The University of London and the World of Learning, 1836-1986

UNIVERSITY O F LONDO N AN D TH E WORLD O F LEARNING , 1836-198 6

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THE UNIVERSIT Y O F LONDO N AND TH E WORL D O F LEARNIN G 1836-1986

EDITED B Y

F.M.L. THOMPSO N

THE HAMBLEDO N PRES S LONDON AN

D RONCEVERT

E

Published by The Hambledo n Press , 1990 102 Gloucester Avenue , London NW 1 8HX (U.K. ) 309 Greenbrier Avenue, Ronceverte WV 2497 0 (U.S.A.)

ISBN 1 85285 032 9

© Th e Contributors 199 0

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

The Universit y of London an d th e world of learning, 1836-1986 1. London , Universities : University of London, histor y I. Thompson , F.M.L . (Franci s Michael Longstreth) 378.421

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The Universit y of London and the world of learning 1836-1986 / edited by F.M.L. Thompso n Includes index. 1. Universit y of London - History . I. Thompson , F.M.L . (Francis Michael Longstreth) LF411.U55 199 0 378.421’2–dc20 90-4768

2 CIP

This book is published wit h the assistance o f grants fro m th e Twenty-Seven Foundatio n an d th e Isobel Thornley Bequest . Printed o n acid free-pape r and boun d in Great Britai n by Biddies Ltd., Guildford.

Contents List of Illustrations vi

i

Introduction F.M.L. Thompson i

x

Chronology xxi

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List of Contributors xxvi

i

1 Th e Architectura l Image J . Mordaunt Crook 1 2 Th e Plaines t Principle s o f Justice: The University of London an d th e Higher Education o f Women Gillian Sutherland 3

5

3 Th e Humanitie s F.M.L. Thompson 5

7

4 Law s W.L. Twining 8

1

5 Th e Science s Si r Hermann Bondi 11

5

6 Medicin e L. P.Le Quesne 12

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7 Theolog y Sydney Evans 14

7

8 Engineerin g H . Billett 16

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9 Musi c Brian Trowell 18

3

10 The Social Sciences O.R. McGregor

207

11 Educatio n Si r William Taylor 22

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Index 25

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List of Illustrations Between pages 4 and 5 1. Willia m Wilkins, The London University: unfinishe d scheme (1827). 2. T . Roge r Smith , University College: design for the completion of the Gowe r Street entrance (1895). 3. Si r Willia m Chamber s an d Si r Rober t Smirke , King' s College , Somerse t House river frontage (1829-35). 4. Si r James Penethorne , Universit y Offices , Grea t Burlingto n Stree t (1867 70). No w th e Museu m o f Mankind. Headquarter s o f London University , 1870-1900. 5. Charle s Holden , The Senate House (1933-38). 6. C.C.T . Dol l (?) , design fo r a Universit y of London o n th e presen t Senat e House site (1912). 7. Si r Alber t Richardson , schem e fo r extendin g Somerse t Hous e a s a ne w University of London (1914) . 8. Si r Albert Richardson, projecte d scheme for University of London, Bloomsbury (1926). 9. Si r Edwin Lutyens, project for a University of London, Bloomsbury (1914). 10. T.E . Colcutt, The Imperial Institute, South Kensington (1887-93; demolished, except for the tower). Headquarters of London University, 1900-36 . 11. W.H . Crossland , Th e Roya l Hollowa y College , Egham , Surre y (1879-87) . Now Royal Holloway and Bedford New College. 12. Capt . G.S.C . Swinto n (1859-1937) . Lyon Kin g o f Arms; Chairma n o f the L.C.C. 13. Charle s Holden (1875-1960) , Architect of the Senate House. 14. Si r Ernest Graham-Little (1868-1950) . M.P. fo r London University , 1924-50. 15. Si r William Beveridge, later Lord Beveridg e (1879-1963). Vice-Chancellor, 1926-28.

viii List

of Illustrations Between pages 100-1

16. Brougha m hawkin g share s i n projecte d Universit y o f London, July 1825. Cartoon by Robert Cruikshank. 17. T.H . Huxley, F.R.S. (1825-95), lecturer at the Royal School of Mines, creato r of the first science degrees. 18. Due l between the Duk e of Wellington and th e Ear l of Winchilsea, Batterse a Fields, March 1829 . 19. Sidne y Webb, Lor d Passfiel d (1859-1947), co-founder of the London Schoo l of Economics. 20. H.A.L . Fisher (1865-1940), President of the Board of Education, 1918-22 . 21. R.B . Haldane, Viscoun t Haldan e (1856-1928) , Secretary fo r War, 1905-12, Lord Chancellor, 1912-1 5 and 1924 , chief author of 1898 Act and chairman of 1909-13 Royal Commission on the University. 22. Dam e Lillia n Penso n (1896-1963) , Professo r o f Modern History , Bedfor d College, 1939-63, Vice-Chancellor, 1948-51 . 23. Matriculatio n examination, Jul y 1842, in the University's original premises in Somerset House . 24. Wome n graduate s receivin g thei r degree s fro m th e Vice-Chancellor , Si r James Paget, in Burlington Gardens, 1891 . 25. Westfiel d College students , Jul y 1885 , outsid e th e origina l premise s i n Maresfield Gardens , Constanc e Maynar d (Principal , 1882-1913 ) seate d centre.

26. Bedfor d College in Baker Street, students in the Art Studio, 1890s . 27. Bedfor d College in Regent's Park, students in the new Chemistry Laboratory , 1913. 28. Cartoon, c. 1860, showing the University of London on the side of Scientific progress in the battle with religious reaction. 29. Si r James Paget, F.R.S. (1814-99) , lecturing on anatomy at St. Bartholomew's Hospital Medica l College, 1874. 30. Th e Institut e of Historical Researc h i n th e 'Tudo r Cottage' , Male t Street , 1920s. 31. Si r Mortimer Wheeler, F.B.A., F.R.S. (1890-1976) , Director of the Institute of Archaeology, at the excavation of Maiden Castle, mid 1930s . 32. Th e Auto-Ico n o f Jeremy Bentha m (1748-1832) , displaye d i n Universit y College London with Bentham's actual mummified head at its feet, c. 1948.

Introduction F.M.L. Thompson Two figures have long haunted attempt s to describe th e University of London: the taxi-driver and the foreigner. The one can rarely identify where it is and the other can neve r understand wha t i t is.' Negle y Harte , Th e University o f London, 1836-1986: An Illustrated History (1986) , p . 1 2

Members of the University frequently have similar problems. It is only on grand ceremonia l occasions, th e graduation days and th e conferments of honorary degrees , tha t th e Universit y is made visibl y awar e o f its own existence; and the number actively participating in these rituals cannot be more than a tiny fraction o f the whole body of teachers an d students . For most o f the m thei r worl d o f learnin g i s bounde d b y thei r individua l College o r Institute , an d th e Universit y remain s a remote , unknown , nebulous, an d vaguel y threatening entity, little mor e tha n th e sourc e of red tape , mountain s of largely incomprehensible paper, an d unpleasan t financial decrees . On th e grandest ceremonia l occasion i n a lifetime , th e commemoration o f the sesquicentennial of the granting of the University of London' s firs t Charter , th e Universit y cam e t o lif e a s a unite d community wit h a n impressiv e i f somewha t short-live d displa y o f it s identity as an outstanding and unique element in the intellectual life of the nation. That sense of identity rests on the common purposes shared by the many separate institutions and thousands of individuals who make up the federal University, and derives from th e history which they have helped to make. A majo r par t o f thi s sesquicentennia l er a o f goo d feeling s i n 'university consciousness ' wa s expresse d i n Negle y Harte' s book . Hi s history of the University explains how the various institutions have come to be what they are and where they are, and is thus, on top of its merits as a distinguished contribution to the history of universities, the ideal guide for bookish taxi-drivers and inquisitiv e foreigners. At th e tim e o f th e 198 6 commemoratio n a different , an d complementary, approac h was made in a series of lectures, to explain to a wider public and to the University itself what the University does, and has done. I n shor t a n attemp t was made t o answer th e question, what i s the University o f London for , by examining its contributions to learning, to scholarship, letters , science , an d knowledge . Thes e lecture s use d th e

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faculty structur e of the University to furnish th e framework o f a thematic appraisal o f th e contributio n o f Londo n t o th e differen t branche s o f knowledge since 1836 . The institutiona l settin g for this academic activity was evoke d i n a lectur e o n th e architectur e o f the University ; an d th e strikingly pioneering role of London in the higher education of women was also give n specia l attention . Revise d an d edited , bu t no t revise d t o take into accoun t th e man y change s i n Londo n an d i n th e universitie s generally sinc e 1986 , thes e lecture s for m th e basi s o f th e collectio n o f essays in this volume. Many people , fro m philosopher s t o politicians, in many different time s and countries , hav e reflecte d o r pronounce d o n th e purpose s o f a university. Thei r thought s hav e range d fro m th e pursui t o f knowledge, through th e provisio n o f a libera l education , t o th e creatio n o f wealth through th e productio n o f skille d graduates . Thes e essay s see k t o construct a statement about th e purpose of the University of London not by abstrac t speculatio n o r b y derivatio n fro m an y politica l theor y o r dogma, bu t b y th e soun d empirica l metho d o f building up th e record , block b y block , o f what ha s i n fac t bee n don e i n teachin g an d researc h since th e foundatio n o f th e University . This migh t see m t o defin e th e purpose of the University by taking refuge in a tautology: the object of the exercise is to do whatever has bee n don e in th e past . Tha t i n itself is no mean o r inconsiderable thing , for the preservation an d transmissio n of so fragile an d arduousl y accumulate d a possessio n a s th e genera l bod y of knowledge, derive d fro m th e learnin g an d understandin g o f earlie r generations, is clearly one of the prime tasks of each succeeding generatio n of scholars. Eac h generation , however , i n building upon th e works of its forerunners redefine s th e subjec t matter , turn s it s curiosit y i n ne w directions, and change s th e boundaries o f knowledge. The whol e concep t o f huma n knowledge , it s limit s an d it s prope r spheres, ha d bee n changin g an d expandin g i n Europ e a t leas t sinc e the fifteenth century, and measure d agains t tha t time scale the University of London arrive d rathe r lat e o n th e stage : a n after-though t o f th e Enlightenment, yet a forerunner o f rational liberalism. Befor e th e 1830s , however, mos t o f th e ne w development s ha d take n plac e outsid e th e formal structur e o f universities , whic h ha d a powerfu l institutiona l conservatism tha t tende d t o giv e a blea k receptio n t o intellectua l innovations. Moreover , th e reall y great explosion s i n scientifi c enquiry and discover y the n still lay ahead, an d Londo n wa s to play a prominent part in the reorganisation of the branches of knowledge as they subdivided and multiplied , callin g out for systematic classificatio n an d arrangemen t so that teachin g coul d b e well-ordered, and furthe r advance s in define d disciplines mad e possible . Sinc e fro m 183 6 t o 190 0 th e Universit y wa s purely a n examinin g and degree-awardin g bod y th e mai n initiative s in mapping ou t ne w branche s o f knowledge necessaril y happene d i n th e separate teachin g colleges . Nevertheless , th e Universit y controlle d th e

Introduction x

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examination system , an d th e examinatio n syllabu s wa s a n importan t instrument for translating ne w knowledge into formal qualifications, and these in turn exerted a strong influenc e on the ways in which the colleges arranged their teaching . This mechanis m o f a separatio n o f power s betwee n teachin g an d examining wa s t o b e a perennia l sourc e o f friction betwee n th e college s and th e University , an d a t times , includin g th e present , som e college s have doubte d whethe r ther e i s an y nee d t o hav e a Universit y a t all . Arguably th e frictio n ha s bee n mor e a sourc e o f well-considered an d constructive contributions to the framework of knowledge than a source of obfuscation, obstruction, and frustration of the forces of change. Teachers have frequently fel t tha t thei r lack of control of syllabus and examinatio n has frustrate d innovatio n an d stultifie d intellectua l vitality b y confinin g their courses in a rigid, traditional, and outmoded strait jacket of rules and regulations determine d b y a remot e abstractio n calle d 'th e University' . Small groups of teachers, left to their own devices and unrestrained by any direct responsibilit y t o a large r pee r group , o n th e other hand , hav e a n understandable tendenc y t o cos y definition s o f their subjec t i n term s of what the y happe n t o know and wha t happen s t o interest them , without such rigorou s attentio n t o th e requirement s of a balance d an d sufficien t academic diet a s might satisf y a scholarly jury. Th e Londo n solutio n t o this problem of the tension between teachers, and what is to be taught and researched, ha s no t bee n unchanging ; no r ha s i t bee n a n unqualifie d success. That solution, in brief, has taken three forms: between 183 6 and 1900 th e Universit y i n th e shap e o f a government-nominate d Senat e prescribed throug h examinatio n syllabuse s the necessar y content s of its degrees; fro m 190 0 t o 196 6 th e teacher s i n effec t too k over thi s function , exercising subject-autonom y withi n a federal system by legislating for a single Universit y degre e i n eac h subjec t throug h teacher-controlle d Boards o f Studies ; sinc e 196 6 centralise d contro l o f th e content s an d standards of degrees ha s been relaxed , an d largely abandoned, wit h each college enjoyin g the powe r t o construct an d administe r its own degrees , although no t formally t o award them. In practice only a very few subjects have maintaine d thei r allegiance t o the single federal degree , persuade d that i t continues t o provide th e onl y structure capabl e o f mobilising th e potential o f the great range of specialised expertise that is spread through the separate colleges of the University. These arrangements have not been conducive to impetuous innovation or rash experiment . Yet th e government-nominated Senat e was far fro m old-fashioned when it prescribed, in the 1830s, what amounted to the first, and t o dat e only , nationa l curriculu m fo r highe r education . Classics , mathematics, an d natura l philosoph y were , t o b e sure , trie d an d tru e staples o f universities everywhere from tim e immemorial ; bu t whe n th e Senate adde d t o those thre e a compulsor y fourt h degre e pape r i n one of chemistry, botany, or zoology, it promoted t o the status of subjects proper

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to a universit y education matter s whic h were unheard o f in Oxford an d Cambridge an d onl y jus t hear d o f i n th e Scottis h universitie s whic h provided muc h o f the initia l inspiratio n fo r London. Tha t Londo n wa s setting th e pac e i n universit y education i n th e country , i n th e rang e o f subjects t o be studied an d th e standards expected , ma y be inferred fro m the grumble s an d complaint s abou t th e intolerable burde n o f novel an d unreasonable demand s whic h poure d i n t o th e Senat e fro m variou s teaching institutions . That Londo n bega n lif e a s it meant t o go on, with cautious innovatio n an d no t radica l venture s int o unknow n academi c territory, can be seen from th e fact that Science did not figure as a separate Faculty in the trio with which London's degree s were launched. The choic e of the original thre e Faculties , Arts, Laws , and Medicine , was al l th e sam e distinctive , even radical , fo r its time . The omissio n of Theology (o r Divinity ) wa s a s strikin g a s i t wa s inevitable , give n th e godless origin s o f Universit y Colleg e London . Divinit y wa s th e mainspring an d mainsta y of scholastic lif e in the older universities, and it was intende d tha t i t shoul d b e s o i n th e ne w Universit y o f Durham , created as an Anglican, collegiate, counterweight to London. The absence of divinit y fro m th e men u i n Londo n wa s a declaratio n o f intellecutal independence an d a signa l that , eve n thoug h religio n migh t b e studied and separatel y examine d i n a n individua l colleg e suc h a s King's , i n London universit y education an d universit y degrees were free t o develop outside th e clerica l tradition . I t wa s no t simpl y tha t Londo n wa s th e university for Dissenters, althoug h i t was indeed that ; it was much mor e that th e wa y i n whic h knowledg e wa s defined , pursued , an d communicated wa s detached fro m question s of faith an d dogma , an d lef t open t o th e interpla y o f reaso n an d utility . Thes e ma y no t b e bette r taskmasters, bu t the y allowed greate r scop e fo r bringing th e workings of human curiosity and the discoveries of the intellect within the ambit of the university. Fo r th e firs t twent y year s o f th e University' s lif e thes e developments ha d t o b e mad e t o fit into th e institutiona l framewor k o f three respectabl y traditiona l Faculties . Arts was a catch-all designation for a great range of subjects, and the Faculty in which the great majority of students too k thei r bachelor's degrees. Law s and Medicin e wer e equally venerable a s Faculties, and were present in the older universities from th e high middl e ages . Tha t presence , however , wa s largel y nomina l an d decorative. Londo n coul d rightl y claim t o be 'th e first University in this country which conferred degrees in Laws after an d as a result of adequate examinations'.1 The medical schools of Oxford and Cambridge, having shown som e sign s of vigour i n the seventeent h century , san k into torpo r

1 Repor t of the Universit y o f London Commissioners , 1899 , quote d b y N. Harte , The University o f London, 1836-1986(1986), p. 173 .

Introduction xii

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and insignificanc e in the eighteenth, requiring no serious demonstration of medica l knowledg e o r skil l fo r th e awar d o f thei r degrees . Th e establishment o f th e Facult y i n London , wit h it s insistenc e o n prope r examinations, wa s therefor e a fres h departur e fo r medical educatio n i n England, and a critically important step towards giving London a medical school tha t coul d riva l Edinburgh an d eventuall y surpass it . Advances in knowledge and th e creation of new subjects for systematic enquiry an d stud y were the work of individual thought, experiment, an d discovery. Som e advances led up intellectual blind alleys, and fe w would now maintain tha t craniology or phrenology, s o fashionable and excitin g to many Victorians, are fit subjects for university degrees. Other advances led toward s a mor e permanen t reorganisatio n an d restructurin g o f knowledge. Muc h o f th e codificatio n o f thes e development s an d th e consolidation o f new ideas an d ne w method s int o modes o f thought an d bodies o f knowledg e tha t wer e teachable , transmittable , an d henc e examinable, too k place inside the Faculty framework an d resulte d in the multiplication an d sub-divisio n of discrete subject s or discipline s which are recounted i n several of the chapters i n this volume. At the grandest level, the restructuring of knowledge was accompanie d by a restructuring of the Faculty system itself. In this London set the pace. It remaine d reasonabl y abreas t o f the idea s o f the bes t thinker s of the times, given an inevitable institutional and constitutional time-lag behind the most radical an d innovativ e individual proposals, an d ahea d o f other learned institutions . Th e decisiv e ste p wa s th e creatio n o f a separat e Faculty o f Science i n 1858 , i n respons e t o a memoria l addresse d t o th e University b y th e leadin g scientist s o f the day , an d sai d t o hav e bee n drafted b y T.H. Huxle y who was at th e Government School o f Mines a t the time . 'Th e branche s o f human knowledg e a t presen t academicall y recognised ar e thos e o f Arts , Theology , Law , an d Medicine' , th e memorial stated , whic h wa s tru e o f universitie s i n genera l bu t no t o f London itself , whic h had n o Theology. I t wen t on to argue th e case for a fifth branc h o f knowledge, whic h 'ha s graduall y grow n up , an d bein g unrecognised a s a whole , ha s becom e dismembered ; som e fragment s consisting of mathematics an d suc h branches o f physics as are capable of mathematical treatment , attachin g themselve s to Arts ; others , suc h a s comparative anatomy , physiology , an d botany , clingin g t o Medicine , amidst whose professors they took their rise'. The memoria l showe d tha t subjects suc h a s electricity , magnetism , organi c chemistry , geology , o r palaeontology ha d bee n non-existen t fifty or a hundred years previously, but ha d becom e centra l t o endeavour s t o discove r an d understan d th e laws governing natural phenomena and to practical applications designed to improv e materia l conditions . Th e conclusio n tha t i t wa s absur d t o continue t o insis t o n a tolerabl e acquaintanc e wit h classica l literatur e before allowing a chemist or physicist to take a degree was accepted b y the University i n establishin g th e ne w degree s o f Bachelo r o f Scienc e an d

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Doctor o f Science, which were first examined in 1860.2 This was the decisive step in turning the concept of a university from a community of scholars where everyone studied everything (for vocational subjects like law and medicin e were not regarded a s proper exceptions t o this universality ) int o a n institutio n wher e th e whol e rang e o f human knowledge wa s o n offer , bu t n o individual attempted t o master al l of it. The gain s in understanding, expertise, and new discoveries which flowed from increasin g specialisatio n an d th e departmentalisation o f knowledge undoubtedly outweighed the losses of collegiality, fraternity, an d th e allround intelligenc e o f th e fully-educate d person , bu t a s academi c disciplines went their separate way s the sense of belonging to a university migrated fro m th e lectur e room an d examinatio n hal l t o the sportsfield. With Scienc e established a s a separate degree specialisation led rapidly to the proliferation and definitio n o f different sciences : biology, for example, was separated fro m chemistr y in 1863 , an d i n turn spli t into botany an d zoology in 1866 . London , i n these developments, wa s leading th e field in Britain, bu t wa s ver y largel y itsel f followin g th e exampl e o f academi c structures pioneere d i n Franc e an d Germany . Fro m th e 1860 s onward s London ha s ha d th e flexibility, and th e drive , t o stay i n th e forefron t i n recognising an d formalisin g new branche s o f science i n th e wak e of the discovery an d namin g o f new territories , suc h a s thos e o f genetics (th e legitimate descendan t o f U.C.L.'s seductiv e an d unreliabl e eugenics ) o r biochemistry in the early part of the twentieth century, and more recently crystallography o r microbiology . If Londo n wa s th e leadin g institutio n i n Britai n i n drawin g th e academic ma p of the pure sciences, it was in a class of its own as the world leader i n making engineering into a university subject. That was without benefit o f a separat e Facult y o f Engineering, whic h was no t establishe d until afte r th e 189 8 Ac t which transformed the Universit y from a purely examining body into a federal teaching institution. From the start U.C.L., with som e interruptions , an d King's , wit h greate r continuit y an d distinction, ha d Chair s o f Engineering, fille d b y eminen t practitioner s who pursued career s movin g easily to and fr o between spells of teaching and bout s o f buildin g railway s o r bridges . The y wer e mor e tha n a generation ahea d o f Cambridge, whic h set up a chair o f mechanism an d engineering i n 1875 ; Oxford lagge d furthe r behin d still. 3 Moreover , th e teaching o f engineering require d practica l experienc e an d th e machines , equipment, an d laboratorie s wit h whic h t o acquire it . Engineerin g was thus th e pionee r subjec t in introducing th e apparatus and technique s of laboratory-based teachin g into universities, an example quickly followed in Londo n b y th e experimenta l sciences . Thi s wa s a n innovatio n o f 2 3

Quote d b y Harte, University o f London, pp. 109-10 . Michae l Sanderson , Th e Universities an d British Industry, 1850-1970(1972), p. 43 .

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incalculable importance fo r the whole style, content, and effectivenes s o f university teaching , an d i t also serve d t o bring advanced researc h ou t of private laboratories an d workshop s and int o the university. Alas, some of the Victorian engineerin g equipment was so well-built and durable that it lasted fa r int o th e twentiet h century , an d thu s bear s som e o f th e responsibility fo r th e conservatis m an d technologica l backwardnes s o f post-1945 Britis h industry, to the extent that it was staffed wit h engineers trained literall y in the Victorian mould . It ma y be that th e University as a whole, the teachin g institutions as well a s th e examinin g an d degree-givin g centre , suffere d fro m th e disadvantages o f a n earl y start , an d tha t wha t ha d initiall y bee n pioneering an d excitin g becam e uninspirin g an d deadenin g routine . Several of the chapters i n this volume tell a tale of initial vitality followed by a perio d i n th e doldrum s i n th e middl e reache s o f the century , wit h signs of renewed intellectual vitality from th e 1890s . A pattern consistin g of a springtim e o f high promise , hal f a centur y o f patchy achievement , dissatisfaction, and internal wrangling, and the n at last sustained growth in th e twentiet h centur y i n quality, diversity, reputation, an d numbers , would, afte r all , confor m neatl y wit h th e constitutiona l histor y o f th e University. Tha t i s a histor y i n whic h th e year s 1900 , markin g th e establishment o f the federa l university , 192 9 for th e introductio n o f th e structure o f governmen t tha t stil l survive s beneat h layer s o f late r modifications, an d 198 1 whe n th e Universit y firs t acquire d a full-tim e Vice-Chancellor an d th e proces s o f restructuring , adminspea k fo r wholesale earl y retirement s an d amazin g merger s o f colleges , began , stand ou t as turning points and re-births just as prominently as 1836 , the foundation year . The neatnes s of such an interpretation is, however, illusory and derives from givin g too much attention t o the institutional arrangements, whic h were undoubtedl y increasingl y unsatisfactor y during th e secon d hal f of the nineteent h century as th e frictio n betwee n th e teachin g college s an d the examining University, whose examiners were all drawn fro m outsid e London, increased . Fo r man y contemporarie s tha t wa s a n irrelevanc e which did not affec t th e quality of the education which could be obtaine d in th e colleges , no r detrac t fro m th e fac t tha t it was very good valu e for money in comparison wit h any university education o n offer elsewher e in England (Scotlan d remainin g at leas t as good an d cheap) . Thus in 185 2 Charles Kingsley' s advice for an eighteen-year old was At King's College [London ] he would ge t for forty pound s a year a far better education tha n he will have either at Oxford or Cambridge ... I am convinced that regular education i s the only thing to save a young genius from a thousan d mistakes & buffets in the hard battle of life . . . Pray keep him from Australia for te n years at least. Why is he to go & become a savage? When the gold feve r

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is over & the land has reorganised itself , then let him, & everyone else who can, go & civilize the great young nation . . .4

Cardinal Newma n wa s a witnes s o f a differen t kind . H e thoroughl y disapproved o f London University as a breeding ground of liberalism and irreligion, but when he told Cardinal Manning in 1873 that the University is 'a body which has been the beginning, and source, and symbol of all the Liberalism existing in the educated classe s for the last forty years', he was, many would think, lavishing praise o f a high order on the quality no less than the efficiency o f the university education provided b y London. 5 To giv e Londo n Universit y sol e credi t fo r th e dominan t intellectua l climate o f th e mid-Victoria n decade s wa s t o exaggerat e greatl y it s capacity t o reach and influence the influential classes. Yet to make such a statement at all, even for polemical purposes, suggests that the University was a significant feature in the contemporary landscape of ideas, a force to be reckone d wit h i n th e formatio n of educated opinion , a muc h mor e active enterpris e tha n th e imag e o f slot h implies . Th e activit y whic h especially annoye d Newma n was in the natura l sciences , where biology, zoology, geology , an d botan y nurture d th e evolutionar y challeng e t o religious dogmas. The activities in these years before 190 0 which made the most importan t contributio n t o society, however, were the theologically uncontroversial exploits of the several branches of engineering, where the innovations and practical utility of London's work probably exceeded th e sum o f all tha t wa s achieve d i n th e grea t civi c universities of Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds , Sheffield , an d Birmingha m which were established, with stron g technical elements, at thi s period. 6 I t was , indeed, largely in the Arts, i n literature, history , languages, an d philosophy , tha t Londo n was feebl e an d anaemi c durin g th e fallo w perio d befor e th e 190 0 reorganisation, registerin g a failur e t o liv e u p t o th e initia l promis e of eminence i n thes e field s chiefl y becaus e th e prestig e o f Oxfor d an d Cambridge, onc e they had abolished thei r religious tests, drew off the best of London's students who formed the habit of migrating t o complete thei r degrees there. This weakness , insofar a s i t als o stemme d fro m th e divisio n betwee n examining an d teachin g authoritie s i n London , wa s no t withou t compensating benefits . Londo n degree s an d Londo n examination s were open to those who chose to enter, regardless of place of residence, and afte r 1858 candidate s di d no t nee d t o belon g t o insititution s speciall y recognised fo r this purpose. The Victoria n civi c universities, before they received charter s i n th e 1880 s givin g the m independen t degree-givin g 4 Charle s Kingsley to [Charles De la Pryne], 21 June 1852: Catalogue of MS Autograph letters, Michael Silverman, London, 1990 . 5 C.S. Dessain, ed., Letters and Diaries of John Henry Newman, XXVI (1974), p. 373. 6 Sanderson , Universities and British Industry, pp. 106-18 .

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powers, took degrees of London University; smaller provincial colleges at Nottingham, Southampton , Reading , and Exeter continued t o do so until well int o th e twentiet h century . London regulation s require d al l degre e candidates to take som e subject s i n literature and classics, and hence all these non-metropolitan colleges were obliged to provide some teaching in the humanities , ofte n reluctantl y an d agains t th e inclination s o f loca l leaders and benefactors. This, it has been argued, was a powerful factor in ensuring tha t thes e college s gre w int o independen t multidisciplinar y universities an d di d no t becom e technica l hig h school s o n th e Germa n model, o r college s o f technology, separated fro m th e mainstrea m o f the British universit y system.7 Mayb e thi s was a mixe d blessing . The har d school of philistine utilitarians regards the comparative absence of strong, single-purpose, school s o f technology from th e Britis h higher educatio n system a s a source of economic weakness, and migh t wish to lay some of the blam e fo r Britain' s post-Victoria n industria l declin e a t th e doo r o f London, fo r it s par t i n divertin g provincia l institution s awa y fro m undivided concentration on practical skills by insisting on the retention of some traces , a t least , o f a classica l an d libera l education . Other s would argue tha t Britis h culture , society, and scienc e were greatly enriched b y the fact tha t a binary lin e dividing higher education int o two spheres was not drawn in the 1880 s or 1890s, when the university side would have been very smal l an d th e technolog y sid e would hav e become overwhelmingly large, but rathe r was only drawn in the 1960s , by which time a firm basis of multidisciplinar y universitie s had bee n establishe d throughou t th e country an d th e futur e o f th e universit y styl e o f highe r education , alongside othe r styles , seemed t o be assured. Th e mor e farsighted of the businessmen who were putting up th e fund s fo r local colleges recognised that universitie s shoul d b e place s wher e al l subject s should b e studied , and the y di d no t expec t o r insis t upo n immediat e practical return s for their money in the shape of useful discoverie s or trained technicians . Th e dividends wer e sometimes taken in th e for m o f civic pride an d prestige , sometimes more philosophically in the form of satisfaction i n the creation of scholarly communities which encouraged curiosity-driven research and the pursui t o f knowledge ; eithe r wa y th e availabilit y o f th e Londo n institutional and degre e framework assiste d the process. Easily th e mos t outstandin g activit y o f th e Universit y durin g th e second hal f of the nineteenth century, however, and th e most constructive use of its examining an d degree-giving powers, was in the service of higher education fo r women . Here , th e lea d give n b y Londo n wa s a t leas t a s important t o th e whol e o f Britis h society , an d t o th e advancemen t o f scholarship an d th e teachin g profession , a s th e initia l introductio n of completely ne w academi c subject s i n th e 1830 s ha d been . I t ca n b e 7

Ibid. , pp. 105 , 119 .

