o r m (ecdesia semper reformando); and recovery o f a

consider. I n i t i a l l y C o n g a r was sceptical about any g o o d the C o u n c i l m i g h t

sense o f the C h u r c h as the people o f G o d , clergy and laity together. A t last

do, assuming, as many others d i d , that there c o u l d o n l y be a wave o f c o n -

D a t e d now, o f course, these three books nevertheless

1959

that he was c o n v o k i n g a full-scale

the Catholic C h u r c h w o u l d concede that Christians outside her visible

demnations o f C o m m u n i s m , o f the ' n e w theology', of 'ecumenism', and o f

membership were at least w o r t h t a l k i n g to, their 'churches' had elements o f

m u c h else, or, o n the positive side, a dogmatic d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e Blessed

'true C h u r c h ' i n them.

V i r g i n M a r y as M e d i a t r i x of A l l Graces.

9

I f Congar was already under suspicion i n 1938 f o r his ecumenical i n t e r -

O n 20 N o v e m b e r 1962, after days of b i t t e r exchanges i n the aula, the

ests, worse was to come i n 1953 w h e n he became interested i n the w o r k e r -

m a j o r i t y o f the C o u n c i l fathers v o t e d against the draft text de fontibus rev-

priest movement. Its members were priests w h o sought to evangelize the

elationis, o n 'the sources' of C h r i s t i a n revelation, the w o r k o f a team o f

deeply anti-clerical industrial workers b y b e c o m i n g workers themselves, i n

(mostly) R o m a n university theologians, presided over b y C a r d i n a l O t t a -

the hope o f breaking d o w n the barrier. T h e m o v e m e n t w o r r i e d many o f

v i a n i and Sebastian T r o m p sj. T h e vote - 1368 to 822 w i t h 19 n u l l - d i d

the French bishops Some bishops feared that these priests were losing their

n o t reach the t w o - t h i r d s required b y the rules to reject a text — t h o u g h i t

priestly status, accepting election as trades u n i o n officials, and so on. A n

was nonetheless an affront to those w h o regarded themselves, and were

article he published i n September 1953 o n the future o f the m o v e m e n t l e d

w i d e l y regarded, as t h e custodians o f C a t h o l i c d o c t r i n e John X X I I I exer-

to Cougar 's b e i n g dismissed f r o m teaching at Le Saulchoir, and f o r b i d d e n to

cised his a u t h o r i t y o n the side o f the m a j o r i t y , n a m i n g a new commission

set f o o t i n any study house o f the D o m i n i c a n Order. This was o n l y an

to compose a fresh text This was the t u r n i n g p o i n t , n o t only the defeat o f

excuse: suspicion of his interest i n C h r i s t i a n r e u n i o n was the true reason f o r

the H o l y O f f i c e theologians; b u t , as many saw at the time, incredulously,

the treatment to w h i c h the Order subjected h i m , perhaps under pressure

w i t h delight o r dismay, the close o f an age - i n p r i n c i p l e , at least. Congar's

f r o m Vatican authorities N o t h i n g C o n g a r published was ever censured b y

doubts about John X X I I I and the C o u n c i l were settled. B y early 1963 he

the H o l y O f f i c e , or placed o n the Index o f P r o h i b i t e d Books, n o r was he

was playing a major part i n drafting the n e w texts w h i c h eventually became

ever s u m m o n e d to defend his ideas i n R o m e . H e was kept h a n g i n g about,

the documents o f Vatican I I ,

mostly i n R o m e , w h i l e no one, n o n e o f his f e l l o w D o m i n i c a n friars, c o u l d or w o u l d tell h i m w h y he was f o r b i d d e n to teach or preach o r publish or live i n the same house as friars i n f o r m a t i o n . Congar's misery culminated i n February 1956 w h e n he was sent by the Master o f the O r d e r to the English D o m i n i c a n house i n C a m b r i d g e , f o r an indefinite p e r i o d , f o r b i d d e n to lecture or preach This proved the unhappiest six m o n t h s o f his life, worse

D u r i n g the C o u n c i l Congar published t w o volumes o n the theology o f Sacred Tradition (1960 and 1963): the r e f o r m or renewal of the Catholic C h u r c h that he envisaged was t o be o n the basis of a retrieval of t h e fullness of the Catholic t r a d i t i o n that he believed had been lost as Catholics reacted against Protestantism i n the so-called C o u n t e r - R e f o r m a t i o n , and against

than b e i n g i n C o l d i t z I n D e c e m b e r 1956 the bishop o f Strasbourg rescued h i m , quite as arbitrarily, enabling h i m to resume a (limited) m i n i s t r y I n

9

F o r decades m a n y C a t h o l i c s have w a n t e d M a r y d e c l a r e d M e d i a t r i x o f A l l Graces o r C o -

R e d e m p t r i x : as M o t h e r o f G o d (Theotoko.s:

G o d - b e a r e r ) she has f o r ever a m a t e r n a l - m e d i a t i n g

role i n G o d s s e l f - c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o the faithful (entirely subordinate and speaking analoK

Jalons pour une théologie

du laicat (Paris: C e r f 1953)

Study for the Theology of the Laity

translated as Lay People in the Church-

( W e s t m i n s t e r M D : N e w m a n Press 1965).

A

g o u s l y ) ; as t h e o n e w h o gave h e r c o n s e n t at t h e A n n u n c i a t i o n she has a c o - o p e r a t i v e role i n t h e h i s t o r y o f r e d e m p t i o n (again o f course, s u b o r d i n a t e a n d analogously)

38

Y V E S

Y V E S

C O N G A R

39

C O N G A R

I n 1937 Congar visited England, as a guest o f A M

the ancient churches o f the East w h e n they rejected papal a u t h o r i t y as c o n ­

Ramsey,, w h o m u c h

later became A r c h b i s h o p o f Canterbury and a f r i e n d o f Pope Paul V I H e

ceived and practised i n the early M i d d l e Ages. I n the aftermath Congar published m u c h , d o c u m e n t i n g h o w traditional Vatican II's understanding o f the C h u r c h actually was Finally, i n 1979-80, he published a major w o r k o n the doctrine o f the H o l y Spirit -

fell i n love w i t h Anglicanism, at least w i t h the beauty o f the l i t u r g y i n a great cathedral like L i n c o l n , w h e r e he stayed w i t h R a m s e y

1 2

elementary

A m a z i n g as this all n o w seems, t a l k i n g theology and praying, w i t h L u t h ­

i n the w a y i t summarizes the history o f h o w the presence o f the H o l y Spirit

erans, Anglicans and O r t h o d o x , was w i d e l y regarded as inappropriate for

has been perceived d o w n t h r o u g h the ages and across the various c o n f l i c t i n g

Catholics.. T h e r e were, o f course, suspicions o n b o t h sides - the O r t h o d o x ,

ecclesiastical traditions - the ultimate a i m , however, being to prepare the

even today, are o f t e n suspicious o f overtures f r o m R o m e , greeting t h e m as

way f o r r e u n i o n between Eastern and Western C h r i s t i a n i t y

n e w ways to trap the O r t h o d o x i n t o submission to Rome's longstanding

Gradually incapacitated by the neurological disease first detected i n 1935,

desire for c o n t r o l , as the O r t h o d o x see it, n o t altogether unjustifiably

Congar was m o v e d i n 1984 to Les Invalides, the m i l i t a r y hospital f o r heroes o f the Republic, where he died o n 22 June 1995, having been named a Car­

Divided

dinal by Pope John Paul I I the previous year - an h o n o u r w h i c h Congar

Christendom

accepted although, i n his view, the status by the eleventh century o f the Cardinals i n R o m e had all but destroyed the a u t h o r i t y o f the episcopate .

I n Divided Christendom

1 0

Congar outlines the historical origins of the division

between Eastern and Western C h r i s t i a n i t y and, secondly, the split i n the West at the R e f o r m a t i o n . The f o r m e r Congar attributes to political and c u l ­ tural factors, m u c h exacerbated b y the advance of Islam The gulf between

Ecumenism

Protestants and Catholics is 'practically impassable': indeed, we should speak Preparing for o r d i n a t i o n to priesthood, i n 1930,

Congar meditated o n

o f ' t w o different Christianities'

Protestant o p p o s i t i o n to Catholicism is

chapter 17 o f the f o u r t h gospel - 'that all shall be one' T h e n - unheard o f at

(however) quite understandable: i n theology and piety, there was 'a great

the t i m e , f o r a Catholic theologian — he w a n t e d to meet Christians o f other

emphasis o n man's o w n m o r a l activity and a less-marked sense o f the

traditions H e visited Germany, to meet L u t h e r a n pastors and professors

supreme theocentricism

N e v e r having heard o f the legend of the Grand I n q u i s i t o r (in Dostoevsky's

j u r i d i c o - s o c i a l aspect o f the C h u r c h that b y m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y the

Brothers Karamazov)

he was shocked to learn that, for his n e w L u t h e r a n

of the great t r a d i t i o n ' ; and such stress o n the

C h u r c h was 'as m u c h l i k e a fortress as a t e m p l e ' .

13

friends, this was their picture o f the Catholic C h u r c h : 'Catholics are the

The doctrine o f the u n i t y of the C h u r c h is grounded i n G o d as Trinity;

subjects o f the Pope and prisoners i n a hierarchical ecclesiastical system

historically given i n C h r i s t ; the C h u r c h his Mystical Body, the People of

w h e r e consciences are enslaved, the relations o f souls w i t h G o d are at

G o d , a fellowship, a great sacrament, and so o n Chapter 3, o n the C a t h o l i c ­

second-hand and stereotyped - r e l i g i o n i n fact b y p r o x y for the benefit o f

ity o f the C h u r c h , insists that the 'great diversity o f religious experience - o f

the clergy, an ecclesiastical k i n g d o m o f w h i c h the Pope is the autocrat.'

ways of feeling o r l i v i n g the C h r i s t i a n life and of i n t e r p r e t i n g the religious

11

Whatever else m i n i s t r y i n the service o f C h r i s t i a n r e u n i o n w o u l d mean, so

objectivity — is n o t only legitimate b u t desirable i n the C h u r c h ' (110)..

Congar realized, the first and most urgent requirement was to engage i n dis­ cussion w i t h Lutherans i n order to liberate t h e m f r o m their prejudices about w h a t Catholics actually d i d and t h o u g h t - and he w o u l d n o t get very far w i t h o u t d o i n g his best to learn w h a t Protestants actually d i d and t h o u g h t -

Chapter 4 offers a fairly severe critique o f the theories u n d e r l y i n g the Ecumenical M o v e m e n t , first as manifested i n the S t o c k h o l m Conference İn 1925 - w h i c h 'emanated f r o m a pragmatist and chiefly English-speaking

to overcome his o w n prejudices. 1 2

A r t h u r M i c h a e l R a m s e y ( 1 9 0 4 - 8 8 ) was a p p o i n t e d s u b w a r d e n o f L i n c o l n t h e o l o g i c a l

c o l l e g e i n 1930; c a n o n - p r o f e s s o r at D u r h a m i n 1940; B i s h o p o f D u r h a m i n 1952, A r c h b i s h o p 1 0

I n 1059

n o d o u b t u n d e r the influence o f H i l d e b r a n d , the f u t u r e Pope G r e g o r y V I I , Pope

o f Y o r k i n 1956, a n d was A r c h b i s h o p o f C a n t e r b u r y f r o m 1961 t o 1 9 7 4 ; see his The Gospel

N i c h o l a s ¡1 r u l e d t h a t t h e c a r d i n a l bishops a l o n e s h o u l d elect t h e p o p e ( i n t h e h o p e o f e x c l u d ­

the Catholic

i n g simony)

1 3

1 1

Divided

Christendom:

34

text

Divided

Church

and

(1936), w h i c h Congar m u c h admired

Christendom:

33, 35

S u b s e q u e n t page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n the

40

Y V E S

Y V E S

C O N G A R

milieu under the aegis o f a Protestant modernist'; and t h e n at Lausanne

Intégrisme

(1927): 'a characteristic p r o d u c t o f the A n g l i c a n o u t l o o k ' — c o n c l u d i n g that Catholic co-operation should take the f o r m o f ' t h e o l o g i c a l assistance', 'certainly n o t the f o r m o f official membership'.

41

C O N G A R

Vraie et fausse réforme dans l'Eglise

runs to 650 pages. I n the first part Congar

deals w i t h sin i n the C h u r c h (chapter 1); h o w r e f o r m should take place

Chapter 5 outlines A n g l i c a n doctrine of the C h u r c h , as C o n g a r u n d e r -

(chapter 2); and the part played b y r e f o r m i n g prophets (chapter 3)

The

stands i t , quite sympathetically, c o n c l u d i n g however that, as to ' n o n - R o m a n

second part lays o u t f o u r conditions for r e f o r m w i t h o u t schism: a c k n o w -

Catholicism', i f that is w h a t Anglicans believe they represent, t h e n 'there is

l e d g i n g the p r i m a c y o f charity; remaining i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h the w h o l e

n o such t h i n g ' (197)

C h u r c h ; patience; and renewal by ressourcement, r e t u r n to the sources. The

O r t h o d o x y , i t turns o u t i n chapter 6, has an ' i n c o m p l e t e ' ecclesiology;

t h i r d part deals w i t h the R e f o r m a t i o n , p r i n c i p a l l y w i t h Luther, contending

nonetheless Congar breaks w i t h the t h e n prevalent Catholic v i e w that

that the m e d i a t o r y role o f the visible C h u r c h falls away i n t o o b l i v i o n . I n the

Christians w h o were n o t i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h R o m e and thus under the

conclusion C o n g a r admits understandable reservations and hesitancies but

a u t h o r i t y o f the H o l y See are ipso facto 'heretics' Indeed, so Congar c o n -

argues that the t i m e is ripe, especially i n France: there is n o t h i n g 'modernist'

tends, Catholics have m u c h t o learn f r o m the Russian C h u r c h ('to k n o w

or ' r e v o l u t i o n a r y ' to fear; the bishops are w e l c o m i n g , the w o u l d - b e r e f o r m -

and experience a m o r e i n t e r i o r and mystical o u t l o o k ' , 220). A b o u t Greek

ers are loyal Catholics; the r e f o r m required obviously issues out o f pastoral

O r t h o d o x y , oddly, he says n o t h i n g

concern.

Chapter 7 invites Catholics to see other Christians as 'brethren' — 'separated' yes; b u t as 'Christians w h o already possess i n greater or lesser degree w h a t we desire to see fulfilled i n t h e m , and w h o themselves secretly l o o k f o r such a c o n s u m m a t i o n ' (247). T h o u g h ' b o r n i n t o an erroneous f o r m o f Christianity', n o n - R o m a n - C a t h o l i c Christians are 'very rarely real heretics'. I n the c o n c l u d i n g chapter, an o u t l i n e f o r a practical programme, Congar allows that 'some day we shall have complete r e u n i o n ' , namely w i t h the Eastern C h u r c h . For any chance o f r e u n i o n w i t h Protestants, however, 'vast changes' w o u l d be required - 'the specifically Protestant m i n d is gradually destructive o f the objects o f its o w n belief, and o f w h a t survives o f the h e r -

Nevertheless Congar acknowledges the p r o b l e m o f a split - une scission spirituelle - a m o n g Catholics, between one c o u n t r y and another, France and (say) Flanders,

Quebec, the Netherlands, Ireland; and also

between Catholics i n the same c o u n t r y ! Accordingly, the b o o k ends w i t h 18 pages o n intégrisme i n France. M o d ernism, as i t existed f r o m 1895 to 1910, C o n g a r says, was indeed a heresy H e happily quotes Pope Pius X against it. Intégristes, o n the other hand, maximize o r t h o d o x y so m u c h that this also becomes a way out o f C a t h o l i cism. H e adapts N e w m a n , w r i t i n g to W G W a r d :

itage o f historic Christianity' (274).

P a r d o n m e i f 1 say t h a t y o u are m a k i n g a C h u r c h w i t h i n a C h u r c h , as

T h a t last remark c o u l d have been made by any a n t i - m o d e r n i s t I t is d i f f i -

N o v a t i a n s o f o l d d i d w i t h i n t h e C a t h o l i c p a l e , a n d , as o u t s i d e t h e

cult to imagine w h y colleagues and the authorities i n R o m e were so

pale, the Evangelicals o f t h e Establishment

w o r r i e d about Congar's principles o f Catholic ecumenism..

make a party i n the Catholic

H e sees no

Christ by exalting your opinions into dogma

remote - o f r e u n i o n w i t h the A n g l i c a n Church.. T h e ecclesiology o f the

against y o u r tenets, b u t against w h a t I m u s t call y o u r schismatical

O r t h o d o x is defective, yet, so he thinks, they are definitely n o t heretics M o r e shocking, however, was

n o d o u b t the assertion that n o n - R o m a n - C a t h o l i c

churches have ' i n greater

o r lesser degree' true elements o f w h a t the C h u r c h really is - other C h r i s tians, that is to say, are members o f churches w h i c h are, sacramentally and i n other ways, n o t completely and totally n u l l and v o i d

the

Catholic

. . . y o u are d o i n g y o u r b e s t t o

C h u r c h , a n d i n S t P a u l ' s w o r d s are

chance of r e u n i o n w i t h Protestant churches - and perhaps the possibility —

perhaps that was a shocking t h o u g h t i n 1938

between

dividing

. . I protest then again, spirit

not

1 4

Lhis sectarian tendency to maximize whatever is settled by a u t h o r i t y slips i n t o c o n d e m n i n g all openness, research, and questioning o f received ideas. A Catholic's o r t h o d o x y becomes measurable b y the degree of hatred that he shows for those he suspects of heterodoxy The p r o b l e m w i t h intégrisme is, finally, Congar thinks, that i t has t o o little confidence i n the t r u t h , insufficient love o f the t r u t h - ' f o r d enlarge m y soul, as Catherine of Siena prayed.'

1 4

9 M a y 1867. q u o t i n g W W a r d rheLifccfJ.H

Cardinal Newman (1913). v o l . 2 : 2 3 3 ; n o w Tlie

Letters and Diaries of John Henry Newman, v o l X X I I I ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n Press 1 9 7 3 ) : 2 1 6 - 1 7

42

Y V E S

Y V E S

C O N G A R

canonical and theological t r a d i t i o n means by ' c o l l e g i a l i t y ' . I t was a fact of 16

Lay People in the Church

life f o r centuries

Lay People in the Church is a classic. For decades, especially under the i n f l u ence o f Pius X I and Pius X I I , there were tremendous developments i n the lay apostolate. I t was t i m e f o r reflection and an attempt to recapitulate the place o f lay people, structured o n the d o c t r i n e o f their p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the Church's t h r e e - f o l d priestly, regal/pastoral and prophetical function.. The theology o f laity really demanded a total ecclesiology.. The C h u r c h is the collectivity o f the faithful, the congregatio fidelium i n a phrase that Congar likes to quote f r o m Thomas Aquinas T h e faithful, one has to remember, include the clergy! For generations, i n understandable b u t one-sided reactions to 'spiritual' sects, conciliarism, Gallicanism, the R e f o r m a t i o n , and so o n , Congar says, ecclesiology gradually became ' h i e r archology'

The lay apostolate has o u t m o d e d this. C l e r g y and laity p a r t i c i -

pate equally i n Christ's messianic mission, yet i n different ways: the clergy, by celebrating the sacraments, constitute the f a i t h f u l people; whereas the laity, b y their graced activities, consecrate the w o r l d , m a k i n g o f all things a sacrifice o f praise and temple o f G o d . W e need to retrieve the d o c t r i n e o f the priesthood of the laity, w h i c h Congar develops entirely o n the basis o f quotations f r o m Aquinas The regal or pastoral f u n c t i o n extends to the laity's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n r u n n i n g the C h u r c h , Congar recalls h o w m u c h lay people have done, historically, i n administrative and legal matters. H e includes a paragraph o n the possibility of a lay man's b e i n g elected pope, as Benedict V I I I i n 1012 and John X I X i n 1024 were, he tells us A small piece o f f o r g o t t e n history d e stabilizes a l o n g - h e l d assumption

43

C O N G A R

The t e r m 'collegiality' needs to be allowed tb retrieve its

m e a n i n g i n the cluster o f allied concepts related to C h r i s t i a n life i n f e l l o w ship and c o m m u n i t y I t is a T r i n i t a r i a n concept: the sublime mystery o f the H o l y T r i n i t y is 'a sort o f c o n c e l e b r a t i o n '

17

- w h i c h is the law o f the w h o l e

economy o f grace. As Paul says (1 C o r i n t h i a n s 1 1 , Ephesians 5), hierarchy and people are l i k e husband and w i f e (sid) trine'

1 8

This involves ' m u c h deep doc-

W h a t happens i n the C h u r c h is o n analogy w i t h 'the happiness of

c o m m u n i n g w i t h as w e l l as c o m m u n i c a t i n g to, o f g i v i n g itself a f e l l o w as partner and helper, w i t h w h o m a dialogue and co-operation are set up, then a sharing, and finally a c o m m u n i o n ' ,

1 9

namely, i n the t r i u n e Godhead

These remarks, m o r e provisional than the summary makes t h e m sound, anticipate the d o c t r i n e o f nuptiality w h i c h , as w e shall f i n d , came t o d o m i nate Catholic theology by the end o f the t w e n t i e t h century. This leads to the sensm fidelium: ' T h e C h u r c h l o v i n g and believing, that is, the b o d y o f the faithful, is infallible i n the l i v i n g possession of its f a i t h ' . This ' i n f a l l i b i l i t y ' is ' n o t simply a submissive deference to the hierarchy, a moral act o f docility or obedience, b u t i t is o f a vital, m o r a l nature, connected w i t h righteous l i v i n g '

2 0

Finally, Congar trawls t h r o u g h history f o r evidence o f lay participation i n teaching the C h r i s t i a n faith, by poets and artists, by m a n y lay movements, and by lay theologians - back to Justin, Tertullian and suchlike H e returns, at length - 150 pages - to Catholic A c t i o n , lay people taking part i n the Church's mission; lay holiness; sanctification i n the w o r l d , the existing reality o n w h i c h his b o o k is o n l y a reflection.

1 5

As for the prophetical f u n c t i o n , C o n g a r insists that, i n d o c t r i n a l develop-

Vatican I I

m e n t , there is co-operation, i n the conservation and development o f the deposit o f faith, between laity and clergy I n the C h u r c h , all are animated by the H o l y Spirit, according to their place and part: the bishops to teach, the laity to believe; but b e l i e v i n g is an active appropriation, n o t mere passivity Congar introduces the Russian O r t h o d o x idea o f sobornost',

suggesting

O n the eve o f the C o u n c i l , i n 1962, Yves Congar's help was n o t wanted, either by the French bishops or by the Master of the D o m i n i c a n Order, despite his h a v i n g taken part i n the preparatory drafting I n August 1962 he

that the translation as ' c o n c i l i a r i t y ' should give way to w h a t the Western 1 6

T h e Russian w o r d sobornost' ( c a t h o l i c i t y ) means that t h e c a t h o l i c i t y o f the C h u r c h is f o u n d

i n t h e u n i t y i n C h r i s t w h i c h exists i n t h e e v e n t o f t h e w o r s h i p p i n g c o n g r e g a t i o n especially i n H e doesn't g o far e n o u g h : B e n e d i c t V I I I (pope 1 0 1 2 - 2 4 ) a n d J o h n X I X ( 1 0 2 4 - 3 2 ) w e r e

t h e eucharist; t a u g h t b y R u s s i a n t h e o l o g i a n s such as G e o r g e s F l o r o v s k y ( 1 8 9 3 - 1 9 7 9 ) a n d

b r o t h e r s , succeeded b y t h e i r n e p h e w , B e n e d i c t I X ( 1 0 3 2 - 4 5 ) , also a lay m a n . H e . i n t u r n , a b d i -

A l e x e i K h o m i a k o v ( 1 8 0 4 - 6 0 ) . i t perhaps has n o t s u c h p r o m i n e n c e i n O r t h o d o x t r a d i t i o n as

cated i n favour o f his g o d f a t h e r G r e g o r y V I ( 1 0 4 5 - 6 ) , w h o was deposed b y a s y n o d called a n d

C o n g a r seems t o t h i n k .

1 5

presided over b y t h e H o l y R o m a n E m p e r o r , w h o t h e n h a d 'elected' t h e first o f t h e f o u r G e r m a n popes he i m p o s e d : n o t a g l o r i o u s p e r i o d i n papal h i s t o r y b u t s h o w i n g that t h r e e popes w e r e lay

1 7

Lay People in the Church:

1 8

I b i d : 272

m e n w h e n elected w h i l e o n e was deposed and f o u r i m p o s e d , b y a k e e n y o u n g lay m a n d e t e r -

1 9

I b i d : 271

m i n e d t o r e f o r m t h e C h u r c h , o r a n y w a y t o get t h e papacy o u t o f o n e R o m a n family's clutches

2 0

I b i d : 275

271

44

YVES

CONGAIÍ

YVES

45

CONGAR

offered his services to the bishop o f Strasbourg w h o at first refused - n o t ,

I n O c t o b e r 1963 a large m a j o r i t y o f the C o u n c i l fathers voted i n favour

however, because of reluctance to e m p l o y the still suspected theologian,

o f the doctrine o f collegiality - that supreme a u t h o r i t y i n the C h u r c h lay

o n l y because he feared he w o u l d have to pay Congar's expenses i n R o m e .

w i t h the bishops as a w h o l e , o f course i n c l u d i n g the pope. However, over

However, he was a m o n g the 200 'experts' appointed by Pope John X X I I I .

408 were against the doctrine. A f t e r m u c h redrafting, i n response to the

I n the event, t h o u g h Congar was n o t the p r i n c i p a l begetter o f the Vatican I I

bishops' w r i t t e n suggestions, w h e n the text was resubmitted i n September

d o c u m e n t o n the C h u r c h , the layout - the C h u r c h as mystery, as people o f

1964 there were still 322 o u t o f 2,000 against the doctrine - and this m i n o r -

G o d , as clergy and laity, and so o n - obviously displays his sense o f p r i o r i t i e s

i t y i n c l u d e d many p o w e r f u l figures. M o r e than four decades o n , w h i l e they

i n e x p o u n d i n g the doctrine.

are no d o u b t all dead, the fact remains that there has n o t been a n y t h i n g like

W h i l e the idea of a chapter o n 'the people o f G o d ' seems to have been

the decentralization, the r e t u r n o f a u t h o r i t y to local bishops, that the text

suggested b y A l b e r t P r i g n o n , t h e n R e c t o r o f the Belgian College i n R o m e ,

promulgated i n 1964

Congar drafted it. I n his j o u r n a l , f o r 2 O c t o b e r 1963, Congar records the

m a j o r i t y o f the bishops expected to be balanced by n e w or revitalized

envisages. The power o f the papal C u r i a that the

speech by the Master o f the D o m i n i c a n Order, attacking the idea of the

instruments o f collective episcopal a u t h o r i t y seems, i f anything, o n l y to have

C h u r c h as the people o f G o d , w a r n i n g o f the risk o f falling i n t o exaggerated

become m o r e secure, as we enter the t w e n t y - f i r s t century

democratismus H e recor ds the very fair presentation (as he thinks) o f the idea o f episcopal coHegiality by Cardinal M i c h a e l B r o w n e , spokesman f o r the doctrine commission; m a k i n g i t clear however that he (Browne) rejected

Religious Liberty

the doctrine himself: to say the bishops f o r m e d a college w o u l d be to say they were all equal — w h i c h c o u l d n o t be r i g h t , since bishops have n o j u r i s d i c t i o n outside their o w n diocese; i f they share i n governing the C h u r c h i t is by favour o f the pope, he alone is the source o f their a u t h o r i t y

2 1

Yves Congar had a h a n d i n half of the Vatican I I texts, at some stage ments o f t r u t h and grace i n n o n - C a t h o l i c

Back i n 1953, as we saw, Congar p u t the w o r d 'collegiahty' i n t o circula-

The

Decree o n E c u m e n i s m contains his dearest themes: recognition o f the eleChristian c o m m u n i t i e s ;

importance o f 'dialogue'; of 'spiritual ecumenism';

the

and o f ' r e f o r m '

He

tion. The idea o f the Apostles as a college, i n parallel w i t h the bishops as an

w o r k e d closely w i t h his y o u n g colleague Joseph Ratzinger o n r e w r i t i n g the

order, was already to be f o u n d i n the draft constitution de ecclesia prepared

rather miserable draft o n Missions - p r o d u c i n g what is acknowledged to be

f o r discussion i n 1870.

one o f the finest texts.

Few k n e w these texts, i n w h i c h i t was n o t e d , f o r

example, that ancient conciliar practice shows i t to be a dogma o f faith that

B u t n o t h i n g is m o r e revealing about Congar's character, as w e l l as his

the bishops share i n governing and teaching the universal C h u r c h . I n 1963,

ecumenical approach, than his involvement i n drafting Dignitatis

however, this talk o f episcopal collegiality seemed n e w - a n e w l y introduced

the Declaration o n R e l i g i o u s L i b e r t y The history o f the p r o d u c t i o n o f this

w o r d to express an essential d i m e n s i o n o f the Church's life all along, as

text displays radically c o n f l i c t i n g visions of Catholicism. Congar t r i e d hard

Congar believed; a n e w w o r d to smuggle i n an attack o n papal supremacy, as

to make i t a m u c h stronger text, m o r e scriptural and more theological,

the likes o f B r o w n e and Fernandez feared

For Congar, the balance was

g r o u n d i n g i t i n the N e w Testament doctrine o f our f r e e d o m i n C h r i s t , and

being restored between papal p r i m a c y and episcopal collegiality — essential

so on. Eventually he gave up, deciding that any further substantial m o d i f i c a -

i f there was ever to be reconciliation w i t h the O r t h o d o x B u t this was o n l y

tions to the text-in-progress w o u l d likely end i n there b e i n g no t e x t at all

one o f the most intractable questions at Vatican I I F r o m the ultramontanist m i n o r i t y , fearful o f the implications o f the very idea of episcopal collegialiry, to the m u c h larger n u m b e r w h o v o t e d against i n c l u d i n g the text o n the V i r g i n M a r y i n the d o c u m e n t o n the C h u r c h , t h r o u g h to the stubborn resistance to successive drafts o f the text o n religious liberty, the speeches o n the f l o o r exposed the deep r i f t between t w o very different versions Catholic theology and sensibility

of

A f t e r the N a z i G e r m a n and Soviet Russian attempts to exterminate the C h u r ch, as w e l l as the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f anti-Catholic laws i n France, M e x i c o and elsewhere, something about the f r e e d o m o f the C h u r c h f r o m state c o n t r o l had to be o n the agenda. I n any case, i t was a m a j o r issue i n h e r i t e d f r o m the First Vatican C o u n c i l I t was even the major issue: the p o i n t o f Vatican I s doctrine o f papal supremacy was, i n its o w n way, equivalent to the O x f o r d Movement's resistance to erastianism i n the C h u r c h o f England, and to the D i s r u p t i o n o f 1843

2 1

MonJournal

du Conálc

I (Paris: C e r f 2 0 0 2 ) : 4 2 6 ,

Humante,

380

i n the C h u r c h o f Scotland, and parallel

movements elsewhere. Certainly, the R o m a n university theologians w h o

46

Y V E S

Y V E S

C O N G A E

47

C O N G A R

(mostly) drafted the d o c u m e n t w a n t e d a clear statement, asserting the r i g h t

denied the fact that, objectively speaking, no other r e l i g i o n but the R o m a n

o f the C h u r c h to exercise her mission, free o f c i v i l interference, i n c l u d i n g

Catholic C h u r c h had the r i g h t to propagate its doctrine; and so ,on

practical matters like f r e e d o m to r u n schools, o w n property, and so o n ,

The leading D o m i n i c a n s at the C o u n c i l w e i g h e d i n against the text.

preferably i n h a r m o n y w i t h , and indeed w i t h the support of, the state, and

A c c o r d i n g to Cardinal M i c h a e l B r o w n e , i t c o u l d n o t be approved as i t

so (tacitly) i n c l u d i n g tax relief and other such benefits

stood, since i t asserted that religious freedom is f o u n d e d o n the rights o f

Controversy heated up w h e n the bishops o f the U n i t e d States o f A m e r i c a entered the debate. O f course they sought freedom o f action f o r the C h u r c h over against the state - b u t they wanted also freedom of conscience f o r i n d i viduals They w a n t e d a clear admission that the Catholic C h u r c h officially recognized the rights o f members o f other religions to practise their faith This was an essential step f o r engagement i n the ecumenical movement, i n a

conscience, w h i c h is simply not true. A n i c e t o Fernandez, his successor as Master o f the Order, wanted a g o o d deal o f revision, arguing that the text was t o o naturalistic B o t h o f these critics, obviously, feared that the Catholic C h u r c h was being manoeuvred i n t o adopting some version o f Jefferson's belief i n the absolute

The c o n f l i c t i n g views were so intractable, as the C o u n c i l speeches show, that a decision to vote o n the text was repeatedly postponed. I n September 1964, at the t h i r d session, the U S cardinals t o o k the floor, accepting the text as i t stood at that date They d i d n o t w a n t i t sent back f o r f u r t h e r r e w r i t i n g , perhaps fearing that i t w o u l d disappear for ever. Further amendments, i f any were needed, should strengthen the Church's c o m m i t m e n t to religious

Thomas

o f private j u d g e m e n t and his

assumption that creeds were the bane and r u i n o f Christianity

2 2

The text as i t stood, at this stage, so Congar t h o u g h t , was 'premature'

religiously pluralist society l i k e that o f the U n i t e d States, so they insisted.. (The first Catholic President was elected i n 1961.)

freedom

The Catholic Church's previous p o s i t i o n about freedom i n religious matters - 'error has n o rights' — was embedded i n a history, C h r i s t e n d o m , Catholic states, and suchlike, and should certainly be abandoned Yet, he t h o u g h t , the draft replaced w h a t had been believed f o r centuries, m u c h t o o abruptly, whereas there needed to be m o r e sense o f c o n t i n u i t y T h e statement should n o t be allowed to give the impression of b e i n g a total reversal o f previous teaching.

freedom, a natural r i g h t o f every person, one of the aspects o f natural h u m a n

M u c h revised, the t e x t ( n o w i n its f o u r t h draft) r e t u r n e d to t h e bishops

freedom, and so o n , but the text should stand. W h a t they sought, i t seemed,

f o r debate i n N o v e m b e r 1964. So m u c h revision had taken place that some

was something l i k e the First A m e n d m e n t to the C o n s t i t u t i o n o f the U n i t e d

w a n t e d t i m e to reconsider i t A c c o r d i n g l y , the praesidium decreed that dis-

States (1791): 'Congress shall make n o law respecting an establishment of

cussion w o u l d be deferred u n t i l the f o u r t h (and everyone h o p e d final)

religion, or p r o h i b i t i n g the free exercise t h e r e o f . N o C h u r c h - however

session o f the C o u n c i l A t this, the U S bishops were outraged - t h e c o n f i -

' t r u e ' - w o u l d ever be granted p r i v i l e g e d status b y the state; no religious

dence o f the entire C h r i s t i a n and n o n - C h r i s t i a n w o r l d i n the Catholic

b o d y - however- bizar re - was to be prevented b y the state f r o m w o r s h i p p i n g

C h u r c h w o u l d be f o r f e i t , i f there were any f u r t h e r delay over w h a t seemed

G o d o r propagating its teachings i n whatever way i t chose

to the Americans

M a n y Europeans c o u l d n o t stomach this. For one t h i n g , they d i d n o t see w h y w h a t Catholics believe should be tempered i n any way to relieve a n x i eties o n the part o f others. As regards f r e e d o m to practise one's r e l i g i o n itself, Cardinal O t t a v i a n i , i n effect speaking f o r the H o l y Office, o f w h i c h he was still the Prefect, argued that the text w o u l d be saying n o t h i n g n e w no one is to be coerced i n religious matters, as the Catholic C h u r c h has always recognized Nonetheless there needed to be an explicit affirmation o f the p r i m a r y r i g h t to religious freedom, i n the proper sense o f ' r i g h t ' , w h i c h belongs, objectively, to those w h o are members o f the one true revealed r e l i g i o n Moreover, the rights o f the true r e l i g i o n are based, he argued, n o t o n merely natural rights, b u t o n the rights w h i c h f l o w f r o m revelation.

a perfectly straightforward and simple m a t t e r : do

Catholics believe i n f r e e d o m o f conscience o r not? P a n d e m o n i u m broke o u t o n the C o u n c i l f l o o r ; Paul V I , w a t c h i n g o n closed-circuit television, telephoned the secretary general t o come to h i m at once, the Americans started to gather signatures for a p e t i t i o n — i n vain: the pope decided to leave the decision u n t i l the f o u r t h session, guaranteeing i t w o u l d be first on the agenda For this reason, a m o n g others, the t h i r d session c o n c l u d e d , on 21 N o v e m b e r 1964, w i t h a g r i m - f a c e d Paul V I being carried o n the sedia geitatoria

o u t o f the basilica t h r o u g h tiers o f stony-faced bishops, whose

lack o f enthusiasm, so uncharacteristic of such events, testified t o the seriousness o f the impasse over several issues, at this p o i n t i n the h i s t o r y of Vatican I I

Two eminent Spanish bishops were m u c h less sympathetic: the text was totally unacceptable, i t appeared to favour u n i o n w i t h the separated brethren, it endorsed the 'liberalism' w h i c h the C h u r c h had so often condemned, i t

1 2

Mon Journal

du Concile I I (Paris: C e r f 2 0 0 2 ) : 157,

162

48

Y V E S

Y V E S

C O N G A R

49

C O N G A R

The reason f o r d e f e r r i n g the vote once again was simply that the pope

concepts o f development and historicity, the long-resisted obvious fact that

and the inner circle o f his advisors feared that there w o u l d be as many as 800

institutions change over t i m e and that interpretations of events and texts also

votes against the text, o u t o f 2,300, m u c h t o o significant a m i n o r i t y W h a t

change, the implications f o r the C h u r c h , and f o r Scripture, were still to be

w o u l d i t l o o k like, to the outside w o r l d , i f the Catholic C h u r c h were to

faced

endorse religious l i b e r t y b u t w i t h one i n three o f the bishops against it?

some cases n o t even discussed

M o r e anguishing for Paul V I , w h a t w o u l d i t feel like, f o r o r d i n a r y Catholics

marriages, penitential discipline, and indulgences.

the w o r l d over, to discover h o w d i v i d e d the C h u r c h was? H e sought as

presbyteral; the place o f w o m e n i n the C h u r c h ; h o w priests are p a i d ; h o w

m u c h consensus as possible, b u t , l i k e other observers at the t i m e , he had n o

bishops are appointed; the r e f o r m o f the papal C u r i a and o f tides and p o m p

illusions about the deep and b i t t e r c o n f l i c t between t w o radically different

— a somewhat heterogeneous agenda o f unfinished business. Yet, he had no

T h i r d , major ethical and practical issues were n o t decided, and i n These issues i n c l u d e d contraception, m i x e d 25

ministries o t h e r than

doubt, flawed and compromised as Vatican IPs ' r e f o r m ' o f the C h u r c h was, i t

versions o f Catholic C h r i s t i a n i t y I n February 1965, w h i l e w o r k i n g o n the text to be presented at the final session, Congar regarded the draft as simply t o o optimistic - the drafting

was m u c h greater than he or anyone else c o u l d have i m a g i n e d i n the dark days o f the 1950s.

c o m m i t t e e lacked the benefit o f having opponents a m o n g t h e m w h o w o u l d oblige t h e m to compromise, instead o f just celebrating w h a t he calls their 'euphoric u n a n i m i t y '

2 3

H e even w i s h e d that Cardinal M i c h a e l B r o w n e ,

and t w o other stalwart adversaries

Reception and

Re-reception

o f everything he wanted f r o m the

C o u n c i l had been o n the commission

I n M a y 1965 he confided to his

I n 1972 Congar published a l a n d m a r k essay o n the theological concept of

j o u r n a l that w h i l e the Declaration w o u l d reduce fears o f the Catholic

'reception': the way i n w h i c h the Gospel is received and understood by the

C h u r c h , yet i t w o u l d also v e r y likely encourage i n d i f f e r e n t i s m i n religious

Church

matters a m o n g Catholics. Indeed, he predicted, i t was likely to encourage

2 6

T h e t e r m is not to be f o u n d i n the relevant v o l u m e o f the

Dktionnaire

the idea that the norms o f morality, standards i n ethical conduct, and so o n ,

theologique catholique, the p r i n c i p a l French authority, unsurprisingly since i t

reside i n people's b e i n g sincere and h a v i n g g o o d intentions, rather than i n

came out i n 1951. The Oxford Dictionary

anything o b j e c t i v e .

n o entry either; whereas i n the 1997 e d i t i o n , the t e r m receives a dozen

24

I n the end, w h e n they voted o n 19 N o v e m b e r 1965, o f the 2,216 C o u n c i l

of the Christian Church (1957) has

lines, w i t h n o bibliography: Anglicans and O r t h o d o x have

emphasized

members present, 1,954 v o t e d i n favour, 249 against, and 13 votes were

'reception' i n recent times, w e are t o l d , but the d e f i n i t i o n o f papal a u t h o r i t y

invalid - w h i c h was, o f course, a decision by far m o r e than the required t w o -

l e d to its being comparatively neglected by C a t h o l i c s .

27

thirds m a j o r i t y Nonetheless a hard core o f opponents remained The history o f the p r o d u c t i o n o f the d o c u m e n t o n f r e e d o m o f r e l i g i o n convinced Yves Congar that the achievement o f the C o u n c i l c o u l d never have been completely satisfactory, i n the sense o f satisfying everyone

He

saw the deep and bitter differences w i t h i n Catholic t h e o l o g y and piety, and sensibility I n 1965 he listed problems that were never seriously engaged w i t h at all There was a gap between biblical scholars and theologians; no one should be awarded a higher degree i n Catholic theology, he suggested, unless they have published some w o r t h w h i l e w o r k o n the Bible, a pretty d a u n t i n g requirement. Integrating m o d e r n biblical studies w i t h d o c t r i n e w o u l d be one o f the major problems to come. Second, w h i l e Vatican I I admitted the

2

^

V i s i t o r s t o c h u r c h e s i n c e r t a i n C a t h o l i c c o u n t r i e s are o f t e n s u r p r i s e d t o f i n d t h a t i n d u l -

gences, the p r a c t i c e b y w h i c h t h e C h u r c h r e m i t s the t e m p o r a l p e n a l t y due t o f o r g i v e n sin i n v i r t u e o f t h e m e r i t s o f C h r i s t a n d t h e saints E n c h i r i d i o n Indulgentiarum

remains i n o p e r a t i o n ; t h e latest e d i t i o n o f the

i n c l u d e s a n e w p l e n a r y i n d u l g e n c e g r a n t e d f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the

W e e k o f Prayer f o r C h r i s t i a n U n i t y 2 6

'La

' réception"

Théologiques 2 7

comme

réalité

ecclésiologique'

Revue

des

Sciences

Philosophiques

T h e F a i t h a n d O r d e r C o n s u l t a t i o n at L o u v a i n i n 1 9 7 1 spoke o f r e c e p t i o n as ' t h e process

b y w h i c h t h e l o c a l churches accept t h e d e c i s i o n o f a c o u n c i l and t h e r e b y recognize its a u t h o r i t y T h i s process is a m u l t i p l e x o n e a n d m a y last f o r c e n t u r i e s .

. t h e process o f r e c e p t i o n

c o n t i n u e s i n s o m e w a y o r o t h e r as l o n g as t h e churches are i n v o l v e d i n s e l f - e x a m i n a t i o n o n t h e basis o f w h e t h e r a p a r t i c u l a r c o u n c i l has b e e n r e c e i v e d a n d a p p r o p r i a t e d p r o p e r l y a n d w i t h j u s t i f i c a t i o n I n this sense

i n t h e e c u m e n i c a l m o v e m e n t t h e c h u r c h e s find themselves i n a

process o f c o n t i n u i n g r e c e p t i o n o r r e - r c c e p t i o n o f t h e c o u n c i l s ' , see The Dictionary Journal

11:329

I b i d : 370

et

56 ( 1 9 7 2 ) : 3 6 9 - 4 0 3

menical Movement 1991). s v

e d i t e d b y N i c h o l a s L o s s k y et al

'Reception

(Geneva: W o r l d C o u n c i l o f

of the EcuChurches

50

Y V E S

Y V E S

C O N G A R

Congar means the w h o l e process b y w h i c h the C h u r c h accepts and i n -

51

C O N G A R

i n the process o f reception' being played by 'the response of the f a i t h f u l '

tegrates i n t o her life this or that d o c t r i n a l decision, l i t u r g i c a l r e f o r m , or

(§16) - w h i c h implants the concept o f reception, very m u c h i n Congar's

whatever. The C h u r c h is inherently receptive: she exists o n l y i n v i r t u e o f

terms. I n an i m p o r t a n t text (though o f course n o t authoritative i n either the

receiving the H o l y Spirit ( John 20:22; Acts 1:8)

A n g l i c a n C o m m u n i o n o r the Catholic C h u r c h ) , The Gift of Authority,

The C h u r c h teaches w h a t

she has received, n o t w h a t is invented o r discovered (1 Cor. 11:23; 15:3).

the

A g r e e d Statement by A R C I C (1999), we even hear of 're-reception':

Even i f the faith 'has been delivered to the saints once and f o r all' (Jude 3),

Even though promised the assistance of the H o l y Spirit, the churches from time to time lose sight o f aspects of the apostolic Tradition, failing to discern the full vision o f the kingdom of God i n the light o f which we seek to follow Christ. . Fresh recourse to Tradition i n a new situation is the means by which God's revelation i n Christ is recalled The insights o f biblical scholars and theologians and the wisdom of holy persons assist this. Thus, there may be a rediscovery of elements that were neglected and a fresh remembrance of the promises of God, leading to renewal of the Church's 'Amen' There may also be a sifting of what has been received because some o f the formulations of the Tradition are seen to be inadequate or even misleading i n a new context This whole process may be term re-reception

reception does n o t cease: the Spirit keeps leading the C h u r c h m o r e deeply ' i n t o the t r u t h ' (John 16:13).. The reception o f this or that doctrinal decision, then, needs to be situated i n the context o f this o n g o i n g reception o f the Gospel. The C h u r c h as a w h o l e receives the t r u t h , n o t this or that element i n the C h u r c h , such as the bishops (say).. Thus the reception o f the doctrine o f the C o u n c i l o f C h a l cedon (451), f o r example, is to be f o u n d not o n l y i n the teaching o f the subsequent councils b u t i n h y m n o d y , prayers, icons, a w h o l e spirituality. R e c e p t i o n o f doctrine, i n this sense, is an 'ecclesiological reality', as Congar calls i t : a reality w h i c h goes far beyond accepting certain propositions.

2 9

Moreover, historically, the reception o r assimilation o f a d o c t r i n e defined at a C o u n c i l has n o t always been immediate o r unanimous.. A f t e r Nicaea

Conclusion

(325) i t t o o k decades for the C h u r c h to receive the doctrine defined then. Indeed, formulations have been rejected, as Chalcedon was b y m u c h o f the Eastern C h u r c h - hence the existence o f the O r i e n t a l O r t h o d o x C h u r ches..

M u c h that Yves Congar stood for, and suffered for, passed i n t o Catholic

F u r t h e r m o r e , a doctrine is never received once and f o r all.. Absorbed i n t o

d o c t r i n e at Vatican I I . T h a t does n o t mean, however, that all his theological

the existing b o d y o f doctrine, i t necessarily affects all the rest. R e c e p t i o n is a

ideas are n o w history W i t h the concept o f reception - and of re-reception -

permanent process W e m i g h t speak o f 're-reception', Congar says. For

Congar opened questions and possibilities, w h i c h we have barely begun

example, i n the l i g h t of Vatican I I o n collegiahty, there cannot b u t be a re-

to c o n f r o n t .

30

reception o f Vatican I o n papal p r i m a c y This does n o t mean abandonment of the dogma, as i f i t were n o w redundant; n o r does i t mean revision, as i f i t were mistaken Rather, a d o c t r i n e l o n g held simply begins to l o o k different i n the context of a n e w l y promulgated doctrine — that is w h a t Congar means. The t e r m 'reception' is m a k i n g its w a y slowly I n the A n g l i c a n - R o m a n Catholic A g r e e d Statement Authority

in the Church (19 7 7 ) ,

28

the way is p r e -

pared i n phrases such as the C h r i s t i a n community's being 'enabled by the H o l y Spirit to live o u t the gospel and so to be led i n t o all t r u t h ' ; its b e i n g 'given the capacity to assess its faith and life' (§2); its having to 'respond to and assess the insights and teachings o f the ordained ministers'; i n a ' c o n t i n u i n g process o f discernment and response' (§6); t o 'the r e c o g n i t i o n and reception o f conciliar decisions and disciplinary decisions', 'a substantial part 2 9

2 8

Authority

Commission

in the Church : An Agreed

Statement by the Anglican—Roman

( L o n d o n : Catholic T r u t h Society

1977)

Catholic

International

The Gift of Authority

(Authority

Catholic International

Commission

See Yves Congar

Theologian

3 ( 1

w i t h g o o d bibliography.

m the Church

III) : An Agreed

Statement by the A

nglican-Roman

( L o n d o n : C a t h o l i c T r u t h Society 1 9 9 9 ) : (§25) of the Church,

e d i t e d b y G a b r i e l F l y n n ( L o u v a i n : Peeters 2005),

E D W A R D

Chapter Four

53

S C H I L I E B E E C K X

were overshadowed by the G e r m a n occupation o f B e l g i u m . H e received a classical education at a Jesuit school, f o r w h i c h he had t o learn to speak French. (Flemish was n o t p e r m i t t e d i n Belgian schools and universities ) His

EDWARD

decision n o t to f o l l o w an older b r o t h e r i n t o the Society o f Jesus was made

SCHILLEBEECKX

entered the D o m i n i c a n O r d e r i n 1934. H e read the mystics, taking the stan-

after he read H u m b e r t Clerissac's L'Esprit

de Saint Dominique

(1924). H e

dard D o m i n i c a n line: mysticism is the life o f v i r t u e and devotion directed towards G o d , w h i c h the H o l y Spirit grants to all believers, quite distinct f r o m episodic religious 'experiences', or a n y t h i n g essentially 'abnormal'. As a novice he added the name o f H e n r i c u s t o the f o u r he already had, i n h o n o u r o f H e n r y Suso (c. 1295—1366), the G e r m a n D o m i n i c a n spiritual writer. Tike Congar, Schillebeeckx eventually dropped his religious name

5

L i k e all Belgian seminarians, Schillebeeckx d i d m i l i t a r y service, i n a barW h i l e he regarded liimself as a theologian i n the historico-contextualist school o f his older D o m i n i c a n colleagues C h e n u and Congar, E d w a r d Schillebeeckx was always far m o r e sensitive to philosophical questions than either o f t h e m The D o m i n i c a n p r i o r y at Touvain, by his day, was no longer an enclave o f pure Thomistic p h i l o s o p h y Y o u n g Schillebeeckx was taught 1

racks reserved f o r student priests, rabbis and pastors, passing the year reading Husserl, Heidegger and M e r l e a u - P o n t y Recalled to the a r m y i n O c t o b e r 1939 he was never i n v o l v e d i n fighting. W h e n the B e l g i a n government capitulated i n M a y 1940 he r e t u r n e d to L o u v a i n where he pursued his four years of theological studies, virtually undisturbed by the war. I n 1942, however, D e Petter was replaced as R e g e n t , part o f the w i d e r

b y D o m i n i c u s D e Petter, w h o was b y then w o r k i n g o u t a synthesis of 2

Thomas Aquinas and c o n t e m p o r a r y p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l and personalist

campaign b y the D o m i n i c a n authorities i n R o m e to eradicate ' m o d e r n i s m '

philosophy, m a i n t a i n i n g that i n o u r experiential k n o w l e d g e o f entities w e

D e Petter's talk o f ' i n t u i t i o n o f b e i n g ' seemed to t u r n T h o m i s t realism into

have an immediate i n t u i t i o n o f being H e was particularly interested i n p h e -

some f o r m o f subjectivist idealism. This crisis affected Schillebeeckx all the

nomenology, Husserl and problems o f the i n t e n t i o n a l i t y o f consciousness

m o r e because he discovered sympathies w i t h N a z i ideology i n some o f Karl

F r o m the outset, this directed Schillebeeckx away f r o m a n y t h i n g that Gar-

Adam's early w o r k Put o n to reading A d a m b y D e Petter, precisely as an

rigou-Lagrange c o u l d have recognized as T h o m i s m

alternative to 'rationalist' n e o t h o m i s t fears o f the place o f 'experience' i n

E d w a r d Cornells Florent A l f o n s Schillebeeckx was b o r n o n 12 N o v e m 3

ber 1914, sixth o f w h a t w o u l d be 14 children, i n a devout middle-class Flemish f a m i l y . H e g r e w up i n K o r t e n b e r g , an o l d t o w n i n Brabant. H i s 4

father w o r k e d as an accountant for the Belgian government. H i s early years

Catholic theology, he f o u n d that Adam's Tübingen School emphasis on 'life', ' c o m m u n i t y ' , 'das V o l k ' , and so o n , exposed h i m to the charms of Nazism

I n ' N a t u r e and Supernature', Schillebeeckx developed his o w n

understanding o f the orientation o f h u m a n nature towards G o d , against Karl Adam's use o f the supposedly T h o m i s t i c t h e o r e m 'grace perfects nature' to justify Catholic Christian collaboration (up to a point) w i t h Nazism

1

As i t n o d o u b t was

i n t h e heyday o f the l e g e n d a r y A n t o n i n u s -

M . Dummermuth

( 1 8 4 1 - 1 9 1 8 ) , i n f l e x i b l y anti-Jesuit d e f e n d e r o f t h e T h o m i s t d o c t r i n e o f physical p r e m o t i o n , a n d t h e equally m e m o r a b l e M a r c o l i n u s — M

Tuyaerts (1878—1948), w h o believed m o s t solutions t o

questions a d o p t e d b y T h o m a s A q u i n a s c o u l d be t u r n e d i n t o d e n n e d dogmas o f t h e C h u r c h . Dominicus De

2

Petter ( 1 9 0 5 - 7 1 ) t r a i n e d at t h e I n s t i t u t S u p é r i e u r de P h i l o s o p h i e

at

L o u v a i n f o u n d e d by Cardinal M e r c i e r 3

I f E d w a r d spelled t h u s , seems an u n u s u a l n a m e f o r a B e l g i a n i t goes b a c k t o the M i d d l e

Ages w h e n E n g l i s h i n f l u e n c e was s t r o n g i n Flanders 4

F o r d e t a i l see E r i k B o r g m a n , Edward

Catholic

Theology

of Culture

K e n n e d y O R Schillebeeckx by R o b e r t ] Theologian

(Î914-1965)

Schillebeeckx:

A Theologian

in His History,

As soon as the war ended, Schillebeeckx w e n t to Paris t o w o r k o n a doctoral dissertation o n faith and culture, effectively a variant o f the grace/ nature theme, at the p o n t i f i c a l faculties o f Te Saulchoir. As so often happens in D o m i n i c a n life, however, he was soon recalled to L o u v a i n to teach dogmatic theology, l o n g before he was properly qualified to d o so. I n his year i n Paris, Schillebeeckx t o o k courses at Le Saulchoir (Yves Congar among

vol. I : A

( L o n d o n and N e w Y o r k : C o n t i n u u m 2003); P h i l i p

( L o n d o n : G e o f f r e y C h a p m a n 1 9 9 3 ) ; The

Schillebeeckx

Reader, e d i t e d

S c h r e i t e r ( N e w Y o r k : Crossroad 1 9 8 4 ) ; a n d E d w a r d S c h i l l e b e e c k x . I Am a Conversations

6

with Francesco Slrazzari

( L o n d o n : S C P Press 1994)

Happy

71

I n his first p u b l i c a t i o n s , as De sacramentele

Hcilseconomie

Schillebeeckx 6

S u m m a r i z e d b y B o r g m a n . Schillebeeckx:

56-9

(1952) h e appears as H e n r i c u s

54

E D W A R D

S C H I L

I E B E E C K X

E D W A R D

S C H I I

55

I E B E E C K X

others), at the Sorbonne ( R e n é Le Senne, Louis Lavelle, Jean Wahl), the

clash b e h i n d the scenes between Schillebeeckx, the Flemish D o m i n i c a n , and

É c o l e des Hautes Études (Chenu) and the Collège de France (Gilson)

the D u t c h Jesuit Sebastian T f o m p (1889-1975), famous i n the Netherlands

7

The

dissertation came to n o t h i n g

for his role i n enforcing the dismissal i n the mid-1950s of seminary professors

I n 1952, however, he published De sacraméntele heilseconomie, 'theological

sympathetic to the so-called ' n e w theology', signalled the move f r o m a

reflection o n St Thomas's d o c t r i n e o f the sacraments i n the l i g h t o f t r a d i t i o n

deeply traditional, ultramontane Catholicism to the 'progressive liberalism'

and o f m o d e r n problems about the sacraments', the first v o l u m e o f an exten-

w i t h w h i c h D u t c h Catholics were to become identified i n the immediately

sive investigation o f the tradition that was to f o r m the basis o f a synthesis,

post-Vatican I I years (This conflict between Catholic sensibilities and con-

never completed, e x p o u n d i n g the sacraments as celebrations, expressions,

victions i n the Netherlands has never been resolved.) Immediately after

o f the Christian faith i n all its fullness

Vatican I I Schillebeeckx devoted a great deal o f energy to spreading his ideas

This massive b o o k -

700 pages —

was the product of t w o lecture courses o n the sacraments. The historical-

about the Council's achievement

contextualist approach to Thomas Aquinas, characteristic o f C h e n u , and the

g r o u n d , i n r e t h i n k i n g classical Christology i n the light o f historical-critical

t r a w l i n g t h r o u g h patristic and medieval scholastic literature as practised by

biblical studies. H e retired i n 1983 t o w o r k o n the sacraments

Increasingly, however, he b r o k e new

Congar, are very evident - w h i l e the interest i n phenomenological p h i l osophy already indicates the conditions f o r Schillebeeckx to develop his o w n distinctive approach. This b o o k earned h i m the doctorate at Le Saulchoir.

Delations

F r o m 1946 to 1957 Schillebeeckx taught dogmatic t h e o l o g y to y o u n g friars i n the D o m i n i c a n study house at L o u v a i n As a m e m b e r o f a religious

Lecture tours, especially i n the U n i t e d States, stimulated Schillebeeckx's

order, he c o u l d n o t have had a chair at the Catholic U n i v e r s i t y o f L o u v a i n

t h i n k i n g i n many respects John Robinson's Honest to God, the so-called

I n 1958 he was sounded out about a chair at the U n i v e r s i t y o f N i j m e g e n

'God-is-dead' theologians, and suchlike, confronted Christian theology w i t h

The Flemish D o m i n i c a n s , at first refusing to let h i m go, w i t h d r e w their

very fundamental questions, he believed, w i t h w h i c h he sought to grapple

objections w h e n , w i t h his connivance, appeal was made to the Master o f the

by d r a w i n g o n 'critical t h e o r y ' (the Frankfurt School, Jiirgen Habermas),

Order, M i c h a e l B r o w n e , w h o decreed that he should take up the offer o f

hermenéutica! philosophy (Paul R i c o e u r , Hans G e o r g Gadamer) and to

this prestigious chair. Ironically, three or f o u r years later, B r o w n e was one o f

some extent anglophone linguistic philosophy. W h i l e certainly seeing

the leaders of the m i n o r i t y (as they t u r n e d o u t to be, m u c h to their surprise)

Vatican I I as a breakthrough, he predicted, i n 1964, that the Council's deci-

at Vatican I I , p i t t e d against Schillebeeckx, by t h e n the 'progressive' in-house

sions w o u l d rapidly become outdated for Catholics i n the Netherlands,

theologian o f the D u t c h bishops

b e i n g far t o o ambiguous and anodyne to speak to the adversaries i n the

"When he got to N i j m e g e n , Schillebeeckx f o u n d Catholic theology i n the Netherlands 'almost non-existent': that is to say, adhering to the n o n -

stormy conflicts already o c c u r r i n g After 1970,

as the m u t u a l hostility

between the Vatican and many D u t c h Catholics over liturgy, m i n i s t r y and

historical approach i n neoscholastic I h o m i s m and avoiding dialogue w i t h

c h u r c h organization, m i r e d d o w n i n t o an impasse, and the 'progressive'

current philosophy Never an official peritus at Vatican I I , blocked by the

bishops were gradually replaced b y loyal ultramontanists, Schillebeeckx

H o l y Office, t h o u g h the Cardinal Archbishop o f U t r e c h t ( A l f r i n k ) asked

t u r n e d away i n t o an entirely unprecedented project for a Catholic theo-

t w i c e that he be appointed, Schillebeeckx, since he was n o t b o u n d by the

logian: classical C h r i s t o l o g y needed

oath o f confidentiality required of 'experts', was fr ee to influence o p i n i o n as

'scientific' historical c r i t i c i s m of Scripture. Schillebeeckx immersed himself

the bishops f r o m all over the w o r l d f o u n d their feet H e lectured attractively

i n the secondary literature i n G e r m a n , French and English H i s research

i n English, he alluded to ideas i n the secret drafts, c r i t i c i z i n g t h e m and

issued i n a trilogy, Jezus,

sketching alternatives. Advised p r i n c i p a l l y by Schillebeeckx, the bishops o f

Liefde (197 7) and Mensen als verhaal van God (1989)

the Netherlands had a u n i t e d and often decisive voice at the C o u n c i l . The

7

I b i d : 103: S c h i l l e b e e c k x f o u n d C o n g a r

closed, w i t h d r a w n a n d i m p a t i e n t ' : ' W h e n l e c t u r -

i n g , C o n g a r seemed d i s t a n t t i r e d d u l l ' (this i n 1945—6); w h e r e a s C h e n u was 'a n a t u r a l t a l e n t w i t h a d e l i g h t i n life

to be

rethought i n the l i g h t

het verhaal van een levende (1974), Gerechtigheid

of

en

s

T h e first v o l u m e was delated to R o m e b y fellow theologians w h o no

8

Jesus: An Experiment

in the Modern

in Christology

( L o n d o n : C o l l i n s 1 9 7 9 ) ; Christ:

World ( L o n d o n : S C M Press 1 9 8 0 ) ; Church:

S C M Press 1990).

The Human

The Christian Story oj God

Experience (London:

56

E D W A R D

E D W A R D

S C H I L I E B E E C K X

57

S C H I I I E B E E C K X

d o u b t believed that he was t o o close to the D u t c h bishops f o r them, to curb

appointed was required b y c h u r c h law, but the justice required b y natural

his w o r k . T h o u g h never forced o u t o f teaching or f o r b i d d e n to publish, he

law t o o k priority. ' M y conscience t o l d me t o make a m e n t a l reservation',

had several colloquies w i t h officials at the C o n g r e g a t i o n f o r the D o c t r i n e o f

R a h n e r t o l d Schillebeeckx

the F a i t h .

1 0

Delated as soon as i t appeared, Schillebeeckx's Jesus raised quite serious

9

Influential figures i n the Vatican had been angered f o r years, especially b y

problems. B y this t i m e the Congregation rules were changed, enabling the

Schillebeeckx's influence at the C o u n c i l . As everyone knew, the brochure

accused to defend himself! H e replied i n w r i t i n g to one request f r o m the

published by the D u t c h bishops i n 1961 -

on

Congregation to clarify (1) the preference for certain schools of b i b l i c a l exe-

the Council - was drafted b y Schillebeeckx.. I h e text speaks, most unset-

gesis; (2) the implications for the history of Jesus and particularly for his resur-

t l i n g l y f o r anyone o f ultramontanist inclinations, o f ' p a p a l i n f a l l i b i l i t y [as]

rection; and (3) the implications f o r the doctrines of the Incarnation, the

The Bishops of the Netherlands

also i n v o l v e d i n the ministerial i n f a l l i b i l i t y o f the w o r l d episcopate' (bad

Tr inity, the v i r g i n a l conception o f Jesus and the f o u n d a t i o n of the C h u r c h

enough!), t h e n goes o n to m a i n t a i n that 'the ministerial i n f a l l i b i l i t y o f the

Eventually, i n December 1979, i n R o m e , over t w o and a half days, Schille-

w o r l d episcopate' i n its t u r n is 'also b o r n e up by the infallible faith o f the

beeckx answered questions p u t to h i m by three Congregation theologians:

w h o l e o f the c o m m u n i t y o f f a i t h ' Each bishop was g o i n g to the C o u n c i l as

A l b e r t Descamps, a distinguished biblical scholar f r o m Touvain, an o l d friend

'the voice o f the w h o l e c o m m u n i t y o f faith f o r w h i c h he is responsible'

(T a m here as an exegete and not as a dogmatic theologian'), w h o had already

This, and m u c h else i n the brochure, l o o k e d l i k e an attempt to revise the

reviewed the b o o k , critically but respectfully; A l b e r t Patfoort O P , the epitome

dogma of papal i n f a l l i b i l i t y b y locating infalhbility i n the faith o f the w h o l e

of mainstream D o m i n i c a n T h o m i s m , then l e c t u r i n g at the A n g e l i c u m , i n n o -

c o m m u n i t y Such ideas sounded u n c a n n i l y like the heresies eliminated at

cent o f any other theology or philosophy apart f r o m Aquinas s (he asked

Vatican I , n o t to m e n t i o n w h a t George Tyrrell was suggesting i n his reply to

Schillebeeckx to explain hermeneutics); and Jean Galot sj, another Belgian,

Cardinal M e r r i e r

L o u v a i n trained, l e c t u r i n g at the Gregorianum, and already an internationally

I n 1967 the little b o o k Schillebeeckx published, no d o u b t to prepare people f o r the expected abandonment o f the requirement o f celibacy f o r clergy i n the Latin r ite (Clerical Celibacy under Fire: A Critical Appraisal

1968),

was delated to the Vatican by a w e l l - k n o w n D o m i n i c a n scholar I n 1968, K a r l R a h n e r telephoned Schillebeeckx to say that he had been appointed to defend h i m before the officials o f the C o n g r e g a t i o n for the D o c t r i n e o f the Faith. H e mailed the dossier: copies o f i n t e r v i e w s given to newspapers i n the U n i t e d States.. The issue was Schillebeeckx's statement about 'secularization' (it was t h o u g h t at the t i m e that r e l i g i o n was o n the wane) O n 24 September 1968 he Monde disclosed that the C o n g r e g a t i o n was investigating Schillebeeckx ' o n suspicion of heresy' Since he himself was supposed to k n o w n o t h i n g o f the investigation, and all other parties

k n o w n dogmatic theologian o n the distinctly 'conservative'wing ( u n f o r t u nately he chose to display a newspaper photograph of Schillebeeckx preachi n g at the marriage o f a priest i n a D u t c h parish, and had to be b r o u g h t to order by the neutral chairman f o r this irrelevance)

T h e c o l l o q u i u m was

m o u n t e d , as the rules said, i n an 'ecclesial spirit of respect and m u t u a l trust'; certainly every effort seems to have been made to assemble theologians f a m i l iar w i t h the L o w Countries (Patfoort was a F l e m i n g f r o m Lille.) I n the event, on 20 N o v e m b e r 1980, Schillebeeckx received a letter f r o m the Congregat i o n i n v i t i n g h i m to clarify some points and remove some ambiguities — stating, however, that w h i l e some questions remained open o n matters w h i c h are n o t i n accord w i t h the doctrine o f the C h u r c h , they were in accord w i t h the faith. There was no ' c o n d e m n a t i o n '

were s w o r n to silence, the C o n g r e g a t i o n officials were i n f u r i a t e d . R a h n e r was s u m m o n e d to the Vatican, interrogated f o r three hours by Archbishop Paul Philippe O P (1905-84), o n behalf o f the Congregation. R a h n e r repeat-

T h o m i s m Revised

edly denied telling Schillebeeckx - and eventually Philippe apologized R a h n e r believed that he had to speak to the accused, whatever the C o n g r e gation rules prescribed — the oath of secrecy w h i c h he had s w o r n w h e n

9

Set

Edward

The Schillebeeckx Schillebeeckx

Case: Official Exchange

of Letters

OP by the Sacred Congregation

Ted S c h o o f O P ( N e w Y o r k ; Paulist.

1984)

and Documents

for the Doctrine

in the Investigation

of the Faith

1976-1980,

ofFr ed

For three years Schillebeeckx attended courses o n Thomistic p h i l o s o p h y i n c l u d i n g by D e Petter, w i t h o u t actually reading texts o f Thomas Aquinas

1 0

F o r d i e w h o l e s t o r y see S c h i l l e b e e c k x

I Am

a Happy

Theologian:

32-4

Kar! Lehmann

t h e n R a h n e r ' s assistant, n o w C a r d i n a l A r c h b i s h o p o£ M a i n z h a d the task o f r e a d i n g t h e dossier a n d d r a f t i n g R a h n e r ' s speech

58

E D W A R D

S C H U L

E B E E C K X

E D W A R D

S C H I I L E B E E C K X

59

I n the f o u r years o f theology, he and his companions d i d read Aquinas,

concepts were treated as i f they were eternal; as i f they had n o history This is

t h o u g h completely unhistorically They read n o t h i n g apart f r o m the Summa

very m u c h Chenu's critique o f Garrigou-Lagrange's approach.

Theologies, paying little attention to the historical o r narrative context o f whichever section they had before them.

I n Jesus Schillebeeckx explicitly breaks w i t h the religious epistemology taught by D e Petter H e n o w rejects the w h o l e idea o f i m p l i c i t intuitive

I n 1 9 3 7 - 8 Schillebeeckx u n d e r t o o k a project under D e Petter's super-

participation i n being, the w h o l e o f meaning, allegedly, manifest o r anyway

vision to consider w h e t h e r k n o w l e d g e is conceptual o r includes a n o n -

i n t u i t i v e l y discoverable i n every particular experience o f meaning.. This

conceptual element. The question was about h o w G o d comes to be k n o w n

was a b r i l l i a n t development of Thomas Aquinas, he allows I n Aquinas's

-

conceptually, i n t u i t i v e l y o r experientially Against neoscholastic p h i l -

day, moreover, w h e n i t was a self-evident t r u t h that h u m a n beings had a

osophy, w h i c h evidently favoured an ahistorical system o f concepts, so i t was

single destiny - the beatific vision - and there was a range of 'appropriate

t h o u g h t , this was o p e n i n g the possibility of a certain

non-conceptual

plausibility-structures' i n place to sustain i t , Aquinas's theology was i n place,

element. D u r i n g his m i l i t a r y service he read the n e w l y published Geist in

incontestably For us, now, however, i n a society i n w h i c h divergent i d e o l o -

Welt b y K a r l R a h n e r As w e shall see, Balthasar, w i t h his b o o k o n t r u t h , and

gies and outlooks compete i n the market o f w o r l d history, so Schillebeeckx

Lonergan, w i t h his b o o k Insight,

also felt the need to s u r m o u n t the

contends, the idea o f o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a simply given structure o f being

neoscholastic t h e o r y of k n o w l e d g e that they i n h e r i t e d W i t h many o f their

has n o purchase whatsoever. W h e r e w e have to start is w i t h the idea of

contemporaries i n R e f o r m e d and A n g l i c a n theology, t h o u g h i n almost total

anticipating a total meaning i n the history w e are always still m a k i n g

ignorance of their w o r k , this generation o f Catholic theologians felt c o m pelled to deal w i t h questions i n religious epistemology, and i n particular to challenge w h a t they t o o k to be a merely conceptualist approach..

T h e Jesus B o o k

F r o m the outset, w h e n he e x p o u n d e d Aquinas's theology t o y o u n g D o m i n i c a n friars i n L o u v a i n , Schillebeeckx insisted o n c o n t e x t u a l i z i n g

H i t h e r t o , Catholic expositions o f C h r i s t o l o g y began f r o m the doctrines

concepts i n t h e i r genesis, o f f e r i n g a historical reading, t a k i n g i n t o consid-

defined at the C o u n c i l o f Chalcedon i n 451 ('two natures i n one person')

eration the patristic sources and the t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y 'Masters'. H e believed

The celebration i n 1951

that the most i m p o r t a n t decisions i n the h i s t o r y o f theology were made

Rahner, a m o n g other Catholic theologians, t o contemplate the possibility

i n the t w e l f t h and n o t i n the t h i r t e e n t h century — an insight n o d o u b t

o f a renewal o f Catholic Christology, but the fears articulated b y Pope

f r o m C h e n u W h e n he w e n t to N i j m e g e n his predecessor Gerard K r e l i n g

Pius X I I , however, i n the same year, i n his encyclical Humani

advised h i m to b e g i n w i t h the de Deo uno, the course o n God's existence,

damped enthusiasm for radically n e w developments. B y 1970, however, for

nature and attributes t h e n assumed to be the dogmatician's f a v o u r i t e topic

Schillebeeckx a m o n g many others, i t no longer seemed possible to expound

K r e l i n g was a great

authentically

C h r i s t o l o g y solely o n the basis o f the classical creeds and conciliar d e f i n i -

T h o m i s t , b u t i n the sense o f 'pure scholasticism w i t h o u t the historical

tions A half-century o f historical research, by Catholic scholars as well as

dimension'. H e was i n f u r i a t e d w h e n Schillebeeckx began w i t h eschatol-

others, needed to be incorporated. C h r i s t o l o g y c o u l d b e g i n , n o t f r o m the

ogy (For the 10 years r e m a i n i n g to K r e l i n g he lived i n increasing isolation

d o c t r i n e o f the Incarnation, as Thomas Aquinas does, b u t f r o m t h e N e w

t h e o l o g i a n , Schillebeeckx recalled,

of the centenary o f the C o u n c i l spurred Karl

Generis,

i n a small parish - sidelined; one s h o u l d n o t forget the pain suffered by his

Testament narratives, the story o f h o w the m a n Jesus is discovered as Lord,

generation.)

scrutinized i n the light o f the best m o d e r n c r i t i c a l exegesis.

Before Vatican I I , then, Schillebeeckx had b r o k e n w i t h neoscholastic

As he made clear at the outset, Schillebeeckx sought to reconstruct

theology T h e n , i n 1965, another shift occur red w h e n he discovered h e r m e n -

C h r i s t o l o g y b e g i n n i n g w i t h the apparently diverse Christologies to be

eutics "This changed the way I d i d t h e o l o g y ' A principle often enunciated by

f o u n d i n the three synoptic gospels, according to the exegetes b y whose

Thomas Aquinas - ' o m n i a quae r e c i p i u n t u r recepta sunt secundum m o d u m

w o r k he was most attracted H e t o o k M a r k as the first gospel, already a con-

recipientis' (everything that is received is received according to the mode o f

troversial decision i n the eyes of most traditional Catholic theologians, but

the one w h o receives) — legitimized taking account always o f the social

h e l p i n g to substantiate the claim that a version of the story of Jesus existed

and historical conditions under w h i c h any knowledge takes place

Neo-

w i t h no account o f his b i r t h and infancy, and n o account o f his resurrection

thomistic theology was never related properly or sufficiently to experience:

either ( M a r k being assumed to conclude w i t h the w o m e n leaving the empty

60

E D W A R D

S C H I I I

E B E E C K X

E D W A R D

t o m b ) Schillebeeckx accepted the existence of the so-called ' Q ' d o c u m e n t : the hypothetical source o f the material shared by M a t t h e w and L u k e and absent i n M a r k

1 1

H e takes the ' Q ' material as the interweaving b y M a t t h e w

and L u k e i n t o their narratives o f a text that was o r i g i n a l l y the creed o f one o f the first C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s (Jesus 4 1 0 - 1 2 ) T h i s creed says n o t h i n g about the suffering, death and resurrection o f Christ. H e was even attracted b y the t h o u g h t that we can detect developments w i t h i n the history o f this supposed Q - c o m m u n i t y , w i t h its distinctive ' C h r i s t o l o g y ' existing w i t h o u t any interest i n the Incarnation, Passion or Resurrection. T h a t he always planned to move f r o m the supposedly diverse C h r i s t o l o gies i n the first three gospels to the Christologies developed i n the f o u r t h gospel, i n the letters o f the apostle Paul, and i n the rest o f the N e w Testament, was always clear. This is, o f course, w h a t he d i d i n the second v o l u m e , another masterly engagement w i t h a vast amount o f secondary literature. B y then, however, so m u c h anxiety had been raised that he responded w i t h the Interim Report,

explaining and to some extent m o d i f y i n g the claims that

seemed so contentious

1 2

Obviously, c o m i n g late i n the day and largely self taught, Schillebeeckx was b o u n d to make mistakes. H e always goes for the most e x c i t i n g theory.