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maintained tha t the issue of proper secondary educatio n for girls, let alone higher educatio n fo r women, di d no t begi n t o attrac t seriou s attentio n from progressiv e circle s unti l th e 1840 s an d 1850s . Then , wit h th e foundation o f Queen' s Colleg e i n Harle y Stree t (1848) , th e Ladies ' College i n Bedfor d Squar e (1849) , an d th e Nort h Londo n Collegiat e School (1850) , al l i n London , an d th e Ladies ' Colleg e i n Cheltenha m (1853), the early efforts were concentrated on providing decent secondar y schooling fo r girls : fo r Bedfor d College , a s i t became , starte d ou t b y catering fo r girls from th e age of twelve, and di d no t move decisively into the universit y leve l unti l th e 1870s . Withi n thi s timescal e bot h th e University an d it s college s move d remarkabl y quickl y i n admittin g women t o full an d equa l participatio n i n university education, includin g what seemed at the time the delicate and indecorous subject of medicine. During th e 1860 s an d 1870 s i t seeme d t o th e champion s o f women' s education that the defenders of male privilege were using every trick in the book t o frustrate them. Th e Universit y deemed tha t it s powers t o confe r degrees o n 'al l classe s an d denomination s . . . withou t an y distinctio n whatsoever' di d not extend to females; in a famous case the Senate in 1862 decided b y a single vote that Elizabet h Garrett wa s debarred b y her sex from enterin g the London examinations , and she was forced t o obtain he r medical qualification s b y th e bac k doo r throug h th e Societ y o f Apothecaries; an d i n 186 7 th e Universit y attempte d t o prolon g segregation b y instituting a separate bu t more or less equal matriculation and certificat e of higher proficienc y fo r women. Meanwhil e Universit y College was practising the same tacti c of separate bu t mor e or less equal treatment i n the teaching sphere, allowin g women in literally by a special back doo r t o separate lecture s on Englis h literature, physics , chemistry, and sound , fro m th e lat e 1860s ; gradually , subjec t b y subject , thes e became mixe d classes , startin g wit h politica l econom y an d fin e ar t i n 1871, until by 1877 practically all the teaching was coeducational. King's, on th e other hand , stuc k to the separatist rout e with resolution, starting missionary lecture s for the ladies of Richmond an d Twickenha m i n 1871, and founding a separate ‘Ladies ' Department ' i n Kensington in 1885; not until 191 5 were women welcomed inside the college itself in the Strand. 8 Such delaying tactics were irritating. But when, in 1878, the University admitted women to all its examinations on equal terms, when the first four female graduate s i n Britai n receive d thei r degree s i n 1880 , an d whe n University College offered almos t full y coeducationa l universit y teaching from 187 8 (no t entirely , sinc e it s Facult y o f Medicine hel d ou t agains t women unti l 1917) , London wa s pioneering a major reform an d doin g so after a much shorter perio d o f debate, advocacy , and agitatio n tha n most other majo r reform s have required . The res t of the universitie s followe d 8

N.B . Harte , Th e Admission o f Women t o University College London: A Centenary Lecture (1979), esp. pp . 9-16 , 20.

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London's lead : Cambridge allowe d women to take its examinations fro m 1881, Oxfor d fro m 1884 , but wome n wer e no t permitte d t o tak e th e degrees themselve s and becom e full members of the universities until 1920 in Oxfor d an d 194 8 in Cambridge . Th e separat e women' s college s Newnham an d Girto n i n Cambridg e (187 1 and 1873) , Somervill e an d Lady Margare t Hal l in Oxford (bot h 1879) , for example, as well as those in London, Bedford (1849), Westfield (1882), and Royal Holloway (1886 ) - ar e usually given prid e o f place i n the history of higher educatio n for women. Integrated , coeducational , universit y education , o f th e typ e pioneered i n Britai n b y Universit y College , was , however, th e mode l eventually adopted by all British universities. Already in 187 8 University College had nearl y 300 women undergraduates, an d i n the 1890 s aroun d one-third o f its tota l studen t bod y o f 1,000 or so were women. At a tim e when studen t numbers at th e women's colleges , both i n Oxbridge an d in London, wer e minute , thi s mean t tha t Universit y Colleg e wa s fa r an d away th e mos t importan t institutio n i n th e countr y providin g highe r education fo r women. 9 It shoul d b e sai d tha t b y th e 1890 s al l th e universitie s an d youn g university college s i n Britai n wer e broadly agree d o n th e characte r an d contents of a university education and , to a somewhat lesser extent, on the importance o f origina l researc h i n th e lif e an d wor k o f a professiona l scholar. Th e fellow s of Oxford and Cambridg e college s on the whole took the view that thei r commitment did not extend beyond tutoria l teaching , and tha t researc h wa s a matter fo r professors who were not permitted t o teach undergraduates . Bu t i n th e main , universitie s share d a commo n pattern o f academi c subjects , disciplinar y organisation , degrees , an d examinations, althoug h ther e wer e obviousl y grea t difference s i n th e means o f deliverin g highe r education , principall y thos e betwee n th e residential collegiate and the non-residential unitary institutional forms, a spectrum i n whic h Londo n itsel f figure d a s a hybri d half-breed . Th e existence of this area of common ground, and its delineation, owe d a great deal t o the wa y in which Londo n ha d acte d a s pioneer an d pace-setter . That had bee n s o not onl y over th e admissio n o f women, not only in th e great restructurin g o f th e academi c ma p o f knowledge i n scienc e an d engineering, bu t als o in the extraordinary innovations within the Faculty of Arts i n th e 1830 s which , i n th e fac e o f scepticism an d derisio n fro m traditionalists elsewhere , stake d ou t Englis h literatur e an d foreig n languages an d literatures, for the first time anywhere in Britain, as proper subjects fo r stud y a t university . Al l this , b y th e 1890s , ha d becom e 9 Harte , Admission o f Women, p. 21 ; Negley Harte and John North, Th e World o f University College London, 1828-1978 (1978), p . 201. See also Janet Howarth and Mar k Curthoys, Th e Political Econom y o f Women' s Highe r Educatio n i n Lat e Nineteent h an d Earl y Twentieth-Century Britain, ' Historical Research, 60 (1987) , pp . 208-31 , whic h find s littl e space for University College London.

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incorporated int o the common perception of the idea of a university, along with the newer idea of honours, or single-subject, degrees in which Oxford and Cambridg e wer e making the running from th e 1880s . After th e 1890 s the scope for innovation on the grand scale , by London or by any other single university , wa s limited. Whe n th e University was reborn in 1900 as an institution combining, to a great extent, the functions of teachin g an d examining , it s equipmen t wit h a ful l quive r o f eigh t Faculties broke no new ground in general, although in terms of London's own histor y th e acceptanc e o f a Facult y o f Theology wa s a momentou s step i n healin g ol d controversie s an d i n signallin g tha t th e radica l institution had become part of the educational establishment. The earlier elevation of one of the eight, Music, to Faculty status in 187 7 had not been particularly nove l or controversial, althoug h the London degree, with its requirement fo r genera l cultura l educatio n an d no t simpl y technica l proficiency, was a good deal more demanding and rigorous than the easygoing an d perfunctor y degree s i n Musi c availabl e virtuall y on deman d from Oxfor d an d Cambridge . Beside s Theology th e other newcomers in 1900 wer e Engineerin g an d Economic s an d Politica l Science . Bot h subjects had lon g been taught in the colleges before achieving this degree of independent academi c identity , an d indee d i n mid-Victoria n Britai n political econom y wa s onl y kep t aliv e a s a universit y subjec t b y th e professors at King's and University Colleges. From its foundation in 1895 the Londo n Schoo l o f Economic s quickl y ros e t o dominat e th e socia l sciences i n London , an d t o nationa l an d internationa l renown . I t wa s L.S.E. students, under London's new 1900 structure, who became the first economics graduate s i n th e country , a fe w year s ahea d o f th e firs t graduates i n economics , an d commerce , fro m Cambridg e an d Birmingham, the only other universities with comparable resources in the subject. It is true that the Faculty structure of the University was not completed until Educatio n acquire d it s independent statu s in 1966 . This, however, was not so much a latter-day refinement in the organisation of knowledge into it s componen t branche s a s a recognitio n o f the importanc e o f the transmission o f knowledge , an d o f a nationa l driv e t o enhanc e th e professional statu s o f teachers. London' s concer n wit h teacher-trainin g and with providing diplomas or certificates of postgraduate qualifications in educatio n date d bac k t o th e 1870s , an d th e Londo n Da y Trainin g College, which evolved into the University' s Institute of Education, ha d been establishe d i n 1902 . The transitio n from certificate s to degrees was made i n response t o professional rather tha n intellectual arguments: the movement to make teaching into an all-graduate profession, and the boost given b y th e Robbin s Repor t i n 196 3 to the establishmen t of new B.Ed, degrees. Londo n move d quickl y to institute such degrees, an d t o invent the new Faculty which was needed to award them . With that partial exception, twentieth-century academic developments

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have taken place within a settled Faculty framework. That framework was sometimes foun d irksom e o r obstructiv e i n th e multi-subjec t Faculties , Arts an d Science , i n whic h Facult y Board s attempte d t o promulgat e general rule s applicable to all subjects within their bailiwicks, until they were abolishe d i n 1966 . Th e othe r Faculties , bein g substantiall y singlesubject o r single-disciplin e operations , wer e denie d suc h fruitfu l opportunities for constitutional conflict and struggles for academic power. In practice these institutional arrangements an d bureaucratic difficultie s made n o noticeabl e differenc e t o th e abilit y o f London t o generate ne w subjects an d remai n i n th e lea d i n intellectua l innovation . Thus , aeronautics was first launched as a subject of academic study in London, in th e 1900s , a s was biochemical engineerin g som e fifty years later , an d both of these were bred within the single-discpline Faculty of Engineering; but London' s pioneerin g rol e i n phonetic s i n th e 1920 s or linguistic s a generation late r wa s n o less notable, an d thes e were hatched withi n the multi-disciplinary Faculty of Arts. The decisive factor was the presence of outstanding an d imaginativ e scholars , pressin g o n th e frontier s o f knowledge and able to mark out new fields of inquiry, not the fine detail of the institutional arrangements. Where institutional arrangements did thrust London into a unique role in th e spreadin g o f higher education i n th e twentiet h century they were those deriving fro m it s origins as a purely examining body. Th e origina l Charter o f 183 6 establishe d th e genera l availablit y o f Universit y o f London degrees , subjec t t o th e requiremen t tha t candidate s ha d t o present a certificat e o f stud y a t a n approve d institutio n (th e infan t University of Durham bein g the first, highly embarrassed, beneficiar y of such approval) . I n 185 8 thi s requiremen t wa s dropped , an d Londo n degrees becam e universall y available , an d wer e take n b y student s i n Mauritius, Gibraltar , Canada , an d Australia , as well a s by thos e in th e colleges i n Liverpoo l an d Manchester , i n th e 1860s ; an d b y man y wh o prepared themselve s by individual study. After 190 0 this accessibility was preserved b y institutin g th e Externa l Degre e system , wit h syallabuse s similar t o bu t no t alway s precisel y th e sam e a s thos e o f th e Interna l degrees take n b y the college s o f the federal University . External degree s were muc h i n deman d b y bot h privat e individual s an d non-university institutions, an d provide d a route t o degree qualification s which had n o competitors until the 1960s . After th e Second Worl d War a refinement of the Externa l degre e syste m wa s devised , unde r whic h college s tha t entered int o 'special relationship' wit h London wer e able t o take part in framing thei r ow n syllabuses and conductin g thei r degre e examination s while the University of London retained responsibility for standards. This arrangement steere d man y colonia l universit y college s throug h thei r apprentice years , befor e becomin g independen t universities ; i n Khartoum, th e Wes t Indies , Ibadan , Ghana , Makerere , Harar e (Salisbury), Nairobi, and Dar-es-Salaam . Th e sam e specia l relationshi p

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was invoke d b y universit y college s a t home , whic h befor e 194 6 would simply hav e entere d thei r student s fo r Londo n Externa l degrees : th e future Universitie s of Southampton, Hull , Exeter , an d Leiceste r i n thi s way followe d th e pat h earlie r marke d ou t b y th e Victoria n civi c universities. The first English provincial university which did not start its life unde r th e shad e o f th e Universit y o f Londo n was , indeed , th e University College of North Staffordshire, founded in 1949, which became the Universit y of Keele in 1962. London's missio n t o hel p peopl e Englan d an d th e empir e wit h university institution s came t o a n en d i n th e 1960 s with th e declin e of empire an d th e ris e of a ne w breed o f new universities at home , startin g with Sussex , which were launched withou t any Londo n connections. At much th e sam e tim e th e er a tha t ha d starte d i n 1858 , durin g whic h London provide d th e sol e chance fo r individuals to get degree s without attending an y university , also cam e t o a n end , wit h th e creatio n o f the Council for National Academic Awards to validate degree courses outside the universit y sector , an d th e developmen t o f th e Ope n Universit y bringing distanc e learnin g int o th e home . Th e availabilit y o f thes e alternative route s t o degree s cause d Londo n t o thin k seriously , i n th e 1970s, o f dismantlin g it s Externa l syste m altogether . I n th e event , although th e system was run dow n for a while and overseas examination centres wer e closed , th e survivin g demand, especiall y fro m individual s who continu e t o prepare themselve s by private stud y or who prefer th e nature an d standin g o f Londo n degree s t o othe r model s o n offer , ha s proved s o substantial tha t Externa l degree s ar e stil l provided i n man y subjects an d Externa l student s stil l for m nearl y one-thir d o f th e tota l London studen t body on its widest definition. 10 In these several ways the University of London has been the mother, or perhaps th e midwife , o f universitie s throughou t th e world , an d ha s provided degree s o f high standin g for large number s of people who have studied independently . It s children , i t ma y be said, hav e inherite d th e academic an d scholarly standards and habits of their mother, but not her institutional characteristics: the federal Universit y has not bred a flock of federalists. Th e dutie s and responsibilitie s of midwifery ar e great, for life depends o n th e skil l wit h whic h the y ar e performed . Many Universit y teachers an d administrator s devote d a great dea l o f time and though t to the successfu l runnin g of these schemes , an d althoug h i t ma y no t hav e seemed that this use of their energies produced an y immediate and direct results i n th e advancemen t o f learning an d knowledge , it i s abundantly clear tha t i t di d mak e a majo r contributio n t o th e disseminatio n o f knowledge and th e spread o f higher education. It was, indeed, easily the largest contributio n mad e a t an y tim e before th e ne w universities of the late 1960s . 10

University o f London Calendar, 1989-90 (1989) , p. 263 .

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In th e sam e wa y th e scholars , fro m man y differen t disciplines , wh o have contribute d th e chapter s whic h follo w hav e bee n diverted , fo r a while, from thei r own particular researc h interests. In doing so it may well be tha t the y hav e no t bee n engage d i n advancin g th e frontier s o f knowledge. Bu t the y hav e mad e a significan t contributio n t o extending the body o f work telling us what universitie s are for , what academic s do , why th e worl d o f learning i s arranged a s it is, and ho w the Universit y of London ha s influenced thes e things. In th e course of its one hundred an d fifty years th e Universit y ha s ofte n bee n i n turmoil , rarely i n repose , it s institutional structure has usuall y seemed bizarre , bewilderin g to insider and outside r alike , an d i t ha s appeare d t o lurc h fro m crisi s t o crisis , punctuated b y Roya l Commission s an d enquirie s almos t withou t number. As it speeds toward s wha t som e regard a s the termina l crisis of the 1990s , i t i s wel l t o b e reminde d tha t this , lik e it s predecessors , i s essentially an institutional problem, no t a problem o f academic qualit y or achievement. The recor d o f intellectual achievement, scarcely more tha n sketched i n thi s volume , i s impressiv e b y worl d standards , an d i t i s a record o f what has been done within the much criticised framework o f the federal University , mayb e i n spit e o f it , mayb e becaus e o f it , mayb e because gifte d individual s hav e go t o n wit h doin g whateve r the y fel t capable o f doing. A goose which has laid such golden eggs is something to be treasured.

The University of London: An Outline Chronology

1826 Foundatio n o f the 'Universit y o f London' [Universit y College London] as a proprietory company 1828 'Universit y of London' opened, in Gower Street 1829 Foundatio n of King's College, London , with a charter 1831 King' s College, London opened, in the Strand 1836 Universit y o f Londo n establishe d b y charter , wit h room s i n Somerset House . Separate charter granted t o University Colleg e London University organised in Faculties of Arts, Laws, and Medicine 1849 Openin g of The Ladies ' College i n Bedfor d Square , th e futur e Bedford College for Women 1850 Universit y of London supplemental charter enabling institutions throughout Britis h Empir e t o be recognised fo r purpose of entering candidates for London degrees 1853 Universit y moved from Somerse t House to rooms in Marlborough House 1856 Universit y moved to rooms in Burlington House 1858 Universit y o f London' s thir d charter , establishin g Facult y o f Science, an d making London degrees open to all-comers without requiring institutional education 1867 Universit y of Londo n supplementa l charte r enablin g Certifi cates of Higher Proficiency to be granted t o women 1870 Universit y moved into its own purpose-built premises in Burlington Gardens 1877 Creatio n of Faculty of Music 1878 Universit y of London supplemental charter, enabling degrees to be granted to women 1880 Firs t four female graduates awarded their degrees 1882 Foundatio n of Westfield College 1886 Openin g of Royal Holloway College

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1888 Roya l Commissio n o n th e Universit y of London (th e Selborn e Commission) 1892-3 Roya l Commissio n o n th e Universit y of London (th e Cowpe r Commission) 1895 Foundatio n of the London School of Economics 1898 Universit y of London Act , establishing a 'teaching university ' of a federal character 1900 Universit y moved from Burlingto n Gardens to the Imperial Institute, Kensington . Creation o f Faculties o f Economics, Engineering, and Theolog y 1900 Th e 'teachin g university ' started, wit h Internal degree s fo r the constituent Schools, and Externa l degrees for those studying elsewhere. Th e origina l School s wer e King' s College , Universit y College London, Bedfor d College, Roya l Hollowa y College, th e Royal College of Science, the South Eastern Agricultural College at Wye , th e Centra l Technica l College , th e Londo n Schoo l of Economics, and the ten metropolitan medical schools 1902 Westfiel d College became a School of the University 1905 Th e Londo n Schoo l of Tropical Medicine became a School of the University 1907 Th e Eas t Londo n Colleg e (fro m 193 4 Quee n Mar y College ) became a School of the University 1907-8 Creatio n o f Imperia l Colleg e o f Scienc e an d Technology , b y amalgamation o f the Roya l Schoo l o f Mines, the Roya l College of Science, an d th e Central Technical College. Imperial Colleg e became a School of the University 1910 Th e Londo n Da y Trainin g Colleg e (fro m 193 2 the Institut e of Education) became a School of the University, within the Faculty of Arts (Pedagogy only) 1909-13 Roya l Commisio n o n th e Universit y o f London (th e Haldan e Commission) 1915 Schoo l of Slavonic Studies established in King's College. In 1932 it became the independent School of Slavonic and Eas t European Studies 1917 Schoo l o f Orienta l Studie s (late r th e Schoo l o f Orienta l an d African Studies ) established 1920 Birkbec k College became a School of the University 1921 Foundatio n of the Institute of Historical Researc h 1924-6 Departmenta l Committe e o n th e Universit y o f Londo n (th e Hilton Young Committee) 1925 Th e Schoo l of Pharmacy (founde d 1842 ) became a School of the

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University 1926 Universit y o f Londo n Act : commissioner s appointe d t o mak e new statutes, which created the Court, with control of the University's property, funds, investments, and finance s 1927 Bloomsbur y site acquired from the Duke of Bedford 1932 Courtaul d Institute of Art established 1936 Senat e Hous e buildin g partl y finished , centra l office s o f th e University moved from the Imperial Institute 1937 Institut e of Archaeology founded 1944 Warbur g Institut e joined the University Royal Veterinary College became a School of the University 1945 Th e Britis h Postgraduat e Medica l Federatio n becam e a School of the University 1947 Institut e of Advanced Legal Studies founded 1949 Institut e of Commonwealth Studies founded 1950 Institut e of Germanic Studies founded 1953 Institut e of Classical Studies founded 1963 Robbin s Repor t on Higher Education , included call for University of London to reform itself or have reform imposed upon it 1965 Institute s of United States Studies, and Latin American Studies, founded 1966 Committe e [o f the University ] o n Academic Organizatio n (th e Saunders Committee) ; proposal s enable d individua l college s to establish 'School-based' degree syllabuses Chelsea Polytechni c becam e Chelse a Colleg e an d a Schoo l of the University Faculty of Education created 1972 Committe e o n th e Governanc e o f the Universit y (th e Murra y Committee) 1978 Universit y of London Act : creation of a full-time Vice-Chancel lor and an enlarged Senate 1980 Flower s Report o n th e reorganisatio n of medical schools. Com mittee [external ] o n Academic Organizatio n (th e Swinnerton Dyer Committee) 1985 Bedfor d College merged with Royal Holloway College, as Royal Holloway and Bedford New College Chelsea Colleg e an d Quee n Elizabet h Colleg e merge d wit h King's College 1989 Westfiel d Colleg e merged wit h Queen Mar y College , as Quee n Mary and Westfield College

List of Contributors

Harold BILLETT . Emeritus Professor, University of London. Professor of Mechnical Engineering, University College London, 1965-80 . Acting Provost o f U.C.L., 1978-79 . Hon. Fellow , Royal Corp s o f Naval Con structors. Sir Herman n BONDI , K.C.B. , F.R.S . Maste r o f Churchil l College , Cambridge, sinc e 1983 . Professo r o f Mathematics , King' s College , London, 1954-83. His publications include Cosmology (1952); The Universe a t Large (1961) ; Relativity an d Commonsense (1964); Assumption and Myth in Physical Theory (1968); and (jointly), Magic Squares of Order Form (1982). Joseph Mordaun t CROOK , F.B.A . Professo r of Architectural History, Royal Hollowa y an d Bedfor d New College sinc e 1981 , and previousl y Lecturer, the n Reade r i n Architectura l History , Bedfor d College . Public Orator , Universit y o f Londo n sinc e 1988 . Hi s publication s include Th e Greek Revival (1968) ; The British Museum (1972) ; (jointly) , The History o f the King's Works, vol. VI, 1782-185 1 (1973), William Surges and the High Victorian Dream (1981) ; and Th e Dilemma of Style (1987) . The lat e Ver y Revd. Sydne y Hall EVANS . Dea n o f Salisbury, 1977-86 . Dean o f King' s College , London , 1956-77 , an d previousl y curate , chaplain, an d Warde n o f King' s Colleg e postgraduat e colleg e a t Warminster. Public Orator, University of London, 1972-74 . d. January 1988. Lord McGREGO R of Durris [Olive r Ros s McGregor] . Chairma n o f the Advertising Standard s Authorit y since 1980 . Professo r of Social Insti tutions, Bedfor d College , 1964-85 , an d previousl y Lecturer , the n Reader, a t Bedfor d College . Chairman , Roya l Commissio n o n th e Press, 1975-77 . Hi s publication s includ e Divorce i n England (1957) ; (jointly) Separated Spouses (1970); and Social History and Law Reform (1981).

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e University o f London, 1836-1986

Leslie Phili p L e QUESNE , C.B.E. , F.R.C.S . Medica l Administrator , Commonwealth Scholarshi p Commissio n sinc e 1984 . Professo r o f Surgery, Middlese x Hospital Medica l School , 1963-84 , an d previously at th e Middlese x Hospita l fro m 1947 . His publication s includ e Fluid Balance in Surgical Practice (1957). Gillian R . SUTHERLAND . Fello w o f Newnham College , Cambridge , ince 1966 . Her publication s include Elementary Education in the Nineteenth Century (1971) ; (ed. ) Studies in the Growth of Nineteenth-Century Government (1972), Matthew Arnold o n Education (1973) ; Policy Making i n Elementary Education, 1870-95 (1973); and Ability, Merit, and Measurement: Mental Testing an d English Education, 1880-1940 (1984). Sir William TAYLOR . Vice-Chancello r o f the Universit y of Hull sinc e 1985, an d previousl y Professo r o f Education , Bristo l University , 1966-73, Director o f the Institut e of Education, University of London, 1973-83, an d Principa l o f th e Universit y o f London , 1983-5 . Hi s publications includ e Th e Secondary Modern School (1963) ; Heading fo r Change (1969); Theory into Practice (1972); Research Perspectives i n Education (1973); Research an d Reform i n Teacher Education (1978) ; an d Universities under Scrutiny (1987) . F.M.L. THOMPSON , F.B.A . Directo r o f th e Institut e o f Historica l Research an d Professo r of History, Universit y of London, sinc e 1977, and previousl y Reade r i n Economi c History , Universit y Colleg e London, an d Professo r o f Moder n History , Bedfor d College . Hi s publications includ e English Landed Society i n th e Nineteenth Century (1963); Chartered Surveyors: Th e Growth of a Profession (1968) ; Hampstead: Building a Borough, 1650-1964 (1974); Th e Rise of Respectable Society (1988); and (ed. ) The Cambridge Social History o f Britain, 1750-1950 (3 vols. 1990). Brian L. TROWELL. Professor of Music, and Fellow of Wadham Colleg e Oxford, sinc e 1988 , an d previousl y Lecture r i n Music , Universit y of Birmingham, Head of B.B.C. Radio Opera, an d King Edward Professo r of Music, King' s College , London . Hi s publication s includ e Th e Early Renaissance: Pelican History o f Music, I I (1963) ; Four Motets b y John Plummer (1968); and (ed. ) Invitation to Medieval Music, II I (1976) , IV (1978) . William L . TWINING . Quai n Professo r o f Jurisprudence, Universit y College London , sinc e 1983 , an d previousl y Lecturer i n Privat e Law , Khartoum, Senio r Lecture r in Law , Dar-es-Salaam, Professo r of Jurisprudence, Queen's University , Belfast, an d Professo r of Law, Warwick University. Hi s publication s include Th e Karl Llewellyn Papers (1968) ; Karl Llewellyn an d the Realist Movement (1973) ; (ed.) , Facts i n Law (1983); Theories of Evidence (1985) ; and (ed. ) Legal Theory an d Common Law (1986) .

1 The Architectural Image J. Mordaun t Croo k Architecture amon g man y other thing s involves the formation of images: images o f structure, images of status, images of power. The architectura l image o f London Universit y - it s visible presence , it s corporate fac e reflects only too well its episodic history and the daunting complexity of its organisation. Metropolita n an d unitar y fro m 1828 ; nationa l an d proto federal fro m 1836 ; imperia l fro m 1850 ; comprehensiv e fro m 1858 ; coeducationial fro m 1878 ; federal from 1900 ; increasingly confederal from 1929, 197 8 and 198 3 - Londo n Universit y is an educational gian t which has ofte n give n th e impressio n o f living in furnished lodgings . Currentl y engrossing one-fifth o f the United Kingdom's entire university sector-we have, incredibly , nearl y 1,00 0 full Professor s - th e University of London boasts an architectural heritag e which is, to say the least, mixed. Like the British Empire, our buildings seem at first glance to have materialised b y accident; suc h i s their diversity , th e apparen t chao s o f the planning . I n fact, plannin g ther e ha s been, in plenty: too many plans, an d al l of them unfinished. A federa l univerist y wil l hav e a s man y image s a s i t ha s constituen t elements. Pluralit y o f status, pluralit y o f place, pluralit y function : th e result i s a multiplicit y o f images . Mor e tha n fort y separat e schools , colleges or institutes - man y of them subdivide d int o a host of subsidiary Footnotes: abbreviations A.: The Architect A.A.Jnl.:: Architectural Association Journal A.R.: Architectural Review B.: The Builder B.A.: British Architect B.N.: Building News C.E.A.S.: Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal C.L.: Country Life R.1.B.A.D.: R.I.B.A . Drawings Collection R.1.B.A.JnL: R.I.B.A. Journal

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University of London, 1836-1986

units: fro m Kensingto n (Imperia l College ) t o Stepne y (Quee n Mar y College); fro m Cavendis h Squar e (Heythro p College) 1 t o Marylebon e (Royal Academ y o f Music); 2 fro m Regent' s Par k (Londo n Busines s School)3 t o Smithfiel d (Bart' s Hospital); 4 fro m Camde n Tow n (Roya l Veterinary College) 5 t o Campden Hil l (Quee n Elizabet h College ; now King's College); 6 fro m Chelse a (Chelse a College , no w als o par t o f King's); 7 t o Hampstea d (Westfiel d College ; no w merge d wit h Quee n Mary College); 8 from Ne w Cross (Goldsmiths ' College)9 to Bloomsbury (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine); 10 from Bloomsbury 1 Founde d a s a Jesuit college , Louvain , 1614 ; moved t o Englan d afte r th e Frenc h Revolution; established a t Heythrop, Oxon., 1926 ; transferred to Cavendish Square, as a school of London University , 1970. 2 Designe d b y Sir Ernest George, 1910-11 . See F. Corder, A History o f th e Royal Academy of Music (1922) . 3 Founde d 1965 ; accommodated sinc e 197 0 in Sussex Terrace, designed by John Nash as part of his Regent's Par k development, 1810-23 . 4 Si r N. Moore , Th e History o f St Bartholomew's Hospital, 2 vols. (1910). V.C. Medvi e and J.L. Thornton , eds. , Th e Royal Hospital o f St Bartholomew, 1123-1973(1974). 5 Origina l 179 2 building rebuilt 1936-7. Full status as a school of the university 1949, after which its Hertfordshire Fiel d Station was developed accordin g to plans by Devereux and Davis , A.J., cxxvi i (1958), 9. See Th e Royal Veterinary College and Hospital (1937) . 6 Th e 'Ladies Dept.' of K.C.L., 188 5 onwards, began teaching in Observatory Avenue, Kensington an d i n Kensington Square ; move d to Campden Hil l 191 5 (H. Perc y Adams and C . Holden : B. , ex , 1916 , 5 0 e t seq.: ills, an d plans) , becomin g King' s Colleg e o f Household an d Socia l Service . Independen t 1928 ; collegiate status a s Queen Elizabeth College, 1953 . Afte r bombin g (1944), it was rebuilt b y Adams, Holde n and Pearso n (B., clxxxvi, 1954 , 119-24) . Re-integrated with King's College, 1985. See N. Marsh, Th e History of Queen Elizabeth College (1986). 7 Founde d 189 1 in Manresa Road , a s South Western Polytechnic (J.M. Brydon , 18916; extended 191 2 by F.G . Knight) ; from 192 2 to 195 6 Chelsea Polytechnic ; from 195 7 to 1963 Chelsea College of Advanced Technology; from 196 0 Chelsea College, London; from 1966 a full colleg e of London University ; from 198 5 part of King's College. Se e H. Silve r and S.J . Teague , Chelsea College : a History (1977) . I n 197 5 new hall s o f residence were begun in Wandsworth . 8 Founde d 188 2 at 'Westfield ' (2-3 Maresfield Terrace; no w 4-6 Maresfield Gardens), the Colleg e purchase d Kidderpor e Hal l (T . Howard , 1840-2 ) i n 1890 . Additiona l buildings: Maynard , Dinin g Hal l an d Skee l Librar y (R.F . Macdonal d 1891 ; 1904-5) ; Chapman Win g and Orchard Building (Verne r Rees, 1927 ; 1935); Chapel (P.R . Morle y Horder, 1928) ; Refectory an d Scienc e Buildin g (1961 ; 1962) . Se e J. Sondheimer , Castle Adamant in Hampstead ( 1983). I n 198 9 Westfield College merged with Queen Mary College. 9 Designe d a s th e Roya l Nava l Schoo l b y Joh n Shaw , 1843-5 ; acquire d b y th e Goldsmiths' Compan y in 189 0 and presente d t o London University in 1905 ; extended by Sir Reginald Blomfield , 1907- 8 (B., xc v (ii) , 1908, 188 : ill.) and b y Enthoven and Mock , 1965 (B., ccx , 1966 , 332-7) . Partly destroye d 194 0 and 1944 . Se e D. Dymond , ed. , The Forge: the History of Goldsmith's College, 1905-55(1955). 10 Designe d b y Morle y Horde r an d Verne r Rees , 1926-9 : 'One o f the mos t successfu l designs i n Portlan d Ston e sinc e [th e day s of ] Vanbrugh an d Hawksmoor' , A.S . Gray , Edwardian Architecture (1985) , 216 . Funded b y the Rockefelle r Foundation , initiall y to th e tune of £2,000,000. Previousl y the Londo n Schoo l of Tropical Medicine , founded 189 9 at Albert Dock Hospital .