61

I by a critical study o f t h e N e w Testament texts and then s u b m i t t e d to reinterpretation This k i n d o f project is at least as o l d as nineteenth-century liberal Protestant exegetes. R u d o l f Bultmann's effort t o 'demythologize' t h e N e w Testament w i t h the aid o f Heidegger's existential categories seems t o engage Schillebeeckx's interest m o r e

H e simply reverses Bultmann's

strategy

Whereas B u l t m a n n maintained that hardly a n y t h i n g c o u l d be k n o w n about Jesus as a historical figure, w i t h the result that the w h o l e Christian p h e n o m enon is to be f o u n d i n the kerygma, i n the proclamation o f the Christ o f faith ('Jesus rose i n t o the kerygma', as B u l t m a n n p u t i t ) , Schillebeeckx asserts that the N e w Testament, properly studied, w i t h the tools o f m o d e r n criticalhistorical research, delivers substantial, verifiable i n f o r m a t i o n about Jesus of Nazareth

Indeed, this history 'can then show us w h a t exactly i t was that

very early C h r i s t i a n i t y understood b y the a f f i r m a t i o n : h e is the C h r i s t , the son o f man, the Son o f G o d , the L o r d ' (pp, 437, 440; cf pp. 71 and 515). This quasi-archaeological

excavation o f the synoptic gospels lays bare

five levels. 1

O n the other hand, as an experienced professor o f systematic theology,

jesus's o w n experience of G o d and of his mission -Jesus's ' A b b a experience': h i g h l i g h t i n g these references takes us to the historical Jesus, i n his

he came t o the results of biblical scholarship w i t h m u c h greater awareness o f the implications f o i C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e than biblical scholars c o m m o n l y

SCH11LEBEECKX

historically unique w a y of addressing G o d as ' A b b a ' 2

display

The experience o f Peter and the Twelve: some weeks or m o n t h s after Jesus's death, Peter had an experience o f being f o r g i v e n for his faithless-

A t one level, the Jesus b o o k is a vast c o m p e n d i u m o f the most recent biblical research

ness, gathered the disciples, i n a setting o f doubt and debate, recalled

T h e aim, however, is t o reconstruct the history o f the

w i t h t h e m the life and ' A b b a ' experience of Jesus, then ' T h e y all of a

development o f the N e w Testament literature, b e g i n n i n g w i t h the synoptic

sudden " s a w " i t ' (391) - Jesus crucified, has been definitively vindicated

gospels, so as t o reveal h o w faith i n Jesus emerged: ' W i t h the aid of Form¬ geschichte [the study o f the h i s t o r i c i t y o f biblical w r i t i n g s by studying their

by G o d and is alive w i t h his Father. 3

literary f o r m ] our a i m is, a m o n g other things, to penetrate t o the earliest layer of the pre-canonical tradition, i n order thus to open the way to Jesus o f

The Q - c o m m u n i t y tradition: f a i t h that Jesus was the expected latterday prophet and messianic judge w h o was 'exalted' to G o d

4

Nazareth' (744)

The early Palestinian Christians: f o l l o w i n g Jewish custom, they started a practice o f venerating the t o m b o f Jesus at Jerusalem, w h i c h gave rise to

The assumption is that the text as we have i t can be pressed to disclose the

the story o f w o m e n f i n d i n g the 'empty t o m b ' ' o n the t h i r d day'; 'an

elements o u t o f w h i c h i t was created. Schillebeeckx b u r r o w s i n t o w h a t

aetiological cult-legend, i n t e n d e d to shed light o n the (at least) annual

he calls the 'incubatory history' o f the texts, w i t h methods analogous to

visit o f the Jerusalem church t o the t o m b i n order t o h o n o r the risen

those o f an art restorer w h o strips off one level t o exhibit an u n d e r l y i n g

[exalted] O n e ' (336); and f r o m this practice, i n the 'first f e w genera-

sketch I f Christianity is neither to become 'an historical relic' n o r to appeal

tions', the language o f a b o d i l y resurrection f r o m the dead began to take

to 'supernatural hocus-pocus', its message must be reconstructed historically

precedence over the language o f 'exaltation' to the r i g h t h a n d o f the Father (396).

1 1

K n o w n as Q since t h e 1890s ( G e r m a n Quelle - source); see ] K l o p p e n b o r g

tion of Q ( P h i l a d e l p h i a , P A : Fortress 1 9 8 7 ) . 1 2

Interim

Report on the Books Jesus'and

'Christ'

( L o n d o n : S C M Press 1980)

The Forma-

5

F r o m a 'theology o f Jesus' to a ' C h r i s t o l o g y ' : from interpretations of the meaning o f Jesus concerned n o t w i t h w h o or w h a t Jesus was b u t w i t h w h a t he was meant to do, thus 'first-order' ' f u n c t i o n a l ' descriptions, t o

62

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E D W A R D

S C E I I I I E B E E C K X

the 'second-order' ' o n t o l o g i c a l ' claims about t h e i d e n t i t y o f Jesus, already there i n Paul and John

63

S C H I L L E B E E C K X

existence, his very b e i n g , solely t o the H o l y Spirit I n due course this Christological reflection assumed a historical f o r m - 'one that is indeed concrete, albeit n o t e m p i r i c a l l y ascertainable, b u t to be approached and

The claim, then, p u t t i n g i t t o o simply, is that, by re-creating t h e history o f

evaluated o n l y w i t h i n a context o f faith - i n a V i r g i n B i r t h ' (Jesus 555-6). I n

h o w faith i n Jesus o f Nazareth arose, i t becomes possible t o arouse faith i n

other words, so i t seemed to most readers, w h a t has been taken as an account

h i m i n people n o t h i t h e r t o C h r i s t i a n believers, w h o w o u l d n o t f i n d ready

o f something that happened - the c o n c e p t i o n and b i r t h o f Jesus, his mother

access t o h i m t h r o u g h t h e doctrines o f the C h u r c h - Incarnation, Passion,

remaining a v i r g i n - is actually a representation as a piece o f history of the

Resurrection, and so o n

p r i o r and independent belief i n Jesus's unique o r i g i n i n t h e H o l y Spirit.

Few Christians, certainly n o Catholics before Vatican I I , ever depended

T h e n again, w h a t d i d the disciples 'see', w h e n they encountered the risen

o n doctrines apart f r o m a great deal oi experience. N o d o u b t theologians, and

L o r d Jesus? A c c o r d i n g t o Schillebeeckx, i t seems, i n the literal sense o f vision

even o r d i n a r y Catholics, shied away f r o m the w o r d , i t was t o o m u c h associ-

they saw n o t h i n g - n o t h i n g happened that m i g h t have been

ated w i t h m o d e r n i s m . Yet, i n practice, i n t h e liturgy, i n personal asceticism

physically, o r photographed They simply 'saw', o n reflection together, that

experienced

(regular confession, acts o f penance, continence i n marriage, and so o n ) , i n

Jesus is 'the l i v i n g O n e ' . H i s resurrection f r o m the dead should n o t be

acquaintance w i t h m e n and especially w o m e n l i v i n g under vows o f pover ty,

understood 'objectively', as an e m p i r i c a l l y verifiable, historical event - that

chastity and obedience (monks, nuns, sisters), a n d m u c h else, 'cradle'

is w h a t fundamentalists believe O n the other hand, the resurrection o f Jesus

Catholics were b o r n and b r o u g h t up i n a w h o l e culture, e m p i r i c a l l y h a b i t u -

should n o t be understood as something that t o o k place entirely i n t h e heads

ating t h e m t o 'the C h r i s t i a n t h i n g ' (as G . K Chesterton called it) - such that

o f his followers, as a subjective renewal o f their faith - as B u l t m a n n and

there was plenty of 'experience', a r i c h l y textured background, c a r r y i n g and

others h o l d , so Schillebeeckx says H e wants a middle path H e locates the

c o m p l e t i n g the doctrines

o r i g i n a l Easter experience i n a conversion process (subjective), i n w h i c h the

I n effect, the Christ w h o m most

Catholics

encountered principally at Mass, w i t h all that penumbra o f religious e x p e r i ence, Schillebeeckx was suggesting, c o u l d n o w also be f o u n d i n r e c o n structing and appropriating the history o f the i n i t i a l encounter w i t h the Jesus of the N e w Testament.

disciples 'saw', o r came t o believe, that Jesus was alive w i t h G o d (objective) M o s t Christians, i f t h e y believe i n the resurrection o f Jesus f r o m t h e dead at all, literally understood, suppose that this b e l i e f is based o n the evidence o f the tomb's b e i n g f o u n d empty and o f the physical encounters w i t h Jesus after his death. Schillebeeckx argues, however, that t h e language o f ' r e s u r rection', the concept o f 'being raised f r o m t h e dead', far f r o m b e i n g the o r i g i n a l interpretation o f what happened, is second order, supplementary,

T h e Easter Experience

and the p r o d u c t of later reflection O r i g i n a l l y , the C h r i s t i a n faith was, n o t Obviously, the very idea o f r e t h i n k i n g C h r i s t o l o g y o n the basis o f 'scientific'

that Jesus was raised f r o m the dead, b u t that he was 'exalted i n t o heaven',

h i s t o r i c o - c r i t i c a l exegesis o f Scripture rather than i n terms o f t h e dogmas

'sitting at t h e r i g h t hand o f t h e Father' -

o f the C h u r c h was always g o i n g to shock most Catholic

theologians,

metaphorical language I n fact, t h e figurative language that we are n o doubt

obviously analogical and

neoscholastic or otherwise - let alone pastors charged w i t h p r o t e c t i n g the

i n c l i n e d to regard as secondary and o p t i o n a l (exaltation) is, o n the contrary,

beliefs o f 'the simple faithful'. F o r one t h i n g , there was always the danger o f

w h a t is basic and original.

genetic fallacy: discovering its origins does n o t guarantee g e t t i n g nearer the

Thus, t h e 'Easter experience', historically, was always independent of the

t r u t h o f a claim O n the other hand, Schillebeeckx t o o k risks, sometimes

' t r a d i t i o n ' o f t h e appearance stories, and equally so of t h e ' t r a d i t i o n ' of the

w i t h a h a n d f u l of extremely sensitive topics, w h i c h distracted readers f r o m

e m p t y t o m b (397) T h e p r o b l e m here, w i t h h o w the empty t o m b stories

learning f r o m the immense b i b l i o g r a p h y digested f o r t h e m b y his o m n i v -

g r e w up, is that the evidence f o r there being veneration o f anybody's tomb

orous reading.

at the t i m e is scanty — never m i n d the leap f r o m v i s i t i n g Jesus's t o m b to

O n e p r o b l e m , of course, is that o f the virginal c o n c e p t i o n o f Jesus As a

c l a i m i n g i t was empty ' T h e vital context', namely f o r t h e story i n M a r k of

result o f the 'Easter experience', reflection eventually shifted to Jesus's

the women's visit to t h e t o m b , 'is a t o m b w h e r e a l i t u r g i c a l service is con-

baptism by J o h n and thus to the emergence and actual c o n s t i t u t i o n of his

d u c t e d ' - w h i c h 'is something g r o u n d e d deep i n h u m a n nature' (336) I n

being man - i n other words, t o the conclusion that Jesus owes his h u m a n

the extensive, and valuable, bibliography to t h e analysis o f the e m p t y tomb

64

E D W A R D

S C H I I I E B E E C K X

E D W A R D

65

S C H I I 1 E B E E C K X

stories there is really n o t h i n g bearing this o u t except a reference to five

For Schillebeeckx, then, the p o i n t is that biblical and ecclesiastical expres-

pages i n J o a c h i m Jeremias's b o o k o n popular pilgrimages to sacred tombs i n

sions of faith are never purely and simply articulations o f supposedly ' i m -

the early C h r i s t i a n e n v i r o n m e n t .

mediate religious experiences', such as experiences of Jesus that his disciples

1 3

The reference to 'the t h i r d day' - as i t were the Sunday three days after

may be said to have had. These expressions are always already theory-laden

G o o d Friday - says n o t h i n g about the date o n w h i c h Jesus was raised f r o m

H e allows that this needed m u c h m o r e discussion, i n the t w o books on

the dead - r ather, i t is code for the definitive, eschatological saving action o f

Jesus I t needs m u c h m o r e than he takes space to discuss i n Interim

G o d as regards the crucified Jesus (532). O n the t h i r d day Joseph releases

However, i t is enough to insist that even expressions o f faith are never

his brothers f r o m prison (Gen

Report

42:18); G o d makes a covenant w i t h his

straight presentations o f religious experience - they necessarily i n c l u d e an

people (Exod. 19:11, 16); G o d gives life t o his people and raises t h e m up

element o f t h e o r y Experience is always already interpretative. To deny this,

(Hos 6 : 2 - 3 ) ; and so on. That 'the t h i r d day' has all this previous biblical

he suggests, is to fall i n t o a f o r m o f n e o - e m p i r i c i s m - and i t is surely clear

significance is, of course, a valuable insight. W h y this insight makes i t r e d u n -

that w h a t he means is that some o f his critics at any rate rely o n a 'naive con-

dant to t h i n k that Jesus actually rose o n the t h i r d day as Schillebeeckx seems

fidence i n so-called direct experiences'.

14

to suggest, rather than m a k i n g w h a t really happened that m o r e deeply significant, is the k i n d o f question that goes beyond the parameters o f biblical criticism

Conclusion

The fears o f those i n c l u d i n g f e l l o w D o m i n i c a n s w h o delated h i m to the Congregation for the D o c t r i n e o f the Faith are, o f course, that Schille-

Totally c o m m i t t e d to renewal o f the C h u r c h , Schillebeeckx never played

beeckx's emphasis o n 'experience' undermines belief i n the teaching office

d o w n the many crises and conflicts at the C o u n c i l , as we see i n the accounts

o f the C h u r c h as the n o r m o f t r u t h . I n Interim Report - essentially his reply

he w r o t e .

to critics o f the first t w o volumes o n Christology - Schillebeeckx insists that

ship between

he should n o t be dismissed as a 'neo-liberal'. H e refuses to concede that he

pastoral constitution o n the C h u r c h i n the M o d e r n W o r l d , Gaudiutn et Spes,

devalues the t r a d i t i o n o f the C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y H e insists that he never

opened the way (he expected) to b r i n g Catholicism i n t o f r u i t f u l interaction

offered m o r e than prolegomena to a future C h r i s t o l o g y - his project should

w i t h secular culture T h e C o u n c i l was a 'compromise', he recognized

therefore n o t be attacked f o r w h a t i t is not. H e discusses many other issues,

l i f t e d the shadow of Humani

i n w h a t is i n some ways his most interesting c o n t r i b u t i o n to theological

i n w h i c h Catholic theologians w o r k e d since the modernist crisis Indeed, ' i t

methodology. F r o m the p o i n t o f v i e w o f those concerned w i t h his n o t i o n

was the theology of theologians w h o had been condemned, removed from

o f ' e x p e r i e n c e ' he takes us back to the literature referenced i n the

teaching posts, sent i n t o exile, that t r i u m p h e d at the C o u n c i l '

b o o k , t h o u g h h i g h l i g h t i n g the w o r k o f K a r l Popper,

TS.

Christ

K u h n , Imre

Lakatos, Paul Feyerabend and the Erlangen School (Paul Lorenzen).

The

1 5

O n the w h o l e , he rejoiced i n w h a t he saw as the new relationC h u r c h and w o r l d , w h i c h the C o u n c i l established.

The

It

Generis and ended the climate o f i n t i m i d a t i o n

1 6

- however,

as he noted, the neoscholastics were defeated only temporarily, and there w o u l d be a r e t u r n o f the repressed, such that a k i n d o f restoration was

p o i n t he wants to make is that his c o n c e p t i o n of the interrelationship o f the

unavoidable

concepts o f revelation, experience and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w o u l d indeed be mis-

w h i l e o n some extremely i m p o r t a n t issues the anti-modernist ultramon¬

leading i f w e supposed that every experience is accompanied by conceptual

tanist m i n o r i t y were o u t v o t e d , the c o n f l i c t i n g versions o f Catholicism o n

or metaphorical articulations. Since Kant, and particularly i n the p h i l o s o -

show o n the f l o o r of the C o u n c i l reflect the division w i t h i n the C h u r c h

phers he mentions, i t has been recognized that theory or m o d e l has a certain

t h e n - and prefigure the division that there is still.

1 7

W i t h o u t m u c h need o f hindsight, we do better to say that,

p r i m a c y over experience, i n the sense that there can be n o experience w i t h o u t at least an i m p l i c i t theory. O n the other hand, theories cannot be derived f r o m experiences straight off, as i f b y i n d u c t i o n ; they are the product 1 4

o f creative initiative o n our part.

1 5

Interim

Report:

Vatican IT The

18. Struggle of Minds

The Real Achievement J o a c h i m Jeremias, Heiligengraber 1958)

1 3

in Jcsu

Umwelt

(Gottingen: Vandenhoeck

and

Ruprecht

(Dublin: M H

G i l l 1963) a n d Vatican

II

Theologian:

15.

1 6

I Am a Happy

1 7

D a n i e l Speed T h o m p s o n ,

Authority

and Other Essays

( L o n d o n : Sheed a n d W a r d 1967)

in the Catholic

Church

The

Language

of Dissent/

Edward

Schillebeeckx

on the

Crisis

( N o t r e D a m e . I N : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e Press 2 0 0 3 )

of

66

E D W A R D

S C H I L I

E B E E C K X

Chapter Five

The debate i n philosophy, analytic and hermeneutic, has of course moved o n i n the past 25 years Perhaps Schillebeeckx does n o t explain himself perfectly, or even all that skilfully, philosophically T h e p o s i t i o n that he wants to

H E N R I DE LUBAC

occupy, i n theological epistemology, namely, somewhere between naive e m p i r i c i s m and subjectivism, is anyway controversial. W h a t remains impressive, i n his generation o f Catholic theologians, is his readiness to engage w i t h the central philosophical issue o f the relationship between experience and interpretation Moreover, he has not had many successors as yet i n the field o f C a t h o l i c theology w h o dare, or are even competent, to r e w o r k the doctrines o f the faith as defined b y the early Councils and e x p o u n d e d i n the classical theology of the Fathers and the Scholastics, i n the l i g h t o f serious study of Scripture and related literature The g u l f between professors o f doct r i n e and biblical scholars is as w i d e as ever.

Thomas Aquinas was, o f course, a D o m i n i c a n friar A t t h e i r chapter i n Paris i n 1286, 12 years after his death, the D o m i n i c a n s decreed that every friar should p r o m o t e his teaching and i f anyone taught the contrary he was to be suspended ipso facto f r o m whatever office he h e l d u n t i l he t h o u g h t better. For all that, the reception of Aquinas w i t h i n his o w n O r d e r has a chequered history

1

T h e n , even w h e n they were all professing Thomists, D o m i n i c a n s

such as C h e n u , Congar and Schillebeeckx,

c o u l d , as w e have seen, clash

w i t h confreres like Garrigou-Lagrange, i n radically different and effectively incommensurable interpretations o f Aquinas even w i t h i n the confines of the D o m i n i c a n Order. W h e n we t u r n to such e m i n e n t Jesuit theologians as H e n r i de Lubac, K a r l Rahner, Bernard Lonergan and Hans U r s v o n Balthasar, however, i t turns out, according to their recollections, that, as far as their years o f mandat o r y Thomist philosophy were concerned, they were taught what they came to recognize as 'Suarezianism'

2

I n any case, de Lubac's early years as a Jesuit were so disrupted by the Great War that he seems to have been left largely to get o n w i t h his o w n reading, undisturbed b y lecture courses. H i s superiors seem n o t to have regarded h i m as a future professor, either o f philosophy o r of t h e o l o g y H e often expresses gratitude to scholars o f the previous generation, nearly all of w h o m were his fellow Jesuits; but effectively he was self-taught.

1

N c w n u n . o n his w a y t o R o m e i n a u t u m n 1846, as y e t u n d e c i d e d w h i c h r e l i g i o u s order i f

any he s h o u l d j o i n

was s h o c k e d t o l e a r n o f the D o m i n i c a n s i n Florence m a n u f a c t u r i n g

s c e n t e d w a t e r , possessing a cellar o f g o o d w i n e s , a n d w i t h n o interest i n T h o m a s A q u i n a s , w h i c h d e c i d e d h i m against t h e m

Tlie Letters

( L o n d o n : T h o m a s N e l s o n a n d Sons 1 9 6 1 ) : 2 6 0 2

and Diaries 263

See chapter 8 f o r Balthasar's a c c o u n t o f Suarezianism

of John

Henry

Newman,

vol X I

68

H E N R I

D E

H E N R I

I U B A C

D E

69

I U B A C

at

Pier re Teilhard de C h a r d i n Mainly, however, he had already begun w o r k i n g

Cambrai, i n north-east France. I h e family returned i n 1898 to the Lyons

his way t h r o u g h the Greek and L a t i n patrologies and the medieval Scholas-

district H i s father, a banker, o r i g i n a l l y f r o m Ardèche (where, i n the local

tics, gathering the quotations o u t of w h i c h he w o u l d weave his books. As his

dialect, Vubac means the shady side o f a m o u n t a i n ) , admired the Catholic

younger colleague and friend Hans U r s v o n Balthasar w o u l d note, de Lubac

social renewal project inspired by A l b e r t de M u n

H i s maternal g r a n d -

preferred 'to let a voice f r o m the great ecclesial tradition express w h a t he

parents were old-fashioned royalists, adhering to the elder b r a n c h o f the

intends rather than raising his o w n v o i c e ' - y e t , unmistakably, his views 'can

B o u r b o n dynasty Schooled by Jesuits i n Lyons, H e n r i studied l a w f o r a year,

be easily discerned i n the w e b o f quotations, especially w h e n one pays close

before entering the Lyons province of the Society o f Jesus, then i n exile at

attention to the critiques and corrections o f the passages c i t e d ' .

St Leonards o n the south coast o f England. H i s noviciate was i n t e r r u p t e d

o f course, that de Lubac's views are easily missed by hasty readers, impatient

w h e n he was drafted i n 1914, i n t o the French a r m y H e saw action i n

to locate a position to challenge or to adopt - he is too elusive for that; yet, as

Flanders, receiving the serious head w o u n d at Les Eparges, i n 1916, w h i c h

one becomes accustomed to the procedure o f m u l t i p l y i n g references, de

afflicted h i m f o r the rest o f his life

Tubac's theological options soon reveal themselves..

H e n r i Joseph Sonier d e

3

Lubac was b o r n o n 20 February 1896, 4

5

9

10

This means,

D e m o b i l i z e d , he r e t u r n e d to the Jesuits, at Canterbury, then o n Jersey

I n a way de Lubac re-created a w h o l e p r e - m o d e r n Catholic sensibility

Years later, he reported that 'a certain Suârezian and M o l i n i s t o r t h o d o x y '

w h i c h he w a n t e d to inhabit. M u c h later, about 1960, l o o k i n g back o n the

was required o f the professors, claiming that o n Jersey t w o were 'savage

results of his decades o f research i n patristic and medieval-scholastic t h e o l o -

Suârezians' - whereas by 1950, ironically, 'against the abusive dominance o f a

gies, de Lubac w o u l d say that, for h i m , the 'great c e n t u r y ' of the M i d d l e

" T h o m i s t " school that was t h e n i n p o w e r ' , there were Jesuits seeking

Ages began around the year 1100, w i t h 'the Bayeux tapestry, the murals

freedom to ' f o l l o w the Suârezian interpretation o f Saint L h o m a s ' . Clearly,

at Saint-Savin, the sculptures at Toulouse and Moissac, the Heavenly Jeru-

he distances himself f r o m both. O n his o w n , he studied Thomas Aquinas,

salem at San Pietro al M o n t e (Civate), the basilicas o f C l u n y and Vézelay,

i n the light (however) o f Etienne Gilson's 'fundamental b o o k ' , w h i c h , he

the first mosaics at San M a r c o ' .

notes, again w i t h some irony, was ' i n the bookcase o f l i g h t reading that was

(c

generously u n l o c k e d for us d u r i n g holidays', together w i t h Rousselot's thesis

Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153), 'the last o f the Fathers

at the Sorbonne o n Aquinas's intellectualism Colleagues m o c k e d h i m as a

great m o d e r n s ' .

' T h o m i s t ' (as lus colleagues laughed at George Tyrrell). As regards his p h i l o -

Knowledge of Easter n as w e l l as o f Western patristic literature I n referring

sophical culture, de Lubac

8

to h i m , de Lubac is r e m i n d i n g us that the Greek fathers remained i n the

E v i d e n t l y unaffected by lecture courses, he o w e d a great deal to discussions

m e m o r y o f the L a t i n C h u r c h w e l l i n t o the t w e l f t h century R u p e r t, o n the

w i t h contemporaries, some of w h o m were to be friends f o r life, i n c l u d i n g

other hand, is best remembered f o r supposedly h o l d i n g the d o c t r i n e later

6

7

read M a u r i c e B l o n d e l , w i t h

enthusiasm.

12

T h e n o b i l i a r y p a r t i c l e , c o r r e c t l y used o n l y w i t h t h e prénom

or i n i t i a l , but. even i n French

This was the age o f R u p e r t o f Deutz , the first of the

W h a t is remarkable about W i l l i a m , o f course, is his w i d e

k n o w n as i m p a n a t i o n 3

1 1

1075-1129/1130), o f W i l l i a m o f S t - T h i e r r y (1075/80-1148), and o f

1 3

H e also w r o t e a commentary o n the Song o f Songs,

i n w h i c h he interprets the beloved as the V i r g i n Mary, and was a m o n g the

w e find h i m o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o as de L u b a c t h e standard p r a c t i c e i n E n g l i s h 4

F o r b i o g r a p h i c a l details see Jean-Pierre W a g n e r Henri de Lubac (Paris: C e r f 2001) a n d H e n r i

de Lubac, At the Service of the Church 5

(San Francisco: Ignatius Press 1993)

his selective m e m o i r s .

A l b e r t de M u n ( 1 8 4 1 - 1 9 1 4 ) , leader o f t h e l i b e r a l C a t h o l i c s i n F r a n c e f o u n d e d C a t h o l i c to Henri

Letters of Etienne

7

I b i d : 7 - 8 ; t h e second 1922 e d i t i o n o f Le Thomisme,

'less d e p e n d e n t o n m o d e r n T h o m i s t s

i t c o n t a i n e d a m o r e p e n e t r a t i n g analysis o f t h e actual t e x t o f Saint T h o m a s ' ;

LTinteHectuahsme

b y t h e F r e n c h Jesuit P i e r r e R o u s s e l o t .

killed

i n a c t i o n at Les Eparges i n 1915 aged 36 s

such r i g o r o u s censorship that l i t t l e appeared, b u t his w o r k has been i m m e n s e l y p o p u l a r p o s t h u m o u s l y As a Jesuit student at Hastings he p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e 'discovery' o f P i l t d o w n M a n . 1 0

H a n s U r s v o n Balthasar

Tlie

Theology

of Henri

de Lubac:

An

Overview

(San

Francisco:

I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 9 1 ) : 2 6 - 7

M a u r i c e B l o n d e l ( 1 8 6 1 - 1 9 4 9 ) , lay C a t h o l i c p h i l o s o p h e r , h i g h l i g h t e d t h e p r e ^ f l g c t i v e

desire o f h u m a n beings f o r v i s i o n o f G o d : L'Action:

received several citations f o r v a l o u r H e was professor o f g e o l o g y i n Paris

V i k i n g ( W e n n e r - G r e n ) F o u n d a t i o n F r o m 1925 he was r e q u i r e d t o s u b m i t religious w r i t i n g s t o

de Lubac (San Francisco: I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 8 8 ) : 188..

6

de saint Thomas (1908. E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n 1935)

M a r i e - J o s e p h Pierre T e i l h a r d de C h a r d i n ( 1 8 8 1 - 1 9 5 5 ) m o b i l i z e d i n D e c e m b e r 1914 as a

stretcher-bearer,

1 9 2 0 - 5 , m o s d y i n C h i n a 1 9 2 3 - 4 6 s t u d y i n g early h u m a n remains i n N e w Y o r k 1 9 5 1 - 5 w i t h t h e

w o r k e r s circles a n d was a p r o l i f i c w r i t e r Gilson

11

Essai d'une critique de la vie et d'une science de

1 1

Exégèse

médiévale

les quatre sens de l'Ecriture,

( I V ) (Paris: A u b i e r 1 9 5 9 , 1 9 6 1 . 1964)

C o l l e c t i o n T h é o l o g i e 4 1 ( I a n d I I ) , 4 2 ( I I I 0 50

H e r e 11:232

la pratique ( 1 8 9 3 ) , translated b y O l i v a B l a n c he tte ( N o t r e D a m e , I N : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e

1 2

Ibid

Press 1984)

n

T h e B o d y o f C h r i s t is ' i m p a n a t e d ' . ' i m - b r e a d e d , so t o speak, at t h e e u c h a r i s t i e consecra-

A d e v o u t C a t h o l i c , he l i v e d f o r years i n t e r r o r o f h a v i n g his w o r k p l a c e d o n t h e

I n d e x o f P r o h i b i t e d B o o k s , a n d was harassed especially b y t h e D o m i n i c a n s

111:426-7

t i o n , o n analogy w i t h t h e W o r d ' s b e c o m i n g i n c a r n a t e

'enfleshed'

70

H E N R I

D E

H E N R I

I U B A C

earliest to do so W h a t n o d o u b t attracted de Lubac is that R u p e r t , o n

Catholicism

in 1950.

17

D E

71

L U B A C

Many, i n c l u d i n g Congar, Balthasar, W o j t y l a and

several occasions under suspicion by ecclesiastical authorities, is one o f the

Ratzinger, regarded i t as the key b o o k o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y C a t h o l i c t h e o l -

many misunderstood characters i n the history o f theology w h o m he seems

ogy, the one indispensable text. Against the b a c k g r o u n d of the liberal-

to have made a deliberate choice to highlight. Against the 'devastating c o n -

capitalist and totalitarian ideologies o f the 1930s, de Lubac sought to show

tractions o f [ m o d e r n C a t h o l i c ] t h e o l o g y ' , as Balthasar noted, de Lubac

that, i n Catholic Christianity, the claims o f person and o f society are equally

chose to w r i t e , n o t about Bonaventure, Nicholas o f Cusa, Pascal, Möhler,

respected Very m u c h a tract for those times, p r i m a r i l y directed against the

N e w m a n , and so o n , w h o m one w o u l d have regarded as his 'allies' i n the

overly individualistic and introspective spirituality o f h i s y o u t h , as he saw i t ,

history of C a t h o l i c theology; b u t o n 'other representatives o f universal

the b o o k is nevertheless as relevant a therapy f o r those w h o m i g h t n o w be

t h o u g h t , namely, the great a m o n g the vanquished w h o have fallen because

i n c l i n e d to over-emphasize the c o m m u n a l structure of Catholic p i e t y I n a

of the machinations o f smaller minds or o f a n a r r o w C a t h o l i c i s m that is

substantial appendix, de Lubac offers 55 extracts, m a i n l y f r o m patristic and

politically rather than spiritually m i n d e d ' , f r o m O r i g e n to Leilhard de

medieval sources, often neglected and little k n o w n , but i n c l u d i n g N e w m a n ,

Chardin

I t was also, as w e shall see, i m p o r t a n t that R u p e r t c o n t r i b u t e d to

F r i e d r i c h v o n H u g e l , and Teilhard de C h a r d i n , taking us f r o m the Christian

the t r a d i t i o n o f c o m m e n t i n g o n the Song o f Songs. Finally, i n this little

anthropology o f G r e g o r y o f Nyssa to a vision o f the Cosmic Tree m i s a t t r i b -

cameo, de Lubac signals that the 'great century', f o r h i m , i n Western C h r i s -

uted to John C h r y s o s t o m Here, already, de Lubac notes that, u n t i l late i n

tianity, was n o t the t h i r t e e n t h , w i t h Thomas Aquinas, as most neoscholastic

the M i d d l e Ages, the expression 'corpus m y s t i c u m ' referred t o Christ's

theologians w o u l d have c l a i m e d .

eucharistic body, rather than to the b o d y o f C h r i s t i n the sense of the

1 4

15

C h u r c h . Already, m u c h m o r e contentiously, de Lubac, insisting that the w h o l e o f C a t h o l i c C h r i s t i a n dogma is a series o f paradoxes, declares that the greatest paradox of all is that, w h i l e the vision o f G o d enjoyed by the blessed

Key Books in Modern Catholicism

is a free gift, unanticipated, u n m e r i t e d , never owed to t h e m , yet t h e desire

I n 1929, after the Jesuits r e t u r n e d to France, de Lubac began l e c t u r i n g o n

f o r k is, naturally and constitutively i n every h u m a n soul.

fundamental theology at the Theology Faculty o f Lyons, the required d o c -

These t w o themes are spelled o u t i n the n e x t t w o books D e Lubac's life

torate having been conferred by the Gregorian U n i v e r s i t y i n R o m e at the

was, o f course, i n t e r r u p t e d by the G e r m a n occupation o f France A f t e r the

behest of the Father General o f the Society o f Jesus, w i t h o u t de Lubac's

capitulation, many Catholics were content w i t h the V i c h y government: i t

setting f o o t there or ever s u b m i t t i n g a dissertation

For better or worse,

seemed the restoration o f the traditional Catholic France that the anti-

like many o f the e m i n e n t C a t h o l i c theologians o f his generation, de Lubac

clericalism o f the T h i r d R e p u b l i c (and its hated atheist and Jewish deputies)

was never subjected to the discipline o f doctoral research i n w h i c h their

had repressed. D e Lubac was one o f the m i n o r i t y w h o resisted, against the

Protestant contemporaries, especially i n Germany, began their careers

w i l l o f his Jesuit superiors i n R o m e .

H e never taught any of the m a i n theological courses to Jesuit students or

colleague and f r i e n d Yves de M o n t c h e u i l , arrested a m o n g the M a q u i s at

anyone else.

Vercors, was executed by the Gestapo at Grenoble i n A u g u s t 1 9 4 4 .

1 6

1 8

H e w e n t i n t o h i d i n g , b u t his Jesuit 19

Ready f o r p u b l i c a t i o n b y 1939, Corpus Mysticum : Essai sur I'Eucharistie et

T h e books that he w o v e out of fris reading, w h i c h he usually passed off as 'occasional', and p u t together at someone else's u r g i n g , soon began to

I'Eghse au Moyen Age, appeared i n 1944

appear. Three were to become major texts i n m o d e r n C a t h o l i c theology

retrieved the doctrine, p u t pithily, that 'the church makes the eucharist

This 'naive b o o k ' , as he called i t ,

The first, Catholicisme- Les Aspects sociaux du dogme, appeared i n 1938 t h o u g h

and the eucharist makes the c h u r c h ' Leafing t h r o u g h volumes o f Migne's

the outbreak o f the Second W o r l d W a r meant that i t reached the w i d e r readership o n l y i n the expanded e d i t i o n o f T 9 4 7 . I t appeared i n English as

1 7

O r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e t i d e Catholicism

reissued i n 1988 as Catholicism:

Christ and the Common

( L o n d o n : L o n g m a n G r e e n 1950) i t was Destiny

of Man (San Francisco: Ignatius

Press) 1 4

1 5

Balthasar, The Theology of Henri

au douzième 1 6

de Lubac:

30-1

F o r that m a t t e r C h e n u s best w o r k , s o m e m i g h t say is t o b e found i n his b o o k La siècle (Paris: V r i n

At the Service oj the Church:

1957) 143

1 8

Théologie

H e n r i de L u b a c

Christian

Resistance

to Anti-Semitism

Memoirs

from 1940-1944

(San F r a n -

cisco: I g n a t i u s Press 1990) 1 9

F o r his m e m o i r o f his colleague see H e n r i de L u b a c .

I g n a t i u s Press 1987).

Three Jesuits

Speak (San

Francisco:

72

H E N R I

Patrologia Latina,

D E

I U B A C

H E N R I

he h i t o n the phrase 'corpus m y s t i c u m ' i n the w o r k o f

Florus o f Lyons ( w h o d i e d a r o u n d 860)

2 0

This started h i m o f f o n the trail.

I n m o d e r n times, and especially since Pope Pius X I I ' s encyclical

D E

73

I U B A C

to the standard neoscholastic t h e o l o g y o f grace and nature. The b o o k is peppered w i t h barely coded insults directed at august T h o m i s t c o m m e n t a -

Mystici

tors past and present H o w e v e r , i t was n o t o n l y that, according to de Lubac,

Corporis Christi (1943), the C h u r c h was referred to, i n seminary courses, p r i -

they m o r e or less all m i s i n t e r p r e t e d Aquinas - a shocking e n o u g h c o n -

m a r i l y as the 'mystical B o d y ' o f Christ

t e n t i o n , o f course - they d i d so, he claimed, because o f their ignorance o f

As he pursued his research i n <

medieval and patristic authors, however, de Lubac concluded that the phrase

traditional patristic and medieval Catholic doctrine. I n particular, they

corpus mysticum referred initially to Christ's eucharistic body, and not to the

denied or occluded the d o c t r i n e o f natural desire f o r G o d . A c c o r d i n g to

visible C h u r c h as an institution. For de Lubac, discovering this shift i n refer-

traditional C a t h o l i c i s m , h u m a n beings were destined b y nature t o enjoy

ence m a r k e d a breakthrough: according to the p r e - m o d e r n understanding

by d i v i n e grace everlasting bliss w i t h God. Since the sixteenth

Christ should be regarded as mystically present and at w o r k w h e r e and w h e n

however, a l l o w i n g themselves to be shaped b y o p p o s i t i o n to Lutheranism,

century,

the eucharist was being celebrated. I n effect, de Lubac's b o o k inaugurated

Catholic theologians made so m u c h o f the distinction between nature and

the eucharistic ecclesiology rehabilitated - or invented? — at Vatican I I

grace that they lost all sense o f the ' f i n a l i t y ' o f nature f o r grace - o f the way

2 1

The t h i r d o f de Lubac's decisive interventions i n t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y t h e o l o g y Surnaturel: Etudes historiques, the most controversial, w h i c h he had

i n w h i c h the h u m a n and the natural has always already been

started at Hastings i n his student days, again presented as n o m o r e than 'historical studies', appeared i n 1946.

A c c o r d i n g to the standard

embraced

w i t h i n the supernatural. For neoscholastic Thomists, f o l l o w i n g Cajetan, so de Lubac claims, i t was

Thomist

axiomatic that Aquinas d i d n o t just entertain the concept o f ' p u r e nature', as

reading, by Renaissance commentators l i k e Cajetan as w e l l as b y de Lubac's

a t h o u g h t experiment, b u t held i t as an indispensable doctrine. However, as

contemporaries, Jesuit and D o m i n i c a n , Aquinas taught that h u m a n beings

de Lubac w r o t e i n a letter to M a u r i c e B l o n d e l , as early as 3 A p r i l 1932: 'This

have a natural end or destiny, as w e l l as the supernatural end conferred by

concept of a pure nature runs i n t o great difficulties, the p r i n c i p a l one of

divine grace. O n the contrary, so de Lubac affirmed, Aquinas subscribed to

w h i c h seems to me to be the f o l l o w i n g : h o w can a conscious spirit be any-

the teaching o f the Fathers o f the u n d i v i d e d C h u r c h , namely, that the

t h i n g other than an absolute desire for G o d ? '

h u m a n creature desires by nature a f u l f i l m e n t , w h i c h can o n l y come 'super-

nents, this was - u n f a i r l y albeit n o t totally w i t h o u t justification - tantamount

naturally', as a gift by sheer d i v i n e grace.. The decisive p o i n t , however, is

to saying that G o d c o u l d n o t deny the supernaturally given destiny o f ever-

that, o n de Tubac's reading, Aquinas d i d n o t believe i n any destiny f o r

lasting life i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h the T r i n i t y to creatures w i t h the k i n d of

h u m a n beings, n o w that the I n c a r n a t i o n has happened, other than the

nature w h i c h h u m a n beings possess

supernatural end envisaged and promised i n the N e w Testament dispensat i o n I n shor t, f o r Aquinas, there is n o destiny f o r h u m a n beings apart f r o m C h r i s t - and, i f there are texts i n w h i c h he seems to suggest the contrary, t h e n Aquinas w o u l d o n l y be playing w i t h the t h o u g h t experiment of a w o r l d , a h u m a n nature and f u l f i l m e n t , as i f the history o f God's i n t e r v e n t i o n i n Christ c o u l d be bracketed o u t

22

For his neoscholastic o p p o -

The controversy was never purely academic I t needs t o be placed against the b a c k g r o u n d o f the bitter struggle that d o m i n a t e d politics i n France i n the early t w e n t i e t h century between supporters o f the T h i r d R e p u b l i c w i t h t h e i r anti-clerical Taicism', as i t was called, and adherents o f traditional Catholicism w i t h their monarchist nostalgia and papahst-ultramontanist inclinations The conflict centred o n the education system, w i t h one side

This b o o k gave rise to the most a c r i m o n i o u s controversy i n t w e n t i e t h -

fearing that C h u r c h schools were n o t f o r m i n g children i n loyalty to the

This 'merely

ideals o f the R e p u b l i c (and thus o f ' l i b e r t y , fraternity and equality'), w h i l e

historical' study, as de Lubac disingenuously calls i t , was a direct challenge

the other side regarded state schools as seedbeds of socialism and m i l i t a n t

c e n t u r y C a t h o l i c t h e o l o g y - an outbreak o f rabies theologica

atheism. I n w i d e r theological terms, the p r o b l e m was h o w to respect the 2 0

J o s e p h - P a u l M i g n e ( 1 8 0 0 - 7 5 ) , a p a r i s h p r i e s t w i t h n o claims t o great scholarship, f o u n d e d

a p r i n t i n g - h o u s e i n Paris t o b r i n g o u t Patrologia Latina

(221 v o l u m e s ) a n d Patrologia Graca

(162

v o l u m e s ) , still t h e standard means o f reference a n d c i t a t i o n , t h e basis o f t h e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y

a u t o n o m y o f the secular w i t h o u t abandoning the sacred to the realm of the purely private. I n this light, Catholicism was o u t to correct w h a t seemed to de Lubac an extremely individualistic and privatized religious sensibility by

r e v i v a l o f p a t r i s t i c t h e o l o g y H i s w o r k s h o p s a n d stereotype m o u l d s w e r e destroyed b y f i r e i n 1868 2 1

F o r de Lubac's e c c l e s i o l o g y see Paul M c P a r t l a n . , The Eucharist

Lubac and John Zizwulas

in Dialogue

(Edinburgh: T & T Clark

1993)

Makes

the Church . Henri

de

2 2

C i t e d b y L a w r e n c e F e i n g o l d . The Natural

Desire to See God according to Si

Interpreters ( R o m e : A p o l l i n a r e S t u d i 2 0 0 1 ) : 6 2 8

Thomas and

His

74

H E N R I

D E

L U B A C

H E N R I

D E

75

L U B A C

r e m i n d i n g Catholics o f the inherently social nature o f C h r i s t i a n i t y H e saw a

became t e m p t i n g l y easy to denigrate. O n the other hand, so de Lubac

double failure O n the one hand, Catholics were t o o o f t e n satisfied w i t h a

claimed, the id,ea o f a 'purely natural' h u m a n d o m a i n , perhaps once only a

purely conventional r e l i g i o n , w h i c h was l i t t l e m o r e than the socially useful

t h o u g h t experiment, eventually gave rise to the space o f the secular, free of

' r e l i g i o n f o r the people' - religious practice as social control. O n the other

r e l i g i o n and indeed o f G o d .

hand, inside and outside the C h u r c h , C h r i s t i a n i t y seemed to be a r e l i g i o n

I n effect, de Lubac undermines neoscholastic dogmatic theology as radi-

devoted to saving one's soul. l b counter these apparendy antithetical devia-

cally as he destroys standard natural theology D o c t r i n e remains 'extrinsic',

tions, de Lubac sought to show that ' C a t h o l i c i s m ' means that the C h u r c h

just a set of abstract propositions, perhaps imposed by ecclesiastical authority,

addresses all aspects o f h u m a n life, the social and historical as w e l l as the per-

yet lifeless, barely relevant, practically unintelligible, unless connected to, and

sonal and spiritual.

resonating w i t h , the 'intrinsic' desir e o n the part o f the given h u m a n nature then, is that, neither i n patristic n o r i n

o f the one accepting or teaching the doctrine. Thus, philosophy, w e may say,

medieval theology, and certainly n o t i n Thomas Aquinas, was the hypothesis

requires the supplement o f theology, yet theology equally requires t h e - f o u n -

ever entertained o f a purely natural destiny f o r h u m a n beings, something

dation of philosophy — w h i c h cannot be had

other than the supernatural and eschatological v i s i o n o f G o d T h e r e is o n l y

neothomist critics understandably objected, looks m o r e l i k e an irresolvable

The centrai thesis o f Surnaturel,

De Lubac's paradox, as

this w o r l d , the w o r l d i n w h i c h o u r nature has been created f o r a super-

aporia Indeed, as John M i l b a n k highhghts, w e f i n d Balthasar describing de

natural destiny Historically, there never was a graceless nature, or a w o r l d

Lubac's w r i t i n g as occupying a problematic 'suspended m i d d l e ' — ' D e Lubac

outside the C h r i s t i a n dispensation. This traditional c o n c e p t i o n o f h u m a n

soon realised that his p o s i t i o n m o v e d i n t o a suspended m i d d l e i n w h i c h he

nature as always destined f o r grace-given u n i o n w i t h G o d fell apart between

c o u l d n o t practice any philosophy w i t h o u t its transcendence i n t o theology,

attempts, o n the one hand, to secure the sheer gratuitousness

b u t also any theology w i t h o u t its essential i n n e r structure o f p h i l o s o p h y ' .

o f the

23

economy of grace over against the naturalist anthropologies o f Renaissance

I f grace d i d n o t f u l f i l the deepest l o n g i n g o f our nature, of our ethical,

h u m a n i s m and, o n the other hand, resistance to w h a t was perceived b y

contemplative and (even) naturally mystical impulses, t h e n i t w o u l d be

C o u n t e r - R e f o r m a t i o n Catholics as the Protestant d o c t r i n e of the total cor-

external, alien, and irrelevant The life of the Spirit, instead of its b e i n g real

r u p t i o n o f h u m a n nature by o r i g i n a l sin. The Catholic theologians, w h o

(ontological)

sought to protect the supernatural by separating i t conceptually f r o m the

become a purely n o m i n a l change i n the believer's status by the decree of an

natural, facilitated the development o f the h u m a n i s m w h i c h flower ed at the

alien G o d operating b y the external institutions o f the C h u r c h So at least

E n l i g h t e n m e n t i n t o deism, agnosticism and u l t i m a t e l y atheism. The c o n -

the story goes

participation i n the divine nature ('divinization') w o u l d

2 4

ception o f the autonomous i n d i v i d u a l for w h i c h the philosophers o f the A g e o f Reason were most b i t t e r l y criticized by devout Catholics was, de Lubac suggested, invented b y Catholic theologians The philosophies w h i c h broke

Under Suspicion

free of Christianity, to develop their o w n naturalist and deist theologies, had their roots i n the anti-Protestant and anti-Renaissance Catholic Scholasticism o f the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.

I n 1950, his Jesuit superiors i n R o m e , fearing that he was among the theologians anonymously censured i n the encyclical Humani

The loss o f the patristic-medieval sense o f the internal relationship

Generis — among

those, that is to say, w h o 'destroy the gratuity o f the supernatural order, since

between the order o f creation and the dispensation o f grace led to a concep-

G o d , they say, cannot create intellectual beings w i t h o u t ordering and calling

t i o n o f grace as something so totally extraneous and alien to h u m a n nature

t h e m to the beatific v i s i o n ' - asked de Lubac to stop teaching Jesuit students

that a n y t h i n g and e v e r y t h i n g natural and h u m a n was d o w n g r a d e d and demeaned. I n particular, w h e n questions about politics or sexuality (say) were detached f r o m the traditional u n i t a r y theology o f grace as

fulfilling

nature, i t was n o t surprising i f politics was treated w i t h cynicism and sexuali t y w i t h suspicion W h e n the dispensation o f d i v i n e grace was no longer assumed to have resonance and even roots i n some k i n d o f natural desire for G o d , h u m a n nature - and that means reason, feeling, and the b o d y —

2 3

Balthasar

The

Theology of Henri

de Lubac,

15; c f J o h n M i l b a n k , ' T h e Suspended

Middle:

H e n r i de L u b a c a n d t h e D e b a t e c o n c e r n i n g the S u p e r n a t u r a l ' i n D a v i d F o r d ( e d ) R a c h e l M u e r s , The Modern

Theologians

The

de Lubac and the Debate concerning the Supernatural

Suspended Middle-

Henri

with

( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 2005), a n d the expanded version, (London: SCM

Press 2 0 0 5 ) , a p a t h - b r e a k i n g s t u d y o n w h i c h I g r a t e f u l l y r e l y 2 4

T h e best s u m m a r y o f t h e issues as he saw t h e m is i n d e Lubac's A Brief Catechesis on

and Grace (San F r a n c i s c o : I g n a t i u s Press 1984)

Nature

76

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D E

H E N R I

I U B A C

D E

77

L U B A C

N e v e r s u m m o n e d to defend his

he f o u n d quite comic, b e g i n n i n g w i t h the oath o f secrecy the theologians

views i n R o m e , he always denied being targeted i n the encyclical. N e v e r -

t o o k o n the first day, o n their knees between t w o candles, before Cardinal

theless, his books were removed f r o m Jesuit libraries and w i t h d r a w n f r o m

O t t a v i a n i , t h e n Prefect o f the H o l y Office. I n the event, de Lubac had a

sale H e was ostracized f o r a decade, his views frequently traduced, as the

hand i n composing the major documents, Dei Verbum, Lumen Gentium

leader o f la Nouvelle

Gaudium

( w h i c h he had n o t been d o i n g a n y w a y ) .

Théologie.

23

26

However, never f o r b i d d e n t o publish (as Congar was), de Lubac c o n t i n ued to b r i n g o u t books o n a range of subjects: a study o f Origen's biblical

and

et Spes. Before the C o u n c i l concluded, however, he saw signs o f a

g r o w i n g 'paraconciliar agitation', demanding reforms i n the C h u r c h quite different f r o m w h a t was envisaged

exegesis (1950), three books o n B u d d h i s m (1951-5) and, above all, Médita-

I n the 1970s de Lubac became increasingly distressed as he saw the

tion sur l'Eglise (1953) The last o f these, n o t intended as a f u l l - b l o w n treatise

achievement o f Vatican I I u n d e r m i n e d , as he believed, p r i n c i p a l l y b y ' p r o -

o n the C h u r c h , and n o t at all 'scholarly', as he insisted, merely the result o f

gressive' clergy, w i t h their craze f o r liturgical ' e x p e r i m e n t ' and preference

conversation w i t h fellow-priests at days o f recollection and suchlike, was

f o r M a r x i s t sociology rather than traditional theological study The C a t h o l i -

o n l y an 'echo' of 'essential texts o f T r a d i t i o n ' , as the i n t r o d u c t i o n tells us.

cism, w h i c h he had struggled to free from the 'separist' conception, as

The nine chapters, t a k i n g us f r o m ' T h e C h u r c h as M y s t e r y ' t h r o u g h to ' T h e

he labelled i t , w h i c h kept nature and grace apart, was n o w a l l o w i n g the

C h u r c h and O u r Lady', seem t o anticipate m u c h that appeared, a decade

e c o n o m y " o f grace to collapse i n t o humanistic naturalism. I n his last two

later - i n retrospect, i t looks l i k e laying o u t the structure o f Lumen

major w o r k s , Pic de la Mirandole

Gentium,

30

and La

Postérité

he c o n t i n u e d his rehabilitation o f m a r g i n a l -

spirituelle de Joachim

never i m a g i n e d that he w o u l d be i n v o l v e d i n drafting such a text For the

ized figures

immediately pre-Vatican I I generation o f seminarians and lay people, this

Paul IPs decision to make h i m a cardinal, reluctantly, o n c o n d i t i o n that he

was a w i d e l y read and m u c h treasured b o o k — a r e m i n d e r o f just h o w r i c h

n o t be ordained a bishop. H e died o n 4 September 1991.

pre-Vatican I I ecclesiology was

de Flore, '

(1974, untranslated)

the C o u n c i l d o c u m e n t o n the nature o f the C h u r c h ; but o f cour se de Lubac

1 1

I n 198.3, w h e n he was nearly 87, he accepted Pope John

2 7

Teilhard de C h a r d i n died i n 1955, w h i c h freed his lay friends to start p u b -

K n o w l e d g e of G o d

lishing the books h i t h e r t o held back by his being obliged as a priest to have ecclesiastical approval A t the behest o f his Jesuit superiors i n France, de Lubac set about clearing Teilhard's name o f longstanding suspicions

of

D e Lubac denied being a philosopher De la Connaissance

de Dieu,

revised

u n o r t h o d o x y and even t r y i n g to establish h i m (implausibly as i t seems to

under pressure and retitled Sur les chemins de Dieu

me) as a major Catholic thinker

influential b o o k , was offered as an exercise i n C h r i s t i a n apologetics, but,

2 8

H e c o n t i n u e d to browse t h r o u g h patristic

and medieval theology, the results o f w h i c h were published between

1959

(1956), another very

explicitly, as i n n o way a substitute for neoscholastic theodicy

3 2

and 1964, a massive attempt at retrieval o f precritical biblical h e r m e n e u tics.

29

B y then, however, de Lubac was a m o n g the first s u m m o n e d by Pope

John X X I I I to help draft the texts for Vatican I I H e learnt o f this w h e n casually reading a newspaper i n a convent parlour M u c h o f the experience

3 0

G i o v a n n i P i c o della M i r a n d o l a ( 1 4 6 3 - 9 4 ) , Italian p h i l o s o p h e r a n d scholar, based his views

c h i e f l y o n Plato, i n o p p o s i t i o n t o A r i s t o t l e . H e is f a m o u s f o r his Conclusiones cabalasticct et theological ( R o m e , 1486)

a n d he d e f e n d e d C h r i s t i a n i t y against Jews M o h a m m e d a n s a n d astrologers 2 b

Humant

2 6

See Joseph A

Komonchak

H e n r i de L u b a c . Theological t h e nouvelle théologie 2 7

Translated as The

T h e o l o g y a n d C u l t u r e at M i d - c e n t u r y : T h e E x a m p l e

of

Studies 5 1 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 5 7 9 - 6 0 2 ; A i d a n J N i c h o l s OP, ' T h o m i s m and

Tiie ThomistM

(2000):

Splendour of the Church

La Pensée

de Chardin

( N e w Y o r k : Sheed a n d W a r d 1956; San Francisco:

E n g l i s h 1971) 2 9

( 1 9 6 2 , E n g l i s h 1 9 6 7 ) ; La Prière du Père

E n g l i s h 1 9 6 5 ) ; Teilhard, missionaire et apologiste ( 1 9 6 6 ) ; L'Etemel

féminin

Teilhard (1968

a n d an e d i t i o n o f Teilhard's c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h B l o n d e l ( 1 9 6 5 , E n g l i s h 1967)

Susan K . W o o d , Spiritual

Exegesis

3 1

T w o v o l s . 1983

J o a c h i m o f F i o r e (c. 1 1 3 5 - 1 2 0 2 ) , a m o n k , was an e x p o n e n t o f a T r i n i t a r -

d i s p e n s a t i o n o f t h e O l d Testament; t h e age o f t h e Son. ' t h e o r d e r o f t h e c l e r g y , t h e N e w Test a m e n t ; a n d t h e age o f t h e S p i r i t , t h e o r d e r o f m o n k s o r c o n t e m p l a t i v e s , w h e n n e w monastic

religieuse du Père Teilhard de Chardin

(1964

the Christian and Platonic traditions i a n t h e o l o g y o f h i s t o r y , i n t h r e e ages: t h e age o f t h e Father, ' t h e o r d e r o f t h e m a r r i e d ' , the

1-19

I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 8 6 ) ; n o t a g o o d t i t l e . 2 i !

M a n y editions of

his w o r k s appeared i n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d he is a s y m b o l o f t h e Renaissance b l e n d o f

§26

Generis:

philosophical,

i n c l u d i n g 13 theses i d e n t i f i e d as ' h e r e t i c a l ' ( o u t o f 900),

and the Church

b u r g h : T & T C l a r k 1998) w i t h g o o d b i b l i o g r a p h y .

in the Theology

of Henri

de Lubac ( E d i n -

o r d e r s w o u l d arise t o c o n v e r t t h e w h o l e w o r l d a n d usher i n t h e 'Ecclesia S p i r i t u a l i s ' — some Franciscans b e l i e v e d t h e y w e r e t h e ones 1 2

P u b l i s h e d i n E n g l i s h as The Discovery

translated

from

given i n the text

Sur les chemins de Dieu

of God ( L o n d o n : D a r t o n T o n g m a n a n d T o d d 1960). (Paris: A u b i e r 1956)

S u b s e q u e n t page references are

78

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H E N R I

The second chapter opens w i t h Aquinas's a x i o m : ' A l l knowers k n o w G o d i m p l i c i t l y i n all they k n o w ' We are referred i m m e d i a t e l y to Hans Urs v o n Balthasar's essay i n Thomistic philosophy (Wahrheit der Welt, see

D E

79

I U B A C

a f f i r m e d and t h o u g h t ' (58). I n short, before G o d can be ' i d e n t i f i e d ' by a conscious act, there must exist a certain 'habit o f G o d ' i n the m i n d (59)

chapter

This is w h a t T h o m a s Aquinas h e l d , de Lubac contends, c i t i n g C h e n u

eight) However, the next reference is to B l o n d e l , i n support o f the thesis

again: Thomas calls i n question the existence o f G o d i n order to prove his

that every h u m a n act, w h e t h e r o f m i n d or w i l l , 'rests secretly u p o n G o d ' , i n

existence rationally, starting f r o m the faith w h i c h he already has — w h i c h ,

the sense that ' n o t h i n g can be t h o u g h t w i t h o u t p o s i t i n g the Absolute i n

however, does n o t mean that the rational demonstration depends o n the act

relating i t to that Absolute; n o t h i n g can be w i l l e d w i t h o u t t e n d i n g t o w a r d

of faith and w h i c h , moreover, is n o t an exercise o f methodical d o u b t as i n

the Absolute, n o r valued unless w e i g h e d i n terms o f the A b s o l u t e ' (Discovery

Descartes (59).

40). This does n o t mean, de Lubac hastens to say, that reasoning i n order to prove the existence o f G o d is superfluous. H e does n o t w a n t to be accused o f anti-intellectualist m o d e r n i s m . Nonetheless, the status o f the argument is n o t w h a t most exponents o f T h o m i s t i c natural theology w o u l d have supposed - ' o u r a f f i r m a t i o n o f G o d is n o t the conclusion o f an argument'

For

t h e m , the proposition that G o d exists was indeed the conclusion o f causal or cosmological proofs. For de Lubac, however, unless w e already had a certain idea o f G o d — ' n o t objectified, n o t conscious, yet present to consciousness, and i n fine, not conceived' — indeed, 'previous to all o u r concepts and always present i n all o f t h e m ' - t h e n 'the p u r i f i c a t i o n to w h i c h we subject [our c o n cepts] i n order to t h i n k G o d correctly' w o u l d have n o p o i n t (42). H e cites C h e n u , to the effect that, for Thomas Aquinas too, 'the analyses i n w h i c h negation t r i u m p h s , less favourable to illusion than superlatives, u n f o l d i n an atmosphere o f mystery' ' G o d is k n o w n better by b e i n g n o t k n o w n ' , Dews qui scitur melius nesciendo - w h i c h is 'a classical f o r m o f T h o m i s m ' , de Lubac insists (43)

Thus, i f there is a t r u t h w h i c h is lived before i t is k n o w n , perceived w i t h certainty before being subjected to the discipline of proofs and the c o n t r o l o f concepts — because i t is connatural to us — t h e n this is, w i t h o u t a doubt, properly described as knowledge of God

(59)

I n the end, de Lubac places his natural theology i n the context o f the doctr ine o f the image o f G o d : 'intelligence is the faculty o f b e i n g because spirit is the capacity f o r G o d ' (75, his italics) The philosophical problems here seem considerable

That people m i g h t

be i n a better p o s i t i o n to talk sense about G o d i f they had alr eady acquired (let us say) habits o f reverence and w o n d e r may be an acceptable thesis It is another matter t o claim that there has to be a certain 'habit of G o d ' i n the m i n d before G o d can be ' i d e n t i f i e d ' — not i n words, o n l y i n some k i n d of mental act. I t is d i f f i c u l t to understand h o w G o d can be 'secretly affirmed and t h o u g h t ' , p r i o r to there b e i n g any o f the judgement or concept f o r m a t i o n w h i c h we n o r m a l l y mean b y a f f i r m i n g and t h i n k i n g . H o w does one ' a f f i r m ' G o d - even 'secretly' - p r i o r to one's t h i n k i n g about G o d i n some

The idea o f G o d 'is mysteriously present i n us f r o m the b e g i n n i n g , p r i o r

way that is i n p r i n c i p l e c o m m u n i c a b l e to others? W h a t a f f i r m i n g G o d can

to o u r concepts, although b e y o n d our grasp w i t h o u t their help, and p r i o r to

there be p r i o r to being able to say something intelligible? Above all, w h a t is

all our argumentation, i n spite o f being logically unjustifiable w i t h o u t t h e m '

this 'idea' that w e have o f G o d , 'mysteriously present i n us f r o m the b e g i n -

- ' i t is the inspiration, the m o t i v e p o w e r and justification of t h e m all' (43).

n i n g ' , w h i c h is antecedent to all our concepts? W h a t is an 'idea', w h i c h is

The idea o f G o d , w h i c h is n o t a concept, is a reality: 'the very soul of the

b e y o n d our grasp without the help of concepts} A n idea w h i c h is ' p r i o r to all

soul; a spiritual image o f the D i v i n i t y , an eikon' (44) I n a crucial footnote, de

our argumentation, i n spite o f b e i n g logically unjustifiable w i t h o u t t h e m

Lubac refers us to 'the tremendous importance o f the n o t i o n o f the image o f

[our concepts]?' This preconceptual idea that we have o f G o d , w h i c h is 'not

G o d i m p r i n t e d i n m a n ' , something noted at Vatican I . The existence o f

a natural i n t u i t i o n of G o d ' , yet w h i c h is 'the inspiration, the m o t i v e power

G o d is n o t obvious f r o m the w o r d 'go'. There is no question o f ' a natural

and j u s t i f i c a t i o n ' , i t seems, o f all our concepts, turns o u t to be the i m p r i n t

i n t u i t i o n of G o d as an o r i g i n a l apanage o f the h u m a n m i n d ' (48)

o n the soul traditionally referred to i n terms o f our being made i n the image

O n the

other hand, the t h o u g h t that the existence o f G o d is 'probable' w e should

o f - G o d . The Discovery

reject ('You m i g h t as w e l l say o u r o w n existence is probable'). ' G o d does

reading — philosophically, however, quite puzzling, particularly f o r students

n o t f o r m part o f our c o m m o n experience' (50). We do better to say that 'the

familiar w i t h the k i n d o f philosophical problems that Garrigou-Lagrange

life o f the spirit rests o n a belief" and at its r o o t is a certain k i n d o f c o n f i -

surveys The idea of a concept — o f G o d or o f a n y t h i n g else — p r i o r to the

dence' (50). Better still, c i t i n g C l e m e n t o f Alexandria, our minds rest o n a

n e t w o r k o f concepts we i n h e r i t as we are initiated i n t o language, needs a

certain 'anticipation', prolepsis. ' G o d must be present to the m i n d before any

g o o d deal o f discussion

explicit reasoning or objective concept is possible .

. he must be secretly

of God is an immensely r i c h text, still w e l l w o r t h

80

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Retrieving

H E N R I

I U B A C

disconcertingly,

Origen

D E

81

I U B A C

the d o m i n a n t theme i n papally endorsed

and papally

inspired Catholic theology at the end o f the t w e n t i e t h century

The most surprising development i n t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Catholic theology — for neoscholastic theologians retrieval of O r i g e n

and especially f o r T h o m i s t s

33

-

was the

T h e Epithalamic

Tradition

3 4

Inaugurated i n 1948 by Jean D a n i e l o u ,

3 5

this revival was soon c o n f i r m e d

by de Lubac's path-breaking study o f Origen's biblical exegesis (1950), Hans U r s v o n Balthasar's anthology o f texts (1950) and, even m o r e significantly, the translation o f Origen's H o m i l i e s o n the Song o f Songs, b y O l i v i e r Rousseau (1953 and 1966)

B y the mid-1950s, i n the heyday o f neoscholas-

ticism, w h e n Pope Pius X I I seemed to preside over an inviolably m o n o h t h i c Catholicism, O r i g e n had returned, f r o m neglect and longstanding denigrat i o n as a near-heretic, to centre stage. The themes, developed b y de Lubac and others f r o m Origen's fertile speculations, are, to say the least, somewhat audacious, and w o u l d have astonished most o f us engaged i n neoscholastic studies back then, had we k n o w n anything m u c h about t h e m

The interpretation o f the creature's relationship w i t h G o d o n the analogy o f marriage is, o f course, biblically g r o u n d e d I n Hosea, particularly, the covenant between the L o r d G o d and the people o f Israel is represented as a marriage, memorably i n t r o d u c e d b y Hosea's being c o m m a n d e d b y G o d to m a r r y Gomer, i n f u l l k n o w l e d g e o f her sexual promiscuity, thus a l l o w i n g her to become the central symbol o f the idolatrous people w h o forsake the L o r d (Hos. 1:2: 'Go, take u n t o thee a w i f e o f w h o r e d o m s and c h i l d r e n of w h o r e d o m s : for the land hath c o i m n i t t e d great w h o r e d o m , departing f r o m the L o r d ' , and so on). I n the Song o f Songs, the v i r g i n w h o comes i n search o f the k i n g as her sexual c o m p a n i o n is understood as the soul i n search of the lover w h o is G o d I n Isaiah 61 the soul, no doubt here of a m a n , exults

For instance, O r i g e n was first to develop the theme o f the five spiritual

because the L o r d G o d has 'covered h i m as a b r i d e g r o o m decks h i m s e l f w i t h

senses: the possibility f o r spiritual persons w h o have attained the supreme

a garland and as a bride adorns herself w i t h her jewels'; 'as a y o u n g man

v i r t u e , w i s d o m , o f experiencing, b y intimate personal c o m m u n i o n , or by

marries a v i r g i n , so the L o r d God's sons m a r r y the land, and as the b r i d e -

connatu rality, the supernatural realities — articulating all this i n terms o f f i g -

g r o o m rejoices over the bride so shall the L o r d G o d rejoice over the singer's

urative or allegorized biblical expressions and f r o m neo-Platonist imagery

soul (Is. 61:10-62:2).

M u c h m o r e significantly, however, O r i g e n is the source o f the nuptial theology, taken up by de Lubac, again b y Hans U r s v o n Balthasar (chapter eight), by Pope J o h n Paul I I (chapter ten) and i n an i m p o r t a n t d o c u m e n t issued by the Congregation f o r the Defence of the Faith over Cardinal Ratzinger's signature (chapter eleven), as w e shall see - b e c o m i n g , perhaps

The imagery carries over i n t o the N e w Testament I n response to the c o m i n g and calling o f the L o r d Jesus C h r i s t , every h u m a n soul is feminine: br idal, spousal I n the vision w i t h w h i c h the N e w Testament closes, the holy city, the new Jerusalem, appears as beautiful as a bride prepared to meet her husband (Apoc 21:2). I n his major paper o n mysticism, de Lubac mentions the symbolism of

3 3

O r i g e n is c i t e d b y K a r l B a r t h as a p r e c u r s o r o f M o l i n i s m : n o t a h a p p y t h o u g h t f o r s t r i c t

Thomists; for a l u c i d , entertaining account o f the c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n M o l i n i s t s and o v e r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n free w i l l a n d d i v i n e grace see Church

Thomists

Dogmatics I I / l

( E d i n b u r g h : I & T C l a r k 1957): 5 6 8 - 7 3 3 4

O r i g e n (c

185-c

254) was b o r n i n E g y p t , p r o b a b l y at A l e x a n d r i a , a n d b r o u g h t u p as a

C h r i s t i a n H i s f a t h e r l e o n i d e s was m a r t y r e d . A c c o r d i n g t o Eusebius, O r i g e n t o o k M a t t h e w

t w o , the B r i d e g r o o m the W o r d , and the b r i d e the flesh' - as Isaiah

himself at once Br i d e g r o o m and B r i d e .

H i s Sorbonne doctorate

Eckhart

Pla-

mystique ( p u b l i s h e d 1944) deals w i t h t h e s p i r i t u a l t h e o l o g y o f St G r e g o r y o f

Nyssa H e c o n t r i b u t e d g r e a t l y t o t h e r e v i v a l o f p a t r i s t i c t h e o l o g y a n d h e n c e t o t h e s i d e l i n i n g H e was a backstage o p e r a t o r at V a t i c a n I I a n d was m a d e a c a r d i n a l i n

H e d i e d w h i l e exercising a m i n i s t r y t o f a l l e n w o m e n

3 7

As de Lubac notes, the D o m i n i c a n mystical writers Meister

1989)

j e a n D a n i é l o u ( 1 9 0 5 - 7 4 ) e n t e r e d t h e Jesuit O r d e r i n 1929

o f neoscholasticism

61:10

m e w i t h an ornament as a Bride'. I n effect, C h r i s t i n the Incarnation makes

Origen ( E d i n b u r g h : T & T C l a r k

1967

was the Virgin's w o m b ' , because ' i n that v i r g i n a l w o m b were j o i n e d the

h e estab-

O r d a i n e d priest i n 230

as a h e r e t i c b y t h e late f o u r t h c e n t u r y a n d has b e e n suspected ever since See H e n r i C r o u z e l ,

tonisme et théologie

3 6

H e was t o r t u r e d d u r i n g t h e p e r s e c u t i o n o f D e c i u s a n d was a

confessor o f t h e f a i t h H e was b u r i e d at Tyre A h i g h l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l f i g u r e , h e was d e n o u n c e d

3 5

O r i g e n , and f r o m there to Bernard o f Clairvaux, i n the t w e l f t h c e n t u r y

We f i n d i t very eloquently, i n Augustine: ' T h e Bridegroom's bed chamber

prefigures: ' H e hath set a mitre u p o n me as u p o n a B r i d e g r o o m , and adorned

19: 12 l i t e r a l l y . H e was w e l l versed i n M i d d l e P l a t o n i s m l i s h e d a s c h o o l at Caesarea

'spiritual marriage', pneumatikos gamos, 'the theme o f p u r s u i t - u n i o n ' , i n

3 6

M y s t i c i s m a n d M y s t e r y ' i n Theological

Fragments

(San Francisco: Ignatius Press 1989):

3 5 - 6 9 . 60 3 7

A u g u s t i n e . On the Epistle

of John

to the Parthiam

1 2 ( P G 36

1979)

82

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D E

H E N R I

I U B A C

D E

83

I U B A C

(c. 1260-c 1328) and John Tauler (d 1361), for all their exoticism i n other

his emphasis is very m u c h o n the believer's l o n g i n g f o r u n i o n w i t h G o d ,

ways, seem rather reticent about this 'epithalamic tradition'.. Despite the l o n g

w h i c h he describes i n frankly sensual terms ('Christ, C h r i s t , n o t h i n g but

tradition of w r i t i n g commentaries o n the Song o f Songs, w e have none f r o m

C h r i s t can c o o l o u r love's b u r n i n g languor', and so on) W h i l e as a radical

the hand of Thomas Aquinas The early catalogues list a Super Cantica; his

Presbyterian he d i d n o t celebrate the c o m m u n i o n service very frequently,

y o u n g confr ere W i l l i a m o f Tbcco reports that he dictated a brief commentary

Rutherford's deeply sacramentalist piety is very like C o u n t e r - R e f o r m a t i o n

o n his deathbed; to date, however, no commentary has been f o u n d , and the

Catholic eucharistic devotion. H e clearly believed that, taken i n f a i t h , H o l y

t w o commentaries p r i n t e d i n the Parma and Vives editions of Aquinas s w o r k

C o m m u n i o n b r o u g h t substantial u n i o n w i t h Christ. H e was familiar w i t h

are n o w k n o w n to be by others ( H y m o o f Auxerre and Giles of R o m e )

Catholic controversies at the time, indeed he f o l l o w e d Thomas Aquinas and

The Song probably dates f r o m the t h i r d century B C . I n the Talmud, dating f r o m the f i f t h century A D t h o u g h i n c l u d i n g older material, the Song is regarded as an allegory o f the L o r d God's dealings w i t h his people. I n the

other D o m i n i c a n s against M o l i n i s t doctrine ('the Pelagian way, sacrilegiously r o b b i n g the grace o f G o d ' ) . H e refers o n several occasions i n the Letters to Bernard's H o m i l i e s o n the Song

Christian t r a d i t i o n , f r o m O r i g e n onwards, the relation between the lover

W h i l e the standard neoscholastic theology course was dealing w i t h the

and his beloved has been seen as a description o f God's relation w i t h the

relationship between creature and Creator i n terms o f p r i m a r y and sec-

C h u r c h (his b r i d e ) , or w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l soul (his spouse) W h i l e there is

ondary causality and the like, H e n r i de Lubac was already r e i n t r o d u c i n g this

n o strong t r a d i t i o n o f nuptial exposition o f the Song i n Eastern O r t h o d o x

h i g h theology o f the epithalamic relationship between the believer and

and Byzantine theology, the theme has come to the fore i n recent times,

Christ w h i c h w o u l d f l o w e r i n the w r i t i n g s o f Hans U r s v o n Balthasar and

w i t h The Bride of the Lamb (recently translated, posthumously published i n

Pope John Paul I I

Russian i n 1945) by the Russian theologian Sergius Bulgakov (1871-1944), and m o r e recently still Variations of The Song of Songs by the Greek O r t h o d o x theologian Christos Yannaras, h i g h l i g h t i n g the p o e t r y that invites us to see sexuality and spirituality as complementary to each other

C h u r c h as M o t h e r

3 8

The Tatin t r a d i t i o n is w e l l documented. U n t i l the t w e l f t h century the

A theme that attracted H e n r i de Lubac even m o r e is that of the C h u r c h as

Song was treated p r i n c i p a l l y as an allegory f o r the relationship between

' m o t h e r ' - mater ealesia

C h r i s t and the C h u r c h . W h i l e this theme is present i n O r i g e n , i t is only i n

the best k n o w n come f r o m C y p r i a n (d. 258), bishop o f Carthage: ' i t is

B e r n a r d of Clairvaux that the relationship between C h r i s t and the soul,

i m p i e t y to abandon the m o t h e r ' - meaning the C h u r c h : 'We are b o r n f r o m

central i n O r i g e n , comes to the f o r e .

her w o m b , nourished b y her m i l k , animated by her s p i r i t ' ; ' T h e Spouse of

39

The theme survived the R e f o r m a t i o n . The Scottish Presbyterian t h e o logian Samuel R u t h e r f o r d (c 1600-61), i n particular, i n his Letters, published i n 1664, articulates the C h r i s t i a n soul's intercourse w i t h G o d entirely i n erotic metaphors f r o m the Song Frequently r e p r i n t e d , most recently i n 1984, Joshua Redivivus

or Mr Rutherfoord's

4 1

O f course he cites a large n u m b e r of texts A m o n g

Christ brings f o r t h sons spiritually for G o d

.. H e alone can have G o d as his

Father w h o first has the C h u r c h as his m o t h e r ' .