The Architectural Image 3 again (Universit y College Hospital) 11 t o the City (Guy's Hospital);12 and from Pari s (Britis h Institute)13 to Egham (Roya l Holloway College; now Royal Holloway and Bedford New College - Bedfor d having moved fro m Regent's Park) . We eve n hav e outposts a s far apart a s Ashford in Ken t (Wye College)14 and Milport on the Clyde (Marine Biological Station, on the Isle of Cumbrae).15 The stor y of how this architectural kaleidoscope came into being is the story of the university itself. And that story, alas - a s one of its historians has writte n — is ' a tangle d skei n of domination, ambition , intrigue , an d disloyalty intermingle d wit h som e silve r an d gol d threads'. 16 The stor y even has its own prehistory. As earl y a s th e reig n o f Henry VIII , Si r Nichola s Baco n planne d a university in London, funde d ou t of the proceeds of the Dissolution of the Monasteries.17 Durin g th e Comonwealth , ' A Tru e Love r o f London ' suggested turnin g S t Paul's Cathedra l int o a metropolita n university. 18 Lawyers hav e traine d i n th e capita l sinc e th e Middl e Ages . An d som e form o f medical educatio n existe d in London - a s we all know - 'whe n Oxford was an obscure Saxon village and Cambridge [was ] noted only for eels'.19 Gresha m Colleg e - th e spiritual ancesto r o f London University , founded by Sir Thomas Gresham - survive d from 1596 to 1768. 20 But the university a s w e kno w i t onl y assume d architectura l for m wit h th e building of University College. In his famous letter to Lord Brougham of 1825, Thomas Campbel l had called fo r th e foundatio n o f ' a grea t Londo n University' , place d 'centrically' i n th e metropolis . A s t o th e buildings , 'al l tha t woul d b e necessary', he explained, 'would be to have some porticoes, and large halls independent of the lecture-rooms, to which [the students] might resort for relaxation.'21 I n othe r word s th e imag e o f this, England' s firs t moder n university, wa s t o b e Greek , o r a t leas t Graeco-Roman : ' a palac e fo r genius', a s one of the founders put it, 'where future Ciceros shoul d recor d the influenc e o f that excitemen t which Tully declare s h e fel t a t Athens, when h e contemplated th e porticoes where Socrates sat , an d th e laurel11 Designed by Alfred Waterhouse, 1898-1906, B.N., lxx (1896), 671: ill. The Baroque Medical Schoo l o n th e corne r o f Gower Stree t an d Huntl y Stree t date s fro m 1907 . Se e W.R. Merrington, U.C. Hospital and its Medical School (1976). 12 H.C . Cameron , Mr Guy's Hospital, 1726-1948(1954) . 13 L'Institut Britannique de I'Universite d e Paris (1952). 14 J.D . Sykes , A Short Historical Guide to Wye College (1984). 15 Establishe d 1970 , in association wit h th e University o f Glasgow. 16 T.L. Humberstone, University Reform in London (1926), 166. 17 Campbell, Lives of the Lord Chancellors, ii (1845), 89. 18 Si r E. Deller, 'Londo n University Centenary', Th e Listener (\ July 1936) . 19 S . Gordon Wilson, Th e University o f London and its Colleges (1923) , 108 . 20 Quarterly Rev., clxiv (1887), 34. 21 Th e Times ( 9 Feb. 1825) .

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groves wher e Plat o disputed.' 22 Appropriately , a t th e foundation-stone ceremony in 1827 , a Latin oration wa s delivered by the architect himself: William Wilkins. 23 Wilkins wa s a n archaeologis t turne d architect , a schola r wit h a theatrical background , a Cambridg e do n wit h good connection s an d a weakness for polemic. Durin g th e 1820s , on a wave of enthusiasm fo r all things Greek , h e becam e on e o f the best-know n architect s i n England , Professor a t th e Roya l Academ y an d a leadin g ligh t i n th e Societ y o f Dilettanti. Bu t whe n hi s bran d o f archaeolog y wa s eclipse d b y th e Renaissance Reviva l of the 1840s -when Regency gave way to Victorianhis reputation collapsed . Still, wit h a Corinthia n portic o n o les s tha n te n column s wide , on e major an d tw o minor domes, tw o sepulchral pylons , porticoed wing s and a Dori c entranc e screen , Wilkins' s scheme 24 - an d hi s sequenc e o f modifications afte r th e initia l competitio n o f 1826 25 - wa s indee d a testimony t o th e cultura l hegemon y o f th e ancien t world , Gree k an d Roman.26 I t wa s als o a n indicatio n o f the ne w university' s rejectio n of Gothic a s a symbo l of all that wa s medieval , ecclesiastical , obscurantis t and restrictive. 27 Cockerell' s defeate d desig n migh t hav e bee n mor e original,28 bu t Wilkins' s schem e struc k th e righ t archaeologica l note . Greek an d Roman : th e prototyp e fo r the column s o f the centra l portic o 22

R.W . Liscombe, William Wilkins, 1778-1839 (1980), 157. James Elme s calle d hi m 'perhap s th e bes t educated classi c that ha s honoure d th e profession . . . since Sir Christopher Wren', C.E.A.J., i (1838), 248. 24 Wilkins' s original scheme: ill. Liscombe, op. cit., pi. 84, exhib. R.A. 182 7 (nos. 96970) an d 182 8 (no. 1016) . See also Th e Age of Neo-Classicism (1972) , no. 1387 ; Britton an d Pugin, Public Buildings of London, ed. Leeds (1838), 78-88. Wilkins later produced a modified design, ill. Leeds, opp. p. 77 and J. Summerson, Architecture in Britain, pi. 410. See also [Sir G. Gregory and A . Stratton], 'U.C.L.' , C.L., Ixi (1927) , 973: ills. 25 Wilkin s defeated Gandy, Atkinson , Davies, Wyatville and Cockerell - al l of whom submitted classical schemes. 26 Charle s KelsalP s Phantasm o f a University (1814 ) ha d suggeste d jus t suc h a combination of Greek and Roma n elements: 'the artist who takes the spirit of the Grecian taste as his groundwork, at the same time engrafting with judgement the best parts of the Italian style on his designs wil l bid fair to attain to perfection in his art'. Others were less eclectic. One anonymou s writer addressed th e College Council as follows: 'Pra y consider whether your University may no t dof f its three odious bonnetts for the sake of beauty as well a s economy . Unless you buil d a pantheo n i n th e air , a dome or cupol a i s horrible' [quoted, C.L., Ixi (1927) , 974]. 27 Ver y fe w London Universit y buildings were t o b e Gothic : exception s being T.L. Donaldson's Universit y Hall, Gordo n Squar e (1849 ; now Dr Williams' s Library); J.T . Emmett's New College, Finchley Road (1850 , dem.; see J. Summerson , in A. andB.N. [20 Sept. 1935] , 338-9) ; an d Raphae l Brandon' s Universit y Church o f Chris t th e King , Gordon Square (built 185 3 onwards, for the Catholic Apostolic Church; see [J. Betjeman], The University Church of Christ the King, 1965). 28 D . Watkin , C.R. Cockerell (1974) . 111. , N. Hart e and J. North , The World o f University College London, 1828-1978(1978), 26-7. 23

1. Willia m Wilkins, The Londo n University: unfinished schem e (1827). (Print: Sanders of Oxford)

2. T . Roger Smith, University College: design for the completion of the Gower Street entrance (1895). (Building News, Ixviii , 1895, 48-49 )

3. (Above) Sir William Chambers and Sir Robert Smirke, King's College, Somerset House river frontage (1829-35). (Photo: National Monuments Record) 5. (Right) Charle s Holden , Th e Senat e Hous e (1933-38) . (Photo: National Monuments Record)

4. Si r James Penethorne, Universit y Offices, Grea t Burlington Street (1867-70) . Now the Museum of Mankind. Headquarters o f London University, 1870-1900 . (Photo: National Monuments Record)

6. (Top) C.C.T . Dol l (?) , desig n fo r a University of London o n th e presen t Senate House site (1912). (Estates Gazette, 9 November 1912) 7. (Above) Sir Albert Richardson, scheme for extending Somerset House as a new University of London (1914) . (The Builder, cvi , 1914, 13 ) 8. (Top right) Si r Alber t Richardson , projecte d schem e fo r Universit y o f London, Bloomsbur y (1926). (Vincula, ii, 1926, 12) 9. (Bottom right) Si r Edwi n Lutyens , projec t fo r a Universit y o f London , Bloomsbury (1914). (R.I.B.A. Drawings Collection)

10. T.E. Colcutt , Th e Imperia l Institute , Sout h Kensingto n (1887-93 ; de molished, except for the tower). Headquarters o f London University , 1900-36 . (Photo: National Monuments Record)

11. W.H. Crossland , The Royal Holloway College, Egham, Surrey (1879-87) . Now Royal Holloway and Bedford New College. (Photo: Moreton Moore)

12. Capt. G.S.C . Swinto n (1859 1937). Lyo n Kin g o f Arms : Chair man o f the L.C.C . (Photo: Scottish National Portrait Gallery)

13. Charles Holde n (1875-1960) , Architect o f th e Senat e House . (Photo: National Portrait Gallery)

14. Sir Ernest Graham-Little (1868 1950). M.P . for London University , 1924-50. (Photo: National Portrait Gallery)

15. Sir Willia m Beveridge , late r Lord Beveridg e (1879-1963) . Vice Chancellor, 1926-28. (Photo: National Portrait Gallery)

The Architectural Image 5 was the Temple o f Jupiter Olympiu s a t Athens ; for the lateral porticoe s the Monument of Thrasyllus. An d in one later scheme the architect added to th e wing s semi-circula r Corinthian porticoe s base d o n the Templ e of Vesta at Tivoli . Several o f thes e feature s remaine d pipe-dreams . Indee d th e earl y history o f U.C.L . i s a n essa y i n architectura l hypotheses : Wilkins' s quadrangle remaine d unfinishe d fo r one an d a hal f centuries. A whole string of architects - a veritable school of Gower Street Neo-Classicists contributed to the College's later architectural history , built and unbuilt. First Professo r T.L. Donaldso n (interio r staircase, Flaxman Galler y and Library, 1849-51); 29 the n Professo r T. Hayte r Lewi s [an d J. Tavernor Parry] (Nort h win g 1870-1 , 1878-81 ; South win g 1866-9 , 1873 , 1876); 30 then Professo r T . Roge r Smit h (Gowe r Stree t front , 1893-5); 31 the n Professor F.M . Simpso n (Gowe r Street; Gowe r Place , 1912-15 , 1923); 32 and finall y Si r Hug h Casso n (entrance , 198J-6). 33 Wha t bette r wa y t o celebrate th e University' s sesquicentenar y tha n t o complet e th e grea t portal o f its first constitutent college? University College had been a Whig attempt to break the stranglehold of Anglicanism on highe r education . King's Colleg e represented a Tory counter-attack: a reassertio n o f th e educationa l value s o f th e Establishment. But where? Hints were thrown out that a government site, even a roya l property , migh t b e suitable . The Sout h Bank ? St James's Park? Buckingha m Palace ? On e schem e survive s suggestin g tha t th e College might have found a home in Regent's Park. That was ruled out by local hostility : residents protested i n Th e Times that on e zoo was enough. 'Perfectly right' , noted th e Editor , 'a College in the park would be much worse tha n [a ] menageri e o f wil d beasts.' 34 Instea d th e Governmen t supplied an empty site on the edge of Somerset House, plus an architect to fill it: Sir Robert Smirke . At that stage Sir William Chambers's Somerset House (177 6 onwards) was still unfinished, an d Smirk e had bee n toying with designs for its completion fo r some years. Like Wilkins, Smirke was a Greek Revivalist . Unlike Wilkins, he was a Government architect, and a protege of many Tory patrons, includin g Sir Robert Peel. The site of King's Colleg e - a strip of land betwee n the Strand and the 29

Survey o f London xxi (1949) , pis. 35, 37 . B., xl (1881), 81; Earl of Kimberley, The New North Wing, U.C.L. (1881), ill. Executive architects: Messrs Perry and Reade. 31 B.N., lxviii( 1895), 48-9: ill. ; exhib. R.A. 1894 , no. 1705 . 111., Harte and North, op. cit., 128. 32 B.N., cv (1913), 796-7: ill. and plan; B. cvi (1914), 49-52: ills, and plans; A. xciii (1915) 48 , ill. and plan ; Architects and Builders Jnt. 1. 7 (1914); ill. and plan . Se e alsoj. Elliot Smith, University o f London, University College: new buildings for . . . Anatomy and. . . Physiology (1923). 33 Landscape Design (Ma y 1981) , 22-3. 34 Th e Times (2 4 Dec. 1828) ; drawings: R.I.B.A.D . 30

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Thames, runnin g paralle l t o Somerse t Hous e - wa s provided b y the Treasury a t a peppercorn rent , in perpetuity, on one condition: the new building had to be finished inside ten years. In particular the river front continuing Somerset Hous e eastward s - ha d to be completed, accordin g to Si r Willia m Chambers' s lat e eighteenth-centur y designs, withi n five years.35 In other words, the Government struck a bargain: in return for a central site, the infant colleg e was to devote much of its private capital to the completion of a public monument. Such enforced expenditure left its mark. The rive r front was grand; bu t the Colleg e buildin g itself suffered fro m grindin g economy. 36 I t wa s no t until th e 1870 s that th e chape l receive d its Byzantine decorations a t th e hands o f Sir Gilbert Scott 37 - a n exoti c interior , thoug h perhap s les s enticing than the unexecuted Gothic design of 1859 by William Burges. 38 The remainde r o f th e buildin g too k aestheti c abstinenc e t o extremes . Pugin foun d a n eas y targe t i n th e entranc e gatewa y t o th e Strand , comparing i t ignominiously with Tom Towe r at Oxford. 39 'Thi s homely gateway', snorte d anothe r criti c 'migh t hav e bee n mistake n fo r on e leading t o some mews , or t o a porter-brewery'. 40 Within a decade o f its completion Smirke' s Neo-Classicism had com e to seem not onl y meagre but hopelessl y old-fashioned. I t i s 'such a n arran t architectura l nullity', sneered W.H . Leed s i n 1841 , 'that it s insignificanc e . . . shields it fro m criticism, no-on e [considers ] i t wort h whil e . . . eve n t o mentio n s o miserable a piece o f design.'41 B y that dat e th e Gree k Revival had bee n quite eclipse d b y the new enthusiasm for revived Renaissance - a style 35

Wearin g hi s Offic e o f Works hat , Smirk e ha d i n fac t begu n plan s fo r completin g Chambers's design as early as 1825 (P.R.O. works 1/13, 383: 21 June 1825) . For demands to eliminate the eyesore of this incomplete facade , se e Gent's Mag (1823), ii, 19 4 and J.W . Croker, Letter to the Earl of Liverpool proposing t o finish the East Wing of Somerset House for National Galleries (1825) . See also J.W. Hales , Th e Site of King's College from 1552 (1881). Smirke's estimate i n Ma y 182 9 wa s £140,000 , plu s £10,000 fo r furniture . Th e Colleg e ha d onl y £126,000 in hand . B y the formal opening i n 1831 , £85,889 had bee n spent ; bu t th e river front ha d not yet been begun, much internal work remained unfinishe d an d College assets totalled onl y £113,598 . To complet e th e rive r fron t an d Principal' s hous e i n accordance with Treasur y deman d b y June 1834 , th e Colleg e possesse d onl y £6,000 o f the £16,50 0 originally earmarked b y Smirke for that portion of the work. On 2 6 April 183 3 operations were suspended afte r £6,33 9 ha d bee n spen t o n finishing only half the Thames frontage. Frenzied effort s were made to obtain funds; work was restarted i n June, and finished - only a few months behin d schedule - i n April 1835 , at the low cost of only £7,100 (Gent's Mag. 1829, i, 451; 1833, i, 450; 1835 , ii, 644; F.J.C. Hearnshaw, Centenary History of K.C.L. (1929) 62,78, 118). 36 Fo r plans and details, seeR. Needhamand A. Webster, Somerset House (1905), 271-2. 37 Hearnshaw , History o f K.C.L., 159 , 226-8. 38 J . Mordaun t Crook , William Burges and the High Victorian Dream (1981), 40; G. Huielin, King's College, London, The Chapel (1979). 39 A.W . Pugin, Contrasts (1836) , ill. 40 Library of th e Fine Arts (1831), ii, 276; Athenaeum (1831) 649: ill. 41 C.£.4./.,vi(1843 ) 193 .

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known, in diluted version, as Italianate. S o when, a quarter of a century later, London Universit y strove to express its expanding corporat e role in architectural form, th e image chosen was neither Greek, nor Roman, no r even Neo-Classic. It was to be unmistakably Renaissance. The Universit y of London had been set up in 1836 as an examining and degree-giving body : a n umbrell a organisatio n designe d t o disguis e th e rivalry between U.C.L. an d K.C.L. It had no premises of its own. Indeed until 190 1 it retained th e status of what today woul d be called a quango . As regards acccommodation, it remained a government lodge r until 1936. Its firs t headquarter s wa s a se t of rooms i n Somerse t Hous e previousl y occupied by the Royal Academy.42 Driven out by the Registrar General in 1853, i t asked the Treasury fo r a home of its own. There was talk of a site in South Kensington: a choice that might have changed the whole focus of the University' s architectura l history. 43 But in the end th e Governmen t offered a base in Bloomsbury: a house in Byng Place - nex t to the present University Church - buil t by Cubitt as a theological college in 1832. This the Universit y turned dow n flat: the situation was 'so inconvenient and remote'.44 Instea d i t move d int o a 'miserabl e garret ' i n Marlboroug h House, ther e to remain for three years, 1853-6 , befor e transferrin g to the east wing in the forecourt of old Burlington House. Here extra rooms ha d regularly t o b e borrowe d fo r examinations. Betwee n 186 7 and 187 0 th e University was even reduced to operating from a n address mor e suitable to a gentleman's tailor : 17 , Savile Row.45 Such frequent changes of address, complaine d th e Senate in 1859, gav e the University 'a temporary and provisional character', and lowered it 'in the Estimatio n o f the Candidates , th e Graduate s an d th e Public' . T o many people , Grot e explained , th e 'ver y existence ' o f the Universit y 'is unknown'. 46 From 186 7 the University of London had its own Member of Parliament, just lik e Oxford and Cambridge . Bu t it did not have its own headquarters unti l 1870 - an d even then it was leasehold, not freehold. The architect chosen - by Government - for London University' s first central focus was the future Sir James Pennethorne, heir to the practice of John Nash, and architect to the Office of Works.47 At that date he was best known fo r hi s Palladia n extensio n t o Somerse t Hous e (1856) . Hi s firs t 42 Par t o f the Nort h rang e of Chambers's building , vacate d whe n th e R.A . move d t o Trafalgar Squar e in 1837 . 43 Th e Universit y demande d 'a n appropriat e Buildin g i n th e metropolis , specially , exclusively, an d permanentl y appropriate d t o it s ow n use' , Si r Dougla s Logan , London University: a n Introduction (1972) , 54 . Si r Henr y Col e an d Redgrav e suggeste d Sout h Kensington, V . and A . Guard Book 2510 (20 Feb. 1854) . Ex inf. Dr G . Tyacke . 44 SeeN . Harte, University o f London, 1836-1936(1986), 102-3 . 45 Ibid., 118 .. 46 Ibid., 116. 47 Fo r wha t follows , se e Survey o f London xxxii (1963), 435 et seq.; G. Tyacke , 'Si r James Pennethorne' (D.Phil. , Oxon., 1987) .

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design fo r Universit y Office s - approve d i n 186 6 b y W.F . Cowper , Russell's Liberal Firs t Commissione r of Works - i s now lost. It seems to have been Neo-Classical. 48 But within a few months Russell and Cowpe r were replaced b y Disraeli and Lord John Manners - and their preferences were decidel y Gothic . Pennethorn e tactfull y submitte d a secon d desig n (which survive s onl y i n a faded photograph ) i n eclectic, Franco-Italia n Gothic.49 'Thes e days' , note d th e Builder, 'styl e i s mad e t o depen d o n political ascendancy'. 50 Th e Universit y Registrar , D r W.B . Carpenter , seems t o hav e bee n willin g to to e th e line . But th e Senat e refuse d t o b e intimidated. Ornamen t i n architecture , i t protested , 'shoul d b e subservient t o structural expression'. 51 And again, 'The Modern styl e of architecture [b y whic h the y mean t Renaissance ] woul d b e preferabl e either to the Medieval or to the Italian Gothic'.52 Such hostility to Gothic was hardly unexpected o n the Buildings sub-committee: both Professors of Architecture at U.C.L . an d K.C.L . were dyed-in-the-wool classicists. And neithe r had bee n invited t o act as university architect. Pennethorn e was instructe d t o scra p Ruski n an d g o bac k t o Palladio. 53 'Takin g th e front o f Burlington House a s a foundation',54 as stipulated by the Senate, he produced a third design . This time - apar t from a few suggestions by the onl y architect-M.P. , Si r Willia m Tite 55 - ther e wa s genera l acceptance, afte r a n initial squabble about th e sculpture. England's firs t moder n universit y ha d fou r faculties : Arts , Law , Science an d Medicine . A s figurativ e symbol s th e Senat e chos e Milton , Bentham, Newto n an d Harvey . N o objection coul d b e made t o Harve y and Newton . Bu t wha t abou t Bentha m an d Milton ? Surely, suggeste d Lord John Manners, Justinian wa s wiser than Bentham? 'No man can be selected', replied th e Senate, 's o suitable as ... Bentha m t o represent th e Faculty of Law in the University of London'. Well, might not Milton give way t o Shakespeare? The Senat e remaine d obdurate : the bard, thoug h immortal, was insufficiently academic ; he was relegated to a place inside, on th e staircase . An d controvers y di d no t en d there . Hig h u p o n th e central parapet appear representatives of'ancient culture': Galen, Cicero, Aristotle, Plato , Archimede s an d Justinian - Justinia n replacin g th e Senate's rathe r obscure first choice of Tribonian. Th e East side is adorned with 'savants ' o r 'illustriou s foreigners' : Galileo , Goethe , Laplace , 48 'Plai n classic' , wit h a centra l Corinthia n portic o P.R.O . Work s 33/1745 ; U.L . Archives, Senate Minutes (2 0 July 1870) , 91. Ex. inf. Dr G. Tyacke . 49 Drawings : R.I.B.A.D.'Unsatisfactory , weak in some parts, heavy in others, elegan t in none', B.N. ( 7 June 1867) , 397. 50 £.,xxiv ( 1866), 664 . 51 Quoted by A.H. Layard, Hansard, clxxxvi (1867), 1234-5. 52 University o f London Minutes o f Committees (1867-80) , 225 : U.L . Archives , Bo x 29 , 'Accommodation, New Buildings, Burlington Gardens' . 53 U.L . Archives , Senate Minutes, 27 March 1867 , 27. 54 Ibid., 20 July 1870 , 93. 55 Hansard, clxxxviii (1867), 1263-4 .

The Architectural Image 9 Leibnitz, Cuvie r an d Linaeus ; th e Wes t sid e wit h 'Englis h worthies' : Hunter, Hume , Ada m Smith , Locke , Baco n an d Dav y (Dav y replacin g Dalton).56 Boldly modulate d in composition - designe d t o take ful l advantag e of oblique viewing in a narrow street ; polychrome in materials: grey, white and pink; logically an d lucidly planned; richly decorated inside and out Pennethorne's 'Senat e House ' (no w th e Museu m o f Mankind ) wa s a triumph of eclectic classicism. It s languag e is Renaissance, but thes e are the form s o f th e Italia n cinquecent o see n throug h th e eye s o f lat e eighteenth-century Franc e an d earl y nineteenth-centur y Germany. Th e details may be Baroque, bu t th e composition i s Neo-Classical. By 1870, of course - th e date of its completion - thi s sort of thing was out of date by a generation or more. Even so, it was well received.57 Its opening, as Queen Victoria pu t it , marked ' a new era in the history of the University'. 58 The Times agree d tha t Londo n Universit y ha d a t las t arrived. 59 Alas , th e domicile o f a board of examiners - howeve r augus t - hardl y seeme d quit e the righ t headquarter s fo r the Universit y in its next metamorphosis as a mighty teachin g conglomerate . By the 1880 s it was clear that the University of London did not belon g specifically t o London , no r wa s i t reall y a university . It wa s n o longe r metropolitan. I t wa s imperial . Bomba y (founde d 1857 ) an d Sydne y (founded 1850 ) wer e a s muc h it s responsibilit y as U.C.L . an d K.C.L . 'The colleges teach , the University examines - examine s . . . everybody in everything, withou t regard t o age, sex , religion , colour , nationality. ' I n fact, noted th e Edinburgh Review in 1886, 'the sun never sets over the British Empire or the papers of London University'. 60 Alas, it examined but it did 56

Joseph Durha m carve d th e Faculties ; th e sculptor s o f 'ancient culture ' wer e J.S . Westmacott an d W.F . Woodington ; the 'savants ' wer e by Patric k McDowell and E.W . Wyon; th e 'English worthies ' b y William Theed , Jnr. an d Matthe w Noble . Se e British Almanac and Companion (1870) , 132 : ill. See also E. Walford, Old and New London iv (1890) , 304-5; B., xxv (1867), 854-5: ill. and plan . 57 'Th e detail s ar e severel y classical, an d th e for m sufficientl y monumenta l for th e institution [and ] purpose s . . . [Moreover] ther e is nothing about th e building which can be calle d a sha m . . . The tw o great hall s in th e wing s [for lectures and examinations ] which ar e appropriatedl y lighte d fro m th e uppe r storeys , enabled [th e architect] t o get repose an d dignit y from a n unpierce d basement, and th e requisite support to the centre containing th e council room an d othe r stat e apartments . .. All this i s expressed i n the exterior as truthfully a s in any medieval building, and wit h an elegance that satisfies th e most refined taste . The portico is perhaps the least successful part of the design, but its use is obvious, and ther e is nothing about i t which seriously detracts from th e beaut y of the design.'J. Fergusson, History o f the Modern Styles o f Architecture, 2nd ed . (1873) , 347. 58 I.L.N., lvi( 1870), 533-4: ill. 59 Th e Times ( 2 April p. 12 ; 9 May p . 6; 1 0 May p . 12 ; 12 May p . 9). 60 Edin. Rev., clxiv (1886), 245-6. It 'crie s urbi etorbi, "come and b e tested" . .. its crest should be a measuring rod and a mark of interrogation'. Prof. Hales, quoted in P.P. (1887) , xxxix, 393. Henc e the establishment in 188 4 of an Associatio n for Promoting a Teaching University for London.

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not teach - or rather the teaching was beyond its control. Alone among the capital citie s of Europe - except , that is, for Constantinople - Londo n had no prope r universit y of its own . 'Th e Universit y o f London', Matthe w Arnold concluded , 'shoul d b e recas t . . . th e strangel y devise d an d anomalous organisations o f King's College and University College should be .. . co-ordered a s th e Frenc h say , wit h th e Universit y o f London.' 61 Easier said than done.62 By the 1880s U.C.L. and K.C.L. could only agree on on e thing : the y disapprove d o f th e Universit y o f London . S o the y decided t o declare U.D.I . - wit h o r without th e medical school s - by drawing a n effectiv e lin e betwee n interna l an d externa l students , thu s escaping th e mo b o f seventy or so affiliated centre s of teaching scattere d all ove r th e world . T o d o thi s the y propose d t o set up a ne w university altogether. Thi s institution was to be known first as Albert Univeristy, 63 then a s Gresha m University, 64 the n a s Westminste r University. 65 Al l three, as Lord Playfai r put it, were to leave 'the London Universit y out in the cold'. 66 Now neithe r Alber t University , no r Gresha m University , no r Westminster Universit y eve r existe d i n eve n hypothetica l architectura l form. 'Colleges' , i t wa s solemnl y observed , 'nee d no t necessaril y impl y buildings'1.67 These were the hypotheses of administrators. And the complexities o f Schleswig-Holstein wer e as nothin g to the complexit y of the 'Londo n Universit y Question' . Th e tension s betwee n U.C.L . an d K.C.L., betwee n Interna l an d Externa l systems , betwee n Senat e an d Convocation, betwee n centra l college s an d periphera l institutions , between metropolita n an d cosmopolita n functions , betwee n th e coordinating power of the University and the disintegrative impulses of its constitutent parts - al l these resisted resolution throughout the 1880s and 1890s, and impede d interminabl y the emergence of a university with any physical focus, any collective architectura l image . Two Royal Commission s - th e Selborne Commissio n (1888-9) 68 and 61

M . Arnold, Higher Schools and Universities i n Germany (1882). 'University College . . . has no school of theology? - That is so, it is founded on a strictly undenominational principle. King's College has a school of theology, has it not? - That is so; King's College i s a Church of England institution. I t woul d therefor e b e quit e impossibl e tha t those tw o institution s coul d b e fuse d int o on e college ? - Quite impossible'. (Minute s of Evidence, 'Roya l Commission o n a University for London', P.P. 1889 , xxxix , 371). 63 Draf t Charter , P.P. 1889 , xxxix , 579-82 . 64 Propose d b y G.C. Warr , 1888: P.P. 1889 , xxxix, 626; Draft Charter Considered : P.P., 1894, xxxiv. 65 Th e Times (2 3 Nov. 1897 ) p. 6 ; (25 Nov. 1897 ) p. 14. 66 Playfair , i n Nineteenth Century, xxxviii (1895), 700. 67 /«
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the Cowpe r Commissio n (1892-4) 69 - an d one committee of the Privy Council - the Cranbrook Committee (1891)70 - were set up to find a way out o f th e 'horribl e chaos ' o f thi s debate. 71 Unfortunately , the y compounded that chaos by their own disagreements. Each recommended, sometimes by the narrowes t of majorities, one university in London, no t two.72 Bu t non e o f the m supplie d th e magi c formul a whic h woul d guarantee agreemen t withi n th e Universit y itself. 73 Th e subjec t wa s debated a t stupendou s lengt h i n th e column s o f Th e Times. 74 Thre e successive Bill s were introduced i n Parliament , in 1895 , 189 6 and 1897 . All failed. No t unti l 189 8 was the Londo n Universit y Bill passed. 75 And that compromise Bill - creatin g a metropolitan university with an imperial dimension; teaching and examining -would never have succeeded without the join t effort s o f tw o ver y determine d men : Sidne y Web b an d R.B . Haldane. Webb and Haldane: th e Socialist and the Socialite; the Fabian and the Hegelian - the y were the personification of the Lib.-Lab. pact. It was the foundation o f the L.S.E . i n 189 5 which first drew Sidne y Webb int o the university orbit . Thereafter h e wa s never far fro m th e focu s o f academic power. Webb's drea m o f London Universit y was distinctly inegalitarian: a two-decke r structur e owin g mor e t o German y an d Americ a tha n t o Oxford o r Cambridge , staffe d b y low-pai d lecturer s an d high-pai d professors. A t undergraduat e level , wha t h e calle d th e 'internecin e jealousy' an d 'instinctiv e megalomania ' o f th e college s woul d b e counterbalanced b y intercollegiate Faculties and Board s of Studies.76 At postgraduate level , research woul d be controlled by the professoriat and 69

P.P. 1894 , xxxi , xxxiv . Summarised in The Spectator, Ixviii (1892), 262. 71 Th e Spectator, Ixi (1888) , 164-5 . 72 See Playfair, On Teaching Universities and Examining Boards (1873) and 'A Great University fo r London', Nineteenth Century (1895) , 699-705. See also the Royal Commission on Technica l Education , 1882-4 , P.P. 1882 , xxvii ; 1884 , xxix-xxxi . Si r Phili p Magnu s spoke for many who feare d th e multiplicatio n o f degree-awarding bodies : 'the American system o f graduation', The Times (24 April 1891 ) p. 14 . No doubt he was thinking of the 370 degree-giving institutions in the U.S., thirty-five in Ohio alone, P.P. 1889, xxxix, 448. 73 e.g. The Times (19 Oct. 1889), p. 7; (17 Feb. 1891) p. 13; (11 May 1891) p. 10; (18 May 1891) p. 8. 74 e.g . Th e Times (5 April 1894) , p . 8 ; ( 7 May 1895) , p . 4 ; (26 July 1894) , p . 10 ; (2 Aug. 1894), p . 11 ; (10 Aug. 1894) , p . 11 ; (13 Dec. 1895) , p . 8 ; (1 6 Dec. 1895) , p . 14 ; (17 Dec . 1895), p. 8; (2 4 Dec. 1895) , p. 15 ; (2 5 Dec. 1895) , p. 5; (2 Jan. 1896) , p . 9; (14 Jan. 1896) , p. 10 ; (IGJan. 1896) , p . 14 ; (17 Jan. 1896) , p . 7; (20Jan. 1896) , p . 10 ; (21 Jan. 1896) , p . 6; (28 Jan. 1896) , p . 3. 75 Se e Hearnshaw , King's College, 406 . ' I spok e fo r once', Haldan e recalled , 'lik e on e inspired.' Haldane , An Autobiography (1929) , 126-8 ; Maurice , Haldane i (1937), 80-84. Hi s speech persuaded Joseph Chamberlain. Asquith calle d i t 'the best thin g o f its kind I have ever heard in the House of Commons.' 76 Evidenc e t o Haldan e Commission , Repor t i , Minute s o f Evidenc e para . 61 , P.P. 1910, xxiii, 677. 70

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concentrated o n a universit y basi s i n 'th e one o r tw o highest colleges ' — making Londo n 'th e foremos t postgraduat e centr e o f th e intellectua l world'. 'Afte r a whol e generatio n o f conflic t an d controversy' , Web b complained i n 1902, 'London has at last got its teaching university . . . Yet the plai n ma n remain s unawar e tha t th e teaching universit y exists.' His diagnosis wa s soun d enough , bu t hi s remed y wa s mistaken . Instea d o f building a university which would ac t as a visible focus o f loyalty - an d thus as a magnet fo r donations an d bequests 77 — he pinned hi s faith in th e publicity valu e o f endowe d research . 'Wha t i s needed' , h e conclude d firmly, 'i s not more buildings bu t mor e professorships.' 78 Lord Haldan e mad e no such error. Fo r thirty years or more he battled obsessively fo r a unitar y university , conspicuousl y se t i n it s ow n University Precinct. H.G . Well s once remarked tha t Haldane wa s rather like a political butler: he 'carried his words on a plate'. 'Haldane doesn't bark', noted on e civil servant. 'H e purrs'. 79 He certainly had a way with committees. 'No one', it was said, 'can invest a subject in a more lucid fog.' His vision of London Universit y was indeed intoxicating: 'the chief centre of learning i n th e entir e Empir e . . . the chie f centre o f learning fo r th e entire world': 80 a n institutio n whic h balance d th e centrifuga l force s o f central administratio n with the centripetal thrust of collegiate autonomy. Not fo r nothing wa s h e th e translato r of Schopenhauer's World as Will and Idea, 3 vols. (1883). He was Secretary of State for War; h e was twice Lord High Chancello r o f England, Libera l an d Labour . Bu t universities were his speciality : Scottish , German , American , English . ' I hav e live d for universities', h e wrot e i n ol d age , 'the y hav e bee n mor e t o m e tha n anything else'. 81 Beatric e Webb wa s not entirel y taken in . Fo r years she saw Haldan e a t wor k - wit h Sidne y Web b supplyin g th e memos moulding th e futur e o f Londo n University . An d sh e sa w i t wa s al l vicarious power-play : a politica l worl d i n miniature . 'H e ha s alway s

77

Fo r thi s argument, see Sir H. Roscoe , Life an d Experiences (1906) , 351. S . Webb, 'Londo n University : a polic y and a forecast', Nineteenth Century l i (1902) , 916, 922 , 929. 'W e mus t abando n th e simpl e idea l o f equality, identity or uniformit y among professors , whethe r o f tenur e o r salary , attainment s o r duties , time-tabl e o r holidays. The principa l professors, on whom mainly we must depend for research, should, of course , hav e lif e tenure , hig h salarie s an d abundan t leisure , whilst th e bul k o f th e university teacher s require d b y s o extensiv e an undergraduat e populatio n a s tha t o f London will necessarily be engaged fo r short terms, earn only modest salaries, and work at times and season s convenient to those whom they serve'. Ibid., 923. 79 E . Ashby and M . Anderso n Portrait of Haldane a t Work i n Education (1974) , 102. 80 R.B . Haldane , Th e Nationalisation o f Universities (1920) ; Si r F . Maurice , Haldane, i i (1939), 90-2. 81 Ashb y an d Anderson , op . cit., xiii , 1 , 4 . Se e als o J.E. Lockwood , 'Haldan e an d Education', Public Administration, xxx v (1957) , 237-44 ; H.F. Heath , 'Lor d Haldane : hi s Influence on Higher Education and Administration' , Public Administration, vi (1928), 35060. 78

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delighted i n power', she wrote, 'and th e appearance o f power . . . He . . . delights i n th e glamou r o f the grea t one s o f the worl d . . . the Cit y . . . Grand Societ y . . . aristocrats, plutocrats and social charmers . .. he loves to be 'i n th e know ' . . . He is , in short, a power worshipper.' H e was , sh e admitted, a remarkable administrator : h e had just th e right combinatio n of energy, benevolenc e an d cynicism . But h e wa s a manipulator , no t a communicator - a 'restless, lonely' bachelor; a faux bon viveur-it was the 'inner circles who loved hi m . . . towards th e multitud e and th e press h e was tactless'. 82 Tha t tactlessnes s twic e reduce d Haldane' s visio n o f a University Precint to ruins. It had to be rescued b y a man who understood public relations rather better : Sir William Beveridge. It wa s Haldane, a s much as anybody, who engineered th e removal of the University' s headquarter s i n 190 0 fro m a n annex e o f Burlingto n House t o a sectio n o f th e Imperia l Institute. 83 A ne w sit e fo r a ne w university; a n imperia l settin g fo r a world-wid e organisation . H e persuaded Edwar d VII; he persuaded Lord Herschel l - who happened to be bot h Chancello r o f th e Universit y an d Chairma n o f th e Imperia l Institute. The Institut e itself, designed by T.E. Colcutt , was supposed i n 1887 to embody the idea of Empire. Its style, remarked one critic in 1893 without any sense of irony-is 'indescribable . . . [This] . .. is a buildin g which is essentially Victorian . . . and . . . truly modern.'84 Its eclecticism was indeed Victorian . But by the turn of the century it had become - i n Edward VII' s phras e - rathe r ' a useles s white elephant'. 85 I n 189 9 the university had received - i n return for surrendering its own central office s - a Government promise of accommodation commensurate with its new status.86 'Thirty years from hence', prophesied The Spectator, 'if civilisation is no t pauperise d b y a genera l wa r t o secur e monopolie s an d seiz e swamps, th e mone y require d [fo r a totall y ne w campus ] wil l see m a trifle'.87 Sadly , th e chanc e wa s missed, and th e palmy Edwardia n year s were frittere d awa y i n imperia l lodgings i n Exhibitio n Road, preparin g evidence fo r ye t anothe r Roya l Commission , thi s tim e unde r th e chairmanship o f Haldane himself . C.R . Ashby' s desig n fo r a Fraternit y House off Cheyne Row was not the least of the missed opportunities of this

82

Beatric e Webb , Ou r Partnership, ed . Barbara Drake an d Margare t Cole (1948), 95-8 ; Beatrice Webb, Diaries, 1924-32, ed. Margare t Cole (1956) , 87-8, 171-2 . 83 Th e Easter n half, plus a temporary timbe r structur e know n a s the Great Hall, built for th e Institute' s officia l openin g by Queen Victoria. Details: The Times (29 July 1899), p. 15. For thes e negotiations , se e R.B. Haldane , An Autobiography (1929) , 14 2 etseq. 84 R . Langton Cole, British Almanac and Companion (1893) , 290; (1894) , 289 . 85 U.L . MSS. , 'Coordinatio n and Developments Committee' , Deputation t o Treasury, 17 June 1926 . 86 Treasur y Minutes , 1 6 Feb. an d 1 3 July 1899 . Se e Th e Times (2 6 May 1920) , p. 7 ; (9 Oct. 1920) , p . 6. 87 Th e Spectator, Ixx x (1898) , 230-1,851-2.

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pre-First Worl d Wa r period. 88 I n 191 0 there wa s eve n a chanc e tha t London's memoria l to Edward VII migh t actually take the form of a new London University campus.89 The Universit y ha d bee n 'beguile d dow n t o th e wild s o f Sout h Kensington'90 by the prospect first of inheriting the whole of the Imperial Institute Building, 91 an d the n b y th e drea m o f expandin g al l ove r Albertopolis - spearheade d b y London' s ne w Technische Hochschule, Imperial College . No w Imperia l Colleg e wa s a projec t dea r t o bot h Haldane an d Edwar d VII . I t wa s born i n 190 7 as a result of Haldane's manoeuvres as Chairman of the Departmental Committee of the Board of Education i n 1904-6 . Fro m th e star t i t wa s a federatio n withi n a federation, an d a federatio n with aspiration s t o autonomy. 92 Initiall y it took the form of a merger between two technical institutions: the City and Guilds College93 on one side of Exhibition Road, housed in Waterhouse's mixed-classic building of 1881 -94; and the Royal College of Science - itsel f a fusio n o f th e Roya l Colleg e o f Chemistry 94 an d th e Roya l Schoo l o f Mines95 - successivel y housed on both side s of the same road, in Fowke's rundbogenstil Huxle y Buildin g of 1872 96 an d i n Asto n Webb' s Baroqu e extensions o f 1900-6 97 an d 1901-13. 98 Th e absorptio n o f s o muc h 88

Fro m 189 6 onwards, and especially in 1907-12 , Ashby, Geddes and Lethaby were all involved in plans for a University Quarter centred on Crosby Hall . See A. Crawford, C.R. Ashbee (1986), 161 ; P. Kitchen, A Most Unsettling Person . . . Patrick Geddes (1975) , 224; C.R. Ashbee, Where th e Great City Stands (1917) , 84-5, pi . 76 ; University Halls o f Residence, Chelsea and the Re-Erection of Crosby Hall (1908), plans and ills. ; A.R., xxviii (1910), 14-19 ; R.I. B.A. Drawings Collection , Catalogue, i (1967), 34-5, pi . 26. In th e event, the University Hall of Residence, Chelsea , incorporatin g Crosb y Hall , opene d i n 1908 , wit h plans fo r furthe r extensions b y Wratte n an d Godfrey . Th e Hal l wa s extende d i n 192 6 b y th e Britis h Federation o f University Women. 89 A . Taylo r Milne , 'Note s o n th e Histor y o f th e University ' 3 , Bulletin (London University), 1972-3. 90 D r T.L. Mears , to the Haldane Commission , P.P. 1911 , xx, 634. 91 Th e Senat e cite d 'th e size and dignit y of the Institut e building and it s capacity for adaptation an d expansion ' U.L . MSS. , 'Coordinatio n an d Development s Committee' , [tipped in ] Deputation to Treasury 1 7 June 1926. 92 E.g . Lord Crewe' s speech , 1 2 March 1914 , opposing the unitary recommendation of the Haldan e Commission , Morning Post (1 3 April 1914) . 93 Founde d 187 8 as th e Cit y and Guild s of London Institut e for the Advancement of Technical Education ; previousl y th e Centra l Institute , an d befor e tha t th e Finsbur y Technical College . 94 Founde d 1845 , it s origina l premise s i n Oxfor d Stree t wer e designe d b y James Lockyer. 95 Founde d 185 1 a s th e Governmen t Schoo l o f Mines ; 'Royal ' fro m 1863 , it s firs t premises were in Pennethorne's Museu m o f Practical Geology, Jermyn Street . 96 From 188 1 the Normal School of Science and Roya l Schoo l of Mines; fro m 189 0 th e Royal College of Science. Now the Cole Wing of the Victoria and Alber t Museum. 97 B., Ixxxvi (1904), 26; ill.; A.R., xvii (1905), 256: ill. 98 Wernher , Beit , Rhodes, Rothschil d an d Casse l were all involved in its funding. See also M . Argles , South Kensington t o Robbins: a n Account o f English Technical an d Scientific

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technology int o th e structure of a reformed university was a complicate d business, complicate d enoug h t o justify th e settin g u p o f the Haldan e Commission i n 1909 . Onc e tha t Commissio n ha d bee n se t up, however , Haldane mad e sur e tha t it s term s o f referenc e extende d t o th e restructuring and integration of the entire University." When it reported, in 1913 , it s administrativ e recommendation s wer e shelved , bu t it s argument fo r geographical concentratio n ha d a permanen t impact. 100 The solutio n t o al l problems , Haldan e decided , depende d o n th e acquisition o f a ne w centra l site , an d th e erectio n o f a permanent , symbolic building. 101 But where? Education since 1851 (1964); [H.J.T. Ellingham], Centenary o f th e Imperial College of Science and Technology . . . 1845-1945 (1945); A.R. Hall, Science for Industry: . . . Imperial College . . . and its Antecedents (\W2.}. 99 I n 1907 , the year o f the foundation of Imperial College, th e University had alread y asked th e Governmen t fo r a ne w site , Th e Times (2 0 Oct. 1920) , quoting Sit e Committee report to Senate, 1 7 June 1914. That was soon after a scheme to extend the accommodatio n in the Imperial Institut e by building a new Great Hal l had been abandoned, The Times (30 June 1933) . 100 Muc h t o the displeasure of K.C.L., 'the Haldane Commissio n was dominated an d controlled b y a small group of able and resolute men who were filled wit h that admiratio n and env y of Germany (mingle d with fear of her) which prevailed in high places before the war. The y believed in bureaucracy; they worshipped organisation; they loved syste m an d consistency; the y longe d fo r centralisation an d coordination ; the y loathe d overlappin g reduplication, and all the defects displayed by products of nature as distinct from product s of logic; they were inspired by the confidence that comes from philosophica l doubtlessness, and the y wer e prepare d fo r th e ruthlessnes s which th e enforcemen t o f rigi d principl e requires. The y ha d littl e respec t fo r histor y o r tradition ; the y tende d t o despis e th e antecedents an d association s o f the various colleges of the heterogeneous university ; they envisaged everythin g fro m th e centra l an d officia l poin t o f view ; the y dreame d o f a 'university quarter ' wherein , regardless o f convenience or accessibility , offices, colleges , institutes an d laboratorie s woul d b e concentrated . I n particula r the y lacke d sympath y with King's , an d wer e read y t o sacrific e he r o n th e alta r o f organisation.' Hearnshaw , King's College, p. 453-4 . 101 'Th e University should hav e for its headquarters permanen t buildings appropriat e in design to its dignity and importance, adequate in extent and specially constructed for its purpose, situate d convenientl y for the wor k it has t o do, bearin g it s name an d unde r it s own control ' ('Roya l Commissio n o n Universit y Education i n London' , P.P. 1911 , xxii, 584. 'Th e site of the Imperial Institut e is not sufficientl y centra l for the University . .. its remoteness ha s occasione d muc h inconvenienc e an d los s o f tim e t o thos e wh o ar e concerned wit h th e workin g o f the Universit y an d ha s exercise d a harmfu l effec t o n its development. The buildings are shared with the Imperial Institute and are known by that name, an d the y hav e neve r becom e associate d wit h th e Universit y in th e mind s o f the public. The cor e of the fabric is in the hands of Your Majesty's Office o f Works so that th e University i s not maste r i n it s own hous e . . . London, a s a whole , canno t b e mad e a university town lik e Oxford o r Cambridge . . . But we think it is quite possible to create a university quarte r i n London , i n whic h Universit y lif e an d interest s woul d gro w an d develop, an d student s an d teacher s alik e woul d fin d themselve s in th e atmospher e o f a great sea t o f learning.' Ibid., P.P. 1913 , xl , 368 . A tru e 'universit y quarte r . . . woul d perhaps do more than anything else to impress the imagination of the great London publi c and t o convince them that the University was a reality.' Ibid., P.P. 1913 , xl, 491.

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Haldane had no doubt at all. He wanted Bloomsbury; in particular he wanted tha t par t o f th e Bedfor d Estat e whic h la y directl y behin d th e British Museum. 102 An d i n 191 2 he ver y nearl y go t it , eve n befor e hi s Commission had publishe d its final report. Assumin g the University was about to be reorganised - an d that King's College would be forced by the Board o f Education t o move t o Bloomsbury 103 - h e felt fre e t o set up a private grou p o f Trustee s t o purchas e th e lan d fro m th e Duk e o f Bedford.104 £355,000 was raised in a fortnight.105 A scheme was drawn up, just possibly by C.C.T. Doll, son of the architect to the Bedford Estate.106 It showe d how British Museum Avenue might become the approach t o a great universit y quadrangle, thu s - in effect - incorporatin g the facade of Burnett's Edwar d VI I Gallerie s int o a gran d classica l comple x i n Parisian, Beau x Arts fashion.107 But Haldane was moving too fast. He had squared th e Chancellor, Lord Rosebery ; but he neglected even to consult the Vice-Chancellor, or the Senate, or Convocation - stil l less the L.C.C. The schem e collapsed , an d th e mone y wa s ignominiousl y returned.108 Haldane ha d jumped th e gun - 'i n th e manner' , note d Th e Times, 'o f clever, masterful peopl e who wish to do business promptly'.109 That lef t th e fiel d clea r fo r a whol e gamu t o f schemes : Somerse t House;110 th e Foundlin g Hospital; 111 th e garde n o f Gray' s Inn; 112 102

Th e Times (19 Feb. 1912) , p. 4: plan showing four plots of land devoted to Great Hall; Senate House; Convocation, U.L.U., O.T.G. , etc.; lecture rooms and library . 103 I n 191 2 the Boar d o f Educatio n condemne d th e Stran d sit e a s inadequat e an d threatened fisca l sanction s unles s anothe r sit e wa s found : ' a thunderbol t ou t o f th e bluebook', Hearnshaw , King's College, p . 444 . I n 191 3 th e Haldan e Commissio n peremptorily advise d remova l t o 'the neighbourhood o f U.C.', Huelin , King's College, p . 45-6. 104 Th e Trustee s were : Haldane , Milner , Roseber y an d th e financie r Si r Franci s Trippel, Th e Times (1 9 Feb. 1912) , p. 4; (22 March 1912) , p. 8. 105 Th e Times (1 5 March 1912) , p. 6; (21 March 1912) , p. 4; (22 March 1912) , p. 8; (25 March 1912) , p. 8; (28 March 1912) , p. 6. 106 B . c v (1913) , 26 4 (editoria l hin t regardin g involvemen t of The Bedfor d Estat e Office). 107 Estates Gazette ( 9 Nov. 1912) : ills, and plan . 108 Th e Times ( 6 May 1912) , p . 14 ; (9 May 1912) , p. 6 ; (1 1 May 1912) , p. 4 ; (1 4 Ma y 1912), p. 7; (20 May 1912) , p. 12 . The L.C.C . claimed that the Duke of Bedford was asking three time s the market pric e an d - anywa y - th e Government had already promise d to supply th e University with suitable accommodation, ibid., (3 April 1912) , p. 4. 109 Th e Times (1 4 May 1912) , p. 9. 110 Pall Mall Gazette (13 Nov. 1912) . Though H . Heathcote Statha m warned against its alteration, Th e Times (1 6 Dec. 1913) , p. 6 . 111 Th e Times ( 5 April 1912) , p. 2 ; (16 May 1912) , p. 6 (plan); (13 Aug. 1912) , p. 8. See also Th e Graphic ( 3 June 1912 ) (plan). The Senat e Sit e Committee favoure d thi s a t on e point, Th e Times (1 7 July 1912) , p . 11 ; Daily Telegraph (1 6 July 1912) . Bu t th e L.C.C . doubted th e wisdom of destroying the old hospital buildings, The Times (2 8 July 1912) , p. 12. Its us e for the London Museu m was also suggested, Th e Times (2 Aug. 1912), p. 7. This site was again considered in 1920 and 1927, The Times (I Oct. 1920), p. 5; (7 Oct. 1920), p.

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Pentonville Hill; 113 th e Crysta l Palace; 114 th e Botani c Garden s i n Regent's Park; 115 a Sout h Ban k sit e t o th e eas t o f County Hall, 116 an d another - no w occupied b y the National Theatr e - nex t t o Waterlo o Bridge.117 All these site s were rather mor e spaciou s tha n tha t offere d b y the Duk e o f Bedford. And i n Alber t Richardson' s schem e o f 191 4 for a grandiose expansio n o f Somerse t Hous e thi s phas e o f universit y politicking produce d a t leas t on e architectura l visio n o f tantalisin g grandeur. 118 Bu t al l thes e idea s lacke d Bloomsbury' s trump-card , th e proximity of the British Museum: 'the British Museum [Library ] shoul d be to the Universit y of London wha t th e Bodleia n is to Oxford'. 119 That was the authentic voice of U.C.L. There were even two schemes to annexe the are a i n front o f the B.M . a s well, from Grea t Russel l Street t o beyon d New Oxfor d Street. 120 King' s migh t op t fo r th e Strand ; L.S.E . fo r th e Aldwych; Imperial College and th e external lobby for South Kensington ; the L.C.C. for the South Bank. But Bloomsbury had a special magnetism , and o n th e ver y ev e o f th e Firs t Worl d Wa r i t wa s th e subjec t o f one visionary schem e whic h might hav e give n i t fo r all tim e th e statu s o f an academic symbol : a scheme by no less an architect than Edwi n Lutyens. Surviving sketche s b y Lutyens , watermarked 1914 , suggest tha t her e was a schem e whic h migh t hav e marrie d th e Gree k Reviva l o f William

12; ( 6 Jan. 1927) , p . 6 ; ( 2 Marc h 1927) , p . 18 . I n 192 0 th e pric e wa s estimate d a t £1,000,000, Observer ( 3 Oct. 1920) ; The Times (2 7 May 1922) , p. 8; in 192 7 at £1,250,000 , The Times ( 2 March 1927) , p. 13 . 112 Th e Times ( 4 April 1912) , p. 11 . 113 Islington Gazette (1 2 Aug. 1913) . 114 Daily Telegraph (1 1 April 1912) . 115 Suggeste d as one of several urban improvements by William Woodward, Th e Times (10 April 1912) , p . 4 . The resident s of Marylebone took fright a t th e idea , ibid. (1 5 Ma y 1912), p. 10. 116 'Th e most splendid site in London ' Th e Times ( 9 Aug. 1912) , p. 8 ; 'room fo r half a dozen universities' , Birmingham Post ( 9 Oct. 1913) . For description s and view s see Daily Telegraph ( 6 April 1912 ) and (2 8 June 1912) ; Daily Graphic (2 9 June 1912 ) and (2 0 July 1912); Th e Times (1 8 July 1912) , p. 7 ; (19 July 1912) , p. 4; (2 0 July 1912) , p. 8. 117 Th e Graphic (2 4 Jan. 1914 ) (plan); Th e Times ( 3 Aug. 1922) , p. 4 . 118 B., cvi (1914), 1 3 etseq. (plans and elevation s by Richardson and Gill) . 119 'Westminster Gazette ( 6 Aug. 1913) . Th e intellectua l heart o f London', Th e Times ( 8 Nov. 1922) , p. 7 . 'Bloomsbury is inherently and fundamentall y th e intellectual pivot, not only of London, but of the Empire, and an y attempt to shift it will be as futile as an attempt to shift th e financial centre of London from th e City to Kensington, or the theatrical centre from Piccadill y to the City', S.D. Adshead, Professor of Town Planning , U.C., i n Vincula (New Troy), i i (1926), 174 . For Bloomsbur y and anti-Bloomsbur y arguments, see B.A. (6 Sept. 1913 ) and (2 6 Sept. 1913 ) [E. Graham-Little); Westminster Gazette (6 Aug. 1913) and (7 Aug. 1913) [Holford Knight]; The Times (9 May 1922) , p. 8 and (10Jul y 1922), p. 8 [Sir G. Foster]. 120 B y D.B. Niven , B.A. (2 9 March 1912) : plan, and b y H.J. Leanin g B., cxiii (1917) , 163, 168 : pla n - designe d t o create 'collegiat e repose ' i n 'one of the finest architectural courts in Europe', it was supported b y the Duke of Bedford an d b y John Burns, M.P.

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Wilkins wit h th e Gree k Re-Reviva l o f JJ . Burnett. 121 Lutyens ' grandiloquent arrangement of porticoes, pylons, plinths and colonnades an elemental version of what he called the Classical High Game-conjure s up, even now, images of New Delhi in Bloomsbury.122 The outbreak of the First World War put an end to such dreaming. It did not, however, put an end t o th e grea t debate . Indee d i t magnifie d it ou t o f all proportion . A mighty ne w Universit y o f Londo n wa s t o b e England' s monumen t t o Imperial Triumph . At least , tha t wa s the ide a o f Major C.J.C . Pawley . Backed b y th e Empir e Wa r Memoria l League , Pawle y dreame d o f a London whic h outshone Napoleonic Paris. 123 Lambeth Bridge as Empire Bridge; Empir e Avenu e al l th e wa y fro m Millban k t o Victoria ; an d London Universit y - King' s Colleg e to o - a Baroque extravaganz a on a riverfront sit e betwee n th e Tat e Galler y an d Westminster. 124 Som e people, remarke d Lord Leverhulme, might think it 'mad' -but wha t were a few more 'trifling millions' after a war costing £7 billion? Meetings were held i n Caxton Hall . Th e Duk e of Westminster was willing to outbid th e Duke of Bedford. Canon Rawnsley of the National Trust rallied support to the cause : h e called i t ' a monumenta l schem e of a gigantic type'. 125 But such architectura l histrionic s wer e no t t o b e take n seriously . Th e predominant emotio n in 1918 was not triumph but grief. Instead of a City Triumphant, Englan d settle d fo r th e Cenotap h an d th e Tom b o f th e Unknown Soldier . The situatio n a t th e en d o f 191 8 was in reality rathe r desperate . Th e Rector o f Imperial College , Si r Alfre d Keogh , ha d recentl y announce d that Londo n Universit y was 'the biggest thin g in education on the face of the earth'.126 But where exactly was it? The debate on the site had reache d deadlock. King' s College had rejected Bloomsbury. 127 University College 121 Th e aged Beresford Pile had consistently argued for a Classical scheme to match the British Museu m - 'classical , academical, monumental and beautiful', Daily Chronicle (23 March 1912) . 122 R.I.B.A . Drawings Catalogue, Lutyens (1973), 37-8; Lutyens, Arts Council Exhibition (1981) 186 , no. 477: ill. This schem e is not mentione d in C. Hussey , The Life o f Sir Edwin Lutyens (1950) , no r i n A.S.G . Butler , Th e Architecture o f Si r Edwin Lutyens, 3 vols. (1950) . Lutyens lived nearby, at 2 9 Bloomsbury Square, until the Summer of 1914. 123 Fo r further comparison s with Paris, se e The Times ( 2 Mary 1922) , p. 17. 124 U.L . MSS. , 27/4 , drawing by Harol d Oakley ; B., cxv (1918), 27 8 et seq.: ills , an d plan; B.N., cx v (1918) , 2.86 et seq. 125 B., cxv (1918), 255, 296, 298, 316, 331, 450. The schem e still had it s supporters in 1922-4, e.g. Major Richard Rigg at th e Roya l United Service s Institution, The Times (1 8 April 1923) , p. 9 ; Captain G.S.C . Swinto n of the L.C.C . Swinton , London: he r Traffic, he r Improvement an d Charing Cross Bridge, (1924); and Lutyen s himself, Th e Times (29 July 1923) , p. 13 ; (31 July 1922) , p. 6. 126 Daily Telegraph (3 1 Jan. 1914) . 127 Wher e would K.C.L. go? 'Were they to go over the river?', the Principal asked his students. . .'(Cries of'NO!'and the singing of. . .'One more river to cross'). Were they to go to Bloomsbury? (Loud dissent). Were they to go to the Foundling Hospital? ('No, no', and uproar) . Wherever they went, they would require a great deal of money. (A voice, 'Go

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had rejecte d Sout h Kensington. 128 Th e Treasur y ha d vetoe d Somerse t House.129 Public opinion had dismissed th e North Bank . And all parties, except th e L.C.C. , ha d rejecte d th e Sout h Bank . Alread y th e Britis h Museum and the National Shakespeare Theatre were jostling for position in Bloomsbury. 130 Th e Senat e coul d no t agre e wit h Convocation , an d neither coul d agre e wit h th e Boar d o f Education , stil l les s wit h th e Treasury. 'Ther e are s o many conflictin g interests' , noted on e observer , 'financial, educational , geographical , architectural , sentimenta l - tha t it is almos t impossibl e t o reconcil e them , and th e governin g bodie s o f the various institution s which have a voice in the decisio n ar e s o hopelessly divided tha t n o agreement seem s within sight. Who, then , will solve th e riddle?'131 In 1919-20 , H.A.L. Fisher, President of the Board o f Education, se t out to do so. Government offered t o buy the Bloomsbury site from the Duke of Bedford for £425,000 and give it to the University. In return - and this was the snag - th e University, and King's College, would have to raise money to erect new premises, and Governmen t would take back the buildings of King's an d the Imperial Institute . The University had five years to make up it s mind , startin g fro m Apri l 1921. 132 I t was , a s A.C . Headla m observed, ' a strang e sor t o f liberality'. 133 Fo r th e secon d tim e i n a generation th e Universit y had 'th e Governmenta l pistol ' a t it s head. 134 Still, Fishe r coul d coun t o n th e suppor t o f U.C.L., le d b y Si r Gregor y Foster. H e might even have persuaded King's , had he increased the paltry compensation o f £370,000 which he offered t o that beleaguered college. 135 But he reckoned without the L.C.C.; most of all, he reckoned without the L.C.C.'s Tor y leade r Captai n G.S.C . Swinto n (1859-1937 ) - soldier , artist, herald , town-planner , traffi c enginee r an d polemicis t to Lloy d George') . Throughou t th e proceeding s th e student s wer e ver y demonstrativ e with mout h organs , moto r horns , bugles and othe r nois y instruments', Commemoratio n Day, Th e Times ( 4 July 1912) , p. 6. Dr Burrows, however, seems to have been less opposed to Bloomsbury than his successor, Ernes t Barker, The Times (1 3 May 1927) , p. 17 . 128 E.g . Westminster Gazette (6-7 Aug. 1913) ; Th e Times ( 2 Feb. 1921) , p. 11 . 129 Westminster Gazette (19 June 1914); B.N., cvi (1914), 877. In 1913 the Government valued it at £3m , Hearnshaw, King's College, 455. 130 Si r Hercules Read suggeste d the land to the North of the B.M. as the most suitable site for a National Library, cited by Swinton in Nineteenth Century e x (1921) , 692. 131 Phili p Gibbs, 'Wher e Shall We Buil d the New University of London?', Th e Graphic (24 Jan . 1914) : plan . 'Resistanc e t o th e settlemen t o f th e Universit y o f Londo n sit e [question was] protean i n its versatility', A.F. Pollard, Th e Times ( 4 Oct. 1920) , p. 14. 132 Th e Times (2 0 May 1920) , pp. 15 , 18; (2 Oct. 1920) , p. 6; (10 Oct. 1920) , p. 10 ; (10 Feb. 1921) , p. 10 ; (28 Feb. 1921) , p. 6 ; (17 March 1921) , p. 12. 133 Th e Times ( 9 Oct. 1920) , p. 6. See also The Times (20 Oct. 1920) , p. 18 ; (21 Oct. 1920) , p. 11 . 134 Th e Times (2 7 Sept. 1920) , p. 11 : 'autocratic bludgeoning'. 135 G . Huelin, King's College, 53. New buildings would cost three times as much, Sir E. Barker, Age and Youth: Memories o f Three Universities (1953) , 112-7 , 128-30 .