4 2

B u t he returns us to

O r i g e n , independently saying m u c h the same t h i n g : ' H e w h o does n o t have the C h u r c h f o r mother cannot have G o d for father'

4 3

This repertoire o f maternal imagery f o r the C h u r c h de Lubac happily

Letters was the most w i d e l y read

devotional classic i n Scottish Presbyterian homes u n t i l (it seems) embarrass-

traces back to the cult o f the Great M o t h e r — magna mater — that dominated

m e n t w i t h the raw eroticism o f Rutherford's picture o f Christ as lover-

Hellenistic paganism, assuring us that this is a legitimate transposition,

developed.

indeed 'a typical example of the boldness o f Christian t h o u g h t w h i c h was

40

W h i l e he applies the Song to C h r i s t and the C h u r c h as w e l l ,

strong enough to seize, w i t h o u t c o n t a m i n a t i o n , everything w h i c h could 3 8

I o w e this p o i n t t o Fr A n d r e w L o u t h .

3 9

Cf

t h e indispensable a c c o u n t : E A M a t t e r

Western Medieval 4 0

Christianity

serve to express i t ' (54). I n pagan r e l i g i o n the Earth was enclosed i n the The Voice of My Beloved

The

Song of Songs in

( P h i l a d e l p h i a : U n i v e r s i t y o f Pennsylvania Press 1 9 9 0 ) .

M y a t t e n t i o n was d r a w n t o R u t h e r f o r d ' s n u p t i a l m y s t i c i s m ' b y Professor D a v i d Fergusson

C f . J o h n C o f f e y , Politics,

Religion

and

the British

Revolutions:

The Mind

of Samuel

Rutherford

( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press 1 9 9 7 ) , s i t u a t i n g R u t h e r f o r d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f b o t h C a t h o l i c a n d P u r i t a n trends i n s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e , a superb b o o k

4 1

See

1982)

The Motherhood

of the Church.

F r e n c h o r i g i n a l 1971

(San F r a n c i s c o : I g n a t i u s Press

S u b s e q u e n t page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n t h e t e x t

4 2

C y p r i a n , E p i s d e 4 4 3; De Ealesia:

4 3

O r i g e n , In Leviticum

113.

calholicce unitate 4 , Epistle 7 4 7

84

HENRI

DE

HENRI

lUBAC

DE

85

IUBAC

earth m o t h e r ; all l i v i n g creatures issued f r o m her w o m b and returned to i t .

D e Lubac allows that he has reproached neoscholasticism for its abstract

Analogously, the new creation, the redeemed w o r l d , is ' i n c l u d e d ' i n the

objectivism (164). A p p r o v i n g l y , he quotes K a r l R a h n e r as explaining the

C h u r c h . I n short, the d o c t r i n e o f creation is contained w i t h i n the doctrine

decline o f M a r i a n piety b y the tendency to make Christian faith an i d e o l -

o f the C h u r c h .

ogy, the C h u r c h regarded as a system,

However, equally numerous, i n patristic texts, we hear o f the C h u r c h as virgin mother, f o r example as early as Eusebius (c. 260-c. 340)..

44

Neglected

i n recent centuries, de Lubac observes, this image has been taken up b y Paul

n o t as our mother,

episcopal

collegiaHty as n o more t h a n bureaucracy H e insists, however, that, f o r all the aridity o f seminary theology, there were plenty o f other creative alternatives, even i n the darkest times

Claudel, Pierre Peilhard de C h a r d i n , Jules M o n c h a n i n and Hans U r s v o n Balthasar, a m o n g others. A g a i n , however, 'the voice o f the great O r i g e n is

Conclusion

here the voice o f all Catholic t r a d i t i o n ' (65) — the c h u r c h father w i t h the best account o f the C h u r c h as v i r g i n mother. Moreover, O r i g e n provides the analogy between C h u r c h and soul: each

T h o u g h always insisting o n h o w traditional his Catholicism was, H e n r i de

Christian soul is v i r g i n a l and maternal, receptive to the seed o f the W o r d ,

Tubac kept choosing somewhat marginal figures to celebrate I n Pic de la

bearing the W o r d i t has received. As de Lubac documents, this theme o f the

Mirándole he contents himself w i t h e x p o u n d i n g the often eccentric views of

b i r t h o f the W o r d i n the w o m b o f the Christian soul may be traced i n the

Pico (1463—94), never expressing his o w n theological views However, he

t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y Cistercians, i n the R h i n e l a n d mystics, a m o n g others (79).

d i d n o t w r i t e these 400 pages w i t h no m o t i v e other than v i n d i c a t i n g a

However, the m o t h e r i n g role o f every h u m a n soul, o f the f a i t h f u l people as a w h o l e , and o f the C h u r c h , cannot exist except i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a certain paternity. L h e bishop is father of one's soul, and father of the C h u r c h entrusted to h i m . We must n o t set pastors against people, de Lubac insists, c o m i n g d o w n to brass tacks as one m i g h t say Every member o f the ecclesia mater exercises, or should exercise, the maternal f u n c t i o n — b u t there is also necessarily a paternal role. K a r l B a r t h is r i g h t , de Lubac observes: the M a r i a n doctrines are indeed central to Catholicism

There is, however, n d reason to be embarrassed

about this. D e Lubac seems n o t to have read m u c h o f Barth's w o r k

He

k n o w s , at least, that, f o r B a r t h , M a r i o l o g y is precisely w h a t makes i t i m p o s sible f o r h i m to regard Catholicism as t r u l y Christian

To this de Lubac

responds w i t h page after page, dense w i t h citations, f r o m the ancient M a r i a n prayer 'Sub

t u u m praesidium' (discovered

i n 1938

m u c h - m a l i g n e d figure and b r i n g i n g h i m back to the great Christian tradit i o n (119)

I t turns out that Pico - n o t any o f the greatly admired Thomists,

he silently implies - was the one w h o understood the ontological difference in Thomas Aquinas and i n his De Ente et Uno p i t t e d Aquinas's d o c t r i n e that esse is the supreme reality against the n e w l y revived pagan neo-Platonic v i e w that the ' O n e ' takes p r i o r i t y over ' B e i n g '

4 5

For Pico, this metaphysics

was u l t i m a t e l y theological. I f w e have to allow that, compared

with

Aquinas, Pico collapses philosophical and theological discourses i n t o each other, then this (for de Lubac) is n o t a sign of an incipient humanist naturalism, b u t rather a r e t u r n to the ancient patristic understanding of philosophy as i m p l i c i t l y ' C h r i s t i a n ' , and a rejection i n advance of any d o c t r i n e o f 'pure nature' - w h i c h is (he w o u l d t h i n k ) the ultimate - neoscholastic! — source of atheistic secularism.

on a third-century

T h e importance of de Lubac's Surnaturel thesis, then, w o u l d lie i n reveal-

papyrus) to the poetry o f Paul Claudel. H e draws o n medieval litanies and

i n g that the space f o r the emergence o f E n l i g h t e n m e n t m o d e r n i t y was

sequences, and m u c h else. H e keeps r e t u r n i n g to commentaries o n the

created by a neoscholastic theology, w h i c h f o r g o t that wé have by nature a

Song and especially to that o f O r i g e n , 'one o f his masterpieces' (273). The

desire for G o d . For de Lubac, the t r u l y ' n e w theology', far f r o m b e i n g the

i n m o s t nature and destiny of the C h u r c h is most fully and r i c h l y expressed

retrieval o f patristic t r a d i t i o n i n w h i c h he and his maligned companions

i n this exuberant nuptial symbolism - C h u r c h , soul and M a r y all i n a sense,

were engaged, was the neoscholasticism, to be f o u n d i n the w o r k o f their

analogously o f course, sponsa Christi.

enemies i n R o m e , such as Garrigou-Tagrange and his allies.

The chapter concludes w i t h a h y m n

to the Trinity, the idiomelon o f Leo the Despot at Great Vespers i n the Byzantine rite.

Eusebius. Historia

O f t e n p i c k i n g august names i n the neoscholastic t r a d i t i o n to m o c k , and, w i t h O r i g e n , Amalarius o f M e t z , Joachim o f Fiore, Pico della Mirándola

Bakstastica;

5 1

45-6

Pic de la Mirándole:

261-87.

86

H E N R I

D E

I U B A C

Chapter Six

and Teilhard de C h a r d i n a m o n g many others, choosing to celebrate m a n i festly offbeat and idiosyncratic figures, H e n r i de Lubac seems a somewhat paradoxical 'man o f the C h u r c h ' , vir ecdesiasticus, yet that is h o w he regarded

KARL

himself. That so many others have come to regard h i m i n the same way says a g o o d deal about the transformation o f Catholicism, w h i c h he helped to

RAHNER

b r i n g about I t is hard to believe that he d i d n o t plan his books i n order to destroy neoscholastic t h e o l o g y That was the effect, f o r better or worse, as we can see; yet he seems never to have seen, let alone intended, i t that way

K a i l Rahnet was b o r n o n 5 M a t c h 1904 at Freiburg i m Breisgau, of a middle-class family, 'Catholic b u t n o t b i g o t e d ' . H e recalled his enthusiastic 1

patriotism, as a schoolboy d u r i n g the First W o r l d War, i n w h i c h an older brother was seriously w o u n d e d . I n the generation o f y o u n g Catholics inspired by R o m a n o G u a r d i n i at B u r g Rothenfels, he j o i n e d his brother H u g o i n the Society o f Jesus i n 1922

2

H e f o l l o w e d the standard neoscholas-

tic courses i n philosophy and theology, f r o m 1924 u n t i l 1933, w i t h lectures and examinations all i n Latin H e taught l a t i n , w h i c h he spoke fluently, to younger colleagues, i n c l u d i n g A l f r e d D e l p

?

Never t h i n k i n g of b e i n g a n y t h i n g but a pastor, he was surprised b y being designated to teach philosophy I n 1934,

pursuing doctoral research at

Freiburg i m Breisgau, he attended lectures by M a r t i n Heidegger t h o u g h , as a black-clad Jesuit, he felt anxious about the ' b r o w n shirts' attracted by

K a r l R a h n e r I Remember:

1

An Autobiographical

Press 1 9 8 5 ) ; H e r b e r t V o r g r i m l e r , Understanding Thought

Interview Karl

with Meinold

Rahner'

Krauss

An Introduction

( L o n d o n : S C M Press 1986) and W i l l i a m V. D y c h Sj Karl Rahner

Chapman

(London: SCM to His

Life

and

( L o n d o n : Geoffrey

1992)

H u g o R a h n e r (1900—68), c h u r c h h i s t o r i a n and p a t r i s t i c scholar, n o t as p r o l i f i c as his

2

b r o t h e r b u t Greek Myths tion

1963)

and Christian

a n d especially Man

Mystery

( N e w Y o r k : H a r p e r a n d R o w . E n g l i s h transla-

at Play ( N e w Y o r k : H e r d e r a n d H e r d e r , E n g l i s h translation

1 9 6 7 ) . l o n g o u t o f p r i n t deserve n o t t o be f o r g o t t e n H i s u n t r a n s l a t e d Maria

and

die

Kirche

( I n n s b r u c k : M a r i a n i s c h e r V e r l a g 1951) d o c u m e n t s h o w M a r i o l o g y was first t h o u g h t o u t by t h e Fathers as e c c l e s i o l o g y t h e C h u r c h a n t i c i p a t e d a n d p e r s o n i f i e d b y t h e V i r g i n M o t h e r and vice versa I t is a k e y t e x t i n m o d e r n C a t h o l i c s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g 3

A l f r t d D e l p ( 1 9 0 7 - 4 5 ) , e n t e r e d the Jesuit O r d e r i n 1926

Tragische Existenzen

( 1 9 3 5 ) builds

o n H e i d e g g e r t o d e v e l o p a t h e o n o m o u s h u m a n i s m ' f o r a social o r d e r after the collapse o f the N a t i o n a l Socialist r e g i m e

H e was s u r p r i s e d b y t h e 2 0 J u l y 1944 a t t e m p t t o k i l l H i t l e r , b u t

since I K had b e e n i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e K r e i s a u c r K r e i s , r o u n d H e l m u t h James G r a f v o n M o l t k c , he was arrested a n d e x e c u t e d f o r treason o n 2 F e b r u a r y 1945 i n B e r l i n - P l o t z e n s e e

88

K A R L

Heidegger's N a z i sympathies. Honecker,

4

R A H N E R

K A R L

For supervision R a h n e r w e n t to M a r t i n

w h o , i n the end, failed the dissertation: a study o f Thomas

Aquinas s account o f knowledge.

89

R A H N E R

I n 1948 he r e t u r n e d to Innsbruck, to teach dogmatic theology H e was never dismissed, like C h e n u , C o n g a r and de Lubac, delated for t h e i r supposed heretical inclinations. As a Jesuit, he submitted whatever he w a n t e d to

Rahner's second attempt at a doctorate succeeded, w i t h the Jesuits at

publish to anonymous peer j u d g e m e n t . A n article published i n 1949, ques-

Innsbruck: the typological interpretation o f John 19:34 ('One o f the soldiers

t i o n i n g the p o i n t of each priest's saying 'his o w n Mass' every day (in the

pierced his side w i t h a spear, and at once b l o o d and water came out') i n

phrase at the t i m e ) , and airing the possibility o f concelebration, was attacked

patristic literature, the C h u r c h as second Eve issuing f r o m the w o u n d e d side

(obliquely) i n 1954 by Pope Pius X I I : R a h n e r was f o r b i d d e n b y the H o l y

o f C h r i s t the n e w A d a m T h e n assigned to teach dogmatic theology, b e g i n -

O f f i c e to discuss the issue o f concelebration ever again. A n article o n the

n i n g w i t h the d o c t r i n e o f grace, he broke away f r o m the metaphysical style

perpetual v i r g i n i t y o f M a r y , published i n 1960, created such anxiety that, i n

7

o f neoscholastic de gratia courses, by focusing o n biblical and patristic m a t -

1962, the H o l y O f f i c e required his w o r k to be submitted to even stricter

erial, under the heading o f grace as 'God's self c o m m u n i c a t i o n to h u m a n

censorship.

beings' This resulted i n his first publications, o n the concept o f the 'supernatural' i n C l e m e n t of Alexandria, o n Augustine and semi-Pelagianism, and suchlike. H e drew o n these purely histor ical studies i n his first famous speculative essay, o n the concept of uncreated grace (1939), r e p r i n t e d i n the first v o l u m e o f his Schriften (1954)

W h i l e staying w i t h i n the t h e n familiar

5

neoscholastic m o d e of discourse, the essay radically revised the theology o f grace, r e a f f i r m i n g the p r i o r i t y o f God's self-gift rather than concentrating o n subtle discussions o f the effects o n creatures

8

Later that year, i n October,

R a h n e r was n o m i n a t e d a peritus

at the

C o u n c i l . I n M a y 1963 he heard that he n o longer needed any censorship b e y o n d the n o r m a l Jesuit practice o f peer review B y this t i m e , he was a m o n g the most influential theologians at Vatican I I I n 1964 he succeeded to R o m a n o Guardini's chair at M u n i c h , h o p i n g that a university post (at last) w o u l d protect h i m against any f u r t h e r Vatican harassment,

and c o u n t i n g o n m o r e secretarial assistance than t h e Jesuit

faculty at Innsbruck p r o v i d e d H o w e v e r , the chair was i n the philosophy

B y this t i m e R a h n e r w a n t e d to reconstruct the standard neoscholastic

faculty, and theology faculty rules d i d not p e r m i t h i m t o supervise post-

c u r r i c u l u m quite radically. W i t h Hans U r s v o n Balthasar he o u t l i n e d h o w to

graduate degrees i n theology This ludicrous p o s i t i o n ended i n 1967 w h e n ,

go about i t : the plan, i n a version f o r w h i c h R a h n e r takes responsibility,

to Guardini's dismay, R a h n e r accepted a theology chair at the U n i v e r s i t y

appeared, 16 years later, i n 1 9 5 4 . I t remains an interesting witness to h o w

o f Münster H e retired i n 1971, b u t c o n t i n u e d to engage i n an immense

Catholic theology courses needed to be r e f o r m e d , i n the j u d g e m e n t o f t w o

variety of theological and pastoral activities

y o u n g Jesuits i n 1938

30 M a r c h 1984.

6

I n July 1938, after the Anschluss,

the Innsbruck theological faculty was

closed by the N a z i regime The next 10 years R a h n e r spent as the pastor he had always w a n t e d to be, discovering at first hand the problems lay people had w i t h their faith, the context f o r m u c h o f his later w r i t i n g H e w o r k e d i n Vienna, r e t u r n i n g i n 1945 to M u n i c h , a r u i n e d city, to preach to the survivors. L i k e many priests o f his generation, he had to help to r e b u i l d the Christian faith of a completely demoralized p o p u l a t i o n , shattered physically, exhausted spiritually, and h a v i n g to come to terms w i t h national defeat and the t r u t h about the N a z i regime.

4

M a r t i n H o n e c k e r ( 1 8 8 8 - 1 9 4 1 ) , a d i s t i n g u i s h e d h i s t o r i a n o f Renaissance ideas, N i c h o l a s o f S o m e I m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e Scholastic C o n c e p t o f U n c r e a t e d G r a c e ' , i n Iheological

tions I : Cod,

Christ,

Mary

Investiga-

and Grace, translated w i t h a n i n t r o d u c t i o n b y C o r n e l i u s E r n s t O P

( L o n d o n : D a r t o n . L o n g m a n and T o d d 1961): 3 1 9 - 4 6 . 6

' A S c h e m e f o r a Treatise o f D o g m a t i c T h e o l o g y ' , i b i d . : 19—37.

I n one o f his last interviews R a h n e r spoke of the 1980s as a ' w i n t r y season'in the Catholic C h u r c h B y this he meant, however, not the 'disinteg r a t i o n ' of C a t h o l i c i s m deplored b y Louis Bouyer, H e n r i de Lubac and many others, b u t disappointment at w h a t he regarded as reaction into a certain pre-Vatican I I ultramontane authoritarianism H e was shocked i n 1979 w h e n Cardinal Ratzinger, t h e n Archbishop of M u n i c h , i n v o k e d the Concordat between Bavaria and the Vatican t o prevent the appointment of J B. M e t z , t h e i r o l d f r i e n d and colleague, to the p r i n c i p a l chair o f theology at the U n i v e r s i t y of M u n i c h - against the unanimous r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o f

Cusa a n d R a m o n L u l l 5

H e d i e d i n Innsbruck o n

7

E v e n t u a l l y translated as The Celebration

of the Eucharist

( L o n d o n : B u r n s a n d O a t e s 1968):

c o n c e l e b r a t i o n , j o i n t c e l e b r a t i o n o f the e u c h a r i s t b y a n u m b e r o f priests (sometimes hundreds) was ' r e s t o r e d ' i n 8

1963

V i r g i n i t a s i n p a r t u , i n Theological Investigations

I V : More Recent Writings

(London: Darton,

L o n g m a n and T o d d 1966): 1 3 4 - 6 2 : the d o c t r i n e that Mary's h y m e n remained intact d u r i n g h e r son's b i r t h

90

K A R L

R A H N E R

K A R ı

91

R A H N E R

the university senate. O n e o f Rahner's last acts was to w r i t e to the bishops

N o w , i n order to speak to us, G o d must address us w h e r e we already and

of Peru i n 1983 i n support o f Gustavo Gutierrez and his version o f libera­

always ate. Rahner's philosophical considerations, that is to say, have an

tion theology.

openly theological aim. Christianity, he insists, is not the idea o f an absolute

9

10

spirit, incarnate i n history, as supposedly w i t h H e g e l Rather, f o r Rahner, C h r i s t i a n i t y is Jesus o f Nazareth. For R a h n e r , Aquinas's metaphysics

Metaphysics of F i n i t u d e The failed Freiburg dissertation appeared, i n 1939, as Geist in Welt.

I t takes

n

the f o r m o f a reading o f Summa Theologies 1 84 7, where Thomas Aquinas considers whether the h u m a n intellect can have knowledge o f things 'by means o f the ideas i t has w i t h i n i t s e l f (per species intelligihiles quas penes se habet) - that is to say, ' w i t h o u t t u r n i n g to the sensibly given' (non convertendo se ad phantasmatd).

I n effect, this is Rahner's refutation o f the so-called 'Car­

tesian'picture o f the self wrapped up i n its o w n consciousness, w i t h no direct knowledge of other minds or o f the supposed exter nal w o r l d . For Rahner, as the tide of the b o o k suggests, our minds are always already ' i n the w o r l d ' . For Rahner, the phrase conversio ad phantasmata

'says that intellectual

knowledge is possible o n l y w i t h a simultaneous realization o f sense k n o w ­ ledge' — 'something is k n o w n o n l y i n a t u r n i n g to the sensibly g i v e n ' .

1 2

His

m a i n concern, evidendy, is to insist that the o n l y k n o w l e d g e we have ' i n this present state o f l i f e ' is c o n d i t i o n e d by o u r intellect's being c o n j o i n e d w i t h receptive corporeality There is n o purely intellectual i n t u i t i o n . Rather, f r o m the outset, we f i n d ourselves embedded i n the w o r l d i n v i r t u e o f o u r b e i n g embodied

of

k n o w l e d g e is C h r i s t i a n i n the sense that i t summons us back i n t o t h e here

This means that we are always already interacting w i t h

and n o w o f o u r f i n i t e w o r l d , since the E t e r n a l has entered our w o r l d as Jesus C h r i s t , so that w e m i g h t f i n d h i m and i n h i m m i g h t find ourselves. Rahner's version o f w h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y is c o u l d n o t be more radically embedded i n the historical existence o f Jesus C h r i s t — i n the doctrine o f the Incarnation Rahner's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i n Geist in Welt, o f Aquinas's account o f k n o w ­ ledge i n terms o f the f o r m a l i d e n t i t y between m i n d and w o r l d i n an act of k n o w i n g , develops, i n Hôrer des Wortes, i n t o an account o f what i t is to be a h u m a n being i n the w o r l d — this body, this open and receptive listening h u m a n body, w h i c h is thus at least capable of 'hearing the W o r d ' . . Taking these t w o books together, i n sum, R a h n e r has

14

reconstructed

neoscholastic natural theology: the t u r n to the subject i m p l i c i t i n Aquinas's consideration of the soul, together w i t h the subject as always already i n the w o r l d according to his realist-metaphysical emphasis o n conversio ad phantas­ mata, yields a theological anthropology i n w h i c h these finite h u m a n beings w h i c h we are, are by nature open t o hearing the W o r d — the W o r d w h o , as Christian faith maintains, has become incarnate i n Jesus Christ

things i n o u r environment, i n their potential intelligibility. There is n o p r o b l e m about b r i d g i n g the gap between m i n d and w o r l d . The w o r l d as

E x p e r i e n t i a l E x p r è s sivism?

k n o w n is always already the w o r l d to w h i c h we b e l o n g - w o r l d , here, is 'essentially a concept complementary to m a n ' .

1 3

Rahner's theological anthropology has been heavily criticized. I n his i m p o r ­ tant i n t r o d u c t i o n to the second English translation, Francis P

F o r details o f this r a t h e r d i s g r a c e f u l episode, see J o h n L

9

A l l e n Jr, Pope

Benedict

(London: C o n t i n u u m 2005): 124-6; Rahner died w i t h o u t a reconciliation w i t h

XVI

Ratzinger;

R a t z i n g e r a t t e n d e d M e t z ' s seventieth b i r t h d a y celebrations i n 1998

Fiorenza

rejects criticisms by Cornelius Ernst ('a typical A n g l o - S a x o n reaction to G e r m a n t h o u g h t ' ) , w h o allegedly misunderstood Rahner's c o n c e p t i o n of

of

the c o n v e r t i b i l i t y o f b e i n g and i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y as a f o r m o f metaphysical ideal­

such as l i b e r a t i o n t h e o l o g y

ism. Fiorenza also rejects criticisms b y Hans U r s v o n Balthasar, w h o accused

especially, are s h o r t c h a n g e d : see R e b e c c a S. C h o p p a n d E t h n a R e g a n . ' L a t i n A m e r i c a n L i b ­

R a h n e r of 'an anthropological and subjectivistic r e d u c t i o n o f t h e o l o g y and

1 0

O n e o f t h e disadvantages

o f treating t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Catholic theology i n terms

t h e m o s t c e l e b r a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s is t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t m o v e m e n t s ,

e r a t i o n I h e o l o g y ' . i n D a v i d F o r d ( e d ) w i t h R a c h e l M u e r s , The Modem

(Oxford:

Theologians

Blackwell 2005): 469-84. 1 1

Geist

in Welt

Zur

Metaphysik

der endlichen

Brkenntnis

bei

Thomas

von Aquin

(Innsbruck

Christianity', 'an u n - C h r i s t i a n g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f the h u m a n personality and of subjectivity, falsely concentrating o n man's freedom instead of his obedience

1 9 3 9 ) ; s e c o n d e d i t i o n revised a n d e x p a n d e d b y Johannes B a p t i s t M e t z ( M u n i c h 1 9 5 7 ) , o f w h i c h t h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n is Spirit in the World ( L o n d o n : S h e e d a n d W a r d 1968) w i t h a n i m p o r t a n t i n t r o d u c t i o n b y Francis E F i o r e n z a 1 2

1 3

1 4

Spirit in the World: 2 3 6 - 7 Ibid.: 406

The Philosophical

T h e f u n d a m e n t a l study, at least i n E n g l i s h , is T h o m a s S h e e h a n , Karl Foundations

See K a r l R a h n e r Hearer of the Word: laying

l a t e d f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l 1941 Rahner.

preface b y K a r l R a h n e r ( A t h e n s : O h i o U n i v e r s i t y Press 1987)

the Foundation

for a Philosophy

of Religion

trans­

e d i t i o n b y J o s e p h D o n c e e l ( N e w Y o r k : C o n t i n u u m 1 9 9 4 ) ; the

E n g l i s h translation o f t h e s e c o n d e d i t i o n , Hearers of the Word ( N e w Y o r k : H e r d e r 1969) is o f t e n inaccurate

92

K A R L

to the cross' — Fiorenza's phrases,

15

K A R L

R A H N E R

s u m m i n g up his reading o f Balthasar's

ferocious attack o n Rahner, especially i n Cordula oder der Ernstfall (1966)

1 6

The criticisms of R a h n e r s theology o f t e n go back to his philosophy, and i n particular to the use he made o f transcendental analysis o f the h u m a n subject i n his theological reflections.

93

R A H N E R

I t is one t h i n g to have a sensation o f pain, before having the words and so the concepts to articulate it. I t seems another altogether to have an e x p e r i ence o f the sacred independently o f the language i n w h i c h to recognize and realize it. Lindbeck's c r i t i q u e recalls the fears that theologians such as G a r r i g o u -

17

George Lindbeck, f o r example, i n his w i d e l y discussed b o o k , identifies

Lagrange had o f theologians (such as C h e n u and de Lubac, not to m e n t i o n

Rahner, along w i t h Bernard Lonergan, as instances o f the experiential-

Tyrrell) w h o m they regarded as 'modernist'. Paradoxically, the emphasis on

expressivist strategy he takes to have bedevilled m o d e r n t h e o l o g y

Typical

the historical, social and linguistic nature o f h u m a n experience, i n m i d -

o f this strategy, according to L i n d b e c k , is the concern to e x p o u n d C h r i s t i a n

twentieth-century philosophy (Continental as w e l l as analytic), only confirms

d o c t r i n e by laying d o w n a f o u n d a t i o n i n supposedly c o m m o n , h u m a n r e l i -

the k i n d o f criticisms that Garrigou-Lagrange made.. H i s appeal to the

1 8

gious experience before describing the forms i n w h i c h this experience finds

a u t h o r i t y o f the C h u r c h , and especially to that o f the hierarchy, as placing

expression i n this or that culture, o r at one t i m e or another The m o t i v a t i o n

bounds o n religious experience, private j u d g e m e n t and so o n , is m i r r o r e d

is, o f course, benevolent: all h u m a n beings have, or at any rate are o p e n to

by the appeal to the p r i o r i t y o f language, conceptuality and c o m m u n i t y ,

the possibility of having, a p r i m i t i v e experience o f the sacred, logically p r i o r

e x c l u d i n g the very possibility o f preconceptual experience W h a t ' w e say',

to the personal and social practices by w h i c h they are related to this e x p e r i -

as p r i v i l e g e d by philosophers i n the wake o f the later W i t t g e n s t e i n , is as

ence and, i f and w h e n need arises, b r i n g i t to expression U n d e r l y i n g all the

determinative f o r the bounds o f m e a n i n g and t r u t h as w h a t 'the C h u r c h

manifest differences that distinguish and divide the great religions, n o t to

teaches', i n Catholic C h r i s t i a n i t y

m e n t i o n the Christian churches, there is a core experience to w h i c h they each have access, however variously they express i t .

Theologically, the charge is that Rahner s heuristic strategy o f r e t u r n i n g us always to the self's experience o f transcending f m i t u d e diverts attention

The w o r r y about this, f o r L i n d b e c k and anyone else w h o accepts some-

f r o m a l l o w i n g God's u n i q u e self-revelation historically i n Jesus C h r i s t to

t h i n g l i k e the lesson o f Wittgenstein's so-called private language argument,

shape C h r i s t i a n self-understanding, M o r e o v e r , f o l l o w i n g T i n d b e c k , Bruce

is that the very idea of pre-conceptual experience sounds remarkably like an

Marshall, for example, argues that R a h n e r treats the C h r i s t event as merely

experience w h i c h occurs p r i o r to being expressible. W h e n a c h i l d is h u r t he

an example, albeit the supreme one, of something that happens to us all The

cries, that is the p r i m i t i v e , the natural expression o f his sensation: his parents

u n i q u e particularity o f the C h r i s t event s h o u l d define f o r us w h a t i t means

c o m f o r t h i m , talk to h i m , teach h i m exclamations,

n e w pain-behaviour',

f o r Jesus to be w h o and w h a t he is, and w h a t he does f o r us, whereas o n

That is h o w a h u m a n b e i n g learns the meaning

Rahner's story C h r i s t seems to be defined as a special case o f the self-

soon i n c l u d i n g sentences .

1 9

o f words like ' p a i n ' , 'toothache', 'headache', and so o n That is h o w these

transcendence to the Absolute w h i c h is happening to us all the t i m e .

concepts come i n t o the child's vocabulary The child's natural expressions of

encounter o f the ever self-transcending h u m a n w i t h the e v e r - w i d e n i n g

his sensations gradually develop, i n favourable circumstances, i n t o mastery

h o r i z o n o f b e i n g occurs completely and perfectly, i n the hypostatic u n i o n ,

o f a variety o f concepts. H o w , o n the other hand, does this w o r k i n the case

i n the u n i o n o f h u m a n and divine natures i n C h r i s t

o f experiences w h i c h are presumably n o t p r i m i t i v e sensations? W h a t occurs to a person experientially that he later identifies as experience o f the sacred?

2 0

The

Such criticisms have given rise to the widespread belief that Rahner's theology is 'anthropocentric', w h e t h e r either admirably or unacceptably so.

21

However, other interpretations are possible. R i c h a r d Lennan, f o r one, sees R a h n e r as a t h o r o u g h l y ecclesial theologian M o r e than half o f his p u b 1 5

Spirit in ike World: x x x i - x x x i i i

{ b

Cordula

oder der Ernstfall

( 1 9 6 6 ) , translated as The Moment

of Christian

Witness

(San F r a n -

cisco: I g n a t i u s Press 1994) 1 7

I h e o l o g y ' . Louvain

Studies 29 ( 2 0 0 4 ) : 8 - 2 7 : a f i n e discussion t o w h i c h t h e f o l l o w i n g pages are

George A

Lindbeck,

2 0

The

Nature

of Doctrine

Religion

and

Iheology

in a Postliberal

( L o n d o n : S P C K 1984). 1 9

theoretical, such that, i f w e have t o have any one t h i n g that constitutes the

Paul D. M u r r a y , ' T h e Lasting Significance o f K a r l R a h n e r f o r C o n t e m p o r a r y C a t h o l i c

heavily indebted 1 8

lished w o r k , after all, deals w i t h themes related to ecclesiology, practical and

L u d w i g W i t t g e n s t e i n Philosophical

Age

2 1

Investigations

( O x f o r d : Basil B l a c k w e l l 1 9 5 3 ) : § 2 4 4 .

B r u c e M a r s h a l l Christology

Blackwell

in Conflict:

The Identity

of a Saviour in Rahnerand

Barth

F o r t h e m o s t r e c e n t c r i t i c i s m a l o n g these lines see P a t r i c k B u r k e , Reinterpreting

Critical

(Oxford:

1987)

Study of His Major

Tliemes ( N e w Y o r k : F o r d h a m U n i v e r s i t y Press 2002)

Rahner:

A

94

K A R ı

R A H N E R

K A R L

R A H N E R

95

key to his theology, i t w o u l d be his experience and understanding of'life i n

baptized. W h a t R a h n e r means by 'anonymous Christianity' is simply the fact

the C h u r c h — n o t his metaphysics o f self-consciousness.

that the interior grace that reconciles the sinner w i t h G o d , forgives the repen­

22

This is a claim R a h n e r w o u l d appear to support. The appropriate context for theological w o r k , he once said, is one o f ' f a i t h and love and observance, i n worship, i n the ordinances and the activity o f the C h u r c h '

2 3

Then, as the

footnotes to any o f his major essays indicate, he always seeks to t h i n k w i t h the m i n d o f the C h u r c h , i n the sense o f t r y i n g to be faithful to the tradition. This does n o t mean uncritically repeating w h a t has always been said

It

means that, whatever revision or i n n o v a t i o n he proposed, he w a n t e d to e x p o u n d i n c o n t i n u i t y w i t h the neoscholasticism, die Schultheologie,

which

he so often lambasted. Self-consciously, anyway, R a h n e r was a theologian ' w i t h i n the system',

as he often said. H e was never as subversive

of

neoscholastic theology as C h e n u , Schillebeeckx o r de Lubac.

tant sinner, and grants a share i n divinity, can be present before baptism. W e may ask, then, w h o is thus justified p r i o r to baptism? Catechumens? Surely we are g o i n g to say that people preparing to become members o f the C h u r c h , w h o have the desire to be baptized, are already i n some sense 'Chris­ tian'? I t is the traditional teaching o f the C h u r c h that adults w h o w a n t to be baptized are already 'converted', i n the sense that their b e i n g actually baptized only manifests the justifying grace w h i c h they have been granted W h a t about people w h o believe that ' G o d exists and that he rewards those w h o seek h i m ' - w h i c h seems a g o o d deal less than having a desire for baptism, and so o n (cf. Heb. 11:6)? Does this mean, R a h n e r asks, any m o r e than believing i n G o d as guarantor o f the moral order? I n any case, according to the teaching of Vatican I I , w h o l e categories of people w h o are n o t explicitly Christian, i n the sense that they have n o t yet accepted the Gospel, are welcomed as 'related to the people o f G o d i n various ways' (cf. Lumen Gentium §16).

A n o n y m o u s Christianity

The first admitted are the Jews (not that the w o r d appears) - 'that people K a r l R a h n e r w i l l forever be associated w i t h the concept o f 'anonymous

to w h o m the covenants and promises were made, and f r o m w h o m Christ

Christianity'

This b r o u g h t d o w n o n h i m the most severe criticism,

was b o r n i n the flesh, a people i n v i r t u e o f their election beloved f o r the

especially f r o m his f o r m e r colleague Hans U r s v o n Balthasar, w i t h w h a t

sake o f the fathers, for G o d never regrets his gifts or his call'. Second, among

justice we do n o t have r o o m to discuss.

those w h o acknowledge

2 4

25

G o d as Creator, there are the Moslems,

who

The problem is, of course, that, f o r most of the opponents of the idea, i t

'profess to h o l d the f a i t h o f A b r a h a m , and together w i t h us they adore the

seems that, i f h u m a n beings are all 'anonymously Chr istian', there is no p o i n t

one, m e r c i f u l G o d , w h o w i l l judge h u m a n i t y o n the last day' Here the idea

i n t r y i n g to convert t h e m to Christianity W h e n he speaks o f the universal

is evidendy that, t h r o u g h the f a i t h o f A b r a h a m , the Jewish people and the

mission o f the C h u r c h , so he says, R a h n e r includes the idea that i t is i n c u m ­

M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y , respectively, are 'related' to the C h u r c h Besides these,

bent o n every single h u m a n being to become a Christian, and that means a

however, as Vatican I I goes o n to say, G o d is ' n o t remote f r o m those w h o i n

Christian i n an exphcitly ecclesiastical f o r m of Christianity There is no way of

shadows and images seek the u n k n o w n G o d ' People w h o , t h r o u g h n o fault

being Christian w i t h o u t being i n the Church. I n the f u l l sense, o f course,

o f their o w n , k n o w n o t h i n g o f the Gospel o r o f the C h u r c h , yet seek G o d

being a Christian means having a conscious awareness o f faith, explicidy

w i t h a sincere heart and, m o v e d (of course unawares) b y grace, t r y to do

adhering to the Creed, and so o n . Yet, Rahner contends, Christianity is

God's w i l l as they k n o w i t according to the dictates o f their conscience —

already present, incipiently, not yet developed so as to be expressed i n its his­

these clearly 'may attain eternal salvation', and here w e are directed i n a

torical and social modality and visibility After all, according to the doctrine

f o o t n o t e to the Tetter o f the H o l y Office t o the Archbishop o f Boston

taught by the C h u r c h , an individual can already be possessed by sanctifying

Moreover, G o d w i l l n o t deny the grace necessary for salvation t o people

grace, even before he or she has explicidy made any statement o f faith or been

who,

again t h r o u g h n o fault of t h e i r o w n , have no explicit knowledge o f

G o d and w h o simply t r y to live a g o o d life — o f course, again w i t h o u t their 2 2

R i c h a i d Lennan

2 3

K a r l R a h n e r , " T h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f D o c t r i n e ' , Theological Investigations

3 4

See for e x a m p l e ' A n o n y m o u s C h r i s t i a n s

L o n g m a n and T o d d 2 3

The Ecclesiology

ofKarl

Rahner

Theological

Investigations

tianity?

An

Evaluation Christian

g o o d or t r u t h is f o u n d amongst t h e m is considered b y the c h u r c h to be a

I : 3 9 - 7 7 (45).

V I (London: Darton.

oj Hans

preparation f o r the Gospel and given by h i m w h o enlightens all m e n and w o m e n that they may at length have l i f e ' .

1969)

N o t m u c h , i f y o u f o l l o w E a r a o n C o n w a y , The Anonymous

Anonymous

b e i n g aware o f this, a life that is ' n o t w i t h o u t grace'. Indeed, 'whatever of

( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n Press 1997).

Urs von

Balthasars

( F r a n k f u r t : Peter L a n g ,

1993)

Criticisms

Christian of Karl

— A Relativised Rahner's

Theory

Chris­ of

the Lumen

Gentium

§16

26

96

K A R ı

K A R ı

R A H N E R

I n sum, f o r Rahner, the anonymous C h r i s t i a n i t y thesis can appeal f o r support i n this text of Vatican I I : there can be j u s t i f y i n g grace apart f r o m explicit C h r i s t i a n i t y - at least i n the case o f mature incUviduals no other hmits can be set to salvation than those o f grave subjective guilt

97

R A H N E R

excommunicated i n 1953, Feeney i n d u l g e d i n increasingly raucous p o l ­ emics against the Jesuits, seminaries depleted of students, R o n a l d K n o x , Harvard, N e w m a n Clubs, Communists, 'Masonic-Jewish Internationalism', and so o n I n the end, i n 1972, w h e n he was probably t o o i l l to realize quite w h a t was g o i n g o n , he j o i n e d i n as the A u x i l i a r y Bishop of B o s t o n led the c o m m u n i t y i n singing the Athanasian Creed - 'Whosoever wishes to be saved, before all things i t is necessary that he h o l d the Catholic Faith

T h e Boston Heresy Thus, at Lumen

Gentium

W h i c h Faith except everyone

§ 1 6 , Vatican I I explicitly rejected the

'Boston

Heresy', asserting, i n effect, that there is indeed n o salvation outside the

excommunication. Feeney's views d i d m o r e than a n y t h i n g else to provoke the

R o m a n Catholic C h u r c h - extra ecclesiam nulla salus - yet that is because, i n one way or another, every h u m a n being belongs w i t h i n her

Catholic

C h u r c h i n t o d e t e r m i n i n g that the meaning o f the d o c t r i n e - no salvation

2 7

This is the most significant development o f Catholic d o c t r i n e , so far, due to theologians f r o m the U n i t e d States o f America. The c o n t r i b u t i o n that the e x c o m m u n i c a t e d Leonard Feeney made to the clarification o f this doctrine was w e l l k n o w n to R a h n e r

do keep w h o l e and undenled, w i t h o u t

d o u b t shall perish everlastingly' — regarding this as sufficient to end the

2 8

Teonard E d w a r d Feeney {1897-1978), Boston I r i s h by b i r t h and u p ­ b r i n g i n g , entered the Society o f Jesus i n 1914. H e studied English literature at O x f o r d H e first became famous as a spokesman for A m e r i c a n Catholics, i n 1928, c o m m e n d i n g G o v e r n o r A l S m i t h , defeated i n his b i d f o r the U S Presidency f o r standing by his Catholic convictions (Tf o n l y y o u c o u l d have soft-pedalled the fact that y o u go to Mass o n Sundays, i f o n l y y o u c o u l d have snubbed a few Catholic priests i n public, or i f o n l y y o u c o u l d have come o u t w i t h some diatribe against nuns and R e l i g i o u s Orders, or some­ t h i n g o f that sort, nice and c o m p r o m i s i n g , y o u c o u l d have had the W h i t e

outside the C h u r c h - is n o t , as he held, that unless y o u are a practising m e m b e r o f the R o m a n Catholic C h u r c h , y o u w i l l go to hell; b u t rather that, i f y o u are u n i t e d t o her by desire and l o n g i n g , y o u need n o t be i n c o r ­ porated i n t o her actually as a m e m b e r i n order to be saved. O n 8 August 1949, the famous letter f r o m the H o l y Office to the A r c h ­ bishop of B o s t o n stated that ' a m o n g those things w h i c h the C h u r c h has always preached and w i l l never cease to preach is contained also that i n f a l l i ­ ble statement b y w h i c h we are taught that there is no salvation outside the C h u r c h ' 'However,' i t c o n t i n u e d , 'this dogma must be understood i n the sense i n w h i c h the C h u r c h herself understands i t ' - w h i c h is that ' i t is not always required that [a person] be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the C h u r c h actually as a member, b u t i t is necessary that he at least be u n i t e d t o her by desire and longing'.

W i t h the concept of anonymous C h r i s t i a n i t y R a h n e r d i d little m o r e than

House, garage and all, f o r the asking..'). Engaged i n campus m i n i s t r y at Harvard i n the 1940s, he came to believe that the decadence and cor­

3 0

spell out the doctrine expressed i n the Boston Letter.

r u p t i o n i n the C h u r c h — i n the mid-1940s! — was due to neglecting this one fundamental dogma, that 'outside the C h u r c h there is n o salvation'

Mission?

' H i g h e r authorities' forced his superiors to move h i m to pastures 50 miles f r o m H a r v a r d — reluctantly, however, he p u t obedience to the tr u t h before obedience to his ecclesiastical superiors, and f o u n d e d his o w n religious congregation, to defend the d o c t r i n e .

29

Dismissed f r o m the Jesuits i n 1949,

W h a t , then, o f the mission of the C h u r c h t o 'make disciples o f all nations' ( M a t t 28:19), and so o n , i f anonymous C h r i s t i a n i t y is universally prevalent? Surely the w h o l e idea o f mission rules o u t talk of people b e i n g always already somehow members o f the Church?

2 7

See Francis A

Response 2 8

S u l l i v a n SJ, Salvation

Outside

the Church?

Tracing the History

of the

Catholic

( N e w Y o r k : Paulist Press 1992)

Tlieologkal

Investigations

X I I ( L o n d o n : D a r t o n , L o n g m a n a n d T o d d 1 9 7 4 ) : 167

refers us t o C a t h e r i n e G o d d a r d C l a r k e

The

Loyolas

and the Cabots

Rahner

( B o s t o n : Saint B e n e d i c t

C e n t e r 1950) ( s u b t i t l e d Tlte Story of the Crusade of Saint Benedict Center

1940-1950,

reprinted

1992) — a h i g h l y partisan a c c o u n t , b u t reliable e n o u g h , f r o m w h i c h m o s t o f t h e d e t a i l above is taken. 2 9

R a h n e r neatly reverses the p r o b l e m , asking i f the task of mission is c o n ­ ceivable otherwise than o n the assumption that anonymous Christianity is

T h e Slaves o f the I m m a c u l a t e H e a r t o f M a r y , w h i c h still exists, t h o u g h split i n t w o .

3 0

L e t t e r o f t h e H o l y O f f i c e t o t h e A r c h b i s h o p o f B o s t o n (1949) i n The Christian

Doctrinal

Documents

of the Catholic

Church,

Faith

in the

revised e d i t i o n e d i t i o n , e d i t e d b y J N e u n e r sj a n d

J D u p u i s Sj (L o n d o n : C o l l i n s 1 9 8 3 ) : 2 4 0 - 2 .

98

K A R L

K A R L

R A H N E R

always already present as an enabling c o n d i t i o n f o r a preaching o f the faith,

99

R A H N E R

and forgiven, justification, was already granted. There is n o conflict between grace and sacrament, between w h a t is spiritual, i n t e r i o r and invisible, and

i n the person to w h o m the preaching is addressed. W e have as yet no w o r k e d - o u t theology o f mission, he cautions, i n his

w h a t is ceremonial, public and external. T h e grace of G o d has an 'incarna-

way; we can only be tentative Let us agree, anyway, that preaching C h r i s t

t o r y ' character (176). I n the i n d i v i d u a l i t impels h i m or her to the behaviour

presupposes the grace o f faith at least as offered i n y o u r audience, since, after

w h i c h articulates i t , embodies i t , whether ethically or liturgically. O f course

ail, the w o r d o f G o d as preached can be heard and received as the w o r d o f

this dynamism o f grace constitutes the C h u r c h As missionaries go out, as

God o n l y t h r o u g h this already existing grace o f faith. W e are n o t t a l k i n g o f

Christ's redeeming w o r k i n the w o r l d continues, i n t h e m or i n countless

some psychological aid p r o v i d e d by G o d to overcome intellectual or e m o -

unseen ways, Christ, the Gospel, are present a m o n g all peoples i n t h e i r o w n

t i o n a l obstacles der i v i n g f r o m the nature o f the listener, his or her culture,

specific histories and cultures, thereby achieving an always new 'incarnatory'

personal history, etc

presence o f Christ i n the w o r l d : 'Once and for all C h r i s t i a n i t y is not

That seems incontestable, so far. B u t n o w , R a h n e r asks, surely i t w o u l d be to suppose the miraculous, even to indulge i n mythology, to t h i n k that this grace o f faith was granted precisely at the m o m e n t one hears the Gospel proclaimed, l i k e a b o l t f r o m the blue, an entirely arbitrary i n t e r v e n t i o n . N o

intended merely to assure a salvation conceived of embr yonically and almost i n abstract terms for the i n d i v i d u a l i n the o t h e r - w o r l d l y dimension, but is rather intended to make God's grace manifest here b e l o w i n all its possible f o r m s and i n all historical spheres and contexts' (176)

d o u b t there is a m o m e n t w h e n the grace o f faith becomes actual, effective

I t fits w i t h all this that, for Rahner, celebrations of t h e eucharist are not

and demanding action, he goes o n ; b u t this is pr ecisely ' i n v i r t u e o f the fact

occasional incursions o f the sacred i n t o a radically secular w o r l d b u t o n the

that i t has been present all along', ' i n the same way as the natural spiritual

contrary they are manifestations o f the always already graced state of the

faculties are present all along i n m a n even t h o u g h they o n l y become actual

world

and effective w h e n they encounter an external object of experience w h i c h

profane w o r l d , but the visibility o f the praise and intercession w h i c h are

corresponds to t h e m ' .

happening all the time, i n the 'mysticism o f ordinary l i f e ' (140)

3 1

I n short, the preacher w h o seeks to i m p a r t faith as

L i t u r g y is n o t an oasis o f the h o l y i n the otherwise

completely

an appropriation o f grace speaks to persons w h o already have grace as offered and perhaps even as freely accepted i n an i m p l i c i t way: ' T h e i n d i v i d ual concerned w o u l d i n this sense be an anonymous C h r i s t i a n ' (171). Far f r o m threatening the missionary preacher, the concept o f

The Hidden G o d

'anonymous

C h r i s t i a n i t y ' is o n l y an explication o f w h a t missionary preaching has always taken f o r granted.

R a h n e r has a fine essay ' O n the Hiddenness o f G o d ' . he sets himself is that w i t h die Schultheologie,

O n the other hand, the concept o f anonymous C h r i s t i a n i t y does n o t

3 2

The problem w h i c h

w h i l e G o d is indeed held to

be 'mystery', this is i n v i r t u e of the divine incomprehensibility,

w h i c h 'follows

make explicit C h r i s t i a n i t y redundant. O n the contrary, R a h n e r asserts, the

f r o m the essential i n f i n i t y of G o d w h i c h makes i t impossible f o r a finite

dynamism inherent i n the existence o f C h r i s t anonymously i n an i n d i v i d u a l

created intellect to exhaust the possibilities o f k n o w l e d g e and t r u t h c o n -

demands a certain expression — to be realized, most fully, i n the visible sacra-

tained i n this absolute fullness o f b e i n g ' .

mental m o d e and i n the dimension o f the C h u r c h .

incomprehensibility o f G o d , so R a h n e r suggests, is the other side of a

33

I n effect, the t h o u g h t of the

There is n o t h i n g unacceptable about all this, R a h n e r insists. A c c o r d i n g to

negative picture o f h u m a n f i n i t u d e Moreover, the emphasis is desire f o r

Thomas Aquinas, G o d forgives the c o n t r i t e independently o f any sacrament.

theoretical understanding, and the m o d e l o f k n o w i n g is one i n w h i c h

I n his view, and the tradition, i t is taken f o r granted that w h e n the sinner

the object is penetrated and mastered

The ancient Greek w i l l to absolute

comes to the sacrament o f penance he has already been justified, indeed he w o u l d n o t be c o m i n g at all unless he was already contrite, converted Yet, as Aquinas saw, the sacrament of reconciliation remained meaningful and indeed necessary even i f the res sacramenti, the reality that is being justified

3 2

C o n t r i b u t e d t o the festschrift i n 1974

Theological Investigations

p r e - V a t i c a n I I t e x t b o o k s , g e s t u r i n g t o w a r d s Protestant treatments, r e c o m m e n d i n g above all K a r l B a r t h Church

5 1

Theological Investigations

the t e x t

X I I : 170

S u b s e q u e n t page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n

f o r Yves C o n g a r ' s s i x t i e t h b i r t h d a y ( r e p r i n t e d i n

X V I ( L o n d o n : D a r t o n . L o n g m a n a n d T o d d 1 9 7 9 ) ) , l i s t i n g t h e standard

3 3

Tlieological

Dogmatics I I / l : 1 7 9 - 2 0 3 ; Balthasar's f a v o u r i t e v o l u m e

Investigations

XIII

( L o n d o n : D a r t o n . L o n g m a n a n d T o d d 1975): 229

s e q u e n t page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n t h e t e x t

Sub-

i 00

K A R ı

R A H N E R

K A R ı

knowledge and the m o d e r n understanding o f k n o w i n g as a process of mas­ t e r i n g the object combine to make i t impossible to k n o w G o d at all — w h i c h either leads to resignation, to o u r being i m p r i s o n e d i n our f m i t u d e , or else generates practical atheism. Worse, the incomprehensibility m i g h t be the other side o f fear that G o d c o u l d behave quite differently f r o m the way he actually does — the G o d w h o is m e r c i f u l w i t h sinners c o u l d also be a g o d o f sheer w r a t h or, i n neoscholastic terms, a g o d d e n y i n g a supernatural destiny However, k n o w l e d g e need n o t be regarded p r i m a r i l y as mastery Rather, 'the essence o f knowledge lies i n the mystery w h i c h is the object o f p r i m a r y

101

R A H N E R

' A d o r o te devote latens deitas, quae sub his figuris vere Iatitas', insisting that ' E v e r y t h i n g is a parable — figura — o f G o d , w h o is constantly being unveiled yet at the same t i m e constantly concealed i n the parable'

(31) F r o m the

outset, R a h n e r regarded Christian life as a k i n d o f mystagogy: a b e i n g led by the H o l y S p i r i t i n t o the mystery Indeed, he sometimes suggested that all Christians i n f u t u r e w o u l d be mystics, since none w i l l be b o r n i n t o 'cradle' Catholicism o r the k i n d o f C a t h o l i c e n v i r o n m e n t t o w h i c h his family belonged.

experience' (236). This does n o t make the h u m a n being 'the event o f absolute S p i r i t ' (Hegel); o n the contrary, i t directs us to 'the i n c o m p r e h e n ­

O r igen A g a i n

sible mystery, i n relation to w h i c h the openness o f transcendence is experienced'

N o r does the h u m a n b e i n g become 'the shepherd o f B e i n g '

(Heidegger) — rather 'the one protected by the mystery', der von

dem

Geheimnis Behutete. T n the p r i m a r y realization of his being and i n the p h i l o ­ sophical reflection derived f r o m i t , m a n comes to be himself and here he does n o t experience h i m s e l f as the d o m i n a n t , absolute subject, b u t as the one whose b e i n g is bestowed u p o n h i m by the mystery' — 'the one whose self is granted to h i m by the M y s t e r y ' (236)

K a r l Rahner's first major theological w o r k , i t is often forgotten, was a d o c u ­ m e n t e d study o f the d o c t r i n e o f the five spiritual senses i n O r i g e n .

3 5

As his

10 years of neoscholastic f o r m a t i o n were e n d i n g (he was ordained i n 1932), R a h n e r was devoting h i m s e l f to patristic and medieval studies, specifically to tracing the history o f this d o c t r i n e t h r o u g h to the M i d d l e Ages, p a r t i c u ­ larly i n B o n a v e n t u r e .

36

These studies antedate his g o i n g to Freiburg to study

philosophy M o r e o v e r , i n republishing these essays i n 1975, R a h n e r makes

Transcendence' as 'the a p r i o r i c o n d i t i o n o f objective and reflective

t w o points. T h e charismatic movements i n N o r t h A m e r i c a and E u r o p e had

k n o w l e d g e and evaluation', 'the a p r i o r i c o n d i t i o n o f all categorial k n o w ­

b r o u g h t a l o n g - f o r g o t t e n Christian theme back onto the theological agenda:

ledge and o f all historical activity', is 'the t r u t h ' , 'the p r i m a r y event o f the

non-theologians, the ordinary faithful, were r e m i n d i n g theologians, through

spirit', 'the mystery w h i c h endures and unfolds and establishes the essential

this l i v i n g experience o f the S p i r i t , o f w h a t was neglected i n the standard

h u m a n capacity f o r t r u t h ' - and here R a h n e r refers us to his 'studies i n the

theological enterprise. That is to say, R a h n e r was p o i n t i n g to the e m p i r i ­

metaphysics o f k n o w l e d g e ' — (238), directing us i m m e d i a t e l y to the essay

cally verifiable existence o f experientially felt faith i n t h e lives o f perfecdy

'Thomas Aquinas o n T r u t h ' , a lecture d a t i n g f r o m 1938, published o n l y i n

ordinary believers

1972, n o t i n g that i t belongs to the p e r i o d o f the 'basic w o r k s ' b u t insisting that i t is especially valuable f o r his basic preoccupations

then.

34

Second, r e f e r r i n g particularly to his study o f Bonaventure, Rahner tells us that he includes i t because o f its fundamental importance i n understanding

The first p o i n t R a h n e r makes is that Thomas Aquinas is a theologian,

his w o r k i n the philosophy of r e l i g i o n - i n other words, his first t w o books,

w i t h no philosophy developed o n its o w n (14). I n any case there is always

Geist in Welt and Hörer des Wortes The d o c t r i n e is n o mere p e r i o d piece,

the question o f interpretation; as w i t h Plato, Aristotle, K a n t and so o n , w e

R a h n e r contends, 'a speculative a p r i o r i game w h i c h has no contact w i t h

have to reconstruct creatively, since Aquinas's 'justly acclaimed clarity also

the real w o r l d '

entails a constant temptation to assume that his philosophy is easier than i t i n

thesis, R a h n e r is persuaded that, b y integrating the traditional doctrine o f

fact is' (15)

the spiritual senses, Bonaventure greatly clarified the nature o f mystical

I n a lengthy footnote R a h n e r refers us to Rousselot, Maréchal,

3 7

W h i l e n o t u n c r i t i c a l o f certain aspects of Bonaventure's

the so-called Transcendental Thomists, b u t also to Sôhngen, Siewerth, L o t z ,

experience. I n c o n c l u d i n g , R a h n e r insists o n h o w mystical experience is

Pieper and others

always described i n images derived f r o m the w o r l d o f sense experience. The

R a h n e r concludes by c i t i n g the prayer traditionally attributed to Aquinas: 3 5

3 4

I n Theological

Investigations,

X I I I : 13—31

S u b s e q u e n t page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s

are

' L e début d u n e d o c t r i n e des c i n q sens s p i r i t u e l s c h e z O r i g è n e , RAM

m u c h c u r t a i l e d i n Theological Investigations,

g i v e n i n t h e t e x t R a h n e r ' s suggestion is t h a t he h i m s e l f was always a t h e o l o g i a n o f t h e d i v i n e

3 6

Tlteological Investigations,

m y s t e r y n o t m e r e l y o f h u m a n self-transcendence

3 7

I b i d : 127

X V I : 104—34

X V I : 81—103

13 ( 1 9 3 2 ) : 1 1 3 - 4 5 ;

102

K A R ı

K A R ı

R A H N E R

history o f the doctrine o f the five spiritual senses belongs to the history o f

Self-criticism

metaphors that are d r a w n f r o m the sense-perceptible realm and are used to represent mystical r e a l i t i e s

38

As far as n u p t i a l mysticism goes, however, R a h n e r does n o t seem to w a n t to exploit O r i g e n . W h e t h e r the modest five-page essay i n 1975 i n Stimmen der Zeit is consciously or otherwise something o f a challenge to those, i n c l u d i n g H e n r i de Lubac and (as w e shall find) Hans U r s v o n Balthasar, b u i l d i n g a w h o l e ecclesiology, a Catholic sensibility and spirituality, o n an image o f M a r y as the archetypal w o m a n , is a m o o t p o i n t I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the 'so called f e m i n i n e attributes' R a h n e r sees plenty o f r o o m f o r further t h o u g h t about the distinction o f the sexes, about the nature o f w o m a n , d e t e r m i n i n g her existence and thus also her grace-given r e l a t i o n ­ ship to God. ' B u t i f we begin to describe concretely the religious character of w o m a n .

. . we are at once involved . .

i n great embarrassment'. W e are

likely to see M a r y i n historically, culturally and sociologically c o n d i t i o n e d ways. M a n y o f the statements made about M a r y - r i g h t l y e n o u g h — i n her relationship to G o d are, R a h n e r contends, b y n o means specifically and exclusively feminine, anyway O n the contrary: i t is ' h u m a n , masculine as w e l l as feminine, to be able to be silent, w h o l l y receptive, self c o m m i t t i n g , listening i n h u m i l i t y and faith, serving and n o t d o m i n a t i n g , i n o u r approach to G o d ' .

3 9

Rahner d i d n o t f i n d the central thesis i n ' W o m e n and the Priesthood' 1976, the statement by the C o n g r e g a t i o n f o r the D o c t r i n e o f the Faith, approved b y Pope Paul V I , beyond discussion

4 0

H e says, indeed, that the

statement cannot be regarded as definitive, thus i t is i n p r i n c i p l e revisable, perhaps erroneous As regards the significance o f the fact that w o m e n were n o t chosen for o r d i n a t i o n i n N e w Testament times, he finds the Congrega­ tion's statement u n c o n v i n c i n g - b u t he sets aside questions o f gender, sexual difference, difference i n gender roles, that emerge f r o m a certain p h i l o s o p h ­ ical and theological anthropology

103

R A H N E R

W h e t h e r Rahner's Foundations

Faith should ever have been

of Christian

treated as his attempt at a systematic theology is a m o o t p o i n t .

4 1

W h e n he

reviewed the reviews he began b y q u o t i n g the commendatory review by Joseph Ratzinger, not yet Cardinal Archbishop of M u n i c h : even i f one is n o t disposed to accept Rahner's 'idea of C h r i s t i a n i t y ' completely, 'this impressive synthesis' w i l l outlast m u c h m o d e r n Catholic t h e o l o g y

4 2

Actu­

ally, R a h n e r tells us, he w a n t e d the b o o k entitled ' A n i n t r o d u c t i o n to the concept of C h r i s t i a n i t y ' , not ' T h e basic course of f a i t h ' , Das Grundkurs GJaubem, w h i c h the publishers preferred

des

H e sees i t as a scholarly w o r k ,

demanding hard t h i n k i n g It was, however, never i n t e n d e d as any k i n d of 'synthesis' B y describing his theology as 'transcendental',

so he says, n o more is

meant than that to explain this or that faith claim, the question must be asked h o w and w h y , i n v i r t u e of one's always already graced nature, this or that claim matters This does not mean that, i n his theological w o r k , 'man is a subject o f faith

o n l y i n his abstract transcendentality and n o t i n his his­

t o r i c a l being i n his concrete h i s t o r y ' That is w h a t we have to show - that 'history can really be significant f o r salvation to the intellectual subject, w h o is always m o r e than space and t i m e ' . O u r history is 'not something i n w h i c h [we are] involved over and above [our] transcendentality

to G o d as the

absolute being and mystery'. Rather, ' i t is o n l y as history of this transcen­ dentality i n freedom that history is actually history i n w h i c h salvation can come about' (8). R a h n e r allows that, i n Foundations,

the d o c t r i n e o f the T r i n i t y gets less

attention than i t should (13). Moreover, he says t o o l i t t l e about ' e v i l ' w h i c h does n o t mean that he counts o n universal salvation - t h o u g h , after all, one w h o highlights God's h o l y goodness is surely better off t h a n those w h o want to explain w h y evil has a purpose B u t there is so m u c h else left o u t : n o t h i n g about angels, n o t h i n g about the sinful C h u r c h — w h i c h last w o u l d have helped readers these days to take 'an u n i n h i b i t e d attitude', unhe-

F o r a r e c e n t a t t e m p t t o m a k e use o£ t h e d o c t r i n e see Sarah C o a k l e y , and the

' S p i r i t u a l Senses' ; o n W i t t g e n s t e i n . E p i s t e m o l o g y

Powers and Submissions

Spirituality,

Philosophy

and Gender

The

Resurrection

and the R i s e n C h r i s t ' , i n her

( O x f o r d : Blackwell 2002): 130-52

fangenes Verhdhnis, towards the C h u r c h Indeed, the ecclesiology is 'perhaps t o o innocuous, hatmlos,

even somewhat t r i u m p h a l i s t i c ' (14).

There is a

certain i n d i v i d u a l i s m , n o ' p o l i t i c a l theology', no l i b e r a t i o n theology'

-

f o o t n o t i n g R a h n e r a r g u i n g (however) m u c h m o r e positively f o r the possibility o f a transfor­ m a t i o n o f n o r m a l sense p e r c e p t i o n t h r o u g h d i s c i p l i n e d p e n a n c e a n d prayer 5 9

' M a r y and the C h r i s t i a n Image o f W o m a n '

D a r t o n . L o n g m a n and T o d d 1 9 8 4 ) : 2 1 1 - 1 7

i n Theological

Investigations

XIX

For 'divine m a t u r i t y ' however

(London:

read ' d i v i n e

m a t e r n i t y ' (213) 4 0

W o m e n a n d t h e P r i e s t h o o d , i n Theological Investigations

and Todd 1981): 3 5 - 4 7

4 1

4 2

X X (L o n d o n : D a r t o n , L o n g m a n

Foundations

of Christian

L o n g m a n a n d T o d d 1978 'Foundations

Faith

of Christian

L o n g m a n and T o d d 1984): 3 - 1 5 text

An Introduction

published i n G e r m a n Faith',

to the Idea of Christianity

(London: Darton,

1976)

i n Theological

Investigations

XIX

(London:

Darton

S u b s e q u e n t page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n the

104

K A R ı

R A H N E R

Chapter Seven

here, w r i t i n g i n 1979, R a h n e r seems d e t e r m i n e d to break the m o u l d , to insist, i n this litany o f self-criticism, rare i n a theologian, that he never was the author o f a 'system', w i t h a p o s i t i o n about everything, always r e f e r r i n g

BERNARD

back to the foundations he allegedly laid o u t i n Spirit in the World H e leaves us instead w i t h the self-portrait o f a theologian w h o w o r k e d i n an ad hoc,

LONERGAN

piecemeal fashion, w i t h many gaps and untreated problems, essentially a pastor, responding to the questions and anxieties o f the people o f his t i m e and place

4 3

Conclusion Currently, K a r l R a h n e r is played o f f against his o l d colleague Hans U r s v o n Balthasar, w i t h R a h n e r regarded as the 'progressive' theologian o f the

John H e n r y N e w m a n , w h o d i e d i n 1890, is the o n l y eminent English

C o u n c i l and Balthasar the 'conservative' theologian o f the post-conciliar

R o m a n Catholic theologian

reaction

takings, his significance f o r theology was discovered, first b y French, then by

Allegedly, R a h n e r was shaped b y G e r m a n idealist philosophy,

A l t h o u g h unsuccessful i n most o f his under­

1

Balthasar m o r e g r o u n d e d i n biblical and patristic t h e o l o g y T h e i r projects

G e r m a n and finally by English scholars N e v e r accepted as m u c h o f a theo­

were very different, as w e shall see (chapter eight). Yet, since b o t h were

logian b y neoscholastics, N e w m a n was, by m i d - c e n t u r y at least, recognized

2

r o o t e d i n the school o f Jesuit spirituality, they were never as far apart as they

as i n the first rank o f C h r i s t i a n thinkers. So many of the Council's decrees

may seem.. Moreover, each was far m o r e complicated than the standard story

seem to resonate w i t h his ideas (development o f doctrine, ' O n C o n s u l t i n g

allows As t i m e goes by, i n the perspective o f history, t h e i r projects may w e l l

the F a i t h f u l ' , l i b e r t y of conscience, and so on) that N e w m a n is o f t e n hailed

come to seem m o r e c o m p l e m e n t a r y t h a n c o n f l i c t i n g , overlapping m u c h

as the 'Father o f Vatican I I ' . . As far as Vatican I I goes, the most effective

m o r e than d i e i r admirers and adversaries t h i n k at present

English-speaking c o n t r i b u t o r was Basil Christopher B u t l e r ( 1 9 0 2 - 8 6 ) , one

3

o f the few non-episcopal members o f the C o u n c i l , as the elected A b b o t General o f the English Benedictine

Congregation

4

B r o u g h t u p i n an

A n g l o - C a t h o l i c family, B u t l e r became a Catholic soon after graduating at O x f o r d , largely t h r o u g h reading B a r o n F r i e d r i c h v o n H i i g e l . A competent N e w Testament scholar, interested especially i n the Synoptic P r o b l e m , he

J o h n H e n r y N e w m a n ( 1 8 0 1 - 9 0 ) was i n v i t e d i n 1 8 6 8 t o be a n o f f i c i a l p a p a l t h e o l o g i a n

1

( p r o b a b l y at C a r d i n a l Paul C u l l e n s suggestion)

H e refused, saying h e was t o o o l d (67) a n d n o t

a t h e o l o g i a n anyway. H e also refused repeated requests b y B i s h o p B r o w n o f N e w p o r t t o accompany h i m Jean G u i t t o n ( 1 9 3 3 ) , M . N e d o n c e l l e ( 1 9 4 6 ) , L o u i s B o u y e r ( 1 9 5 2 ) ; G o t t l i e b

2

(1946), H

Sohngen

Fries ( 1 9 4 8 ) ; H i l d a G r a e f ( 1 9 6 7 ) , J o h n C o u l s o n (1970). N i c h o l a s L a s h (1975) t o

name the most significant 3

N o t by everyone

h o w e v e r : see PJ

( L o n d o n : S h e e d a n d W a r d 1969) D . N i c h o l l s a n d F. K e r r (eds.) John 4 3

K a r e n K i l b y . Karl

2004);

The

Cambridge

Rahner'

Theology

Companion

and Philosophy

to Karl

Rahner,

(London and N e w York: Routledge

edited by Declan

E H i n e s ( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press 2 0 0 5 ) .

M a r m i o n and M a r y

B r i s t o l Press 1 9 9 1 ) : 1 0 9 - 3 4 Newman 4

after a Hundred

F i t z P a t r i c k {"G E g n e r ' ) , Apologia

and ' N e w m a n ' s Henry

Newman:

Grammar

Reason,

pro Charles

Rhetoric

and Romanticism

For t h e best set o f essays see I a n K e r a n d A l a n G

Years ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n Press 1990)

A p p o i n t e d i n 1966 A u x i l i a r y B i s h o p o f W e s t m i n s t e r

Kingsley

and the C h u r c h today', i n (Bristol: Hill

(eds)

106

B E R N A R D

B E R N A R D

L O N E R G A N

regarded himself as 'estranged f r o m the m a i n current o f Catholic o p i n i o n ' ,

107

L O N E R G A N

I n 1922 he entered the Canadian province of the Society of Jesus I n

f o r one reason because o f w h a t he saw as ' R o m a n authoritarianism': ' T h e

1926 he studied philosophy at H e y t h r o p College, then near O x f o r d

trouble, as I saw i t , was that centralization was typical o f an age o f mass-

L a t i n textbooks he came to see as 'Suarezian' i n o r i e n t a t i o n . . The professor

p r o d u c t i o n , and also that R o m e had b y n o w obtained such a c o m m a n d i n g

of natural theology, a convinced Suarezian, celebrated the ferial Mass o n the

position that i t w o u l d take something n o t far short o f a miracle to reverse

feast o f St Thomas Aquinas, somewhat perversely The professor o f meta-

the centralizing trend i n the C h u r c h ' . As far as R o m e was concerned he

physics, w h o had other duties, gave only three lectures d u r i n g the w h o l e

agreed w i t h R o n a l d K n o x : that a bad sailor keeps clear o f the engine room..

year - w h i c h meant less to unlearn O n his o w n , Lonergan read N e w m a n ,

H e approached the C o u n c i l w i t h ' m o r e f o r e b o d i n g than h o p e ' , fearing

especially An Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent

'another dose of authoritarian obscurantism'. I n the event, however, B u t l e r

U n i v e r s i t y he discovered H . W B . Joseph's Introduction to Logic

played quite a distinguished part i n the endless drafting and redrafting o f the

Lonergan's f o r m a t i o n i n w h a t was supposed t o be neoscholastic philosophy

texts T h o u g h he himself says n o t h i n g about i t , he drafted a text o n the role

H e was n o t i n t r o d u c e d to the w o r k o f Aquinas itself H e was grateful for

o f the Blessed V i r g i n M a r y i n the course o f the second session (1963) w h i c h

discussions about mathematics w i t h Charles O ' H a r a

helped to secure a m a j o r i t y for i n c l u d i n g the d o c u m e n t o n M a r y i n the

taught i n philosophy

5

6

d o c u m e n t o n the C h u r c h . H i s account o f the theology o f the C o u n c i l is the best i n English b y a p a r t i c i p a n t .

7

I n 1958 he discovered Insight

D u r i n g a year at L o n d o n

1 2

u

Such was

I n effect, he was self-

I n 1933 Lonergan w e n t to study theology at the Gregorian U n i v e r s i t y i n R o m e . There were several distinguished scholars o n the faculty at the time.

L i k e many others, B u t l e r o w e d a great deal to his study o f B e r n a r d L o n ergan

The

10

C o n s i d e r i n g himself n o t m u c h o f a

Lonergan seems, however, to have c o n t i n u e d to make his o w n way. H e was indebted to w o r k by Peter H o e n e n

D u r i n g the course o n the Incarna-

1 3

philosopher or even o f a theologian, he f o u n d that this cured h i m o f the

t i o n he discovered that Thomas Aquinas m i g h t have something interesting

' n o t quite articulate d i s c o m f o r t ' that he felt about the n e o t h o m i s m he had

to say.

been taught as a y o u n g m o n k

8

T h o u g h by far the most e m i n e n t and i n f l u -

ential Catholic theologian i n the English-speaking

w o r l d at the time,

Lonergan himself played little part i n the doings o f Vatican I I .

Lonergan taught y o u n g Jesuits i n Canada f r o m 1940 u n t i l 1953 reasons i n 1965.

B o r n o n 17 December 1904 i n B u c k i n g h a m , an English-speaking enclave i n Quebec, he died o n 26 N o v e m b e r 1984 i n Pickering, O n t a r i o .

9

His

father, a M c G i l l University graduate i n engineering, was third-generation

Called

back to R o m e , he lectured at the Gregorian, u n t i l he resigned f o r health L h o u g h an 'expert' at Vatican I I , he played l i t t l e part.

H e spent the last years o f his w o r k i n g life at Boston College, engaged i n macroeconomic

analysis of m o d e r n p r o d u c t i o n processes and monetary

circulations, a r e t u r n to an early interest

Irish-Canadian. H i s mother, a D o m i n i c a n tertiary, was a descendant o f one o f the B r i t i s h families w h o m o v e d n o r t h w h e n the A m e r i c a n colonies rebelled i n 1776

H e attended a Jesuit b o a r d i n g school i n M o n t r e a l , w h e r e

he received (so he believed) m u c h the same education as the Society had p r o v i d e d since the Renaissance.

1 0

A c c o r d i n g t o L i d d y . t y p i c a l r e a d i n g m a t t e r i n c l u d e d t e x t b o o k s b y Juan J o s é

Institutiones

( V a l l a d o l i d : I : Logica,

philosophiez

I V : Psychologic

5

7

A Time to Speak ( S o u t h e n d - o n - S e a : M a y h e w - M c C r i i n i n o n 1 9 7 2 ) : 139 I b i d : 141. The

Theology

1 1

scholastics

revised a n d

1 2

This

chapter

134

depends

ing Light: 1993).

Intellectual

heavily on i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d o n the Lonergan

Conversion

in the Early

Lonergan

v o l I I . 1900); and

Liddy,

web

site

Transform-

( C o l l e g e v i l l e , M N : L i t u r g i c a l Press

Compendium

(1930) a n d f o r the

T h e same F a t h e r O ' H a r a is m o c k e d b y W i t t g e n s t e i n for t r e a t i n g r e l i g i o u s statements l i k e

U n i v e r s i t y Press 1 9 6 6 ) :

w w w l o n e r g a n o n ca a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y o n t h e e x c e l l e n t b o o k b y R i c h a r d M

Theodiceœ,

b o o k o n L e i b n i z e d i t e d b y J L A u s t i n (1949). s c i e n t i f i c hypotheses.. Lectures

Media

1892;

H o r a c e W i l l i a m B r i n d l e y J o s e p h ( 1 8 6 7 - 1 9 4 3 ) t a u g h t at O x f o r d 1 8 9 1 - 1 9 3 2 H e is better

elements o f r e l i g i o n , as i n N e w m a n ' s 1877 Preface t o Via

9

VIII:

r e m e m b e r e d f o r his c o n t r i b u t i o n t o m o r a l t h e o r y Some Problems in Ethics

of Vatican IT S a r u m L e c t u r e s at O x f o r d 1 9 6 6 , p u b l i s h e d 1967,

A Time to Speak:

v o l I , 1899;

1 8 9 1 ; I I I : Cosmologia.

p a r t 2, 1 8 9 6 ; V I : Psychologies p a r t 2 ( c o n t i n u a -

5 vols ( M a d r i d 1 9 0 2 - 4 )

enlarged e d i t i o n 1981 ( L o n d o n : D a r t o n , L o n g m a n a n d T o d d ) : h e c o n c l u d e s w i t h t h e three H

1890; I I : Ontologia,

p a r t 1 , o p 1 8 9 4 ; V : Psychologies

t i o n ) , 1898; V I I : Theodiceœ philosophic 6

Urrâburu

( 1 8 4 4 - 1 9 0 4 ) , a Spanish Jesuit, p r o m i n e n t i n t h e neoscholastic r e v i v a l p r o m o t e d b y L e o X I I I :

1 3

and

Conversations

e d i t e d b y C y r i l B a r r e t t SJ ( O x f o r d : O x f o r d

57-9

A n t h o n y K e n n y , w h o a t t e n d e d his lectures 20 years later, regards H o e n c n ' s La

jugement

selon S. Thomas d'Aquin

Théorie

de

' t o t h i s d a y as one o f t h e t w o m o s t i l l u m i n a t i n g b o o k s about !