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extraordinary.136 The L.C.C . wante d Bloomsbur y for housing. Swinton wanted a riverside sit e for the University,137 or - failin g tha t - Hollan d Park.138 First he backed the North Bank; then he backed the South Bank; then h e backe d Wes t Kensingto n - clos e t o Albertopolis . H e wante d something conspicuou s on an expandable site , something monumental after al l he had bee n Chairman o f the New Delhi Planning Committee.139 136

Swinton' s writing s include: 'A Garde n Road' , Fortnightly Rev., xci (1909) , 514-25 ; London: her Traffic, he r Improvement an d Charing Cross Bridge (1924) ; 'The Troubles o f London Traffic', Qtly. Rev., ccxxiv (1925), 360-75; The Chaos of London Traffic', Nineteenth Century, Ixiv (1908), 622-33; 'London Congestion and Cross-Traffic', Nineteenth Century, liii (1903), 821-33 ; Th e Traffi c o f London' , Nineteenth Century, Ivii i (1905) , 389-402 ; 'Ne w Delhi', Empire Rev. (May 1931) . Lutyens credited him with the invention of the green belt and th e by-pass , Th e Times (ISJan. 1937) , p. 14 ; (23 Jan. 1937) , p. 17 ; (2 Feb. 1937 , p. 14. His later years were marred b y illness, and h e eventually committed suicide, The Times (20 Jan. 1937) , p. 4; (21 Jan. 1937) , p. 15 . Swinton was a notable herald, and trace d bac k his family - Swinto n of that ilk - nearl y 1,000 years to Aldred Edulfing, Lord of Bamburgh. He is said t o have refused a mere knighthood. 137 Swinto n envisage d th e universit y a s par t o f a might y redevelopmen t o f th e metropolis, centre d on the Thames. 'Compared to the Thames the Seine and the Tiber are ditches. I n it s passage throug h Petrogra d th e Neva spreads out wide, and betwee n Buda and Pes t the great Danub e pour s a volume of water which no English river can equal. But the sweep of the Thames from Blackfriars to Westminster has possibilities greater than any of these. Imagin e Charin g Cros s Statio n transferre d to the other bank and finely rebuilt! . . . [with ] carriage s . . . fro m Paris , o r Brussels , fro m Gibralta r o r Rom e . . . fro m Jerusalem, Delhi, Peking or Vladivostock discharging on to it passengers . . . of every race . . . Alongsid e . . . woul d b e Waterlo o Station , th e landing-plac e o f half th e English speaking peoples. ' The y woul d cros s th e Thame s b y a ne w Charin g Cros s Bridge , Swinton, 'An Empire Wa r Memorial' , C.L., xlvii (1920) , 41. iss 'Th e larges t unbuilt-on-bloc k o f land i n privat e hand s . . . Here [th e University] could settl e dow n permanently , groupin g roun d th e grea t histori c house fine buildings widely spaced ou t amid tree s and lawns , with power to expand al l their activities as they choose. Her e the y coul d foun d a rea l university , comparable t o Oxfor d o r Cambridge', Swinton, Saturday Rev. (13 May 1921) , p. 199 . Lady Ilchester was eager to sell. And nearby were th e Alber t Hall , th e Roya l Colleg e o f Music, th e Imperia l Institute , the Imperia l College of Science and Technology, th e Natural History Museum , the Victoria and Albert Museum, th e Roya l College of Art, Th e Times (1 5 Feb. 1921) , p. 6; (7 Jan. 1921) , p. 6. No wonder Hollan d Par k seemed more suitable than Bloomsbury , Th e Times (4Jan. 1921) , p. 6. See also a letter by Sir Philip Magnus, The Times (19 Oct. 1920), p. 8. The case for Holland Par k is made out in Saturday Rev. (Aug. 1921), editorial; The Times (22 Dec. 1920) ; (5 Jan. 1921) , p. 6; (8 Feb. 1921) , p. 6; (12 Feb. 1921) , pp. 6 , 10 ; (15 Feb. 1921) , pp. 7, 11; (16 Feb. 1921) , p. 7; (23 June 1921), p. 7; (11 July 1921) , p. 6; (12 Oct. 1921) , p. 7; (24 May 1922), p. 8; (10 June 1922) , p. 6; (4 July 1922) , p. 6; and i n Swinton, The Sit e of London University', Nineteenth Century, x c (1921) , 683-93 ; xc i (1922) , 890-901 . Th e cas e fo r Bloomsbury i s set ou t b y Si r G . Foste r i n Th e University o f London: History, Present Resources and Future Possibilities (1922), 24 etseq. 139 'Surel y it is madness fo r a college or a university to bury itself away. Advertisement may b e vulgar, bu t self-effacemen t i s bad business . As a church is a challenge to unbelief, so i s a Universit y a challeng e t o ignorance . Yo u mus t no t hid e th e brightes t ligh t of education unde r a bushel. Even if there be recluses within it, the building must be vaunted to the world. Men must not be compelled to go to look for it. They must see it, and ask what it is', Th e Times ( 9 Aug. 1912) , p. 8 .

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Alas, he wrote, the professoriat of U.C.L. 'are anxious that the University Quarter shoul d cluste r roun d them . Th e localit y i s unsuitable an d th e proposal contradict s al l th e recognise d theorie s o f zonin g . . . [ a University] zon e shoul d b e a n exampl e t o al l zone s . . . S o far a s th e interests o f town-plannin g ar e concerne d thes e me n [th e professor s o f U.C.L.] ar e sinnin g against th e light.' 140 B y coordinating teachin g an d research - t o say nothing of residence - on a strategically expandable sit e like Hollan d Par k o r the Sout h Bank , the Universit y might indee d hav e avoided th e diseconomie s o f fragmentation and duplicatio n whic h hav e bedevilled i t eve r since . Lan d i n Bloomsbur y wa s no t eve n cheaper. 141 Nevertheless, Bloomsbury it was to be. That decisio n (provisionall y take n i n 1920; 142 narrowl y confirme d in 1927143) was a personal triump h for Sir William Beveridge,144 Director of L.S.E. an d Vice-Chancellor, an d a personal defeat for Sir Ernest Graham Little, M.P . for London University , champion o f the Imperia l Externa l system, an d lifelon g supporter o f King's an d Sout h Kensingto n agains t the omnipresent influence of U.C.L.145 The anti-Bloomsbur y faction very nearly won . King' s Colleg e refuse d t o mov e withou t adequat e compensation.146 Time ran out on the deal with the Duke of Bedford right in the middle of the General Strike. 147 With students demonstrating in the street, th e Governmen t returne d th e site , re-pockete d it s £425,000 , shrugged it s shoulder s whil e th e Institut e o f Historica l Researc h wa s

140 Swinton , London, her Traffic, etc., 38. 'The constituent college', warned Lord Dawson of Penn, 'wil l i n effec t absor b th e universit y . . . I t wil l b e [no t th e rap e o f Bloomsbury; merely] a case of peaceable penetration', Th e Times (1 0 April 1923), p. 8; (13 April 1923), p. 10 . 141 I t wa s estimate d tha t Bloomsbur y woul d cos t £36,63 6 pe r acre ; Westminste r £71,428; Holland Park £5,000, The Times (\3Jan. 1921) , p. 6; (15Jan. 1921), p. 10 ; (31 July 1922), p. 5. Another suggestion was Lord Mansfield's estate at Kenwood, Hampstead, The Times (1 6 July 1920) , p. 9; (20 July 1920) , p. 9. 142 Octobe r 1920 . 143 B y 21 votes to 18 , Bellot, V.C.H. Middlesex, i (1959), 336. 144 Fo r Beveridge' s career , se e Th e Times (1 8 Marc h 1963 ) an d J . Harris , Beveridge (Oxford, 1977) . 145 E.g . Th e Times (1 8 Oct. 1920) , p. 8; (2 June 1922) , p. 6. For Graham-Little's career, seeD.N.B.. 146 'Wh y shoul d [K.C.L.] abando n th e "ai r an d waters " of the rive r bank with al l its converging tide of humanity, for the frigid cal m . . . of. . . Bloomsbury?' Sir E. Barker, Age and Youth (1953) , 129-30 . Barker likened Fisher's proposals to a game of musical chairs, in which K.C.L . wa s lef t standing , U.L . MSS . 'Coordinatio n an d Development s Committee', memo of 5 Nov. 1923, prepared late 1922. See also The Times (1 2 April 1923), p. 8; (26 March 1926) , p. 15 . The universit y was, in any case, inclined to take up a similar position vi s a vis South Kensington, The Times (2 0 Oct. 1921) , p. 7 . 147 Th e Times (1 8 May 1926) , p. 8 .

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given notice to quit its temporary premises, 148 and berated th e University for failin g t o mak e u p it s collectiv e mind . 'I s i t no t a n extraordinar y situation', thundere d M r Winsto n Churchill , ' a grea t universit y . . . broken an d paralyse d b y hostile action o n the part of one of its colleges? . . . It is ... lamentabl e . . . incomprehensible . . . madness.' 'The Council of King's College' , replie d Beveridg e coolly , 'ar e as independent o f [the University] as Russia is of [England]'.149 In the end, in May 1927 - afte r the Duk e of Bedford had raise d hi s price b y another £100,00 0 - ' a fair y godmother', as Th e Times put it , 'armed with uncounted gold', stepped i n like ' a bol t fro m th e blue' : Beveridg e returne d fro m Ne w Yor k wit h a cheque for £400,000. Th e Bloomsbur y site was in the bag at last, courtesy of the Rockefelle r Foundation.150 Churchill himself well knew the imagistic power of architecture, and so did Si r Willia m Beveridge . 'W e mak e ou r buildings' , Churchil l onc e remarked, 'an d afterward s the y mak e us.' 151 Administratively speaking, the decks had been cleared at last. In 1924 Haldane - bac k in Government for th e first time sinc e 191 5 - engineere d th e setting u p o f the HiltonYoung Committe e (1924-6). 152 N o longe r wa s th e Senate , i n H.A.L . 148

Professo r Pollard' s temporar y I.H.R . building s - appropriatel y Tudo r i n style were adapted fro m existin g wartime huts in the Summer of 1921, Th e Times ( 6 July 1921) , p.9; ( 5 May 1922) , p. 8 ; (10 May 1922) , p. 8; (2 June 1922) , p. 6. The Universit y Union followed soo n afterwards. Pollard encouraged staff and student s to demonstrate, Th e Times (4 March 1926) , p. 9; (12 March 1926) , p. 13 ; (20 March 1926) , p. 15 ; (22 May 1926) , p. 8; (1 June 1926) , p. 10 ; (18 June 1926) , p. 10. 149 U.L . MSS. , 'Coordinatio n and Developments Committee' [tippe d in ] 'Deputation to the Treasury, 1 7 June 1926' . At the time of the incorporation of King's College in 1908 , Headlam hi t upon a device which preserved it s Anglican status in a secular university: a diarchy wa s established , enablin g th e Colleg e Counci l t o remai n autonomous . Barke r wanted t o 'scra p the whol e of the Haldan e Report' , ibid., Deputation of 14 March 1924 . Philip Snowden simpl y wanted action : 'It is a perfect disgrace fo r the bigges t city in th e world not to have more imposing University accommodation and buildings than it has . . . This matter ha s bee n scandalousl y delayed no w for years, and . . . it is high tim e it was settled', ibid. 150 Th e Times (1 2 Ma y 1927) , p . 15 . The Governmen t mad e u p th e difference , an d belatedly contribute d additiona l sum s i n consideratio n o f its long-standin g promis e t o supply the University with accommodation. I n 192 6 Churchill had already offered hal f the purchase pric e o f th e Bloomsbur y sit e fo r enlargin g th e University' s unsatisfactor y premises in Kensington, Th e Times ( 1 March 1926) , p. 11 ; (9 March 1926) , p. 10 . Schemes were actuall y draw n u p b y Willia m J . Walford , U.L . MSS. , 'Coordinatio n an d Developments Committee' , 1 7 Feb. 1926 . Churchil l dislike d th e ide a of'coaxin g an d weedling cas h fro m th e Unite d States' , 'Coordinatio n an d Developments' , op . cit., Deputation t o Treasury 2 9 June 1926 . I n 192 0 the Rockefelle r Foundation ha d alread y given £1,000,00 0 t o U.C.H. Fo r negotiation s with the Duk e of Bedford, se e The Times (2 0 Oct. 1926) , p. 18 ; (23 Oct. 1926) , p. 18 ; (13 Jan. 1927) , p. 8. 151 A.A.JnL, xl (1924) , 44: in a lecture at th e Architectural Association. 152 'Repor t of the Departmental Committee on the University of London', P.P. (1926) , x. For th e resulting University statutes, see P. Dunsheath and M . Miller , Convocation of the University o f London (1958) , 12 1 -31.

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Fisher's phrase , t o be as anarchical a s a Polish Diet. 153 After thre e Royal Commissions - Selborne , Cowpe r an d Haldane ; tw o governmenta l committees - Cranbroo k an d Hilton-Young; tw o Acts of Parliament 1898 an d 1926 ; an d a whol e batter y o f new statutes , th e Universit y of London wa s at last on the brink of visible autonomy. No university in the world ha d bee n s o carefully investigate d an d s o casually housed . Coul d the architectura l professio n ris e t o th e challenge ? Th e Universit y Architect a t thi s point was William J. Walford , a shadowy figur e chose n inexplicably in preference to Sir Aston Webb.154 But two other architect s with U.C.L . connection s ha d scheme s i n hand : A.E . Richardso n an d H.V. Lanchester . Lanchester' s wa s Vanbrughia n Baroque; 155 Richardson's was Parisia n Beaux-Arts. 156 Symbolism , Lancheste r explained - wit h a flourish o f mixed metaphors - i s one of the 'pillars of architecture', and this new university should be as 'a symbol or oriflamme striking th e not e o f the plac e o f architecture in th e developmen t o f th e age'.'" Beveridge wa s looking for something rathe r different . W e nee d 'som e inspired artist' , he announced i n 1927 , 'who can embody [th e very idea of a university, imperial and modern] i n stone and steel and marble —not too much marble.' 158 In 193 1 he set out to find him. With the Principal of the University, Edwi n Deller , h e examine d mor e tha n a scor e o f publi c buildings b y upwards o f a dozen architects . 'W e went up an d dow n th e length and breadth of England and Wales', h e recalled, 'seeing town halls and academi c buildings , schools , hospital s an d cathedrals . W e enjoyed ourselves hugely.' 159 A short-lis t o f four architect s was drawn up . Fou r separate dinner parties were arranged a t the Athenaeum.160 At least one of the short-liste d name s wa s an architec t of genius, Giles Gilbert Scott . 153

E . Ashb y and M . Anderson , Portrait of Haldane a t Work i n Education (1974) , 158 . I n 192 1 Walford was chosen 't o advise on ... genera l layout. . . site and . . . style', U.L. MSS . 'Coordinatio n an d Development s Committee', 1 2 Oct. 1921 . In 192 7 he was appointed Surveyo r an d Manage r o f the Bloomsbur y Estates, ibid. , 'Minute s of the Site and Building s Committee' , 26 Oct. 1927 . 155 Vincula [New Troy] ii (1926) , 158-9 : ill. 156 Ibid., 172-3 : ill. 157 Ibid., 158-9 . 158 Th e Times (1 2 May 1927) , p. 19 ; (13 May 1927) , p. 11 ; Beveridge, Power and Influence (1953), 18 5 et seq. 'Nothing shal l b e buil t o n th e Bloomsbur y sit e tha t i s not beautiful . Nothing shall be built that i s not characteristi c of London an d o f this age', Th e Times (17 Nov. 1928) , p. 8: R.I.B.A. He dreamed o f embodying in architectural form 'th e clear-cut relevance o f science , th e lightheartednes s an d th e solemnit y o f youth, th e enchante d garden o f the arts' , Beveridge, Th e Physical Relation of a University t o a City ( 1928), 15. It must not b e 'mean or cramped or ugly. It must , like the Cathedrals of the Middle Ages , b e the visible symbo l o f a fait h . . . a n enclosur e o f quiet court s an d gree n space s an d grea t libraries and hall s of learning . .. a visible sign to all men of the academic faith', Th e Times (10 May 1928) , p. 18 : graduation dinner . 159 Beveridge , Power and Influence, op . cit., 206. 154

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But anothe r ha d th e backin g o f one o f the Governor s o f L.S.E., Fran k Pick.161 Pic k wa s overlor d o f Londo n Transport , an d hi s proteg e wa s Charles Holde n - architec t o f London's underground . Holde n wa s a Romantic Modern : h e calle d himsel f a n 'anarchis t Communist'. 162 Professionally speaking, he was a product o f Arts and Crafts morality who progressed vi a eclectic mannerism t o abstract modernity. 163 As a young rebel fro m Lancashire , suffocate d b y th e pom p an d circumstanc e o f Edwardian classicism , he longe d fo r a ne w architectur e of function an d pure form . Epstei n an d Wal t Whitma n becam e hi s idols . 'Come , yo u Modern Buildings , come!', h e wrot e in 1905 . 'Throw of f your mantle of deceits . .. we must put aboriginal constructiv e force int o our work, and leave i t t o spea k fo r itself : n o mer e ingenuit y wil l suffice ; trick y combinations of style and smar t invention s are fool's pla y . . . The grav e yawns for Architect's Architecture'.164 Holden's masterpla n fo r Londo n Universit y (1932 ) envisage d a serie s of giant pylons , all the way from th e B.M . to U.C.L.; a Temple o f Learning a quarter of a mile long, axially arranged alon g a central spinal core and toppe d by gigantic terminal towers.165 The advantage of a spinal plan - a s opposed to th e open courtyard s whic h h e first envisaged - la y in th e fact tha t further units , or ribs , coul d b e added t o the 'backbon e of knowledge' a s need arose. 166 Holden was thinking not in terms of decades but in terms of centuries: a buildin g programme o f fifty years; a life-expectanc y of five hundred; an d a n expenditur e o f £2-3,000,000. 167 T o thi s ne w mega campus would come Birkbeck College from Fette r Lane;168 the Courtauld Institute fro m Portma n Square; 169 th e Institut e o f Archaeolog y fro m 160

O n th e advic e o f Lor d Crawford , Chairma n o f th e R.F.A.C. , Beveridg e ha d plumped fo r a limite d competition , U.L . MSS . 'Minute s o f th e Sit e an d Building s Committee, 1 8 Nov. 1927 . Others called fo r an open competition, A. andB.N.,xxxv (1931) , 231,233. lei p or p^k^ concept of art, see Pick, 'Art in Modern Life', Nineteenth Centuryxci (1922) , 256-64. 162 H e refuse d a knighthoo d an d die d i n th e small , semi-detache d hous e whic h h e designed fo r himself and live d in for fifty years, A. an d B.N., ccxvii (1960), 592: obit. 163 Se e C.H. Reilly , Building (Sept . 1931 ) 396-401; B . Hanson, A.R., clvii i (1975), 348 56. 164 [Holden] , A.R., xvi i (1905), 258; xviii (1905), 27. 165 R.I.B.A.JnL, 3rd ser. xlii i (1936) , 621-2: perspective b y C. Hutton . 166 Ibid., xlv (1938) , 634 et seq.: ills. 167 I.L.N. (2 1 Jan. 1938) , p. 86-7: ill.; The Listener (1 July 1936) , p. 26. Holden prepare d a view of'The University from Russell Square in AD. 2014', when neighbouring leases had fallen i n and th e long-ter m pla n ha d bee n completed , R.I.B.A.JnL, 3r d ser., xlv (1938), 640: ill. The Great Hall , B., clviii (1940), 554: ill. was never built; the site remained empty until the 1980s . 168 Bream' s Building , 1883 , C . Delisle Burns , A Short History o f Birkbeck College (1924) , 93: ill. 169 Hom e House, designed b y Robert Adam , 1775-7 , C.L., Ixxii (1932) , 428-33, 462-8 .

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Regent's Park, 170 an d th e Institut e o f Educatio n fro m Southampto n Row.171 S.S.E.E.S . woul d com e fro m King's; 172 S.O.A.S . woul d com e from Finsbur y Circus; 173 and th e University Library, Senat e Hous e an d Ceremonial Hal l would come from Sout h Kensington. Alas, there was no provision for centralised laboratories : thes e were to remain collegiate. 174 Hinc illae lacrimae. But Rockefelle r had supplie d th e site ; the Goldsmiths ' Company wer e to provide the Library; the City of London the Great Hall ; Samuel Courtaul d the new Institute of Fine Art. The L.C.C . woul d help with Birkbec k Colleg e an d th e Institut e o f Education . 'London' , announced Th e Times in 1932 , 'reaches today a historic milestone . .. [it is to be ] th e hom e o f a n Imperia l University.' 175 Th e Archbisho p o f Canterbury compared Holden' s vision to Wren's St Paul's: twin witnesses to th e glor y o f God.176 Th e ne w shrin e even ha d it s martyr : Si r Edwi n Deller, Principa l o f the University , went o n a n inspectio n o f the sit e in November 193 6 and wa s killed by a falling skip. 177 'Timeless' was the quality aimed at. Abstract geometry outside; 'chaste dignity' within. 178 Fa r fro m bein g 'modern' , th e constructiona l techniques were quite traditional: no structural steel or concrete; all brick and marble , timbe r an d masonry , eve n those skyscrapin g buttresses. A dauntingly permanen t exterior , and a n interio r with an infinit e capacit y for rearrangement : th e tower' s stee l bookstack , fo r example , i s structurally autonomou s and thu s easily removable. Eve n th e plumbing apparently aime d a t eternity : these are 'th e kind of soil pipes', wrot e one critic, 'that one expects to see in the courts of heaven'.179 Well, maybe. But 'timeless' th e Senat e Hous e i s not . In ever y lin e an d ever y shap e i t bespeaks th e ey e o f th e 1930s . It s desig n wa s a compromis e betwee n 170 S t John's Lodge, Regent' s Park , later part o f Bedford College , J. Mordaun t Crook , The Villas in Regent's Park', C.L., cxliv (1968), 22-5, 84-7. 171 Opene d 1907 ; formerly th e London Da y Training College . 172 Founde d 1915 ; Institute Status, 1932 . 173 Th e forme r Londo n Institution , designed b y William Brooks, 1815-19, A. Oswald , C.L., Ixxxix, 378-81. S.O.S. became S.O.A.S. in 1938. 174 Se e Nature ( 9 July 1952) . Twelv e year s previously , Oliver Lodg e ha d floate d a drastic solution : put th e 'academic factories' on the periphery, but kee p 'the humanising elements of education' at th e centre , The Times ( 6 Oct. 1920), p. 6. l75 The Times (27 July 1932) , p. 13 . 'The focus of [the University's] manifold activities . . . the visible sign and symbo l of the pursuit of learning . .. in a vast city', The Times (12 May 1932), p. 10 ; (2 7 July 1932) , p. 9. 176 A t a centenary servic e in St Paul's, Th e Times ( 1 July 1936) , p. 11 . There was also a luncheon at Guildhall and a reception at Lancaster House , Th e Times ( 1 July 1936) , p. 17 ; (17 July 1936) , p. 17. 177 Th e Times (2 8 Nov. 1936), p. 9; (3 Dec. 1936), p . 7 ; (19 Feb. 1937), p. 16. 178 A . an d B.N., cxlvii i (1936) , 306 . Holden love d Portlan d Ston e fo r it s marmorea l qualities; the Manchester Guardian ran an article by James Bone on Holden and Deller's visit to the quarries of the Isl e of Portland. 179 H.M . Fletcher, R.l.B.A.Jni, 3rd ser. xl v (1938) , 647.

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classicism and modernity, and perhaps because of that, it was predictably popular wit h th e professionals. 180 I n th e University' s centenar y year , 1936, Holde n receive d th e R.I.B.A.' s Royal Gol d Medal . I n 1938 , when he unveile d Myerscoug h Walker' s floodli t perspective , th e R.I.B.A . audience brok e into spontaneous applause . Holden wa s a n instinctiv e minimalist. His vie w of ornament wa s no t negative but reductive. 'When in doubt', he used to say, 'leave it out.' He tried t o do for architecture wha t Eri c Gill did for typography.181 'I t was not s o muc h a matte r o f creatin g a ne w style' , h e explained , 'a s o f discarding thos e incrustation s whic h counte d fo r style'; all that 'surfac e embroidery empt y of structural significance'. Freed of the mumbo-jumbo of traditional form , h e felt abl e t o concentrate on 'those more permanen t basic factors of architecture, th e plan, an d th e planes and masse s arisin g out o f the plan'. 182 True t o his generation of'earl y modernists' , h e trie d hard to see architectural for m as a product o f necessity.183 It was exciting, he tell s us , t o se e the Senat e Hous e risin g inevitabl y from it s plan : th e building, h e claimed , 'almos t designe d itself. 184 Tha t wa s wishfu l thinking, and Holde n surel y knew it: he was too much of an artist to be a dogmatic functionalist. 185 Architectura l desig n i s alway s a matte r o f choice: choice from a number of equally valid solutions. The basi s of that choice - i n effect, th e aesthetic impuls e - i s infinitely mysterious . But whatever it s source , choic e ultimatel y dictates th e shap e o f a building . And a s Holden's acousti c engineer , Hope Bagenal, remarked , ever y age 'will die for its shapes'.186 The shape s of the 1930 s are not our shapes, an d even at the time Holden's shape s were not the shapes of A.E. Richardson , iso 'Th e design is mainly of our time , arising out o f the natural expression of the plan . The ver y orderly disposition of the parts an d th e strong horizontal character o f the whole [scheme gives ] t o th e mas s a classica l basis , whic h togethe r wit h th e rhythmica l disposition o f th e windo w opening s an d othe r essentia l feature s . . . present[s ] a neighbourly fron t t o th e Britis h Museu m an d . . . surrounding [buildings] , withou t the necessity of columnar treatment', quoted in Humberstone, New Buildings for th e University of London, 1933 . 'Nobod y better than [Holden ] could strip a classical design t o its essentials without leaving it looking naked', Th e Times ( 2 May 1960) , p. 21 : obit. 181 B. , cxcviii( 1960), 875: obit. 182 R.I.B.A. Jnl., 3rd ser., xliii (1936) , 623: Gold Meda l Presentation . IBS 'pjt ness for purpose', he believed, 'is more than a slogan, it is a creed; and, though it may not be the last word [i n design] it is most certainly the first', A.R. clviii (1975), 348-56. Living in non-functional building s is like 'asking for bread an d bein g offered a dress-shirt' R.I.B.A. Jnl. xli x (1941-2) , 130 . 184 R.I.B.A. Jnl., 3rd ser. , xlv (1938) , 642. Even the drain-pipes were 'given a place of honour', Th e Listener (1 July 1936) , p. 25 . 185 'Style' , he believed, 'should arise out of the solution of a particular problem, and th e capacity o f the architect to give visual aesethtic quality to that solution', R.I.B.A. Jnl. xli x (1941-2), 130 . But our appreciatio n o f architecture, he admitted, is ultimately a matter of aesthetics, R.I.B.A. Jnl., 3rd ser., xlv (1938), 634. 186 A.A.Jnl.,\in (1937) , 294.

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Max Beerbohm or Evelyn Waugh. Holden hoped t o exemplify in his work 'the beauty in the soul of man in the industrial age'.187 Richardson and his classical friend s disagreed : the y calle d i t a n academi c 'ant-heap' ; a 'Germanic' nightmar e base d o n the 'molecular ' or 'cellula r formation of Assyrian palaces . . . Socialism in its most insistent form'. 188 'Bleak, bland [and] hideous' , Beerboh m exploded , a 'vast whited sepulchre.' 189 'That gross mas s o f masonry', wrote Evely n Waugh, 'it s shadow an d . . . vast bulk . . . insulting the autumnal sky.' 19° The Senat e House was supposed to b e England' s answe r t o th e America n skyscraper. 191 Perhaps , the y order thing s better in Chicago. Holden' s interior s are grandly conceive d and superbly finished, but - at least as regards exterior composition - his vision of embodied functio n outra n his grasp of presentational design. He could handl e an underground statio n brilliantly. But in Bloomsbury - at any distance less than half a mile - trul y monumental form seem s to have eluded him . Toda y - incomplete , marooned , melanchol y a s a beache d whale - th e Senate House seem s timeless for all the wrong reasons . Holden's master-pla n collapse d wit h th e onse t o f the Slum p an d th e Second Worl d War . Neithe r S.O.A.S . no r Birkbec k coul d rais e th e necessary funds. After 1935 , and agai n after 1937 , the original scheme was altered and replaced by a truncated version; the so-called 'balanced plan'. This in tur n gav e way t o a piecemeal programm e o f separate buildings , cheaply buil t in steel and bric k and loosel y following the configuration of a Georgia n stree t patter n originall y designe d fo r a totall y differen t purpose. Bloomsbury descended to Subtopia.192 S.O.A.S. (1938-46) was followed b y Birkbec k (1939-51 ; 1964) ; Birkbec k b y U.L.U . (1949-55 ; 1957)193 an d U.L.U . b y th e Warbur g Institut e (1957-8). S.O.A.S. still has on e o r tw o touche s o f vintage Holden. 194 Birkbec k was awarde d a medal by the Worshipful Company o f Tylers and Bricklayers. 195 And the Nuffield Swimmin g Bath a t U.L.U . i s not withou t antiseptic drama. 196 187

R.I.B.A.JnL, Ixvi i (1960) , 383-4. It s design embodied ' a faith, a philosophy and a n aesthetic principle', ibid., xlv (1938) , 634. 188 T.L . Humberstone , ed., S.D. Adshea d [A.E . Richardson], A.B . Knapp-Fisher, C. Doll, Ne w Buildings for th e University o f London (1933) . Humberston e calle d th e desig n 'fantastically silly and megalomaniacal' , Humberstone, Torrington Square Saved! (1938), 16. 189 M . Beerbohm , Mainly o n the Air (1946) , 80. 190 E . Waugh, Put Out More Flags (1942) . During the Second World Wa r i t became the Ministry o f Information, and ther e John Betjema n first encountered Mis s Joan Hunte r Dunn. 191 D r Maxwell Garnett called for a giant skyscraper, on American lines, a Cathedral of Learning lik e tha t a t Pittsbur g - doubl e th e height o f St Paul' s - a memoria l to the Rockefeller Foundation' s 'miracl e of generosity', Th e Times (1 4 May 1927) , p. 8. 192 4./,cxxvi i (1958) , 5. 193 Drawings : R.I.B.A.D. 194 £.,clxx(1946) , 7-9. 195 £.,clxxxi v (1953) , 877. 196 B. , cxciv( 1958), 346-9.