A q u i n a s s p h i l o s o p h y o f m i n d , t h e o t h e r b e i n g L o n e r g a n 's Verbum; ( L o n d o n and N e w Y o r k : R o u t l e d g e 1 9 9 3 ) : Preface

see Aquinas

on

Mind

108

B E R N A R D

L O N E R G A N

B E R N A R D

109

L O N E R G A N

Lonergan and British E m p i r i c i s m

ignored. Rather, the task o f the philosopher is to determine the n o r m a l use

Lonergan was m o r e t r u l y a philosopher than anyone else i n this b o o k apart

Moreover, against idealism, C o o k - W i l s o n i a n s argued f o r the distinctness o f

o f an expression, a task f o r w h i c h countless examples need to be adduced.

f r o m K a r o l Wojtyla.. Indeed, H u g o M e y n e l l , i n one o f the best studies,

k n o w l e d g e f r o m its objects, for the reality o f relations, and f o r the claim

places Lonergan a m o n g 'contemporary philosophers o f the first rank', albeit

that i n logic w e are n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h judgements

admitted to be ' u p to n o w the most n e g l e c t e d ' .

conceived as the

Insight is 'at a conservative

expression o f mental acts o f j u d g i n g , but w i t h statements, w h i c h may be

estimate one o f the half-dozen or so most i m p o r t a n t philosophical books to

the expression o f diverse 'acts o f m i n d ' ( k n o w i n g , believing, supposing,

have appeared i n the course o f the present c e n t u r y ' Study o f h u m a n under-

inferring)

14

standing is the way to determine the fundamental nature o f the w o r l d revealed to that understanding..

Self-taught T h o m i s m

This is o f course the starting p o i n t o f the classical B r i t i s h empiricists Locke, Berkeley and H u m e ; b u t the metaphysical consequences that L o n e r gan lays o u t are, needless to say, quite different f r o m theirs. Since H u m e and

The

impetus for Lonergan

to study L h o m a s A q u i n a s at f i r s t hand,

Kant, M e y n e l l reminds us, the intelligible order w h i c h w e seem to find i n

bizarre as this may seem, came f r o m an article ( i n L a t i n ) o n the nature o f

the w o r l d has been attributed to the activity o f the h u m a n m i n d ; indeed i t

geometry:

can be r i g h t l y infer r ed to be there at all o n l y as a result o f the i m p o s i t i o n o f

In 1933 I had been much struck by an article of Peter Hoenen's in Gregorianum arguing that intellect abstracted from phantasm not only terms but also the nexus between them He held that that certainly was the view of Cajetan and probably of Aquinas. Later he returned to the topic, arguing first that Scholastic philosophy was in need of a theory of geometrical knowledge, and secondly producing various geometrical illustrations such as the Moebius strip that fitted i n very well w i t h his view that not only the terms but also nexus were abstracted from phantasm

a conceptual f r a m e w o r k i n the process o f understanding i t A c c o r d i n g to Lonergan, o n the other hand, ' b o t h the p h e n o m e n a w h i c h w e experience and the intelligible pattern w i t h i n w h i c h they are f o u n d to cohere are aspects o f the real objective w o r l d w h i c h confronts the h u m a n i n q u i r e r ' the w o r l d w h i c h w o u l d exist, M e y n e l l goes o n , 'even i f there were no i n t e l ligent beings to i n q u i r e i n t o it'.. Lhus, investigating how i t is and what it is that the m i n d comes to k n o w has implications n o t o n l y about the nature of

1 5

the k n o w e r but also about everything that there is f o r us to k n o w . Joseph, i t was i n

This is barely intelligible to those never exposed to neoscholastic p h i l -

his close study o f the Grammar and Joseph's Logic that L o n e r g a n came to

osophy Hoenen's p o i n t , briefly, is that the principles o f mathematics could

grips w i t h B r i t i s h e m p i r i c i s m and its problematics.

the

n o t be derived, as neoscholastics generally h e l d , f r o m mere analysis o f the

philosophical scene at O x f o r d was d o m i n a t e d by P H . Bradley, either as a

terms o f those principles H o w do w e k n o w , say, that the w h o l e is greater

m o d e l to f o l l o w or a target to attack Resistance to n e o - H e g e l i a n idealism

than the part? The neoscholastics interpreted such knowledge as a c o m p a r i -

was l e d by J. C o o k W i l s o n , w h o h e l d the chair o f l o g i c f r o m 1899 u n t i l his

son of concepts, such as ' w h o l e ' , 'part', 'greater than'

death i n 1915. Joseph should be seen as a major figure i n the realist revolt,

Hoenen

i n the generation o f O x f o r d realists or ' C o o k - W i l s o n i a n s '

insight i n t o the image, the 'phantasm', i n the jargon, together w i t h a grasp

W h i l e M e y n e l l mentions neither N e w m a n n o r H W B

P r i o r to 1914

C o o k Wilson's

contended,

O n the contrary,

such principles of the understanding derive f r o m

legacy at O x f o r d was no d o u b t his influence o n a certain ethical i n t u i t i o n -

o f the 'nexus', or relationship, between the terms Experience,

ism. T h r o u g h Joseph's Logic, w e may perhaps say, the

Cook-Wilsonian

imaginative

legacy i n epistemology was i n h e r i t e d by y o u n g Lonergan. This attack o n

principles.

metaphysical idealism was r o o t e d i n respect f o r o r d i n a r y language. D i s t i n c -

experience,

is

necessary f o r

the

abstraction

t h e n , indeed of

universal

tions current i n everyday language, C o o k W i l s o n insisted, should n o t be 1 5

A Second Collection:

Papers by Bernard j F. Lonergan

SJ, e d i t e d b y W i l l i a m EJ

R y a n sj a n d

B e r n a r d T y r e l l SJ ( L o n d o n : D a r t o n , L o n g m a n a n d T o d d 1 9 7 5 ) : 2 6 6 - 7 ; see ' A N o t e o n G e o H u g o A M e y n e l l . An Introduction 1976): 1

1 4

to the Philosophy

ojBernard

Lonergan

(L.ondon: M a c m i l l a n

m e t r i c a l P o s s i b i l i t y ' , i n The Modern Papers by Bernard J. F. Lonergan T o d d 1967): 9 6 - 1 1 3 .

Schoolman

27 ( 1 9 4 9 - 5 0 ) : 1 2 4 - 3 8 , r e p r i n t e d i n

SJ, e d i t e d b y E E

Collection:

C r o w e SJ ( L o n d o n : D a r t o n , L o n g m a n a n d

110

B E R N A R D

I

B E R N A R D

O N E R G A N

Hoenen's article directed Lonergan to Thomas Aquinas, for example i n

Transcendental T h o m i s m ?

the Summa Theologicr, a remark that he o f t e n cites:

i

Tonergan is usually classified as an exponent o f Transcendental T h o m i s m .

Anyone can verify this in his own experience, that when he is trying to understand something, he forms some phantasms for himself by way of exampies, and i n these he as it were looks at what he wants to understand It is for the same reason that when we want to have someone understand something, we offer h i m examples by means o f which he may be able to form images for himself to aid his understanding

1 9

O n c e again, however, w h i l e this was certainly an element m the bricolage, Lonergan writes: M y philosophical development was from Newman to Augustine, from Augustine to Plato, and then I was introduced to I h o m i s m through a Greek, Stephanos Stephanou, who had his philosophic formation under Maréchal It was i n talking w i t h h i m that I came first to understand St Thomas, and see that there was something there

1 6

Years later, i n Insight, Lonergan developed this For Thomas Aquinas, the

2 0

m i n d apprehends the intelligible i n the sense-perceptible and grasps the u n i versal i n the p a r t i c u l a r . John Duns Scotus, o n the other hand, by rejecting 17

this n o t i o n o f insight i n t o the sense-perceptible, reduced the act o f u n d e r standing to seeing a nexus between concepts. C o n t r a r y to this, the process of c o m i n g to k n o w is not a k i n d o f 'metaphysical sausage machine, at one end slicing species o f f phantasm, and at the other p o p p i n g o u t concepts' The m i n d is n o t a 'black b o x ' , i n w h i c h there is sensory i n p u t at one end and words as ' o u t p u t ' at the other O n the contrary, o u r understanding is a conscious process o f 'grasping the intelligible i n the sensible' To see this w e have o n l y to attend to h o w we actually understand; as Aquinas said, 'anyone can v e r i f y this i n his o w n experience' Scotus, however, Tonergan contends, t h o u g h t o f knowledge, n o t as a process that culminates i n j u d g e m e n t , b u t as 'taking a l o o k '

111

L O N E R G A N

1 8

I n other words, his y o u n g Greek Jesuit f r i e n d , w h o had studied at L o u v a i n , t o l d Lonergan about the t h o u g h t o f Joseph Maréchal, and his f i v e - v o l u m e w o r k , Le Point de départ de la métaphysique,

armed at b r i d g i n g the gap that

separated the t h o u g h t o f Thomas Aquinas f r o m the Kantian idealism that dominated C o n t i n e n t a l philosophy For Maréchal, Aquinas's t h o u g h t c o u l d complete the 'transcendental turn to the subject' initiated b y Kant. A ' c r i t i q u e o f k n o w l e d g e ' , undertaken as laying bare 'the conditions of the possibility o f k n o w l e d g e ' , reveals the forms and categories of h u m a n k n o w i n g , but n o t the possibilities o f objective k n o w l e d g e . Such objective k n o w l e d g e w o u l d be possible o n l y o n the basis o f an intellectual i n t u i t i o n , and since he discerned n o such i n t u i t i o n , K a n t discounted the objectivity o f h u m a n knowledge I n the famous fifth

H o w w e l l all this w o u l d stand up to examination by a medievalist w e

Cahier, m o u n t i n g a c o n f r o n t a t i o n between Aquinas and Kant, Maréchal

must leave aside For Lonergan, never a scholar o f medieval t h o u g h t , always

maintained that Kant became an idealist because he was n o t consistent i n his

a speculative thinker, there are three key points: k n o w i n g occurs i n i n t e r -

o w n transcendental reflection o n the a prion conditions o f h u m a n k n o w -

action w i t h our physical environment; we can see this by reflecting o n our

ledge K n o w i n g is an operation, a movement, a tendency towards an end.

o w n experience; and k n o w i n g is n o t merely 'taking a l o o k ' The next piece that helped Lonergan towards his reconstruction

of

Thomistic philosophy was the doctoral dissertation o f his colleague Leo W. Keeler, The Problem of Error from Kant to Plato (1934), w h i c h he reviewed i n Gregorianum

(1934). Keeler's w o r k is chiefly historical

I n discussing

Plato's Theatetus, he notes Plato's emphasis o n the discursive activity o f the m i n d Lhis was to be Lonergan's key insight.. D e l i g h t e d l y he picks up the need f o r a serious c r i t i q u e o f the Suarezian school: this ' i n t u i t i o m s m ' , as he w i l l call i t later, needs to be deconstructed completely

Maréchal insisted that a c r i t i q u e of knowledge revealed the

existence I n other words, as Lonergan w o u l d later p u t i t , 'authentic subject i v i t y leads to objectivity'. T h e student of Aquinas, reading h i m properly, need n o t fear t h e K a n t ian critique of k n o w l e d g e : o n the contrary, appropriately radicalized, it b r o u g h t us back to A r i s t o t e l i c o - T h o m i s t i c metaphysical positions, properly understood

l v

1(1

Summa Theologiae,

1 7

IraightiA

, a

I b i d : 372

Study of Human

L h o u g h D a v i d Lracy, i n a g o o d s t u d y (early b u t n o t o u t d a t e d )

Lonergan ( N e w Y o r k : H e r d e r a n d H e r d e r 1970)

1 75 Undemanding

( L o n d o n : Longmans

Green and C o

1957): 406

objective

dynamism o f h u m a n knowledge, c u l m i n a t i n g i n objective judgements of

Marechallian: 2 0

28-9

A Second CoUettion:

264-5

The Achievement

oj Bernard

notes t h a t L o n e r g a n is n o t ' s t r i c t l y speaking' a

112

B E R N A R D

L O N E R G A N

B E R N A R D

I n the 1920s, this ' t u r n to the subject' was a risky step i n the paranoically

T h e W o r l d as L a n g u a g e

anti-modernist climate o f Catholic thought. Those w h o attempted i t were often accused o f sacrificing the objectivity of h u m a n knowledge Obviously, there was the danger o f a r r i v i n g at the same p o s i t i o n as K a n t and m u c h o f European t h o u g h t after h i m , that is, a transcendental idealism. The fear was that by ' t u r n i n g w i t h i n ' one c o u l d never again emerge 'outside'

There

w o u l d be no possibility o f escaping f r o m the clutches o f a subjectivism

The

first question i n neoscholastic t h e o r y o f k n o w l e d g e was h o w to get f r o m 'consciousness' to the 'external w o r l d ' . To start f r o m analysis o f o u r c o g n i tional activities seemed to risk leaving us trapped inside o u r o w n heads The solution was simply to insist that 'being is w h a t the m i n d k n o w s ' , ens est primum cognitum

T h e philosophy of consciousness associated w i t h

Descartes, K a n t and their successors, should simply be set aside. Lonergan was inoculated against this by his early acceptance o f C o o k W i l s o n i a n realism O n the other hand, there was something m o r e to be learnt f r o m A r i s t o t l e and f r o m Aquinas. Largely independent o f Marechal, he began to see that the supposed p r o b l e m o f b r i d g i n g the gap between consciousness and reality presupposes a h i g h l y contestable understanding o f h u m a n k n o w l e d g e as confrontation As Lonergan w o u l d note i n Insight: 'Five h u n d r e d years separate H e g e l f r o m Scotus. As w i l l appear f r o m o u r discussion o f the m e t h o d of metaphysics, that notable interval o f t i m e was largely devoted to w o r k i n g o u t i n a variety o f manners the possibilities o f the assumption that k n o w i n g consists i n taking a l o o k '

2 1

I n other words,

p i c k i n g up Marechal's key idea, mediated t h r o u g h Stephanou, Lonergan saw the obvious — h u m a n knowledge is discursive: T t was t h r o u g h Stefanu [sic] by some process o f osmosis, rather than t h r o u g h struggling w i t h the five great Cahiers, that I learnt to speak o f h u m a n knowledge as n o t i n t u i t i v e b u t discursive w i t h the decisive c o m p o n e n t i n j u d g m e n t '

2 2

Lonergan's critique of Gilson's p o s i t i o n focuses o n Gilson's 'perception23

ism': his assumption that c o g n i t i o n a l activity is confined to phenomena: perception is the one manner i n w h i c h 'cognitional activity attains objectivity'

2 4

Lonergan cites passages where Gilson writes as follows: 'the appre-

hension o f being by intellect consists i n directly seeing [Gilson's emphasis] i n any sensible d a t u m whatever the concept of being'.

113

1 O N E R G A N

I

I n his explanation o f h o w h u m a n beings gain understanding, i n Insight, Lonergamanalysed not o n l y historical and contemporary philosophical ideas b u t also recent developments i n mathematics, b o t h the natural and social sciences, as w e l l as theology; he also made a t h o r o u g h study o f c o m m o n sense.

-

O n e obstacle f o r most theologian readers is that the first five chapters broach the question of the natur e o f knowledge, or o f intelligent i n q u i r y , i n examples entirely taken from the fields of mathematics and physics. Skipp i n g to chapter six we meet countless examples o f intelligence i n every walk o f life — 'readiness i n catching o n , i n getting the p o i n t , i n seeing the issue, i n grasping implications, i n a c q u i r i n g k n o w - h o w '

2 5

- n o learning w i t h o u t

teaching — 'the c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f insight' — T t throws o u t the clues, the p o i n t e d hints, that lead t o insight I t cajoles attention to drive away the distracting images that stand i n insight's way' - ' Lalking is a basic h u m a n art' 'We w a t c h to see h o w things are d o n e ' — ' N o t only are m e n b o r n w i t h a native drive to i n q u i r e and understand; they are b o r n i n t o a c o m m u n i t y that possesses a c o m m o n f u n d o f tested answers' and so o n - ' c o m m o n sense' B y 1972, Lonergan was insisting that w e exist, n o t just i n the infant's w o r l d of immediacy, b u t i n the far vaster w o r l d mediated b y m e a n i n g .

26

Lonergan starts f r o m the simple and evident fact that infants do not speak whereas adults m o s t l y do. I n other w o r d s : so l o n g as t h e y do not speak, infants do not live i n a w o r l d mediated b y language. ' T h e i r w o r l d is a w o r l d o f immediacy, o f sights and sounds, o f tastes and smells, o f t o u c h i n g and feeling, o f joys and sorrows.' As they learn to speak, they are gradually d r a w n i n t o a w o r l d w h i c h 'includes the past and the f u t u r e as w e l l as the present, the possible and the probable as w e l l as the actual, rights and duties as w e l l as facts'

T t is a w o r l d e n r i c h e d by travellers' tales, by stories and

legends, by literature, philosophy, science, b y r e l i g i o n , theology, h i s t o r y '

2 7

I t is, however, also a w o r l d i n w h i c h 'besides fact there is f i c t i o n , besides t r u t h there is error, besides science there is m y t h , besides honesty there is deceit'. Mostly, w e get along w i t h o u t raising philosophical questions as to how this all works. Philosophers, however, raise the questions b u t , far t o o often, Lonergan suggests,

372

2 1

Insight:

2 2

A Second Collection:

2 3

I n Gregorianum

2 4

Collection:

208

265

1963. r e p r i n t e d as ' M e t a p h y s i c s as H o r i z o n ' Collection: P r e v i o u s l y , he h a d r e v i e w e d Gilson's Being and

logical Studies 11 ( 1 9 5 0 ) ,

122-5

Insight:

202—20

Some Philosophers

in

Theo-

1 73

A Second Collection: I b i d : 240

239-61.

114

B E R N A R D

B E R N A R D

I O N E R G A N

they are apt to go into a deep huddle w i t h themselves, to overlook the number of years they spent learning to speak, to disregard the differences between the infant s world of immediacy and the adult's world mediated by meaning, to reach back to their infancy, and to come up w i t h the infantile solution that the real is what is given in immediate experience. 2S

The result follows: ' K n o w i n g , they w i l l claim, is a matter o f t a k i n g a g o o d l o o k ; objectivity is a matter o f seeing w h a t is there to be seen; reality is whatever is given i n immediate e x p e r i e n c e ' .

29

This is 'naive realism', or ' e m p i r i c i s m ' The empiricist confuses the c r i teria for k n o w i n g the w o r l d mediated b y meaning w i t h the criteria for the w o r l d of i m m e d i a c y - w h a t can be k n o w n by merely feeling and t o u c h i n g and seeing. The idealist knows there is m o r e to h u m a n k n o w i n g than this, b u t he conceives this ' m o r e ' i n the same o r analogous sensitive terms and so concludes that our k n o w i n g cannot be objective The critical realist asserts that objective h u m a n k n o w i n g takes place, n o t just by experience, b u t b y experience completed b y h u m a n understanding and correct judgement ' I n the infant's w o r l d of i m m e d i a c y the o n l y objects to w h i c h w e are related i m m e d i a t e l y are the objects o f sensible i n t u i t i o n ' . ' B u t i n the adult's w o r l d mediated b y m e a n i n g the objects to w h i c h we are related immediately are the objects intended by our questioning and k n o w n b y correct a n s w e r i n g ' .

30

The objects intended are beings, entia, as the neoscholastic jargon says; w e need to be clear, however, that these beings are w h a t is to be k n o w n b y asking questions such as Quid sit and An sit - w h a t are they and w h e t h e r they exist — and by c o m i n g up w i t h correct answers. The break f r o m b o t h e m p i r i c i s m and idealism, Lonergan argues, involves the e l i m i n a t i o n of the cognitional m y t h : that k n o w i n g is l i k e l o o k i n g , that objectivity is seeing w h a t is there to be seen and n o t seeing w h a t is n o t there, and that the real is w h a t is o u t there n o w to be l o o k e d a t . and believing.

T h o m a s A q u i n a s on G r a c e

l

Lonergan was n o t , however, just a philosopher. I n Grace and Freedom

32

he

retrieves the developments o f speculative theology o n grace f r o m Augustine to Thomas Aquinas, sets o u t the terms and relations i n the latter's n o t i o n of operative and co-operative grace, and presents an as yet unsurpassed analysis of Aquinas s t h e o r y of d i v i n e transcendence and h u m a n liberty H e disengages Aquinas s n o t i o n o f divine causality from the hierarchical cosmology i n w h i c h i t was expressed H e cuts t h r o u g h the difficulties s u r r o u n d i n g subsequent theological controversies o n grace and freedom, f r o m the v o l u n tarism o f Scotus, t h r o u g h n o m i n a l i s m and the disputes o n God's grace and human

freedom

(the De Auxiliis

controversy between D o m i n i c a n s and

Jesuits), to the E n l i g h t e n m e n t and m o d e r n variations o n d e t e r m i n i s m and 35

decisionism, i n d i c a t i n g h o w crucial achievements o f Aquinas were i g n o r e d The

intellectual breakthroughs,

w h i c h Aquinas effected, were

neither

understood adequately b y his contemporaries n o r communicated t h r o u g h subsequent commentators

The ' t h e o r e m o f the supernatural' i n Aquinas

expresses the mystery o f r e d e m p t i o n as g i f t i n g h u m a n k i n d w i t h theological virtues and graces natural to G o d alone, and so absolutely gratuitous and supernatural relative to h u m a n nature

Subsequent commentators

missed

imagined separate realms or planes, one natural and another supernatural. This l e d to a host of difficulties characterized by supposed contradictions between the supernatural and the natural, grace and freedom, f a i t h and reason This w o r k convinced Lonergan that the task o f retrieving Aquinas was far m o r e difficult than most theologians had envisaged. For w h a t was needed was n o t simply historical reconstruction o f Aquinas s w o r k but p r o f o u n d changes w i t h i n the student. Obviously, i n the circumstances o f the t i m e , f o u r articles i n an A m e r i c a n

31

B u t k n o w i n g is n o t just seeing. I t is experiencing, understanding, j u d g i n g ,

115

I O N E R G A N

theological periodical i n 1941-2 d i d not make m u c h impact

In

1946,

however, r e v i e w i n g a L a t i n study o n the controversy between Jesuits and D o m i n i c a n s , Lonergan, tacitly r e f e r r i n g to his o w n w o r k , remarks that the n e w approach to reading Thomas Aquinas involves ' n o t o n l y the discredit of baroque procedures but also an unexpectedly quiet funeral for a once celebrated and v e r y passionate debate'

3 2

Grace and Freedom : Operative

Ibid

w i t h a n i n t r o d u c t i o n b y BE

2 9

I b i d : 241

Herder and Herder,

3 0

I b i d . : 243

3 5

Method and Theology ( L o n d o n : D a r t o n L o n g m a n a n d T o d d 1 9 7 2 ) : 2 3 8

3 4

3 1

2 8

See page 124 Collection:

67

1971)

n o t e 16

3 4

For himself, trained to be M o l i n i s t at

Grace in the Thought of St Thomas Aquinas,

edited b y J. P B u r n s

C r o w e ( L o n d o n : D a r t o n , L o n g m a n and T o d d and N e w York:

116

B E R N A R D

B E R N A R D

L O N E R G A N

the Gregorian, a m o n t h o n Aquinas's texts freed h i m

3:3

H i s reading o f

Thomas p u t an end to centuries o f bitter dispute, o r w o u l d have done i f i t had been m u c h studied Ironically, w h e n the articles were reprinted, i n 1972, his reconstruction o f Aquinas's theology o f grace dropped i n t o a postVatican I I e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h younger Catholic theologians understood w h a t the debate was ever a b o u t .

barely

36

117

L O N E R G A N

cism, 'was predicated u p o n things that were fine i n the sixteenth century'; but n o w we see that divisions i n t r o d u c e d by Christian W o l f f are ' n o t sacrosanct' Lonergan rejects the o l d distinctions between natural ethics and Christian ethics, between

philosophical and Christian anthropology

-

distinctions operative f r o m an A r i s t o t e l i a n v i e w p o i n t b u t no longer — and the integration has to be done i n theology. We have to move natural theology over i n t o systematic theology: from his experience students are simply b o r e d b y a natural theology w h i c h isn't 'religious', w h i c h leaves aside the involvement o f the person (19—20).

N o Philosophy of Religion

For A r istode philosophy was metaphysics from w h i c h all other disciplines

Lonergan distinguishes 'philosophy of G o d ' and 'systematics' as, respectively, t h o u g h t about G o d n o t logically derived f r o m revealed r e l i g i o n and t h o u g h t about G o d dependent o n revealed t r u t h s .

37

The f o r m e r aims at p r o v i n g the

existence of G o d and the divine attributes. The latter takes over truths established elsewhere as true and tries to understand t h e m I n an age d o m i n a t e d b y classicism and conceptualism the t w o have been separated. B y classicists Tonergan means people f o r w h o m 'the rhetorician o r orator o f Isocrates o r C i c e r o [sic] represents the fine flower o f h u m a n culture' (ix). N o d o u b t he has i n m i n d the Renaissance h u m a n i s m he k n e w as a schoolboy. Conceptualists, as we have seen, are all those i n the l o n g trad i t i o n of Western philosophy w h o picture k n o w i n g as t a k i n g a l o o k : empiricists and idealists and certainly neoscholastics. N o w , however, so Lonergan thinks, there is n o reason to have philosophy o f G o d taught by philosophers i n departments o f philosophy, and systematics taught b y theologians i n departments o f theology o r religious studies. H e rejects Pascal's distinction between the g o d o f the philosophers and the G o d o f A b r a h a m , Isaac and Jacob. M o r e specifically, he rejects the conception o f philosophy o f G o d , i n the recent Catholic past, treating God's existence and attributes i n a purely objective way — considering philosophy, and so p h i l osophy o f r e l i g i o n , as 'so objective that i t is independent o f the m i n d that thinks i t ' (13). N o w , o n the contrary, we f i n d we cannot do philosophy o f G o d prescinding f r o m ourselves — 'intellectual, m o r a l , and religious conversion have to be taken i n t o account'. N o w , i n 1972, Tonergan declares that he 'taught theology for t w e n t y - f i v e years under impossible conditions' (15). ' T h e w h o l e set-up', o f Scholasti-

derive their basic terms and relations. N o w philosophy is basically cognitional theory, and this cannot be conducted independently o f hermeneutics and history This is w h a t forces Catholic theology out o f the neoscholasticism (32). Formerly, the dogmatic theologian was expected to establish a system of propositions, f r o m Scripture, patristic w r i t i n g s , the consensus of theologians (he should have added: papal encyclicals), applying ratio theologica. N o w , however, historical scholarship intervenes between the dogmatician and these sources 'There can be n o systematic theology n o w w h i c h does n o t include biblical criticism, history o f doctrines, and so on. Above all, however, natural theology and systematics have a c o m m o n o r i g i n i n religious experience. This experience varies f r o m culture to culture, class t o class, person to person; but, r o o t e d i n God's gift o f bis love, i t is antecedent to any k n o w ledge o f G o d : ' R e l i g i o u s

experience at its r o o t is experience o f an

u n c o n d i t i o n e d and unrestricted b e i n g i n love' (51). That is, however, only the b e g i n n i n g o f the story — ' w h a t w e are i n love w i t h , remains something that w e have to find out'.. This is n o t incompatible w i t h the decree o f Vatican I , to the effect that f r o m the existence o f creatures by the natural l i g h t of reason we can k n o w w i t h certainty the existence o f G o d — this does n o t mean that fallen h u m a n beings w i t h o u t grace can k n o w w i t h certainty the existence o f G o d - so Tonergan contends. The question o f G o d may begin as a purely metaphysical question b u t i t unavoidably becomes m o r a l and religious, so that there can be no philosophy o f G o d isolated f r o m the cultural and personal backg r o u n d and expectations o f the questioner. Indeed: ' I t is o n l y i n the climate o f religious experience that philosophy o f G o d flourishes'. I t is n o t difficult, Lonergan thinks, t o establish God's existence - the hard w o r k lies i n r e f u t i n g all the objections. N o t every student of r e l i g i o n needs

3 5

Method:

to be concerned w i t h these arguments

163

3 6

Grace and

Freedom

5 7

Philosophy

of God,

Rather, w h a t matters,

Lonergan

says, is w h a t he calls 'self-appropriation' ' T h e concern o f the theologian is and Theology:

The Relationship

between Philosophy

Specialty, Systematics ( L o n d o n : D a r t o n . L o n g m a n a n d T o d d 1973) f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n t h e text.

of God and the

Functional

S u b s e q u e n t page references

n o t just a set o f propositions but a concrete r e l i g i o n as i t has been l i v e d , as i t is b e i n g lived, and as i t is to be lived' (56).

118

B E R N A R D

Experiential

L O N E R G A N

B E R N A R D

are many ways of ' b e i n g - i n - l o v e ' However, just as the question o f G o d is

Expressivism?

Lonergan o f t e n remarked that theologians

i m p l i c i t i n all our questioning, so b e i n g i n love w i t h G o d is the'basic f u l f i l -

previously placed so

much

emphasis o n the objectivity o f t r u t h that the subject was overlooked — his p o i n t being that there is no t r u t h except i n judgements and judgements exist only i n minds Perhaps n o t surprisingly, given the remarks cited about 'experience', George L i n d b e c k takes Lonergan's Method as an example o f the ' e x p e r i e n tial-expressivism' that he finds so pervasive i n C h r i s t i a n theology and religious studies

3 8

For a start, Lonergan envisages different religions as different expressions or objectifications o f a c o m m o n core experience, w h i c h is the experience that identifies t h e m as religions The experience, w h i l e conscious, may be unrecognized for w h a t i t is, at the level o f self-conscious reflection. I t is an experience that all h u m a n beings have, potentially I n most religions, the experience is the source and n o r m o f objectifications: i t is b y reference to the experience that the adequacy or otherwise o f these expressions is to be judged.

119

L O N E R G A N

39

O n the other hand, granted that the universe is intelligible, the question arises w h e t h e r i t c o u l d be so w i t h o u t having an intelligent g r o u n d (101) For Lonergan, this is w h a t the question o f G o d comes to. H e particularizes the question - are cosmogenesis, biological evolution, historical process, and so o n , i n some way related, favourable or anyway cognate to us as m o r a l beings or indifferent and alien to us? Such questions we h u m a n beings cannot avoid asking - we are the creature 'that questions w i t h o u t restrict i o n , that questions the significance o f its o w n questioning' — and so the question o f G o d comes up again. I n fact, the h u m a n spirit, call i t our t r a n scendental subjectivity, 'is mutilated or abolished, unless [we are] stretching f o r t h towards the intelligible, the u n c o n d i t i o n e d , the g o o d o f value'

The

reach of our stretching is unrestricted: 'There lies w i t h i n [our] h o r i z o n a

ment o f o u r intentionality. The absence o f this f u l f i l m e n t 'opens the way to the t r i v i a l i z a t i o n o f h u m a n life i n the pursuit o f f u n , to the harshness of h u m a n life arising f r o m the ruthless exercise o f power, to despair about h u m a n welfare s p r i n g i n g f r o m the c o n v i c t i o n that the universe is absurd' b u t ' b e i n g i n love w i t h G o d , as experienced, is being i n love i n an u n restricted fashion' — ' T h o u g h n o t the product o f our k n o w i n g and choosing, i t is a conscious dynamic state o f love, joy, peace, that manifests itself i n acts o f kindness, goodness, fidelity, gentleness, and self-control' (Gal. 5:22) Lonergan appeals to an 'experience of mystery' - R u d o l f Otto's experience o f the h o l y as mysterium fascinam et tremendum; Paul Tillich's experience of being grasped by ultimate concern; and indeed St Ignatius Loyola's consolation that has no cause, as expounded by Karl Rahner. This, no d o u b t , is the generous acceptance of a fairly heterogeneous array o f experiences, w h i c h makes Lindbeck nervous

This is sanctifying grace, Lonergan a f f i r m s - 'the

gift of God's love' — 'an experience' — w h i c h is ' o n l y consequently t i f i e d i n theoretical categories' (107)

objec-

M o r e w o r r y i n g l y still, f r o m Lindbeck's

v i e w p o i n t , Lonergan claims that, before i t enters the w o r l d mediated by meaning, language, and so o n , religion is the p r i o r w o r d G o d speaks to us by f l o o d i n g our hearts w i t h divine love 'This always p r i o r w o r d pertains to the unmediated experience of the mystery o f love and awe - this always antecedent gift, i n its immediacy, withdraws one f r o m the diversity o f history, cultures, out o f the w o r l d mediated by meaning and i n t o a w o r l d o f i m m e d i acy i n w h i c h image and symbol, t h o u g h t and w o r d , lose their relevance and even disappear' (112). O n the other hand, this does n o t mean that the historically c o n d i t i o n e d , contextually v a r y i n g o u t w a r d w o r d is incidental; i t has a constitutive role; a man and a w o m a n are n o t i n love i f they have n o t avowed this to each other; yet, the experience o f the mystery 'remains w i t h i n subjectivity as a vector, an undertow, a fateful call to dread holiness\

region for the divine, a shrine f o i ultimate holiness' Atheists may say that this space is empty; agnostics may be unsure; humanists disallow the quest i o n to arise. ' B u t their negations presuppose the spark i n o u r clod, our

Conclusion

native orientation to the d i v i n e ' (103) O u r capacity for self-transcendence, enacted i n these questions, 'becomes an actuality w h e n one falls i n love'. A d m i t t e d l y , Lonergan concedes, there

I n years of sustained study, Lonergan w o r k e d o u t , o n his o w n , a r e v o l u t i o n ary reading o f Thomas Aquinas, first i n reconstructing the history o f Aquinas's doctrine of grace, then his theory o f knowledge. W i t h Insight, he p r o d u c e d a major w o r k o f philosophical t h i n k i n g ,

3 t l

George A

Lindbeck

(London: SPCK , 0

Method:

The

Nature

of Doctrine

Religion

and

Theology

in a Postliberal

1984)

1 0 1 - 2 4 Subsequent page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n t h e text.

Age

comparable

with

Rahner's Spirit, in the World, Balthasar's Truth oj the World, and Wqjtyla's Acting Person, m u c h m o r e accessible than any o f these, at least to philosophers I n the f o r e w o r d to Tracy's b o o k Lonergan allowed that he played a modest

120

BERNARD

lONERGAN

Chapter Eight

part, i n the w i d e r process o f renewal i n Catholic t h o u g h t : ' I t crystallized, burst i n t o the open, and startled the w o r l d at Vatican I I ' - a process g o i n g o n f o r over a century, i n w h i c h theologians 'have gradually been adapting their

HANS URS

t h o u g h t to the shift f r o m the classicist culture, d o m i n a n t up to the French r e v o l u t i o n , to the empirical and historical mindedness that constitutes its m o d e r n successor'.

40

I n his reflections

VON

BALTHASAR

o n the mystery o f subjectivity,

however, o n 'the fateful call to dread holiness', B e r n a r d Lonergan (like C h e n u , de Lubac and K a r l Rahner) calls the reader i n t o a f o r m of t h e o logical w o r k w h i c h is simultaneously an ascetic discipline - a spirituality, so to speak

Greatly influenced b y H e n r i de Lubac and frequently played off nowadays against his o n e - t i m e colleague K a r l Rahner, Hans U r s v o n Balthasar is w i d e l y regarded as the greatest Catholic theologian o f the century B o r n o n 12 August 1905

at Lucerne,

Switzerland, Hans U r s v o n

1

Balthasar comes o f an o l d patrician f a m i l y H i s younger brother was to serve i n the Swiss G u a r d H i s sister became superior general o f a congregation of Franciscan n u n s .

2

H e c o u l d have been a professional pianist. H e studied

G e r m a n literature and philosophy at Z u r i c h , Vienna and Berlin. H i s doctorate, on 'the history o f the eschatological p r o b l e m i n m o d e r n G e r m a n literature', appeared, considerably r e w r i t t e n , as Apokalypse der deutschen Seele (1938) I n 1929, at an age w h e n most seminarians were being ordained, he entered the Society o f Jesus, i n Germany, since i t was still banned in Switzerland

3

Bitterly hating neoscholasticism, he discovered, f r o m the mav-

erick Jesuit E r i c h Przywara, a way o f reading T homas Aquinas, against that 4

1

I h e n o b i l i a r y particle, c o r r e c t l y e m p l o y e d o n l y w i t h f u l l n a m e o r i n i t i a l s ; i n c o n s i s t e n t l y ,

h o w e v e r , w e d o n ' t say ' v o n H a r n a c k ' 2

See

David L

yet t h e B a r o n is always ' v o n H u g e i ' .

S c h i n d l e r ( e d ) Hans

Urs von Balthasar'

His Life

and

Work (San

I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 9 1 ) ; E d w a r d T O a k c s Sj a n d D a v i d M o s s (eds) T h e Cambridge Hans

Urs von Balthasar

The Modern

Theologians:

Francisco:

Companion

to

( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i r y Press 2 0 0 4 ) , and B e n Q u a s h , i n An Introduction

to Christian

Theology since ¡918,

t h i r d e d i t i o n e d i t e d by

D a v i d F Ford w i t h Rachel Muers ( O x f o r d : Blackwell 2005): 106-23 ?

T h e b a n was l i f t e d i n 19 73; even t h e n o n l y 55 p e r c e n t o f the electors v o t e d i n f a v o u r o f

d o i n g so 4

E r i c h P r z y w a r a ( 1 8 8 9 - 1 9 7 2 ) b o r n i n U p p e r Silesia, e n t e r e d t h e S o c i e t y o f Jesus i n

1908

H e n e v e r h e l d an a c a d e m i c p o s t a n d f e w o f his w r i t i n g s are available i n E n g l i s h b u t see T h o m a s F. O ' M e a r a O P , Erich Tracy, Achievement

of Bernard Lonergan:

xi

Przywara

v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e Press 2 0 0 2 )

SJ' M s Theology and His World ( N o t r e D a m e I N : U n i -

122

H A N S

U R S

V O N

B A I I H A S A R

H A N S

U R S

V O N

123

B A I I H A S A R

p r o p o u n d e d i n the lectures he had to attend, and was introduced to the

John, f o r m e n and w o m e n I n 1950, after p a i n f u l negotiations, he chose to

w o r k o f the Heideggerian T h o m i s t Gustav S i e w e r t h .

f o l l o w this n e w call and left the Society o f Jesus

5

Balthasar was n o t a happy student: ' M y entire p e r i o d o f study i n the Society of Jesus was a g r i m struggle w i t h the dreariness o f t h e o l o g y w i t h w h a t m e n had made o u t o f the g l o r y of revelation . .

1 0

D o g g e d by gossip, he

remained i n the wilderness, ecclesiastically, u n t i l he was incardinated i n the diocese o f C h u r i n 1956

I c o u l d have lashed

Balthasar attended K a r l Barth's lectures. H i s b o o k o n B a r t h appeared i n

o u t w i t h the f u r y o f a Samson. I felt l i k e tearing d o w n , w i t h Samson's o w n

1 9 5 1 , the p r o d u c t o f lectures B a r t h attended w h e n he could. T h i s b o o k

strength, the w h o l e temple and b u r y i n g myself beneath the rubble. B u t i t

b r o u g h t Balthasar to the a t t e n t i o n o f Protestant theologians t h o u g h i t

was like this because, despite m y sense o f vocation, I wanted to carry o u t m y

attracted l i t t l e interest a m o n g C a t h o l i c s .

o w n plans, and was l i v i n g i n a state o f u n b o u n d e d i n d i g n a t i o n ' . Four years

p r i m a r i l y to p u b l i s h the dictations he was b y n o w t a k i n g d o w n f r o m Speyr

o f theology w i t h the Jesuits i n France were relieved b y m e e t i n g H e n r i de

d u r i n g her mystical trances. The first r o u n d o f publications, however,

Lubac, w h o never f o r m a l l y taught h i m (or any other y o u n g Jesuits), but,

i n c l u d e d his o w n Schleifung der Bastionen

l i v i n g i n the same house, was able to encourage t h e m - 'he showed us the

o f the R o m a n C a t h o l i c Church's 'fortress m e n t a l i t y ' ;

way beyond the scholastic stuff to the Fathers o f the C h u r c h

good-tempered

6

. . A n d so

11

H e f o u n d e d a p u b l i s h i n g house,

(1952), a f o r t h r i g h t d e n u n c i a t i o n 12

t w o comparatively

calls b y K a r l R a h n e r for f r e e d o m o f speech i n the

w h e n all the others w e n t o f f to play f o o t b a l l ' , Balthasar and a handful o f

C h u r c h ; and the 2 9 - y e a r - o l d Hans Kiing's doctoral thesis o n B a r t h (see

others 'got d o w n to O r i g e n , Gregory o f Nyssa, and M a x i m u s ' B y 1942 he

chapter 9)

had published a b o o k about each o f t h e m O r i g e n , i n particular, he discovered, recognizing ' i n astonishment that he was the most sovereign spirit o f the first centuries, w h o has set his m a r k for g o o d or i l l o n the totality of Christian theology'

7

(translated i n t o English as

The Glory oj the Lord) appeared: the first of 15, as i t t u r n e d out, successfully concluded i n 1985, and constituting by far the most impressive w o r k by any

Balthasar w o r k e d briefly i n M u n i c h , o n the Jesuit j o u r n a l Stimmen Zeit

Balthasar was n o t i n v i t e d to take part i n any capacity i n the Vatican C o u n c i l . I n 1961 the first v o l u m e o f Herrlichkeit

der

W i t h K a r l Rahner, he composed a plan f o r the r e f o r m of Catholic

t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Catholic

theologian,

comparable

w i t h Barth's ( u n -

finished) Church Dogmatics, i n scope and a m b i t i o n , as w e l l as i n b u l k .

theology. W h e n the N a z i regime encroached o n the f r e e d o m o f Catholic

H o n o u r e d i n 1965 b y the U n i v e r s i t y o f E d i n b u r g h (for his b o o k o n

journalists, he returned to Switzerland, i n 1940, to become student chaplain

Barth) and b y the Ecumenical Patriarch (for his studies o f Greek patristic

at the U n i v e r s i t y of Basle (a m i n i s t r y n o t foreseen w h e n Swiss l a w banned

w r i t e r s ) , Balthasar was at last recognized by his co-religionists i n

the Jesuits). I n 1940 Balthasar received A d r i e n n e K a e g i - v o n Speyr i n t o the

w h e n Pope Paul V I appointed h i m to the International Theological C o m -

Church

mission

8

3

9

I n 1945, they f o u n d e d a religious society, the C o m m u n i t y o f Saint

Gustav S i e w e r t h ( 1 9 0 3 - 6 3 )

lay m a n , a n d p h i l o s o p h e r , s t u d i e d 1 9 2 6 - 3 1 at F r e i b u r g i m

1 3

1969,

W h i l e Vatican I I b r o u g h t about most of w h a t Balthasar wanted,

t w o y o u n g sons

D i i r r d i e d as t h e result o f an a c c i d e n t

i n 1934

and i n 1936

Adrienne

B r i e s g a u w i t h H e i d e g g e r As an a n t i - N a z i his a c a d e m i c career was b l o c k e d , see Peter R e i f e n ¬

m a r r i e d W e r n e r K a e g i , expert o n the Renaissance historian Jacob B u r k h a r d t F r o m

berg and A n t o n van H o o f f (eds)

u n t i l 1944

Gott fiir die Weit: Henri

von Balthasar ( M a i n z : M a t t h i a s - G r i i n e w a l d - V e r l a g 2001) 6

de Lubac,

Siewerth,

Hans

Urs

f o r his i n f l u e n c e

R e c a l l i n g i n 1946 t h e w a s t e d years, c f S c h i n d l e r , Balthasar.

i n g ' t h e r a t i o n a l i s m o f t h e neoscholastics' see 'Tlteo-Logic:

Gustav

a n d s t i g m a t i z a t i o n . F r o m 1 9 4 4 u n t i l 1948 she d i c t a t e d t o Balthasar s o m e 60 v o l u m e s

13; i n 1985 he was still a t t a c k -

Theological Logical

Theory, v o l I (San

F r a n c i s c o : Ignatius Press 2 0 0 0 ) : 2 0 (San F r a n c i s c o : I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 9 3 ) : 11 is m u c h t h e best g u i d e

My Work In Retrospect

8

See ' A S c h e m e f o r a Treatise o f D o g m a t i c T h e o l o g y , i n K a r l R a h n e r . Theological vol

I ( L o n d o n : D a r t o n , L o n g m a n a n d T o d d 1 9 6 1 ) : 1 9 - 3 5 ; f o r w h i c h R a h n e r takes

A d r i e n n e v o n Speyr ( 1 9 0 2 - 6 7 ) c a m e f r o m a F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g

increasingly b l i n d

1 0

Investiga-

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t h o u g h n o t i n g i t is n o l o n g e r possible t o d i s t i n g u i s h his p a r t f r o m Balthasar s 9

H e r h u s b a n d d i e d i n 1979.

As y e t t h e r e is l i t t l e s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e o n

Text o f his r e s i g n a t i o n l e t t e r i n H

de L u b a c , At the Service of the Church

1 1

L i s t e n i n g t o M o z a r t records f o r n e a r l y 2 4 h o u r s w i t h Balthasar a n d K a e g i - v o n Speyr i n

w i n t e r 1 9 4 8 - 9 , at E i n s i e d e l n . B a r t h was so d e l i g h t e d t h a t he b o u g h t h i m s e l f a g r a m o p h o n e

Swiss, c o m f o r t a b l y - o f f

a n d b e g a n r e g u l a r l i s t e n i n g , see E b e r h a r d B u s c h , Karl Barth . His Life from Letters and graphical 'Texts ( L o n d o n : S C M Press 1 9 7 6 ) : 3 6 2

o n l y g i r l i n t h e class w h e r e h e r best f r i e n d was H e i n r i c h B a r t h ( K a r l s b r o t h e r )

n

She

(San Francisco:

I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 9 3 ) : 3 7 0 - 5

P r o t e s t a n t f a m i l y She w e n t t o s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l , against h e r m o t h e r ' s wishes, a n d was t h e was

a m o n g t h e f i r s t w o m e n physicians i n S w i t z e r l a n d f i n a n c i n g h e r m e d i c a l t r a i n i n g b y t u t o r i n g f e l l o w students

I n the

early 1950s she f e l l seriously i l l w i t h diabetes, severe a r t h r i t i s a n d b o w e l cancer a n d b e c a m e her.

1

tions

1940

she h a d a series o f v i s i o n s , ecstasies, m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s i n c l u d i n g b i l o c a t i o n

I n 1 9 2 7 she m a r r i e d E m i l D i i r r , a professor o f h i s t o r y a n d a w i d o w e r w i t h

H a n s U r s v o n Balthasar, Razing

the Bastions

On the Church

in This Age

I g n a t i u s Press 1993) 1 5

I n 1973 h e was elected a C o r r e s p o n d i n g F e l l o w o f t h e B r i t i s h A c a d e m y

Autobio-

(San Francisco:

124

H A N S

U R S

V O N

B A I

I H A S A R

H A N S

U R S

V O N

125

B A L T H A S A R

i n terms o f a n e w openness of the C h u r c h to the w o r l d , a reaffirmation o f the place o f the laity, and so o n , i t was n o t the retrieval of a fuller experience o f Catholic tradition, as he had h o p e d F r o m Cordula {1966, translated i n t o English as The Moment of Christian Truth) onwards, polemics poured f o r t h , against Karl Rahner and 'anonymous C h r i s t i a n i t y ' , Eastern m e d i t a t i o n , Hans K i i n g , w o m e n as priests, m o d e r n biblical exegesis, seminary educat i o n , and m u c h else Balthasar was instrumental i n f o u n d i n g Communio, the 'conservative' counterblast to Concilium, the periodical associated w i t h Edward Schillebeeckx, Hans K i i n g and other 'progressive' and 'liberal' Catholics: countervaifing journals w h i c h , to this day, exemplify the i n c o m mensurable perspectives w i t h i n w h i c h Catholic theology is conducted

Suarez was. so Balthasar says, 'the father o f B a r o q u e - i and N e o Scholasticism' (21) M o s t significantly, he taught 'the univocity o f B e i n g ' — the idea o f B e i n g as 'the univocal and neutral p r i n c i p l e w h i c h is beyond b o t h G o d and w o r l d ' (560)

I n 1985 A d t i e n n e v o n Speyr's 'mission'was recognized at an international c o l l o q u i u m i n R o m e , m u c h to Balthasar's delight H e sought to r e t u r n to the Jesuits but negotiations failed: they were n o t w i l l i n g to undertake responsibility f o r the Johannesgemeinschaft H e died at Basle o n 26 June 1988, three days before investiture as a cardinal, having accepted the h o n o u r reluctandy, but as recognition o f her w o r k

A n o t h e r consequence is that Suarez - n o t Descartes - laid the foundations f o r the metaphysics o f m o d e r n i t y (25).

u

Suarezianism A c c o r d i n g to de Lubac, Rahner, Lonergan and Balthasar, the T h o m i s m , w h i c h they were taught as y o u n g Jesuits, was actually ism' 1 he o n l y extended account b y one o f t h e m , w h i c h w o u l d been accepted by the others, is Balthasar's, i n his reflections o n i n the m o d e r n age

mandatory 'Suareziansurely have metaphysics

1 5

I n the w i d e r w o r l d , the Spanish Jesuit Francisco Suarez (1548—1617) is best k n o w n for his De Legibus (1616), o n the principles o f natural and international law, w h i c h influenced jurists and legislators i n C o n t i n e n t a l Europe and A m e r i c a . H e tangled w i t h K i n g James I o f England: a copy o f his Defensio fidei (1613), directed against the C h u r c h of England, was solemnly b u r n e d i n L o n d o n f o r doctrines prejudicial to the power o f the state

H

Eg

The s h o r t e r t h e skirts t h e less e x c i t i n g t h e legs F a s h i o n designers w i l l have t o b r i n g

o u t s o m e t h i n g n e w i f t h e y are t o t u r n u p t h e t h e r m o s t a t o n o u r e r o t i c i s m ' F r a n c i s c o : I g n a t i u s Press 1998;

original German

1971): 227;

Elucidations

rtie Clory of the Lord

A Theological Aesthetics

V : The Realm of Metaphysics

in the Modern

Age

( E d i n b u r g h : T & T C l a r k 1991): 21—9; subsequent page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n the t e x t T h e G e r m a n e d i t i o n appeared i n 1965; c f R o b e r t C

M i n e r , 'Suarez as F o u n d e r o f

M o d e r n i t y ? R e f l e c t i o n s o n a Topos i n R e c e n t H i s t o r i o g r a p h y ' , History 18 ( 2 0 0 1 ) :

17-36

of Philosophy

M o r e to the p o i n t here, however, Suarez's 'naive p o i n t o f depar t u r e ' c o n trols 'the clerical activity o f philosophical and theological Neoscholasticism' - w h e t h e r or n o t the d o c t r i n e o f u n i v o c i t y is f o r m a l l y taught (25). F o l l o w i n g Scotus, so Balthasar says, Suarez reduces being, reality, to one level plane, fearing that i f we allow the concept o f being to f u n c t i o n analogically then we open the way to uncertainty, since w e have no guarantee that the concept of G o d has any content at all W i t h o u t a plainly univocal concept o f being that embraces G o d as w e l l as the angels and all material things, God w o u l d slip o u t o f the range o f our k n o w l e d g e altogether, however negative, apophadc and so f o r t h we may claim i t to be. The rot spreads i n t o h o w the relationship is conceived between divine and h u m a n freedom G o d and creatures have the same k i n d of b e i n g - that w e are o n all fours, ontologically speaking - t h e n one seems to be i n a posit i o n to compare G o d and creatures The ' p i t i f u l controversy' w h i c h the ' y o u n g Society o f Jesus' allowed itself to get involved i n — the controversy De Auxiliis - rests o n the presupposition that the theological metaphysician 'can peer from above i n t o the interaction o f the Causa Prima w i t h the causa secunda (26) The existence supposedly o f a concept of being that u n i vocally embraces Creator and creatures is the p r e c o n d i t i o n for the doctrine o f M o l i n i s m , w h i c h leads to the creature's attaining 'an ultimate particulari t y and freedom w h i c h is independent of God's w i l l ' (28) 16

(San

a n d m u c h s i m i l a r needlessly

reprinted journalism 1 5

One,consequence was that his theological system failed to match his Jesuit spirituahty Balthasar takes the view held by C h e n u and mocked by G a r r i g o u Lagrange that the spirituahty of a great charismatic figure, such as St Ignatius Loyola, or religious tradition, such as the Jesuits, should be articulable i n a correspondingly distinctive theological vision, and indeed that the latter should be inspired by the former. W i t h o u t explaining this, he holds that Suarezian theology was never an adequate rendering of the Ignatian vision.

Quarterly

1 &

I n 1597

P o p e C l e m e n t V I 1 1 set u p t h e ' c o n g r e g a t i o d t A u x i l i i s ' t o deal w i t h the b i t t e r

dispute b e t w e e n Jesuits and D o m i n i c a n s o v e r w h a t aids', auxilia, t h e o p e r a t i o n o f d i v i n e grace i n the soul p r e s u p p o s e d o r r e q u i r e d : f o r L u i s de M o l i n a SJ ( 1 5 3 5 - 1 6 0 0 ) t h e e f f i c a c y o f d i v i n e grace rests u l t i m a t e l y n o t i n t h e g i f t itself b u t i n God's f o r e k n o w l e d g e o f h o w t h e s o u l w i l l c o o p e r a t e ; this scientia

media o r conditionata

b y D o m i n i c a n s ; never settled

was r e g a r d e d as a v i o l a t i o n o t d i v i n e

sovereignty

t h e dispute was suspended i n 1609 w h e n Pope Paul V forbade

D o m i n i c a n s t o call Jesuits Pelagian a n d Jesuits t o call D o m i n i c a n s

Calvimsts

126

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B A L T H A S A R

The 'sense o f philosophical mystery' disappears, and w i t h i t the 'sense o f theological mystery' - w h i c h , according to the a x i o m 'grace perfects nature', should have generated 'an intensified and deepened feeling for the mystery o f glory'. Instead, neoscholastic pedagogy, w i t h its 'apologetic all-knowingness' fails to communicate this 'feeling'; indeed i t has deleterious effects i n preachi n g and catechesis, affecting the prayer life and contemplative practice of

U R S

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This ' p h e n o m e n o l o g y o f t r u t h as w e familiarly encounter ijt' — 'natural t r u t h ' (31) - m i g h t profitably be compared w i t h K a r l Rahner's Geist in Welt (1939 version). W h i l e n o t g o i n g i n f o r detailed exegesis o f an Aquinas text, Balthasar nevertheless w o r k s o u t w h a t is v e r y m u c h an interpretation of Aquinas s epistemology, w i t h many m o r e echoes of Heidegger's w o r k than one finds i n Rahner.

Catholics w h o have no sympathy w i t h such apologetics. ' W h a t is characteris-

O v e r against the standard 'Cartesian' p r o b l e m , Balthasar insists that 'self-

tic here is that i n Neoscholasticism, w h e n the feeling f o r the g l o r y of G o d

k n o w l e d g e and the disclosure o f the w o r l d are n o t just simultaneous but

was lost - that g l o r y w h i c h pervades the Revelation as a w h o l e b u t w h i c h is

intrinsically inseparable': 'There is n o m o m e n t w h e n subjectivity m o n a d i -

not perceived by conceptual rationalism, or c o n c e r n i n g w h i c h i t remains

cally and self-sufficiently rests i n itself Rather, subjectivity is a matter of

silent, or w h i c h i t w h o l l y removes by means o f m e t h o d - there perished also

f i n d i n g oneself always already engaged w i t h the w o r l d ' (47). Furthermore,

the sensorium f o r the g l o r y o f Creation (as "aesthetics") w h i c h shone

'the revelation o f the subject can occur o n l y i n an encounter w i t h the

thr ough the w h o l e theology o f the Fathers and of the Early and H i g h M i d d l e

object' (62). W h a t this means, however, i n the 'event' and 'adventure' of

Ages' (26-7) The conceptualization of B e i n g i n Suärez's metaphysics 'annuls

intellectual knowledge, is that ' b o t h subject and object w i l l be f u l f i l l e d by

the experience of reality and encloses t h o u g h t i n a sphere w h i c h is character-

c o m i n g together, b u t the f u l f i l m e n t w i l l be a w o n d e r and a gift for b o t h ' .

ized by bare, essential predications, by the play o f the analysis and synthesis o f

' T h e subject's self-knowledge can reach its actuality o n l y b y t a k i n g a detour

concepts, and accordingly by the inner-subjective o p p o s i t i o n o f the act o f

by way of the knowledge o f another; only i n g o i n g out o f itself, i n creatively

thought (noesis) and the content o f t h o u g h t (noemaY (27).

serving the w o r l d , does the subject become aware o f its purpose and, there-

I t is no surprise, Balthasar concludes, that 'the sensorium f o r the g l o r y of C r e a t i o n ' passed to the poets and artists (Dante, Petrarch, M i l t o n , Herder, Hölderlin, Keats) and to the great natural scientists (Kepler, N e w t o n , early Kant, Goethe, Cams, Fechner, Teilhard) — leaving neoscholasticism isolated f r o m imaginative literature as w e l l as from the natural sciences W h e t h e r Balthasars assertions are altogether intelligible, w e must let pass - together w i t h the genealogy he offers f o r the rationalism, w h i c h , i n his experience, had infiltrated the mandatory philosophy, i n c l u d i n g metaphysics and apologetics, taught i n the Jesuit colleges of his day The 'Suärezianism' w h i c h Balthasar denounces seems remarkably like the ' W o l f f i a n i s m ' w h i c h we f o u n d C h e n u detecting i n Garrigou-Lagrange's T h o m i s m .

1 7

fore, o f its essence'. B u t i t is n o t o n l y the subject w h o is ' i n the w o r l d ' , dependent o n the w o r l d f o r his o r her o w n development, self-discovery, and so o n A c c o r d i n g to Balthasar, w e should n o t 'suppose that objects f o r m a self-contained w o r l d that has no essential, and at best o n l y an accidental, need o f the w o r l d o f subjects' W h i l e the object o f k n o w l e d g e is c o m m o n l y p i c t u r e d as 'an already finished, separately established, and stably self-contained t h i n g that remains unaffected by b e i n g k n o w n ' , i t is better to see that 'the objects of this w o r l d need the subject's space i n order to be themselves' (63)

The

subject is like a 'hospitable d w e l l i n g w h e r e i n things can u n f o l d t h e i r p o t e n tialities' (108)

A tree needs to be seen and heard and smelled: ' W i t h o u t the

subject's sensory space, i t w o u l d n o t be w h a t i t is

. . . T h e space o f being

that is opened and i l l u m i n a t e d i n the subject makes available to t h e object an oppor t u n i t y to be itself i n a way that the i n f e r i o r space of inanimate ele-

Subjectivity, L a n g u a g e and T r u t h

ments does n o t '

For theologians w i t h an interest i n philosophy, Balthasar's most interesting and accessible b o o k is Wahrheit der Welt, first published i n 1 9 4 7 . 1 7

Gracia B e r n a r d C a n t e n s a n d others, is a n o t h e r m a t t e r

Wahrheit der Welt (translated i n t o F r e n c h i n 1952, Spanish i n 1 9 5 3 ) , r e p r i n t e d i n 1985 as t h e

first v o l u m e o f Theologik Theory,

E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n p u b l i s h e d as as

Iheo-Logic

Tiieological

Logical

v o l 1 : Truth of the World (San Francisco: I g n a t i u s Press 2 0 0 0 ) Subsequent page r e f e r -

ences f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n t h e t e x t

Subject and object 'expand w i t h i n each other'. I t is n o t just that the subject is enriched by the object, a perfectly acceptable thesis i n m o d e r n philosophy, at any rate w h e n the subject is t h o u g h t to receive from the

H o w m u c h Balthasar's Suarez has t o d o w i t h t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s t u d i e d b y J o h n P. D o y l e ,

A l f r e d J F r e d d o s o , j o r g e J.E 1 8

18

w o r l d and n o t to impose all the meaning there is - for Balthasar, t h e object is enriched b y being taken i n t o the subject's space. Remarkably, f o r 1947, Balthasar moves f r o m this to consider the animal w o r l d We shall never k n o w w h a t an animal sees, hears and feels. For a start, even w h e n w e have senses i n c o m m o n , w e do not see i n the multifaceted

128

H A N S

U R S

V O N

B A L T H A S A R

H A N S

way o f some insects, we cannot i m a g i n e h o w the w o r l d looks to a b i r d or a

U R S

V O N

129

B A L T H A S A R

always embedded i n a k n o w i n g that can let go because i t is itself grasped'

fish: ' M o s t o f all, we cannot imagine w h a t a sensorium w i t h o u t m i n d w o u l d

(259)

be' (91). ' A l i e n worlds that w e w i l l never k n o w pass r i g h t t h r o u g h ours' -

neoscholastic philosophy - ' T h e c h i l d w h o wakens to consciousness does

w e k n o w a d o g is angry b y its bark, i n pain b y its w h i n e . Yet, so Balthasar

not enter i n t o the w o r l d as a pure spirit i n order to tackle the p r o b l e m of

contends, animals are actually f u r t h e r f r o m us than plants - nearer us to the

expression f r o m scratch Rather, the c h i l d awakens f r o m subspiritual life,

extent that they can express t h e i r fears and desires i n utterance that bears

where there was already a natural relation o f expression between inside and

generic likeness to o u r language; further, however, because the impossibility

outside and w h e r e the natural correspondences between signification and

o f i n t e r p r e t i n g the animal's 'language' drives h o m e the mysteriousness o f

signified were always already saturated w i t h h u m a n and spiritual expressive

life, indeed o f existence as such (cf 93).

relations' (162)

Above all, however, he writes excellently o n language, a lacuna i n

W h a t happens w i t h the h u m a n animal, i n Balthasar's j a r g o n , is that

This p h e n o m e n o l o g y of t r u t h , language and meaning is, i n effect, an

'being's revelation to itself also immediately enables and thus requires its rev-

o n t o l o g y o f the h u m a n person, i n c l u d i n g always already a theology (260).

elation to others' (94). B e i n g able to k n o w the t r u t h and b e i n g able to say i t

This is n o t a second-order supplemental discovery. For Balthasar, i n any

go together; there c o u l d be n o k n o w l e d g e o f the t r u t h , w h i c h is n o t

k n o w i n g we always already k n o w our creatureliness, w h i c h we can then

communicable

explicate and so conclude to God's existence: 'insofar as all grasping is itself

O n the other hand, one does n o t have to say w h a t one knows

Predisposed

as we are to c o m m u n i c a t i o n , we are n o t compelled to communicate

comprehended b y God's grasp, the f o r m of f a i t h is traced o u t already w i t h i n

on

natural reason. W h e n one freely submits i n faith to the knowledge o f G o d as

every occasion. I n our case, c o m m u n i c a t i o n begins w i t h a free decision to

T o r d and Creator one is at the same t i m e obeying one's nature, or the

share w i t h another w h a t belongs to us - ' i t is n o t as i f m a n had to avail

c o m m a n d o f G o d engraved i n one's nature' (260)

2 0

himself o f deficient, arbitrary signs i n order to communicate w i t h others, i n order to get " b e h i n d the m y s t e r y " o f another m i n d , whereas entities having perfect knowledge c o u l d somehow dispense w i t h this r o u n d a b o u t means

Barth, Beauty and Divine Glory

because they c o u l d l o o k i n t o one another's minds b y an immediate, n o n discursive i n t u i t i o n ' (95)

'Self utterance is b o u n d to the natural symbolic

language o f the senses', w h i c h is a l i m i t i n one way, since we can never overcome the solitude o f the sensory sphere; yet mastery o f this symbolic expressive language is also a help and an e n r i c h m e n t

Language is n o t an

i n v e n t i o n that floats free i n a realm o f abstraction

Rather, language is

g r o u n d e d i n the language o f nature and the laws o f natural expression

-

one's countenance, indeed one's w h o l e figure, inseparably expresses one's rootedness i n nature as soul and one's f r e e d o m as spirit The boundary between sensible and intelligible expression cannot be strictly defined. There is m u c h else i n this b o o k , w h i c h is o f great philosophical i n t e r est

1 9

T h r o u g h o u t the 1950s, Balthasar was a l o n e l y figure, theologically, supp o r t e d by his friendship w i t h H e n r i de Lubac (himself marginalized) and especially by A d r i e n n e v o n Speyr, t o w h o m he said later that he o w e d his most distinctive theological insights; w i t h o u t her, he claimed, t h o u g h she had no part i n the w r i t i n g , 'the basic perspective of Herrlichkeit w o u l d never have existed'.

21

Perhaps so - yet he also noted, elsewhere, that ' i t is almost unnecessary to set o u t h o w m u c h I owe to K a r l Bar t h : the v i s i o n of a comprehensive b i b l i cal theology, c o m b i n e d w i t h the urgent i n v i t a t i o n to engage i n a d o g m a t i cally serious ecumenical dialogue'

2 2

B a r t h ' j o y f u l l y greeted and endorsed

Balthasar, for example, attacks the dominance i n Western culture o f

the fact/value split, the d i s j o i n i n g o f b e i n g and value (103). H e writes w e l l o n t i m e and historicity (195); o n shame (213); and o n k n o w l e d g e as p r i m i tively receptive, m o c k i n g the picture o f ' t h e k n o w l e d g e - h u n g r y subject that first prowls about i n search o f prey' (258). Rather, 'a k n o w i n g that grasps is

2 0

See C h r i s t o p h e P o t w o r o w s k i ' C h r i s t i a n E x p e r i e n c e i n H a n s U r s v o n Balthasar ,

2 1

First

Glance at Adrienne

von Speyr (San F r a n c i s c o : I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 8 1 ) : 13

perhaps, w o n d e r w h y these b e a u t i f u l a n d e n r i c h i n g t h i n g s have n o t b e e n

e a r l i e r ' A n g e l a Scola 'Test Everything; 1 9

M u c h t h a t Balthasar says parallels w h a t L u d w i g W i t t g e n s t e i n was w r i t i n g a b o u t t h e same p o s t h u m o u s l y p u b l i s h e d Remarks

B l a c k w e l l 1980)

dated t o 1 9 4 6 - 9

on the Philosophy

of Psychology

I ( O x f o r d : Basil

A d r i e n n e is a

w o r l d I believe t h a t t h e C h u r c h w i l l g r a d u a l l y have t o a d o p t substantial parts o f h e r d o c t r i n e and,

t i m e : see e g

Commu-

nio 2 0 ( 1 9 9 3 ) : 1 0 7 - 1 7 .

Balthasar 2 2

Hold Fast to What Is Good. An Interview

recognized

with Hans. Urs von

(San F r a n c i s c o : I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 8 9 ) : 8 8 - 9

Rechenschaft

1965

translated b y K e n n e t h B a t i n o v i c h . i n The Analogy

of Hans Urs von Balthasar,

of Beauty.

The

edited b y J o h n R i c h e s ( E d i n b u r g h : T & ' T C l a r k 1986): 220

Theology

130

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V O N

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U R S

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131

B A L T H A S A R

m y b o o k about h i m , followed m y subsequent works w i t h some suspicion,

of the g l o r y and beauty o f G o d Balthasar f o u n d the strategy to dethrone the

b u t perhaps never n o t i c e d h o w m u c h a l i t t l e b o o k l i k e Love Alone sought to

neoscholasticism - 'sawdust T h o m i s m ' - w h i c h he hated so deeply.

be fair to h i m and represents perhaps the closest approach to his position f r o m the Catholic side'

I n the i n t r o d u c t i o n to the final v o l u m e o f Herrlkhkeit,

Balthasar reverts to

Church Dogmatics I I / I , at some l e n g t h , saying that Barth's theology o f glory

2 3

The b o o k o n B a r t h is a classic, c o n t r i b u t i n g as m u c h to the renewal o f

'agrees w i t h o u r o w n overall plan' and that o u t l i n i n g i t , as B a r t h does, offers

Catholic theology as to the reception o f B a r t h , t h o u g h o f course dated, i n

'an overview that w e ourselves can approach o n l y slowly'

b o t h respects

Herrlkhkeit

D o n a l d M a c K i n n o n remembered

a conversation

i n the

a u t u m n o f 1952 w h e n B a r t h praised the b o o k f o r 'its complete understandi n g of his most fundamental theological purposes'.

3 0

Thus, i n effect,

is a r i c h , slow, patient, and m u c h m o r e elaborate w o r k i n g out o f

Barth's theology o f the d i v i n e beauty

24

I n the i n t r o d u c t i o n to the first v o l u m e o f Herrlkhkeit,

Balthasar implies

25

D i v i n e G l o r y A n t i c i p a t e d i n Metaphysical B e a u t y

that the very idea of c o n t e m p l a t i n g the d i v i n e glory, and thus o f reconceivi n g Christian theology i n the l i g h t o f the transcendental o f beauty, comes f r o m Church Dogmatics I I / I I n that v o l u m e , published i n 1940, B a r t h deals

I n Balthasar's magnum opus the three volumes o n t r u t h are preceded by five

w i t h the perfections o f the d i v i n e f r e e d o m - G o d as ' O n e , constant and

o n the 'drama' o f God's dealing w i t h the w o r l d i n the history o f the C h r i s t -

eternal, and t h e r e w i t h also omnipresent, o m n i p o t e n t and glorious'. This

ian dispensation, and these are i n t u r n preceded by seven o n the g l o r y o f

culminates i n the claim that the biblical concept o f God's glory, i f i t is to

G o d , as anticipated i n p r e - C h r i s t i a n philosophies and revealed i n Scripture.

mean 'something other and m o r e than the assertion o f a b r u t e fact', requires

O n the basis o f the a x i o m that grace builds o n nature, and f a i t h and

the c o m p l e m e n t o f the concept o f beauty: to say that G o d is beautiful is to

reason are finally always i n consonance, Balthasar explores the history o f

say ' h o w H e enlightens and convinces and persuades u s ' .

h o w the self-revelation o f the d i v i n e g l o r y i n the biblical dispensation was

26

B a r t h cautions us against b r i n g i n g c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f G o d ' i n t o suspicious

prefigured, as we see i n hindsight, i n the great works i n the Wester n meta-

p r o x i m i t y to that c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f the w o r l d w h i c h i n the last resort is the

physical tradition. The history o f Western philosophy may be read, w i t h

self-contemplation o f an urge f o r life w h i c h does n o t recognize its o w n

Christian hindsight, as a preparation for, and counterpart to, the history o f

limits'

salvation recorded i n the Bible.

2 7

Nevertheless, we have to say that G o d is beautiful, and i n saying

this, B a r t h allows, ' w e reach back to the p r e - R e f o r m a t i o n t r a d i t i o n o f the C h u r c h ' , r e f e r r i n g to Augustine and P s e u d o - D i o n y s i u s . thinks, B a r t h achieves a 'decisive b r e a k t h r o u g h ' .

29

Neglect of the 'aesthetic' has had deleterious effects o n C h r i s t i a n t h e o l -

Here, Balthasar

ogy, Protestant and Catholic. The absence o f the aesthetic perspective begins

H i s appeal to 'an authen-

w i t h the R e f o r m a t i o n itself: ' I t appeared t o L u t h e r that the D e a t h - a n d -

28

tic theological aesthetics' had ' n o roots w i t h i n the realm o f

Protestant

Resurrection

dialectic

o f the Christ-event

had been replaced

by the

theology' b u t required h i m to retrieve 'those elements o f Patristic and

non-dialectical schemata o f neo-Platonic

Scholastic t h o u g h t w h i c h can be justified f r o m revelation itself and w h i c h ,

Gospel had been betrayed (Tuther t h o u g h t ) by Hellenization. O n the

accordingly, are n o t suspect of any undue P l a t o n i z i n g ' I n Barth's theology

contrary, Balthasar contends,

aesthetic metaphysics'.

31

The

the e l i m i n a t i o n of the aesthetic deprived

Protestants o f the contemplative d i m e n s i o n o f the act o f faith (70).. O n the 2 3

I b i d ; Love Alone:

the Way of Revelation

(L o n d o n a n d D u b l i n : Sheed a n d W a r d a n d Veritas

Catholic side, as late as Nicholas o f Cusa (1401-64), 'the normative tradition

P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1968) translated a n o n y m o u s l y w i t h a f e w m i n o r a d d i t i o n s t o t h e o r i g i n a l Glaub¬

o f t h o u g h t remains the integrated philosophical and theological m e t h o d

haft ht nur Liebe ( E i n s i e d e l n : Johannes V e r l a g ,

c o m m o n to b o t h the Platonic-Aristotelian and the A u g u s t i n i a n - D i o n y s i a n

2 4

L

Engagement

with

God

1963)

( L o n d o n : S P C K 1975): 2

M c C o r m a c k for w h o m Balthasar s b o o k is t h e massive s h a d o w ' o c c l u d i n g c o r r e c t i n t e r -

streams' (72).

:

p r e t a t i o n f o r o v e r 40 years, cf. Karl Barth's Critically Development 2 5

B a r t h was w r o n g , a c c o r d i n g t o B r u c e

1909-1936

The Glory of the Lord. A Theological Aesthetics

2 6

Church Dogmatics

2 7

I b i d : 651.

Realistic

Dialectical

Theology: Its Genesis

I ( E d i n b u r g h : T & I Clark 1982):

A f t e r Descartes, however, philosophy yields to the natural-scientific ideal

and

o f knowledge; and philosophers, i n c l u d i n g Catholic apologists, 'become

( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n Press 1 9 9 5 ) : 1 . 52-6.

eager to experiment w i t h the question o f w h a t reason can

accomplish

I I / l ( E d i n b u r g h : T & T C l a r k 1 9 5 7 ) : 650.

2 8

Ibid

3 0

The Glory of the Lord. A Theological Aesthetics

2 9

The Glory of the Lord I : 5 6

3 1

The Glory of the Lord I : 4 5

WW (San Francisco: I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 8 9 ) : 23

S u b s e q u e n t page references for q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n t h e text.

132

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U R S

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w i t h o u t the aid o f revelation and w h a t the possibilities are f o r a pure nature

been any opposition between image and concept, m y t h and revelation, the

w i t h o u t grace' (72).

apprehension o f G o d i n nature and i n the history o f salvation','so that he is

The proper sense o f theological activity is lost ' T r u e theology begins o n l y at the p o i n t where "exact historical science" passes over i n t o the science of faith proper — a "science" w h i c h presupposes the act o f faith as its locus o f understanding' (75). Balthasar directs us to Chenu's w o r k o n Thomas Aquinas: theology is a 'science', scientia, o n l y i n v i r t u e o f a concept o f 'science' w h i c h is o n l y

able to ' b u i l d a bridge between poetic aesthetics and the Ignatian exercises'.. English theology, 'reared i n an hereditary e m p i r i c i s m ' , alive i n such 36

works as A u s t i n Farrer's

The Glass of Vision and Eric Mascall's Words and

Images, involves mistrust o f the value o f universal concepts, sensitivity to the uniqueness of the i n d i v i d u a l , and is traceable back to M i l t o n , Purcell, Shakespeare, and b e h i n d t h e m to D u n s Scotus.

37

analogously like any other science, i n c l u d i n g philosophy For Aquinas, t h e o -

Charles Peguy, an ardent socialist and Dreyfusard, m u c h influenced

logical w o r k is g r o u n d e d o n p a r t i c i p a t i o n t h r o u g h grace i n the i n t u i t i v e

by the philosophy o f Bergson, and an anti-clerical w h o remained u n r e c o n -

saving k n o w l e d g e o f G o d himself and o f the C h u r c h t r i u m p h a n t . I n brief,

ciled to the C h u r c h f o r domestic reasons (he was k i l l e d o n the M a r n e i n

there is no true theology except i n v i r t u e o f the theologian's personal act o f

1914), had been far t o o controversial a figure f o r decades i n French Catholic

faith, directly, mediated i n v i r t u e o f the p a t t e r n o f faith presented by the

circles f o r his i n c l u s i o n i n Balthasar's list t o be a n y t h i n g but intentionally

C h u r c h . Few theologians these days, Balthasar hazards, believe this: o n the

provocative.

contrary, they split theology f r o m 'spirituality'

N o Philosophy without Christianity Balthasar's Alternative C a n o n Balthasar's history of philosophy comes to a head i n his claim that i t is n o w T h e alternative reading list f o r Catholic theologians is n o d o u b t deliberately

the Christian w h o 'remains the guardian o f that metaphysical w o n d e r m e n t

provocative. Balthasar offers a series o f monographs o n figures w h o have

w h i c h is the p o i n t o f o r i g i n for philosophy and the c o n t i n u a t i o n o f w h i c h is

shaped (Western) theology: Irenaeus, Augustine, Denys, A n s e l m , B o n a v e n -

the basis f o r its f u r t h e r existence'

ture, Dante, John o f the Cross, Pascal, H a m a n n , Soloviev, H o p k i n s and

tised these days only w i t h i n the context of f a i t h I t takes a C h r i s t i a n to ask

Peguy - Denys, whose radically aesthetic w o r l d - v i e w 'becomes after that o f

'the authentic metaphysical question': ' W h y is there a n y t h i n g at all and not

Augustine, the second pillar o f Western t h e o l o g y ' ,

simply nothing?'

32

an affront to exponents

3 8

I n other words, philosophy can be prac-

3 9

Bonaventure's 'cathedral-like t h e o l -

Thus Balthasar rejects Heidegger's thesis that Christians cannot take seri-

J..G. H a m a n n (1730-88) 'the Magus o f the N o r t h ' , a Lutheran;

ously the question w h y there is a n y t h i n g rather than n o t h i n g since they

Soloviev (1853—1900), w h o m few neoscholastic theologians w o u l d have

already have the answer O n the contrary, Balthasar contends, Christians are

of Aristotelico-Thomistic theology; ogy';

3 4

33

regarded as 'a t h i n k e r o f universal genius', and they w o u l d n o t have been

the o n l y ones w h o are capable o f the ' w o n d e r at B e i n g ' , the experience

delighted at the news that he 'anticipates

w h i c h is fundamental to philosophy.

Chardin'.

the vision o f Teilhard de

I n short, philosophy has a theological background. T h e religious a priori

35

W h e t h e r Gerard M a n l e y H o p k i n s , a poet ' o f the highest calibre', may

i n Plato, A r i s t o t l e and other pagan thinkers, may seldom i f ever be u n -

intelhgibly be said to represent 'the English theological t r a d i t i o n ' is another

covered; b u t i t is always operative. I t is n o t j u s t that philosophy g r e w out o f

matter: its difference f r o m C o n t i n e n t a l t h o u g h t b e i n g that 'there has never

m y t h o l o g y and r e l i g i o n historically; f o r Balthasar, w e need to acknowledge the 'indelible presence' o f theological themes and presuppositions i n actual

5 2

3 3

The Glory of the Lord- A Theological Aesthetics

I I (Edinburgh: T & T C l a r k 1984):

17-18

See W a y n e H a n k e y , ' D e n y s a n d A q u i n a s : A n t i m o d e r n C o l d a n d P o s t m o d e r n H o t , i n

3 6

Ibid.

e d i t e d b y L e w i s Ayres a n d G a r e t h Jones

3 7

The

Christian

Origins . Tlieology, Rhetoric

and Community,

( L o n d o n a n d N e w Y o r k : R o u t l e d g e 1998). 3 4

Vie

3 5

I b i d : 19.

Glory oj the Lord

11:18

Glory of the Lord I I I : 3 5 5

I n t e r e s t i n g as Balthasar s r e a d i n g o f H o p k i n s o f c o u r s e is, t h e

assumptions a b o u t Englishness w o u l d n e e d a t t e n t i o n 3 8

3 9

The Glory of the Lord V : 6 4 6 . I b i d : 613

H e i d e g g e r ' s thesis is t o b e f o u n d i n his Introduction

to

Metaphysics

134

H A N S

U R S

V O N

B A I

H A N S

I H A S A R

U R S

V O N

B A L I H A S A R

,

135

philosophical t h i n k i n g I n m o d e r n philosophy (idealism, existentialism, per-

absurd A n d because he is w i t h o u t sin he experiences the absurd i n all its

sonalism, and so on), i t is true, the u n d e r l y i n g theological motifs are over-

h o r r o r This is w h a t i t means to assume the sin o f the world.. The disembod-

looked

ied soul of Jesus undergoes the h o r r o r o f death. Far from b e i n g

or denied

Philosophical

w o r k is theologically

neutral,

most

the

philosophers w o u l d suppose. T h a t is n o t h o w Balthasar sees it. 'Greek meta-

t r i u m p h a n t liberation o f the souls f r o m the power o f the devil - t h e J i a r r o w -

physics was orientated towards the t h e i o n and the Christian v i e w o f reality

i n g o f h e l l , i n the medieval English phrase - Christ's descent is a total

t o o k possession o f this " n a t u r a l " aesthetics i n order to complete and t r a n -

identification w i t h the dead, souls psychologically cut off from others and

scend i t o n the basis o f revelation'

f r o m God.

4 0

H o l y Saturday

Nuptiality

Balthasar is, however, very adventurous i n his theological speculations Few,

C o n t e m p l a t i o n o f being, practising metaphysics properly, that is to say, is 'a

if any, theologians or philosophers have ever o w e d anything, intellectually,

being dedicated and taken up i n the mystery o f the n u p t i a l i t y between G o d

to any w o m a n

and the w o r l d , w h i c h has its g l o w i n g heart i n the marital m u t u a l i t y of

4 1

Balthasar, however, insisted that he o w e d his most distinc-

tive theological insights to A d r i e n n e v o n Speyr: ' O n the w h o l e I received

Christ and the C h u r c h ' . A d m i t t e d l y , 'philosophy', here, is i n the ancient

far m o r e f r o m her, theologically, than she from m e ' ; 'her w o r k and m i n e

patristic sense: 'a Christian life l i v e d i n consistent praxis i n the w o r l d '

cannot be separated f r o m one another either psychologically or t h e o l o g i -

Balthasar goes o n to quote Philo, Justin, C l e m e n t o f Alexandria and (of

cally. They are t w o halves of one w h o l e , w i t h a single f o u n d a t i o n at the

course) O r i g e n , f o r w h o m philosophy is 'just as m u c h practical as theoreti-

centre'.

cal, demanding the i m i t a t i o n o f the Logos, poverty, celibacy, d o m i n a t i o n of

42

The most famous of her contributions relates to the doctrine o f Christ's descent i n t o h e l l : an article o f the Apostles' Creed. The N e w Testament e v i dence is such passages as M a t t h e w 2 7 : 5 2 f , Tuke 23:43 and especially 1 Peter 3:18-20. A c c o r d i n g to the received view, Christ visited the 'place', after his death, neither heaven n o r hell, where the souls o f p r e - C h r i s t i a n people awaited the Gospel. F r o m 1941 u n t i l 1965, Speyr relived the Passion d u r i n g H o l y Week. O n

4 3

the passions, strict asceticism' (335). This asceticism, w h i c h is the kenosis o f God's agape, 'its e m p t y i n g out i n t o h u m a n f o r m , i n t o obedience and Cross', becomes 'the c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f this c r u c i f o r m pattern of all love to the bride-Church'

Thus 'this sacrifice o f the bride to the B r i d e g r o o m and

together w i t h the B r i d e g r o o m [ w h i c h is the eucharist] is the C h r i s t i a n surm o u n t i n g and perfecting o f the philosophical act' (368)

L i t u r g y is the

consummation o f philosophy, to c o i n a phrase.

the afternoon o f G o o d Friday she w o u l d fall i n t o a trance u n t i l early Easter

Indeed, i t turns out that B a r t h saw i n the Song of Songs the u n f o l d i n g o f

m o r n i n g . I n this state she w o u l d undergo the descent i n t o h e l l w i t h Jesus

the second creation narrative: 'here we witness the t h r i l l of the m a n before

H e l l was the place where G o d was absent, where there is neither faith nor

the w o m a n that has been b r o u g h t to h i m , and this t h r i l l is reciprocated by

hope n o r love. I t was the experience o f sin i n its essence, o f the radically

the w o m a n w i t h o u t any reference to f a m i l y or c h i l d r e n ' (135)

B a r t h sees

o n l y one explanation: the author o f the Creation saga and the Song b o t h "

u

The Glory of the Lord X :

anticipate the N e w Covenant o f Jesus Christ w i t h redeemed h u m a n i t y

393

4 4

In

K a r i B a r t h is t h e e x c e p t i o n : 3 0 years o f c o m p a n i o n s h i p e n d e d i n t h e early 1960s w h e n

the end, whatever the breaches o f fidelity - even the most terrible - by the

C h a r l o t t e v o n K i r s c h b a u m ( 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 7 5 ) f e l l i l l a n d was t h e n ' p u t o u t o f a c t i o n as far as t h e

C h u r c h o n earth, rejection is no longer a possibility, since these breaches are

4 1

Church

Dogmatics was c o n c e r n e d , h a v i n g taken an immeasurable p a r t i n its o r i g i n a n d progress'

( E b e r h a r d B u s c h . Karl

Barth'

His

Life from

Letters

and Autobiographical

Texts

(London:

SCM

Press 1 9 7 6 ) : 473, c i t i n g a l e t t e r f r o m 1 9 6 6 ) ; see also t h e h a n d s o m e t r i b u t e d a t e d 1950 i n t h e pteface t o Church Dogmatics 1 1

See J o h a n n R o t e n S M ,

111/3.

'undergirded by an indefectible n u p t i a l f i d e l i t y ' - ' i n the resurrection of the b r i d e g r o o m and, as its necessary consequence, the b o d i l y assumption into heaven o f the first fruits, of the b r i d e ' ( 4 1 3 - 1 4 ) .

T h e T w o Halves o f t h e M o o n : M a r i a n A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l D i m e n -

sions i n t h e C o m m o n M i s s i o n o f A d r i e n n e v o n Speyr a n d H a n s U r s v o n Balthasar' i n Hans Urs von Balthasar:

His

Life

and

Work, e d i t e d b y D a v i d L

S c h i n d l e r (San F r a n c i s c o : I g n a t i u s

4 3

Explorations

in Theology I I : Spouse of the Word (San Francisco: I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 9 1 ) : 368.

Press 1 9 9 1 ) : 6 5 - 8 6 , an i m p o r t a n t discussion f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g B a l t h a s a r s w o r k ; Balthasar

S u b s e q u e n t page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s are i n t h e t e x t

cited

"

74-5

4

Church

Dogmatics I I I / l 3 1 3 f f

136

H A N S

U R S

V O N

B A I I H A S A R

H A N S

U R S

V O N

B A I I H A S A R

(

137 \

The allegorical application o f the Song Balthasar traces to O r i g e n s v i s i o n

I t is n o t o n l y the relationships between G o d and creation, C h r i s t and the

o f the relation between C h r i s t as b r i d e g r o o m and the C h u r c h as bride.

C h u r c h , C h r i s t and the soul, and so o n , as w e l l as the union! o f the two

T h o u g h the text existed i n Greek i n the Septuagint ( 2 5 0 - 1 5 0 B C ) , the alle-

natures i n C h r i s t , w h i c h reflect the nuptiality The practice o f theology itself

gorical interpretation is n o t attested u n t i l R a b b i A q i b a (d. A D 135); i t gets

'participates i n a special manner i n the b r i d a l holiness o f the C h u r c h ' .

g o i n g w i t h O r i g e n (c

185-c. 254), t h e n begins its ' t r i u m p h a l m a r c h ' , as

Indeed, 'theology as dialogue b e t w e e n b r i d e and B r i d e g r o o m i n t h e unity

Balthasar calls i t , t h r o u g h the patristic and medieval-scholastic periods i n t o

and c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f the Spirit', so Balthasar says, e x p o u n d i n g Scheeben,

the p e r i o d 'even o f the R e f o r m a t i o n and the Baroque Age'.

is ' c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f the b r i d e g r o o m by the b r i d e , and this becomes more

This is normative n o t just for marriage (and v i r g i n i t y ) b u t f o r all the

objective,' p r o f o u n d and comprehensive,

the more l i g h t and grace are

forms o f nuptial i n t i m a c y and relationship that he sees at every level i n the

i m p a r t e d by the B r i d e g r o o m to the b r i d e ' (203)

cosmos

w h i c h many theologians, Catholic or otherwise, w o u l d t h i n k o f t h e i r w o r k

The doctrines o f creation and r e d e m p t i o n are radically Christological,

This is n o t the language i n

Q u i t e w h a t i t w o u l d a m o u n t to, i n practice, is, however, perhaps n o t all that

Balthasar says - a very B a r t h i a n t h o u g h t , w h i c h old-fashioned Thomists

obscure.

w o u l d no d o u b t accept also, t h o u g h after saying a great deal else first. M o r e

Balthasar advises us, i n the sense that he c o n f r o n t e d the theology o f Thomas

controversially, these doctrines are properly e x p o u n d e d o n l y i n the l i g h t o f

Aquinas w i t h the mystical experience o f J o h n o f the Cross: ' m a k i n g t h e m

the analogy o f m a r r i a g e : ' The Fathers.

elucidate and complete each other' (204). O n e may n o t accept all his c o n -

saw the f o r m a t i o n o f the hyposta-

The example

o f Garrigou-Lagrange m i g h t w e l l be f o l l o w e d ,

tic u n i o n as the real and p r i m o r d i a l marriage u n i o n , that o f G o d w i t h the

clusions, yet his initiative and m e t h o d are to be c o m m e n d e d M o r e basically

w h o l e of m a n k i n d . .. . The marriage o f C h r i s t and the C h u r c h is to be

still: ' T h e o l o g y is essentially an act o f adoration and prayer. This is the tacit

interpreted against the b a c k g r o u n d o f an, as i t were, fundamental marriage

presupposition of any systematic theology, the air that courses t h r o u g h the

w i t h m a n k i n d as a w h o l e '

I n other words, w h a t happened i n the Incarna-

systems' (206). W h a t has happened, as 'theology at prayer was superseded by

t i o n is a w e d d i n g o f the d i v i n e and the h u m a n natures o f the Son o f G o d .

theology at the desk', is that 'scientific' theology 'lost the accent and tone

Thus, ' w h e n the Fathers see the actual connubium between G o d and m a n

w i t h w h i c h one should speak o f w h a t is h o l y ' , w h i l e 'affective' theology

4 5

realized i n C h r i s t himself, i n the indissoluble u n i o n o f the t w o natures, this

'degenerated i n t o unctuous, platitudinous p i e t y ' (208)

is also n o purely physical occurrence, w i t h its m a t r i m o n i a l character e x c l u -

w o u l d no d o u b t endorse this v i e w that C h r i s t i a n theology, however r i g o r -

sively derived f r o m the side o f G o d and his i n t e n t i o n . I t is a real t w o - s i d e d

ously academic and professional, needs to be practised i n the context o f

mystery o f love t h r o u g h the b r i d a l consent o f M a r y acting f o r all the rest o f

Christian life and worship.

created flesh, to w h i c h G o d wills to espouse h i m s e l f - 'the hypostatic u n i o n is the c a r r y i n g o u t and thus the final indissoluble sealing o f the covenant o f fidelity' (163).

M a n y theologians

There is n o call f o r a revival o f patristic theology at the expense o f medieval scholasticism, Balthasar adds I n any case, ' i t is o f the v e r y essence o f t r a d i t i o n , and so o f theology, that its progress depends o n a deeper, bolder

Balthasar takes this Taw o f theology' f r o m Scheeben for w h o m everything is related, one way or another, to the structure o f this connubium,

exploration o f the sources'. I n this o n g o i n g r e t u r n to the t r a d i t i o n , no one

this e p i -

has m o r e to offer than Thomas Aquinas - ' w h a t a variety o f approaches and

thalamic relationship: ' A t the centre o f his theology is the G o d - m a n w i t h

aspects he suggests, h o w numerous the hints and promptings scattered at

the t w o natures, whose u n i o n he interprets, w i t h the Greek Fathers, as the

r a n d o m t h r o u g h his w o r k s , compared w i t h the d r y bones o f a m o d e r n text-

marriage o f G o d w i t h m a n k i n d i n Mary's bridal chamber'

b o o k ' (208)

4 6

I n other words, Aquinas's o w n w o r k is incomparably more

open-ended and patient of i n n o v a t o r y interpretations and developments than the closed systems o f theology ad mentem sancti Thomce suggest 4 5

W h o is t h e C h u r c h ? ' , i n Spouse of the Word: 1 8 1 ; a n essay, Balthasar tells us w h i c h Y v e s

C o n g a r said he d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d , cf. Scola. Test Everything: 4 6

Explorations

in Theology I : Tlie Word Made Flesh

o r i g i n a l l y published i n G e r m a n i n 1960

82

(San F r a n c i s c o : I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 8 9 ) : 2 0 2 ;

M a t t h i a s Joseph S c h e e b e n ( 1 8 3 5 - 8 8 )

a seminary

professor was an enthusiastic s u p p o r t e r o f t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f p a p a l s u p r e m a c y i n 1870

T h e Marian Principle

b u t his

passionate o p p o s i t i o n t o E n l i g h t e n m e n t r a t i o n a l i s m issued, n o t i n n e o s c h o l a s t i c i s m , b u t i n his

T h e world's response to G o d i n Jesus C h r i s t takes the f e m i n i n e f o r m o f

o w n Catholic version of G e r m a n R o m a n t i c i s m

M a r y - C h u r c h ; a culture, w h i c h w o u l d be C h r i s t i a n and fully h u m a n , w o u l d

138

H A N S

U R S

V O N

H A N S

B A L T H A S A R

be ' M a r i a n ' , p r i m a r i l y ' f e m i n i n e ' A c c o r d i n g to the medieval theme o f the soul as sponsa Christi, Christ's spouse, w e are all feminine-receptive-virginal

U R S

V O N

B A L I H A S A R

139

attitude i n w h i c h w e contemplated nature w h i l e b e i n g receptive to its essence - the contemplative-receptive gaze has t u r n e d i n t o a merely calcu-

The

lating stare. T h e f e m i n i n e element that makes a person secure i n nature and

philosophical practice o f c o n t e m p l a t i o n comes to a climax i n the H o l y

i n b e i n g (sic!) is abandoned i n favour of a preponderance of the masculine

Mass: 'the b r i d e is sacrificed together w i t h the B r i d e g r o o m ; she is placed

element, w h i c h 'pushes f o r w a r d i n t o things i n order to change t h e m by

together w i t h h i m under the one k n i f e o f the Father o n M o r i a h ; the

i m p l a n t i n g and i m p o s i n g something o f its o w n ' (189) W e should n o t press

M o t h e r o f the L o r d shares i n the state o f being abandoned

the analogy o f sexual intercourse, o f male penetration, t o o far, Balthasar

The Mar ian p r i n c i p l e is decisive i n the celebration o f the eucharist

w h o is abandoned by G o d o n the Cross '

. w i t h the Son

advises. M o r e o v e r , the contemplative attitude o f ' l e t t i n g oneself be gifted

4 7

A m o n g the many patristic and medieval texts Balthasar quotes he likes this f r o m M e c h t h i l d v o n H a c k e b o r n ( 1 2 4 1 - 9 9 ) : as the t i m e o f H o l y C o m m u n i o n approaches, i n her vision, M e c h t h i l d sees

and f r u c t i f i e d b y nature and b e i n g ' is n o t , whatever one m i g h t be tempted to t h i n k , 'feminine i n the sense o f mere receptivity' (189). Rather, there is a way o f t h i n k i n g ' w h i c h , like the f r u c t i f i e d w o m b , is able to beat patiently the seeds conceived and give b i r t h to t h e m i n images, myths and concepts'

a table was set down and the Lord sat at i t and his Mother sat down beside him The whole community approached the table, and every one knelt down and, from under the arm of the Blessed Virgin, received the Body o f the Lord from the Lord's hand The Blessed Virgin held out a golden chalice containing the stream o f blood that came from the Lord's side, and all drank from i t that wondrous drink which flowed from the Lord's side 4 8

F r o m the creation o f the ' h u m a n ' as male and female and thus as God's image and likeness (Gen. 1 : 27) to the 'great mystery' o f C h r ist and C h u r c h imaged i n mar r iage (Eph 5: 2 2 - 3 3 ) , the f o r m o f the C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e o f creation and o f the history o f salvation is radically 'nuptial'. The Song of Songs turns out to be the key text, as i t were the lens for reading Scripture as a whole.

I n a contemplative person, the active element o f the f e m i n i n e p r i n c i p l e is w e d d e d to the passive element o f the masculine - passive, since i t needs the self-bestowing w o m b i n order to be able to give itself freely and f u l l y W h e r e positivistic technocratic t h i n k i n g dominates, the female element vanishes f r o m the attitude of the m a n , leaving h i m w i t h n o other h o p e than to appeal to the w o m a n , ' w h o perceives and understands her role as counterpoise to and spearhead against man's increasingly history-less w o r l d ' (191) I n fact, the Catholic C h u r c h is perhaps the world's last stand i n valuing the difference between w o m e n and m e n

I n the eucharist above all, the

extreme oppositeness and c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y o f their functions guarantees the fruitfulness of h u m a n nature. I t is to m e n that the masculine tasks of i n i t i a t i o n and leadership are given - always w i t h i n the all-embracing M a r i a n C h u r c h These m e n - bishops and priests - represent C h r i s t : i n t h e surrender of his entire substance o n the Cross he gathers the people o f G o d to himself eucharistically w h i l e the m e n w h o represent h i m have a specifically

Against F e m i n i s m

masculine f u n c t i o n , w h i c h is 'the transmission o f a vital for ce that originates

A c c o r d i n g to Balthasar, w o m e n w h o w a n t to play the male role i n the C h u r c h want something less than they already a r e .

49

The w o r l d w i d e o f f e n -

sive o f f e m i n i s m - ' w o r l d wide'? - battles for the equality o f w o m e n w i t h m e n b u t does so i n a p r e d o m i n a n t l y m a l e - o r i e n t e d technological civilization. I t aspires to an unnatural masculinization o f w o m a n . This is a great tragedy: rationalism has taken over, natural things and conditions are seen as raw material for manufacturables (this is pure Heidegger) We have lost the

outside itself and leads b e y o n d i t s e l f . The fruitfulness o f the w o m a n always depends o n a p r i o r fructification by the m a n Christ as m a n brings about the fruitfulness o f his b r i d e the C h u r c h , above all i n the celebration of the eucharist, the marriage feast; thus i t takes m e n to represent h i m , i n an analogous and of course m u c h diminished manner Ultimately, fundamentally, Balthasar insists, the C h u r c h is f e m i n i n e : receptive, n u r t u r i n g ; g i v i n g b i r t h to w h a t she receives f r o m Christ. The C h u r c h continues, m o r e intensely, the relationship o f the people o f ancient Israel w i t h the L o r d G o d F r o m the early Fathers of the C h u r c h i n t o the

4 7

Spouse of the Word: 369

4 8

Theo-Drama.

Theological

M i d d l e Ages the C h u r c h is imaged as a w o m a n : ' m o t h e r C h u r c h ' , 'the bride Dramatic

Theory V:

The Last Act (San F r a n c i s c o : I g n a t i u s Press)-

468 4 9

W o m e n Priests? i n New

Elucidations

(San F r a n c i s c o : I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 8 6 ) : 1 8 7 - 9 8

s e q u e n t page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n t h e t e x t

Sub-

o f C h r i s t ' . This image prevailed despite the fact that the hierarchy was c o m posed solely o f men. 'These m e n are the agents of C h r i s t the B r i d e g r o o m w i t h i n the Church's all-embracing f e m i n i n i t y ' (211)

140

H A N S

U R S

V O N

H A N S

B A I I H A S A R

Balthasar sweeps aside the erroneous idea o f w o m a n as a mas occasionatum, a defective m a n ; as w e l l as the related b i o l o g y according to w h i c h , i n p r o creation, the m a n alone plays an active role w h i l e the w o m a n remains passive and receptive C o n s i d e r i n g the months o f pregnancy, b i r t h , n u r t u r i n g , and so o n , i t w o u l d be better to say that the woman's role is significantly

U R S

V O N

141

B A I I H A S A R

and w i f e i n marriage (Eph. 5:25).. There are, o f course, immense differences ' C h r i s t does something that a husband can i n n o way do: C h r i s t brings f o r t h the C h u r c h f r o m himself as his o w n fullness, as his body, and, finally, as his Bride'

5 2

Husbands do n o t b r i n g f o r t h their wives; they encounter t h e m as

separate persons, w i t h their o w n f r e e d o m and their o w n act of surrender.

Balthasar

Nevertheless, i n sexual intercourse, i t is the m a n w h o initiates, w h i l e the

observes that w e m i g h t better say that the e m b r y o n i c structure o f all l i v i n g

w o m a n , active i n her o w n way, is essentially passive. ' W e c o u l d almost say

m o r e active than that o f the man

C i t i n g recent biologists,

creatures, i n c l u d i n g humans, is basically f e m i n i n e This resonates w i t h the

(very nicely) that, t h r o u g h the m a n , the w o m a n is somehow awakened to

ancient v i e w that nature is feminine. W e m i g h t reverse the patristic and

herself, to the fullness o f her f e m i n i n e self-awareness'

(216)

medieval v i e w and say that m e n are defective w o m e n . A l l created being, w e

'Such an order of things holds true even i f w e may smile at the incidental,

m i g h t say, is f e m i n i n e i n relation to the creator G o d . The ultimate r e l a t i o n -

marginal and transitory character o f the male's f u n c t i o n i n procreation, a

ship o f creature to Creator is e m b o d i e d i n the relationship o f the C h u r c h to

f u n c t i o n that certainly cannot be compared w i t h Christ's extraordinary act

her Lord.

of self-surrender' (216) ' T h e begetting power of Jesus C h r i s t , w h i c h is what creates the C h u r c h , is his eucharist'

. C h r i s t neither 'holds [anything] back

for h i m s e l f , n o r 'places any reservations o n his o w n self-surrender' - he has 'no fear o f losing' h i m s e l f ' t h r o u g h the perfect o u t p o u r i n g and lavishing o f

Paul VPs Encyclical

h i m s e l f - ' U n l i k e the m a n i n the act of intercourse, C h r i s t does n o t give

Balthasar defends Pope Paul VTs c o n d e m n a t i o n o f artificial contraception bur-contends that o n l y Catholic Christians can understand the challenge t h r o w n o u t by the encyclical, and a m o n g t h e m perhaps o n l y a t i n y m i n o r i t y o f m a r r i e d couples w h o practise a certain asceticism.

50

A t one stage, however, Balthasar, w h i l e recognizing that w i t h the e n c y c l i cal Paul V I had opted f o r 'the ideal o f the small, l o v i n g devoted c o m m u n i t y ' , against the m a j o r i t y of his advisors, stated that he 'was b u r d e n i n g and b i d i n g the consciences o f m a r r i e d Catholics i n an issue that had serious c o n sequences' - here Balthasar aligns h i m s e l f explicitly w i t h Hans K i i n g

away just a little o f his substance' (217) Sexual orgasm, a climax i n the c o m i n g together o f m a n and w o m a n , ecstatically f o r a m o m e n t , seems to be the analogy here. N o d o u b t the analogy o f sexual intercourse should n o t be pressed t o o far, as Balthasar says. O n e m i g h t t h i n k , however, that d e n y i n g any comparison between Christ's act o f self-surrender i n the eucharistic sacrifice and a husband's self surrender i n the act o f sexual intercourse, 'incidental, marginal and transitory' as i t is, is already g o i n g quite far.

He

grants that w e can all see 'the devastation created i n the sexual area by the

S u p e r sexuality i n the T r i n i t y

separation o f pleasure f r o m the risk o f self-giving' (pregnancy, that is to say). Yet, he suggests, the f o r m of the encyclical 'needs to be c r i t i c i z e d ' - i t w o u l d have been better, he clearly thinks, ' t o p o i n t to the ideal as a " n o r m a t i v e

The last v o l u m e o f Theodramatik,

g o a l " to satisfy the objective, eschatological emphasis o f the C h r i s t i a n

w h i c h appeared i n 1983, draws heavily o n Scripture, interweaving hundreds

entitled ' T h e Last A c t ' , Das

Endspid,

concept of selfless and self-renouncing love, the personal ideal o f the c o m -

o f quotations f r o m A d r i e n n e v o n Speyr, such that, w h e n the prefatory note

m i t t e d , w h i l e at the same t i m e b o t h stimulating and reassuring those w h o

refers to 'our theology', Balthasar means exactly that: T quote her to show

were either unable o r t o o perplexed to f o l l o w this c o u r s e ' .

the fundamental consonance between her views and m i n e o n m a n y of the

51

The relationship between C h r i s t and the C h u r c h is repeated, analogously, and thus w i t h all due qualifications, i n the relationship between husband

5 0

A W o r d o n Humana;

New Elucidations: 5 1

Hie

Vita

G e r m a n o r i g i n a l 1974): 330

Balthasar's theology 'gnostic' and 'neo-Chalcedonian'. These insults mean

5 2

the

Structure

of the Church

(San Francisco:

I g n a t i u s Press

1986;

5 3

L h e purpose of the prefatory note is to t w i t K a r l Rahner f o r d u b b i n g

, o r i g i n a l l y a l e c t u r e at a s y m p o s i u m i n San Francisco, 1978; i n

204-28

Office of Peter and

eschatological topics discussed here'

A W o r d o n Humance

the text Theo-Drama 5 3

Vitce': 215; subsequent page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n

V : 13 S u b s e q u e n t page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n t h e t e x t

142

H A N S

U R S

V O N

B A I I H A S A R

H A N S

that, for Rahner, Balthasar's speculations about the i n t e r i o r life o f the t r i u n e G o d verge o n d e n y i n g the traditional d o c t r i n e o f God's i m m u t a b i l i t y ; and, second, his endorsement o f the thesis ' O n e o f the I f i n i t y has suffered i n the

following

(and n o t vice versa): o n the Trinity, the i n c a r n a t i o n o f the Son, his Cross and Resurrection o n o u r behalf, and his sending o f the Spirit to us i n the 54

The first step is to insist that the G o d revealed i n Jesus C h r i s t 'exists i n himself as an eternal essence (or Being), w h i c h is equally eternal (that is, n o t

extent that one may have to address people w h o believe i n G o d and need to be c o n f i r m e d i n this faith before they are i n t r o d u c e d to the d o c t r i n e o f the Trinity, this division has n o N e w Testament basis. For Balthasar, i t is n o way to conduct the theology of G o d a m o n g Christians: 'Jesus does n o t speak about G o d i n general but shows us the Father and gives us the H o l y S p i r i t ' (67). The o n l y picture o f the divine 'essence' f o r us w h o are Christians is always already o f 'the t r i u n e process'. The t w o apparently contradictory concepts - 'absolute being' and 'happening' — w e have to see as a unity. Here, Balthasar recalls patristic texts. G r e g o r y o f Nyssa, for example, writes of G o d , paradoxically, as 'rest that is eternally i n m o t i o n and constant m o t i o n that is at rest'

H e interweaves such texts w i t h formulations by

recent theologians Klaus H e m m e r l e , f o r example, thinks o f G o d as 'happening, action, c o n s u m m a t i o n ' Balthasar includes paradoxes by A d r i e n n e v o n Speyr: since love as w e k n o w i t is always enlivened by an element o f

' T h e very fact o f the T r i n i t y ' , Balthasar hastens to say, 'forbids us t o project any secular sexuality i n t o the Godhead (as happens i n many religions and i n the gnostic syzygia)' - w h i c h n o d o u b t is meant to head o f f Rahner's k i n d of worries.

forced. I t does n o t help that the f e m i n i n e is construed as essentially passive, b e i n g - d o n e - t o rather t h a n d o i n g , receiving rather than g i v i n g , b e i n g determ i n e d by another; w h i l e the masculine is essentially active, i n i t i a t i n g , doing and donating - all very m u c h o n analogy w i t h male/female sexual coupling, as traditionally conceived. Balthasar warns us against the error of projecting sexual difference o n G o d and especially against seeing i n the H o l y Spirit the feminine, indeed the ' w o m b ' i n w h i c h generation occurs

then the feminine would best be sought in the Son, who, i n dying, allows the Church to emerge from himself, and who, in the whole of his earthly existence, allowed himself to be led and 'fertilised' by the Father ; but i n such a way that, at the same time, as a man, he represents the originally generative force of God in the world And since the Son proceeds from the Father, the different sexes are, in the end, present i n the latter [the Father] in a 'preternatural' way; it was for this reason that, i n the O l d Covenant, his love could also be described i n terms of feminine qualities

5 5

o n the 'sublime transactions' (80) w i t h i n the t r i u n e

Godhead certainly dislodges the 'static' G o d o f so-called 'classical theism'..

T h e i m p l i c a t i o n is, o f course

faith'

T t one wishes to go further',

however,

wildest expectations'; ' G o d himself wishes to be surprised by G o d , b y a f u l -

1,4

O n the face o f i t , however, the a t t r i b u t i o n , however analogically,

Persons seems more confusing than enlightening. I t even seems a little

'a c o m m u n i o n o f surprise": ' f r o m the outset [the Son] surpasses the Father's

This insistence

56

o f super-masculine and super-feminine postures to the intra-Trinitarian

surprise, something analogous must be predicated o f G o d . G o d as T r i n i t y is

f i l m e n t that overflows expectation'; and so o n .

143

In trinitarian terms, of course, the Father w h o begets h i m who is without origin, appears primarily as (super-) masculine; the Son, i n consenting, appears initially as (super-) feminine, but in the act (together w i t h the Father) of breathing forth the Spirit, he is (super-) masculine As for the Spirit, he is (super-) feminine There is even something (super-) feminine about the Father roo, since, as we have shown, i n the action of begetting and breathing forth he allows himself to be determined by the Persons w h o thus proceed from him; however, this does not affect his primacy i n the order o f the Trinity (91)

Thomas Aquinas: 'we have t r i e d to erect theology o n the articles o f faith

Deo uno and de Deo trino is o f some use i n apologetics, Balthasar notes, to the

H A S A R

H e directs us to the analogy o f the duality o f the sexes:

Balthasar allows that he and A d r i e n n e go as far as revelation permits - 'some

temporal) " h a p p e n i n g " ' (67). W h i l e the d i s t i n c t i o n i n seminary courses de

B A L I

For Balthasar, there is n o g i v i n g w h i c h is n o t also receiving and vice

borders o n the heresy o f 'theopaschism' { h o l d i n g that ' G o d suffered')

apostolic church and i n the communio sanctorum' ( 1 4 ) .

V O N

versa, as also there is n o initiative w h i c h is n o t also consent.

flesh', defended i n the early sixth c e n t u r y by m o n k s i n Constantinople,

may feel w e have gone one step t o o far'; b u t they are o n l y

U R S

t h a t R.almer. w i t h his interest i n c r e a t i n g ' s h o r t f o r m u l a s o f

i n effect r e w r i t e s the C r e e d o n t h e basis o f his t h e o l o g y ; Balthasar is also c l a i m i n g

T h o m a s A q u i n a s as p r e c u r s o r a n d p a t r o n a l b e i t a n e v i d e n d y m u c h r i c h e r T h o m i s m t h a n t h e s e m i n a r y t e x t b o o k s o r t h e emphasis o n A q u i n a s as p h i l o s o p h e r p r o v i d e d 5 5

Credo : Meditations

on the Apostles'

Creed ( E d i n b u r g h : T & T C l a r k 1 9 9 0 ) : 7 8

^

b

Svzygy:

p a i r ' - i n a n c i e n t G n o s t i c p a r l a n c e the c o s m o s was b r o u g h t a b o u t t h r o u g h the

i n t e r a c t i o n o f such opposites as male a n d f e m a l e

144

H A N S

U R S

V O N

BAIT.

H A S A R

Chapter Nine

Balthasar then cites Later/an I V — even i n this respect G o d is ' m o r e dissimilar than similar' - yes i n d e e d !

57

The Father, Balthasar has said earlier, 'is no statically self-contained and

HANS

comprehensible reality, b u t one that exists solely i n dispensing itself ' 'a f l o w i n g wellspring w i t h n o h o l d i n g - t r o u g h beneath i t , an act o f procreation w i t h no seminal vesicle, w i t h no organism at all to p e r f o r m the act'

KÜNG

5 8

Conclusion F r o m the Phenomenology of Truth i n 1947 to the 15 volumes o f the t r i l o g y Herrlichkeit,

Theodramatik, and Theologik, and the scores o f ancillary w r i t i n g s ,

Hans U r s v o n Balthasar created an entirely different version of Catholic theology f r o m anything ever i m a g i n e d by regular disciples o f

Thomas

Aquinas. W i t h sources as diverse as K a r l B a r t h , A d r i e n n e K a e g i - v o n Speyr, Greek fathers such as O r i g e n and M a x i m u s the Confessor, and Gustav Siewerth's Heideggerianized Aquinas, Balthasar's w o r k is clearly unique, idiosyncratic and inimitable.. H e is b y far the most discussed Catholic t h e o ­ logian at present, as the ever-expanding secondary literature shows, over­ w h e l m i n g l y positive i n tenor, w h i c h is perhaps surprising — unless critics do n o t k n o w where to start..

Books by popes are best sellers. Otherwise, by far the most w i d e l y read t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Catholic theologian is Hans K i i n g H i s attacks o n the doctrine o f papal supremacy, and eventually o n the authoritarian style of Pope John Paul I I , led to the w i t h d r a w a l o f his right to teach as a Catholic theologian by the local bishop i n 1979, w h i c h d i d n o t h u r t sales Ironically, w i t h the exception of C h e n u (one o f his heroes), K i i n g is the only one of the theologians w e are considering İn this b o o k w h o completed the seven-year­ l o n g course i n neoscholastic philosophy and theology at a R o m a n university K i i n g revels i n Swiss intransigence B o r n o n 19 M a r c h 1928 i n Switzer­ land, by the Sempacher See, w h e r e the Habsburgs were defeated i n 1386, he had a traditional Catholic u p b r i n g i n g , i n a happy f a m i l y H e felt called to 1

the diocesan p r i e s t h o o d w h i l e still at school H e studied i n R o m e at the Jesuit-staffed Gregorian U n i v e r s i t y f r o m 1948 to 1955, dashingly dressed i n the red soutane favoured at the G e r m a n College Far f r o m feeling oppressed i n the intellectual climate o f the last decade o f Pius X I I ' s pontificate, he seems to have enjoyed himself I n 1950 K i i n g was 'enthusiastically present' at the solemn proclamation o f the dogma o f the A s s u m p t i o n of t h e V i r g i n M a r y The encyclical Humani Generis, issued i n 1950, reaffirming Scholastic philosophy against m o d e r n trends, d i d not i n t i m i d a t e h i m , as i t d i d so many others. K i i n g celebrated Mass f o r the first t i m e i n the c r y p t o f St Peter's, the day the inoperable b r a i n t u m o u r , w h i c h was to k i l l his o n l y brother, made its presence felt.

1

See

t h e first v o l u m e o f a u t o b i o g r a p h y : H a n s K i i n g , My

( L o n d o n : C o n t i n u u m 2 0 0 3 ) ; H e r m a n n H â r i n g Hans Kiing: Press 1998), a n d W e r n e r G Jeanrond 5 7

5 8

Credo: I b i d : 30

78-9

Theology

in the Twentieth

1997): 162-78

Century,

i n The Modern

Struggle for

Breaking

Theologians,

Freedom:

Through

Memoirs

(London: SCM

An Introduction

to

Christian

e d i t e d b y D a v i d F F o r d , second e d i t i o n ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l

146

H A N S

H A N S

K U N G

M o r n i n g lectures, of course i n L a t i n , were f o l l o w e d i n the afternoons,

147

K Ü N G

was never m question. The practical effect was that he could n o longer

back at the G e r m a n i c u m , by g o i n g over the material w i t h a y o u n g Jesuit

examine seminarians: attendance at his lectures increased.. F r o m t h e n u n t i l

('no sense o f h u m o u r ' ) , whose neoscholastic T h o m i s m K i i n g brushed off

he retired i n 1996 he h e l d a chair f o r ecumenical theology, independent of

easily H e writes appreciatively o f some o f his teachers, Paolo Dezza a m o n g

the Catholic faculty

2

others. H e f o u n d Bernard Lonergan's lectures o n C h r i s t o l o g y tedious H e

Hans K i i n g has published three substantial, w i d e l y read works o f C h r i s t -

t o o k a course o n Hegel. H e w r o t e his licentiate dissertation o n Sartre (there

ian apologetics: On Being a Christian, Does God Exist?, and Eternal Life? H e

were always Jesuit professors w h o secured students permission to study ' p r o -

has made equally substantial c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o interfaith studies:

h i b i t e d books')

and the World Religions:

I n sum, K i i n g had the f u l l neoscholastic course i n its

heyday, i n R o m e , d u r i n g the apotheosis of Pius X I I and under the shadow o f the encyclical Humani

(1984), Theology for the Third Millennium'

Christianity

and

Buddhism

View (1987) and

An Ecumenical

Christianity and Chinese Religions (1988). M o r e recendy, he has tackled moral

Generis.

H e remained unscathed

Paths of Dialogue with Islam, Hinduism

C h o o s i n g to w o r k f o r his doctorate o n the

theology of K a r l B a r t h , his eminent c o m p a t r i o t , K i i n g m o v e d to Paris, to

questions raised by globalization: Global Responsibility:

In Search of a New

World Ethic (1990)

the Institut Cathohque, where Louis Bouyer supervised his thesis. L h e resulting b o o k came o u t i n 1957, endorsed by B a r t h h i m s e l f and published

The Barth Book

by Hans U r s v o n Balthasar As transpired later, the Vatican opened a file o n the y o u n g theologian, n o t surprisingly, since n o t h i n g enraged the ecclesiastical watchdogs i n the 1950s m o r e than the idea that Catholics m i g h t learn

I n the 1950s the justification o f the unrighteous by faith alone was the doc-

f r o m Protestants

t r i n e assumed to lie at the heart o f the split between the churches o f the

I n 1960, aged 3 1 , K i i n g was offered the chair i n fundamental theology i n

R e f o r m a t i o n and the R o m a n Catholic C h u r c h : the doctrine over w h i c h no

the Catholic faculty at T u b i n g e n . H e never taught anywhere else. K i i n g

agreement w o u l d ever be possible

3

6

Sinners do n o t find t h e i r way i n t o God's

t o o k an active part as an officially appointed peritus in the w o r k o f the

grace and favour o n the basis of their o w n efforts, w e do n o t earn salvation

Vatican C o u n c i l (1962—5) The b o o k that he w r o t e as soon as he k n e w o f

b y o u r w o r k s - as Catholics were assumed by Protestants to believe (not

the f o r t h c o m i n g C o u n c i l inspired m a n y o f those w h o h o p e d that refor m

entirely w i t h o u t reason). I t l o o k e d t o Catholics, o n the other hand, that the

w o u l d facilitate r e u n i o n .

emphasis that R e f o r m e d Christians placed o n the divine act of j u s t i f y i n g the

4

Two major w o r k s o f ecclesiology appeared, i n 1962 and 1967, but also, i n 1970, a study o f Hegel's C h r i s t o l o g y However, Kiing's career as an academic heavyweight was diverted, after Vatican I I , i n t o ecclesiastical politics H e protested against Pope Paul VPs encyclicals o n celibacy o f the clergy (1967) and contraception (Humane? Vitce, 1968)

T h e n , i n 1970, w i t h Unfehlbar?, a

sinner, as i t were ex nihilo, i g n o r e d the process o f the individual's sanctification For Catholics, justification c o u l d n o t be other than a transformation, i n v o l v i n g responsive c o - o p e r a t i o n o n the sinner's part. T h e righteousness of C h r i s t , to q u o t e the jargon, is n o t o n l y i m p u t e d to the sinner, as Protestants were held to believe; i t is imparted, i n a process of divinization. W h i l e acknowledging Hans U r s v o n Balthasar s 'masterful b o o k ' o n Barth,

radical c r i t i q u e o f papal claims, he set o f f a furious controversy, w h i c h l e d i n 1979, after K a r o l W q j t y l a became pope, to Kiing's 'mandate' — missio canonica

K i i n g confronts the Swiss Calvinist's doctrine head o n , i n fustification,

rather

7

— to teach as a Catholic theologian b e i n g w i t h d r a w n . H i s status as a priest 5

a n d t h e superstar o f t h e m e d i a was ' t r u l y free f r o m t h e p e r s o n a l i t y c u l t o f f o r m e r Popes f o r e x a m p l e Pius X I I 2

Peter G u m p e l SJ. c u r r e n t l y j u d g e i n t h e cause o£ t h e c a n o n i z a t i o n o f P o p e Pius X I I , see

Peter G u m p e l 'Pius X I I as H e R e a l l y Was', The Tablet Saturday 13 F e b r u a r y 3

1999

I b i s c h a i r h a d b e e n t u r n e d d o w n b y B e r n h a r d W e l t e (the p h i l o s o p h e r / p r i e s t w h o was t o

give t h e address at H e i d e g g e r ' s f u n e r a l i n 1 9 7 6 ) , b u t was also refused b y H a n s U r s v o n Balthasar, k n o w i n g t h a t his a p p o i n t m e n t w o u l d b e b l o c k e d 4

Konzil

und

Wiedervereinigung

( 1 9 6 0 ) translated as The

Council

and Reunion

(London and

N e w Y o r k : S h e e d a n d W a r d 1961). 5

O n his first anniversary as p o p e , K a r o l W o j t y l a was o f f e r e d s o m e f r a t e r n a l c r i t i c i s m b y H a n s

K i i n g . i n The New York Times, 19 O c t o b e r 1979. q u e s t i o n i n g w h e t h e r ' t h e d a r l i n g o f the masses

q u e s t i o n i n g w h e t h e r h e was ' s u f f i c i e n t l y f a m i l i a r w i t h recent d e v e l o p m e n t s

i n t h e o l o g y ' , r e b u k i n g h i m f o r a p p r o v i n g o f ' t h e i n q u i s i t o r i a l p r o c e e d i n g s against o t h e r streams i n c o n t e m p o r a r y C a t h o l i c t h e o l o g y , a n d t h i s i n spite o f his call f o r h u m a n r i g h t s o u t s i d e the c h u r c h : ' M a n y C a t h o l i c s a n d n o n - C a t h o l i c s seriously d o u b t w h e t h e r this Pope f r o m a c o u n t r y w i t h a t o t a l i t a r i a n r e g i m e , w i t h a closed, a u t h o r i t a r i a n c h u r c h (understandable f o r domestic reasons), w i l l i n all instances be a g u a r a n t o r o f f r e e d o m a n d openness i n o u r c h u r c h ' . b

See A E

M c G r a t h , Iuslilia

Dei- A History

of the Christian

Doctrine

of Justification

(Cam-

b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press 1 9 8 6 ) . 7

Rechtfertigung:

cation: The Doctrine

Die Lehre Karl Barths und eine katholt.sche Be.sinnung of Karl Barth

and a Catholic

Reflection

( 1 9 5 7 ) translated as fustifi-

( L o n d o n : B u r n s and Oates

1964)

148

H A N S

K Ü N G

H A N S

149

K Ü N G

than reading B a r t h i n the l i g h t of current debate i n Catholic theology, as

H i s exposition, as R a h n e r notes, was guided by t w o principles: to show that

Balthasar does H e quotes B a r t h s d a m n i n g characterization o f Catholicism as

the truths that B a r t h finds absent i n Catholicism are actually there; and to

'a system embracing G o d and the creature', 'the attempt to see and correlate

make truths that are unpleasant to Protestants as intelligible as he can,

t h e m o n the same level', w h i c h is n o t h i n g but

w i t h o u t d i l u t i n g or avoiding t h e m

There is n o 'false eirenicism' h e r e .

10

' O n e can be a Catholic and h o l d this doctrine o f justification, w h i c h Barth the kind of act i n which the creature arrogates to itself the ability to control itself and therefore God . But this act precisely is the ground, the basic oudook o f the entire Roman Catholic system down to its every detail I h i s act is the basic act of its doctrine of grace, o f the Sacraments, o f the Church, of Scripture and tradition, o f the Roman primacy and the infallibility o f the Pope, and above all of its Marian doctrine.

has declared to be the same as his o w n ' (198) Rahner's discussion is the best starting p o i n t to assess Kiing's b o o k

acceptance of the m a i n argument. Indeed, his discussion culminates i n a defence of K i i n g against H e i n r i c h S t i r n i m a n n , a Swiss D o m i n i c a n , w h o ,

8

w h i l e insisting that his criticisms were intra muros, nevertheless, as a good

A c c o r d i n g to K i i n g , this harsh attack ( i n 1940) gave way to a m o r e sympathetic account,

after Balthasar's b o o k

I n the same chapter o f

Church

Dogmatics, i n fact, B a r t h acknowledges an interpretation o f the analogia ends he c o u l d accept, by G o t t l i e b Söhngen, w h o m (however) he discounts as unrepresentative o f Catholic teaching. A f t e r Balthasar's b o o k , w h i c h amply c o n f i r m e d Söhngen's

approach, we have no m o r e p o l e m i c about

the

Catholic analogia entis. I n the wake of Balthasar, K i i n g explores h o w far Barth's doctrine of j u s t i f i cation may be compatible w i t h 'a' Catholic doctrine — expHcitly not o f f e r i n g 'the' Catholic interpretation

9

The b o o k was w e l l received

His

criticisms, as he insists, do not i n any way a m o u n t to a w i t h d r a w a l of his

K a r l Rahner,

reviewing i t , concludes that o n all essential points K i i n g expounds a theology o f justification, w h i c h is i n accordance w i t h Catholic doctrine.. Thus, i f B a r t h was happy w i t h Kiing's exposition o f his doctrine, as he declared i n his prefat o r y letter ('your readers may rest assured - u n t i l such t i m e as they themselves m i g h t get to m y books - that y o u have m e say w h a t I actually do say and that I mean i t i n the way y o u have m e say i t ' ) , then, o n this issue at least, a breakt h r o u g h i n reconciling Catholic and Protestant doctrine had been achieved B a r t h was, o f course, only one theologian (and anyway n o t a Tutheran); Kiing's was only one Catholic interpretation of the doctrine - yet, consideri n g h o w divisive the doctrine o f justification was since the R e f o r m a t i o n , one c o u l d be cautiously optimistic about eventual reconciliation. Kiing's account o f the Catholic doctrine o f j u s t i f i c a t i o n was f o u n d satisfactory — 'or t h o d o x ' - by an array o f Catholic theologians, listed by R a h n e r

T h o m i s t , attacks one o f Kiing's key moves as little better than 'Gnosticism' (211) W h a t this means, according to Stirnimann, is that, f o r K i i n g , the order o f creation, o f the w o r l d and o f m a n k i n d , as actually existing, is founded, even as a natural order, o n the W o r d yet t o become incarnate and now incarnate — thus the w o r l d , even i n its natural state, is i n fact and everywhere and always a ' C h r i s t i a n t h i n g ' (210).. I t is possible to prescind f r o m this, to entertain the t h o u g h t e x p e r i m e n t o f a w o r l d w i t h o u t Christ. Yet, since i n fact all sin, f o r example, is sin against Christ, w h a t remains of the natural g o o d o f the fallen creature is always already a grace o f Christ This goes a l o n g way, R a h n e r observes, towards Barth's doctrine o f the p r i o r i t y o f the covenant to creation, and o f C h r i s t o l o g y to anthropology The creation of 'nature' takes place i n the grace o f the Incarnation, so to speak R a h n e r finds this thesis very congenial. Nevertheless he worries at some l e n g t h that i t fails to do justice t o the Catholic distinction between nature and grace. H e allows that K i i n g wants to show that the Catholic d o c t r i n e of the persistence o f the h u m a n creature's nature ( i n c l u d i n g power o f choice) after the Fall does n o t trade o n quasi-Pelagian assumptions about the creature's autonomy, as B a r t h kept l a m e n t i n g

Against this charge, Rahner

thinks, there may be some other w a y o f securing the Catholic position. The outcome, anyway, of Kiing's b o o k , so R a h n e r concludes, is that, even w h e n one sticks to the neoscholastic distinction between nature and strictly supernatural grace i n h u m a n k i n d as w e actually are, as S t i r n i m a n n does, i t remains possible to regard the existence and activity o f this fallen, t h o u g h of course redeemable, nature as already graced, i n the actual historical order of things. I t was always God's absolute and irrevocable w i l l that t h e W o r d

K

9

Church Dogmatics

should become flesh as a m e m b e r o f the one, t h o u g h fallen, h u m a n i t y 'This

(Edinburgh: T & T Clark) I I / l , 582-3

O f c o u r s e B a r t h is n o t t h e o n l y o r t h e m o s t characteristic Protestant t h e o l o g i a n : f o r t h e

p r o b a b l y far m o r e i n f l u e n t i a l D u t c h - A m e r i c a n P r e s b y t e r i a n C o r n e l i u s V a n T i l (1895—1957), ' B a r t h i a n i s m ' is t h e h i g h e r h u m a n i s m , b a r e l y C h r i s t i a n precisely because o f its affinities w i t h Balthasar a n d K i i n g

see

R e f o r m e d Publishing Co.

Christianity 1962)

and

Barthianism

(Phillipsburg N J : Presbyterian

and

1 0

'Questions of Controversial Theology o n Justification

i n Theological Investigations,

( L o n d o n : D a i t o n , L o n g m a n a n d T o d d 1 9 6 6 ) : 1 8 9 - 2 1 8 at page 191 ences f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n t h e t e x t

vol. I V

Subsequent page refer-

150

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K U

H A N S

N G

" g r a c e " is conceivable', so R a h n e r concludes (218), 'as the deficient m o d e

151

K Ü N G

R e f o r m for R e u n i o n

o f the grace w h i c h must presuppose this " g r a c e " as the c o n d i t i o n of having anybody at all w h o can be endowed w i t h grace'.. W h i l e the discussion needs m u c h m o r e unpacking; the upshot, anyway, so R a h n e r maintains, is that Kiing's Catholic doctrine o f justification returns us to la nouvelle théologie: an unsurprising conclusion

I n the 1950s, f e w remembered that the First Vatican C o u n c i l was o n l y suspended, and that the bishops w h o had v o t e d i n favour o f the decree o n the p r i m a c y o f the pope expected to r e t u r n t o R o m e i n September

1870

to consider the draft texts o n the role of the episcopacy, a m o n g other things

l e a v i n g this rather technical discussion hanging, we may note that,

I n any case, the doctrine o f papal j u r i s d i c t i o n , many believed, i n t h e ultra¬

according to B a r t h , m u c h else remains to be done, 'to make somewhat p l a u -

montanist climate of the 1950s, rendered f u r t h e r councils o f the C h u r c h

sible to us matters l i k e transubstantiation, the sacrifice o f the Mass, M a r y ,

unnecessary Very few k n e w that Pius X I I , w h o seemed happy t o regard

and the infallible papacy, and the other things w i t h w h i c h we are confronted

himself as the sole exponent o f C a t h o l i c theology, considered reconvening

— pardon me, I c o u l d n o t resist p i c k i n g up Denzinger again — i n the I f i d e n -

the C o u n c i l b u t never felt the m o m e n t o p p o r t u n e . Everyone was amazed,

tine profession of faith'.

and many were dismayed, w h e n the elderly, 'transitional' Pope J o h n X X I I I

Correspondingly, K i i n g remains critical o f Barth's 'dangerous i n c l i n a -

12

announced his decision, o n 25 January 1959, t o h o l d a C o u n c i l , foreseeing

apart f r o m his lamentable a n t i - C a t h o l i c polemics, such as p u s h i n g

an agenda w h i c h w o u l d renew the life of the C h u r c h , b r i n g i n g its teaching,

the theology of election towards apokatastasis, that is, towards the salvation

discipline and organization up to date (aggiornamento) i n order e x p l i c i d y to

o f all; b u t , above all, devaluing creaturely independence i n the theology o f

facilitate the r e u n i o n o f all Christians.

tions',

11

creation; neglecting creaturely co-operation i n the event o f r e d e m p t i o n — all p u t d o w n to 'his idealistic faith and tentialism' (266)

. his anti-humanistic, dialectical exis-

H e r e K i i n g goes i n f o r typical Catholic polemic against

B a r t h i n those days.

Early i n 1960, K i i n g b r o u g h t o u t Konzil

M u c h o f this need n o t be m o r e significant than differences o f o p i n i o n of the T r i n i t y and o f grace. Yet

Catholics endorse, does n o t seem to t h e m , as i t obviously does to h i m , to entail 'a negative and subversive calling i n t o question o f the p r i m a c y o f

However, i n 1957,

Catholics had m u c h to learn f r o m the first t w o

volumes o f Barth's Church Dogmatics (1932 and 1939), w h i c h he devotes to the theology o f the W o r d o f God. Catholic textbooks offered no serious doctrine o f the W o r d o f G o d , saying l i t d e about w h a t the Bible says about

The

1 3

Peter and his successors, of the soteriological status of M a r y , o f the n o r m a the " n a t u r a l " knowledge of G o d ' (266)

t h e third

(1961)

It is a happy omen to find a theologian responding to the stimulus provided by the Holy Father when he announced the holding o f an Ecumenical Council; to see, w i t h his help, i n all loyalty to the Church, the perspectives that are opening before us concerning the divisions in Christendom and the hopes offered by the coming Council I hope that this book, and the challenge which it presents, w i l l be received w i t h understanding, and spread far and wide

Barth's emphasis o n the gracious sovereignty o f G o d , w h i c h o f course

tive character of t r a d i t i o n , o f the effective character o f the sacraments and

and Reunion

preface by Franz K o n i g , t h e n cardinal archbishop o f V i e n n a reads as follows:

w i t h i n Catholicism, K i i n g allows, as f o r example between the Greek patristic and medieval Scholastic theologies

und Wiedervereinigung,

e d i t i o n o f w h i c h was translated as The Council

L i k e i t or n o t , The Council and Reunion

is the key for b e g i n n i n g t o under-

stand w h a t happened at Vatican IT As K i i n g notes, the b o o k

largely

recapitulates Yves Congar's Vraie et fausse reforme (1950) - p o p u l a r i z i n g it, we may s a y

14

F o l l o w i n g Congar, K i i n g retrieves the w o r d ' r e f o r m ' f r o m the

R e f o r m a t i o n . I n the l i t u r g y and i n patristic and Scholastic theology, as he

the subject, let alone w h a t is to be f o u n d i n patristic and Scholastic t h e o l o gies Moreover, neoscholastic treatises de revelatione were tame and quite uninspiring compared w i t h Barth's exposition of the concept o f divine revelation Finally, Barth's insistence everywhere o n the p r i m a c y o f Scripture should challenge Catholics to reconsider the relationship of Bible to Church.

1 2

Just as w e l l : i m a g i n e w h a t t h e result w o u l d have b e e n i n t h e 1950s!

1 3

Hans K i i n g

1 4

F o r w h a t C o n g a r t h o u g h t a b o u t K i i n g see Mon Journal

Tiie Council and Reunion

( L o n d o n : Sheed and Ward

1961)

du Concile I (Paris: C e r f 2 0 0 2 ) : 1 0 1 :

t h e d r a f t texts, r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e R o m a n professors' t h e o l o g y , n e e d e d t o be r e j e c t e d b u t he w a r n s K i i n g against t h e danger* o f w h a t m i g h t l o o k l i k e 'a p a r a - c o u n c i l o f t h e o l o g i a n s '

Sep-

t e m b e r 1962; I , 4 6 5 - 7 : K i i n g is r e v o l u t i o n a r y ' ' i m p a t i e n t ' , C o n g a r w o n d e r s i f h e h i m s e l f has b e e n ' t o o t i m i d , b u t 'suspected, p u r s u e d s a n c t i o n e d , l i m i t e d , c r u s h e d ' since 1 9 3 8 , h e is n o w ! 1

K i i n g , Justification:

265

S u b s e q u e n t page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n t h e text.

aware o f ' u n a v o i d a b l e delays a n d the p o w e r o f active p a t i e n c e '

152

H A N S

K Ü N G

H A N S

K U N G

153

shows, i t has always been taken for granted that the C h u r c h is called to

and the churches of the R e f o r m a t i o n . I n ecumenical discussions,

permanent ' r e f o r m a t i o n ' The F o u r t h C o u n c i l o f the Lateran, i n 1215, f o r

gence — not complete i d e n t i t y - i n matters o f doctrine, was enough t o aspire

example, was s u m m o n e d , ' f o r the r e f o r m a t i o n o f the universal C h u r c h ,

to. A s s u m i n g fundamental u n i t y as regards the d o c t r i n e o f the

propter rejormationem universalis ecclesice'..

Christoiogy and creation, K i i n g points to o n g o i n g ecumenical discussion o f

converLfinity,

R e n e w a l i n the C h u r c h w i l l always be a t r i c k y course, steering between

the d o c t r i n e o f sin and grace, the relation o f Scripture and T r a d i t i o n , and

accommodationist worldliness and introverted unworldliness - 'really serious

the sacraments M u c h remained to be discussed, o n these and other c o n -

dangers'. The basic requirements f o r the r i g h t k i n d o f r e f o r m , so K i i n g says,

tentious topics. W h i l e he insists that there must be no c o m p r o m i s i n g o f the

are first suffering-

t r u t h , he is very optimistic w h e n he considers the prospect of Christian

o u t o f love o f the C h u r c h ; second, prayer; t h i r d , criticism, as

practised b y Bernard o f Clairvaux — c r i t i c i s m based o n love, t h o u g h , he c o n cludes, since 'there is always m o r e occasion f o r thankfulness i n the Catholic C h u r c h than for blame'

reunion Nevertheless, there are t w o m a j o r s t u m b l i n g blocks.. As regards Catholic d o c t r i n e about the M o t h e r o f G o d , so K i i n g says, there are deplorable

Surveying episodes i n the history of refor m , K u n g asks w h y the sixteenth-

excesses: a certain ' M a r i a n maximalism'. Yet, a m o n g Protestants, he sees a

century ' r e f o r m ' - the R e f o r m a t i o n - was rejected b y the greater part o f the

'sin o f omission'. Is the lack of M a r i a n piety i n Protestantism, he asks, merely

Catholic C h u r c h W h i l e there were misunderstandings o f b o t h sides, the

anti-Cathohcism?

pope had no alternative to rejecting L u t h e r , so K i i n g argues. Moreover, i n

Second, there is the question o f papal a u t h o r i t y L uther's existential o p p o -

the climate o f the t i m e , the strengthening of papal a u t h o r i t y i n the

sition to the papacy made i t impossible for h i m and his followers t o see the

C o u n t e r - R e f o r m a t i o n was inevitable.

nature o f the Petrine m i n i s t r y Today, even friendly Protestants fear papal

The i n t e r r u p t i o n o f the Vatican C o u n c i l i n 1870 was disastrous, K i i n g

a u t h o r i t y as they see i t exercised. For that matter, m a n y Catholics fear, i f

says.. Nevertheless, a process o f renewal was i n i t i a t e d b y Pope Leo X I I I

they criticize anything, h a v i n g their loyalty i m p u g n e d and their o r t h o d o x y

(something o f a hero i n Kiing's b o o k ) , w h i c h means that, i n 1960, so K u n g

suspected. To see the true nature o f the Petrine ministry is a matter o f faith -

thinks, surveying the scene, there evidently was a r e f o r m e d and renewed

b u t do the successors o f Peter always behave i n ways that w o u l d make their

Catholic C h u r c h . H e details some of the achievements

claim to be 'vicars of C h r i s t ' easily believable?

Catholic historians

had at last stopped denigrating Luther.. Catholics had r e t u r n e d to reading

T h e b o o k concludes w i t h the Declaration issued by the G e r m a n bishops

Scripture. L i t u r g i c a l renewal dated as far back as Pope Pius X . T h e recovery

i n 1875, c o n t r a d i c t i n g Prince O t t o v o n Bismarck's claim, o n behalf o f the

o f the Catholic d o c t r i n e o f universal priesthood allowed many new lay

n e w l y f o u n d e d G e r m a n E m p i r e , that the d o c t r i n e o f papal j u r i s d i c t i o n ren-

ministries and activities to flourish. W i t h i n c u l t u r a t i o n o f C a t h o l i c i s m i n

dered bishops mere vicars o f the pope. This text was largely u n k n o w n to

n o n - E u r o p e a n societies, the disengagement

of the papacy f r o m politics,

most Catholics i n 1960. As K i i n g was i m p l y i n g by r e p r i n t i n g i t , t h e ultra¬

r e f o r m o f the C u r i a and o f canon law, a n e w tolerance, respect f o r c o n -

montanist c o n c e p t i o n o f papal autocracy so w i d e l y taken for granted by

science, the o r d i n a t i o n o f m a r r i e d m e n , and the i n t e r i o r i z a t i o n o f popular

Catholics and others was n o t w h a t was defined i n 1870.. Finally, even more

devotion - all i n all, the pre-Vatican I I C h u r c h , according to K i i n g , was i n a

suggestively, K i i n g lists the 20 General or Oecumenical Councils recognized

g o o d state.

by the C h u r c h , i n c l u d i n g the C o u n c i l of Constance (1414—18)..

I n the English-speaking w o r l d , w h e r e the b o o k was w i d e l y read, this

I n retrospect, K i i n g was far t o o optimistic about the state of the Catholic

upbeat account seemed m o r e visionary than descriptive Yet, even there, the

C h u r c h o n the eve o f the C o u n c i l As regards the t w o s t u m b l i n g blocks, the

state o f things was n o t as dismal as some n o w suppose - t h o u g h never as

partisans o f the t w o radically opposed Mariologies c o m p r o m i s e d , i n the

w o n d e r f u l as others l i k e to t h i n k . O n the other hand, i t seems disingenuous

end The m i n o r i t y - a very large m i n o r i t y — accepted the i n c o r p o r a t i o n of

to speak o f the papacy as disengaged f r o m politics (Pius X I I , lately deceased,

the chapter o n the Blessed V i r g i n w i t h w h i c h the dogmatic c o n s t i t u t i o n o n

and the C o l d War!), or o f the i n c i p i e n t internationalization o f the C u r i a as

the C h u r c h , Lumen Gentium,

' r e f o r m ' . L h e m a r r i e d priests, all f o r m e r Protestant pastors, c o u l d have been

text devoted to M a r y A t the final ballot o n 18 N o v e m b e r 1964, a ceremo-

counted o n the fingers o f Pius X I I ' s hands.

nial event, there were o n l y 23 negative votes, yet at t h e last ballot w h i c h

concludes, rather than h o l d o u t for a separate

Anyway, according to K i i n g , the Catholic C h u r c h was i n g o o d enough

m i g h t have affected the outcome, o n 29 O c t o b e r 1964, a quarter of the

shape to engage i n reconciliation w i t h the churches o f Eastern O r t h o d o x y

voters had reservations. T h r o u g h o u t Vatican I I the presiding officers sought

154

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K Ü N G

H A N S

155

K Ü N G

to avoid or gloss over disedifying conflict a m o n g the bishops about the place

he convoked the C o u n c i l of Constance, presiding at the o p e n i n g on

o f the M o t h e r of G o d i n Catholic d o c t r i n e and devotion. I t t o o k great skill

5 N o v e m b e r 1414. B y February 1415 he was ready to resign, i f t h e other

to achieve the final result

t w o claimants, deposed at Pisa b u t still r e i g n i n g i n t h e i r cdnstituencies,

As regards the role o f the papacy, there was never an atmosphere d u r i n g

w o u l d do so also. H e bargained f o r a week b u t then fled, seemingly to

the C o u n c i l to allow a n y t h i n g like the radical reconsideration K i i n g envis-

disrupt the C o u n c i l Sigismund k e p t the bishops together, d e t e r m i n e d to

aged

b r i n g about an end to the Schism

To recall the moderate i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of papal a u t h o r i t y by the

D u r i n g the absence of J o h n X X I I I ,

G e r m a n bishops i n 1875 was one thing. R e t r i e v i n g the C o u n c i l of C o n -

w h o m everybody present regarded as the legitimate pope, the C o u n c i l p r o -

stance f r o m o b l i v i o n was altogether m o r e audacious. This was tantamount

mulgated the decree 'Haec Sancta'. B r o u g h t back at the behest o f the

to raising the spectre o f 'conciliarism'

C o u n c i l , John X X I I I accepted the decision, before the C o u n c i l deposed h i m o n 29 M a y 1 4 1 5 .

17

Gregory X I I , f o r m e r l y Cardinal A n g e l o C o r r e r o , elected by the R o m a n

Conciliât i s m

cardinals i n 1406, deposed by t h e m at the C o u n c i l o f Pisa i n 1409, w h e n they appealed over his head to C h r i s t and a general c o u n c i l to b r i n g about

The authoritative Dictionnaire

(1938) omits the

r e u n i o n i n the C h u r c h , was still o n the scene, n o w aged 90 and regarding

C o u n c i l of Constance altogether f r o m the list o f O e c u m e n i c a l Councils,

h i m s e l f as the legitimate successor o f Peter. A t Sigismund's instigation, the

passing straight f r o m the C o u n c i l o f V i e n n e (1311-12) to the C o u n c i l o f

C o u n c i l entered i n t o negotiations w i t h G r e g o r y X I I . . H e agreed to ab-

de Théologie

Catholique

Florence (1439-45), skipping the years the latter sat at Basle (1431-9).

dicate, to clear the way f o r the election o f a pope acceptable all round,

Nowadays, however, standard Catholic lists c o u n t Constance (1414-18) as

p r o v i d e d he was allowed to convoke the assembled prelates and dignitaries

the sixteenth O e c u m e n i c a l C o u n c i l - t h o u g h disputing its ' o e c u m e n i c i t y '

afresh as a general c o u n c i l R e g a r d i n g himself as pope since 1406, he could

before the election o f O d d o C o l o n n a as Pope M a r t i n V i n 1417

n o t recognize a c o u n c i l called b y Cossa, whatever the R o m a n Cardinals 1415,

believed O n 4 July 1415, therefore, he convoked the C o u n c i l at Constance,

the C o u n c i l o f Constance passed a decree, declaring that 'this C o u n c i l holds

abdicated, and was declared ineligible f o r election as pope. Finally, o n

This is n o t as arcane as i t may seem I n its f i f t h session, o n 6 A p r i l

its p o w e r direct f r o m C h r i s t ; everyone, n o matter his rank or office, even i f

11 N o v e m b e r 1417, m o r e than t w o years later, and three m o n t h s after

i t be Papal, is b o u n d to obey i t i n whatever pertains to faith, t o the e x t i r -

G r e g o r y X I I ' s death, O d d o C o l o n n a was elected, as M a r t i n V, by a unique

pation o f the above-mentioned schism, as w e l l as to the r e f o r m o f the

conclave of 22 cardinals and 30 delegates appointed b y the C o u n c i l . The

C h u r c h i n its head and i n its members'

Great Schism was over

I n short, the decree 'Haec sancta'

located supreme a u t h o r i t y i n the Catholic C h u r c h i n the bishops-in¬ c o u n c i l - supreme over the successor o f Peter as well. Yet, as the text shows, the question remained w h e t h e r the supreme a u t h o r i t y was recognized as residing i n the b i s h o p s - i n - c o u n c i l henceforth and f o r ever, or o n l y d u r i n g the crisis at the t i m e

W h i l e now

decrees b i n d i n g o n the C h u r c h and irreformable, theologians differ as to w h e t h e r its o e c u m e n i c i t y

dates f r o m its convocation by John

XXIII

(9 D e c e m b e r 1413), f r o m its (re)convocation b y Gregory X I I (4 July 1415),

The Western C h u r c h had been split since 1378. Pisa i n 1409.

T h e t r i c k y question that K i i n g sought t o raise remains

i n c l u d i n g Constance o n the list o f O e c u m e n i c a l Councils, w h i c h may pass

The Cardinals m e t at

They deposed the t w o rival Popes and elected a t h i r d , w h o

or o n l y f r o m the election o f M a r t i n V (11 N o v e m b e r 1417)

The n u b o f the

matter is, obviously, that, i f the assembly convoked by John X X I I I was a

died w i t h i n a year They m e t again and elected another, Baldassare Cossa,

t r u l y Oecumenical C o u n c i l , t h e n the decree o f 6 A p r i l 1415, placing the

w h o t o o k the name John X X I I I .

pope, like everyone else, under the a u t h o r i t y o f a general c o u n c i l , w o u l d

^ cial

1 5

U n d e r pressure f r o m K i n g S i g i s m u n d ,

16

C a r d i n a l Baldassare Cossa. a N e a p o l i t a n . , o n c e a p i r a t e a n d a h i g h l y successful C u r i a l o f f i was l o n g l i s t e d as a n a n t i p o p e a n d d e f i n i t i v e l y b r u s h e d o u t w h e n C a r d i n a l A n g e l o

R o n c a l l i t o o k t h e n a m e a n d style o f J o h n X X I I I i n 1958 1 6

Sigismund (1.368-1437) K i n g o f H u n g a r y and eventually o f Bohemia, and H o l y R o m a n

E m p e r o r , s o u g h t t o u n i t e C h r i s t e n d o m against t h e Turks

1 7

W h e n t h e d e p o s e d J o h n X X I I I p a i d h o m a g e t o M a r t i n V he was a p p o i n t e d C a r d i n a l

B i s h o p o f T u s c u l u m (Frascati); his m a g n i f i c e n t t o m b , i n t h e b a p t i s t e r y at F l o r e n c e bears the papal i n s i g n i a , d e s c r i b i n g h i m as ' f o r m e r l y p o p e ' ; n o w usually listed a m o n g t h e a n t i p o p e s , as b y J N . D . K e l l y ( 1 9 8 6 ) , Cossa is s o m e t i m e s d e s c r i b e d as a ' c o u n c i l p o p e ' , Kcwzihpapst e x a m p l e b y G e o r g S c h w a i g e r (Lexikonfür

Katholhche

Theologie

1960).

for

156

H A N S

K Ü N G

H A N S

R U N G

157

have the same w e i g h t as any other decision by an O e c u m e n i c a l C o u n c i l . I n

Peter as head (§19) The bishops take the place of the Apostles (§20). The

that case, however, the question w o u l d remain w h e t h e r this was a decision

order i n t o w h i c h bishops are ordained has a 'collegiate character a n d struc-

of permanent validity f o r the internal structure o f a u t h o r i t y i n the C h u r c h

ture', w h i c h is said to be shown i n m a n y ways, i n c l u d i n g h o l d i n g councils to

(as K i i n g was suggesting), or o n l y a t e m p o r a r y expedient to deal w i t h the

make decisions o n questions o f m a j o r importance - t h o u g h , i n any ' c o l -

u n i q u e situation o f there b e i n g three rival popes and none universally

legiate action', the college or b o d y o f bishops 'has no a u t h o r i t y other than

recognized.

the a u t h o r i t y w h i c h i t is acknowledged to have i n u n i o n w i t h the R o m a n

There is m u c h m o r e to 'conciliarism' than this; b u t an essential part o f the

p o n t i f f ' (§22) Nonetheless, bishops are 'vicars and legates of C h r i s t ' ; they

case is that this decree, i f passed b y a t r u l y O e c u m e n i c a l C o u n c i l , defined, as

are n o t to be regarded as 'vicars o f the R o m a n P o n t i f f ' (§27), as t h e y were

a t r u t h of the Catholic faith, that a general c o u n c i l o f all Christians has

quite c o m m o n l y perceived to be

authority over even a legitimately elected and universally recognized pope.