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But th e Warbur g mark s th e las t gas p o f Holden' s post-Georgia n abstraction.197 A compariso n betwee n th e Warbur g Institut e an d th e Institute o f Classica l Studie s (b y Booth , Ledeboe r an d Pinkheard ) i s instructive.198 Bot h wer e buil t i n th e mid-1950s . Bot h compromis e previous traditions : Georgia n Domesti c o n on e hand , Scandinavia n Modern o n the other. On e looks back , th e other forward s - bu t neither looks very far. 'Holden', noted Ia n Nair n in 1966 , 'deserved better of old age than this. ' Th e later building s fro m hi s office - 'designe d fro m God knows what backwater of the intellect' - were widely criticised (notably by Pevsner) a s a geriatri c retrea t int o Neo-Georgian. 199 Holden , onc e th e darling o f th e avan t garde , ha d becom e th e whippin g bo y o f the Ne w Brutalists. Brutalism arrived in Bloomsbury with the advent of Sir Denys Lasdun. Appointed in 1960, Lasdun inherited Leslie Martin's proposals of 1959200 for th e Universit y Precinc t - jus t a s Marti n ha d inherite d Holden' s proposals o f 193 2 and 1935-7 , Abercrombi e an d Forshaw' s Count y of London Pla n (1943) , an d th e Count y o f Londo n Developmen t Pla n (1957).201 Holden an d Abercrombi e had begu n with the concept of tabula rasa, even i f Holden's programme wa s eventuall y force d t o compromis e with it s Georgia n context . Marti n - wit h hi s principles o f 'enclosure, seclusion and informality' - a t least intended to follow th e broad outlines of existin g Bloomsbury , eve n i f he envisage d wholesal e replacemen t o f terrace housin g by a network of podiums, walkway s and tunnels. 202 But Lasdun - facin g conservationist pressures which mounte d as his scheme progressed fro m 196 5 to 1980 - ha d to try to accommodate Georgian brick and Brutalis t concret e i n an overall layou t dictated b y traffic flows, splitlevel development and high-density usage. Turning its back on the public, Lasdun's precinc t face s inward s ont o landscape d gardens ; periphera l 197

Drawings : R.I.B.A.D . 'Commonplac e an d trivial' , J.M. Richards , A.J., cxxvii i (1958), 15. 198 Criticis m o f elevational compromise b y J.M. Richards , ibid.; architects' reply , ibid. (10 July 1958) , 58-9. Judith Ledeboer ha d bee n one of the most rebellious young moderns at th e A.A. early in the 1930s . 199 p evsner) 'Backyard Mentality', A.R., cxxviii (1960) , 446-8; I. Nairn, Nairn's London (1966), 114. 200 B. , cxcv i (1959), 442-3; A.R., cxx v (1959), 302, 357-8, Daily Telegraph, 2 6 Feb. 1959 . Martin wa s appointed i n 1957 . 201 Meanwhil e th e site had expanded . I n 195 1 the University had purchase d anothe r 13!/2 acres fro m th e Bedford Estate, makin g a total of 35 acres betwee n Euston Roa d an d the B.M. Thank s to Rockefeller, U.C.L. ha d already bough t u p land betwee n its own site and Torringto n Place , Th e Times (1 6 Feb . 1932) , p . 9 . I n 191 4 the Universit y ha d als o bought All Saints, Gordon Square, closed i n 1909 , Th e Standard ( 2 March 1914) . 202 M.G.[irouard], C.L., cxxv (1959), 458: ill. Woburn Square and the area north of Gordon Squar e wil l b e destroye d - 'bu t th e Georgia n characte r o f the area ha s bee n vitiated beyond redemption already, and the loss of these now isolated terraces would be a great deal more tha n counterbalance d b y the gains' .

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structures ar e al l concret e strat a an d block y servic e towers , echoin g Holden's pylons : dogmatic , programmatic , uncompromising . Hi s i s a stern, uncomfortabl e aesthetic. 'Architecture' , he reminds us , 'has other things t o d o beside s consoling'. 203 A s wit h Holden' s scheme , th e architectural worl d wa s hugel y enthusiastic . Bu t Lasdun' s 'stron g Utopian impulse' - architectur e as service; architecture as a metaphor for landscape - prove d to o stron g an d to o Utopia n fo r popula r consumption.204 What w e se e now - S.O.A.S. , th e Institut e o f Education an d th e Institute o f Avanced Lega l Studie s - i s but a rump , a Utopia n rump . Woburn Squar e has become a monument to a defunct plannin g ideology. Ironically, th e projecte d buildin g in the fron t lin e of this conservationist battle was the one institution in the University dedicated t o the study of Fine Art : the Courtauld . I t remaine d unbuilt . The Universit y was lef t with a precinct which was doubly truncated: the conservationists defeated Lasdun jus t a s surel y a s th e Slum p an d th e Secon d Worl d Wa r ha d defeated Holden . Bu t - a s the Irish woul d sa y - neithe r shoul d hav e started fro m there . Bot h were prisoners o f a totall y unsuitable site: they paid th e penalty of Haldane and Beveridge's commitment to Bloomsbury. And eve n a s Lasdun's programm e wa s stumbling to a halt, the magne t which ha d draw n th e Universit y to Bloomsbur y i n th e firs t plac e wa s removed: the British Museum library was to be transported to St Pancras. While the University was locking itself into an architectural cul-de-sac, the college s were growing fast : to o fast fo r their own architectura l good . Expansion an d reorganisation ; merger s an d rumour s o f merger s associated wit h th e name s o f Robbin s (1963) , Tod d (1968) , Murra y (1972), Flowers (1980), Swinnerton-Dyer (1981) and Quirk (1982)-hav e all ha d a n impac t o n th e changin g physical structure of our university. Particularly o n th e architectura l face o f medical teachin g and scientifi c research.205 Th e quintupl e divisio n whic h ha s emerge d sinc e 1983, centred o n Bloomsbury, Sout h Kensington , Mil e En d Road , th e Stran d and Egham , ha s itsel f produced a ne w wav e o f building on to p o f two previous waves of expansion: post-1945 and post-1963 . First int o post-wa r expansio n wa s Imperia l College . Fro m 195 3 onwards - separatel y funded b y the U.G.C. - i t became the spearhead of a government-fuelle d initiativ e i n scienc e an d technology . Despit e 203

R.l.B.A.JnL, (Sept . 1977) , 179 , 366-7. Fo r detailed analysis , seeA.R., clxvii (1980), 144-54 ; B., ccxii (1967) , 91-3; A.D., li (1985), 4-5; Interbuild, xi v (1967) , 24-6. 205 E.g . 1950s work: by Easton an d Robertso n at Bart's Hospital, frontin g Clerkenwel l Road, and by Basil Ward and Lyons , Israe l an d Ellis at Hammersmith Hospital . The new School of Pharmacy i n Brunswick Square, although begu n i n 1938, was only completed i n 1959. New buildings for St George's Hospital Medica l School - a t Hyde Par k Corner until 1976 - wer e not completed unti l 1984 . 204

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vociferous protests,206 all but the tower of Colcutt's Imperial Institute was demolished an d replace d b y a serie s o f sub-Meisia n teachin g block s designed b y Norman an d Dawbarn, and sub-Corbusian halls of residence designed b y Richard Sheppar d an d Partners. 207 Their mechanical, 1950s style facade s see m slightl y less tam e toda y tha n the y did in the 1960 s even so one occasionally sighs for the exuberance of their predecessors: the Imperial Colleg e Union , fo r instance , formerl y th e Roya l Schoo l o f Needlework, by Fairfax B. Wade (1898-1903 ; dem. 1963) . What Imperia l Colleg e is to West London , Quee n Mar y Colleg e is to the East . An d wha t th e Imperia l Institut e was to Imperia l Colleg e th e People's Palace wa s to Q.M.C. E.R. Robson, bes t known for his work as architect to the London School Board, had projected a number of eclectic schemes208 - wit h echoes of both the Crystal Palace and the Beaux Arts before securin g agreemen t fo r hi s execute d design. 209 Th e rib-vaulte d library was a classical version of the fourteenth-century Prior's Kitchen at Durham. Th e Queen' s Hall (burn t 1931 ) outdi d eve n Robson's Prince' s Hall i n Piccadilly . Opene d b y Quee n Victori a i n 1887 , this 'happ y experiment i n .. . practica l Socialism' , a s Th e Times pu t it, set out - i n darkest Mil e End Road - 't o sow the seeds of a higher and more humane

206

E.g . The Times (4 Feb. 1956) , p. 7 [Casson], ( 7 Feb. 1956), p. 9 [Richardson] (1 3 Feb. 1956), p. 9 [Betjeman], (27 Feb. 1956), p. 9 [Pevsner]; C.L., cxix (1956), 329-30 [Hussey]; R.I.B.A.Jnl, (Jan . 1956) [Goodhart-Rendel]. Th e Times itsel f defended Colcutt [ 3 Feb. 1956] p. 9, as did the Royal Fine Art Commission. Bu t the Tory Government- backed by hard-line modernist s e.g . J. Murra y Easton ; Th e Times (2 1 Feb. 1956), p . 9 - prove d adamant. Th e eventua l compromise, retainin g the great tower , was suggested b y Julian Huxley, Th e Times (1 0 Feb. 1956), p. 7. 207 Fo r plan s o f thes e designs , modifie d t o includ e Colcutt' s tower , se e C.L., cxxiii (1958), 244 and ContractJnl. (1 3 Feb. 1958); exhib. R.A. 1960; B., cc (1961), 5-8. There are most interestin g architectura l possibilities' , note d [J.M. Richards ] i n 1956 , 'in th e juxtaposition o f thi s richly-modelle d piec e o f Victoria n eclecticis m an d th e plain , rectilinear building s that wil l provide i t with a new asymmetrical setting', Th e Times (2 2 June 1956) . Fift y year s befor e that , lat e Victoria n Picturesquenes s seeme d wholl y deplorable. 'Th e group, i f so it can b e called , forme d by th e Cit y an d Guild s of London Insitute, th e Roya l Schoo l o f Needlewor k an d th e Imperia l Institute , coul d no t b e paralleled on the Continent of Europe; a result so entirely, even so violently, unacademic would be abhorrent t o cultivated taste in any country less wedded to liberty than our own', A.E. Street, A/?., xvii (1905) , 255: ills. 208 People's Palace (Beaumont Trust) Prospectus, 1885: ill; B., 1 (1886), 772: [not quite] a people' s palace ; ther e i s rathe r a tain t o f aristocrac y abou t it' . Fo r anothe r (unrelated) 'Peopl e Palace' design, by E.W. Godwi n and J.P. Seddon - designe d for a site on the Victoria Embankment, to the west of Waterloo Bridge-see People's Palace (Beaumont Trust) Prospectus, 1885: ill; B., 1 (1886), 772: [not B., Hi (1887), 250: ill. 209 Grea t Hall , concer t rooms , ar t galleries , gymnasiums , lectur e an d musi c rooms , winter garden , library , swimming baths, pla y rooms ; statue s by Verheyden; decoration and painte d glas s b y Collinson and Locke , Th e Times (1 4 Ma y 1887) , p. 17 ; B., \ (1886), 772, 915: ills, and plan- exhib. R.A. 1886 no. 1683; B., Hi (1887), 716: ill. (Queen's Hall); £., lvii(1887), 174 : ill. (Library) .

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civilisation amon g th e dwellers and toiler s in [that ] unlovel y district'.210 Thence gre w th e Eas t Londo n Technica l College , th e Eas t Londo n College, an d eventuall y in 193 4 Queen Mar y College . Aroun d Robson' s original buildin g ha s grow n a comple x o f post-wa r block s devote d t o science an d technology , themselve s incorporatin g advance d structura l techniques.211 Faithful t o Sidne y Webb' s scal e o f priorites , L.S.E . fo r man y year s preferred professor s t o buildings . 'Lac k o f space an d higgledy-piggled y development has not', it was observed i n 1958, 'prevented the L.S.E. fro m becoming a world-famous school of unique attraction. I t is a phenomeno n typical o f London tha t thi s intellectual hub, that draws students from th e ends o f the earth, ha s no architectural existenc e at all.' 212 That was not quite true : during th e 1920 s and 1930 s Beveridge mad e sur e that L.S.E . was indeed 'tha t par t o f the University . .. on which the concrete neve r sets'.213 An d successiv e adaptation s o f existin g building s wer e occasionally imaginative. But it was not until the 1960s that L.S.E. moved - architecturall y speakin g - int o the top league wit h tw o purpose-built tower blocks : th e S t Clement' s Buildin g an d th e Clar e Marke t Building. 214 Over on the other side of the Strand, th e 1960 s were equally dramaticsome woul d sa y architecturall y traumatic . Eve r sinc e it s foundation , King's Colleg e had coveted Somerset House . I n a memorable outburst to the Haldan e Commissio n i n 1911 , Dr T.L . Mear s ha d challenge d th e government t o d o th e honourabl e thing : 'Somerse t Hous e [is ] th e idea l 210

'Th e People' s Palac e i s no t t o b e merel y a plac e o f recreation , thoug h rationa l recreation i s itself a great civilisin g agency; in course of time it will encompass withi n itself the whol e scheme of industrial life , providin g for its toi l as well as fo r its leisure. In thi s respect i t is an institutio n of national importance', Th e Times (1 4 May 1887) , p. 13 . It wa s Barber Beaumon t wh o i n 184 1 firs t bequeathe d mone y fo r th e project ; i t wa s Walte r Besant wh o se t ou t it s Utopia n programme ; an d i t wa s th e 'timel y munificence ' o f Sir Edmund Curri e whic h brough t th e projec t t o completion . Se e G. Godwin , Queen Mary College: An Adventure in Education (1939) ; G.P. Moss and M.V . Saville , From Palace to College (1985). 211 E.g . Nuclear Engineering Laboratory b y Playne and Lacey , 1953 ; 1961, using prestressed (a s opposed t o reinforced) concrete members for the first time in the London are a A.J., cxii (1950), 110 ; Engineering Faculty Building by the same firm, c. 1958, using a steel frame and concret e grid; School of Biological Sciences (1976) , a 'cascade' of steel and glass by th e Playn e Vallenc e Partnershi p (Fielde n an d Mawson ; P . Vallenc e an d A.J.S . Brown). 212 AJ.,cxxvii(1958),8 . 213 W . Beveridge , Th e L.S.E. an d its Problems, 1919-37 (1960) , 28 . Th e 'Ol d Building ' (1920-22) wa s added t o in 192 8 and 1931-2 . For Passmor e Edward s Hal l (1902 , by M.B . Adams, editor of the Building News; reconstructed 1934) , see The Sphere (3 1 May 1902) : ills; J. Beveridge , An Epic o f Clare Market (1960) , 51: ill.; Sir S. Caine, Th e Foundation of th e L.S.E. (1963), 80. 214 B y Cusdin, Burden and Howitt, £., ccxviii (1970), (9), 69-71; A. andB.N., v (1970), (3), 63. Cost £1'/ 2m.

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spot [fo r King's] . . . Turn out the [Inland] Revenue'. 215 That was the cry in 1912 , in 1914 , in 1918 , in 1926 , in 1944-but the tax-gatherers hun g on grimly to the finest riverfront i n London and one of the finest quadrangles in th e world . King' s ha d t o expor t it s schoolboy s t o Wimbledon, 216 it s medics to Camberwell,217 its theologians to Vincent Square,218 its ladies to Campden Hill. 219 It dug basements an d built annexes, an d waited. 220 Then i n th e autum n o f 196 3 the Robbin s Repor t appeared . Withi n tw o days of its publication, the Principal, Sir Peter Noble, wrote to the U.G.C. suggesting tha t a n idea l sit e fo r expansio n wa s righ t there , o n th e doorstep: Somerset House. 221 The Government ha d other ideas: million s of pounds were spent in building new universities in open fields. Instead of Somerset House, King's got a new building in the Strand . Two an d a quarter million pounds worth of concrete; erected 1966-72 ; architects: Trou p an d Steele ; consultants : J. Murra y Easto n an d E.D . Jeferiss Matthews . 'Th e scale . . . character [and ] colour' , it was claimed at th e time , 'assimilat e thos e o f Somerse t House , an d i n particula r maintain and emphasise the major horizontal motive. The facades . . . are in the form of boldly moulded pre-cast concrete exposed structural frames . . . finished in a coars e texture d granit e an d whit e spar aggregate . I t is hoped thi s will weather in the same black and white tones as ... Somerse t House . . . Th e ne w buildin g seem s almos t t o merg e int o th e existin g varied stree t pattern s . . . [Indee d it ] respect s it s neighbour s i n a wa y unusual for most modern buildings.' 222 Well it did no t , and i t does not. When Si r Peter Noble retired as Principal of King's in 197 2 it was said of him that at his death two words would be found engrave d upon his heart: 'Somerset House'. 223 It wa s th e reactio n agains t suc h thing s which produce d th e wav e of post-functional thinkin g which w e cal l Post-Modernism . Th e distanc e between th e Chemistr y Buildin g a t U.C.L . (1970 ) an d th e Quee n Mother's Buildin g at Westfiel d (1984 ) i s rather mor e tha n th e distanc e 215

P.P. 1911 , xx, 634 . I n 1897- 9 King' s Colleg e Schoo l move d fro m it s basement quarter s t o premises i n Wimbledon designe d b y Banister Fletcher . 217 I n 1904-1 0 King' s College Hospita l moved fro m Portuga l Stree t t o Denmark Hill , Camberwell, t o buildings designe d b y W.A. Pike. 218 Hostel , begu n 1913 , designed b y Arthur Martin . 219 Se e note 6. 220 'King' s College , face d wit h th e necessit y o f expanding o n a non-expandin g site , solved the problem by constructing extensive laboratories underground. In the light of the plans fo r its furthe r developmen t . . . thi s i s see n t o hav e bee n fortunate' , A.J., cxxvii , (1958), 8. 221 Huelin , King's College, p. 136 . 222 B., ccviii (1965) , 495; Concrete Quarterly (April-Jun e 1972) , 37-40 : 'Manner s in th e Strand'. The adjacen t Macada m Building, i f anything, is more Brutalist still. 223 Huelin , King's College, p. 147 . A poem by Prof . Eri c Mascall deserves to be better known: 216

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from Bloomsbur y to Hampstead. Fo r tabula rasa rea d contextua l values; for functio n rea d style . When W.H. Crossland' s Roya l Holloway College was opene d b y Quee n Victori a i n 1886 , i t ha d bee n greete d a s i n som e sense a solution to the Victorian dilemma of style. 'Mr Grassland', it was remarked, ha s 'gone forward a great stride on the road to the creation o f a new style.' 224 That was certainly wishful thinking . Crossland's synthesis of half-a-dozen Loir e chateaux remains firmly rooted i n the past. But it is not to o fancifu l t o se e just a littl e o f tha t mimeti c spiri t i n Si r Phili p Powell's latest addition to Mr Holloway's campus: twenty million pounds worth o f ne w building s designe d t o tak e a t leas t on e par t o f Londo n University into the twenty-first century. 224 From Chambord i n Surrey to suburban Post-Modern : th e architecture of London University continues to develop, if not at th e centre, then surely on the periphery. As w e hav e seen , th e architectur e o f London Universit y i s a mixe d inheritance. One migh t be tempted to conclude: 'Happy is the university which ha s n o architectura l history' . Bu t al l i s no t tota l gloom : th e Courtauld ha s moved to Somerset House, at last. In recent years we have certainly face d difficulties . Bu t a s H.A.L . Fishe r promise d i n 1922 , at a similar crisi s i n th e University' s history : 'commercia l depressio n an d industrial depression wil l not be with us for ever. Some day the sky will be clearer, an d som e day th e funds wil l be forthcoming.'225 Le t us hope that when tha t tim e come s w e d o no t mak e th e sam e mistake s a s ou r predecessors.

Standing i n the Strand at sunset, whil e the clock announced th e hour , I behel d a monstrous building , lik e a dreadful ogre' s tower , Musing t o the dulcet accent s of the sof t pneumati c drill , I discerned upon its peak th e noble legen d HIGG S and HILL. 'Higgs and Hill' ! my heart vibrated, ever y fibre felt th e thrill, While my awestruck lips repeated 'Hil l and Higgs! O, Higgs and Hill'. Dons replete with gin and Jaguars, students in your humbl e digs , Burying your mutua l hatchets , join in praise of Hill an d Higgs . Lives of great men al l remind us , we can al l for good or ill, Leave behin d u s concrete footprints, lik e the works of Higgs an d Hill' .

ibid., 199 . ' I a m sure' , announce d H.M . th e Queen , a t it s openin g i n 1972 , 'tha t [thi s building] wil l add to the reputation o f King's College.' The K.C.L. Association Magazin e proclaimed, 'i t take s th e College int o the space age'. In th e quadrangle, a s a final touch, was placed a statue b y Barbara Hepworth entitle d 'Ultimat e Form', ibid., 201-2. 224 I n marke d contras t t o Egham's earlie r Brutalism , conceive d b y Sir Leslie Marti n and Colin St John Wilson, A.R. cxxxiv (1963), 279. 225 Si r G. Foste r and H.A.L . Fisher, Th e University o f London: History, Present Resources and Future Possibilities (1922), 46.

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2 The Plainest Principles of Justice: The University of London and the Higher Education of Women1 Gillian Sutherland My titl e 'The Plainest Principles of Justice', is a quotation from a speech made b y tha t distinguishe d radical, Georg e Grote , pleading , a s Vice Chancellor i n 1862 , fo r th e admissio n o f wome n t o th e Universit y of London.2 O n tha t occasio n th e proposa l wa s los t i n th e Senat e b y th e casting vot e o f th e Chancellor. 3 Thre e time s i n th e ensuin g year s Convocation carried resolution s in favour of degrees for women, but only in 187 7 was th e Senat e prepare d t o promot e a Supplementa l Charter , which wa s grante d i n 1878 . Ou r knowledg e of th e conten t o f Grote' s speech i s unfortunatel y fragmentary , culle d fro m correspondenc e lon g after th e event. But I hope it is not wholly implausible to suggest that this argument followed line s similar to those pursued in the two classic texts of nineteenth-century Englis h feminis t thought : Mar y Wollstonecraft' s Vindication o f the Rights o f Women, firs t publishe d i n 179 2 an d Joh n Stuar t Mill's Th e Subjection o f Women, writte n in 1861 , the yea r befor e Grote' s speech, althoug h not publishe d until 1869 . The cor e of the argumen t in each cas e was: women are huma n beings an d n o more to be denied th e

1

A version of this essay was first delivered a s a lecture at Royal Hollowa y and Bedfor d New Colleg e i n Novembe r 1986 . I n preparin g bot h lectur e an d essa y i t ha s bee n a particular pleasur e t o begin t o explore the archive so admirably looke d after by Elizabeth Bennett; and t o learn of and draw on the work being done on the history of Royal Hollowa y College b y Carolin e Bingha m an d o n th e histor y o f Bedford b y Marigol d Pakenham Walsh. I have als o gained greatly fro m discussion s wit h the historian o f the University of London, Negle y Harte . Negle y Harte , Th e University o f London 1836-1986: A n Illustrated History (1986); Caroline Bingham, The History of the Royal Holloway College (1987). 2 Negle y Harte , Th e Admission o f Women t o University College, London. A Centenary Lecture (1979), p. 16. 3 Emil y Davies , Women i n th e Universities o f England and Scotland (Cambridge , 1896) , Appendix A .

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benefits o f education tha n an y other members of the human race. 4 Put lik e that i t sounds simple, straightforward an d blindingly , almost boringly, obvious . Bu t i f w e embar k o n a further , mor e detaile d examination o f many people's notions of human nature , w e find them t o be profoundly influenced, although not always explicitly, by gender. Thus an examinatio n o f th e debate s abou t th e highe r educatio n o f women within th e Universit y of London, o f th e provisio n made , offer s way s of examining som e deep-rooted assumption s about bot h gender and highe r education an d th e interactio n o f the tw o i n nineteenth - an d twentieth century England . Suc h a n examinatio n offers , i n particular , way s o f exploring th e perennial debate amon g feminists: i s there such a condition as 'equa l but different' ; an d way s of identifying mor e clearly some of the cultural encrustations which surround our notions of higher education. I t can help us look at the hidden as well as the overtly prescribed curriculum, the associations , pattern s o f behaviour , whol e life-styl e expecte d t o g o with th e subjects formally studie d an d examined . I t i s with this cultural matrix that I want to begin. The great , th e revolutionar y featur e abou t th e Universit y of London was that it did not require residence of its students. It began in 1836 purely as an examining body. Even when, at the end of the nineteenth century, it acquired a teachin g function , i t stil l retaine d it s externa l wor k an d examining role. 5 This great fact allowe d the separation of the questions of how and in what context you learnt, from the question of what you learnt. The appropriatenes s o f suc h a separatio n wa s hotl y debate d i n nineteenth-century England . Th e patter n offere d b y Oxfor d an d Cambridge - fo r some the model - wa s a residential, full-tim e one ; and this was a very potent influence o n one of the most celebrated contributor s to th e debate , J.H. Newman . I n Discourse VI of hi s Th e Idea o f a University, first published i n 1852 , he argued a s follows : if I ha d t o choos e betwee n a so-calle d University , whic h dispense d wit h residence an d tutoria l superintendence , an d gav e it s degree s t o an y perso n who passe d a n examinatio n i n a wid e rang e o f subjects, an d a Universit y which had n o professors or examinations at all, but merely brought a number of young men together fo r three or four years, and then sent them away . .. If I wer e aske d whic h o f thes e tw o method s wa s th e bette r disciplin e o f th e intellect, . . . i f I mus t determin e whic h o f th e tw o course s wa s th e mor e 4

I n he r dedicatio n o f th e Vindication t o Talleyrand , Mar y Wollstonecraf t 'loudl y demands Justice fo r one half th e huma n race' . Mil l wrote, 'Th e disabilities, therefore, to which women are subject from th e mere fact of their birth, are the solitary examples of the kind in modern legislation. In no instance except this, which comprehends hal f the human race, are th e higher social functions close d agains t an y one by a fatality of birth which no exertions, and n o change of circumstances can overcome.' (Worl d Classics Edn., 1912, p. 449) 5 Harte , University o f London, pp. 68-76 .

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successful i n training, moulding, enlarging the mind, which sent out men th e more fitted for their secular duties, which produced bette r public men, men of the world, men whose names would descend t o posterity, I have no hesitation in giving the preference to that University which did nothing, over that which exacted o f its members a n acquaintance with every science under the sun . . . How is this to be explained? I suppose as follows: when a multitude of young men, keen, open-hearted, sympatheti c and observant, as young men are, come together an d freel y mi x wit h eac h other , the y ar e sur e t o lear n on e fro m another, even if there is no-one to teach them; the conversation of all is a series of lectures t o each , an d the y gain fo r themselves ne w idea s an d views , fres h matter o f thought, and distinc t principles for judging and acting , da y by day. It is seeing the world on a small field with little trouble; for the . . . students come from very different places , and with widely different notions , and there is much t o generalize , muc h t o adjust , muc h t o eliminate , ther e ar e inter relations to be defined, and conventional rules to be established in the process, by which th e whole assemblage i s moulded togethe r and gain s one tone an d one character.6

This i s th e mos t emphati c statemen t possibl e o f th e importanc e o f a hidden curriculum; of the priorty to be attached to the socialising functio n of higher education. Her e he is asserting that th e process matter s at least as much as the content. Indeed, h e goes further, i n claiming that sharin g social lif e is even more important tha n sharin g teaching . What is the special relevance of this to the higher education of women? Why coul d we not re-state the core of Newman's argument like this: when a multitud e of young me n and women, keen, open-hearted, sympatheti c and observant , a s youn g people are, come togethe r an d freel y mi x wit h eac h other, they are sure to learn one from another .

But free exchanges between the sexes had n o place in Victorian notions of the behaviour appropriate to young ladies and young gentlemen together. Discussions betwee n the m wer e expecte d t o b e ver y carefull y circumscribed indeed : a whole range of topics was taboo an d chaperone s were invariably expected t o be present. Let me try to illustrate the pervasiveness of such attitudes. The need to find chaperone s wa s a featur e o f lif e a t Bedford , a t Roya l Hollowa y College an d a t th e Oxfor d women' s college s unti l th e en d o f the Firs t World War . A t Cambridge it appears to have lasted even into the 1920s. 7 AJ. Munby , tha t extraordinar y mid-Victoria n barrister , fascinate d obsessed - b y th e detai l o f workin g women' s lives , maintaine d tha t friendship betwee n a ma n an d a woma n wa s onl y possibl e across clas s boundaries: tha t i s t o say , whe n th e differenc e i n socia l statu s between 6

J.H. Newman, The Idea of a University (first published London 1852), Discourse VI, 'Knowledge Viewed in Relation to Learning', s. 9.

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them was such that there could be no prospect of marriage. Havin g spen t an evenin g alone i n her roo m wit h a milliner called Louis a Baker , cosily drinking tea , discussin g he r employmen t prospect s an d th e questio n of emigration t o Australia , h e reflected : 'Wit h th e me n o f her ow n clas s i t would b e indelicate t o associate a s friends; fo r modesty is an affai r o f class as wel l a s sex , an d wit h the m suc h intercours e woul d certainl y b e misconstrued.'8 Nor were such scruples confined t o the middle and upper classes. The y exerted a powerfu l forc e o n thos e aspirin g t o join th e middl e classes . I n 1889 th e newl y appointe d Principa l o f Homerton , th e Congregationa l Training Colleg e fo r Teachers , foun d himsel f t o b e hea d o f a dua l institution, one for men and on e for women. Since the elementary schools in which his students were destined t o teach were mixed, he set out to try to integrat e thei r training . H e mixe d classes , forme d a Literar y Societ y and held social evenings. Both the Literary Society and the social evenings had t o be discontinued: th e Literary Societ y because the girls objected 'they could not speak freely before the men and therefor e did not enjoy th e meetings'; th e socia l evening s becaus e th e me n behave d badly . H e concluded mournfully : The rea l objection to full freedom is that our men as a class are low in tone and few o f the girl s also an d livin g in the sam e buildin g we must regulate for th e worst not for the best. It i s a case of preserving the unfit fro m themselves. 9

For poo r M r Horobi n th e share d socia l lif e presente d mor e problem s than th e shared classes . Ye t in the Newman - th e Oxbridge - mode l of higher education it was a crucial part of the whole, in many ways the most crucial part. The colleges of Oxford and Cambridge were quintessentially male enclaves. 10 I t wa s thu s n o straightforwar d matte r t o assimilat e higher educatio n fo r women to a model of higher education derived fro m Oxbridge. The Universit y of Oxford admitte d wome n to degrees onl y in 7 Carolin e Bingham , Social Life i n a Women's College: Royal Hollowqy College, the First Fifty Years 1887-1937, Centenar y Lectur e 1986 , pp . 23-4 ; Elizabet h Bennett , Women's College Education - th e Bedford Experience, Centenar y Lectur e 1986 , p . 19 ; I a m indebte d t o Mr s Bingham and t o Mrs Bennet t for allowing me to see the texts of their lectures and t o cite them. Vera Brittain, The Women at Oxford (1960), pp. 154-5. Ann Phillips, ed., A Newnham Anthology (Cambridge , 1979) , p. 135 . 8 Dere k Hudson, Munby, Ma n of Tw o Worlds (1972) , p. 2 0 (1 February 1859) . 9 Homerto n College , Cambridge , Archives , 'Th e Relationshi p o f th e Sexe s a t Homerton College' , M r Horobin' s Memorandu m o n Dua l Organisation , 1894 . I a m indebted t o Homerton Colleg e for permission t o quote from this . 10 Fo r various manifestations and th e general importance of these, see Brian Harrison , Separate Spheres: Th e Opposition t o Women's Suffrage i n Britain (1978) esp. ch. 5 , 'Clubland' an d 'Women i n a Men' s House : th e Wome n M.P.s , 1919-1945 ' Historical Journal, xxix (1986 ) pp. 623-54, esp. pp. 629-30.

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1920; and th e University o f Cambridge di d not do so until 1948 . But th e Oxbridge mode l was not the only one available t o nineteenthcentury England . Th e Scottis h universitie s ha d bee n doin g thing s differently - an d most successfull y - fo r some considerabl e time . There teaching wa s share d bu t no t necessaril y social life. 11 I n drawin g clea r distinctions firs t betwee n residenc e an d teachin g an d the n betwee n teaching an d presentatio n fo r examinations , th e ne w Universit y o f London brough t eve n greater flexibility. This was a situation in which it was very much easier t o argue for the admission of women to degrees. To sa y this , however, is not t o suggest that th e Universit y of London was untouche d by , o r i n som e specia l wa y insulate d from , th e socia l conventions of the day. Par t o f the campaign t o admit women to degrees consisted o f showing bot h tha t ther e wa s deman d fo r higher educatio n from women and that this could be expressed in an orderly and disciplined way. I n 186 8 a committe e was se t up , base d o n Universit y College, t o provide classe s fo r 'ladies', analogou s t o thos e alread y provide d fo r th e men student s o f th e College . Thi s Committe e spen t a considerabl e amount o f time on devices to keep male and female students separate, not only i n th e lectur e rooms bu t i n their comings and goings . Eventuall y it was agreed tha t lectures for men should begin and en d on the hour, while those fo r wome n shoul d begi n an d en d o n th e half-hour . Practica l considerations, such as the use of equipment, gradually brought a handful of shared classes. But there had t o be separate entrances t o these; an d in the autum n o f 187 0 a whol e new doo r wa s knocke d into the Chemistry Laboratory, th e Ladies' Association having given a guarantee to cover the cost of blocking it up again, if the female demand for chemistry were to fall off.12 Propriet y weighe d eve n mor e heavil y wit h th e Counci l o f King' s College, wh o would have no ladies in the Strand, even coming and goin g on the half-hour. They responded t o the Supplemental Charter of 1877 by opening their College for Ladies in Kensington in 1878. 13 But perhap s th e mos t interestin g an d tellin g manifestatio n o f continuing male unease in the face of the idea of co-education - an d one which affected Oxford , Cambridge an d London alike-was the continuing pressure for the foundation of a 'Women's University', that is to say, not a women's college, which might be part of a larger, heterosexual whole, but a self-contained , degree-giving institution for women alone, situated well away from an y male enclave. We may call this the 'Princess phenomenon', or even the 'Princess Ida phenomenon', depending on whether we prefer the images of Tennyson's poem , first published in 1847 , or of the Gilbert an d Sullivan operetta , firs t produce d i n 188 4 an d style d b y compose r an d 11

R.D . Anderson , Education an d Opportunity i n Victorian Scotland: Schools an d Universities (Oxford, 1983) , ch . 2 esp. pp . 29-3 0 an d 35 . 12 Harte , Women a t U.C.L., pp. 12-13 . 13 Nevill e Marsh, Th e History o f Queen Elizabeth College (1986) , ch . 1 esp. pp . 7-8 .

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author, 'a respectful operatic /w-version of the poem'.14 I have wondere d whether th e notio n exerte d a fleetin g influenc e o n Emil y Davies , th e foundress o f Girton , wh o site d he r firs t establishmen t a t Hitchin , equidistant fro m Oxfor d an d Cambridge . Certainl y w e ma y speculat e about the attractions of the idea for Thomas Holloway , in choosing his site at Egha m an d i n framing Clause 2 of his Deed o f Foundation : It i s the Founder's desire that power by Act of Parliament, Royal Charter, or otherwise should ultimately be sought, enabling the College to confer degrees upon it s student s afte r prope r examinatio n i n th e variou s subject s o f instruction. 15 At firs t som e o f th e Roya l Hollowa y Colleg e student s too k Londo n examinations a s externa l student s an d other s too k Oxfor d examinations.16 National development s i n th e 1890 s prompte d a full-scal e review o f this. The schemes to make the University of London a teaching university, thereby establishin g a framework within which Royal Holloway College might fin d a n appropriat e place , seeme d t o be gathering momentu m a t last. A t th e sam e time , bot h Oxfor d an d Cambridg e debate d - an d rejected - grantin g degrees to women.17 In December 1897 , therefore, the Governors o f Royal Hollowa y Colleg e hel d a great publi c conferenc e in London, at the Society of Arts. There were three questions on the agenda: 1. I s it desirable to apply for a separate Charter to enable Holloway College to confer degrees on its students? 2. Is i t desirabl e t o initiat e a schem e fo r a Women' s Universit y o f which Holloway College should form a part? 3. Is i t desirabl e tha t Hollowa y College should b e included i n th e proposed teaching University for London? Over a hundre d peopl e attended ; contribution s wer e rea d fro m variou s distinguished absentees ; an d debat e wa s animated.18 Nobody reall y argued for 1. — the separate charter . The case for 2. - th e 14 Quote d b y Janet Soundheimer , Castle Adamant i n Hampstead: A History o f Westfald College, 1882-1982 (1983 ) p . 7 . For Tennyson' s poem an d it s context , se e John Killham, Tennyson and 'The Princess': Reflections of an Age (1958). 15 Quoted on p. 3 of University Degrees for Women: Report of a Conference convened by the Governors of Royal Holloway College and held at the House of the Society of Arts on Saturday, 4 December 1897 (1898) (henceforwar d 759 7 Conference Proceedings}. 16 Bingham , Social Life, p . 15 . 17 Harte , University o f London, pp . 142-60 ; Brittain, Women a t Oxford, pp . 106-8 ; Rita McWilliams-Tullberg, Women a t Cambridge: A Men's University - Though o f a Mixed Type (1975) ch. 8. 18 1897 Conference Proceedings.

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Women's Universit y - wa s put i n the mai n b y men from Oxfor d an d Cambridge wh o wishe d t o extrud e th e wome n fro m thos e universities . The lea d i n arguin g th e cas e fo r 3 . - involvemen t wit h a teachin g University o f London - wa s taken b y Sophi e Bryant , a distinguishe d member o f Bedford College , th e firs t woma n D.Sc . o f the Universit y of London and , a t tha t point , headmistres s o f the North Londo n Collegiat e School. 'Ther e is', she declared: no deman d i n th e school s for a separat e Universit y fo r women. The lette r which ha s bee n circulate d fro m th e 15 0 members o f the Head-Mistresses ' Association stands in evidence. Indeed, I have never met with a woman who for herself wanted a Women's University. I have never even met with a woman who kne w an y othe r woman who desire d to mak e us e of such a University . Oxford, Cambridge, London (and the Northern Universities) fill the vision of aspiring students. The reaso n for this persistent preference is not, even in the abstract, hard t o find. Most persons' ideal of learning is largely made up of a desire to be one of the learned, and t o fulfil th e accepted definition of learning, whatever that may be. The definitio n o f learning must always be, in the main, what men make it, and ther e is therefore a strong permanent motive for taking that definition as we find it already established to begin with, though not to the exclusion of such share as our future success may give us in its development. Moreover on reflection i t appears that, after all , the great variety of the work which me n hav e t o d o i n th e worl d require s s o muc h opportunit y for specialization, sid e by sid e with genera l culture, i n a man' s University, tha t any qualitative peculiarity which later wisdom might discover as appropriate to a woman's course of study, would be a very small matter in comparison. 19

There wer e man y mor e contribution s in simila r vein . Th e Re v T.H . Grose, th e Registra r o f th e Universit y o f Oxford , summe d up : 'Th e scheme for the establishment of a separate Universit y for women is dead. (Loud applause)'. 20 Alas, he was a little premature: th e scheme surfaced quite seriousl y agai n i n Cambridg e i n 1920. 21 Bu t fo r Royal Hollowa y College, thi s discussio n wa s decisive . Unde r th e generalshi p o f Emily Penrose, whos e translatio n fro m th e Principalshi p o f Bedfor d t o th e Principalship o f Royal Holloway College had bee n agree d just befor e the conference an d wa s announce d fiv e day s afte r it, 22 Roya l Hollowa y College mad e successfu l applicatio n t o becom e a schoo l o f th e ne w teaching Universit y of London. Thi s course of action was followed also by Westfield College , whic h had bee n founded in 1882. 23 In he r powerful speech, Sophi e Bryant had contended , 'w e want what 19 20 21

Ibid., pp. 18-19 . Ibid., p. 41.

McWilliams-Tullberg , Women a t Cambridge, p . 157. I am indebted t o Mrs Bingham for this information. 23 Bingham , Social Life, p . 15 ; Sondheimer, Castle Adamant, pp. 57-9 .

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other peopl e understan d b y highe r education' . Th e poin t wa s under scored by Arthur Sidgwick, wh o asked , How is the present education unsuited to women, I should like to know? Ou r experience at Oxford is rather curious in this respect: we ourselves began with the notion (being inexperienced and no t having worked it out) of 'education adapted t o women' ; an d th e whol e progres s of our wor k ha s bee n towards realizing that the one thing wanted was systematic study and systematic study as it had bee n laid down by long experience for men. (Hear, hear.)24

There was , amongs t th e protagonist s fo r women's highe r education , a grave scepticis m a s t o whethe r ther e coul d b e suc h a thin g a s a highe r education equa l t o but differen t fro m tha t provided fo r men. They could not b e sure of parity o f esteem until their opportunities wer e identical to those offere d men . W e ca n constru e th e debat e abou t a 'Women' s University' not only as a debate about higher education as a male enclave but als o abou t th e natur e o f equality. And i f we pursue this further, w e begin t o see that there are two battle grounds. Th e first is the obvious one, the curriculum, both formal and informal . The secon d is participation in university government . Argument abou t th e forma l curriculu m centre d o n th e questio n o f whether ther e shoul d b e specia l 'women' s subjects' . I n th e main , th e supporters o f women's highe r educatio n i n the late nineteenth and earl y twentieth centuries set their faces against this . It was a position the y had considerable difficult y i n establishin g i n th e earl y years , becaus e o f the absence o f an y systemati c secondar y educatio n fo r girls . Thu s a t th e beginning, Bedford , and, t o a lesser extent Royal Hollowa y Colleg e and Westfield, had t o do some very basic work with their students.25 The need for systemati c secondar y educatio n fo r girls wa s a s pressin g a s tha t for higher education ; an d thi s helps t o explain wh y the school section of the early Bedfor d College becam e s o successful a s to threaten th e res t of the enterprise. Bu t th e objectiv e remaine d th e ful l curriculu m an d degree level studies for the majority; and Emil y Davies of Girton spoke warmly of Bedford's achievemen t i n thi s respec t a t th e grea t conferenc e i n 1897. 26 Arthur Acland, chairman of the Bedford College Council 1903-13 proudly told the Royal Commission on the University of London, sitting under the chairmanship of Haldane, in 1910, that Bedford aimed to be an institutio n

24

759 7 Conference Proceedings, p. 47 . Gillia n Sutherland , 'Th e Movement fo r the Higher Educatio n o f Women: it s Social and Intellectua l Context in Englan d c. 1849-1880' i n P.J . Waller, ed., Political and Social Change in Modern Britain: Essays Presented to A.F. Thompson (Hassocks , 1987 ) pp. 91-116 ; p . 107; Sondheimer , Castle Adamant, esp. p . 31 ; Margaret J . Tuke , A History o f Bedford College for Women, 1849-1937 (1939) esp. pp. 61-2, 115. 26 1897 Conference Proceedings, pp. 33-4 . 25

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strictly comparable t o University College and King's. 27 King's Colleg e fo r Women wa s th e exceptio n i n thi s company . The y had bee n slowe r tha n th e othe r women' s college s t o move toward s full scale degree-level work. They had als o taken the lead in the development of a n entirel y distinctiv e women' s course . 'Hom e Science' . Th e Management Committee for this course outline d thei r objectiv e in 1910 : We wish to attract the girl of the leisured class who, having left school, has both the tim e an d th e desir e t o follo w som e cours e o f stud y whic h ma y b e o f practical us e to her, either in home life or in social or philanthropic work.28

The representative s o f King's Colleg e fo r Women als o expounde d thei r position to the Haldane Commission - and received a very tart response : We are doubtful whether the University should continue to bear the burden of supplying lecture s in literar y an d scientifi c subjects , or instructio n in musi c and th e fine arts for the ladies of Kensington who can devote only their spar e time to them, or as finishing courses of study for girls after leavin g school.29

This condemnation, couple d with the success of Dr John Atkins in raising funds fo r Home Science , le d t o th e transmogrificatio n of King's Colleg e for Wome n int o King' s Colleg e o f Househol d an d Socia l Science , eventually to become Quee n Elizabet h College. 30 The othe r issu e which raised question s of the mos t fundamenta l kind about th e natur e o f equalit y wa s tha t o f participatio n i n universit y government. Man y wome n hope d — and man y me n feare d — that a s women students took a full part in the life and work of a university, so their teachers, female as well as male, would take a full share in the government of th e university . Th e sensitivit y of th e questio n wa s pinpointe d ver y clearly onc e agai n a t th e conferenc e of 1897 . Mr s A.H . Johnson, of the Oxford Societ y o f Hom e Students , wa s th e onl y woma n speake r t o entertain th e ide a o f a separat e Women' s University , an d on e o f he r grounds wa s the following : University men ar e no t willing that women should share fully i n the lif e of the universities. I don't mea n to say they are not willing that women should go in for thei r examinations or hav e the advantage o f the same education, becaus e we know tha t the y are, an d sinc e we began ou r wor k in Oxfor d w e have all 27 Reports an d Minutes o f Evidence o f th e Royal Commission on University Education in London, P.P. 1910 , XXIII , P.P . 191 1 XX , P.P . 1912-1 3 XXII an d P.P . 191 3 XI (henceforwar d Haldane Commission): P.P. 191 1 XX qq . 7196-8 . 28 Quote d Marsh , Queen Elizabeth College, p. 38. 29 Haldane Commission, P.P . 191 1 X X f . 665 betwee n qq . 907 7 an d 9078 , Not e b y Si r Arthur Rucker and qq . 3924- 7 (evidenc e o f Miss Oakley); P.P. 191 3 XI, para . 177. 30 Marsh , Queen Elizabeth College, chs. 3 , 4 and 5 .

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along been met with the greatest possible sympathy. But the y are not willing that wome n shal l shar e i n th e lif e o f th e University , o r for m par t o f it s governing body , o r b e associate d wit h me n i n al l th e highe r wor k o f th e University. Therefore wome n wil l never be , s o far as we can see, in the sam e position as the men who are managing the colleges for men. It may be right or it may be wrong, but the fact remains that we are no more liked now than when we began.31 Mrs Johnson' s remark s certainl y fitte d th e Oxfor d an d Cambridg e situations. An d th e Londo n wome n foun d tha t th e inclusio n o f th e women's college s as school s o f the ne w Universit y of London afte r 190 0 did no t rapidl y brin g a commensurat e involvemen t in it s government. The Haldan e Commissio n was confronted with a petition from sixty-one of the sixty-eight women who by 191 0 were recognised teachin g officers of the University . The y pointe d ou t tha t ther e wa s onl y a singl e woma n member o f the Senate and complaine d bitterl y that the present structure allowed 'n o adequate expressio n b y women of their views on University matters'. But on the remedy they were sadly divided. Twenty-nine were so opposed t o the notion of positive discrimination that they had no proposal to offer. Bu t a further thirt y wer e prepared to contemplate som e positiv e discrimination, a t leas t i n th e shor t term , an d argue d fo r some Senat e seats to be reserved for women.32 The outbrea k o f the Firs t Worl d Wa r pre-empte d an y actio n o n th e Haldane Commission's Report; and the government only addressed itself again to the reconstruction o f the central governmen t o f the University of London i n the second hal f of the 1920s , following the report of the Hilton Young Committee. The revise d constitutio n side-stepped th e issue of the representation o f wome n pe r se . Bu t increase d representatio n o f institutions i n th e Senat e gav e the head s o f the women' s schools seats ex officio.33 The women' s appetite s ha d bee n whetted, of course, by the hard-wo n experience gained in the management of their own institutions. Long gone were the days when Erasmus Darwi n coul d complain of the time taken in meetings at Bedford becaus e ladies had n o idea of committee work.34 But this doe s rais e question s abou t th e way s i n whic h college s fo r wome n students only , staffe d increasingl y b y women , relate d t o th e fierc e preoccupation wit h equality . Just a s twenty-nin e o f thos e recognise d women teacher s i n 191 0 could no t brin g themselve s to contemplate an y form o f positive discrimination, colleges for women only could b e seen as at odds with the determination t o secure identit y o f treatment with men .

31

759 7 Conference Proceedings, pp. 52-3 . Haldane Commission, P.P. 191 1 XX qq . 3640-6 . 33 Tuke , Bedford College, pp. 194-5 . 34 Ibid. p. 89. 32

Women i n the University o f London 4

5

Why di d the y no t concentrat e al l their energie s on existin g institutions, like University College? While the ultimate objective might be complete equality, few, from th e redoubtable Emil y Davie s onwards , denie d tha t th e rea l worl d wa s currently exceedingl y ww-equa l in it s treatmen t of men an d women . No r was transformation of this going to come overnight. In th e meantime- in effect, i n the forseeable futur e - women' s college s represente d practica l mechanisms fo r moving forward, for demonstrating th e cas e for change . Since th e existin g institution s offere d wome n littl e or n o scop e t o sho w what they could do, they must create their own opportunities. Colleges for women migh t be described a s crucial transitiona l devices . This case was at its starkest and strongest when Bedford began in 1849. But th e emergence o f what migh t be called th e 'U.C.L. option' after 187 8 did not wholly undermine it. For a start, while the enthusiasts for women's education migh t se e complete equalit y a s an ultimat e goal , no t al l thei r charges - or their charges' parent s - wer e prepared t o folilow all the way. As Margaret Tuke, th e Principal o f Bedford, pointed ou t t o the Haldane Commission, man y parent s preferre d a single sex college. She also went on t o argu e tha t suc h a colleg e provide d valuabl e opportunitie s fo r corporate life , mor e so than a mixed college.35 This wa s a view shared b y Emily Penrose, by Thomas Holloway , tojudge from th e terms of his Trust Deed, an d b y th e Counci l of Westfield, wher e corporate lif e wa s given a distinctively Evangelical flavour. 36 In thi s collectiv e stan d ther e ar e severa l strand s whic h ar e wort h unravelling. I n th e first plac e ther e wa s recognitio n - whateve r th e ultimate objectives - of the inhibitions engendered by the prevailing social conventions. Remember the problems Mr Horobin ha d with the Literary Society at Homerton . I n th e second place , ther e was acceptance o f some part o f Newman's argumen t about the contribution of shared debat e an d shared experienc e to the educative process. This was a view they held in common wit h man y o f those me n wh o argue d fo r London t o becom e a teaching university. 37 But there was also here a strand of argument whic h related specifically to women. It was the claim that collegiate life was even more importan t fo r the m tha n fo r men , give n th e pervasivenes s o f th e nineteenth-century assumptio n tha t women' s paramoun t dut y wa s t o their families . They were daughters , sisters , wives , mothers , befor e the y were people . The y ha d spac e an d tim e fo r themselve s an d thei r ow n 35

Haldane Commission, P.P. 191 1 XX qq . 7212 , 7215-6. Bedford College Magazine, 2 9 Marc h 1896 , p . 9 (Penrose) ; Haldane Commission, P.P . 1911 XX ff. 635-6 between qq . 8489 and 8490, Statement o n behalf of Westfield College by Lord Alverstone and Miss Constance Maynard. 37 Se e e.g. Acland' s evidenc e t o th e Haldan e Commissio n o n th e organisatio n o f the University o f London i n general , P.P . 191 1 X X qq . 7341-70 . The Commissio n actuall y recommended th e phasing-out of external degree s - Harte , University o f London, p. 193 . 36

46 Th

e University o f London, 1836-1986

concerns only when all other claims had been met. It took nine bitter years of conflict wit h he r parent s an d siste r befor e Florenc e Nightingal e was able t o begi n t o trai n t o nurse. 38 I n 189 4 a lette r t o th e Bedford College Magazine which began firmly, 'No girl can be happy whose sole object of existence is fancy wor k and novels' , continued, Home dutie s mus t tak e precedenc e o f all others , whateve r ou r inclination s may be . A n onl y daughter shoul d b e a companio n t o her mother , instea d of shutting herself up t o study languages, mathematics or any subject, however improving . . . Of course I am not speaking of those who have to earn their own living, when undivided attention to a profession renders severance from hom e unavoidable, bu t o f girls wh o ar e no t compelle d b y circumstance s to leave home and mak e their own way in the world.39

Even in families which accepted th e idea of education for women, notions of duty continue d t o pres s most powerfully. 40 I t i s worth rememberin g that Virgini a Wool f s essay , A Room o f One's Own, tha t incomparabl e evocation o f the we b o f constraints surroundin g wome n an d inhibiting creativity, is a product of the 1920s , based on talks given at Newnham and Girton i n 192 8 and publishe d i n 1929. Virginia Wool f recognised th e attempt women's colleges made t o give precious tim e and spac e t o their students . She also recognise d tha t the y did s o a s perenniall y th e poo r relations . I t i s a cr y stil l t o b e hear d i n Cambridge; othe r financia l problem s apart , Newnha m ha s neve r quite lived down her description o f its food! The cr y of poverty also has peculiar resonance fo r London . Fro m th e creatio n o f the teachin g universit y i n 1900 onwards, London has worried about the position of what it has come to call the 'small multi-faculty schools' - whic h in the main have consisted of th e women' s colleges . Bedfor d secure d it s plac e a s a schoo l o f th e reconstructed universit y in 190 0 o n th e firs t roun d o f negotiation. Bu t Royal Hollowa y Colleg e an d Westfiel d ha d t o figh t severa l round s fo r their inclusion. And then they had t o do it all over again in the second half of th e 1920s , followin g th e Repor t o f th e Hilto n Youn g Committee. 41 There i s a stron g sens e o f deja v u in findin g Bedford , Roya l Hollowa y College, Westfiel d Colleg e an d Quee n Elizabet h College singled ou t for discussion i n th e Murra y Repor t i n 197 2 and agai n b y the Swinnerton38

Ceci l Woodham-Smith, Florence Nightingale, 1820-1910 (1950 ) chs . Ill, IV an d V . Marc h 1894 , pp. 10-11 . 40 Dam e Margaret Tuke had had her own experience of this - se e Victoria Glendinning, A Suppressed Cry: Life an d Death of a Quaker Daughter (1969 ) esp. pp. 47-53 . 41 Sondheimer , Castle Adamant, pp . 57-8 , 99-100 ; not e th e omissio n of all mentio n of Westfield an d Roya l Hollowa y Colleg e i n th e relevan t sectio n o f th e Report o f th e Departmental Committee on the University o f London, 1924-26 (Hilton Young Committee) P.P . 192 6 X, para . 57. Cf. also Gregory Foster' s remark s to Margare t Tuk e i n 1907 , quoted Tuke, Bedford College, p. 195 . 39

Women i n the University o f London 4

7

Dyer Committee a decade later . The worries expressed by Murray abou t '"viability", both in terms of administration and more especially, of

academic effectiveness' hav e an all-too-familiar ring.42 Gregory Foster , th e Provos t o f Universit y College , argue d t o th e Haldane Commissio n in 191 0 that the difficulties o f the women's colleges were difficulties o f size, not of gender.43 But the former is a consequence of the latter . Th e 'smallness ' o f small, multi-faculty school s has its roots in their origin s a s women' s colleges ; an d i n thi s sense, i f no other , gende r continues to play a part i n the patterning of higher education in the 1970 s and 1980s , even if not exactly the part it played in the 1870 s and 1880s . Let m e tr y t o mak e th e connection s clearer . Historically , women' s colleges hav e bee n smal l an d fo r the mos t part , poor . The y wer e small because th e demand fro m wome n for higher education, though vital and consistent, wa s small bot h i n absolut e terms an d a s a proportio n o f the whole. As late as 1938- 9 women represented just 23 per cen t of the total university population o f Great Britain . By 1962 the proportion ha d crep t up to 25 per cent. 44 Smallness of size contributed to poverty in that it limited income from fees. Bu t i n addition , wit h th e singl e magnificent exception o f Thoma s Holloway, th e women's college s attracte d n o big benefactors. 45 Indeed , the veteran campaigner fo r women's education, Maria Grey , had written from he r sick-be d t o th e grea t conferenc e of 189 7 that th e schem e fo r a Women's Universit y must be opposed if only because: 'This proposal will divert the funds, always so hard t o get for educational purposes, especiall y women's'. An d a t tha t sam e conference , Emil y Davie s ha d pointe d t o what she hoped was the way ahead - state funding: Bedford being the first women's colleg e t o attrac t a gran t fro m th e Universit y Grant s Committee.46 This backgroun d an d histor y constituted a relativel y low base fro m which t o expand. The women' s college s se t themselves t o respond t o the call for expansion associated with the Robbins Report of 1963 as strongly as the y could . Th e studen t population s o f Royal Hollowa y Colleg e an d Westfield Colleg e treble d i n siz e between 196 2 and 1973 . And Bedford,

42 Final Report o f th e Committee o f Enquiry into th e Governance o f th e University o f London (Murray Report) (1972 ) para s 13 1 and 14 6 - fro m whic h th e direc t quotatio n comes . University of London Committee on Academic Organisation (Swinner ton-Dyer Committee) Secon d Discussion Document CAO/510, 28.5.1981, paras 45, 56-66. 43 P.P . 191 1 XX qq. 9571-4 . 44 Report o f th e Committee on Higher Education, 1961-3 (Robbins Committee) Appendix Two (A): Students and their Education 1963 Cmnd. 2154-11, para. 13 , Table 9. 45 Sutherland , 'Highe r Educatio n o f Women' , p . 96 ; Janet Howart h an d Mar k Curthoys, 'The Political Economy of Women's Higher Education i n late Nineteenth- an d early Twentieth-Centur y Britain ' i n Historical Research L X (1987) . Se e als o Harte , University o f London, p. 256 , Tabl e 6.4 . 46 1897 Conference Proceedings, pp. 3 0 and 34 .

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e University o f London, 1836-1986

Westfield and Royal Holloway College followe d Queen Elizabet h College in deciding to admit men as undergraduates.47 But even trebling in size in a decade, with all the strains tha t that imposes , wa s not enough to turn a small school into a large school . There was also an aspect of the expansion proposed b y Robbins whic h presented peculia r problem s fo r institutions with sizeable populations of women students. Th e Robbins Committe e propose d a massive expansio n in highe r educatio n a s a whole, envisaging a student populatio n in 198 0 two an d a hal f time s th e siz e of that i n 1962 . They di d no t specificall y apportion th e increases betwee n men and wome n but in practice appea r to have envisaged a more or less equal ultimate distribution between the sexes o f the extr a places . A t th e sam e tim e they proposed tha t th e lion's share o f the extr a place s shoul d b e provided i n scienc e and technology . These two sets of proposals pulle d one against the other. As John Carswell has pointe d out , i n orde r t o divid e thes e 'extr a places ' i n scienc e an d technology equall y betwee n me n an d women , 'th e numbe r o f women studying that group of subjects at universities would almost have to treble in fiv e year s . . . an d increas e mor e tha n eightfol d i n les s tha n twent y years.'48 Th e Robbin s Committe e themselve s ha d note d tha t th e proportion o f science students who were women was lower in 1962 than it had bee n just befor e Worl d Wa r II; 49 an d wit h ou r time-scal e of one hundred an d fifty years we can see that social revolutions on the scale they apparently took for granted, take a little longer than tw o decades. The college s whic h began as women's college s hav e a heroic record i n the struggle to transform the trickle of women students in these fields into a stream. 50 But a strea m canno t b e transformed int o a rive r overnight . Even a decisio n t o fill every possible place wit h a mal e scienc e student would not have solved all the problems an d enabled eve n faster growth. In the firs t place , th e Robbin s Committe e wer e over-optimisti c about th e speed wit h whic h th e flo w o f mal e student s readin g scientifi c an d technological subject s could b e increased. 51 I n th e second place , suc h a decision would have raised ver y serious issues of principle. I t coul d have entailed admittin g som e ver y margina l candidate s whil e turnin g away others admirably well qualified i n the arts and social sciences, wanting to study in fields in which the institutions concerned had most distinguished 47 Marsh , Queen Elizabeth College, pp. 201-4 ; Royal Holloway College Letter 1974 , Repor t from Council ; Sondheimer , Castle Adamant, pp . 142-5 ; Bedford College Ol d Students' Association Newsletter no. 46, March 1964 , 'College Notes' . 48 John Carswell , Government an d the Universities i n Britain. Programme an d Performance, 1960-1980 (Cambridge, 1985) , pp. 43-4 . 49 Robbins Committee, Appendix Tw o (A), para. 15. 50 Cf . th e Principal' s remark s i n he r Vice-Presidentia l Letter , Bedford College Ol d Students' Association Newsletter, nos. 51 and 52 , 1969-70 . 51 Carswell , Government and the Universities, p. 45 .

Women in the University of London

49

records o f teaching an d research . I t woul d have been difficul t t o defen d such a decisio n a s equitabl e o r conduciv e t o equality . I t woul d hav e marked a very clear departure from th e notion of the varied and balance d intellectual communit y whic h th e 'small ' multi-facult y school s hav e defended s o doughtily t o inquiries from Haldan e onwards. Nationally, th e respons e t o th e initiativ e o f th e 1960 s ha s bee n impressive, despit e th e collaps e o f quinquennial plannin g i n th e earl y 1970s. The numbe r of women taking scientific and technologica l course s in al l form s o f higher educatio n mor e tha n double d i n absolut e term s between 196 2 and 1980 ; and a s a proportion of the whole crept up from 1 4 per cen t to 1 6 per cent. 52 The Universit y of London ha s bee n bol d i n its efforts t o achieve the economies associated with size, while not sacrificin g the benefits, far more difficult t o quantify, of study and research in a multidisciplinary environment . T o thi s outsid e observe r a t least , th e lin e of descent from th e the Bedford of 1910, described so proudly to the Haldan e Commission b y Aclan d an d Margare t Tuk e a s exhibitin g a rang e an d variety of work appropriate t o a modern university, to the Royal Holloway and Bedfor d New College of 1986, remains mercifully unbroken . There remain s th e questio n o f whether, i n expoundin g th e peculia r difficulty i n responding to the thrust of government policy since the 1960 s experienced b y colleges which began a s women's colleges, one is simply conceding at last the proposition that there are 'women's subjects'. I think not. Leaving aside all the questions about what ought to be the balance and range o f discipline s appropriat e i n th e highe r educatio n syste m o f a developed country , i t i s surel y right t o registe r th e practica l problem s entailed i n an y majo r chang e o f direction. An d i f we d o no t rejec t ou r history and continu e to concern ourselves with equality of opportunity for women, we need t o ask ourselves why it is, when formal equality of access has been established s o long, they 'cluster' markedly in certain academi c disciplines. After th e surge of the last twenty years, women now make up almost 40 per cen t of the universit y student population. Bu t the y are b y no means evenly distributed . The y ar e th e dominan t grou p i n education-base d studies, in language, literature and area studies, and in other arts subjects. They are a significant presence in medicine and dentistry, rather less so in biology and physics, and have only a toe-hold ( 9 per cent) in engineering. By an d large , Roya l Hollowa y an d Bedfor d Ne w Colleg e replicate s th e national pattern. 53 Surely expectation s differentiate d b y gende r ar e stil l a t wor k here , although i n a much more subtle and less overt way than in the nineteent h century. I n a n importan t pape r publishe d i n 1987 , o n th e politica l 52 53

Ibid. Appendix I, Tables 3 and 4. Se e Appendix, Tables 1 and 2 .