M o s t of the bishops w h o v o t e d i n favour o f this concept no d o u b t envis-

M a r t i n V seems to have taken the decree 'Haec Sancta' seriously: he

aged the development, i n the n o t t o o distant future, o f practices and even

closed the C o u n c i l o f Constance o n 22 A p r i l 1418 b u t i n a c o n s t i t u t i o n o f

institutions to counterbalance the centralization o f a u t h o r i t y and power

22 M a y 1418, w h i c h was n o t published, he forbade any appeal f r o m the

i n the Vatican.. O n l y 10 v o t e d against the c o n s t i t u t i o n as a w h o l e , on

pope to a future c o u n c i l

19 N o v e m b e r 1963, the final ballot.. O n the other hand, i n the last week o f

I n The Council and Reunion K i i n g refers i n passing t o the struggle o f the

September, there were still 841 objections and proposals f o r amendment to

papacy against 'the strong Conciliarist m o v e m e n t , w h i c h placed the C o u n c i l

be dealt w i t h Some d o u b t e d , o n biblical grounds, i f the Twelve f o r m e d a

above the Pope' (100); b u t does no m o r e w i t h the decree 'Haec Sancta'than

'college'. M a n y questioned w h e t h e r the bishops f o r m e d a 'college', i f that

note its existence The t h e o r y that supreme authority i n the C h u r c h lies, n o t

meant they were equal, j u r i d i c a l l y The same n u m b e r queried w h e t h e r

w i t h the papacy b u t w i t h a general c o u n c i l , was generally regarded as obso-

bishops received their a u t h o r i t y f r o m the sacrament o f their o r d i n a t i o n or

lete and was refuted finally i n 1870

by delegation f r o m the pope.

O n e c o u l d n o t revive a t h e o r y that

advocated the a u t h o r i t y o f the bishops gathered i n general c o u n c i l over that

N o special role i n this debate can be ascribed to K i i n g . I n his b o o k Struc-

of the Bishop of R o m e . Nevertheless, b y 1962, s o m e t h i n g needed to be

tures ojthe Church, published i n 1962 (in English i n 1964), however, he made

w o r k e d o u t about the a u t h o r i t y o f the bishops as a w h o l e , gathered i n

a major c o n t r i b u t i o n to the discussion, i n the f l o o d o f scholarly books, o n

general c o u n c i l or i n lesser assemblies, never o f course acting independently

the interconnection of the concepts o f papacy, episcopacy, conciliarity and

o f the successor o f Peter, the Bishop o f R o m e , or exercising a u t h o r i t y over

collegiality. H e spells o u t the significance of the relationship between pope

him.

and council i f w e agreed that the C o u n c i l o f Constance was truly o e c u m e n i -

1 8

The question about the a u t h o r i t y of the bishops, left undiscussed i n

1870, was back o n the agenda.. As w e saw (in chapter 3), the language of

cal w h e n i t passed the decree asserting the superiority o f council over pope

college and collégial action was i n t r o d u c e d i n t o the debate, i n the revision

I t is not the case, K i i n g insists, i n his later b o o k , The Church, that the Catholic

o f the draft de ecdesia undertaken at the behest o f Cardinal Suenens, i n

C h u r c h is 'saddled for better or worse w i t h a pope, even i f he acts i n a way

O c t o b e r 1962, by Gérard Philips, priest o f the Liège diocese and professor o f

contrary to the Gospel' Clearly, whatever Catholics sometimes assume, the

dogmatic theology at the U n i v e r s i t y o f L o u v a i n

C h u r c h is n o t 'relieved f r o m the responsibility of acting itself'. Nevertheless,

itself does n o t appear i n any Vatican I I texts

1 9

L h e w o r d 'collegiality'

2 0

I n the c o n s t i t u t i o n Lumen

'despite all the justified criticisms that are made o f the present "system", one

Gentium, however, o n the i n t e r n a l structure o f the C h u r c h , C h r ist is said to

t h i n g can be said: i f the Catholic C h u r c h today, after all its difficulties and

have established the Apostles as a 'college o r permanent assembly', w i t h

defeats, still exists as i t does, relatively w e l l t h o u g h t - o f , u n i f i e d and strengthened i n faith and order, t h e n i t has to thank n o t least the Petrine m i n i s t r y '

2 1

Nevertheless, the way i n w h i c h this ministry is exercised needs r e f o r m . Kùng 1 8

T h e l i t e r a t u r e is i m m e n s e ; f o r a start see Francis O a k l e y , The Conciliarht

tionalism in the Catholic 1 9

Church

1300-1870

Tradition:

Constitu-

( O x f o r d : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press 2 0 0 3 ) .

O n e o f t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l t h e o l o g i a n s at t h e C o u n c i l . G é r a r d P h i l i p s ( 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 7 2 ) p r i e s t

o f t h e diocese o f L i è g e , a c o - o p t e d Senator f o r t h e F l e m i s h C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t i c Party) e d u c a t e d at t h e G r e g o r i a n a i n R o m e sity o f L o u v a i n

professor o f d o g m a t i c t h e o l o g y at t h e C a t h o l i c U n i v e r -

2 0

Structures of the Church

2 1

The Church

( L o n d o n : B u r n s a n d Oates 1 9 6 4 ) .

( L o n d o n : B u r n s a n d Oates 1967. o r i g i n a l 1967), w i t h i m p r i m a t u r , dedicated

t o A r c h b i s h o p M i c h a e l R a m s e y , a n d w i t h g r a t i t u d e a m o n g others t o his t h e n c o l l e a g u e P r o fessor Joseph R a t z i n g e r : 4 5 4

455

158

H A N S

H A N S

K Ü N G

159

K Ü N G

concludes I h e Church w i t h a page about Pope John X X I I I (Angelo R o n -

he notes, is w i d e l y acknowledged. Indeed, as was p o i n t e d out at Vatican I ,

calli), plainly his ideal o f h o w the Petrine ministry should be exercised.

the t e r m G e r m a n t e r m Unfehlbarkeit could easily be confused w i t h 'faultlessness' and thus w i t h 'sinlessness' M u c h effort at the C o u n c i l w e n t into distinguishing ' i n f a l l i b i l i t y ' f r o m 'impeccability' The r o o t o f the p r o b l e m , however, i n Kiing's view, lies i n the p h i l o s o p h i -

F r o m Infallibility to Indefectibility?

cal assumptions made b y neoscholastic theology about w h a t propositions For K u n g , Pope Paul VPs 1968 encyclical Humana

Vitaz o n b i r t h c o n t r o l is

actually do H e does n o t mean that propositions are incapable of stating the

the 'Achilles' heel' o f the d o c t r i n e o f papal infallibility: The C h u r c h should

t r u t h , or that propositions are b o t h true and false, or that they cannot be

leave i n f a l l i b i l i t y 'to the one to w h o m i t was o r i g i n a l l y reserved: to G o d ' ;

measured against the reality to w h i c h they c l a i m to refer, or any other such

and be content w i t h a m o r e modest ' i n d e f e c t i b i l i t y ' , a state o f being gener-

w i l d idea.

ally held i n the t r u t h o f the Gospel w i t h n o guarantee that any conciliar or

propositions, so he claims, i n the sense that they can always be understood

24

Nevertheless, a certain degree o f a m b i g u i t y is inherent i n all

papal statement, even i f solemnly declared b i n d i n g i n faith, is necessarily

differently b y different people W i t h the best w i l l i n the w o r l d , all misunder-

free of error..

standing and misuse o f a true p r o p o s i t i o n cannot be r u l e d out T o claim,

22

I n 1979 Hans K u n g i n t r o d u c e d a b o o k by the Swiss C h u r c h historian August B e r n h a r d Hasler, c o n t e n d i n g that the C o u n c i l fathers i n 1869/70 were so i n t i m i d a t e d by Pope Pius I X that they were n o t free to take any

then, that the C h u r c h or the pope can, even i n special circumstances, deliver a proposition w h i c h w o u l d be ' i n f a l l i b l e ' , 'irreformable', is a piece o f n o n sense No proposition is ever free of a m b i g u i t y As a philosophical argument against the very idea o f an infallible p r o p -

decisions and that, consequently, the d e f i n i t i o n o f papal infalHbility was o f A doctrine w i t h no basis i n Scripture or C h u r c h

osition, this requires clarification. Obviously, context is i m p o r t a n t : the same

t r a d i t i o n , so Hasler contends, was forced o n the Catholic C h u r c h by an

words i n a quite different situation may w e l l mean something quite differ-

questionable v a l i d i t y

2 3

ent

insane pope M a n y scholars w o u l d accept that Vatican I was manipulated b y a h i g h l y

K i i n g , however, makes no distinction between a p r o p o s i t i o n and a

propositional f o r m u l a , a t r u t h and the sentence i n w h i c h i t is expressed

2 5

autocratic pope, as indeed N e w m a n a m o n g others n o t e d at the time.

T h u s , quite a routine philosophical p o i n t about the nature o f propositions

However, that the decisions taken by the bishops were any m o r e invalidated

seems to rule o u t Kiing's claim that propositions are inherently ambiguous

by the i n f i m i d a t o r y behaviour o f the pope than the decisions o f the First

As K i i n g claimed, however, his questioning of the nature o f infallible

C o u n c i l o f Nicaea (held i n 325) were u n d e r m i n e d by the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f

statements was ' n o t an attempt to b r i n g unrest and uncertainty i n t o the

the E m p e r o r Constantine to force a result, is hard to see. For that matter,

C h u r c h , b u t only to give expression to the unrest and uncertainty already to

w i t h o u t pressure f r o m Sigismund, the C o u n c i l o f Constance w o u l d n o t

be f o u n d o n all sides'

have been held or kept g o i n g at all, n o r w o u l d the Great Schism have ended

may be d o u b t e d

w h e n i t did.

Catholics as biblical inerrancy does n o w to most Protestants, r i g h t l y or

The decision, K u n g contends, is n o t o n l y invalid; the d o c t r i n e is simply er roneous

wrongly

2 7

2 b

W h e t h e r the ordinary Catholic is m u c h bothered

I n practice, papal infallibility seems as empty t o most

Few expect any m o r e ex cathedra definitions o f t r u t h s that

The susceptibility o f the t e r m ' i n f a l l i b i l i t y ' to misconstruction,

Catholics should believe, t h o u g h anxiety continues i n some quarters about

( L o n d o n : C o l l i n s 1 9 7 0 ; e x p a n d e d e d i t i o n L o n d o n : S C M Press 1 9 9 4

theology, was quite remarkable W i t h o u t spelling out the issues i n detail let

the status o f the condemnation b y a series of popes of artificial contraception The ferocity o f the debate set o f f by Kiing's book, especially i n German

2 1

Infallible? An Enquiry

w i t h a valuable s u m m a r y o f the debate as at 2 3

Translated as How

the Pope Became Infallible

1979) Pius IX and the Politics

of Persuasion

(New York:

D o u b l e d a y 1 9 8 1 ) . T h e s c h o l a r l y w o r k b e h i n d this b o o k is Hasler's M u n i c h d o c t o r a t e thesis:

2 4

Pius IX

2

(1846-1878),

Durchsetzung

Papstliche

einer Ideologie

A n t o n H i e r s e m a n n 1977)

Unfehlbarkeit

2 vols, n o

und I.

Valikanisches

Konzil.

Dogmatisierung

und

>

Infallible?:

132

See P a t r i c k M c G r a t h , ' T h e C o n c e p t o f I n f a l l i b i l i t y ' Concilium

8 3 (1973): 6 5 - 7 6

12 i n t h e series Papste u n d P a p s t u m ( S t u t t g a r t : V e r l a g

2 b

Infallible?:

Hasler served f o r f i v e years i n the Secretariat f o r C h r i s t i a n U n i t y ,

2 7

T h e emphasis o n b i b l i c a l i n e r r a n c y i n t h e schema De Revelatione

11. s u b m i t t e d t o V a t i c a n ¡1 is

c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n w o r k w i t h L u t h e r a n , R e f o r m e d a n d O l d C a t h o l i c churches, w i t h access t o

absent f r o m t h e f i n a l C o n s t i t u t i o n Dei

t h e Vatican A r c h i v e s , i n c l u d i n g diaries, letters a n d o f f i c i a l d o c u m e n t s r e l a t i n g t o Vatican [

t o r n apart i n t h e 1970s, w i t h C o n c o r d i a S e m i n a r y i n St L ouis t a k i n g a s t r o n g stand o n b i b l i c a l

w h i c h f e w others had s t u d i e d ; he d i e d p r e m a t u r e l y i n 1980

i n f a l l i b i l i t y , a n d t h e S o u t h e r n Baptist C o n v e n t i o n s i m i l a r l y i n the 1980s

d e f l e c t i n g a t t e n t i o n f r o m his w o r k

Verhum

T h e L u t h e r a n C h u r c h ( M i s s o u r i S y n o d ) was

160

H A N S

H A N S

K Ü N G

us simply note the discussion b y K a r l R a h n e r

2 8

Setting aside the attempt b y

161

K Ü N G

logical We are m o r e aware n o w t h a n our predecessors were that n o process

K i i n g to interpret i n f a l l i b i l i t y as the ' i n d e s t r u c t i b i l i t y ' o f the Church's faith,

o f interpretation is ever concluded (82) A n y ' n e w ' d e f i n i t i o n , w e s h o u l d see

g r o u n d e d o n the abiding u n i o n o f the C h u r c h w i t h Christ, t a k i n g this as a

immediately, w o u l d be ' o l d ' f r o m the outset: no 'advance' but rather the

single w h o l e , such that, even i n 'definitions', errors can occur here and there

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f 'a certain perfectly reasonable and respectable authorized

and exist f o r years,

parlance and a n e w reference to the basic historical experiences and basic

29

R a h n e r concentrates o n the dogma o f infalhbility i n

the traditional sense, that is, as relating to the t r u t h o f a proposition. The

historical realities of Christianity' (82).

dogma makes no sense i n isolation. I t has n o t h i n g to do w i t h a r r i v i n g at

I n w h a t Rahner says here, as w e l l as i n w h a t K i i n g seems to say about

n e w knowledge by the i n t e r v e n t i o n o f an a u t h o r i t y external to the process.

inherently ambiguous propositions, there is surely r o o m for f u r t h e r p h i l o -

There is historical development The C h u r c h is n o t a totalitarian system, so

sophical discussion o f the concepts o f a proposition, t r u t h and interpretation,

to speak, capable o f being fixed and frozen by an element w i t h i n the system.

before debate o n papal infaUibihty is r e s u m e d .

30

The C h u r c h is 'a free b e l i e v i n g c o m m u n i t y ' : no one has to believe a n y t h i n g against his or her w i l l . There can be absolute assent to a p r o p o s i t i o n , w h i c h does n o t exclude criticism o f i t O n e does n o t accept any such p r o p o s i t i o n

Conclusion

w i t h o u t belief i n the assistance o f the H o l y Spirit at the p o i n t o f decision. A n d so o n

Hans Küng's recent books o n n o n - C h r i s t i a n religions and on the ethics of

T u r n i n g to the dogma o f infalhbility as relating to the papacy, R a h n e r

globalization may have m o r e i m p a c t i n o p e n i n g Christian sensibility i n the

insists that i t too has a history, indeed I t is a relatively late development.

West to the widest issues facing the C h u r c h i n the w o r l d today, and thus to

Here, however, he concentrates o n the development since 1870. A f t e r the

e x t e n d i n g the intentions o f Vatican IT A p a r t f r o m his b e i n g demonized i n

d e f i n i t i o n i n 1950 o f the dogma o f the A s s u m p t i o n o f the Blessed V i r g i n

some quarters, t o o m u c h controversy w i l l always s u r r o u n d his name, f o r his

M a r y , so Rahner allows, many theologians l o o k e d f o r w a r d w i t h glee to n e w

books o n matters i n t e r n a l to the structure o f the C h u r c h to be influential

statements o f M a r i a n d o c t r i n e being defined; 'Today no one any longer

Sooner or later, however, the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h w i l l have to r e t u r n to the

thinks o f such a t h i n g ' (72)

agenda he d i d so m u c h to dramatize, to clarify what episcopal collegiality

O n e reason f o r this abandonment o f the desire

for m o r e dogma that R a h n e r gives - ' N o t h i n g was defined at the Second

and papal infallibility mean

Vatican C o u n c i l ' - w o u l d need m o r e discussion than he grants it. The c o n -

W h e n Hans K i i n g asked f o r a m e e t i n g , the recently elected Pope Bene-

flict over episcopal collegiality was understood, b y the leaders o f the

dict X V I , his o l d f r i e n d and sparring partner, immediately i n v i t e d h i m to

opposition to i t at any rate, as d e f i n i n g a d o c t r i n e c o m p l e m e n t a r y to (or

the papal summer residence at Castel Gandolfo, i n the hills outside R o m e ,

u n d e r m i n i n g of, as they feared) the dogma o f papal p r i m a c y

where, o n 24 September 2005, they talked f o r several hours, had dinner

M a i n l y , however, R a h n e r sees such pluralism i n culture, theology and

together, and j o i n d y approved a statement, composed b y the pope himself,

philosophy, that n o single, c o m m o n and universally acknowledged theology

a n n o u n c i n g and describing their m e e t i n g f o r the w h o l e w o r l d to read. The

exists, w h i c h w o u l d be the prerequisite f o r a dogmatic statement (73). I f

Vatican Press O f f i c e released a statement three days later, describing the

there were a n e w d e f i n i t i o n , i t c o u l d n o t be false, since the legitimate range

m e e t i n g as h a v i n g been held ' i n a f r i e n d l y atmosphere'

o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w o u l d be so w i d e that n o r o o m f o r error remains (80). I f

centrated o n t w o subjects: the question o f global ethics and the dialogue

any conceivable n e w dogma entails such a range o f possible interpretations

between science and faith.

that i t cannot be false, this does n o t make i t d e v o i d o f content or t a u t o -

The discussion con-

Benedict X V I w e l c o m e d Professor Küng's c o n t r i b u t i o n to these, a f f i r m i n g that the c o m m i t m e n t to a renewed awareness of the values that sustain

2 a

O n c e t h e o e c u m e n i c i t y o f Vaticans I a n d I I is ' u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y a f f i r m e d ' , i t m a y be freely d i s -

cussed' w h e t h e r the c o n f u s i n g associations o f t h e t e r m ' i n f a l l i b l e , ' n o t u n j u s d y n o t e d ' b y Hans K i i n g , s h o u l d n o t lead t o its b e i n g abandoned i n f a v o u r o f some m o r e easily u n d e r s t o o d w o r d ,

'°

such as Verbindlichkeit

t h r e e articles b y G a r r e t t Sweeney, t h e n M a s t e r o f St E d m u n d s H o u s e

(obligation, c o m m i t m e n t , b i n d i n g character) see Hans U r s v o n Balthasar.

The Office of Peter and the Structure of the Church 2 9

R a h n e r . Tipológica!

Investigations,

(San Francisco: Ignatius Press 1 9 8 6 ) : 2 2 1 - 2

X I V ( L o n d o n : D a r t o n L o n g m a n and Todd 1976): 6 6 - 7

S u b s e q u e n t page references f o r q u o t a t i o n are g i v e n i n t h e t e x t

I t w o u l d be d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d a n y t h i n g m o r e e n l i g h t e n i n g o n this w h o l e debate than the

i n The Clergy Review the Evolution A

b e t w e e n 1971 a n d 1975 a n d r e p r i n t e d i n Bishops

of Modern

English

Clarke 1977): 1 6 1 - 2 3 4

Catholicism,

Cambridge, published and Writers : Aspects

edited by A d r i a n Hastings

of

(Wheathampstead:

162

H A N S

K Ü N G

Chapter Ten

h u m a n life is also an i m p o r t a n t objective o f his o w n pontificate, and a f f i r m i n g his agreement w i t h Kiing's attempt to revive the dialogue between f a i t h and the natural sciences For his part, so the press release concludes, K i i n g

KAROL

expressed his praise for the pope's efforts i n favour o f dialogue between r e l i gions and towards meeting the different social groups o f the m o d e r n w o r l d .

WOJTYLA

Some topics, once - and no d o u b t still - dear to Hans Kiing's heart, were evidently n o t o n the agenda.

W h e n an extraordinarily gifted m a n is pope f o r nearly 27 years, w i t h a clear vision of h o w to lead the C h u r c h , his c o n t r i b u t i o n simply as one o f the innovative theologians o f the t w e n t i e t h century m i g h t easily be overlooked Elected pope o n 16 O c t o b e r 1978, J o h n Paul I I died o n 2 A p r i l 2005. K a r o l W o j t y l a was b o r n o n 18 M a y 1920 at Wadowice, near K r a k o w

1

The Polish R e p u b l i c had just been created, at the Versailles Peace C o n f e r ence Marshal Jozef Pilsudski was f i g h t i n g to secure the eastern frontier against the n e w Soviet U n i o n . Wojtyla's fathei, drafted i n t o the A u s t r o 2

H u n g a r i a n a r m y i n 1900, and eventually posted to Wadowice, m a r r i e d i n t o a c o m f o r t a b l y w e l l - o f f f a m i l y T h e Austrians were o n the losing side; the Habsburg E m p i r e collapsed; and Karol's father, w h o had a desk

job

t h r o u g h o u t , emerged as an officer i n the n e w Polish a r m y W q j t y l a d i d n o t i n t e n d to become a priest His humanistic studies at the jagiellonian U n i v e r s i t y i n K r a k o w were soon disrupted by the German invasion Hundreds o f the professors were taken to concentration camps, w h e r e more than half d i e d I n the K a t y n forest, the Soviet Communists shot 25,700 m i l i t a r y officers, landowners, civil servants, factory owners, clergym e n and policemen Between t h e m , H i t l e r and Stalin sought to exterminate the entire Polish m i d d l e class. W o j t y l a was l u c k y to survive. B y 1942 he had decided o n the priesthood W o r k i n g i n a factory, he embarked o n the required philosophical course H e f o u n d metaphysics hard:

1

See J o n a t h a n K w i t n y , Man

of the Century:

The Life and

L i t t l e , B r o w n a n d C o m p a n y 1997) a n d G e o r g e W e i g e l

Times of Pope John Paul II ( L o n d o n :

Witness to Hope:

The Biography

of Pope

John Paul II ( N e w Y o r k : H a r p e r C o l l i n s 1999) 2

Mind

T h e r e is a g o o d a c c o u n t o f T h e Polands o t the P o p e i n G e o r g e H u n s t o n W i l l i a m s . The ofJohn

Paul II

Origins

of His "Thought and Action

( N e w Y o r k : S e a b u r y 1981), a n excellent

s t u d y b y an e m i n e n t Protestant scholar w i t h expertise i n P o l i s h h i s t o r y

164

K A R O I

K A R O L

W O J 1 Y J . A

For a long time I couldn't cope w i t h the book, and I actually wept over it. M y literary training centred around the humanities [and] had not prepared me at all for the scholastic theses and formulas I had to cut a path through a thick undergrowth o f concepts, without even being able to identify the ground over which I was moving. After hacking through this vegetation, I came to a clearing, to the discovery o f the deep reasons for what until then I had only lived and felt But i n the end it opened a whole new world to me I t showed me a new approach to reality, and made me aware of questions that I had only dimly perceived. This discovery has remained the basis of my intellectual structure So it all really began w i t h the book o f Wais

165

W O J I Y I A

Thomism? Two weeks after ordination Karol W o j t y l a enrolled at the D o m i n i c a n College i n R o m e The D o m i n i c a n s at the A n g e l i c u m were famous f o r t h e i r pure version of T h o m i s m , u n t o u c h e d b y efforts to relate Aquinas t o K a n t or {perhaps even worse) to situate h i m i n his historical context. T h i r t y years had gone by b u t R e g i n a l d Garrigou-Tagrange was still there to supervise Wojtyla's doctorate research as he once had Chenu's.

3

A c c o r d i n g t o some authorities, W o j t y l a received 'rigorous t r a i n i n g i n the most traditional f o r m o f T h o m i s m ' , f r o m G a r r i g o u - L a g r a n g e . I n fact, 7

Wais deals w i t h being, act and potency, existence and essence, and so o n , the

however, W o j t y l a spent f r o m N o v e m b e r 1946

standard neoscholastic topics, albeit i n a historical context, ancient, m e d i -

A n g e l i c u m : three semesters. D u r i n g the first semester he w r o t e a paper (in

eval and especially nineteenth century, according to G . H W i l l i a m s , w h o

L a t i n , for M a r i o T u i g i Ciappi) o n the theology of Aquinas, i n order to

also says that the author was fully aware o f the r e t h i n k i n g o f T h o m i s m i n the

demonstrate his grasp o f the underlying metaphysical principles. T h e remain-

l i g h t o f the philosophy of Kant.. The b o o k , another coirunentator says,

i n g t w o semesters were devoted t o the doctoral dissertation, ' T h e essence o f

'reflects the influence o f transcendental T h o m i s m , the school o f L o u v a i n ,

f a i t h i n John o f the Cross', supervised, indeed, by Garrigou-Lagrange.

w h i c h attempted to reconcile K a n t and St Thomas'.

Since Wais studied at

W o j t y l a never studied Thomistic p h i l o s o p h y and theology under the usual

Innsbruck, R o m e , F r i b o u r g and T o u v a i n , where he counted M e r c i e r as his

conditions C o m p o s i n g a l o n g essay i n four months was not the 'rigorous

master, he seems to have been acquainted w i t h the entire range o f pre-1914

t r a i n i n g ' that resulted f r o m attending lectures o n Aquinas for seven years, as

versions o f T h o m i s m .

D o m i n i c a n students d i d then (and i n t o the 1960s). Moreover, one wonders

4

5

N a r r o w l y escaping arrest b y G e r m a n soldiers, i n August 1944, W o j t y l a m o v e d i n t o the clandestine seminary i n the archbishop's palace i n K r a k o w .

6

u n t i l June 1948

at the

h o w m u c h any supervisor c o u l d have affected his project.. G a r r i g o u Lagrange, i t is true, was the obvious person at the A n g e l i c u m t o direct a

I n January 1945, the Germans fled and the Russians arrived W o j t y l a was

thesis o n John of the Cross H o w e v e r , W o j t y l a had been studying John o f

ordained priest o n 1 N o v e m b e r 1946.

H i s o r d i n a t i o n course, i n c l u d i n g

the Cross since 1940, u n d e r the guidance o f Jan Tyranowski (1900-47), an

the private study o f metaphysics, was n o t the typical i n i t i a t i o n i n t o n e o -

u n m a r r i e d tailor i n K r a k o w , w i d e l y read and deeply contemplative, a quite

scholasticism.

extraordinary man. I n the dissertation, W q j t y l a contends that mystical encounter w i t h G o d is f o r everyone; we can k n o w G o d t h r o u g h m u t u a l self-giving, and the goal of the C h r i s t i a n life is for us to become ' G o d by participation'. This mysticism, far f r o m b e i n g exceptional or peripheral, is central: w e cannot k n o w others unless w e k n o w t h e m as persons i n c o m m u n i o n w i t h G o d ; G o d is part o f understanding persons; take G o d out and w e lose w h a t is most t r u l y h u m a n i n us.

3

The b o o k

i n Polish a n d n o t i n L a t i n b y K a z i m i e r z Wais ( 1 8 6 5 - 1 9 3 4 ) , was p u b l i s h e d i n

1926; f o r t h e q u o t a t i o n see K w i t n y , Man of the Century: 4

77.

W i l l i a m s , The Mind of John Paul II: 8 7 ; t h o u g h even i f W a i s k n e w m u c h a b o u t

transcen-

d e n t a l T h o m i s m ' , W i l l i a m s is m i s t a k e n i n a s c r i b i n g t h a t v e r s i o n o f T h o m i s m t o M e r c i e r . 5

So R o c c o B u t t i g l i o n e , Karol Wojtyla-

Ihe

Thought of the Man

Who Became Pope John Paul

II

8

W i t h this thesis Garrigou-Tagrange w o u l d n o t have disagreed: his o w n great c o n t r i b u t i o n as a w r i t e r o n spirituality was to insist that contemplative prayer is n o t f o r an elite b u t for everyone H e criticized Wqjtyla, however, f o r several reasons, b u t particularly for insisting o n speaking o f G o d as a

(Grand Rapids, M I : Eerdmans 1997): 3 1 . 6

A r c h b i s h o p A d a m Stefan Sapieha ( 1 8 6 7 - 1 9 5 1 ) P o l i s h n a t i o n a l i s t , r e p o r t e d t o t h e V a t i c a n

i n 1 9 4 0 v i a I n n o c e n t y B o c h e n s k i O P t h e ruthlessness o f t h e G e r m a n o c c u p a t i o n , a n d again i n

7

B u t t i g l i o n e Karol

1 9 4 2 , a b o u t t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n camps H e a l l o w e d Jews i n h i d i n g t o have b a p t i s m a l c e r t i f i -

8

Faith

cates. H e was a p p o i n t e d C a r d i n a l o n l y i n 1946 b y P o p e Pius X I I (Pius X I t h o u g h t he h a d

Press 1 9 8 1 ) ; u n f o r t u n a t e l y w i t h o u t G a r r i g o u - L a g r a n g e ' s

b e e n s l i g h t e d b y Sapieha b a c k i n 1921)

I t a l i a n t r a n s l a t i o n , La Fede secondo S. Giovanni

Wojtyla:

34

according to St John of the Cross, translated b y J o r d a n A u m a n n (San F r a n c i s c o : Ignatius observations,

f o r w h i c h see

delta Croce ( R o m e : A n g e l i c u m - H e r d e r 1979)

the

166

K A R O I

K A R O I

W O J I Y L A

167

W O J I Y 1 A

'subject', and f o r being u n w i l l i n g to speak o f G o d as 'object'. This is signifi-

O n e of Wojtyla's examiners was R o m a n Ingarden (1893-1970), t h e most

cant. Here, clearly, W q j t y l a was m o v i n g w e l l b e y o n d the T h o m i s m r e i g n i n g

eminent Polish philosopher o f his gener ation H e had studied w i t h E d m u n d

at the A n g e l i c u m . Aquinas has n o p r o b l e m about speaking o f G o d or o f

Husserl at Freiburg. W h i l e accepting the phenomenological m e t h o d of

one's neighbour as an 'object' - f o r example, as the 'object o f c h a r i t y ' , objec-

'eidetic r e d u c t i o n ' , he rejected the transcendental idealism.. That is t o say, he

23).. I n p r e - m o d e r n philosophy, an

accepted that acts of consciousness need to be analysed b y being 'reduced' to

'object' is some reality other than the 'subject': an object evokes, challenges,

their essence (or eidos): t h e phenomenologist is concerned, not w i t h partic-

or polarizes the activity o f a subject, i n one way or another I n the case o f

ular acts of perception (say), b u t w i t h the essential features c o m m o n t o some

charity, then, the 'subject' is a h u m a n b e i n g engaged, i n the actualizing o f

class o f such acts. O n the other hand, Ingarden, and o f course W q j t y l a , did

his or her capacities and endowments, w i t h the 'object' — w h o is G o d o r

n o t accept Husserl's conclusion, at least at one stage, namely that objects are

neighbour I n p r e m o d e r n parlance, that is to say, h u m a n beings were n o t

constituted b y consciousness, a thesis w h i c h seemed to t h e m (rightly) a

'subjects', cherishing their subjectivity, over against 'objects', passively facing

f o r m o f idealism.

9

tum caritatis (Summa

Theologice 2-2

t h e m , as we are tempted to believe

Thus, f o r Thomists, such as G a r r i g o u -

O n e o f the best books about Ingarden is b y Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka

1 3

Lagrange, Wojtyla's refusal to speak o f G o d as objection i n the context o f

Familiar w i t h the p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l school, w h e n she h i t o n Wojtyla's

e x p o u n d i n g Aquinas, c o u l d n o t b u t seem an unnecessary and even a gravely

b o o k , Osoba i czyn (Person and Act), published i n 1969, the f r u i t o f a decade's

mistaken move, all part o f the putative post-Cartesian t u r n to subjectivity

t h o u g h t , she saw i t as a m a j o r c o n t r i b u t i o n to the phenomenological tradit i o n . T he b o o k had been so badly received i n Poland, w h e r e philosophy was still d o m i n a t e d b y M a r x i s m , that W q j t y l a set i t aside. W i t h her enthusiasm, they w o r k e d together, i n Krakow, R o m e and at her h o m e i n Boston, Massa-

Phenomenology

chusetts, o n an English version, w h i c h appeared as The Acting Person i n

I n 1951, W q j t y l a r e t u r n e d to academic life, u n w i l l i n g l y The seminary p r o -

1979.

H o w true the translation is to the o r i g i n a l is m u c h disputed. The Vatican

fessor, w h o r e c o m m e n d e d this career change, selected the t o p i c f o r his dissertation: the ethics o f M a x Scheler

1 0

First he had to translate Scheler

14

attempted to stop p u b l i c a t i o n w h e n W q j t y l a became pope.

Tymieniecka

f r o m G e r m a n i n t o Polish, w h i c h he f o u n d a painful experience. However,

threatened to sue, deposited a cache o f letters at Harvard University, showing

he was soon telling friends that Scheler 'opens up a w h o l e n e w w o r l d , a

Wojtyla's support of the enterprise, and w e n t ahead w i t h p u b l i c a t i o n

w o r l d of values and a fresh v i e w o f m a n k i n d ' .

Advertised as the 'definitive text', 'established i n collaboration', the book

1 1

1 5

M a x Scheler (1874-1928) argued, against Kant, that values are objective,

includes a facsimile o f the preface, dated M a r c h 1977, i n Wojtyla's o w n

unchanging, and a priori, albeit objects o f emotions and feelings rather than

hand, explicitly t h a n k i n g her for g i v i n g his text 'its final shape'. T h e book

reason W q j t y l a was unhappy w i t h this last claim. O n the other hand, there

appeared i n Analecta Husserliana, a distinguished series edited b y Tymie-

was m u c h i n Scheler's philosophy that he liked. For Scheler, a person is

niecka, w h i c h includes f o u r other volumes to w h i c h W q j t y l a contributed.

neither a substance n o r an object, but (in the jargon) the concrete u n i t y o f

Wojtyla's participation i n conferences, as w e l l as these publications, estab-

acts Moreover, persons are essentially b o t h individuals and social beings

lished h i m as a considerable figure i n the development o f philosophical

M o s t people, Scheler t h o u g h t , lack feeling for higher values; they cannot

anthropology, according to the phenomenological style that comes f r o m

participate i n communities devoted to such values; yet everyone should have

Husserl and Scheler

adequate, perhaps even equal, access to w h a t they do value. Values, Scheler believed, are better p r o m o t e d by aristocracy than by liberal d e m o c r a c y

12

Because o f the dispute over the faithfulness of the translation, i t is also disputed h o w ' T h o m i s t ' Wojtyla's b o o k is. Tymieniecka seems to have smoothed o u t some o f the T h o m i s t i c terminology, m a k i n g the b o o k look less Thomistic than, according to readers o f the o r i g i n a l , i t actually is

Weigel

9

1 0

Witness to Hope: 8 5 - 6 ;

128

T h e dissertation was p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 5 9 ; there is a n I t a l i a n t r a n s l a t i o n (1980).

1 1

K w i t n y , Man of the Century:

1 2

Scheler, a J e w i s h c o n v e r t t o C a t h o l i c i s m at t h e age o f 14, e v e n t u a l l y d e c i d e d t h a t his a n t i -

125

T h o m i s t v e r s i o n o f A u g u s t i n i a n i s m was i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h C a t h o l i c i s m

1 3

B o r n i n 1925

i n Poland, she has l o n g b e e n settled i n t h e U n i t e d States o f A m e r i c a

1 4

The Acting Person ( D o r d r e c h t : D . R e i d e l

1 5

H e r h u s b a n d H e n d r y k H o u t h a k k e r was i n the H a r v a r d e c o n o m i c s d e p a r t m e n t

1979)

K A R O L

G.H

W i l l i a m s hesitates between

K A R O I

W O J I Y 1 A

calling W o j t y l a a

T h o m i s t ' o r a 'thomasizing phenomenologist'

1 6

'phenomenological

I n over a dozen articles

169

W O J I Y I A

an alternative perspective i n w h i c h to recall philosophy to its o r i g i n a l destiny as 'love o f w i s d o m ' , philo-sophia,

such phrases are surely i n s p i r i n g

published between 1982 and 1993, the authors range f r o m ascribing to his philosophy a 'fundamental Thomistic core', albeit his n o t i o n o f 'experience' is ' n o t A r i s t o t e l i a n - T h o m i s t i c ' , to h a d i n g i t as 'a dynamic T h o m i s m ' ,

Persons as A g e n t s

' T h o m i s t i c personalism', T h o m i s m ' b u t n o t i n the usual sense', and suchlike

1 7

For those w h o read Thomas Aquinas i n company w i t h the likes o f

Garrigou-Lagrange,

obviously, the concession that Wojtyla's n o t i o n o f

N o t that W o j t y l a has done m u c h that m i g h t c o u n t as metaphysics - his main c o n t r i b u t i o n , as a philosopher, has more to do w i t h his discussions

of

'experience' is not ' A r i s t o t e l i a n - T h o m i s t i c ' means that his philosophy is n o t

h u m a n m o r a l agency, rather than any attempt to spell o u t a doxological

T h o m i s t at all

conception of the metaphysics o f being. D i f f i c u l t as i t certainly is, however disputable the translation. The Acting Person is most accessibly approached as one of the many efforts i n the m i d d l e of'the t w e n t i e t h century to deal w i t h

Doxological

the legacy o f the m o d e r n picture o f the self as the detached observer o f the

Metaphysics

passing show - such as The Self as Agent by J o h n M a c M u r r a y , Thought and I n 1980,

o n his r e t u r n to the A n g e l i c u m as by t h e n its most eminent

Action by Stuart Hampshire, The Concept of Mind by G i l b e r t R y l e ,

Phenom-

alumnus, Pope John Paul I I hailed Jacques M a r i t a i n as interpreter o f

enology of Perception by M a u r ice Merleau-Ponty, as well as Heidegger's Being

Thomas Aquinas, g o i n g o n to insist that the 'philosophical p a t r i m o n y

and Time and (perhaps) the later Wittgenstein's Remarks on the Philosophy of

w h i c h is foievei valid' can have all m o d e r n schools o f philosophy as 'natural

Psychology

allies' and ' p a r t n e r s ' - p r o v i d e d that they share an interest i n the metaphysics

Persons are agents, actively engaged i n the h u r l y burly o f life, l o n g before

o f the actus esseudi o r o f esse ut actus, and understand that 'that w h i c h subsists

ever they disengage i n order to observe things w i t h scientific detachment or

as sheer E x i s t i n g ' - G o d - calls the w o r l d i n t o b e i n g and pours love i n t o all

to stand back i n w o n d e r w i t h an artist's eye o r i n contemplation. Moreover,

created beings as i n t o 'precious jewel-boxes f u l l of treasures', and especially

persons are social beings, never isolated i n quasi-solipsistic i n t e r i o r i t y , a

i n t o h u m a n beings w h o are autonomous and have access to truth.. Aquinas's

p o s i t i o n leaving us vulnerable to scepticism about knowledge o f one

philosophy is

another's minds. Persons are always already ' i n the w o r l d ' , reacting to the e n v i r o n m e n t and interacting w i t h others. O n the other hand, u n l i k e Ryle,

a philosophy o f being, of the actus esstndi whose transcendental value paves the most direct w a y t o rise to the knowledge of subsisting Being and pure Act, namely t o God O n account o f this we c a n even call this philosophy the philosophy of the proclamation of being, a chant i n praise o f what exists ftlosofia delta proclamaziont dell'esserc, it canto in onore ddl'esistcnf. 18

This w o n d e r f u l phrase probably has no c o n n e c t i o n w i t h G K Chesterton yet, i n his b o o k o n St Thomas (1933), the praise o f B e i n g is equated w i t h the praise o f G o d as the creator o f the w o r l d This doxological consununat i o n of the philosophy of B e i n g , as we may say, n o d o u b t takes us m o r e rapidly i n t o theology than the f r a m e w o r k o f the T w e n t y - f o u r Thomistic

f o r example, W o j t y l a is not i n c l i n e d to play d o w n o r even eliminate our capacity to w i t h d r a w i n t o inwardness - he is not attracted by any f o r m o f behaviourism.. Plainly, also, for W q j t y l a , the h u m a n agent develops i n interaction and c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h others - w h i c h , however, does n o t lead to his endorsing any conception o f totalitarian c o l l e c t i v i t y

19

I n the encyclical Fides et Ratio (§13), o n the crisis i n philosophy, John Paul IPs focus is o n the concept o f the h u m a n being - for all that he r e c o m mends the philosophy o f being he seems i n practice to be m u c h more at home

with

the

modern concern

with

subjectivity

Philosophy

since

Descartes and K a n t , as he r i g h t l y says, has been more interested i n cognition

Theses was intended to allow - metaphysics disappears i n t o l i t u r g y ; but, as 1 9

T h e best i n t r o d u c t i o n s t o his p h i l o s o p h i c a l w o r k are b y Peter S i m p s o n , On Karol

Wojtyla

i n t h e W a d s w o r t h P h i l o s o p h e r s Series ( B e l m o n t , C A : W a d s w o r t h / T h o m s o n L e a r n i n g 2 0 0 1 ) , 1 6

W i l l i a m s , Hie Mind ofJohn

Paul II:

1 7

B u t d g l i o n e , Kami

323-30.

1 8

Wojtyla:

117

' T h e P e r e n n i a l P h i l o s o p h y o f St T h o m a s ' , Angclicum

a n d m u c h m o r e a d v a n c e d , b y K e n n e t h L . S c h m i t z . At the Center of the Human Philosophical 1980:

121-46

Anthropology

of Karol

U n i v e r s i t y o f A m e r i c a Press 1993)

Wojtyia/Pope

Drama:

John Paul 11 ( W a s h i n g t o n , D C : T h e

w i t h e x c e l l e n t b i b l i o g r a p h y by J o h n M

The

Catholic

Grondelski

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171

theory than i n o n t o l o g y - yet, w i t h appropriate caveats, he seems happy

n o t by themselves p u t an end to the existence o f anti-Semitism, w h i c h (alas)

w i t h the t u r n to the subject as the starting p o i n t i n the search for t r u t h (§5)

remains visible i n most supposedly Christian societies i n Europe, let alone

The traditional T h o m i s t cannot b u t be somewhat disconcerted by John

elsewhere Nonetheless they c o n f i r m the aspirations set o u t i n Nostra A3tate,

Paul IPs references to Aquinas. A c c o r d i n g to the encyclical, ' T h e C h u r c h

the Declaration o n the Church's relation w i t h n o n - C h r i s t i a n religions passed

has no philosophy o f her o w n nor does she canonize any one particular

at Vatican I I (1965) F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m the tentative beginnings o f his pre-

philosophy i n preference to others

. [because] even w h e n i t engages

decessors, John X X I I I and Paul V I , John Paul I I made decisive advances

theology, philosophy must remain f a i t h f u l to its o w n principles and

towards healing the r i f t between Jews and Christians, and cauterizing the

methods' (§49). For a h u n d r e d years, at least, so i t was generally believed,

v i r u l e n t disease that defaces the Catholic C h u r c h

I h o m i s t i c philosophy was indeed the official philosophy I t sounds strange

G i v e n h o w m u c h a theologian like Yves Congar suffered from the author-

to hear that the principles and methods o f some other philosophy have to be

ities i n his o w n O r d e r and i n the Vatican f o r his vocation to p r o m o t e

respected i n the exposition o f Catholic doctrine - w h i c h other philosophy?

Christian r e u n i o n , we should note that, i n his encyclical Lit Unum

one hears the T h o m i s t enquire. True, Aquinas 'has always been regarded b y

(1995), John Paul I I decisively reaffirmed the Catholic Church's c o m m i t -

the C h u r c h as a/the master o f teaching and a/the m o d e l of h o w to do

m e n t to ecumenism, here again g o i n g far b e y o n d w h a t was established at

theology' (§43: no article i n the L a t i n , obviously) - a m o d e l , note, o f h o w to

Vatican I I i n Unitatis Redintegratio,

do theology, n o t philosophy W e can understand ' w h y the M a g i s t e r i u m has

example, he begins by praising ' T h e courageous witness o f so many martyrs

praised the merits of St Thomas's philosophy and regarded h i m as leader and

o f our century, i n c l u d i n g members o f Churches and Ecclesial C o m m u n i t i e s

m o d e l o f the discipline o f theology' - yet this has n o t h i n g to do w i t h

n o t i n f u l l c o m m u n i o n w i t h the Catholic C h u r c h ' G o o d Catholics, even

'embracing cer tain philosophical positions, n o r r e q u i r i n g particular views to

today, have never believed that heretics and schismatics (as they w o u l d

be h e l d ' (§78). I t is simply because i n his w o r k he kept the balance between

t h i n k ) c o u l d ever be t r u l y martyrs f o r the f a i t h 'Believers i n C h r i s t , united

reason and faith, safeguarding the particularity of revelation at the same t i m e

i n f o l l o w i n g i n the footsteps o f the martyrs', however, 'cannot remain

as never reducing the proper course of reason.

d i v i d e d ' (§2, c f §84) Ecumenism, f o r John Paul I I , is grounded i n shared

Sint

the Decree o n E c u m e n i s m (1964). For

suffering f o r Christ's sake. Taking Catholic c o m m i t m e n t to the pr inciples o f ecumenism f o r granted,

R e f o r m i n g the P a p a c y

perhaps a little optimistically (most Catholics remain l u k e w a r m , especially those w h o talk most about their loyalty to the H o l y See), John Paul IPs main Since

concern i n this encyclical is to i n v i t e all Christians to share his prayer, as

b e c o m i n g pope i n 1978 most o f w h a t he published obviously falls i n t o the

'Successor of the Apostle Peter', f o r 'that conversion w h i c h is indispensable

category o f e x h o r t i n g f e l l o w Catholics to remember the faith that they have

f o r "Peter" to be able to serve his brethren' (§4) This is quite unprecedented.

received, or admonishing f e l l o w bishops to be f a i t h f u l to their office

H e appeals to Christians w h o are n o t now, and perhaps are never l i k e l y to be,

However, he also t o o k t w o immensely i m p o r t a n t initiatives, one as regards

i n f u l l c o m m u n i o n w i t h R o m e , t o help i n reshaping the papal ministry

the future o f the papal ministry, w h e n he i n v i t e d interested parties to help

Paul V I once lamented that the papacy was the greatest obstacle i n the way of

reshape the office, and the other, even m o r e remarkable, i n theological

Christian reunion. John X X I I I showed a side of the papacy w h i c h made i t

anthropology, w h e n he made nuptial mysticism the centre o f his teaching.

believable that i t m i g h t be a focus o f u n i t y f o r all Christians For Pius X I I ,

M u c h m o r e c o u l d be said about K a r o l W o j t y l a as a philosopher

M a n y decisions that he t o o k as pope have theological implications that w i l l resonate for decades i f not centuries.. For example, i n 1986 he visited the synagogue i n R o m e , a f f i r m i n g that Jewish/Christian relations rest o n respect

Pius X I , Pius X , or Pius I X , the very idea of consulting n o n - C a t h o l i c C h r i s tians about anything, let alone about the future of the papacy, w o u l d have been unthinkable; they regarded most of t h e m as barely Christians at all

for each tradition i n its o w n distinctive identity, thereby declar i n g an end to

John Paul I I takes a radically different l i n e : ' I t is n o t that b e y o n d the

the supersessionism w h i c h has d o m i n a t e d Christian attitudes to Judaism

boundaries o f the Catholic c o m m u n i t y there is an ecclesial vacuum.. M a n y

f r o m N e w Testament times. I n 2000, visiting the state o f Israel, John Paul I I

elements of great value, w h i c h i n the Catholic C h u r c h are part o f the f u l l -

prayed at the Wall i n Jerusalem and left his qvittel ( w r i t t e n request) for f o r -

ness o f the means of salvation and o f the gifts of grace w h i c h make up the

giveness for the past. Obviously, these deliberate, h i g h l y symbolic gestures do

C h u r c h , are also f o u n d i n the other C h r i s t i a n C o m m u n i t i e s ' (§13). There

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I Y E A

173

W O J I Y 1 A

are 'true C h u r c h ' elements i n n o n - C a t h o l i c c h u r c h structures - not just i n

confess that i t 'constitutes a d i f f i c u l t y for most other Christians, whose

certain individuals. ' T h e elements o f this already-given C h u r c h exist, f o u n d

m e m o r y is marked by certain p a i n f u l recollections'

i n their fullness i n the Catholic C h u r c h and, w i t h o u t this fullness, i n the

history of the papacy to deplore, n o doubt i n c l u d i n g c o r r u p t i o n a n d nepo-

There is m u c h i n the

other C o m m u n i t i e s , w h e r e certain features o f the Christian mystery have at

tism as w e l l as arrogant t r i u m p h a l i s m and refusal to collaborate w i t h other

times been m o r e effectively emphasized' (§14) Things have sometimes been

Christians: 'To the extent that w e are responsible for these, I j o i n m y Pre-

done better by non-Catholics

decessor Paul V I i n asking forgiveness'

John Paul I I takes up an idea expressed by J o h n X X I I I : ' E c u m e n i s m is an

O n the other hand, the question o f the p r i m a c y of the bishop o f R o m e is

organic part o f [the Church's] life and w o r k , and consequently must pervade

n o w o n the agenda, n o t o n l y i n conversations between Catholic theologians

all that she is and does' (§20) H e recounts his o w n c o n t r i b u t i o n i n his many

and others, O r t h o d o x and R e f o r m e d ; but, i n the ecumenical m o v e m e n t as

'pilgrimages' H e hails the progress o f many ecumenical conversations, and

a w h o l e , the issue comes up unavoidably i n connection w i t h authority,

so on. ' A century ago w h o c o u l d even have i m a g i n e d such a thing?' (§45),

c o m m u n i o n and u n i t y (§89)

he r i g h t l y asks.

T h e m i n i s t r y o f the bishop of R o m e is t o 'ensure the c o m m u n i o n of all

M u c h m o r e is said about reconciliation w i t h the Churches o f the East ( § 5 0 f f ) , and w i t h the n o n - C h a l c e d o n i a n Churches ( § 6 2 f f ) , than w i t h the

the Churches'

The post holder is, indeed, 'the first servant of u n i t y ' . W h a t

the office involves is explained:

Churches and Ecclesial C o m m u n i t i e s o f the West (§64ff).. ' T h e ecumenical

T h e Petrine M i n i s t r y

This primacy is exercised on various levels, including vigilance over the handing down of the Word, the celebration of the L iturgy and the Sacraments, the Church's mission, discipline and the Christian life I t is the responsibility of the Successor of Peter to recall the requirements of the common good of the Church, should anyone be tempted to overlook i t in the pursuit of personal interests. H e has the duty to admonish, to caution and to declare at times that this or that opinion being circulated is irreconcilable with the unity o f faith When circumstances require it, he speaks in the name o f all the Pastors in communion w i t h him He can also - under very specific conditions clearly laid down by the First Vatican Council - declare ex cathedra that a certain doctrine belongs to the deposit of faith By thus bearing witness to the t i u m , he serves unity

Finally, t u r n i n g to the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f the R o m a n Catholic C h u r c h to the

I n all this, obviously, John Paul I I is d o i n g n o more than repeat the affirma-

quest for Christian unity, John Paul I I says this ( § 8 8 ) : ' A m o n g all the

tions

movement', he nevertheless allows 'really began w i t h i n the Churches and Ecclesial C o m m u n i t i e s of the R e f o r m ' (§65) O f course, there are divisive questions i n need of f u r t h e r study before a true consensus i n faith can be achieved (§79) John Paul I I notes the significant c o n t r i b u t i o n w h i c h theologians and faculties o f theology are called to make by exercising their charism (§81) Discussions and agreements reached by ecumenical commissions are n o t e d as having responsibilities and tasks as regards p r o m o t i n g Christian u n i t y

o f Vatican

I

He

is, however,

careful to

reject ultramontanist

Churches and Ecclesial C o m m u n i t i e s , the Catholic C h u r c h is conscious

exaggerations that isolated the papacy f r o m the episcopacy: ' A l l this however

that she has preserved the m i n i s t r y o f the Successor o f the Apostle Peter, the

must always be done i n c o m m u n i o n W h e n the Catholic C h u r c h affirms

Bishop o f R o m e , w h o m G o d established as her "perpetual and visible p r i n -

that the office o f the Bishop of R o m e corresponds to the w i l l of C h r i s t , she

ciple and f o u n d a t i o n o f u n i t y " [a phrase f r o m Vatican I] and w h o m the

does not separate this office f r o m the mission entrusted to the w h o l e body

Spirit sustains i n order that he may enable all the others to share i n this

of Bishops, w h o are also "vicars and ambassadors o f C h r i s t ' " (§95)

essential g o o d '

endorses the doctrine o f collegiality as promulgated at Vatican IT N e v e r t h e -

The papacy, that is to say, far f r o m being something w h i c h should be changed o u t o f all r e c o g n i t i o n o r simply eliminated, is precisely the unique gift w h i c h the Catholic C h u r c h has to offer. John Paul I I refers to 'the Catholic Church's c o n v i c t i o n that i n the m i n i s t r y o f the Bishop o f R o m e she has preserved, i n fidelity to the Apostolic Tradition and the faith of the Fathers, the visible sign and guarantor o f u n i t y ' - g o i n g o n , however, to

He

less, the papacy has a special role: T am convinced that I have a particular responsibility' - w h i c h turns o u t , perhaps surprisingly, t o reside 'above all i n a c k n o w l e d g i n g the ecumenical aspirations o f the m a j o r i t y of the Christian C o m m u n i t i e s and i n heeding the request made of me t o f i n d a w a y o f exercising the p r i m a c y w h i c h , w h i l e i n n o way r e n o u n c i n g w h a t is essential to its mission, is nonetheless open to a new situation'

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KAROl

175

WOJTYIA

For a w h o l e r r i i l l e n n i u m - the first thousand years o f c h u r c h iiistory -

Canterbury f o r example. Nevertheless, the encyclical Ut Unum Sint goes far

Christians were u n i t e d i n 'a b r o t h e r l y fraternal c o m m u n i o n o f faith and

b e y o n d a n y t h i n g envisaged by Vatican I I or b y John X X I I I and Paul V I .

sacramental life'

i n belief and discipline arose a m o n g

Yves Congar, and the many other pioneers o f Catholic ecumenism, w o u l d

t h e m , the R o m a n See acted by c o m m o n consent as m o d e r a t o r ' H e r e , John

' I f disagreements

have been astonished that an i n c u m b e n t o f the R o m a n see w o u l d himself

Paul I I quotes f r o m an address that he made to the Ecumenical Patriarch

envisage w h a t w o u l d have to be quite radical r e f o r m o f the papacy, however

D i m i t r i o s I , a c k n o w l e d g i n g that ' f o r a great variety o f reasons, and against

w i s h f u l and far i n the future i t seems.

the w i l l o f all concerned, w h a t should have been a service sometimes m a n i ­ fested itself i n a very different l i g h t ' For all the h a r m that popes have done over the centuries, John Paul I I insists that he has a m i n i s t r y - praying, however, 'the H o l y Spirit to shine his l i g h t u p o n us, e n l i g h t e n i n g all the Pastors and theologians o f o u r Churches, that w e may seek - together, o f course - the forms i n w h i c h this m i n i s t r y may accomplish a service of love recognized by all concerned'.

In

1996,

at vespers i n St Peter's i n R o m e celebrating the f o u r t e e n -

h u n d r e d t h anniversary o f Gregory the Great's sending Augustine and his f e l l o w m o n k s to England, John Paul I I invited George Carey, Archbishop of Canterbury, to w a l k i n procession w i t h h i m , i n cope and mitre, and gave h i m a g o l d episcopal pectoral cross I n 2000, he invited the Archbishop and a representative o f the O r t h o d o x C h u r c h to assist h i m i n the o p e n i n g of the H o l y D o o r o f St Paul's Outside the Walls t o inaugurate the Jubilee Year

H e has n o illusions (§96):

2000 Such actions were certainly n o t spontaneous, t h e i r implications not unconsidered W h a t John Paul I I did, o n these and many other occasions,

This is an immense task, which we cannot refuse and which I cannot carry out by myself Could not the real but imperfect communion existing between us persuade Church leaders and their theologians to engage w i t h me m a patient and fraternal dialogue on this subject, a dialogue i n which, leaving useless controversies behind, we could listen to one another, keeping before us only the will of Christ for his Church and allowing ourselves to be deeply moved by his plea 'that they may all be one so that the world may believe that you have sent me' (John 17:21)?

exhibited an understanding of the papal office, o f the Catholic C h u r c h , and o f the principles o f Catholic ecumenism, w i t h w h i c h the theological schools have n o t yet quite caught up. As the French philosopher Paul R i c o e u r used to say, i n an almost untranslatable phrase, le symbole donne a penser. i t may take years b u t the eloquence o f a symbolic act w i l l eventually change ways o f thinking..

Theological Anthropology

Here, asking the help of ' C h u r c h leaders and their theologians' n o t i n c o m ­ m u n i o n w i t h R o m e , John Paul I I obviously has the O r t h o d o x m a i n l y i n m i n d . H e invites t h e m to engage, ' i n a patient and fraternal dialogue', i n the

F r o m September 1979 to N o v e m b e r 1984, however, John Paul I I gave a

'immense task' of seeking the forms i n w h i c h the papal m i n i s t r y may be

series o f addresses to large audiences of p i l g r i m s , k n o w n as the Wednesday

practised credibly i n this ecumenical age

Catecheses, o n ' T h e Theology of the B o d y '

Since this appeal, according to g o o d sources, proposals have been sent to the Vatican f r o m many different quarters. L i t t l e has been published, t h o u g h it is n o t difficult to guess that some books and articles represent some o f the submissions

cycles: ' T h e B e g i n n i n g ' , ' T h e R e d e m p t i o n o f the H e a r t ' , 'The Resurrec­

John Paul I I cannot have done m u c h to reshape the Petrine m i n i s t r y

anthropology o f sexual difference, w h i c h breaks new g r o u n d i n Catholic

i n ways that m i g h t meet the concerns o f the O r t h o d o x , let alone other

Christian t r a d i t i o n , g o i n g far b e y o n d received doctrine, and signalling

Christian leaders and communities N o n e o f his symbolic gestures w e n t sig­

the most remarkable theme i n t u r n - o f - t h e - c e n t u r y Catholic theology -

nificantly further than those by Paul V I , as regards Constantinople and

nuptiality T h e distinction between statements of c h u r c h doctrine by pastors and the

2 0

2 0

F o r d i e b e g i n n i n g o f a response see James E P u g h s i (ed.) Petrine Ministry

Church Orthodox

(Collegevılle Tlıeologıan's

M N : L i t u r g i c a l Press 1 9 9 9 ) ; a n d O l i v i e r C l e m e n t Reflection

on the Extras

f o r e w o r d b y A v e r y C a r d i n a l D u l l e s SJ.

2 1

These addresses fall i n t o six

t i o n o f the Flesh', ' C h r i s t i a n V i r g i n i t y ' , ' C h r i s t i a n M a r r i a g e ' and 'Love and Fecundity' H o w far back i n t o earlier years these ideas go is a matter of dispute A n y h o w , he develops a theology o f the h u m a n body, a Christian

and the Unity of the You Are Peter:

An

of Papal Primac)' ( L o n d o n : N e w C i t y Press 2 0 0 3 )

2 1

G a t h e r e d as The Theology of the Body

Human

Love in the Divine

Plan ( B o s t o n , M A : Pauline

B o o k s 1997), w i t h an i n t r o d u c t i o n b y J o h n G r a b o w s k i C f w w w . t h e o l o g y o f t h e b o d y n e t for t h e I n t e r n e t ' s best d o c u m e n t e d resource f o r P o p e J o h n P a u l IPs t h e o l o g y o f the b o d y

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C h u r c h , than i t sometimes seems i n other churches. Here, however, John common

teaching. O n the contrary - according to George Weigel, f o r example, John Paul IPs 'longest-lasting theological c o n t r i b u t i o n to the C h u r c h and the w o r l d m i g h t w e l l be something that very few people have ever e n c o u n tered: his innovative " t h e o l o g y of the b o d y ' " - 'a b i t o f a theological t i m e b o m b , something that [ w i l l ] explode w i t h i n the C h u r c h at some indeterminate p o i n t i n the future w i t h tremendous

effect, reshaping the w a y

Catholics t h i n k about our embodiedness as male and female, o u r sexuality, our relationship w i t h each other, our relationship w i t h G o d - even G o d himself

I Y L A

177

humanity, uniting i t to Himself as His body He reveals the original truth of marriage, the truth of the 'beginning', and, freeing man from his hardness o£ heart, He makes man capable of realising this truth i n its entirety. This revelation reaches its definitive fullness i n the gift of love which the Word of God makes to humanity in assuming a human nature, and in the sacrifice which Jesus Christ makes o f Himself on the Cross for His bride, the Church I n this sacrifice there is entirely revealed that plan which God has imprinted on the humanity of man and woman since their creation; the marriage of baptized persons thus becomes a real symbol o f that new and eternal covenant sanctioned in the blood of Christ

ideas o f private theologians is usually easier to draw, i n the R o m a n Catholic Paul IPs ideas are by no means simply repetition o f long-established

W O J

John Paul I I goes o n to cite 'a deservedly famous page' f r o m the A f r i c a n church father Tertullian (c 160-c. 225) expressing 'the greatness of this con-

2 2

As far as the implications o f this innovative theology o f the b o d y are c o n -

jugal life i n Christ and its beauty'.

cerned, there is no departure f r o m received Catholic teaching John Paul I I ,

I n the b r i e f addresses between 1979 and 1984 to his w e e k l y general audi-

as many o f his w r i t i n g s indicate, adheres to the traditional doctrine o f

ences (the Wednesday Catecheses), John Paul I I f u r t h e r e x p o u n d e d his

the indissolubility o f marriage, and thus condemns divorced persons w h o

'theology o f the b o d y ' i n the light o f this biblical and ancient patristic doc-

remarry w i t h o u t an annulment. Couples e m p l o y i n g in vitro fertilization are

t r i n e o f the n u p t i a l relation between Christ and the C h u r c h , G o d and his

guilty o f reducing procreation to something that happens i n the laboratory,

people.

thus separating the l i f e - g i v i n g p o t e n t i a l o f the b o d y f r o m the

person.

24

I n the Wednesday Catecheses, the key w o r d is nuptiality: w e h u m a n beings

Couples w h o separate the u n i t i v e and procreative aspects of l o v e - m a k i n g b y

were created 'male and female' (Gen

using drugs or barriers enjoy real b o d i l y u n i o n i n the conjugal act w i t h o u t

heterosexual marriage w o u l d be revealed as a sacramental sign o f Christ's

personal c o m m u n i o n I f the conclusions are no surprise, they are, however,

u n i o n w i t h the C h u r c h T h e h u m a n body, inherently and necessarily either

reached b y a quite n e w line o f argument.

male or female, exhibits its readiness for the nuptial relationship w h i c h

1:27), such that, i n God's g o o d time,

is f u l f i l l e d i n the u n i o n between C h r i s t the b r i d e g r o o m and his bride the C h u r c h

Nuptiality

This is n o t just an idea, John Paul I I insists; rather, i t is our experience of our bodies as a gift and as a symbol o f God's love - and, i n t u r n , i t is our

Back i n 1969, reflecting o n the Pope Paul VPs encyclical Humanae Vitae, the

actually sharing this love w i t h one another i n and t h r o u g h our bodies, our

then Cardinal W o j t y l a d r e w support for the c o n d e m n a t i o n o f artificial c o n -

masculinity and f e m i n i n i t y

traception f r o m the autobiography o f M a h a t m a G a n d h i .

2 3

B y the t i m e that,

I n the first place, the h u m a n body is the expression o r revelation o f the

as pope, he b r o u g h t o u t his apostolic e x h o r t a t i o n Familiaris

Consortia (1981)

h u m a n person. E x p o u n d i n g Genesis 2.18, w h i c h speaks o f 'the m a n ' being

o n marriage and the family, he preferred to rely o n l y o n the h i g h doctrine

'alone', John Paul I I claims that the solitude i n question is that o f ' m a n '

o f the m a r r i e d state i n Scripture ( § 1 3 ) :

understood as male and female, as yet undifferentiated sexually - n o t o f man the male, lonely f o r lack o f w o m a n The solitude d e r i v i n g f r o m the human's

The communion between God and His people finds its definitive fulfillment in Jesus Christ, the Bridegroom who loves and gives Himself as the Savior of

very nature enables us to l i n k the human's o r i g i n a l solitude w i t h consciousness o f the b o d y - w h i c h is h o w the h u m a n is distinguished f r o m the animals I n v i r t u e o f this experience o f o r i g i n a l solitude, the human creature

2 2

See the f o r e w o r d b y G e o r g e W e i g e l t o C h r i s t o p h e r West, Theology of the Body Explained:

Commentary

on John

exposition 2 3

L'Osservatore

A

Paul H's Gospel of the Body ( L e o m i n s t e r : G r a c e w i n g 2 0 0 3 ) . an invaluable 2 4

Romano,

w e e k l y e d i t i o n i n E n g l i s h , 16 January 1 9 6 9 :

6

G a t h e r e d as The Theology of the Body

Books

1997)

Human

Love in the Divine

Plan ( B o s t o n , M A : Pauline

178

KAKOL

WOrrYLA

K A R O L

179

W O I I Y E A

has consciousness at one and the same t i m e as awareness o f the meaning o f

d o i n g , to open themselves to the g i f t of f e r t i l i t y and thus to image even

the body. Man's awareness of the b o d y as different f r o m the bodies of other

more f u l l y the G o d w h o made t h e m I n the state o f o r i g i n a l innocence the

animals enables h i m ( i n c l u d i n g her) to grasp the t r u t h that he (and she),

n u p t i a l m e a n i n g o f t h e i r bodies was transparent to t h e m : the man and the

alone a m o n g visible creatures, is a person, gifted w i t h self-consciousness and

w o m a n had no shame about t h e i r nakedness since neither feared that

self-determination

the other w o u l d v i e w h i m or her, n o t as a person to be loved b u t as an

2 5

Second, reflecting o n Genesis 2 : 1 8 - 2 4 , the man's cry o f j o y at the sight o f the w o m a n , 'This at last is bone o f m y bones and flesh o f m y flesh', John Paul I I finds the expression o f 'the subjectively beatifying b e g i n n i n g o f man's existence i n the w o r l d ' This is the revelation o f the meaning o f the h u m a n b o d y as ' n u p t i a l ' The man's b o d y is a sign o f the gift o f the m a n as person to the w o m a n as person, and vice versa The ' n u p t i a l ' m e a n i n g o f the b o d y shows man, male and female, that there can be f u l f i l m e n t as a person o n l y i n the m u t u a l self-giving i n the act o f love

2 6

object to be used As a result o f the loss o f innocence, however, concupiscence veiled' the n u p t i a l m e a n i n g o f the body. B u t G o d so loves m a n , male and female, that, i n the person o f Jesus C h r i s t , G o d enables man, male and female, t o become - once again - pure o f heart, and thus to o w n his/her desires, rather than b e i n g possessed b y t h e m , w i t h the result that m a n , male and female, can rediscover the n u p t i a l m e a n i n g o f the b o d y and give himself/herself away, unreservedly and totally, i n the m u t u a l self-donation of marital intercourse.

Concupiscence, however, 'veils' the nuptial m e a n i n g o f the h u m a n b o d y

M a n y are baffled by such reflections Some are inclined to regard this new

I n the t h i r d chapter of Genesis we learn of the sin o f the o r i g i n a l h u m a n ,

theology of the b o d y as a belated argument i n support o f conclusions they

and its dreadful consequences for h u m a n existence. John Paul I I highlights

already reject. They t h i n k of the teaching o f the encyclical Humana

Vila

Casti

1

the contrast between the lack o f shame about their nakedness experienced

(1968), reaffirming the teaching of Pope Pius X I , i n the encyclical

by A d a m and Tve i n the state o f o r i g i n a l innocence and the shame about

Connubii

their nakedness that they experience after their 'fall'. I n the state o f o r i g i n a l

intercourse w h i c h , by artifice, is deprived of its natural p o w e r of procreating

innocence nakedness expressed f u l l acceptance of the b o d y i n all its h u m a n

life This teaching - i t is c o m m o n l y assumed - is grounded i n the c l a i m that

and personal t r u t h . I t was 'a f a i t h f u l witness and a tangible verification o f

to separate the unitive and procreative aspects of sexual intercourse is trans-

man's o r i g i n a l " s o l i t u d e " i n the w o r l d , b e c o m i n g at the same time, b y means

parendy contrary to natural law A f t e r decades d u r i n g w h i c h this argument

o f his masculinity and f e m i n i n i t y , a l i m p i d element o f m u t u a l d o n a t i o n i n

has evidently failed to convince most people, John Paul I I has replaced the

the c o m m u n i o n of persons' (27 3). N o w , however, as a result o f o r i g i n a l sin

appeal to w h a t is supposedly 'against nature', w i t h a radically biblical doc-

and o f the concupiscence that has entered his 'heart', m a n has lost 'the o r i -

t r i n e o f n u p t i a l i t y W h i l e there has been a remarkable revival of interest i n

ginal certainty o f the "image o f G o d " , expressed i n his b o d y ' (27 4)

The

natural law t h i n k i n g at the c u t t i n g edge of anglophone moral, legal and

'cosmic shame' that m a n experienced w i t h regard to his Creator makes way

political philosophy, the idea that the Tightness o r wrongness o f this or that

f o i another f o r m o f shame, the shame produced i n h u m a n i t y itself: the

activity, especially i n sexual ethics, may be measured b y c o n f o r m i t y or

woman's shame w i t h regard to the man and vice vena

otherwise to 'natural l a w ' , i n most ordinary people's eyes, seems quite

2 7

I n these extraordinary meditations John Paul I I argues that the t r i u n e G o d of love made m a n , male and female, to image H i m s e l f f u l l y i n their c o m m u n i o n of persons, a c o m m u n i o n made possible precisely because o f t h e i r sexual c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y as revealed i n the n u p t i a l m e a n i n g o f their bodies, the sign that the male person is i n t e n d e d b y G o d as a ' g i f t ' to the female person and vice vena M a l e and female are shaped physically so as to give themselves away to each other i n love, to become one flesh, and i n so

(1930), and thus c o n d e m n i n g , i n particular, any act o f marital

unpersuasive. I n any case, it has l o n g been debated w h e t h e r natural law ethics ever stands independently

o f theological considerations

2 8

John

Paul IPs faith-based doctrine of nuptiality seems to render non-theological natural law t h i n k i n g i n sexual ethics quite redundant P u t t i n g this another way, w e may say that i t looks as i f Catholic Christian ethics, i n regard to marriage, depends entirely o n the n u p t i a l m e a n i n g of the b o d y as revealed i n the o p e n i n g chapters o f the B o o k o f Genesis.

2 5

Ibid :37ft;

2 H

2 u

Ibid:

J o h n G o y e t t e . M a r k S. L a t k o v i c a n d R i c h a r d S M y e r s ( W a s h i n g t o n . D C : C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y

-

[bid : 51-4.

T

25-7

See

St Thomas Aquinas

o f A m e r i c a Press 2 0 0 4 )

and the Natural

LAW Tradition:

Contemporary

Perspectives

e d i t e d by

180

K A R O I

K A R O I

W O J I Y I A

Thomistic-Wojtylan

The historical reconstruction b y the professional medievalist of this seem-

Anthropology

ingly obscure l a t e - t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y debate has, obviously, an u l t e r i o r

As we noted, considering his sketchy seminary f o r m a t i o n and his penchant f o r phenomenology, as w e l l as his somewhat tentative

recommendations

about reading Thomas Aquinas, John Paul I I may seem n o t m u c h o f a Thomist Consider, however, the recent w o r k of Graham M c A l e e r .

181

W O J I Y I A

29

Writing

as a medievalist, he argues that Aquinas offers a distinctive t h e o r y of the h u m a n b o d y w h i c h is o f great interest i n the context o f current politics o n sexual issues i n the Catholic C h u r c h , but also is f o u n d i n John Paul IPs t h e o logical anthropology 'The argument may seem somewhat arcane I n the key concept o f concreatum, Thomas held that matter and f o r m are always already internally related — as b o d y and soul thus are, w h i c h means, d o w n the line, that sensuality and rationality are naturally suited to relate harmoniously w i t h each other, ' c o n created' so to speak. Historically, so M c A l e e r argues, Aquinas was reacting to the concept o f congregatum, the key t e r m employed by I b n R u s h d (1126-98), the Spanish M u s l i m philosopher whose w o r k became k n o w n i n Aquinas's student days: matter, here, is regarded as existing p r i o r to f o r m , w h i c h , unsurprisingly, rules o u t a n y t h i n g like the Christian doctrine o f creation.. M a t t e r and f o r m , hence b o d y and soul, as the expression suggests, were brought together, 'con-gregated' as i t were - but n o t created simultaneously. Thomas may w e l l have been m o r e interested i n challenging the positions o f neo-Augustinians a m o n g his colleagues at Paris, M c A l e e r suggests, rather than i n a n y t h i n g that I b n R u s h d taught Anyway, the t h e o r y that counts w o u l d be that o f Aquinas's o w n student, Giles o f R o m e (c 1250-1306/9), a h i g h l y regarded theologian w h o eventually became General o f the H e r m i t s o f St Augustine. H e opted for the concept o f aggregatum, w h i c h means that he p i c t u r e d matter and f o r m , w o r l d and G o d , b o d y and soul, as ultimately u n i t e d - b r o u g h t together, however, t h r o u g h violence As the etymology suggests, the picture includes a certain 'aggression' M c A l e e r works this o u t i n detail, d o c u m e n t i n g every move. H i s interest, however, is n o t simply i n these three medieval theories. D o w n the line, so he contends, self-mastery o n the part o f the h u m a n creature is conceivable o n the aggregatum theory o n l y i n ter ms o f an aggressive o v e r c o m i n g o f sensuality by rationality, o f the h u m a n b o d y by the soul. The healing gift o f divine grace, according to this logic, becomes ruthless conquest o f fallen

motive. As i t t u r n e d o u t , Aquinas's n o t i o n o f matter and f o r m , sensuality and rationality, as concreatum, failed to carry the day, even i n the D o m i n i c a n Order. The ' A e g i d i a n v i e w t r i u m p h e d , so M c A l e e r maintains, t u r n i n g up, anonymously, i n such w e l l - k n o w n dualist metaphysicians as Descartes, Kant and K a r l Rahner. For such thinkers, b o d y and soul, sensuality and reason, are never naturally fitted to each other, as o n Aquinas's view, b u t rather always i n conflict. This thesis may be no surprise to admirers o f Aquinas's famously antiManichean attitude to the b o d y .

30

McAleer, i t is true, has a nasty surprise

for one variety o f Thomist: Catholic social t h o u g h t , i n papal encyclicals as w e l l , so he claims, is largely inspired b y Jacques Maritain's 'equalitarianism', a natural rights theory concocted f r o m w h a t Aquinas says about natural law I n v o k i n g A u r e l K o l n a i , a p r o f o u n d student o f Aquinas, w h o argued that genuine political pluralism must acknowledge hierarchies o f natural and social privilege, M c A l e e r declares Aquinas's position incompatible w i t h as elaborate a theory of equal rights as Maritain's ('Christian-leftist social fantasies') H o w e v e r all that may be, and w i t h o u t c l a i m i n g that W q j t y l a t o o k it directly f r o m Aquinas, let alone that he ever read I b n R u s h d or Giles of R o m e , M c A l e e r contends that John Paul I I belongs w i t h the m i n o r i t y i n Catholic theology over the centuries w h o w o r k w i t h Aquinas's theology of the b o d y - however unaware they may be o f d o i n g so The upshot is as follows. I n his justifications o f the account of marriage i n Paul VPs encyclical Humance Vitce, J o h n Paul I I c o u l d n o t be more a u t h e n t i cally T h o m i s t

This is n o t because he concentrates o n the natural law

doctrine that sexual activity is ordered t o procreation Rather, i n contradict i o n to the dualisms i n Catholic asceticism and spirituality, as w e l l as i n m o d e r n philosophies, all o f w h i c h take violence f o r granted, as we achieve self-mastery b y s u b m i t t i n g our sensuality to our reason, he expounds a sexual ethics that, f o u n d e d o n the belief that b o d y and soul are created for each other, entirely repudiates resort to violence i n our personal developm e n t A c c o r d i n g to M c A l e e r , John Paul I I says exactly w h a t Thomas meant: ' T h e person, by the fight o f reason and the support of v i r t u e , discovers i n the b o d y the anticipatory signs, the expression and the promise o f a gift of self, i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the wise plan o f the Creator'

3 1

h u m a n nature, and so on. 3 0

A u r e l K o l n a i . ' T h e Sovereignty of the O b j e c t : N o t e s o n Truth and Intellectual H u m i l i t y ,

i n Ethics, 2 9

GJ

M c A l e e r , Ecstatic Morality

and Sexual Politics-A

Body ( N e w Y o r k : F o r d h a m U n i v e r s i t y Press 2 0 0 5 ) .

Catholic and Antitotalitarian

Theoryofthe

3 1

Value and Reality

Veritatis

Splendor

(Indianapolis. I N : Hackett 1978): 2 8 - 4 3 .

Encyclical Letter regarding Certain Fundamental Questions

C h u r c h s M o r a l T e a c h i n g , 6 A u g u s t 1993:

§48

o n the

182

K A R O I

W O J T Y L A

Chapter Eleven

D o w n the hne, so McAleer's story goes, the 'violence against the stranger i n the w o m b ' is the inevitable result o f the 'violence against the flesh' w h i c h is the use o f contraceptive barriers or d r u g s .

32

N o w o n d e r , then, that,

JOSEPH

according to J o h n Paul I I , a liberal democracy that sanctions a b o r t i o n and encourages abortifacient contraception is a 'tyranny and totalitarianism', as

RATZINGER

w i c k e d as N a z i Germany and Soviet Russia - a claim that w o u l d seem a l i t t l e exaggerated

b o t h to leftists and to patriotic neo-conservatives,

of

course for different reasons.

Conclusion W h e n popes die their teaching is soon f o r g o t t e n . J o h n Paul IPs i n v i t a t i o n , i n the encyclical

Ut Vnum

Sint, i f i t returns t o the agenda, w o u l d have

immense significance f o r ecumenism and ecclesiology W h e t h e r his distinctive theology o f nuptiality w i l l pass i n t o the c o m m o n teaching o f the Catholic C h u r c h , as he obviously h o p e d , i t is surely t o o early even to guess

M e t r o p o l i t a n Damaskinos

of S w i t z e r l a n d , w h o studied w i t h h i m i n

G e r m a n y before Vatican I I , w r o t e to the Prefect o f the C o n g r e g a t i o n for the D o c t r i n e o f the F a i t h i n O c t o b e r 2000 to seek c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f the recently issued declaration Dominus Jesus

1

This d o c u m e n t appeared to

imply, he feared, that the R o m a n C a t h o l i c C h u r c h alone must be regarded as the o n l y true C h u r c h , m e a n i n g that the O r t h o d o x C h u r c h must be s o m e t h i n g less, i n C a t h o l i c eyes

C a r d i n a l Ratzinger

replied that the

R o m a n C a t h o l i c C h u r c h also is ' w o u n d e d ' b y the lack o f f u l l c o m m u n i o n between the t w o O f interest here, however, is the question p u t t o h i m by his f o r m e r student as to w h e t h e r there was any c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n P r o fessor Joseph Ratzinger and the Prefect o f the C o n g r e g a t i o n i n regard to their teaching - Damaskinos clearly t h o u g h t there was a certain reversal of v i e w To this, R a t z i n g e r replied that professor and Prefect were still the same person, yet these are titles that refer to different tasks W h a t a professor teaches 'springs f r o m his personal j o u r n e y o f faith and understanding and locates h i m i n the shared j o u r n e y of the C h u r c h ' The C D F Prefect, o n the other hand, 'is n o t supposed to e x p o u n d his personal v i e w s ' ; o n the contrary, any text to w h i c h he attaches his name 'is p u r g e d o f e v e r y t h i n g that is m e r e l y personal and t r u l y becomes the c o m m o n message o f the Church'

2

B o r n o n 16 A p r i l 1927, i n picture b o o k Catholic Bavaria, Joseph R a t z inger is the son o f a police officer, whose career was curtailed by his quiet

1

Dominus Jesus:

D e c l a r a t i o n o n t h e U n i c i t y a n d Salvific U n i v e r s a l i t y o f fesus C h r i s t a n d the

C h u r c h , issued b y t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n f o r t h e D o c t r i n e o f d i e F a i t h 6 A u g u s t 2 0 0 0 . 2

! 2

M c A k - e r , Ecstatic Morality:

187

Pilgrim

Fellowship

of Faith:

The

Church

as Communion

(San F r a n c i s c o : I g n a t i u s Press 2 0 0 2 ) :

2 1 7 - 4 1 ; includes complete b i b l i o g r a p h y o f Ratzinger s publications u n t i l 2002

184

J O S E P H

J O S E P H

R A I Z I N G E R

io3

R A I Z I N G E R

resistance to a n t i - C a t h o l i c i s m a m o n g local N a t i o n a l Socialist officials. The

Catholic m o r a l theology o n the basis, n o t o f natural law, b u t of f o l l o w i n g

3

Concordat signed between the Vatican and the N a z i State i n 1933, suppos-

Christ.

edly to secure the Church's freedom, soon gave way to severe p o l i t i c a l and

schemas', was reconstructing systematics i n the spirit of the liturgical m o v e -

social tensions, so that Ratzinger's

m e n t and the r e t u r n to Scripture and the Fathers F r i e d r i c h W i l h e l m Maier

b o y h o o d was overshadowed by the

regime's increasingly anti-Catholic policies

Michael

Schmaus, w h o had 'parted ways w i t h

neoscholastic

the N e w Testament professor, w h o m Ratzinger admired, was a m o n g the

C o n s c r i p t e d i n 194.3 w i t h his classmates, he served i n the anti-aircraft

first Catholic scholars to accept the ' Q ' hypothesis - that M a t t h e w and Luke

corps, defending M u n i c h , t h e n i n the infamous A u s t r i a n L e g i o n ('fanatical

composed their gospels o u t of M a r k and a hypothetical lost source - for

ideologues w h o tyrannised us w i t h o u t respite'), d i g g i n g trenches near the

w h i c h the H o l y O f f i c e required h i m to leave his post.. Reinstated i n 1924,

H u n g a r i a n border. Ratzinger never had to f i g h t

as his

he 'never quite got over the trauma', indeed 'he harboured a certain b i t t e r -

c o u n t r y descended i n t o chaos, he deserted, heading h o m e o n l y to f i n d U S

i n A p r i l 1945,

ness against R o m e ' , so the Congregation Prefect records, perhaps w i t h a

troops billeted i n his house. H e was h e l d i n a p r i s o n e r - o f - w a r camp f o r

w r y smile.

5

about a m o n t h .

G o t t l i e b Sohngen was, however, the greatest i n f l u e n c e . H e chose R a t z 6

I n N o v e m b e r 1945 Ratzinger r e t u r n e d to his o r d i n a t i o n studies

The

inger's doctorate thesis f o r h i m ('People and House of G o d i n Augustine's

seminary rector had spent five years as a prisoner i n Dachau. A l f r e d Lâpple,

D o c t r i n e of the C h u r c h ' ) as w e l l as the topic f o r his Hahilitationsschrift

another of his teachers, just back f r o m p r i s o n e r - o f - w a r camp i n England,

study o f the t h e n fashionable concept of Heilsgeschichte, 'salvation history', i n

was one o f the G e r m a n scholars w h o were to b r i n g N e w m a n to the fore i n

the l i g h t o f Bonaventure's theology o f history and revelation A c c o r d i n g to

Catholic theology H e got Ratzinger to read de Lubac's Catholicisme,

'a key

most Protestant theologians, at the t i m e , the ' H e l l e n i z a t i o n ' of Christianity

reading event' H e read Heidegger, Jaspers, Nietzsche and Bergson, w i t h a

replaced the G o d w h o acts dynamically i n historically dateable events (and

freedom unusual i n a seminary at the tune. R e a d i n g the Jewish thinker

so on) w i t h the statically conceived

M a r t i n Buber was 'a spiritual experience that left an essential m a r k ' w h i c h

u n m o v e d M o v e r (and so on) A t M u n i c h , w i t h its strong t r a d i t i o n o f histor-

he later compared w i t h reading Augustine's

ical theology, Ratzinger c o u l d deal w i t h this question o n l y by studying a

Confessions.

Thomas Aquinas, however, was a p r o b l e m : T had difficulties i n penetrati n g the t h o u g h t of Thomas Aquinas, whose crystal-clear logic seemed to me to be t o o closed i n o n itself, t o o impersonal and ready-made'

4

H e was

taught 'a r i g i d , neoscholastic T h o m i s m ' , by a professor w h o had been a worker i n the R u h r , A r n o l d W i h n s e n , an interesting m a n , w h o had studied

- a

7

deity of Greek metaphysics,

the

classic text - and Bonaventure was 'naturally a more l i k e l y subject f o r study than Aquinas'. U n l i k e Aquinas, Bonaventure, as M i n i s t e r General, had to come to terms w i t h the theology o f history represented by J o a c h i m of Fiore, since i t was so deeply attractive to many of his Franciscan colleagues; he c o u l d n o t just dismiss i t as easily as Aquinas d i d .

8

at M u n i c h , b u t , dissatisfied, had gone to

A p p r o v e d b y Sohngen, the thesis was referred back at the behest of

thomhtica i m p a r t e d i n the R o m a n universities. H e

Schmaus - w h o judged i t defective f r o m the scholarly p o i n t of v i e w but,

seems to have been an exponent of the neoscholastic T h o m i s m espoused b y

m u c h worse, considered that i t betrayed a 'dangerous m o d e r n i s m ' , leading

the enemies of la Nouvelle Théologie. I n short, f r o m his first years i n seminary,

to the 'subjectivization o f the concept o f revelation'

Husserl and p h e n o m e n o l o g y i m b i b e the philosopha

9

Ratzinger, like so many others, was p u t o f f the study o f Aquinas by having neoscholasticism imposed o n h i m ; b u t , unlike some we have considered, he was never required to invent his o w n version o f T h o m i s m A t the University o f M u n i c h , i n 1947, Ratzinger f o u n d a w o n d e r f u l group of professors already re-established.. R i c h a r d Egenter was r e t h i n k i n g

5

Ibid:

6

I b i d : 106-13

7

G o t d i e b S o h n g e n ( 1 8 9 2 - 1 9 7 1 ) l i t t l e k n o w n o u t s i d e G e r m a n t h e o l o g i c a l circles,

tended

50-3. con-

as B a r t h says, t h a t ' t h e analogia entis is t o b e s u b o r d i n a t e d t o the analogia fuiei' - a

c o n c e p t i o n B a r t h c a n n o t accept as ' a u t h e n t i c a l l y R o m a n

C a t h o l i c ' , i n d e e d e x p e c t s to be

repudiated by the M a g i s t e r i u m , w h i c h allows h i m t o go o n m o c k i n g w h a t he

somewhat

u n f a i r l y , takes t o be t y p i c a l l y R o m a n C a t h o l i c t h e o l o g y , a t t e m p t i n g t o u n i t e Y a h w e h w i t h 3

Aidan Nichols O P

The

Theology

ojJoseph

Ratzinger:

T & T C l a r k 1 9 8 8 ) ; L a u r e n c e Paul H e m m i n g , Benedict XVI: B u r n s a n d Oates 2 0 0 5 ) , a n d J o h n L Ratzinger A

An

Introductory Pope of Faith

A l i e n . Jr , Pope Benedict

XVI

Study

A

(London: C o n t i n u u m 2005)

Milestones:

Memoirs

1927-1977

(Edinburgh:

and Hope

(San F r a n c i s c o : Ignatius Press 1 9 9 8 ) : 4 4

Biography

(London: of

Joseph

Baal, t h e t r i u n e G o d o f H o l y S c r i p t u r e w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f b e i n g o£ A r i s t o t e l i a n a n d Stoic p h i l o s o p h y ' , see K a r l B a r t h , Church

Dogmatics

I I / l ( E d i n b u r g h : T & T C l a r k 1957

1939): 81-4. K

U n f a i r t o A q u i n a s , see Summa Theologia; 1 - 2 , 1 0 6 , b u t l e t i t pass

9

Milestones:

106-13

original

186

JOSEPH

fOSEPH

RAIZINGER

187

RAIZINGER

Ratzinger was at all the sessions o f the C o u n c i l . H e f o u n d himself

C o n g r e g a t i o n f o r the D o c t r i n e o f the Faith), admittedly because i n a paper

w o r k i n g closely w i t h K a r l R a h n e r - an experience, so he recalled 35 years

o n collegiality, w i t h three-lines at the end o n the diaconate, they failed to

later, d u r i n g w h i c h he realized that R a h n e r and he 'lived o n t w o different

mention

celibacy]

13

theological planets': 'Despite his early reading o f the Fathers, his t h e o l o g y

I n 1966, t h r o u g h the g o o d offices o f Hans Küng, Ratzinger secured a

was totally c o n d i t i o n e d by the t r a d i t i o n o f Suarezian scholasticism and its

professorship at Tübingen. Shocked b y student unrest and Marxist ideas i n

n e w reception i n the l i g h t o f G e r m a n idealism and of H e i d e g g e r ' .

the faculty he resigned i n 1969, g o i n g to the m u c h less prestigious univer-

10

This

seems a rash j u d g e m e n t o f Rahner. B u t t h e n , c o m p a r i n g w h a t Ratzinger

sity at Regensburg

says i n Milestones

(1977) w i t h w h a t others remember o f his record at

M u n i c h - F r e i s i n g . I n 1981, at the second t i m e of being asked, he accepted

I n 1977

Pope Paul V I named h i m Archbishop of

Vatican I I , one cannot b u t be struck b y the spin that he puts o n things.

Pope John Paul IPs call t o take over as Prefect o f the C o n g r e g a t i o n f o r the

A g e d o n l y 35 w h e n the C o u n c i l opened i n O c t o b e r 1962, he was personal

D o c t r i n e of the Faith.

theologian to Joseph Frings, Cardinal A r c h b i s h o p o f C o l o g n e , aged 76,

A c c o r d i n g to George Weigel, this was the first head o f the f o r m e r H o l y

nearly b l i n d , f o r m e r l y a distinguished Scripture scholar, and one o f the

O f f i c e w h o d i d n o t take Thomas Aquinas as his master: ' T h e Pope [John

great m e n o f the C h u r c h , let alone at Vatican I I Ratzinger had n o great

Paul I I ] respected T h o m i s m and Thomists, b u t he b r o k e precedent by

p r o b l e m w i t h the texts drafted by the neoscholastic theologians f o r the

appointing a n o n - T h o m i s t i c Prefect of C D F I t was a clear signal that he

bishops to consider (or, preferably, ratify): i n A p r i l 1961, however, Frings

believed there was a legitimate pluralism of theological methods, and that

w r o t e to Pope J o h n X X I I I to suggest delaying the start o f the C o u n c i l ,

this pluralism o u g h t to be taken i n t o account i n the f o r m u l a t i o n o f a u t h o r i -

because the drafts were (he t h o u g h t ) so inadequate. I t is hard to believe that

tative teaching'

Frings w o u l d have gone so far i f his advisor had t h o u g h t v e r y differently I n 1962 Ratzinger spent weeks drafting an alternative to the official d o c u m e n t o n the C h u r c h , t h e n one o n revelation, w o r k i n g w i t h K a r l R a h n e r Perhaps he sat quietly, a l l o w i n g R a h n e r to dictate everything. The b o o k they w r o t e together o n the relationship between episcopacy and papacy,

1 4

' N o n - T h o m i s t i c ' is one t h i n g ; to regard Ratzinger as ' a n t i - T h o m i s f w o u l d , o f course, be absurd. H e bore n o resentment against the t w o years of ' r i g i d n e o t h o m i s m ' ; they were soon f o r g o t t e n i n the splendid t r a d i t i o n of historical theology that he i n h e r i t e d at M u n i c h .

1 5

obviously the fr u i t o f their w o r k together, shows no signs o f t h e i r l i v i n g o n remotely alien theological planets

1 1

M o r e o v e r , i n his c o m m e n t a r y o n the

second session o f the C o u n c i l (published i n 1964) Ratzinger deplores the obstacles some o f the bishops seemed to w a n t t o place i n the way o f ecu-

1 3

menical relations w i t h their exaggerated

subsequently

M a r i a n p i e t y ; he

comments

ironically that some seem concerned o n l y w i t h Joseph, the rosary, the c o n secration of the w o r l d to M a r y , d e v o t i o n to the sacred heart o f M a r y , and so o n - w h i c h betrays their lack o f theological e n l i g h t e n m e n t

1 2

I n this and

Monjournal

Gentes,

du Conciie I : 4 9 0 ; Gustave M a r t e l e t SJ, a d v i s o r t o f r a n c o p h o n e A f r i c a n bishops c r e d i t e d w i t h d r a f t i n g t h e e n c y c l i c a l Humana

modest,

disinterested,

a great

help'.

I I : 355-6;

deal m o r e r e v o l u t i o n a r y than he remembers

1 4

gossip about 'dangerous experts', recorded by Yves Congar, i n O c t o b e r 1963, Rahner, Ratzinger and Gustave M a r t e l e t were fingered as 'dangerous' by Cardinal O t t a v i a n i (then Prefect o f the H o l y O f f i c e , the f u t u r e

on

17

September

R a t z i n g e r ' s c r i t i c i s m s o f t h e d r a f t that w o u l d b e c o m e Gaudium n a t u r a l a h i s t o r i c a l plane', ' t o o o p t i m i s t i c ' , I I :

of

Ad

i n a d e q u a t e g r o u p , as he t h o u g h t he r e j o i c e d t o have R a t z i n g e r p r e s e n t , ' H e is reasonable,

several other ways the evidence is that at Vatican I I Ratzinger was a g o o d Finally, i n the context

Vitce; C o n g a r w o r k e d o n

t h e d o c u m e n t o n t h e m i s s i o n a r y a c t i v i t y o f t h e C h u r c h ; i n M a r c h 1965 i n a d i s m a l l y

G e o r g e W e i g e l , Witness

to Hope

1965

Congar

notes

et Spes - ' t o o m u c h o n the

395

The Biography

oj Pope John

Paul H ( N e w Y o r k : H a r p e r -

C o l l i n s 1 9 9 9 ) : 4 4 4 ; R a t z i n g e r was c e r t a i n l y t h e first theologian i n r e c e n t times t o b e Prefect; h o w T h o m i s t his predecessors were, is d i s p u t a b l e : F r a n j o Seper ( 1 9 0 5 - 8 1 ) and A l f r e d o O t t a v i a n i ( 1 8 9 0 - 1 9 7 9 ) t r a i n e d l a r g e l y o n B i l l o t ' s b o o k s ; n o n e o f his speeches at V a t i c a n I I was noticeably ' L h o m i s t ' . 1 5

G o i n g b a c k t o Johannes Joseph I g n a z v o n D o O i n g e r (1 7 9 9 - 1 8 9 0 ) : e x c o m m u n i c a t e d rather

h a s t i l y b y his b i s h o p i n 1 8 7 1 , c o n t i n u e d t o regard h i m s e l f as a C a t h o l i c , ceased s a y i n g Mass, t o o k p a r t i n s o m e O l d C a t h o l i c events, c h a i r i n g t h e B o n n C o n g r e s s i n 1875 b u t n e v e r acted 1 0

" 1 2

Ibid:

as a p r i e s t o r t o o k H o l y C o m m u n i o n i n O l d C a t h o l i c eucharists

128

The Episcopate

and the Primacy ( E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n L o n d o n : H e r d e r 1962; o r i g i n a l 1961).

D e v o t i o n t o Saint Joseph, foster f a t h e r o f Jesus remains s t r o n g , i n C a n a d a

a n d elsewhere, see James J D a v i s , A Thomistic Josephology www.jozefologia pi

Mexico

Poland

(1967). a n d t h e vast b i b l i o g r a p h y at

A m a z i n g l y , h i s assistant

f r o m 1863 t o 1867 was G e o r g R a t z i n g e r ( 1 8 4 4 - 9 9 ) , B e n e d i c t X V I s g r e a t - u n c l e , h i t h e r t o t h e b e s t - k n o w n m e m b e r o f t h e f a m i l y , w h o r e s i g n e d the p r i e s t h o o d i n 1 8 8 8 , t o p u r s u e a career i n p o l i t i c s i n t h e Bauernbund, legislatures

the 'small farmers

p a r t y ' , i n B a v a r i a n a n d Federal

German

188

JOSEPH

JOSEPH

IÍAIZINGEE

This is a familiar discussion

H i s t o r y and O n t o l o g y

paper o n the p r o b l e m o f salvation history', Heihgescluchte, 1 6

first published i n

W h i l e anticipated i n late medieval thinkers, this way o f regarding

the relationship between history and salvation, so Ratzinger says, originated w i t h M a r t i n L u t h e r : 'Whereas the very c o n t i n u i t y o f history had previously been the constitutive factor f o r the understanding o f C h r i s t e n d o m as salvat i o n history, C h r i s t e n d o m n o w appears under the sign o f d i s c o n t i n u i t y ' (157)

Moreover, he says, Christianity, w h i c h previously depicted itself as

c o m m u n i t y , n o w becomes individualistic, subject-centred, pro me: 'the u l t i mate discontinuity o f a personalist

orientation'.

I n analytic philosophy, for example,

the

question is w h e t h e r h u m a n beings constitute a natural k i n d , or, as many

I n his Principles of Catholic Theology, Ratzinger includes an extensively revised 1969

189

RAIZ INGE R

This transition f r o m

c o n t i n u i t y to discontinuity comes o u t i n many ways: i n place o f apostolic succession, the expression and safeguard o f continuity, we find the charis-

philosophers since Locke have held, whether personal i d e n t i t y and animal identity are quite disconnected - as i f the distinctive features of persons self-consciousness, freedom, and so o n - c o n f l i c t w i t h the f o r m o f animal life Ratzinger turns to the w o i k o f K a r l Rahner, i n particular his Hearers oj the Word, revised b y M e t z (1963); and the concept of 'anonymous C h r i s t i a n ' b u i l t o n i t H e is happy w i t h Rahner's description o f h u m a n beings as 'hearers of the w o r d ' , that is, as beings w h o w a i t for the w o r d that comes f r o m beyond ourselves, a w o r d spoken i n history, by revelation. W e do not find f u l f i l m e n t i n ourselves, f r o m the resources o f our nature; but i n virtue o f that nature, w e remain open to w h a t can c o m e to us o n l y f r o m w i t h o u t and i n freedom o f grace T he paradox is that w h a t is necessary for o u r being

matic power of the Spirit supervening unpredictably here and there; i n place

to become most fully itself comes f r o m w i t h o u t , contingently, as an h i s t o r i -

o f typological interpretation o f Scripture w h i c h relies o n the c o n t i n u i t y o f

cal accident (163)

history i n promise and f u l f i l m e n t , we find the c o n t r a d i c t i o n between law

A l l of this Ratzinger endorses To this extent i t c o u l d have come straight

and gospel, O l d Testament versus N e w ; and ontology, the fundamental

o u t o f de Lubac and Balthasar also W h e r e he departs f r o m R a h n e r - citing

metaphysical expression o f continuity, is first opposed as medieval-scholastic

the Grundkurs

(Aristotelian), then as a Hellenistic perversion; and by the 1960s the concept

p r i n c i p a l m o t i f o f his later w o r k ' - that our b e i n g is itself historical i n char-

o f Heilsgeschichte was the slogan, p r o c l a i m i n g the Protestant alternative to the

acter I n effect, history is always already Heilsgeschichte:

metaphysics i n w h i c h Catholic theology was immersed.

coextensive w i t h w o r l d history' Christianity is ' o n l y

O n e way o f dealing w i t h this discontinuity, Ratzinger contends, is to regard history as salvation o n l y o n the basis o f eschatology - i n terms o f hope, r e v o l u t i o n and the future. I n the

1982

version o f the essay he

denounces 'political theology', and i n particular the w o r k of Johannes Baptist M e t z - ' i n w h i c h the enthusiastic o p t i o n for history represents, at the same time, an equaUy decisive rejection o f the past, a suspension o f all reference to tradition i n favour o f a programme of w h a t is to be done' (157) Political theology, so called, i n its most radical forms, Ratzinger claims, ignores o n t o l o g y : 'To maintain the existence o f h u m a n nature as such is, f o r t h e m , the essence o f alienation; no h u m a n nature exists for w h i c h history is the mediator b u t o n l y the rough-draft man, the ultimate f o r m and scope o f w h i c h is determined by this particular individual w h o , o u t o f the r o u g h draft, creates a m a n ' (160)

The o p t i o n f o r discontinuity reaches its extreme

here - ' m a n as the measure of all h u m a n realities simply does n o t exist; m a n is w h a t he makes himself to be; there are ultimately no l i m i t s to this m a n i p ulation except those set by his o w n ability' (160)

1 6

Principle*

of Catholic

Ignatius Press 1987)

Theology:

Building

Sionti

for a Fundamental

o f 1975 - is i n the claim, ' w h i c h became m o r e and m o r e the 'revelation history is the most successful

instance of the necessary self-explication o f transcendental revelation' Rahner, t h e n , according

to Ratzinger,

For

every h u m a n being is a self-

transcending b e i n g , and the Incarnation o f G o d is merely the

supreme

instance o f the transcending of the self towards the absolute - 'the successful f o r m o f h u m a n self-transcendence' The i m p l i c a t i o n is that, whether explicitly aware o f this or n o t , any and every h u m a n being is always already w i t h i n the relationship o f this transcendence Put the other way round, 'the Christian is n o t so m u c h an exception a m o n g m e n as simply m a n as he is'

1 7

Metaphysics and salvation history need n o t be played off against one other. Ratzinger rejects the standard Protestant line, w h i c h is - still, to some degree - to regard the o n t o l o g i c a l as unavoidably a p r o j e c t i o n u p o n and subversion o f the history o f salvation. O n the other hand, he does n o t want to see the ontological and the saving-historical collapsed i n t o one another, as w i t h Metz's political theology and Rahner's transcendental theology, as Ratzinger fears O n c e again, that is to say, we meet the p r o b l e m o f h o w f a i t h and philosophy, divine grace and h u m a n nature, are to be related

-

neither e x c l u d i n g the claims o f ontology, as classical Protestantism appears Ilnology

(San

Subsequent page references f o r q u o t a t i o n s are g i v e n i n the t e x t

Francisco; 7

I b i d : 166 c i t i n g R a h n e r , Grundkurs:

388

190

JOSEPH

RAIZINGEE

JOSEPH

191

RAI ZINGER

to h i m to do, n o r r e d u c i n g salvation history to h u m a n progress, as R a h n e r -

to C h r i s t i a n i t y had to be the sort o f neoscholastic apologetics they most

inspired liberation theology seems to Ratzinger to do.

likely encountered at school i n those days. I n the immediate aftermath of Vatican I I schools, as w e l l as seminaries and Catholic colleges, reacted strongly against neoscholasticism — these students were n o doubt the last generation to be trained o n o l d fashioned apologetics

Catholic Apologetics

B e l i e v i n g certainly

means b e l o n g i n g : Catholics have i n h e r i t e d a certain historical t r a d i t i o n ; i t is W h i l e he clearly wants to avoid falling i n t o the trap o f i d e n t i f y i n g nature

i m m e r s i o n i n a k i n d o f life, n o t m e r e l y an intellectual game. M o r e o v e r , the

and grace, Ratzinger's version o f Catholic apologetics seems n o t to do the

ideas that w e may call o n as w e seek to understand w h a t f a i t h involves come

k i n d o f justice to natural theology and the use o f reason w h i c h an o l d -

f r o m a variety o f sources, far m o r e exotic and 'ecumenical' than a n y t h i n g

fashioned T h o m i s t w o u l d desire, especially one fearful o f residual modernist

envisaged i n the n e w l y discarded textbooks.

tendencies

Ratzinger turns to the prolegomena to the question o f G o d H e r e , where

I n his Introduction to Christianity,

f o r example, the p r o d u c t o f lectures to

a traditional T h o m i s t w o u l d expect natural theology, metaphysical argu-

students f r o m all faculties at Tübingen, published i n G e r m a n 1968, explic-

ments f o r the existence o f G o d , and so o n , Ratzinger appeals s i m p l y and

i t l y i m i t a t i n g K a r l Adam's Spirit

generation,

solely to anthropology and the history o f religions. To understand w h a t the

H e begins w i t h

w o r d ' G o d ' means w e need to recall and analyse the sources of religious

the idea o f the theologian as c l o w n , a picture taken f r o m the great Danish

experience. I n a lengthy, careful analysis he shows that the G o d self-revealed

religious t h i n k e r Kierkegaard b y way o f a q u o t a t i o n f r o m Harvey C o x , an

at the b u r n i n g bush (Exod. 3:14) is indeed to be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the Father

A m e r i c a n theologian i n vogue i n the 1960s: w h a t the theologian has to say

of the one w h o says T am'. W h a t Ratzinger is d o i n g , however, w i t h o u t

is indeed u n i n t e l l i g i b l e -

provocatively and disorientingly T u r n i n g to

saying so, is denying that w e have to accept the idea that i t takes Greek meta-

Therese o f Lisieux (1873-97, ' T h e L i t t l e Flower'), the C a r m e l i t e n u n , and

physics to enable us to speak o f G o d as 'being'. Given the near-obsession

her famous temptations to atheism, and to the shipwrecked Jesuit i n the first

w i t h the claim that, w h e n the L o r d G o d tells Moses that H i s name is T am',

act o f Paul Claudel's play Le Soulier de satin (1929), Ratzinger ratchets up this

w e have the first w o r d o f 'the metaphysics o f Exodus' (Gilson's famous

n o t i o n of h o w bizarre and disturbing theological questions are

phrase), Ratzinger's avoidance o f all m e n t i o n o f Thomas Aquinas at this

oj Catholicism

for a n e w

Ratzinger certainly avoids any sign o f neoscholasticism

1 8

Martin

Buber, he recalls, the great Jewish thinker, teaches us that faith is always a leap, an adventure, a t u r n a b o u t that can be achieved o n l y b y an effort of will

1 9

Yet there is also 'the ineradicable positivity o f C h r i s t i a n i t y ' , w e are

always already inserted i n an existing and ancient tradition. V i c o , n o t a familiar name i n neoscholastic seminary philosophy, has s h o w n us that the o l d metaphysics is ended; nowadays w e t h i n k historically

2 0

Finally, 'Christian

belief is n o t an idea b u t a l i f e ' - Catholic Christian faith, anyway, takes a social-ecclesial f o r m , i t is a practice, w e m i g h t say, n o t merely a set o f p r o p o sitions - t h o u g h these are not Ratzinger's terms here

p o i n t cannot be an oversight Indeed, Aquinas is never m e n t i o n e d i n this b o o k , anywhere. W e hear of Johann A d a m M ö h l e r as the great Tübingen theologian (184) and, even more, o f the great M u n i c h theologian Franz Baader - the one w h o m e m o r ably reversed the Cartesian 'cogito ergo sum' w i t h his 'cogitor ergo sum' (185) - n o t T t h i n k , therefore I a m ' b u t T a m t h o u g h t about [by others], therefore I a m ' D e m o n s t r a t i n g here that the solitary subject does n o t exist always an exercise early i n the neoscholastic philosophy course - Ratzinger offers some interesting reflections, insisting that m i n d depends o n language

N o d o u b t this approach is meant to wean or shock his m a i n l y Catholic

- n o t so c o m m o n i n neoscholastic philosophy H e is very m u c h i n tune,

student audience out o f their assumption that the o n l y proper i n t r o d u c t i o n

here, w i t h philosophy at the t i m e (1960s), w i t h Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, Wittgenstein, and so o n , t h o u g h never m e n t i o n i n g them.. Ratzinger neither attempts nor even alludes to any k i n d of natural t h e o l -

to Christianity

ogy as envisaged by the T w e n t y - f o u r Theses

( L o n d o n : B u r n s a n d Oates 1969)

1 8

Introduction

1 9

I b i d . : 25

2 0

G i o v a n n i Battista V i c o ( 1 6 6 8 - 1 7 4 4 )

I t a l i a n p h i l o s o p h e r r e s p o n d e d t o Descartes s attack

o n t h e v a l u e o f h i s t o r i c a l s t u d y b y t h e first a t t e m p t i n m o d e r n t i m e s t o e x p o u n d a p h i l o s o p h y o f h i s t o r y , i n his Scienza Tliought

of Giambattista

nuova ( 1 7 2 5 ) ; see J o h n M i l b a n k , The

Vico, 2 vols ( L e w i s t o n , N Y : M e i l e n 1 9 9 1 - 2 )

Religious

Dimension

in

the

The m e a n i n g of t h e w o r d

' G o d ' is to be explored i n the context o f religious t r a d i t i o n and experience, not established by logical analysis and demonstrations. Besides K a r l A d a m , the other theologians t o w h o m Ratzinger refers w i t h obvious respect, i n this b o o k , are R o m a n o G u a r d i n i , Gottlieb Söhngen,

192

JOSEPH

RAIZINGER

JOSEPH

193

RAIZINGER

H e n r i de Lubac, Hans U r s v o n Balrhasar and K a r l R a h n e r Remarkably, he

between

shows considerable enthusiasm for the w o r k o f Pierre Teilhard de C h a r d i n

mindset or likely to have differed substantially i f someone else had been

1981

and 2005 do n o t seem particularly characteristic

o f his

Prefect.

Prefect I m a g e of G o d and Nuptiality Obviously, w h e n he became archbishop m 1977, Ratzinger's career as an academic ended F r o m t h e n o n w e should expect h i m to practise theology

Consider, however, the Letter on the Collaboration

i n a significantly different way, as a pastor and n o t as a professor. T h e n , after

Church and in the World, issued i n 2004, signed b y Cardinal Ratzinger and his

oj Men and Women in the

1981, as w e noted i n his exchange w i t h M e t r o p o l i t a n Damaskinos, he saw a

deputy Offered as 'a starting p o i n t f o r further examination i n the C h u r c h , as

f u r t h e r d e f i n i t i o n of his role, as Prefect of the C o n g r e g a t i o n f o r the D o c -

w e l l as an impetus for dialogue w i t h all m e n and w o m e n o f good w i l l ' , the

trine o f the Faith. The theological texts w h i c h he signed as Prefect should

style is n o t o n l y utterly different f r o m the coarse, brutal rhetoric that charac-

be regarded as 'purged o f everything that is merely personal', and thus as

terizes documents issued by the H o l y O f f i c e d u r i n g the modernist crisis,

'the c o m m o n message o f the C h u r c h ' .

b r o o k i n g no possibility o f debate, i t also actually invites 'dialogue'

2 2

This

W h e t h e r the Prefect merely carried out the pope's wishes, or pushed the

t u r n e d out to be the last major d o c t r i n a l text to appear over Ratzinger's sig-

pope to take a hard line, or, as some have suggested, sometimes moderated

nature I t cannot be described as d o i n g any m o r e than repeat 'the c o m m o n

the pope's rage against dissent, or even deterred h i m f r o m c o n d e m n i n g c o n -

message o f the C h u r c h ' A n t i c i p a t e d to some degree i n the w o r k o f H e n r i

traception 'infallibly', w e do n o t , as yet anyway, have the evidence to say

de Lubac and Hans U r s v o n Balthasar, the d o c t r i n e i n this d o c u m e n t o r i g i -

The most notable theological acts d u r i n g these t w o decades i n c l u d e d the

nated i n Pope John Paul IPs Wednesday Catecheses

campaign i n 1 9 8 4 - 6 against l i b e r a t i o n theology and the silencing o f the

The d o c u m e n t was evidently p r o m p t e d by the challenge of f e m i n i s m N o

Brazilian Franciscan theologian Leonardo B o f f and c o w i n g of many others

d o u b t the Congregation has been inundated w i t h angry letters, denouncing

(we have just seen w h y he m i g h t have been personally engaged i n the

some rash punter w h o wants w o m e n ordained as priests, or another w h o

p o l i c y ) ; the pressure f r o m the C o n g r e g a t i o n for the D o c t r i n e o f the Faith i n

cannot stand 'inclusive' language i n the liturgy, o r whatever The document

1986 w h i c h led to the dismissal o f Charles Cur ran from his chair at the

aims to get to the roots o f the question and to offer a balanced account

Catholic University o f A m e r i c a i n Washington, D C , o n account o f his views on a range of issues i n sexual ethics, dissenting f r o m papal teaching; the docu m e n t i n 1990 ' O n the Ecclesial Vocation o f the T h e o l o g i a n ' , w h i c h was perceived by many as an attack o n the a u t o n o m y o f Catholic academic theology, an attempt to stop 'dissent' by f o r c i n g Catholic universities to sack dissenting theologians; a series o f documents between 1986 and 2003 insisti n g o n the intrinsic i m m o r a l i t y o f homosexual l o v e - m a k i n g ; and i n 2000 the d o c u m e n t Dominus Jesus, insisting o n the uniqueness o f C h r i s t and the centtality o f the Catholic C h u r c h to salvation - the text, as w e saw, that distressed Damaskinos.

21

O n e current approach to 'women's issues', w e are t o l d , emphasizes the abuse o f w o m e n by m e n , i n order to provoke w o m e n i n t o b e c o m i n g totally independent o f m e n

The alternative w o u l d elide gender difference al-

together, thus i n s p i r i n g ideologies w h i c h 'make homosexuality and heterosexuahty virtually equivalent, i n a n e w m o d e l o f p o l y m o r p h o u s sexuality' Thus, according to the first tendency, w o m e n and m e n are radically alien to

one another; according to the second, they are virtually identical

W h e t h e r this is a fair account even o f extreme positions i n feminist thought we need n o t linger over here The letter's purpose is to outline the theological f r a m e w o r k for a properly Catholic understanding o f the relationship

Assuming that the pastors o f the Catholic C h u r c h w i l l always w a n t some

between w o m e n and men. Obviously, this c o u l d only be a balanced v i e w of

authoritative organ to c o n t r o l deviations f r o m o r t h o d o x d o c t r i n e and

the difference between m e n and w o m e n and the c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y for

respond to the no d o u b t unstoppable f l o w of delations f o r heresy, something

w h i c h they are naturally f o r m e d

like the Congregation has to exist; and the documents signed by Ratzinget

2 1

The best a c c o u n t is b y R u p e r t S h o r n

H o d d e r and S t o u g h t o n 2 0 0 5 )

Benedict

XVI

Commander

of the Faith

(London:

This essay i n the theology o f gender difference starts f r o m Pope John

2 2

Letter

Church

to the Bishops

oj the Cathohc

Church

on the Collaboration

and in the World, issued b y the C D F o n 3 1 M a y 2 0 0 4

oj Men

and

Women

in the

194

JOSEPH

JOSEPH

RAIZINGER

Paul IPs reflections o n the first three chapters o f the B o o k o f Genesis - the 'immutable basis of all C h r i s t i a n anthropology' (his phrase) This already challenges those theological studies that began w i t h the ques-

195

RAIZINGER

i n t o the M i d d l e Ages, and r i g h t i n t o o u r o w n day, i n O r t h o d o x and Protestant as w e l l as neoscholastic Catholic theologies, the c o m m o n teaching has been that w h a t is d e f i n i n g f o r h u m a n beings created i n God's image is our

tions o n the soul i n Thomistic philosophy courses For us, the starting p o i n t

exercise o f a u t h o r i t y over the earth and all l i v i n g things, i n v i r t u e o f our

was the conception o f h u m a n beings as rational animals, as any o f the stan-

being endowed w i t h intellect and w i l l .

dard seminary textbooks w o u l d show Thomas Aquinas considers the nature o f the h u m a n creature theologically w i t h respect to the soul, ex parte animce (Summa

Theologice 1.75 prologue); w h i c h is disclosed, at the next stage, as

'intellective', inteliectiva (q 76)

For Thomas Aquinas, f o r example, i t is b y o u r powers o f k n o w i n g and l o v i n g that w e may be said to reflect the d i v i n e nature (Summa

Theologies

1 93; 1-2 prologue) M o r e than this, as he meditated o n Augustine's De

As Aquinas proceeds, the 'image o f G o d ' ,

Trinitate, Aquinas m o v e d , i n one o f the most significant developments i n his

imago Dei, is f o u n d i n the h u m a n being 'solely i n v i r t u e o f m i n d ' , solum secun-

t h o u g h t , f r o m a v i e w o f the image o f the T r i n i t y i n the soul as consisting of

dum mentem (93.6). I n due course, as w e enter w h a t is effectively Aquinas's

the three faculties o f m e m o r y , intellect and w i l l , to a dynamic conception of

exposition o f Christian ethics, w e f i n d the w h o l e treatise i n t r o d u c e d by an

the image as actually happening, so to speak, i n acts o f remembering,

appeal to the teaching of'John o f Damascus (c. 655-c. 750), always the voice

understanding and w i l l i n g . For h i m , the image o f G o d i n the h u m a n being

of the Greek patristic t r a d i t i o n f o r Aquinas: ' h u m a n beings are said to be

is a k i n d of event: an ' i m i t a t i o n ' o f God's eternal acts o f k n o w i n g and w i l l i n g

made i n the image o f G o d ' , and by image, here, is meant that the h u m a n

according to w h i c h there are t w o processions w i t h i n the Godhead: t h e p r o -

creature is like G o d , 'an intelligent being endowed w i t h free w i l l and self

cessions o f the Son as W o r d and o f the H o l y Spirit as Love I n its o w n

movement', intellectuale etarbitrio liberum etper se potestativum ( 1 - 2 prologue). A c c o r d i n g to the C o n g r e g a t i o n d o c u m e n t , however, w h e n i t is said i n the first creation narrative that G o d makes m a n ' i n H i s o w n image'— W a r n ' grammatically masculine b u t sexually undifferentiated - H e made t h e m 'male and female' (Gen

1:26-7). The h u m a n creature, as 'image o f G o d ' , i n

other words, is 'articulated i n the male—female relationship'. I t is n o t i n o u r rationality but i n sexual difference that w e image G o d — i n o u r genitalia, n o t in o u r heads, so to speak A c c o r d i n g to the second creation story (Gen

2:4—25) the sexually u n -

'processions' o f w o r d and love, analogically speaking of course, the h u m a n soul 'images' the divine T r i n i t y The capacity to participate i n this w a y i n the dynamic life o f the T r i n i t y is g r o u n d e d i n h u m a n nature, Aquinas thinks, yet i t is o n l y w h e n the m i n d is actively engaged i n acts of k n o w i n g and w i l l i n g that the t w o 'processions' actually occur i n the h u m a n soul, thus i m i t a t i n g (however remotely) the i n t e r i o r life o f G o d : 'an image o f the T r i n i t y is to be l o o k e d f o r i n the m i n d first and foremost i n terms o f activity, i n so far as out of the awareness w e have w e f o r m an internal w o r d by t h i n k i n g , and f r o m this burst o u t i n t o actual love' (93 7) .

2 3

differentiated creature o f the first narrative was o r i g i n a l l y male S u r r o u n d e d

This dynamically T r i n i t a r i a n anthropology obviously goes far beyond

by plants and animals, w h i c h fail to afford h i m companionship, he is p u t to

any n e o - A r i s t o t e l i a n philosophy o f the rational animal (if that was w h a t was

sleep and gives b i r t h to the female, so that his life 'does n o t sink i n t o a sterile

o n offer i n the seminary textbooks).. G i v e n its classical status i n Catholic

and, i n the end, baneful encounter w i t h himself ' .. A g a i n q u o t i n g John Paul I I :

Christian t r a d i t i o n , indebted to Augustine and Aquinas especially b u t i n

' W o m a n is another " I " i n a c o m m o n h u m a n i t y F r o m the very b e g i n n i n g

neoscholastic theology also, i t is surprising that i t should simply be set aside,

they appear as a " u n i t y o f the t w o " , and this signifies that the o r i g i n a l s o l i -

silently, i n favour o f this i n n o v a t o r y d o c t r i n e o f sexual difference as the

tude is overcome'.

h u m a n creature's way o f i m a g i n g G o d

W h e t h e r the first h u m a n being is actually envisaged as a solitary male

Obviously, the 'image o f G o d ' doctrine has, f o r centuries, been understood

historically, or this is a flight o f fancy o n the part o f the egocentric solipsist

i n one particular hermeneutical t r a d i t i o n - p r o m p t e d and c o n t r o l l e d no

o f existentialist epistemology, w e need n o t decide. I n any case, the w h o l e

d o u b t by the earlier reference to humankind's being i n God's image as

approach is quite adventurous

I f this is 'the c o m m o n message o f the

C h u r c h ' , i t is n o t w h a t theologians have classically taught.

2 3

A c c o r d i n g t o A n g e l o Scola, f o l l o w i n g Balthasar, t h e best analogy f o r t h e life o f t h e T r i n i t y

Taken o n their o w n , i t is true, the t w o verses (Gen. 1:26-7) certainly say

is t h e c o n j u g a l act o f m a n a n d w o m a n i n b e g e t t i n g a c h i l d - thus i n t h e T r i n i t y t h e r e is a

that the male—female difference is w h a t makes h u m a n k i n d 'image and l i k e -

n u p t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e r e c i p r o c a l l o v e b e t w e e n F a t h e r a n d S o n is t h e b o n d that begets the

ness o f G o d ' Yet, f r o m first-century Jewish commentators such as Philo of Alexandria t h r o u g h the C h u r c h Fathers, such as Athanasius and Augustine,

S p i r i t - such t h a t t h e a u t h e n t i c imago Trinitatis

is t h e f a m i l y : father, m o t h e r a n d c h i l d - and

A q u i n a s at I 93 6 a d 2 ' c a n n o t b e o p p o s e d t o t h i s r e a d i n g ' (TTie Nuptial Mystery M I : E e r d m a n s 2 0 0 5 : 368)

( G r a n d Rapids,

196

JOSEPH

'having d o m i n i o n ' (Gen 1:26)

JOSEPH

RAIZINGER

F r o m the outset the d o c t r i n e has been c o n -

RAIZINGER

i ^ /

logical C o m m i s s i o n , d u r i n g 2 0 0 0 - 2 , was published i n 2004 w i t h Cardinal

nected w i t h o u r freedom and intelligence, o u r a u t h o r i t y to rule the rest o f

Ratzinger's approval i n Communion

the animal k i n g d o m This t r a d i t i o n has been blamed, i n recent times, f o r

in the Image of God - a magnificent text, entirely i n line w i t h the traditional

p r o v i d i n g a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r the ruthless e x p l o i t a t i o n o f the earth.

and Stewardship- Human Persons

Created

The

doctrine. I t reaffirms the t r u t h that ' h u m a n persons are created i n the image

H e b r e w verb radah - to h o l d sway, to rule - o f t e n suggests, i n many other-

of G o d i n order to enjoy personal c o m m u n i o n w i t h the Father, S o n and

contexts i n Scripture, an absolute and even fierce mastery O n the other

H o l y Spirit and w i t h one another i n t h e m , and i n order to exercise i n God's

hand, since the R e f o r m a t i o n , the n o t i o n o f ' d o m i n i o n ' has been glossed i n

name responsible stewardship o f the created w o r l d ' (§4). W h i l e the emphasis

terms o f stewardship, w i t h thoughts o f management, c u l t i v a t i o n , and so o n ,

t h r o u g h o u t is o n the traditional d o c t r i n e o f rule and sovereignty, o u r enjoy-

and images o f shepherding, t e n d i n g , caring, etc., w h i c h o p e n the way to

i n g the privilege of sharing i n the d i v i n e governance o f visible creation (cf

current ideas about ecology, saving the planet, and so o n N o w that R o m a n

§ 5 7 ) , a g o o d deal is also said about the dialogical or relational structure of

Catholic concerns w i t h 'Justice and Peace' have been extended to include

the image o f G o d (cf. § § 4 5 , 46). W h i l e u n i o n between h u m a n beings is

'the I n t e g r i t y o f C r e a t i o n ' , this 'image o f G o d ' theology seems to provide

realized i n a variety o f ways, ' C a t h o l i c theology today affirms that marriage

exactly the appropriate rationale

constitutes an elevated f o r m o f the c o m m u n i o n between human persons

This 'image o f G o d ' theology is to be f o u n d i n the Catechism o f the Catholic C h u r c h (1992), t w i c e ( § § 3 5 5 - 6 1 ; and §§1699fT), w h e r e i t is develo p e d at l e n g t h , beautifully and entirely i n accordance w i t h the tradition. The Catechism, no d o u b t , was by far the most i m p o r t a n t exposition o f Catholic doctrine that appeared d u r i n g the decades w h e n Ratzinger headed the Congregation f o r the D o c t r i n e o f the Faith These paragraphs are little m o r e than a repetition o f w h a t was said at Vatican I I , i n Gaudium

and one o f the best analogies of the T r i n i t a r i a n life' (§39). ' T h e procreative u n i o n o f m a n and w o m a n

. m i r r o r s the creative c o m m u n i o n of T r i n i t a r -

ian love' (§56). O n l y i n one paragraph out o f over 90 are we r e m i n d e d of John Paul IPs teaching, that 'the n u p t i a l m e a n i n g of the b o d y finds its realization i n the h u m a n i n t i m a c y and love that m i r r o r the c o m m u n i o n o f the Blessed T r i n i t y ' (§40).

et Spes

Tater i n the Catechism w e hear that i t is i n v i r t u e o f being created i n

Earth's Theological Anthropology

God's image that h u m a n beings make works o f art ( § 2 5 0 1 ) ; and i n a quite different connection that, t h o u g h w e have lost o u r resemblance to G o d t h r o u g h sin, w e remain the image o f o u r Creator, w e retain o u r desire f o r

The t r a d i t i o n may, of course, be r i p e for abandonment. Back i n

the O n e w h o calls us i n t o existence - indeed, that is w h y w e may say that

indeed, K a r l B a r t h , i n his theological anthropology, dismissed the rational

' A l l religions bear witness to this essential h u m a n quest' (§2566).

animal as a ' p h a n t o m ' , a 'ghost', asserting that this concept overlooks the

O f course Genesis 1:26-7 is q u o t e d i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n to the section o n

1948,

most distinctive t h i n g about h u m a n beings, namely that they exist i n a defi-

the sacrament o f m a t r i m o n y (§ 1602): f r o m the creation o f m a n and w o m a n

nite history g r o u n d e d i n God's attitude to t h e m

to the w e d d i n g feast o f the L a m b (Apoc. 19) the Bible is centrally c o n -

be n o authentic theological anthropology w h i c h is n o t based o n the history

cerned w i t h marriage - b u t the theme is n o t developed The text is cited

of salvation - Heilsgeschkhte,

again i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n to the section o n p r o p e r t y - the earth belongs to

native, as he supposes).

m a n (§2402)

2 4

I n other words, there can

rather than Aristotelian philosophy (the alter-

N o w h e r e i n the Catechism, however, is there a n y t h i n g to

I n that case, so B a r t h thinks, w e cannot say ' h u m a n ' w i t h o u t saying 'male

suggest that the 'image o f G o d ' theology i n terms o f sexual difference even

and female' I n his exegesis of the Genesis chapters i n the previous volume,

exists, let alone that i t is the c o m m o n teaching o f the Catholic C h u r c h

he insists that the climax is the creation o f human beings as male and

S o m e t h i n g has happened since 1992. The teaching o f Pope J o h n Paul I I

female.

25

The Song o f Songs, he thinks, is a celebration o f the covenant of

i n the Wednesday Catecheses was evidendy n o t r i p e f o r inclusion i n the

husband and w i f e , anticipating f u l f i l m e n t i n the covenant o f grace between

Catechism I n the C o n g r e g a t i o n d o c u m e n t o f 2004, however, this entirely

the T o r d G o d and the people oflsrael, and between Christ and the C h u r c h .

n e w d o c t r i n e has become the only one. Amazingly, w i t h that characteristic R o m a n Catholic talent f o r creative amnesia, the imago Dei theology that has held sway for 2,000 years is never even m e n t i o n e d ! To be fair, the 'image o f G o d ' theme, studied by the International T h e o -

Dogmatics I I I / 2 : § 4 4

2 4

Church

2 5

Ibid : I I I / l : §41.

2 6

I b i d : 2 8 8 - 3 2 4 ; b r i e f exegesis at 3 2 4 - 9

2 6

198

J O S E P H

J O S E P H

R A I Z I N G E R

Ultimately, for B a r t h , the image o f G o d i n the h u m a n s b e i n g sexually differentiated is n o t merely an image o f the covenant relation between the f o r d G o d and creatures b u t also an image o f the very b e i n g o f G o d - G o d existing i n the essential relation o f Father, Son, and Spirit

Somewhat

abruptly, one m i g h t t h i n k , B a r t h insists that G o d is n o t 'solitary i n H i m s e l f , w h i c h is w h y his image has to be male and female - all other explanations o f the imago Dei theme suffer f r o m the fact that they do not do justice to 'this decisive verse'(Gen. 1:27). i n the f o l l o w i n g v o l u m e

2 7

B a r t h anticipates m u c h that appears i n the

Congregation letter. I n particular, B a r t h inveighs against talk o f exchange o f roles between the sexes, sexlessness, abstract humanity, and so on.

R A I Z I N G E

199

R

sion o f intellect and w i l l w i t h o u t w h i c h this lordship w o u l d be impossible' This goes beyond the meaning the text w o u l d have carried at the t i m e , Sutcliffe allows That i t is i n 'these faculties o f the spiritual soul that man's likeness to G o d u l t i m a t e l y rests' t o o k centuries to become clear H e r e Sutcliffe refers us to Petavius, De opificio sex dierum, for f u r t h e r e n l i g h t e n m e n t Clearly, Sutcliffe sees his interpretation i n l i n e w i t h a great t r a d i t i o n

31

He

never even mentions that the h u m a n creature was made 'male and female'. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary

(1989) takes the same l i n e : T n the

ancient Near East, the k i n g was o f t e n called t h e image o f the deity and was vested w i t h God's a u t h o r i t y ; royal language is here used f o r the h u m a n ' ; w h i l e The Oxford Bible Commentary

3 2

(2001), g r a n t i n g that the verse (Gen.

1:27) defines h u m a n beings as resembling G o d i n a way that is n o t the case w i t h the animals, comments that the nature o f the resemblance remains

C a t h o l i c C r i t i q u e s of E a r t h ' s

unclear: 'hypotheses a b o u n d ' , perhaps i n o u r h a v i n g 'the unique capacity to

Anthropology

communicate m e a n i n g f u l l y w i t h G o d ' (sic) o r o u r b e i n g 'God's representa-

Barth's interpretation o f the image o f G o d i n terms o f sexual differentiation was, however, regarded as a radical break w i t h centuries o f t r a d i t i o n , and certainly n o t w e l c o m e d by C a t h o l i c s .

28

I n the entry 'Gottebenbudfichkeit' i n the Lexikonfiir

Theologie und

Kirche,

29

the author, H e i n r i c h Gross, regarding Gen. 1:26-7, advises the Catholic reader that Barth's conception o f the image of G o d as residing i n the sexual

tives or vice-gerents o n earth' (the traditional v i e w )

3 3

I n short, the C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e o f the image o f G o d i n terms o f sexual differentiation and male-female relationship, proposed b y B a r t h and n o w i n the C o n g r e g a t i o n Letter, may w e l l be b o t h m o r e biblical and m o r e relevant i n the climate o f m o d e r n f e m i n i s m - i t is certainly a break w i t h centuries of tradition.

differentiation o f the h u m a n creature and the relatedness o f male and female is to be rejected. For the Lexikon,

the h u m a n creature is image o f G o d as

Nuptiality

sharing i n God's royal a u t h o r i t y (see Ps 8), and as radiating God's majesty I n the first great w o r k o f English-speaking Catholic biblical scholarship, A Catholic Commentary

on Holy Scripture (1953), E d m u n d Sutcliffe comments

o n the verses (Gen. 1:26-7) that 'the immediate context suggests that the likeness is to be f o u n d primar ily i n man's lordship o f created things, w h i c h bear a relation of subordination to h i m analogous to that w h i c h he bears to his Creator'

3 0

This lordship, he adds, 'is f o u n d e d i n man's exclusive posses-

For the Congregation Letters interpretation o f the creation narratives, the n u b of the matter is 'nuptiality'.. T h e i r nakedness (Gen

2:25) reveals the

h u m a n body, to our first parents, 'marked w i t h the sign of masculinity or f e m i n i n i t y ' - w h i c h 'includes r i g h t f r o m the b e g i n n i n g the nuptial attribute'. This 'spousal perspective' allows us to understand h o w ' w o m a n , i n her deepest and o r i g i n a l being, exists " f o r the o t h e r ' " - as m e n do t o o , only i t does n o t come so naturally to them. This spousal perspective provides the symbolism that is indispensable for

2 7

I b i d : HI/3: §54.

2 8

A n g e l o Scola, h o w e v e r is n o t so o p p o s e d ;

G r e a t t h e o l o g i a n s such as B a r t h a n d Balthasar

understanding the history of salvation as revealed i n Scripture: ' G o d makes

have n o t hesitated t o say that t h e d u a l u n i t y o f m a l e a n d f e m a l e receives its f u l l m e a n i n g p r e -

himself k n o w n as the B r i d e g r o o m w h o loves Israel his B r i d e ' (§6). 'For as a

cisely i n v i e w o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n C h r i s t t h e B r i d e g r o o m a n d t h e C h u r c h his b r i d e T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p is v i s i b l e u n d e r t h e v e i l o f t h e sacrament o f t h e E u c h a r i s t , i n w h i c h t h e slain L a m b celebrates his n u p t i a l s as t h e B r i d e g r o o m ' - perhaps g o i n g a l i t d e b e y o n d w h a t B a r t h w o u l d have e n d o r s e d {Nuptial 2 9

Lexikon

für Theologie

Mystery:

und Kirche

31).

5 1

e d i t e d b y Josef H ö f e r a n d K a r l R a h n e r ( F r e i b u r g : H e r d e r

1 9 5 7 - 6 5 ) . one o f t h e standard w o r k s o f the day A Catholic Commentary on Holy b u r g h : T h o m a s N e l s o n 1 9 5 3 ) : 183. 3 0

Scripture

e d i t e d b y B e r n a r d O r c h a r d and others ( E d i n -

3 2

D e n i s P é t a u ( 1 5 8 3 - 1 6 5 2 ) , F r e n c h Jesuit h i s t o r i a n a n d t h e o l o g i a n The New Jerome

Biblical

Commentary,

e d i t e d by R a y m o n d E

B r o w n Joseph A

Fitzmyer

a n d R o l a n d E M u r p h y ( L o n d o n : G e o f f r e y C h a p m a n 1 9 8 9 ) : 11 3 3

The

Oxford

Bible

Commentary,

O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press 2 0 0 1 ) : 43

edited b y John B a r t o n and J o h n M u d d i m a n ( O x f o r d :

200

J O S E P H

R A I Z I N G E R

J O S E P H

y o u n g m a n marries a v i r g i n so shall y o u r creator m a r r y y o u , and as the b r i d e g r o o m rejoices over the b r i d e , so shall y o u r G o d rejoice over y o u ' (Is 62:5), and so o n These images - b r i d e g r o o m and b r i d e —'characterize the dynamic o f salvation'. Indeed, they are ' m u c h m o r e than simple m e t a phors' (§9). They ' t o u c h o n the very nature of the relationship w h i c h G o d establishes w i t h his people'.. C h r i s t as b r i d e g r o o m and the C h u r c h as his b r i d e is a p o w e r f u l image, explicit i n the N e w Testament, b u i l d i n g o n the image o f the L o r d God's love f o r his people Israel, and a recurrent theme i n C h r istian t r a d i t i o n

R A I Z I N G E R

201

(Presumably m e n are the ones w h o go i n f o r the fatal abstractions - w h o else?) True, 'that w h i c h is called " f e m i n i n i t y " is m o r e than s i m p l y an attribute o f the female sex'

This is w h y m e n can do i t t o o - 'live f o r the

other and because o f the other' (§14). However, w h e n we t u r n to the example o f the V i r g i n M a r y , we find 'dispositions o f listening, w e l c o m i n g , h u m i l i t y , faithfulness, praise and w a i t i n g ' - virtues w h i c h belong to 'the vocation of every baptized Christian'. Yet, the Tetter insists, w o m e n live these attributes ' w i t h particular intensity and naturalness' (§15).

W h a t does i t mean to say that these terms are 'much more than simple metaphors'? Biblically, o f course, the marital relation is n o t the o n l y analogy G o d is also p i c t u r e d as Judge, m u c h m o r e frequently indeed, such that the h u m a n creature's relationship to G o d is as m u c h like a trial i n a c o u r t o f law as encounter i n the marriage bed M a n y other images o f C h r i s t come to m i n d besides that o f B r i d e g r o o m : W o r d , l i g h t , shepherd, vine, l i v i n g bread, 'the way, the t r u t h , and the life', and so o n Thomists m i g h t be t e m p t e d to p u t i n a w o r d here f o r the appeal that Thomas regularly makes to the self-identification o f G o d as T a m w h o a m ' ( E x o d 3:15): ipse esse subsistens, the act o f being, far beyond any question o f gender. Metaphors, however r i c h and imaginative, one m i g h t say, need to be subjected to the ontological interpretation o f the divine names i n ageo l d Catholic t r a d i t i o n .

34

O n e m i g h t appeal, then, to the metaphysics

of

causality: G o d as ' p r i m a r y cause', creatures as 'secondary causes'. I n the last analysis, the Letter concedes, every h u m a n being, m a n o r

W h i c h is w h y w o m e n are indispensable i n the Church's life - 'recalling these dispositions to all the baptized'. W h i c h is w h y , also, 'one understands h o w the reservation of priestly o r d i n a t i o n solely to men does not hamper i n any way women's access to the heart o f C h r i s t i a n life' (§16). W o m e n , i n short, are 'called to be unique examples a n d witnesses for all Christians o f h o w the B r i d e is to respond i n love to the love of the B r i d e g r o o m ' (§16). M e n , that is to say, need to acquire the ' f e m i n i n i t y ' w h i c h w i l l a l l o w them to respond properly to the B r i d e g r o o m . M e n need to discover and develop the dispositions o f the b r i d e awaiting her L o r d . Finally: The witness o f women's lives must be received w i t h respect and 1

appreciation, as revealing those values w i t h o u t w h i c h h u m a n i t y w o u l d be closed i n self-sufficiency, dreams o f power and the drama o f violence' (§17). W e can see, then, w h a t m e n are like, w i t h o u t w o m e n to show t h e m h o w to be human.

w o m a n , is called 'to be for the other'. Yet this is a feminine characteristic — indeed the mark o f f e m i n i n i t y A woman's physical capacity t o give life structures her personality all the way u p : It allows her to acquire maturity very quickly, and gives a sense of the seriousness of life and of its responsibilities A sense and a respect for what is concrete develop i n her, opposed to abstractions which are so often fatal for the existence of individuals and society It is women, i n the end, who keep life going (§13)

Conclusion Thus, i n the closing years o f the t w e n t i e t h century an entirely new doctrine o f the h u m a n creature as 'image o f G o d ' i s to the fore, w i t h sexual difference as the clue to theological understanding o f h u m a n nature and destiny I n particular, w e owe this doctrine t o the reflections of Pope John Paul I I I n the b a c k g r o u n d , however, this theology o f nuptiality is anticipated b y Hans U r s v o n Balthasar, i n obedience to the visions of the mystic A d r i e n n e K a e g i - v o n Speyr; and the retr ieval o f the theme ofepithalamic mysticism by

3 4

O f course metaphysics

has o f t e n d o n e h a r m i n C a t h o l i c t h e o l o g y : y e t , as

Cornelius

E r n s t l i k e d t o p o i n t o u t , St T h o m a s ' s a p p r o a c h t o t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e l a i d d o w n w h a t is s u r e l y a n inescapable r e q u i r e m e n t f o r t h e o l o g i a n s o f a n y epoch: namely 'that their interpretation must e x h i b i t the ontological p r i m a c y o f God. G o d

H e n r i de Tubac, i n medieval and patristic literature - and here O r i g e n is the key figure, w i t h some help f r o m the insights o f Pierre Peilhard de C h a r d i n O n 19 A p r i l 2005 Joseph Ratzinger was chosen by his fellow Cardinals to

Theology,

succeed Pope John Paul I I , and t o o k the name o f Pope Benedict X V I .

e d i t e d b y Fergus K e r r O P a n d I i m o t h y R a d c l i f f e O P ( L o n d o n : D a r t o n L o n g m a n a n d T o d d

Obviously, as pope, he w i l l see h i m s e l f neither as professor nor as Prefect of

as t h e u l t i m a t e l y r e a l l y r e a l ' ( C o r n e l i u s E r n s t O P , Multiple 1 9 7 9 ) : 73)

Echo'

Explorations

in

the C o n g r e g a t i o n for the D o c t r i n e o f the Faith (Some o f those dismayed,

202

J O S E P H

R A I Z I N G E R

Chapter Twelve

and some w h o were delighted, by his election, seem to assume that he w i l l not see the difference between these posts.) For centuries n e w popes have adopted names that signal their c o n c e p t i o n o f their m i n i s t r y N o d o u b t w e are expected to t h i n k o f Saint

AFTER

Benedict

(c. 480-c 550), Patriarch o f Western Monasticism and Patron o f Europe:

VATICAN II

there is n o d o u b t that this pope w i l l see the re-evangelization o f Europe as his p r i o r i t y We m i g h t also t h i n k o f Pope Benedict X I V ( 1 7 4 0 - 5 8 ) , remarkable for his sympathetic, albeit n o t u n c r i t i c a l , attitude to the E n l i g h t e n m e n t as w e l l as the realism o f his p o l i c y o f a c c o m m o d a t i o n w i t h the absolutist rulers o f the day. Those familiar w i t h the recent history o f C a t h o l i c t h e o l ogy, however, w i l l t h i n k o f Pope Benedict X V (1914-22), best remembered no d o u b t for his vain attempts to b r i n g an end to the First W o r l d War. For a theologian w h o had to r e w r i t e his Habilitationsschrift

to free i t o f alleged

'modernist' tendencies, Benedict X V I must be w e l l aware that, since B e n e dict X V ' s first act was to p u t an end to the activities o f the

Sodalitium

Pianum, the ugly n e t w o r k o f a n t i - ' m o demist' vigilance committees i n seminaries and universities, his t a k i n g the name seems a signal that there w i l l be no danger o f w h a t he h i m s e l f referred to as ' n a r r o w - m i n d e d and petty surveillance'

3 5

The d e f i n i n g event i n t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y R o m a n Catholic theology was the Second Vatican C o u n c i l . Neoscholastic theology, abandoned i n seminaries and

universities almost everywhere, has n o t revived, as yet at any rate.

Nevertheless, o r as a result, m u c h g o o d w o r k has been done i n Catholic theology since Vatican I I , p u r s u i n g other methodologies and w i t h other aims. As w e have seen, i n this p o r t r a i t gallery o f the b e s t - k n o w n t w e n t i e t h 1

Dominus Jesus was n o t w e l l received i n some quarters Yet, the m a i n issue

century theologians, diversity o f approach s h o u l d n o t be underestimated

was t r u t h : the philosophical presuppositions that the C o n g r e g a t i o n t h e o -

Indeed, even w h e n neoscholastic theology was officially required and

logians feared underlay some o f the pluralist theologies o f r e l i g i o n , adopted

w i d e l y taught i t was never free o f i n t e r n a l conflict, n o t t o m e n t i o n odium

by R o m a n Catholics as w e l l as proposed by others. W e m i g h t m e n t i o n five:

theologicum Divisive issues left, or p u t , o n the agenda b y Vatican I I deserve

the belief that divine t r u t h is so ineffable that n o t h i n g can be said about i t at

b r i e f attention, as w e conclude our survey: i n particular issues relating to

all; the relativist attitude to t r u t h w h i c h holds that w h a t is true f o r some

church governance, l i t u r g y and sexual ethics

people is not necessarily true f o r others; the radical o p p o s i t i o n allegedly existing between the West's logical m o d e o f t h o u g h t and the symbolic m o d e o f the East; the subjectivism o f those w h o take h u m a n understanding to

Dissension

be the o n l y source o f k n o w l e d g e ; and the metaphysical e m p t y i n g o f the mystery o f the Incarnation

3 6

The R o m a n Catholic C h u r c h is n o t the m o n o l i t h i c e n t i t y that her enemies and her most zealous members believe Beliefs are n o t held univocally, or w i t h clarity, o r across the board

T h e n o t i o n that, ' i n Catholic doctrine

there exists an order or " h i e r a r c h y " o f truths, since they vary i n t h e i r relat i o n to the f o u n d a t i o n o f the C h r i s t i a n f a i t h ' , w h i l e regarded quite w i d e l y 2

as one m o r e Vatican I I i n n o v a t i o n , a concession to ecumenists, is actually 3 5

The Nature and Mission

Controversy Intégrisme 1909-1921 3 6

oj Theology

Approaches

to Understanding

Its Role in the Light of Present

(San F r a n c i s c o : I g n a t i u s Press 1995; o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d 1 9 9 3 ) : 66; see E et Catholicisme

intégral

un

réseau

secret international

antimoderniste:

'La

Poulat, sapinière'

(Paris 1 9 6 9 ) .

J o s e p h R a t z i n g e r , Pilgrim

I g n a t i u s Press 2 0 0 5 ) : 2 1 0

1

in Fellowship

of Faith : The

Church

as Communion

(San F r a n c i s c o :

F o r an e x c e l l e n t survey see P a u l D M u r r a y . ' R o m a n C a t h o l i c T h e o l o g y after V a t i c a n I F , The Modern

Theologians:

An

Introduction

to Christian

Theology

since 1918

F Ford w i t h R a c h e l M u e r s ( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 2005): 2 6 5 - 8 6 2

D e c r e e o n E c u m e n i s m Unitatis

Redintegratio

2 1 N o v e m b e r 1964:

§11

edited by David

204

AF I Eli V A T I C A N

AFTER

II

o n l y a description o f w h a t has always been the case. W h i l e n o one doubts the place o f the V i r g i n Mary, f o r example, as articulated i n the M a r i a n dogmas, i n the Catholic Christian i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the history o f salvation,

VATICAN

205

I I

outdated even before they see the l i g h t o f day'

' T h e Church's internal

polarizations' are such that her message, 'a testimony that is so polemically splintered', is n o t as believable and effective as i t should be

5

it is perfectly obvious that these dogmas have m u c h m o r e w e i g h t i n some

F r o m his election i n 1963 Pope Paul V I strove to forestall rejection o f the

people's lives than i n others', and i n some parts o f the C h u r c h than i n

Council's decisions by those o u t v o t e d at the final ballot M o s t famously, he

others, i n relation to faith i n C h r i s t - w h i c h displays the considerable diver-

had an appendix inserted at the last m i n u t e , i n Lumen Gentium, the text on

sity i n Catholic sensibility and d e v o t i o n The d o c t r i n e o f the Trinity, w h i l e

the C h u r c h , to reassure the m i n o r i t y that the doctrine of episcopal collegial-

of course never denied, plays a m u c h m o r e significant part i n some people's

i t y was not the d i m i n u t i o n of papal authority, w h i c h they feared. H e kept

lives than i t does i n others' A n d so on.

postponing decisions, especially the vote o n religious liberty, as w e saw

L o n g before the liturgical texts were revised after Vatican I I , Catholics have always prayed at Mass and o n other p u b l i c occasions, for the u n i t y o f the C h u r c h - meaning, o f course, n o t the r e u n i o n o f all Christians b u t u n i t y a m o n g Catholics, i n a C h u r c h w h i c h has always i n c l u d e d diversities, especially i n popular d e v o t i o n and personal piety, that o n l y t o o easily give rise to m u t u a l misunderstandings, suspicions o f ' o r t h o d o x y ' , sectarianism and, eventually, dissension and schism. The aftermath o f Vatican I I has been t u r b u l e n t However, as N e w m a n n o t e d i n August 1870, 'there has seldom been a C o u n c i l w i t h o u t great confusion after i t ' - he cited five o f the first six Oecumenical Councils

3

M o r e specifically, according to H e n r i de Lubac, a certain one-sidedness has

(chapter three), for fear that the m i n o r i t y w o u l d be so significant as to discredit the decision For the rest o f his m i n i s t r y (he died i n 1978), he d i d his best to prevent disputes over the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of the Council's decisions f r o m issuing i n secessions and schisms. I f he showed m o r e tolerance towards 'liberals' and 'progressives' than towards 'traditionalists' and 'conservatives', as some say, no d o u b t he believed that those w h o sought m o r e radical reforms than the C o u n c i l actually countenanced w o u l d depart, disillusioned, and so he w o r r i e d m o r e about those w h o w o u l d reject the C o u n c i l altogether and stay determinedly i n order t o restore the pre-Vatican I I C h u r c h H i s p o l i c y succeeded: there was n o secession comparable w i t h that o f the ' O l d Catholics', after 1870, refusing to accept the dogma o f papal supremacy

often prevailed The C o u n c i l o f Trent, w h i c h rejected the sola scriptura p r i n -

Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre (1905-91) c o n t i n u e d to oppose collegiality,

ciple o f the R e f o r m a t i o n , gave rise to the caricature that Cathohcs d i d n o t

ecumenism, religious liberty, liturgical r e f o r m , and so o n , as he d i d at the

need Scripture, since they relied o n the l i v i n g voice o f the M a g i s t e r i u m .

C o u n c i l , gathering a r o u n d h i m a small b u t significant company o f like-

Vatican I , p u t t i n g an end to 'conciliarism' once and for all, resulted, to quote

m i n d e d Catholics H e was excommunicated i n 1988

de Lubac, i n 'the excesses o f a curialist papalism'.. N o w , i n 1970, de Lubac

A sizeable number o f Catholics were unhappy w i t h the policies of

sees, as a result of Vatican II's rediscovery o f the C h u r c h as 'people o f G o d ' ,

Paul V I , and some even w i t h those o f John Paul I I , to the extent that they

and so o n , 'an integralisrn o f (false) coUegiality .

pushed i n the direction o f

d o u b t e d their legitimacy as popes W h i l e they were happy w i t h t h e latter's

a democratic c o l l e c t i v i s m ' . I n each case, the final texts were the product o f

confrontational approach to dissenting theologians they hated w h a t they

h a r d - w o n compromise: w h a t the m i n o r i t y feared should n o t be ignored i f

regarded as John Paul IPs indiscriminate friendliness towards heretics, Jews

w e are to have a balanced interpretation

and M u s l i m s - praying i n Canterbury Cathedral, at the W a l l i n Jerusalem,

4

Hans U r s v o n Balthasar, as w e m i g h t expect, came o u t w i t h the o u t spoken account: ' W i t h i n the " R o m a n C a t h o l i c " C h u r c h herself there are differences

There are the polarizations i n the wake o f the Second Vatican

C o u n c i l : left versus r i g h t , progressive versus conservative Some people dis-

and kissing the Q u r ' a n i n Damascus. W o r s t o f all, many Catholics were h o r r i f i e d at the heterogeneous assembly w h i c h John Paul I I s u m m o n e d to pray f o r peace w i t h h i m at Assisi, o n 24 January 2002, the height o f his syncretistic folly, as they t h o u g h t

solve allegedly r i g i d forms u n t i l n o t h i n g is left b u t formlessness, w h i l e

A tiny m i n o r i t y of Catholics opt for 'Sedevacantism': Peter's chair (sedes)

others h o l d fast to these forms u n t i l they actually ossify N e i t h e r is replaced

they regard as currently 'vacant'. T h e y flourish i n M e x i c o , but are also to be

by anything that promises to last, but by things, cobbled together i n haste,

f o u n d i n France, Italy, Germany, the Czech Republic, Japan and the U n i t e d

3

The Utters

4

The Motherhood

and Diaries of John Henry of the Church

Newman

X X V ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n Press 1 9 7 9 ) : 175

(San F r a n c i s c o : I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 8 2 ) : 165; o r i g i n a l 1971

5

in the Fullness

Press 1 9 8 8 ) :

of Faith • On the Centrality

17-18

of the Distinctively

Catholic

(San Francisco: Ignatius

206

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V A T I C A N

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A F I E R

States of America. I n the late 1970s and early 1980s many 'sedevacantist' bishops were ordained b y A r c h b i s h o p P i e r r e - M a r t i n N g ó - D h i n h

Thuc

(189 7-1984) . B y t h e n he was e x c o m m u n i c a t e d , b u t , according to C a n o n 6

Law, these ordinations, t h o u g h i l l i c i t , were n o t invalid. These are 'real' bishops, w h o c o u l d , and do, ordain priests and m o r e bishops, all o f w h o m are t r u l y ordained, a l t h o u g h automatically e x c o m m u n i c a t e d

Thanks to

T h u c ( w h o d i e d f u l l y reconciled w i t h R o m e ) , and to over a h u n d r e d ' T h u c bishops', thousands o f Catholics have these excommunicated clergy to m i n ister to t h e m .

7

Obviously, such groups are tiny, and some quite crazy Yet, fringe m i n o r i ties as they are, their existence touches, however remotely, questions left unresolved at Vatican I I I n an obsessional and parodistic manner, they articulate anxieties that many Catholics have felt about the w a y C a t h o l i c i s m has 'disintegrated', as they w o u l d say, i n the past half-century

V A T I C A N

207

I I

the c h u r c h dispersed t h r o u g h o u t the w o r l d ' - t h o u g h m a n y of the bishops 8

w h o v o t e d i n favour o f papal supremacy expected to r e t u r n to balance i t w i t h a statement about episcopal authority, and anyway the decision was not unanimous.

9

I n 1995, however, after 17 years o f exercising his a u t h o r i t y i n a conspicu¬ ously n o n - c o l l e g i a l manner, J o h n Paul I I surprised everyone, encyclical Ut Unum

i n the

Sint, b y i n v i t i n g the pastors and theologians o f the

O r t h o d o x C h u r c h and (even!) o f the Catholic C h u r c h to help h i m f i n d a way o f exercising the primacy, consistent w i t h h o w i t was practised i n the first m i l l e n n i u m of Christianity This takes us back to the central theme i n Yves Cougar's theology D i s cussing the theological anthropology o f the O r t h o d o x t r a d i t i o n , as far back as 1952, he concludes: 'theology is o n l y fully " c a t h o l i c " w h e n , like a healthy organism, i t breathes deeply and uses b o t h its lungs'

1 0

This is (I t h i n k ) the

first appearance of the metaphor taken up by Pope John Paul I I : 'the C h u r c h breathing w i t h b o t h her l u n g s ' .

P a p a c y a n d Collegiality

11

Perhaps Hans Kiing's intemperate attacks o n the t h e o r y of papal suprem-

The i n t r o d u c t i o n , o r restoration, o f the concept o f collegiality has n o t made m u c h difference i n practice t o h o w the C h u r c h is governed. O n the contrary, a u t h o r i t y and p o w e r seem m o r e concentrated i n the Vatican than ever. The ultramontanist m i n o r i t y at Vatican I I feared that the status o f the p o p e a m o n g the other bishops w o u l d decline. Talk o f the bishops as a 'college' was suspected o f b e i n g a coded way o f r e v i v i n g the dreaded spectre o f 'conciliarism'.. Perhaps the enthusiasm o f some i n the 'progressive' m a j o r i t y suggested that, i n their view, the pope's role should, and w o u l d , become m o r e l i k e that o f c h a i r i n g episcopal synods, or executing decisions taken collectively This w o u l d call d o w n the Vatican I anathema against those w h o w o u l d say that 'the R o m a n p o n t i f f has merely an office o f supervision and guidance, and n o t the f u l l and supreme power o f j u r i s d i c t i o n over the w h o l e c h u r c h , and this n o t o n l y i n matters o f faith and

acy, as w e l l as o n Pope J o h n Paul IPs practice, set back dealing w i t h the p r o b l e m N o one w h o has l o o k e d i n t o the w o r k , say, o f Francis Oakley, can d o u b t that, sooner or later, the R o m a n Catholic C h u r c h w i l l have to come to terms w i t h w h a t was true i n the t r a d i t i o n o f conciliarism. Yet that remains very m u c h an i t e m o n a Western medieval agenda J o h n Paul I I appeals, clearly, to the Eastern t r a d i t i o n For Yves Congar, the idea o f episcopal collegiality rather than p o i n t i n g to whatever

may be

true i n

conciliarism, opens the w a y to something like a Russian O r t h o d o x concept i o n o f ' c o n c i h a r i t y ' i n terms o f sobomost' Obviously, i f the R o m a n Catholic C h u r c h were to find a way m w h i c h the Petrine m i n i s t r y w o u l d be practised i n accordance w i t h O r t h o d o x demands, that w o u l d n o t necessarily satisfy churches i n the R e f o r m a t i o n t r a d i t i o n Congar's pessimism about b r i d g i n g that gap may remain relevant

morals, but also i n those w h i c h c o n c e r n the discipline and g o v e r n m e n t o f Decrees of the Ecumenical

8

1990), v o l T h e m o s t d i s t i n g u i s h e d ' I h u c b i s h o p ' was t h e f o r m e r D o m i n i c a n M i c h e l L o u i s - B e r t r a n d

G u é r a r d des L a n d e r s ( 1 8 9 8 - 1 9 8 8 ) A c o l l e a g u e o f C h e n u a n d C o n g a r , h e t a u g h t p h i l o s o p h y at L e S a u l c h o i r f r o m t h e 1930s t o 1960s: a r i g o r o u s l y speculative v e r s i o n o f T h o m i s m w i t h n o appeal t o h i s t o r y . C o n v i n c e d that t h e N e w O r d e r o f t h e Mass was h e r e t i c a l , h e l e f t t h e D o m i n i c a n s i n 1969 t o teach at Tefebvre's s e m i n a r y at É c ó n e , S w i t z e r l a n d

I n 1981

Thuc

o r d a i n e d h i m bishop. H e was e x c o m m u n i c a t e d i n 1983 a n d i n 1 9 8 4 he o r d a i n e d priests a n d t h r e e bishops ( i n c l u d i n g R o b e r t M c K e n n a , a n o t h e r f o r m e r D o m i n i c a n ) O f course t h e y d o n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n is j u s t o r v a l i d ; i t w o u l d a n y w a y g o against t h e i r conscience t o celebrate V a t i c a n I I rites 7

e d i t e d b y N o r m a n P. Tanner sj ( L o n d o n : S h e e d a n d W a r d

O n 1 3 I u l y 1870. the last serious v o t e , o u t o f 6 0 1 . 8 8 w e r e against t h e d e f i n i t i o n , 6 2 were

9 6

Councils,

2:814

i n f a v o u r b u t w a n t e d a m e n d m e n t s ; thus o n e i n f o u r was u n h a p p y w i t h t h e d e f i n i t i o n , w i t h o u t a d d i n g i n t h e 7 6 still i n R o m e b u t m y s t e r i o u s l y absent f r o m the b a l l o t . I n the e n d , o n 18 July 1 8 7 0 , at t h e f i n a l c e r e m o n i a l b a l l o t , 535 w e r e present a n d all b u t t w o v o t e d i n f a v o u r ( R i c c i o o f Cajazzo i n t h e K i n g d o m o f N a p l e s a n d F i t z g e r a l d o f L i t t l e R o c k Arkansas) - w h i l e about 140 h a d l e f t R o m e , i n c l u d i n g m o s t o f t h e E n g l i s h bishops. 1 0

Y v e s C o n g a r . ' T h e H u m a n Person a n d H u m a n L i b e r t y i n O r i e n t a l A n t h r o p o l o g y ,

logue between Christians 1 1

B

Journal

Petra

Dia-

( L o n d o n : C h a p m a n 1966): 2 3 2 - 4 5 .

' C h u r c h w i t h " T w o l u n g s " : adventures o f a m e t a p h o r ' , Ephrem's

6 (2002): 111-27

Theological

208

A F T E R

V A T I C A N

A F T E R

I I

V A T I C A N

209

I I

the English G o t h i c R e v i v a l , f o r example, i n the European R o m a n t i c M o v e -

' S t r i f e ' over L i t u r g y

m e n t i n general, and i n m u c h ordinary Catholic piety and ecclesiastical

A m o n g other unresolved issues left over f r o m Vatican I I affecting ordinary Catholics, there is the p r o b l e m o f the l i t u r g y This was n o t an issue at Vatican I : i t never occurred to anyone t h e n that the liturgy, and i n particular the Mass, needed r e f o r m Indeed, even i n the 1950s, f e w o f us expected or wanted substantial changes

architecture These movements reasserted feeling, i n t u i t i o n and imagination over against the rationalism that (supposedly, anyway) marked the E n l i g h t e n ment

D u r i n g the modernist crisis, neoscholastic T h o m i s m was directed

precisely against feeling, i m a g i n a t i o n and symbolism

T h e harbingers of

R o m a n t i c i s m i n Catholic theology were the theologians of the Tübingen School - w h i c h was w h y strict Thomists hated them. Chenu's interest i n

Even those o f us w h o remember scenes of petty rage i n the sacristy, and

Möhler, as w e saw, was one o f the m o s t significant objections to h i m .

baleful scowls at the altar, over infringements o f rubrics and the like, w o u l d n o t have believed h o w rancorous conflict over the 'changes' w o u l d become after Vatican I I The C o n s t i t u t i o n o n the Sacred Liturgy, Sacrosanctum Concilium, was promulgated o n 4 D e c e m b e r 1963

The reforms that f o l l o w e d ,

supposedly i m p l e m e n t i n g the C o n s t i t u t i o n , seem, to a significant n u m b e r of Catholics i n western Europe and i n the English-speaking w o r l d , to have done such h a r m to the l i t u r g y and especially to the Mass, that there is n o w talk o f ' r e f o r m i n g the r e f o r m ' , and o f ' r e c a t h o l i c i z i n g the r e f o r m ' 1 2

Back

1 3

i n 1981 Cardinal Ratzinger, as he t h e n was, referred to 'the strife and dissension, w h i c h have arisen sconcerning the l i t u r g y ' .

1 4

N o dispute since

Vatican I I has been so acrimonious

W h e n Vatican I I u n d e r t o o k 'the r e f o r m and p r o m o t i o n ' of the liturgy, i t d i d so, of course, 'to i m p a r t an ever-increasing v i g o u r to the Christian lives of the faithful, to adapt m o r e closely to the needs o f the present age those institutions w h i c h are subject to change; to encourage whatever can p r o m o t e the u n i o n o f all w h o believe i n Chr ist; to strengthen whatever serves to call all of h u m a n i t y i n t o the church's f o l d ' (Sacrosanctum Concilium §1) Few, i n 1963, expected the degree o f change that was to come. Even at the t i m e , some questioned the w i s d o m o f adapting the liturgy to promote Christian reunion and even to attract non-Catholics i n off the street. W h i l e a place was to be 'allotted to the vernacular', i n the Mass, the natural meaning of the text confines this to the parts that the congregation say or sing, and goes o n to insist

O n e benefit of abandoning neoscholastic theology, i t seemed to some, was

that they should be able to say or sing all these i n Latin also (§54). N o b o d y

that a Catholic theology m o r e directly inspired by Scripture w o u l d interact

expected the celebrant to be saying Mass i n English i n a couple o f years.

m o r e f r u i t f u l l y w i t h the l i t u r g y Neoscholastic theology, some even claimed,

A g a i n , Vatican I I ' w a r m l y recommended' that the congregation receive H o l y

was a reassertion o f exactly the way o f d o i n g theology that led to the

C o m m u n i o n f r o m hosts consecrated at that Mass, and n o t f r o m the reserved

(supposed) decline o f l i t u r g y i n the later M i d d l e Ages: analytic, cerebral,

sacrament, as was generally the custom.. C o m m u n i o n under b o t h kinds may

rationalistic. E m i n e n t liturgiologists m i g h t be cited i n support o f this version

be granted w h e n the bishops t h i n k f i t - w h i c h m i g h t extend to the newly

o f history Thomas Aquinas, i t was generally supposed, had no feeling for

baptized, for example, i n the Mass that follows their baptism (§55).. Again,

l i t u r g y ; his theology had n o t h i n g to contribute to the standard seminary

n o b o d y expected that, ten years later, i t w o u l d be taken for granted,

liturgy course.

t h r o u g h o u t the English-speaking w o r l d , that communicants receive from the

15

W h i l e i n one sense a r e t u r n to the M i d d l e Ages, neoscholas-

tic theology remained isolated f r o m the cult o f medievalism to be f o u n d i n

chalice i f they so desire. Again, w e read that concelebration, 'an appropriate way of manifesting the u n i t y of the priesthood', a practice that 'has remained

1 2

Klaus Gamber.

The Reform

of the Roman

Liturgy:

Its Problems

and Background

(San J u a n

C a p i s t r a n o C A : U n a V o c e Press a n d H a r r i s o n . N Y : F o u n d a t i o n f o r C a t h o l i c R e f o r m 1 5

M

1993)

Francis M a n n i o n , ' T h e C a t h o l i c i t y o f t h e L i t u r g y : S h a p i n g a N e w A g e n d a ' , i n

the Prosaic

Renewing

the Litúrgica!

Movement,

Beyond

edited by Stratford Caldecott (Edinburgh: T & T

C l a r k 1998): 11-48. 1 4

J o s e p h C a r d i n a l R a t z i n g e r , The Feast of Faith

Approaches

to a Theology of the Liturgy

(San

Francisco: I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 8 6 ) : 147 1 5

F e w k n e w t h e w o n d e r f u l essay b y I g n a t i u s M e n n e s s i e r O P ( 1 9 0 2 - 6 5 ) .

c u l t e d'après S T h o m a s '

Revue

des Sciences Philosophiques

et Théologiques

Peter M Modern

Thomas

Aquinas

and the Liturgy

ered _ i t h the caveat that every priest retains the right t o celebrate Mass o n w

his o w n (§57) The connection w i t h the past seems a little strained w h e n we learn that 'a new rite f o r concelebration' w i l l be created ( § 5 8 ) .

16

The laws

about the design and construction of altars, and the positioning of the

L I d é e d u sacré et le

( N a p l e s , F L : Sapientia Press 2 0 0 4 ) a n d

C a n d l e r , J r , ' L i t u r g i c a l l y T r a i n e d M e m o r y : A R e a d i n g o f Summa Theology 20 ( 2 0 0 4 ) : 4 2 3 - 4 5

extended to occasions w h e n a large number o f bishops and priests are gath-

19 ( 1 9 3 0 ) : 6 3 - 8 2 o r

c o n s u l t e d his e d i t i o n s o f t h e r e l e v a n t questions i n t h e Summa Tiieologice; r e c e n t l y h o w e v e r , w e have D a v i d B e r g e r

i n use to this day i n the church b o t h i n the east and i n the west', should be

Tiieologice I I I 8 3 ' ,

1 6

I t h a d already b e e n : c o n c e l e b r a t i o n t o o k place f o r t h e first t i m e o n 3 O c t o b e r 1 9 6 3

at t h e

C o u n c i l ; e v e n m o r e r e v o l u t i o n a r i l y , o n 1 1 O c t o b e r , t h e lay a u d i t o r s w e r e g r a n t e d p e r m i s s i o n t o receive c o m m u n i o n at t h e p r i n c i p a l M a s s

210

211

ÄFIER VATICAN II

A F I E R VATICAN II

eucharistic tabernacle, are to be revised, and laws w h i c h 'seem less suited to

fresh versions should be made, and, m o r e contentiously, that they were to be

the r e f o r m e d l i t u r g y ' should be 'corrected or abolished' (§128). There is n o

usable wherever English is spoken

h i n t that churches w o u l d be reordered internally to allow for the eucharist to

w h i c h the language has developed quite distinctively ( i n A m e r i c a n English,

become m o r e like a meal, and f o r the celebrant to face the people.

for example, the w o r d ' m e n ' n o w means o n l y male h u m a n beings), t w o

The c o n s t i t u t i o n o n the l i t u r g y was the first to be passed at the C o u n c i l , at the end o f the second session. Already, o n 14 N o v e m b e r 1962, after n o 57

Problematic as this is, i n cultures i n

equally fundamental matters o f dispute need t o be noted - the eucharist as a meal, and the celebrant facing the people.

m o r e than three weeks o f relatively strife-free debate, the vote was 2,162 i n favour of p e r m i t t i n g r e f o r m , and 46 against. As the tiny n u m b e r w h o ques-

T h e Mass o n the A n a l o g y o f a M e a l

t i o n e d the text even at this early stage shows, f e w anticipated h o w radical the reforms w o u l d be H o w e v e r , j u d g i n g by their speeches, many o f the bishops regarded l i t u r g y as so secondary that their interest, let alone suspi-

I n the Catechism (1992) the eucharist is described as the sacrifice o f thanks-

c i o n , was never engaged. M a i n l y , the draft was so carefully prepared, under

g i v i n g and praise addressed to G o d the Father; the m e m o r i a l of the Paschal

the guidance o f A n n i b a l e B u g n i n i , that, u n l i k e all the other drafts, i t was

sacrrfice o f C h r i s t ; and the presence of C h r i s t i n the eucharistic species

never ser iously challenged, let alone sent back f o r r e w r i t i n g

(§§1356-81).

A n y o n e w h o remembered Pope Pius X I I s zeal f o r l i t u r g i c a l r e f o r m , the

For most post-Vatican I I Catholics, i n the English-speaking w o r l d , the

sympathy w i t h the desire f o r the use o f the vernacular he expressed i n the

Mass is 'the sacred meal that Christians eat i n c o m m o n ' Previously, accord-

encyclical Mediator Dei (1947), the commission he set up i n 1948 for general

i n g to H e r b e r t M c C a b e , one of the finest recent C a t h o l i c theologians, the

liturgical r e f o r m , the r e f o r m o f the entire H o l y W e e k l i t u r g y starting w i t h

Mass appeared to be

the restoration o f the Easter v i g i l i n 1951, the relaxation o f fasting before

a sacred rite conducted by a priest set apart by his special clothing and his position facing away from the audience, speaking sacred words in a beautiful and ancient hieratic language unknown to the people A t one point m the ceremony some of the people are privileged to approach the holy place to receive from the priest a private share i n his mysteries; they return to their places w i t h bowed heads and half-closed eyes, oblivious of those around them

c o m m u n i o n and the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f evening Masses (1957), and so o n , should have sensed h o w things m i g h t g o .

5 8

I n the English-speaking w o r l d , w h e n L a t i n gave way to the vernacular, some expected existing A n g l i c a n translations o f the R o m a n l i t u r g y to be adapted and even adopted

1 7

T h e Vatican authorities, however, decreed that

1 9

A c c o r d i n g to Christopher Buder,

o n e o f t h e best d o c u m e n t s p r e s e n t e d t o t h e C o u n c i l ,

of Vatican IT ( L o n d o n : D a r t o n , L o n g m a n a n d T o d d 1 9 8 1 ) : 14; b u t h e d o u b t s

I n contrast, the Mass n o w , for most o f us, is seen 'first o f all as the c o m m o n

' w h e t h e r t h e assembled b i s h o p s , w h o h a d u s u a l l y a t t a i n e d t o t h e i r o f f i c e f o r reasons r e m o t e

meal of the C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y ' - and here w e appeal initially to 'the

f r o m a p u r e passion f o r t h e o l o g y always u n d e r s t o o d precisely w h a t t h e y w e r e s a n c t i o n i n g b y

natural symbolism of eating and d r i n k i n g '

The Theology

t h e i r votes, o r at least t h e t h e o l o g i c a l m o t i v a t i o n b e h i n d t h e d o c u m e n t s t h e y h a d b e e n d e b a t i n g ' ; c f 175

H i s o w n preference ' w o u l d r a t h e r b e f o r a s i l e n t L a t i n Mass o f t h e o l d t y p e , i n

2 0

However, three or four decades o n , the approach t o the Mass w h i c h is

w h i c h t h e p r i e s t p r a y e d q u i e t l y t h e prayers o f t h e Missal a n d t h e f a i t h f u l c o u l d e i t h e r r e a d

g a i n i n g a u t h o r i t y is that, t h o u g h w h a t C h r i s t established at the Last Supper

t h e i r missals, o r say t h e rosary o r practise m e n t a l p r a y e r ' A Time to Speak

t o o k place w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k o f a Jewish Passover meal, w h a t he c o m -

(Southend-on-Sea:

M a y h e w - M c C r i m m o n 1 9 7 2 ) : 53 1 8

A l c u i n R e i d O S B , The Organic

Development

Press 2 0 0 4 ) ; see also L a u r e n Pristas, R o m a n M i s s a l ' , The Thomist67 1 9

of the Liturgy

( L o n d o n : Saint M i c h a e l ' s A b b e y

Theological Principles that G u i d e d the R e d a c t i o n of the

(2003): 1 5 7 - 9 5 .

W i t h the A l t e r n a t i v e Service B o o k i n 1980

and the abandonment

of the B o o k

of

manded his drsciples t o repeat was not the meal b u t the sacrifice

2 1

At

solemn meals i n A n t i q u i t y , i t is p o i n t e d o u t , guests d i d not sit r o u n d the table, anyway, as w e n o w do; they sat or reclined o n the same side of the table, leaving the other side f o r the servants t o approach. I f the Last Supper

C o m m o n Prayer b y m a n y parishes, A n g l i c a n s b e c a m e i r r e c o n c i l a b l y d i v i d e d over l i t u r g i c a l language

some b l a m i n g the A S B f o r t r y i n g 'ecumenically' to a c c o m m o d a t e the d u m b e d -

d o w n R o m a n missal: i n a vast l i t e r a t u r e see Ritual

Murder:

Essays

on Liturgical

B r i a n M o r r i s ( M a n c h e s t e r : C a r c a n e t Press 1 9 8 0 ) ; a n d No Alternative, versy

e d i t e d b y D a v i d M a r t i n a n d Peter M u l l e n

Reform

edited by

The Prayer Book

Contro-

( O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l 1981). p a r t i c u l a r l y

'Personal I d e n t i t y a n d a C h a n g e d C h u r c h ' b y D a v i d M a r t i n , i n t h e latter, 1 2 - 2 2 .

2 0

Herbert McCabe.

The New

Creation-

Studies

W a r d 1964): 70-8 Joseph R a t z i n g e r , The Spirit of the Liturgy 2 1

on Living

in the Church

( L o n d o n : Sheed and

(San F r a n c i s c o : I g n a t i u s Press 2 0 0 0 ) :

78-9.

212

AFTER

VATICAN

II

AFTER

VATICAN

213

I I

were to be the m o d e l f o r the Mass t h e n w e should n o t have the celebrant as host facing the congregation as the guests

churches have been constructed so that this is taken for granted This 'east-

W h a t has happened, so Joseph R a t z i n g e r maintains, is an 'unprecedented

praying towards the d a w n ; Christians, anyway, w a n t the eucharistic celebra-

2 2

clerrealization' I n the eucharistic r i t e now, the focus is o n the celebrant: people have to see h i m , respond to h i m , engage i n w h a t he is d o i n g , and so on. Indeed, w h e n he lifts the consecrated host f o r us to adore, the celebrant often holds i t at his o w n eye level - w h i c h , f r o m the congregation's p o i n t o f view, makes his face i n t o a monstrance. Moreover, w i t h the priest facing the people, so Ratzinger says, the w o r s h i p p i n g c o m m u n i t y turns i n t o a selfenclosed circle, no longer opened o u t o n w h a t lies ahead and above, the eschatological and the transcendent - at some risk o f b e i n g n o more than a gather i n g o f decent people gazing at one another. This is, o f course, a caricature N o d o u b t there are eucharists i n w h i c h the participants celebrate the c o m m u n i t y that they feel w i t h one another, at least in the fust place (papal Masses come to m i n d , w i t h thousands o f people f r o m near and far, the travel and the w a i t i n g and e n d u r i n g the weather already a ' b o n d i n g ' ) . Surely this sense o f companionship need n o t exclude or d i m i n i s h the focus o n the transcendent Ratzinger's p o i n t is that w h e n the priest had his back to the people he was n o t so i m p o r t a n t H e was just part o f the furniture, his personality (affable or morose) d i d n o t matter t h o u g h again, papal Masses come to m i n d : the focus was always o n the c r u cifix and the elevation of sacred host and chalice, yet i t w o u l d be ridiculous to say that John Paul IPs face d i d n o t matter.

w a r d p o s i t i o n ' f o r the celebrant is n o doubt derived from a pagan habit of t i o n to focus, symbolically, o n C h r i s t the L i g h t , C h r i s t the R i s i n g S u n That is the story Po some Catholics this is a matter o f enormous significance

2 4

I n its way,

obviously, restoring ' o r i e n t a t i o n ' i n Catholic churches w o u l d be q u i t e 'ecumenical', at least i n the ' i n t e r - f a i t h ' sense The congregation i n the synagogue turns towards Jerusalem, the f a i t h f u l i n the mosque towards Mecca, so w h e n the celebrant at the eucharist faces east - w i t h his back to the people - the entire w o r s h i p p i n g c o m m u n i t y w o u l d be focused o n expecting and adoring the O n e w h o comes. This w o u l d e x h i b i t the eschatological-parousial d i m e n sion o f the eucharist. Moreover, the l i t u r g y is also cosmic: the eucharist celebrated this way w o u l d be ' i n v i t i n g the sun to be a sign o f the praise of G o d and a sign of the mystery of C h r i s t f o r the assembled c o m m u n i t y ' .

2 5

This w o u l d help m

rediscovering a spirituality that takes i n the w h o l e of creation These are issues over w h i c h Catholics, at least i n t h e West, w e r e they confronted w i t h t h e m i n practice, w o u l d be hopelessly divided. For the majority, the very idea that Christians should face east, o r i n any particular direction, w h e n they pray, w o u l d be unintelligible. For most Catholics now, the eucharist is by analogy p r i m a r i l y a k i n d o f meal, such that i t w o u l d be u n i n t e l l i g i b l e f o r the celebrant to face the same way as the congregation, versus Orkntem - w i t h his back to t h e m , as they w o u l d see it. We need to be discouraged f r o m regarding the eucharist as merely a meal, as a c o m m u n a l

F a c i n g the People

celebr ation o f the fr iendship we feel f o r one another (if that is a temptation)

Given all the upheavals i n the l i t u r g y since Vatican I I , so R a t z i n g e r says, i t w o u l d n o t be right to press f o r f u r t h e r external changes.

23

The reordering

o f churches that w o u l d be required to retrieve the ancient tradition o f praying towards the east w o u l d be t o o m u c h to undertake..

W e can do w i t h o u t priests w h o 'animate' the eucharistic celebration by i n t r u d i n g their personalities. W h a t e v e r side o f the table guests sat at i n A n t i q u i t y , and whatever the arguments of the liturgiologists (not altogetherfree o f odium theologicum), i t seems o u t of the question n o w that Catholics at large w o u l d give up the analogy o f a meal and the c u s t o m of Mass 'facing

There is face-to-face dialogue d u r i n g the first part of the liturgy, w h e n

the people' For better o r worse, f o r most o f us, i t w o u l d simply n o t make

w e listen to the readings and to the h o m i l y ; b u t i n the second, strictly

sense. Celebrating Mass facing the congregation came about as the natural 26

eucharistic part, w e t u r n to the L o r d , l o o k i n g away f r o m one another The Mass is n o t an event i n w h i c h w e eat and d r i n k together, facing one another then; i t is an event i n w h i c h w e t u r n together to face i n the d i r e c t i o n f r o m w h i c h we expect the L i g h t to come - namely f r o m the east. For centuries,

2 4

2 5

2 6

I o u i s B o u y c T , Liturgy 1967): 53-4.

2 2

2 3

Feast of Faith:

139.

and Architecture

( N o t r e D a m e I N : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e Press

U w e M i c h a e l L a n g Cong Or. Turning towards the Lord.

Orientation

in liturgical

Prayer

(San

Francisco: I g n a t i u s Press 2 0 0 4 ) Feast of Faith:

143

T h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f Mass f a c i n g t h e p e o p l e ' was n o t a V a t i c a n I I i n n o v a t i o n as m o s t of us

assumed at t h e t i m e ; l i t t l e - r c a d r u b r i c s i n t h e R o m a n M i s s a l o f 1920 take f o r g r a n t e d the p o s s i b i l i t y that t h e altar m a y b e versus populum. is versa fade ad populum;

such that t h e celebrant s t a n d i n g b e h i n d the altar,

as p i l g r i m s a n d travellers k n e w , i t was always possible t o f i n d ancient

c h u r c h e s w h e r e t h e T r i d e n t i n e Mass was c e l e b r a t e d ' f a c i n g t h e p e o p l e '

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I I

and spontaneous consequence o f the dialogue Mass i n the vernacular, l e g i t -

c o n s t i t u t i o n Gaudium

i m i z e d w h i l e Vatican I I was still i n session - whatever the scholarly debates

believe seldom o r never happen; o n the contrary, i t is precisely because

2 7

A small, t h o u g h significant m i n o r i t y o f priests ordained i n the past f e w years, likely to augment under the pontificate o f Benedict X V I , w i l l c e l -

et Spes (§50). Popes do n o t c o n d e m n things that they

certain things they j u d g e w i c k e d take place o n a grand scale that t h e y issue their challenge.

ebrate the eucharist, whenever possible, i n L a t i n and a d o p t i n g the eastward

N o t everyone f o u n d i t easy to accept the teaching that 'each and every

p o s i t i o n f o r the Canon. For the great m a j o r i t y o f o r d i n a r y Catholics,

marriage act must remain o p e n to the transmission o f l i f e ' (Humance Vitce

however, i n Europe and N o r t h A m e r i c a , the idea o f Mass celebrated w i t h

§11) and that, accordingly, a n y t h i n g that interfered w i t h that act o r its p r o -

the priest's back to t h e m (as they w o u l d say) seems bizarre

creative consequences was intrinsece inhonestum (§14). For one t h i n g , by the 1960s, a large n u m b e r o f m a r r i e d couples, r i g h t l y or wrongly, d o u b t e d the competence of the bishops or the pope or any celi-

T h e E n d of M a r r i a g e

bate person to understand the matter, let alone to decide or r u l e o n its m o r a l status.

There are several other issues over w h i c h Catholics simply have to agree to

Anyway, at Vatican I I , unprecedented emphasis was placed on the dignity

disagree, however reluctantly, since one side o r the other finds a certain

and responsibility o f the laity The pastors i n t h e C h u r c h w o u l d be 'enabled

position quite u n i n t e l l i g i b l e I n some parts o f the C h u r c h , f o r example,

to judge m o r e clearly and m o r e appropriately i n spiritual and i n temporal

especially i n the U n i t e d States of A m e r i c a , Catholics are deeply d i v i d e d

matters' i f they allowed themselves t o be 'helped by the experience o f the

over the rights and wrongs o f capital p u n i s h m e n t . R e c e n t papal teaching,

laity' (Lumen Gentium §37) M u c h else no d o u b t comes i n t o i t (diocesan and

and the Catechism o f 1992, are e x p l i c i t l y against resort to the death penalty

parish finances at least), yet i t is hard to see h o w the 'experience of the laity',

i n most cases o f convicted murderers - b u t the m a j o r i t y o f U S Catholics

laicomm experientia, w o u l d n o t i n c l u d e marriage and sexual experience. The

remain i n favour. Perhaps minds may be changed i n due course: one side

' j u d g e m e n t ' remains w i t h the pastors, here, n o d o u b t , as elsewhere; b u t pas-

does n o t find the other's p o s i t i o n completely unintelligible - o n l y utterly mis-

toral judgements, i n at least some intimate matters, may be expected to

taken, w h i c h means that rational argument remains possible

defer to 'experience' that b y d e f i n i t i o n only lay people ever have.

O n the question o f the use o f contraception, however, i t looks as i f the

Moreover, t h o u g h f e w w o u l d p u t i t i n these philosophical terms, the

m a j o r i t y o f Catholics i n the West n o w find the basic p r i n c i p l e o f the insepa-

encyclical takes f o r granted a focus o n the m o r a l value o f a single act, taken

rability o f the unitive and procreative dimensions o f sexual activity simply

by itself, whereas, i n ethics at large, there has been a shift towards an

unintelligible - and yet the teaching o f the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h rests o n that

approach w h i c h emphasizes the i n t e n t i o n o f the agent and the c i r c u m -

p r i n c i p l e Catholics, i n western societies, do n o t have significantly m o r e

stances This shift, i n academic philosophy, is b y no means uncontroversial.

children than anyone else I t seems u n l i k e l y that they all practise natural

O n the one hand, some philosophers doubt w h e t h e r i t makes sense t o speak

family p l a n n i n g methods

o f m o r a l acts that are r i g h t or w r o n g absolutely, i n themselves, i n d e p e n -

This is b y far the most significant division o f

dently of whatever the agent's i n t e n t i o n or the circumstances

o p i n i o n , to p u t i t mildly, i n the Church.. I n the encyclical Humana;

Vitce (1968) Paul V I c o n d e m n e d w h a t o f

course he k n e w are w i d e l y used methods o f ' d e p r i v i n g conjugal acts o f their f e r t i l i t y ' (§14). H e was o n l y r e a f f i r m i n g the stance taken by his p r e decessors, Pius X I (in Casti Connubii,

1930), Pius X I I (on several occasions),

John X X I I I (in Mater et Magistra, 1961) and at Vatican I I , i n the pastoral

M o s t people,

o n the other hand, p r i o r to b e i n g affected b y philosophical theories about it, w o u l d h a p p i l y allow that certain acts are simply w r o n g , whatever the agent's i n t e n t i o n or the circumstances We m i g h t not agree as to w h i c h specific acts or courses of action are i n the category o f those that are absolutely unacceptable - whatever the circumstances o r the agent's motives. I n some circumstances, w e may be able to excuse the agent, to the extent that the subjective culpability may seem almost non-existent - t h o u g h w h a t was

2 7

(Bonn:

done, w e may t h i n k , was objectively absolutely w r o n g . However, that an act

w h i c h seems t o s h o w t h a t c e l e b r a t i o n f a c i n g t h e p e o p l e is w i d e l y attested;

of contraceptive intercourse i n marriage falls i n t o the category o f i n t r i n s i -

C f O t t o N u s s b a u m Der Standort der liturgen

H a n s t e i n 1965)

am christlichen Altar vor dem Jahre 1000

a n d S. d e B l a a u w , Cultus et decor' liturgia e architettura nella Roman B i b l i o t h e c a A p o s t ó l i c a Vaticana 1994) position , 95

tardoantica e medievale ( V a t i c a n :

c l a i m i n g t h a t versus populum

is t h e classic R o m a n d i s -

cally i m m o r a l , whatever the m o t i v a t i o n or the circumstances, seems quite implausible to an increasing n u m b e r of people, Catholics included

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The m a i n p r o b l e m , however, is that the longstanding assumption that every marriage act should be o p e n to the transmission o f life has become unbelievable

H a v i n g c h i l d r e n is no longer the p r i m a r y purpose o f m a r -

riage W h i l e Catholics and Christians i n general, as w e l l as Jews, M u s l i m s and many other religious people, hope and i n t e n d to have c h i l d r e n as the result o f getting m a r r i e d , the age-old assumption that sexual intercourse is p r i m a r i l y f o r procreation has become u n i n t e l l i g i b l e

2 8

W h i l e most Catholics rule o u t contraceptive methods that they regard as manifestly abortifacient and so grievously sinful to use, many f i n d i t u n i n t e l ligible to equate all contraceptive intercourse, morally, w i t h a b o r t i o n Admittedly, many Catholics may be less solid nowadays i n their o p p o s i t i o n to abortion. However, this may only mean that, w h i l e they c o n d e m n the sin, they f i n d i t m u c h easier to excuse the sinner and even those w h o collude w i t h her. I n itself, this line need n o t differ f r o m the traditional p o s i t i o n i n m o r a l theology: sins that are objectively very grave may, subjectively, be easy enough to excuse (and forgive). O n the other hand, the belief that, before a disputable n u m b e r o f weeks, the h u m a n e m b r y o is n o t a person at all, is so widespread i n western societies that many Catholics t o o accept i t W h a t was once a metaphysical theory, a h i g h l y contestable account of subjectivity, consciousness and personal identity, has n o w seeped i n t o general acceptance by people w h o have no background whatsoever in philosophy

2 y

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I I

217

A t Vatican I I , however, i n the chapter o n marriage and family i n the con¬ stitution Gaudium

et Spes, the t e r m i n o l o g y of p r i m a r y and secondary ends

of marriage, h i t h e r t o standard i n m o r a l theology textbooks, was quiedy dropped, w i t h typical creative amnesia . M a r r i a g e is proclaimed to be a k i n d of friendship, a free and m u t u a l gift w h i c h the spouses make of themselves to each other, 'a gift p r o v i n g itself b y gentie affection and b y deed', a m u t u a l self-giving w h i c h is ' u n i q u e l y expressed and perfected t h r o u g h the marital act' (§49) Certainly, as w e are r e m i n d e d i n the next section, o n 'the f r u i t f u l ness of marriage', 'marriage and conjugal love are by their nature ordained toward the begetting and educating o f c h i l d t e n ' - yet w e are reassured that having children 'does n o t make the other purposes o f marriage o f less account', indeed, we are t o l d , quite explicidy, that marriage is 'not instituted [by G o d , that is to say] solely for procreation' (§50). Marriage, indeed, 'persists as a w h o l e manner and c o m m u n i o n o f life, and maintains its value and indissolubility, even w h e n offspring are l a c k i n g despite, rather often, the v e r y intense desire o f the couple' (§50). Marriages w h i c h t u r n o u t to be infertile, t h r o u g h no action o n either spouse's part, are true marriages

The couple w a n t e d offspring; i t was n o t their d o i n g that

their attempts were i n vain The m a n w h o w o u l d seek an annulment o f the marriage o n the grounds that his w i f e has b o r n e h i m no son and heir was at last - deprived o f all putative grounds for d o i n g so There is m o r e to marriage than having children Couples w h o cannot have c h i l d r e n o f their o w n enjoy the k i n d o f friendship w h i c h is uniquely expressed i n their l o v e - m a k i n g . C o n j u g a l love as w o r t h w h i l e i n itself,

M a r r i a g e at V a t i c a n I I

i n v o l v i n g the g o o d of the w h o l e person ( § 4 9 ) , was at last established as a

The belief that the p r i m a r y end o f marriage was procreation - 'increase and m u l t i p l y ' (Gen 1:28) - became questionable i n the 1920s. U n t i l then, d e l i b erate attempts to exclude h a v i n g children seemed gravely sinful Indeed, a marriage i n w h i c h the couple decided never to risk having a c h i l d is n o t a marriage O n the other hand, f r o m the first years o f the C h u r c h , as history shows, a great range o f contraceptive methods was always available pharmnkeia denounced by Paul may refer to abortifacient drugs (Gal

the

5:20)

These methods were repeatedly c o n d e m n e d as sinful - w h i c h shows h o w w i d e l y they were piactised

Catholic value H a l f - b u r i e d M a n i c h e a n fears that sex was intrinsically evil, or marriage at best a concession to concupiscence, or v a l i d only f o r procreation, were rejected, once and for all Surprising as this m i g h t seem, i t was felt necessary to say that sexual love, i n h u m a n beings, is to be clearly distinguished f r o m 'the dispositions of lower forms o f life' (§51) F r o m the outset, however, the d o c u m e n t notes that only 'certain key points' are being considered Footnote 14 makes it clear that the question of the m o r a l i t y o f certain contraceptrve technologies was reserved, b y Pope Paul VPs decision o n 23 June 1964, to a special commission and was not to be debated, let alone decided, by the bishops at the C o u n c i l . Clearly Paul V I

See Leslie W o o d c o c k Tender, Catholics

and Contraception-

An American

History

(Ithaca, N Y :

C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y Press 2 0 0 5 ) ; a n d f o r t h e l o n g e r v i e w J o h n T. N o o n a n . Jr ., Contraception. History

of Its Treatment by the Catholic

Tlieologians

and Canonists,

A

enlarged e d i t i o n (Cambridge

M A , a n d L o n d o n : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press 1986) 2 9

See D a v i d A l b e r t Jones. The

Embryo

in the Christian

Tradition

Soul of the Embryo-

An Enquiry

( L o n d o n : C o n t i n u u m 2004)

into the Status

of the

Human

understood h o w divisive the debate w o u l d be A great deal is said about the responsibility that couples need to exercise i n starting a family. There is reference also to the divine l a w that 'reveals and protects the integral m e a n i n g of conjugal love, and impels i t t o w a r d a truly h u m a n f u l f i l m e n t ' (§50). I n connection w i t h a b o r t i o n , the text goes o n , 'the

218

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C h u r c h issues the r e m i n d e r that a true c o n t r a d i c t i o n cannot exist between Such remarks obviously

allude to b i r t h c o n t r o l methods.. I t seems likely that, w h e n they v o t e d i n favour o f this chapter o f

Gaudium

et Spes, many o f the bishops expected the papal commission to r e c o m m e n d a w i d e n i n g o f permissible contraceptive methods beyond the

so-called

natural m e t h o d dependent o n the woman's cycle, to i n c l u d e the use o f certain drugs to p r o l o n g her natural periods o f i n f e r t i l i t y (at least that) Yet, as the angry exchanges i n the aula over the text that was finally passed show, at least a significant n u m b e r o f the bishops were deeply opposed to any change i n the Church's teaching.. 'Responsible p a r e n t h o o d ' , i n the sense that couples should verify the existence o f conditions w h i c h make h a v i n g a

Persuaded that a n y t h i n g that the C h u r c h had taught for so l o n g c o u l d not be w r o n g , Paul V I disregarded the m a j o r i t y o n the commission he had set up to study the question and decreed that acts o f l o v e - m a k i n g i n marriage were intrinsically i m m o r a l i f the couple used drugs or barriers of whatever k i n d to prevent the wife's b e c o m i n g pregnant. Cardinal K a r o l W o j t y l a , a m e m b e r o f the commission, was n o t present w h e n they finally voted. H i s advice to Paul V I seems to have been decisive I n t u r n , he was advised b y his f r i e n d Wanda Poltawska, a psychiatrist i n K r a k o w , m a r r i e d and w i t h children, w h o has w r i t t e n a g o o d deal i n the f o l l o w i n g vein:

c h i l d at a given t i m e a responsible act o f mature Christians, seemed to some

When a couple really understand human fertility, contraception becomes unnecessary for them, since conception is possible only at a given time i n each menstrual cycle Contemporary man can consciously control his fertility: one might say that human fertility has become truly human only today, when it can be placed under the control of his intellect and w i l l

n o t h i n g but a r efusal o f divine providence and a failure i n faith The strongly 'personalist' tone o f the emphasis o n conjugal love, so natural to those w h o composed the text, seemed to others merely sentimentalism, an echo of the cult o f 'experience' attributed to the modernists.

3 1

Cardinal O t t a v i a n i , for example, Prefect o f the H o l y O f f i c e , a r g u i n g that the text placed far t o o m u c h emphasis o n the conscience o f the spouses i n d e c i d i n g h o w many c h i l d r e n to have, m e n t i o n e d that he was the eleventh c h i l d i n a family o f twelve, his father (sic) b e i n g a m a n w h o trusted i n divine providence Cardinal B r o w n e r e c o m m e n d e d the older language - that the p r i m a r y end o f the marriage act is procreation, w h i l e the secondary end is b o t h the m u t u a l help o f the spouses and a remedy f o r concupiscence. A t the vote o n the chapter o n marriage taken o n 16 N o v e m b e r 1965, a total o f 1,569 of the C o u n c i l fathers were satisfied, b u t 556 still had reservations to some degree or o t h e r .

219

I I

M a r r i a g e since V a t i c a n I I

the divine laws p e r t a i n i n g to the transmission o f life and those p e r t a i n i n g to the fostering o f authentic conjugal l o v e ' (§51)

V A T I C A N

30

I n 1992 Pope J o h n Paul I I a u t h o r i z e d the p u b l i c a t i o n o f the Catechism of the Catholic C h u r c h : i t declares that conjugal love, evidently valued i n itself, naturally tends to fecundity, and reaffirms the unbreakable connection between u n i o n and procreation i n the marriage act, c i t i n g Humane?

Vital

and Casti Connubii (§2366). I t goes o n to describe any f o r m of regulation of births other than periodical continence and natural methods as 'intrinsically evil' (§2370) W h a t bishops and popes teach is clear; w h a t most o f the laity d o seems equally clear. There is l i t t l e sign that the t w o 'sides' engage i n debate, or try very hard to persuade one another. The m i l l i o n s o f y o u n g Catholics w h o sang their a d m i r a t i o n and affection f o r Pope J o h n Paul I I at the m a n y great assemblies d u r i n g his pontificate d i d n o t all accept his teaching o n this matter, of w h i c h they c o u l d n o t have been ignorant. There is w h a t some descr ibe as a silent schism. I f i t is t r u e that the basis o f the disagreement lies

3 0

T h e l i t e r a t u r e is i m m e n s e ; b u t see On Human

Life

An Examination

of 'Humana

Vita 'by 1

i n the rejection b y many Catholics o f the ancient belief i n the inseparability

Peter H a r r i s a n d o t h e r s ( T o n d o n : B u r n s a n d O a t e s 1 9 6 8 ) , w h i c h i n c l u d e s t h e t e x t o f t h e T h e o l o g i c a l R e p o r t d a t e d 2 6 June 1 9 6 6 : 2 2 4 - 4 4

c o m p o s e d b y six t h e o l o g i a n s a n d r a t i f i e d

by the c o m m i s s i o n under the presidency of C a r d i n a l O t t a v i a n i : w h i l e n o t liberalizing the t r a d i t i o n a l t e a c h i n g i n so m a n y w o r d s , t h e m e a n s o f p r e v e n t i n g c o n c e p t i o n is l e f t t o t h e

M

The Psychology and Psychopathology o f Fertility'

j u d g e m e n t o f t h e couple.. P a u l V I d i d n o t a c c e p t t h i s a d v i c e b u t t h e f a c t , k n o w n a l m o s t at

Way - God's Way ( M i l w a u k e e W I : D e R a n e e 1980)

o n c e , t h a t a m a j o r i t y o f cardinals

i n Natural

Family

Planning.

Nature's

I n 1962 P o l t a w s k a was d i a g n o s e d w i t h

bishops a n d t h e o l o g i a n s a p p r o v e d o f t h i s d o c u m e n t

cancer o f t h e c o l o n , s u r g e r y was s c h e d u l e d a n d t h e p r o g n o s i s u n h o p e f u l ; W o j t y l a sought

( W o j t y l a was absent, c h o o s i n g s o l i d a r i t y w i t h his c o l l e a g u e C a r d i n a l W y s z y n s k i w h o s e pass-

Padre Pio's prayers a n d she was c u r e d ' i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y ' ; Padre P i o ( 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 6 8 ) , t h e C a p u c h i n

p o r t was w i t h d r a w n ) has l e f t t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c C h u r c h i n a state o f q u a s i - s c h i s m over t h i s

stigmatic. was c a n o n i z e d b y J o h n Paul I I i n 2 0 0 2 , see J o n a t h a n K w i t n y , Man of the

issue f o r 4 0 years

Tlie Life and Times of Pope John

Century

Paul II ( L o n d o n : L i t t l e B r o w n a n d C o m p a n y 1 9 9 7 ) : 179

220

A F T E R

V A T I C A N

I I

A F T E R

of the unitive and procreative i n sexual intercourse, it is difficult to see h o w the t w o views are ever to be reconciled Since i t is w i d e l y regarded as a foregone conclusion, there are f e w authors, theologians 01 other, w h o argue against the magisterial teaching. I n the days w h e n such arguments were necessary none was better than Birth Regulation and Catholic Belief, by PJ FitzPatrick ~

natural family p l a n n i n g

3 5

V A T I C A N

221

11

O n the w h o l e , however, this b o d y of w o r k , c o n -

ducted w i t h philosophical skill and appealing to medical and psychological evidence in a humane and sophisticated way, seems to have little impact As w e have seen, i n the w o r k o f Hans U r s v o n Balthasar, o f Pope John Paul I I , and o f the C o n g r e g a t i o n f o r the D o c t r i n e of the Faith w h i l e under Cardinal Ratzinger's stewardship, the n e w emphasis o n the doctrine o f n u p -

3

'There are, o n the other hand, theologians w h o defend the Church's o f f i -

tiality, as the key to authentic C a t h o l i c self-under standing, includes a

cial teaching, often w i t h great philosophical skill. The argument against

reaffirmation o f the traditional belief i n the unbreakable l i n k between the

contraception was set o u t classically, i n 1968, b y Elizabeth Anscombe: ' Y o u

unitive and the procreative i n m a r i t a l l o v e - m a k i n g I n effect, according to

can have sex w i t h o u t children: C h r i s t i a n i t y and the n e w o f f e r ' .

Roger

Balthasar, o n l y Catholic Christians have m u c h chance of understanding the

fine philosopher, i n an impressive, m u c h - c r i t i c i z e d

challenging d o c t r i n e taught by successive popes, and, a m o n g t h e m , he con-

Scruton, another

33

defence o f traditional sexual morality, finds the argument unpersuasive

If

cludes, perhaps only the m i n o r i t y o f m a r r i e d couples w h o practise the

the t h o u g h t is that, since the n o r m a l sexual act is intrinsically generative, all

asceticism required by f o l l o w i n g the various natural methods can fully

other forms of sexual intercourse are m o r a l l y w r o n g , he finds this a result

understand

w h i c h is extremely c o u n t e r - i n t u i t i v e ' . For one t h i n g , i t w o u l d mean, i n

i n g o f h u m a n f e r t i l i t y and practise this asceticism are t r u l y Catholic. Others,

logic, that the sexual act p e r f o r m e d by people ignorant o f the facts o f

f o r all that they love G o d and neighbour, send their children to Catholic

h u m a n r e p r o d u c t i o n w o u l d be intrinsically i m m o r a l M a i n l y , however, he

schools, go to Mass every Sunday, and so o n , are either such grave sinners

appeals to experience; ' o u r disposition to divorce the sexual act f r o m r e p r o -

that they should n o t be t a k i n g H o l y C o m m u n i o n (the teaching p r i o r to

d u c t i o n has b r o u g h t about a vast, and m o r a l l y significant, change i n the

Vatican I I ) , or so confused b y m o d e r n beliefs about sexual activity, personal

project o f l o v e - m a k i n g '

The m o r a l significance, on the v i e w taken i n

relationships, and so o n , that they cannot even b e g i n to make sense of

Humance Vita and i n the teaching of Pope John Paul I I , is of course entirely

the authentically Catholic understanding of marriage T h e majority o f Cath-

negative: ever-increasing p r o m i s c u i t y and irresponsible sexual activity

olics, o n this account, are simply i n 'invincible ignorance'

G r a n t i n g that 'piactices w h i c h remove the l i k e l i h o o d that n e w and w h o l l y

follows that o n l y a tiny m i n o r i t y o f us are 'real' Catholics, then perhaps we

o v e r w h e l m i n g personal responsibilities w i l l issue f r o m an act can change the

shall have to live w i t h that.

3 6

I n other words, only those couples w h o have this understand-

3 7

A n d i f it

m o r a l nature of the act', Scruton seems open to the possibility that there may be changes for the better, ' i n the project o f l o v e - m a k i n g ' . H e thinks, anyway, that such facts cannot be used as the sole basis f o r the ethics o f

Conclusion

something as complex as h u m a n sexual behaviour "Whatever w e are to c o n clude about the m o r a l i t y of 'infertile' acts, he argues, 'must depend u p o n far w i d e r assumptions about h u m a n nature, and cannot be derived f r o m the fluctuating intentionality of infertile intercourse'

3 4

Birth

Regulation

and

Catholic

Belief:

A

Study

in Problems

and

Possibilities

by G

Egner

[P.J F i t z P a t r i c k ] ( L o n d o n a n d M e l b o u r n e : Sheed a n d W a r d 1966) 3 3

R e p r i n t e d i n h e r Collected Philosophical

Papers III

Ethics, Religion

and Politics

( O x f o r d : Basil

Blackweli 1981): 8 2 - 9 6 3 4

R o g e r S c r u t o n , Sexual Desire

son 1 9 8 6 ) : 2 8 6 - 7

atianism, the rigorist m o v e m e n t w h i c h started i n R o m e i n the mid-second century, deprecating concessions to those w h o had compromised w i t h

M o r e recently, there has been some impiessive argument i n favour of

3 2

Catholics, like all Christians, k n o w that we are sinners As far back as N o v -

paganism u n d e i persecution, and D o n a t i s m i n the A f r i c a n C h u r c h i n the

3 5

Janet E S m i t h , Humance

Vitce: A Generation

Later ( W a s h i n g t o n , D C : T h e C a t h o l i c U n i v e r -

sity o f A m e r i c a Press 1 9 9 1 ) ; a n d Wliy Humance

Vita: Was Right:

E , S m i t h (San Francisco:

M o r e practically, see

I g n a t i u s Press 1993)

A Reader,

e d i t e d b y Janet

Catherine

Pepinster,

' D o i n g W h a t C o m e s N a t i i r a l h / , The Tablet, 3 D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 5 : 1 6 - 1 7 A Philosophical

Investigation

(London: Weidenfeld and N i c o l -

' H u m a n love i n v o l v e s an i n e v i t a b l e t e n d e n c y t o seek o u t a n d be w i t h t h e

o t h e r , t o i n v o l v e one's destiny c o m p l e t e l y a n d inseparably w i t h h i s ' (242)

• feature w e m i g h t

call n u p t i a l i t y ; sexual desire is itself i n h e r e n t l y ' n u p t i a l ' i t i n v o l v e s c o n c e n t r a t i o n u p o n the e m b o d i e d existence o f the o t h e r (339) w h i c h S c r u t o n takes f r o m John P a u l [ [ ( 4 0 7 n o t e 32)

3 6

' A W o r d o n Humana:

New Elucidations 3 7

A n indispensable

A q u i n a s cl

Vita

, o r i g i n a l l y a l e c t u r e at a s y m p o s i u m i n San Francisco 1978; i n

(San Francisco: I g n a t i u s Press 1 9 8 6 ) : 2 0 4 - 2 8 concept

i n neoscholastic m o r a l t h e o l o g y , as i n d e e d i n Suarez and

' I g n o r a n c e , i n Dictionnaire

K E K i r k . Ignorance

faith and Conformity

de Theologie

Catholique

v o l 7 ( 1 9 2 2 ) : cols 7 3 1 - 4 0 ; and

(London: Longmans Green

1925)

222

A F T E R

V A T I C A N

II

Appendix

early f o u r t h century, m u c h the same t h i n g , there have always been people i n the C h u r c h ready to excommunicate

others f o r lack o f o r t h o d o x y , often

e n d i n g by g o i n g i n t o schism i n order to preserve, as they believed, 'the true

THE

C h u r c h ' Perhaps one o f the lessons w e have learnt since the cruel way i n w h i c h the modernists were treated a century ago is that w e have to live w i t h

ANTI-

MODERNIST

some quite deep divisions and intractable rifts w i t h i n the Catholic C h u r c h , over morals and l i t u r g y especially The official w o r d for such conflict is ' c o n -

OATH

fusion': w e have had n o t h i n g but confusion over these issues, at least since the close o f Vatican I I Some w i l l say that we have learnt, at last, to fudge issues, to avoid confrontations, to leave j u d g e m e n t t o o easily to G o d Perhaps we m i g h t agree, at least, to recall the beautiful words o f the T e i g i t u r ' i n the ancient R o m a n C a n o n o f the Mass, and pray that, t h r o u g h Jesus Christ, the Father may 'accept and bless these gifts', offered i n the first

Prescribed i n the motu propria, Sacrorum Antistitum,

place for the H o l y and Catholic C h u r c h , ' w h i c h T h o u mayst vouchsafe to

1 September 1910, abrogated o n l y i n 1967, treated effectively as the f o r m u -

issued b y Pope Pius X ,

pacify, guard, u n i t e and govern t h r o u g h o u t the w o r l d ' - quam paciftcare, eus-

lary o f o r t h o d o x y for clerics t h r o u g h o u t the first half o f the century, the

todire, adunare et regere digneris toto orbe terrarum - a prayer for peace and unity,

O a t h w e n t as follows:

w i t h i n the Catholic C h u r c h , w h i c h there is no reason to believe w i l l ever become redundant, this side o f h i s t o r y

3 8

I,

, f i r m l y embrace and accept all and each o f the things defined,

affirmed and declared by the inerrant M a g i s t e r i u m o f the C h u r c h , mainly those points o f doctrine directly opposed to the errors o f our time. A n d i n the first place I profess that G o d , b e g i n n i n g and end o f all things, can be certainly k n o w n , and therefore also proved, as the cause t h r o u g h its effects, by the natural l i g h t o f reason t h r o u g h the things that have b e e n made, that is, t h r o u g h the visible works o f creation. Second, I admit and recognize as most certain signs o f the divine o r i g i n o f the Christian r e l i g i o n the external arguments o f revelation, that is, the divine deeds, and i n the first place the miracles and prophecies. A n d I m a i n t a i n that these are eminently suited to the mentality of all ages and men, i n c l u d i n g those of our t i m e Thirdly, I also f i r m l y believe that the C h u r c h , guardian and teacher o f the revealed w o r d , was immediately and direcdy instituted b y the real and historical Christ himself, w h i l e d w e l l i n g w i t h us; and that i t was b u i l t u p o n Peter, p r i n c e of the apostolic hierarchy, and his successors t i l l the end o f time Fourthly, I sincerely accept the doctrine of the faith handed o n to us by the Aposdes t h r o u g h the o r t h o d o x Fathers, always w i t h the same m e a n i n g and i n t e r p r e tation; and therefore I flatly reject the heretical i n v e n t i o n o f the e v o l u t i o n of dogmas, to the effect that these w o u l d change their m e a n i n g f r o m that previously held b y the C h u r c h I equally c o n d e m n every error w h e r e b y the divine deposit, handed over to the Spouse o f C h r i s t to be faithfully kept by her, w o u l d be replaced b y a philosophical i n v e n t i o n or a creation o f human consciousness, slowly f o r m e d by the effort o f m e n and t o be henceforward T H d e n t i n e ' , of course; b u t these w o r d s are c i t e d by P o p e V i g i l i u s ( 5 3 7 - 5 5 ) as already l o n g p a r t o f t h e C a n o n m his day (cf. Patrologia hatina, v o l 69 c o l u m n 22)

perfected by an indefinite progress

224

T H E

A N I I - M O D E R N I S T

I H £

O A I H

Fifthly, E maintain i n all certainty and sincerely profess that faith is n o t a

A N I I - M O D E R N I S I

O A I H

adapted to die culture of each age, b u t so that the absolute and unchange-

b l i n d feeling o f religion w e l l i n g up f r o m the recesses o f the subconscious, by

able t r u t h preached by the Apostles f r o m the b e g i n n i n g may never be

the pressure o f the heart and o f the i n c l i n a t i o n o f the m o r a l l y educated w i l l ,

believed or understood otherwise

but a real assent o f the intellect to the t r u t h received f r o m outside t h r o u g h

A l l these things 1 pledge myself to keep faithfully, integrally and sincerely,

the ear, whereby w e believe that the things said, testified and revealed by the

and

personal G o d , o u r creator and l o r d , are true, o n account o f the a u t h o r i t y of

w h e t h e r i n teaching or i n any way b y w o r d o r i n w r i t i n g

God,

promise, thus do I swear, so help me G o d , etc

w h o is supremely t r u t h f u l I also submit myself w i t h due reverence,

and wholeheartedly j o i n i n all condemnations, declarations and prescriptions contained i n the encyclical Pascendi and i n the decree

Lamentabili,

mainly those concerning the so-called history o f dogmas. Likewise I reprove the error o f those w h o a f f i r m that the faith proposed by the C h u r c h can be repugnant to history, and that the Catholic dogmas, i n the way they are understood now, cannot accord w i t h the truer origins o f the C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n I also c o n d e m n and reject the o p i n i o n o f those w h o say that the m o r e learned Christian has a t w o - f o l d personality, one o f the believer and the other o f the historian, as if i t w o u l d be lawful f o r the historian to u p h o l d views w h i c h are i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n w i t h the faith o f the believer, or to lay d o w n propositions f r o m w h i c h i t w o u l d f o l l o w that the dogmas are false or d o u b t f u l , as l o n g as these dogmas were n o t directly denied

I likewise

reprove the m e t h o d o f j u d g i n g and i n t e r p r e t i n g H o l y Scripture w h i c h c o n sists i n i g n o r i n g the tradition of the C h u r c h , the analogy o f faith and the rulings o f the Apostolic See, f o l l o w i n g the opinions o f rationalists, and not only u n l a w f u l l y but recklessly u p h o l d i n g the c r i t i q u e of the text as the only and supreme rule Besides, I reject the o p i n i o n o f those w h o maintain that whoever teaches theological history, or writes about these matters, has to set aside beforehand any preconceived o p i n i o n regarding the supernatural o r i g i n o f Catholic t r a d i t i o n , as w e l l as the d i v i n e promise o f a help for the perpetual preservation of each one o f the revealed truths; and that, besides, the w r i t i n g s o f each of the Fathers should be interpreted o n l y by the p r i n c i ples o f science, leaving aside all sacred authority, and w i t h the freedom o f j u d g e m e n t w h e r e w i t h any secular m o n u m e n t is usually studied.. Lastly, I profess myself i n everything totally averse to the error w h e r e b y modernists h o l d that there is n o t h i n g divine i n sacred t r a d i t i o n , or, w h a t is m u c h worse, that there is, but i n a pantheistic sense; so that n o t h i n g remains there b u t the bare and simple fact to be equated to the c o m m o n facts o f history, namely, some m e n w h o t h r o u g h their w o r k , skill and ingenuity, continue i n subsequent ages the school started by C h r i s t and his apostles Therefore 1 most f i r m l y retain the faith of the Fathers, and w i l l retain i t up to the last gasp of my life, regarding the u n w a v e r i n g charisma o f the t r u t h , w h i c h exists, has existed and w i l l always exist i n the succession o f bishops f r o m the Apostles; not so that w h a t is maintained is w h a t may appear better or m o r e suitably

to w a t c h over t h e m w i t h o u t fail, never m o v i n g away f r o m t h e m Thus do I

227

I N D E X

Bugnini, Annibale, 210

Dominus Jesus, 1 8 3 , 1 9 2 , 2 0 2

B u l g a k o v , Sergius, 8 2

Dulles, Avery, 34

Bultmann, Rudolf, 61 Butler, Christopher, 105-6,

INDEX

210n

ecumenism, cardinals,

Carey, G e o r g e , 175

E r n s t , C o r n e l i u s , 91, 2 0 0 n

Catherine ofSiena, 41

experience

35,54n, 59,70n, 125,131

and laity, 2 1 5 , 2 2 0 L o n e r g a n o n , 117—19

cited b y del u b a c , 7 8

m o d e r n i s t cult of, 2 1 8

o n Wolffiaiiism, 2 9 - 3 2

R a t z i n g e r o n , 191

Chesterton, G K., 62,168

Schillebeeckx on, 58-9,

Claudel, Paul, 8 4 , 1 9 0

suspicion of, 2, 4 n , 6 ,

o n d e L u b a c , 75

C l e m e n t o f Alexandria, 78,88

o n nuptiality,

C o a k l e y . Sarah,

Adam, Karl, 7-8,53, 190

and Rahner, 88, 91-2.

A l t e r n a t i v e S e r v i c e B o o k , 2 1 On

21-4,

1 , 9 , 1 1 - 1 2 , 18,

24, 2 8 - 9 ,

35, 67, 7 8 - 9 ,

107,

132, 1 4 2 o n faith,

o n Suârezianism,

124—6

o n supersexuality i n G o d ,

Barth, Karl

on image o f G o d , 194

a n d Balthasar, J 2 9 - 3 1

on liturgy, 208n

o n image o f G o d ,

ARCIC,

50-1

and Kirschbaum,

Aristotle, 1 1 - 1 2 , 1 8 . 2 8 - 9 ,

117,133,

197

andKüng,

197-8 134n

147-50

onMarianism, 84

Augustine, 18,23,29, 81, 88,132, 185, 194

DeAuxiliis,

142-4

125

o n the h u m a n body, 180

Baader, Franz, 191 121-44, 147, 148n

138-40,143,193,200-1

Fenton, Joseph C., 7 Fernandez, Aniceto, 4 4 , 47

175,207

Fides e i R a f i o ,

1,169-70

F i o r e n z a , F r a n c i s P , 91

o n collegiality, 4 3 - 5

First A m e n d m e n t , 4 6

on ecumenism,

FitzPatrick

38-40

P J ,220

o n nuptiality, 43

Flick, M a u r i z i o , 9

o n reception,

Florus o f Lyons, 7 2

49-51

F r i n g s , Josef, 1 8 6

o n religious liberty.4 5 - 8 Constance, C o u n c i l of,

154-6

c o n t r a c e p t i o n , 1 7 6 , 182,

214-21

G a l o t j e a n , 57

C o o k Wilson, John, 108-9

G a n d h i , M a h a t m a , 1 76

Cossa, Baldassare ( J o h n X X I I I ) , 1 5 4 ,

Garrigou-Lagrange,

Reginald

B o u y e r o n , 10 Chenu on, 21-2,

135,197

27,59

f e a r s m o d e r n i s m , 1 9 , 93

Benedict X V (Delia Chiesa), 21, 2 0 2

Daly, M a r y , I n

B e n e d i c t X V I , 2 0 2 ; see also R a t z i n g e r ,

Damaskinos, 183

model neothomist, 10-18

Daniélou,Jean,

and Pinckaers, 3 3

Bernard ofClairvaux, 69,81, 83,101,

80n

andWojtyla,

Delp, Alfred, 8 7 n

165-6

Gaudium et Spa, 2 1 , 7 7 , 1 8 7 n , 2 1 5 ,

Denirle, Heinrich, 2 7

i 52

127-8

feminism, 151,

155n

80n

Joseph

Balthasar, H a n s U r s v o n , 5 8 ,78, o n animals,

on Molinism,

and S o n g o f Songs,

115, 1 2 5 n

F e e n e y , L e o n a r d , 96—7

c o n c i l i a r i s m , 154—7, 2 0 7

36

baroque scholasticism, 2 1 - 3 , 115,

26-7

50, 156-7

Cambridge worse than Colditz,

134-5,141

92-3.

118-19

Congar, Yves, 10,3 4 - 5 1 , 54n,

a n d A d r i e n n e v o n Speyr, 122n, 1 2 4 ,

Anti-Modernist Oath, 1-2, 223-5 Aquinas, St T h o m a s ,

94,104,122,

142n

Anscombe, G E M , 220

collegiality, 43-5,

61-5

14—16

exptriential-expressivism,

102n

concelebration, 89, 209

204-5

129n

J o h n P a u l I I o n , 17 7 - 8

c i t e d b y Balthasar, 1 3 2

a n o t e o n that page

o n polarizations i n the C h u r c h ,

Balthasar o n ,

on Aquinas, 2 7 - 9

N o t e : n after a page reference indicates

135-7

38-40.171-2

Emery, Gilles, 33

38n

Chenu, Marie-Dominique, 10, 17-33,

A c t i o n Française, 10, 3 4 - 5

E a g l e t o n , I F., 2 n

217-18

Billot, Louis, 10-11,21

Denys, 18, 2 3 , 2 9 , 1 3 0 , 1 3 2

Blondeh M a u r i c e . 24, 68n, 73,78

D e Petter, D o m i n i k u s , 5 2 - 3 ,

o n d e s c e n t i n t o h e l l , 134—5

B o n a v e n t u r e , 8 , 1 8 , 1 0 1 , 1 3 2 , 185

Descamps, Albert, 57

G i l s o n . E t i e n n e . 3 0 , 6 8 , 1 1 2 , 191

o n eucharist and sexual

Boston Letter,

Descartes, R e n é , 13, 1 1 2 , 1 2 7 , 1 3 1 ,

Gredt, Joseph, 9-10

and B a r t h , 1 2 3 , 1 2 9 - 3 1 ,

198n intercourse,

141 on

HumancE

95-7

B o u y e r , L o u i s , 10n, 8 9 , 105n, 1 4 6 VUCE,

on infallibility,

140-1,221

160n

o n language, 1 2 8 - 9

Browne, Michael, 19n, 20,36,44, 47, 48.

54,218

Buber. M a r t i n , 184, 190

Giles o f R o m e . 1 8 0

Gregory X I I (Correro), 155

169 D e z z a , Paola,

58

Gregory ofNyssa, 142

9,146

Dignitatis humana, 4 5 - 8

Gross, H e i n r i c h , 1 9 8

Döllinger, lgnaz v o n ,

Guardini

187n

R o m a n o , 7 - 9 , 87,8 9 . 191

228

I N D E X

I N D E X

Guérard des Lauriers, Michel, 206n Gumpel, Peter. 146 Hackeborn, Mechthild von, 138 Hasler, August, 158 Hegel, G W E , 13, 91, 100 Heidegger, Martin, 53, 87-8, 100,133, 138, 169, 191 Hello, Ernest, 10 Hemmerle, Klaus, 142 Hoenen, Peter, 107-9 Honecker, Martin, 88n Hopkins, G M , 132-3 Hügel, Friedrich von, 24, 71,105 Humana vita, 140-1, 158,176,179. 181,214-20 Humant generis, 59, 65, 75-6,145 Hume, David, 13 Husserl, E., 13,52-3, 167 Ignatius of Loyola, 6,119, 125 image of God, 79,193-6,197 indulgences, 49n infallibility, 43,159-161 Ingarden, Roman, 167 intégrisme, 41 invincible ignorance, 221n Jeremias, Joachim, 64 Joachim of Fiore, 77n, 185 John of the Cross, 21, 132, 137, 165 John X X I I I see Cossa John X X I I Ï (Roncalli), 6-7, 36-7, 151. 171-2,214 John Paul I I , 1 , 10,201,205 on Aquinas, 168-70 commitment to ecumenism, 171-2, 175 and Humanœ Vita, 176-9,180-2 Kiing on personality cult, 146n and Padre Pio, 219n reform of papacy, 170-5 theology o f the body. 175-9 see also Wojtyla, Karol Jones, David Albert, 216n Joseph, H W B . , 107-8 Josephology, 186n justification, 147—50

Kant, Immanuel, 64, 111-12, 164, 169 Kasper, Walter vii K e e l e r . L W . 110 Kenny, Anthony, 9, 107n Kolnai, Aurel. 181 König, Franz, 151 Krebs, Engelbert, 8n Kreling, G , 58 Kiing, Hans, 145-62 on Barth, 14 7-50 meets Benedict X V I , 151-2 and conciliarisni, 154-8 Congar on, 153n and infallibility, 158-161 Lagrange, M J , 22 Läpple, Alfred, 184 Lash, Nicholas, 105n Lefebvre, Marcel, 205 Leibniz., Gottfried, 26, 30 Lenrun, Richard, 93-4 Leo X I I I (Peed), 2, 18,24, 152 l e o the Despot, 84 Lepidi,A,9,23 Levering, Matthew, 33 liberation theology, 90n, 192 Lindbeck, George, 92-3,118-19 Lonergan, Bernard, 105—20 on Aquinas, 109-10,115 and Cook Wilson. 108-9 and language, 113—14 and natural theology, 116—1 7 Lubac, Henri de, 67-86 on Aquinas, 72-4,78-9 and corpus mystiewn, 71-2 on image of God, 79 mocked as Thomist, 68 and 'mother church', 83 on nature and grace, 74—5 and Origen, 80-2, 84 and Song of Songs, 81 Lumen Gentium, 7, 77,95-6 Luther. Martin, 131.153,1S8 M c A l e e r , G J , 180 McCabe, Herbert, 211 Maclntyre, Alasdair, 2 MacKinnon. Donald, 130

Maier, F.W., 185 Maréchal,Joseph, 111 Marian doctrine, 84,137-8,153-4,186 Maritain, Jacques, 34, 168,181 Marshall, Bruce D , 93 Martelet, G., 186-7 Martin V (Colonna), 154-6 men, as defective women, 140 Mercier, Désiré, 5-6, 164 Merleau-Ponty, M . , 53,169,191 metaphysics, v i i , 11-12, 11-12,166-9 Metz.J.B , 89,188-9 Meynell, Hugo, 108 M i g n e J . - E , 72n Milbank, John, 75, 190n modernism, 1—2, 5, 41 M o h l e r J A., 15,20, 191 Molinism, 15,83,115—16 Montcheuil, Yves de, 71 Motte, R A , 28 Murray, Paul D., 92n, 203n neoscholasticism, vii, 1-2, 9, 22, 52n, 73, 126, 159, 187,208 Newman, John Henry, 105 1877 Preface, viii n on Novatianism, 41 shocked by Dominican neglect of Aquinas, 67n Nouvelle théologie, 31, 76, 85, 150 nuptiality, 81-3, 135, 175-9, 197, 199-201, 220n, 221 O'Hara, Charles W , 107 0'Meara,T.F,2 O'Rourke, Fran, 18n Oakley, Francis, 207 Origen, 80-4,101-2,122. 136 Ottaviani, Alfredo, 37, 46, 77, 186, 218 Otto, R , 119 Patfoort, Albert, 57 Paul V I (Montini), 47, 123,140-6,171, 205,217 Peddicord, Richard, 30 Péguy. Charles, 133 Fepinster, Catherine, 2 2 I n Philippe, Paul, 56

229

Philippe, Thomas, 20n Phillips, G , 156 Philo of Alexandria. 95 Pico, Giovanni, 77n, 85 Pinckaers, Servais, 33 Pio, Padre, 219 PiusX (Sarto),2, 14,41, 171 Pius X I I (Pacelli), 42, 72,151, 152,171, 214 zeal for liturgical reform, 210 Plato. 110,133 Poltawska, Wanda, 219 pragmatism, 14-15 Prignon, A., 44 Przywara, Erich, 121 Rahner, Hugo, 87n Rahner, Karl, 87-104 and anonymous Christianity, 94-8, 124,189 on Aquinas, 90-1,99-101 and Balthasar, 88,91-2, 104 on infallibility, 160-1 Lmdbeck on, 92on makes mental reservation, 56-7 and Origen, 101 Ratzingei on, 103,186, 189 R a m s e y , A M ,39, 157n Ratzinger. Georg, 187n Ratzinger, Joseph, 183-202, 208, 212 avoids neoscholasticism, 190 Congar on, 187n enthusiasm for Teilhard, 192 on God, 191 and Söhngen, 185 reception, 49-51 Ricoeur, Paul, 55, 175 Rocca, Gregory P, 33 Rougier, Louis, 13n Rousselot, Pierre, 23, 68, 100 Ruffini, Ernesto, 7 Rupert of Deutz, 69-70 Rushd, ibn, 180 Rutherford, Samuel, 82-3 Sacrosanctum ConciHi, 208-10 Scheeben. M.J,, 136-7 Scheler,M , 13, 166n

230

I N D E X

Schiitebeeckx, Edward, 52-66 on Aquinas, 57—9 on Chenu and Cougar, 54n defended by Rahner, 56 on Easter, 62-4 reconstructs Christology from N I , 59-62 Schmaus, Michael, 185 Scola, Angelo, 195n, 198n Scotus.John Duns, 110,125,133 Scruton, Roger, 220 sedevacantism, 205-6 Siewerth, Gustav, 122, 144 Sigisinund, 154-5 Smith, Janet E.., 221n sobomost', 42, 43n, 207 Sohngen, Gottlieb, 100,105, 148,185, 191 Soloviev, Vladimir, 132 Song o f Songs, 81-3, 135-6, 138, 197 Speyr, Adrienne Kaegr-von, 122n, 129n, 134,141-2 Spir, A A , 30 Steuchus, A , 25 Stirnimann, H , 149 Suarez, Emmanuel, 20 Suarez, Francisco, 124-5 Suarezianism, 5, 67-8, 107, 110,124, 126 SutclifFe, Edmund, 198 Sweeney, Garrett, 161n Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre, 69, 76, 84, 132, 192 Thomistic Theses, 2, 3-4, 2 1 , 24, 168, 191 T h u c , P - M , 206 Til, Cornelius Van, 148n Tillich, Paul, 119

5 25 G 1 4 t>

Torrell,J-P,33 Tracy, David, 111 n Tromp, Sebastian, 37, 55 Tubingen School, 7n, 15, 20, 53, 209 Tymieniecka, Anna Tl, 167 Tyranowski,Jan, 165 Tyrrell, George, 5-7, 56, 68, 93 ultramontanism, 6, 55,173, 206 UtUnum Sint, 171-5,207 Vatican I , 117, 158,207n, 208 Vico,GB,190n Vigilius, 222n Wais, K , 164 Weigel, George, 176,187 William o f St-Thierry, 69 Williams, A . N , 1 8 n Williams, G H , 163n, 168 Wilmsen,A., 184 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 13, 92-3, 102, 108n, 128,169,191 Wojtyla, Karol, 71, 163-82 on Aquinas, 168-70 on the body, 180-1 on contraception, 219-21 on Maritain, 168 and phenomenology, 166-8 and Poltawska, 219 and Tyranowski, 165 see also John Paul I I Wolff, Christian, 30, 11 7 Wolffianism, 23, 30-1,127 women, 102, 200-1 Yannaras, C , 82 Zigliara, T.M , 9, 23