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e University o f London, 1836-1986

economy o f higher education for women i n the late nineteenth an d earl y twentieth centuries , Janet Howart h an d Mar k Curthoy s explore d th e ambivalences of the late Victorian and Edwardian middl e classes towards higher educatio n fo r their daughters. Fo r some families i t represented a n insurance policy against th e failure of the girl to make a successful, that is, financially secure , marriage . Other s feare d highe r educatio n migh t actually reduc e thei r daughters ' chance s o f such a marriage. 54 The lat e nineteenth centur y thu s sa w th e choic e fo r wome n a s lyin g betwee n marriage an d a career. Th e lat e twentieth century tends to see the choice as lying between children and a career; or if not an outright choice, a need to determine which has the priority. Sense o f a nee d t o determin e a priorit y an d th e tension s entaile d i n doing so , seem to affect bot h th e subject s of study chosen b y women an d their caree r trajectories . I n he r 198 4 Fawcet t Lectur e at Bedford , Tess a Blackstone, Maste r o f Birkbeck College, quote d fro m a study of parental attitudes toward s children's occupationa l choices . Their expectations an d hopes wer e clearl y differentiate d b y gender . Stres s wa s lai d o n goo d prospects an d securit y for boys; on interesting and flexible work for girls. When specified , thes e tur n ou t t o be the sort s o f occupations though t to combine well with mothering, either because they are 'caring', or because of the hour s worke d an d th e possibilit y of part-time work . In th e 1980s , she commented, despite 'leaving school with formal qualifications as good as, i f not bette r tha n boys , mos t girl s ar e stil l enterin g a remarkabl y narrow rang e of occupations'.55 Baroness Blackston e was looking across the whole range of educational qualifications an d occupations. But the point holds good if we simply look at girls going to university, the subjects they choose and th e jobs the y go on to . I t wa s underscored, anecdotall y bu t mos t effectively , i n th e mid 1960s by the journalist, Jean Rook, writing of the experience of speaking at the Bedford Old Students ' dinner. 'Absolutel y all the old students, apar t from myself , wer e headmistresse s o r housewive s providin g th e headmistresses wit h material . Thi s mad e fo r very salt y conversation.' 56 For m e th e poin t wa s dramatise d i n a slightl y differen t wa y abou t te n years later , i n a n asid e t o a conversatio n abou t Cambridge' s effort s t o extrude women in the 1920s . I was talking about the period with a woman who had lived through it, one I greatly admire d - on e of the first twelve women t o be appointed t o university posts i n Cambridge an d on e of the first married women Fellow s o f a Cambridge women's college . 'Ah , you

54

Fo r the ful l reference , see n. 45 above. Tess a Blackstone, Mistresses, Masters, Professors an d Vice-Chancellors: Prospects for Women in Education, Th e Fawcet t Lecture , delivere d a t Bedfor d College , January 1984 . I a m grateful t o Baroness Blackstone fo r permission t o quote from this . 56 Bedford College Old Students' Association Newsletter no. 47 , January 1965 . 55

Women i n the University o f London 5

1

young things' , sh e said , 'childre n a s well . That's havin g you r cak e an d eating it.' Identifying, bringin g ou t int o th e ope n suc h assumption s abou t women's need if not to choose, at least to determine priorities, may help us to make more sense not only of the 'clustering' of women in certain group s of discipline s bu t als o o f the distributio n o f women i n academi c posts . Women ma y form almos t 4 0 per cen t of the student body nationally; bu t only 15. 6 per cent of the people who teach them are women. These women university teacher s ar e clustere d no t only in certain subject s but als o by status. They are overwhelmingly concentrated i n the lower grades. Only 2.4 per cen t of Professors are women, while 17.5 per cen t of the Lecture r grade are women. Here Royal Hollowa y an d Bedfor d New College run s slightly ahead of the national average: 1 9 per cent of its academic staf f ar e women, including 8 per cent of the professoriate. 57 We ma y hav e lef t behin d th e starknes s o f th e nineteenth-centur y situation, th e extrem e versions o f the notio n tha t me n an d wome n hav e 'separate spheres' . Bu t attitude s t o highe r education , it s functio n an d purpose in our society are still in important ways shaped b y gender, ofte n more s o than we care t o admit. Recognisin g these attitudes clearly i s the essential first step. Onl y the n ca n we decide whethe r we want t o chang e them and if so, how. In the last one hundred and fifty years the University of Londo n an d Bedfor d an d Roya l Hollowa y hav e ha d a distinguishe d record i n challengin g man y o f th e barrier s preventin g wome n fro m gaining acces s t o highe r education , guide d b y a stron g sens e o f 'th e plainest principles of justice'. Challenging inequalities resulting from th e differences i n expectation of men and women remain for the University to face i n the future .

57

Se e Appendix, Tables 3 and 4 . See also the analysis, 'Co-Education 10 5 Years On', by the Provost, Sir James Lighthill, in the University College London, Annual Report 1983-4, pp. 23-9. I am grateful t o Negley Harte for drawing m y attention t o this.

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The University of London, 1836-1986

Appendix Table 1: Subjects Studied 1984/5 in UK Universities, by Sex SUBJECT GROU P

Education Medicine, dentistr y & health Engineering & technology Agriculture, foresty & veterinary scienc e Biological, mathematical & physical sciences Administrative, business & social studies Architecture & planning Language, literatur e & area studies Other Arts TOTAL

TOTAL NO STUDENTS , UK AN D OVERSEAS, IN OOO s

UK STUDENTS AS A PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAL MEN

WOMEN

28.1

50

45

34.6

77

9

4.7

57

40

58.1

64

31

57.0

50

42

4.0

55

33

31.1 20.6

29 44

67 50

241.7

54

39

3.6

26

63

Source: Universities' Statistical Record, University Statistics 1984-5, published on behal f of the Universit y Grants Committee (Cheltenham, 1986 ) vo l 1 , Students and Staff, p . 6, Table E.

Women i n the University of London 5

3

Table 2: Proportions of Women Students, by Subject Groups, at Royal Hollowqy and Bedford New College 1985-6 SUBJECT GROUP WOME

N STUDENTS AS A PERCENTAGE O F FULL-TIME EQUIVALEN T NUMBERS

Physical and Biological Sciences

Physiology Biochemistry 53. Mathematics Biology (inc. Botany and Zoology) 41. Chemistry 30. Statistics/Computer Sciences Geology 23. Physics 11.

64.0 7 50.8 8 4 26.1 1 6

Social Studies

Psychology SPSS 53. Geography Language-based Studies

French 85. English 81. Italian 69. German 60. Classics 41.

74.9 8 45.2 1 2 2 1 5

Other Arts

Drama & Theatre Studies 64. Music 57. History 53.

6 9 7

Source: Royal Hollowa y and Bedfor d Ne w College Plannin g Office, by kind permission .

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Table 3: Full-time Academic Staff, by Subject Group, Status and Sex, UK 1984-5 SUBJECT GROUP TOTA

L WOME

N WOME N AS A PERCENT AGE O F THE TOTA L

Education Total 195 Professors 11 Readers & Snr Lecturers 38 Lecturers 139 Others 7

2 44 08 03 2 36 03

5 22. 7. 4 8. 5 26. 8 54.

8 3 9 2 3

Medicine, dentistry & health Total 877 Professors 95 Readers & SLs 207 Lecturers 457 Others 117

7 214 32 9 26 0 130 5 54

2 24. 5 2. 4 12. 5 28. 8 46.

4 6 7 6 6

Engineering & technology Total 625 Professors 45 Readers & SLs 107 Lecturers 367 Others 105

6 27 92 34 3 16 1 10

3 4. 0.4 0.3 3 4. 4 9.

7

Agriculture, forestry & veterinary science Total 100 Professors 9 Readers & SLs 20 Lecturers 56 Others 14

9 18 1— 36 6 11 96

2 18. 0 2. 6 20. 0 40.

0

Biological, mathematical and physical sciences Total 1201 Professors 103 Readers & SLs 239 Lecturers 732 Others 125

7 133 91 36 8 86 7 40

7 11. 0 0.9 5 2. 1 11. 1 31.

1

Architecture & planning Total 44 Professors 4

32 2—

9 6. 0

5

4 7 4 9

9 5 3

6 7 7 9

Women in the University of London SUBJECT GROUP

Readers & SLs Lecturers Others Administrative, business & social studies

Total Professors Readers & SLs Lecturers Others Language, literature & area studies

Total Professors Readers & SLs Lecturers Others

TOTAL WOME

Research workers in libraries & museums ALL ACADEMIC STAFF Total

Professors Readers & SLs Lecturers Others

1

WOMEN AS A PERCENTAGE O F THE TOTAL

297 13

4 21 4

4.4 7.1 30.8

7517 760 1448 4871 438

1248 23 97 926 202

16.6 3.0 6.7 19.0 46.1

3383 351 620 2210 202

836 16 94 600 126

24.7 4.6 15.2 27.2 62.4

2801 344 625 1752 80

392 17 16 297 32

14.0 4.9 2.6 17.0 40.0

37

9

24.3

91

Other arts

Total Professors Readers & SLs Lecturers Others

N

55

44192 4150 8914 26679 4449

6893 ' 101 614 4657 1521

Percentag e of total women academic staffin th e variou s grades Professors 1. 5 Readers & SLs 8. 9 Lecturers 67. 6 Others 22. 1

Source: University Statistics 1984-5, vol. 1, p. 51 , Table 25.

15.6 2.4 6.9 17.5 34.2

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The University of London, 1836-1986

Table 4: Academic Staff at Royal Holloway and Bedford New College 1985-6, by Status, Sex and Subject Group (a) Status

TOTAL

WOMEN WOME N AS A PERCENTAGE O F THE TOTA L

All grades Professors Readers & SLs Lecturers

272 34 76 128

52 3 15 34

19.1 8.8 19.7 21.0

(b) Subject group

TOTAL

WOMEN

WOMEN AS A PERCENTAGE O F THE TOTA L

Biological, mathematica l and physical sciences Arts Administrative, business & social studies

157 83

30

31

7

15

9.5

36.1

22.6

Source: Royal Hollowa y an d Bedfor d Ne w College Planning Office , b y kind permission .

3 The Humanities F.M.L. Thompso n The Humanities , accordin g t o a leadin g articl e i n Th e Times Higher Education Supplement, are under siege.1 Beset by apparently formidable forces drawin g thei r strengt h fro m utilitarianism , philistinism , an d indifference, th e humanities feel neglected, unappreciated, and extremely vulnerable. They ey e the futur e apprehensively , invoking without much conviction outlandis h symbols , hopin g agains t hop e tha t F.T.E.s , performance indicators , o r citatio n indexe s ma y b e friendl y enoug h talismen to protect them from morta l injury. There is no danger tha t they will disappea r withou t trace . Ther e wil l alway s b e me n an d wome n sufficiently determined , sufficiently resourceful , sufficientl y talented , and sufficiently craz y t o se e that Mycenaea n studie s are no t forgotten , tha t historical research goes on, or that philosophical speculations take place. Individual, freelance , scholar s an d writers , however , ar e no t quit e th e same thin g a s grea t universit y departments . The y ma y hav e bee n practically all that existed before 1836 to create and sustain such subjects as literature, history, or geography, but the idea that they might be all that exists after 199 0 is decidedly alarming. The notio n sounds fanciful. Bu t for many it is no longer unthinkable that some Arts subjects may vanish from some universities , may perhap s disappea r altogethe r fro m universitie s and polytechnics , just a s Natura l Philosophy , onc e th e handmaide n o f Mathematics, and Mental and Moral Science, once the most modern and progressive subject in the London B.A . degree, have long since vanished, unlamented an d unremembered . I t become s the more thinkable as more funds ar e hande d ou t t o subject s lik e informatio n technolog y an d communication skills , whil e th e questio n o f what informatio n is t o b e processed an d wha t for, and what thoughts are to be communicated, are ignored. Some migh t fee l tha t i t i s untoward tha t th e celebratio n o f the 150t h anniversary of the Faculty of Arts in the University of London shoul d fal l 1

The Times Higher Education Supplement, 'Humanitie s under Siege', 1 2 Sept. 1986 .

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at a time of such gloom an d despondency , which are bound t o blight the feast. On the contrary, no time could be more appropriate. I t is a reminder not t o be complacent, no t t o rest upon laurels, but als o not to panic. Th e University, afte r all , o r mor e particularl y Universit y Colleg e whic h of course wa s th e Universit y fo r th e firs t eigh t year s unti l 1836 , cause d considerable alar m an d consternatio n i n establishmen t circle s whe n i t was created , becaus e o f th e threa t whic h i t pose d t o th e mora l an d religious basis of learning. There followed more than half a century during which the University, the teaching colleges, an d perhaps particularl y the humanities, wer e rathe r a disappointmen t an d sourc e o f worry , les s because th e mora l foundation s of education wer e no t undermine d tha n because unmistakeabl y high-leve l teachin g an d scholarshi p faile d t o emerge, except patchily. In the last hundred years there has scarcely been any perio d o f mor e tha n te n consecutiv e year s durin g whic h th e University has no t bee n i n crisis and i n process of being pulled u p b y its roots for inspection b y some external or internal enquiry. Crisis, alarm , despair, an d bewildermen t are parts o f the normal atmospher e i n which the University and it s academics hav e lived. Yet it is in the last hundred years, and especially within the last sixty or so, that the Humanities have flourished and grown in stature, putting in place the Arts hypotenuse, as it were, of the Oxford-Cambridge-Londo n triangle , and raisin g Londo n t o that internationa l clas s i n th e Art s t o whic h i t alread y belonge d in , for example, Medicine , Science , o r Engineering . Thi s i s not t o say that th e present crisis , wit h it s ominou s hint s o f intellectual discrimination an d prejudice armed wit h financial muscle, is not grave and more serious than any tha t hav e gon e before . I t i s to say tha t th e Arts hav e a well-proven toughness an d vitality , a recor d o f resilience , an d a n unexpectedl y youthful profile , al l of which poin t t o more practicality and rappor t with contemporary trend s tha n th e reputatio n o f humane studie s fo r other worldly detachment would suggest, and all of which imply capacity to ride out spells of rough weather. The craf t whic h ride s th e roug h sea s i s in on e sens e vast, sprawling , gangling, ill-coordinate d an d barel y seaworthy ; i n anothe r sens e it is so small an d compac t a s to be puny, a dinghy amon g th e great ships . Th e twenty Boards of Studies among which the academic oversight of subjects in th e Humanitie s i s currentl y distribute d hin t a t th e diversit y an d complexity of the Facult y o f Arts. Severa l of the Boards , o n the mode l of Classics or Romance Languages , have responsibilities for whole familie s of related but separate disciplines, while it is safe to assume that the Board of Studies for Oriental and African Language s and Literature shelters not one famil y bu t s o many differen t an d mutuall y incomprehensible tribes that i t i s inconceivabl e tha t the y ca n communicat e wit h on e another , except i n English . Al l i n all , wel l ove r thirt y distinc t department s o f learning shelte r unde r th e Art s umbrella ; th e tota l numbe r o f institutionally distinc t departments , withi n th e eigh t School s o f th e

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federal Universit y which operate in the Faculty, is of course much larger than that. Such multiplicity suggests intellectual richness. It also suggests that administrative confusion an d chao s is never far below the surface. An extreme case is illustrated by architecture and geography, subject s which have alway s been i n a stat e o f fruitful identit y crisis, drive n forwar d b y tensions betwee n th e aestheti c an d th e technical , th e human e an d th e scientific, posin g problem s tha t universit y administrators fin d har d t o handle. Th e resul t i s tha t bot h architectur e an d geograph y appea r t o belong t o the Facultie s o f Science an d o f Social Sciences (Economics ) as well a s t o th e Facult y o f Arts ; position s ful l o f possibilitie s fo r advantageous manipulation , bu t carryin g th e ris k o f bein g nobody' s pigeon. O f lesse r importanc e i s th e utte r failur e o f th e attemp t o f th e academic manager s t o marshal th e straggling force s o f the Arts into two compact groups , one under the banner of Languages and Literature , and the other under that of Historical an d Philosophical Studies . This scheme of th e earl y 1970 s looke d goo d o n paper . Bu t th e individualit y an d independence of the diverse disciplines failed t o generate any enthusiasm for a n institutionalise d expression o f common interest s and concern s o n the lines of this bipartite division. I am myself, of course, a prime culprit in this abortiv e affair , havin g bee n chairma n o f one o f the tw o Academi c Advisory Board s fo r a doze n year s withou t holdin g a meeting . Unfortunately i t was an unpaid sinecure. The Facult y of Arts, then, presents a picture of a large, individualistic, ill-disciplined army , marchin g toward s a commo n objectiv e o f critical, humane, studies , bu t b y s o man y differen t route s tha t i t i s beyon d th e capacity o f one single person to trace them all, let alone understand them all. Th e paymasters , on th e other hand, se e no difficulty i n reducing the horde t o order. Viewed throug h accountants' spectacle s the whole proud array an d broa d swee p o f the Art s ha s bee n brusquel y an d efficientl y compressed, i n the ugl y terminology of our times , into little more than a couple o f Cost Centres , on e labelle d 'Language-base d studies ' an d th e second 'Othe r Humanities' . It is true that some part of Cost Centre 36, 'Creative Arts', is within the Faculty, but th e greater portion has a separate Faculty of its own, Music. And th e tw o definitionall y problemati c subjects , architectur e an d geography, eac h hav e a separat e Cos t Centr e o f their ow n i n th e grea t scheme of things which is to take care of higher education into the 1990s , numbers 2 6 an d 29 , an d som e smal l fractio n o f thes e represent s th e humane elements in those two disciplines. In essence, however, the whole of the Facult y of Arts has bee n squeeze d into Cost Centres 34 and 35 , in terms whic h canno t fai l t o strik e man y peopl e a s dismissiv e an d a s appearing t o trea t mos t o f th e humanitie s a s a n insignifican t residua l category composed of the pursuits of cranky scholars who are not studying proper subject s worth y of individual recognition. To b e sure, it is purely for financia l purpose s tha t authorit y find s i t expedien t t o distinguis h

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between pharmacolog y an d pharmac y an d t o maintain separat e record s of the numbers of teachers an d student s in each subject , while content to remain statisticall y ignorant o f and financiall y indifferen t toward s an y distinction between philosophy and history, or classics and English. It is a chastening though t tha t thes e grea t area s o f huma n knowledge , a n inheritance o f thousand s o f year s o f intellectua l endeavour , ca n b e summarily boxed into a mere couple of cost centres out of the 37 amongst which th e academic activities of a university are now divided so that they can b e kept under surveillance . It ha s t o be admitted, however, that th e Faculty o f Art s seem s muc h easie r t o handl e i f it i s though t o f as th e contents o f a coupl e o f bureaucrats' boxe s rathe r tha n th e flowering of thirty o r mor e separat e disciplines , each wit h its own subject matter, its own techniques , it s ow n traditions , it s ow n achievements , an d it s ow n history. The Facult y ma y hav e th e statur e o f a dwarf , bu t i t develop s th e strength of a giant. In a well-known recent exercise related t o the selective funding o f universitie s th e U.G.C . awarde d browni e point s t o departments which were thought to be outstanding in their research. Th e methods o f assessment ar e unknow n an d th e result s hav e bee n widel y questioned. Nevertheless , i f it ca n b e assume d tha t errati c an d bizarr e judgements wer e randoml y distribute d a s betwee n subjects , i t i s no t without interes t t o observ e tha t ou t o f th e forty-eigh t star s scattere d around th e Universit y o f Londo n on e hal f wer e contribute d b y th e Humanities. Further , if those Institutes which were pronounced t o be 'of national importance' , i n th e sam e exercise , are counte d a s havin g bee n accorded super-star s - an d as the Director of one of the Institutes I am not averse t o suc h arithmeti c - the n mor e tha n hal f o f London's tall y of brownie point s come s fro m th e Facult y of Arts. Comparisons canno t b e made wit h other universities in absolute numbers , for whereas London' s federal structure meant that History, for example, had a chance of scoring seven times , onc e i n eac h o f the School s wit h a Histor y Department , i n every other university it only had the chance of scoring once. Comparisons in relativ e terms , however , ar e n o mor e unreliabl e than th e underlying data, and the y show that in Oxford and in Cambridge, an d in all the other British universities taken together, Arts subjects contributed one-third or less o f th e stars . Londo n i s a ver y larg e universit y an d i t woul d b e surprising, an d disgraceful , if it did no t hav e man y excellence s in man y fields of knowledge; bu t th e messag e tha t i t is particularly stron g i n th e Humanities i s not often heard . When i t is added tha t the Arts, in terms of student numbers, form les s than a quarter o f the University, and in terms of cost probabl y absor b littl e mor e tha n 1 0 per cen t o f the University' s annual expenditure, a picture emerges of an extremely strong, productive , and cost-effectiv e Faculty. 2 2

U.G.C . lette r 4/8 6 o f 2 7 Ma y 1986 , Appendice s A an d C . Development o f Higher Education into the 1990s (1985 ) p . 51 .

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This message woul d no t have surprised th e founders of the Universit y in th e least, bu t woul d probabl y hav e astonishe d an d dumbfounde d any Victorian observe r of the academic scen e in London. The trut h is that the original Facult y ha d th e statur e o f a giant an d th e strength o f an infant , and remaine d feebl e fo r most o f the res t o f the nineteent h century . Th e University, which unti l 190 0 was purely an examining and degree-givin g body, starte d lif e i n 183 6 wit h n o mor e tha n thre e Faculties , Medicine , Law, ari d Arts ; thi s wa s als o th e structur e i n th e tw o teachin g colleges , King's an d Universit y College , an d i t simply mirrored th e conventiona l organisation o f th e department s o f knowledg e a t th e time . Ever y university-level subjec t whic h wa s neithe r medica l no r legal , therefore , came unde r th e Art s umbrella . Thus , th e ordinar y o r pas s degre e o f Bachelor o f Art s establishe d i n 183 7 comprise d examination s i n Mathematics an d Natura l Philosoph y - a portmantea u ter m fo r arithmetic, algebra , geometry , plan e trigonometry , mechanics , hydrostatics, hydraulics , pneumatics , an d astronomy , requirin g amon g other matter s a knowledge of permutations, annuities , the eleventh book of Euclid (but only so far as proposition 21) , the motion of falling bodies in free space , th e forcing-pump as well as the common pump , th e apparent motion o f th e heaven s roun d th e earth , an d proof s o f th e Copernica n system - i n Chemistry, Anima l Physiology , Vegetabl e Physiology , and Structural Botany , with Classics, Greek and Roman History , th e History of England to the end of the seventeenth century, and translation from an d into eithe r Frenc h o r Germa n throw n i n fo r goo d measure . Al l thes e subjects wer e compulsory. Havin g surmounte d tha t hurdl e a candidat e might elect to go on to an Honours degree, and could choose between fou r branches: Mathematics , Classics , Chemistry , o r Animal an d Vegetabl e Physiology.3 I n thi s manne r Art s stake d it s clai m t o th e entir e spa n o f knowledge, fo r medicin e an d la w wer e i n a differen t categor y a s professional studies ; and teachin g had t o struggle as best it might to cope with this vast syllabus. So matters continued until 1858 when parturitio n occurred an d a separate Scienc e Faculty with a separate B.Sc. degree was established. The origina l London B.A. , you might think, looked more like O Level s in ten or a dozen subjects than the crown of a university education, and the Honours degree s lik e pal e anticipation s o f A Levels . Yo u woul d b e entirely right . T o pas s i n Englis h Histor y i t was necessar y t o say 'wha t three essentia l principle s o f ou r governmen t wer e establishe d b y th e Commons i n th e reig n o f Edwar d III? ' an d als o t o mentio n 'b y wha t remarkable event s th e reig n o f Elizabet h wa s distinguished?' - itself , admittedly, a question which would much later occupy the entire career of a distinguished Astor Professor a t University College - whil e if one could 3

Papers Relating t o the University o f London, P.P . 1840 , XL , Regulation s fo r Degree s i n Arts, pp. 215-51 . University o f London Calendar, 1844 , pp . 24-36 .

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grapple with th e proble m 'I f 14 4 excavators clea r 1 8 yards o f tunnel per week, i n wha t tim e shoul d w e expec t 12 0 yards t o b e cleare d whe n th e number o f hands wa s trebled?' one was on the way to a B.A. Honours i n Mathematics. 4 Teachin g wa s geare d t o wha t wa s expecte d i n examinations, and was naturally an exercise in imparting large volumes of facts and stickin g closely to a handful o f textbooks or the familiar round of set passages fro m Homer , Plato , Thucydides, Cicero , Tacitus, and Virgil. This was an activity calling for much memorising and menta l agility from students, bu t littl e intellectual effort ; an d i t wa s a n operatio n i n whic h competent pedagogue s wel l versed i n the arts of cramming could do well, but i t neither required nor was likely to foster scholarl y eminence. Nevertheless, at it s inception the degree scheme was an innovation o f outstanding audacity , just a s the distribution of professional posts in the teaching colleges was revolutionary in its coverage. The older universities may not have been sleeping quite so deeply in the early nineteenth century as is commonly supposed , bu t the y were certainly dozing comfortably in their classica l chairs , an d th e sign s o f lif e evidence d b y th e earl y eighteenth-century establishmen t o f th e Regiu s Chair s i n Histor y ha d long sinc e cease d t o distur b th e tranqui l routine . I t was , therefore , a dramatic assertio n o f th e independenc e an d modernit y o f th e ne w university when both King's an d University College appointed professors of English , o f French, an d o f German. Thi s wa s th e firs t time , i n thi s country, that modern language s wer e recognised as worthy of a place in a university a s subject s tha t coul d b e studied seriousl y and no t merel y as social accomplishments tha t might come in handy in social converse or in the pursui t o f othe r mor e elevate d scholarl y enquiries . Th e ne w university, of course, pioneere d i n other moder n subjects , notably in th e physical sciences, although these were not completely unknown in Oxford and Cambridge ; bu t i n th e cor e are a o f th e Humanitie s language s expressed th e innovatory thrust, and marke d out for London th e leading position i t ha s retaine d eve r sinc e bot h i n developin g th e scop e o f th e original language studies an d i n extending th e range of languages which are treate d a s something more than a means of everyday communication with the peoples of the world . The novelt y of modern language s wa s surpasse d b y th e originalit y of elevating Englis h languag e an d literatur e to the status of a degree, o r a t any rate a matriculation, subject. Something of the daring in this step can be gathere d fro m th e remark s o f D r Thoma s Arnold , Headmaste r o f Rugby, who had bee n appointed a member of the first Senate in 1836 . He thought tha t ever y candidat e fo r th e B.A . shoul d 'brin g up ' fo r examination, among other offerings, 'som e one treatise or work on mora l philosophy, togethe r with some one history or work of poetry, to be taken 4

P.P . 1840 , XL , B.A . Pas s Examination , Englis h History , 1840 , pp . 306-7 ; B.A . Honours Examination in Mathematics and Natura l Philosophy, 1839 , pp. 242-3 .

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from a list drawn up by the University.' 'The poetry', he continued, 'must of cours e alway s b e rea d i n a foreig n language ; a n examinatio n i n a n English poe t woul d b e absur d an d impracticable.' 5 H e ma y wel l have been right. The University , at least, found i t quite impossible to imagine what the contents, structure, or purpose of any organised study of English Literature might be, and th e only safe place that it could find for English in th e hierarch y o f examination s wa s i n th e guis e o f a pape r o n 'th e Grammatical Structur e o f the Englis h Language ' i n th e matriculation , which was the test for admission to the degree courses.6 The subject rested in thi s lowly , but honourable , estat e unti l 1859 . Honourable , becaus e it shared th e positio n wit h Englis h histor y whic h wa s likewis e fo r schoolboys, not undergraduates, a not unworthy companion. Honourable also becaus e th e University' s matriculation , give n th e lon g lis t o f institutions at home and late r overseas which became eligible to enter for its degrees, quickly became established as the country's first and premier school-leaving examination, used throughout the English-speaking world and forerunne r of the Schoo l Certificate, Higher Schoo l Certificate , and G.C.E. O and A Levels. In 1859 , as a consequence of the separation of Science from the Arts and the reconstructio n o f th e B.A . degre e tha t becam e necessary , Englis h found itsel f promoted t o the high table, at first to a place in the 1s t B.A. or Part I a s senio r partne r i n a singl e subjec t calle d 'Englis h Language , Literature and History', and soon after to a place, under the same label, in the B.A. Finals. At the same time the academic ascent was completed with the emergenc e o f the possibilit y of taking Honours i n English, a proces s that involved taking further papers , one in Literature, and one in History, on subject s coverin g identica l chronologica l period s whos e limit s were changed fro m yea r to year in a most disconcerting fashion. Thus i n 188 4 candidate s grapple d wit h Englis h Histor y an d Englis h Literature between 154 7 and 1579 , while for 188 5 the periods jumped t o 1727-60, onl y t o fal l bac k fo r 188 6 t o 1642-60 . Sometime s thes e specia l periods ra n ahea d t o loo k a t 175 0 t o th e presen t '(excludin g livin g writers)', an d sometime s the y droppe d bac k t o Chaucer' s England , a splendidly rando m ringin g o f th e change s whic h doubtles s provide d teachers and student s alike with invigorating mental exercise. The dignit y of Honours degree status, however, should not be confused with th e substance . The candidat e wh o answered te n questions in three hours on English Literature, 1547-79, by for example tracing 'the origin of our early dramatic literature' , giving 'instances from th e literature of this period showin g th e strengt h o f loyalty an d persona l attachmen t t o th e 5 P.P . 1840 , XL , lette r fro m T . Arnol d t o the Chancellor [Lor d Burlington] , 3 1 Ma y 1837, p. 192 . 6 P.P . 1840 , XL , Examination s fo r Matriculation i n 1839 , p. 241. The paper in English History for the same examination i s at p. 237.

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Queen in the days of Elizabeth', and stating 'the chief modifications in the form o f English prose' , an d i n anothe r thre e hour s dispose d o f English history b y describin g th e origin s o f th e Cour t o f Hig h Commission , describing 'th e mean s take n b y the Crown . . . t o secure Parliamentar y support', an d estimatin g 'th e position o f English commerce' and statin g 'any measur e take n fo r its advance', beside s dealin g wit h another seve n similar historica l questions , ha d undoubtedl y amasse d a grea t dea l o f knowledge. Ho w muc h understandin g h e ha d acquire d mus t b e questionable. 7 If the movemen t of English up th e formal academi c escalato r appear s slow, tha t o f Histor y wa s a tortois e t o it s hare . I t wa s considere d fai r enough to expect some knowledge of the national history from seventeenand eighteen-year-olds at matriculation, but after tha t history was simply an adjunc t t o th e classics , or, a s we have seen , a companio n t o English literature. When one subject addressed th e question 'who wrote what, and when?' and the other 'who did what, and when?' these alliances were very sensible. The fragmentatio n of History was completed by the inclusion of constitutional history in the Law degree. This was in fact dispersal rather than fragmentation, since there was no pre-existing unitary subject called History, with generally accepted territoria l limits, which could have been broken up; the dispersal merely recognised th e generally subordinate and service functions whic h historical studies were fitted to perform. Only i n 1896 were the several strands of historical study brought together to form a separat e branc h o f knowledge, which London calle d Branc h I V i n its Pass degre e an d Branc h V I i n it s Honour s degree ; Histor y ha d bee n patched u p int o an entity , fittingly enough largel y by scissors an d past e methods, and brough t to the starting gate for its mad rush to eminence in the twentieth century.8 These slo w and statel y gyration s an d evolution s in th e forma l degre e structure i n par t reflecte d th e divorc e betwee n teaching an d examinin g which wa s th e essenc e of the Universit y from 183 6 to 1900 , so that there was no necessary relation between what the University chose to examine and wha t th e professors an d other s i n the colleges were teaching. Bu t in part they did genuinely reflect the teaching professors' own conceptions of the natur e o f their subjects . The ver y ide a o f the Universit y ha d bee n revolutionary in the 1830s , but its implementation had from th e first been restrained b y giving power to a government-nominated Senate dominate d by Cambridg e men ; th e Senat e continue d throughou t th e nineteent h century t o ensur e tha t it s pane l o f examiners wa s largel y compose d o f Oxford an d Cambridg e divines , some of them College Fellows and man y of them public school headmasters. I t was not until the 1890 s that a few of the universit y examiner s bega n t o b e appointe d fro m th e rank s o f th e 7 8

University o f London Calendar, 1859 , p . 46 ; 1868 , p. 50 ; 1885 , pp . 69 , xlv-vi. University o f London Calendar, 1896 , pp . 50 , 57.

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London colleges ' own professors. Although a few of the earlier examiners had bee n ver y eminen t i n thei r field s - th e economis t Nassa u Senio r examining i n Politica l Economy , th e apostat e classicis t F.A . Pale y i n Classics and Ancient History, and th e constitutional lawyer and theoris t A.V. Dicey in Constitutional History, for example - i t would be possible to argue that th e body of examiners, with its Oxbridge ties , had a vested interest i n seein g tha t thei r examinatio n question s sustaine d a conservative and unadventurou s interpretation of their subjects, in order to kee p th e upstar t Universit y i n it s plac e an d restrai n unwelcom e competition wit h thei r almae maters? Thi s certainl y becam e a standin g source of conflict betwee n teachers at the two colleges and th e University authorities fro m th e 1870 s onwards , a runnin g sore whic h gav e ris e t o acrimonious debat e i n th e 1890 s an d whic h wa s onl y partiall y an d temporarily lance d b y the reforms of 1900 that converte d Londo n int o a teaching university. All the same , i t was not simpl y institutional imperfection and frictio n which caused what looks like stunted or retarded developmen t in the Arts subjects afte r th e fin e daw n o f the 1830s . Quit e simply , th e seeds the n scattered did not have the capacity t o produce flowers. The people did not exist who were capable o f turning ideas tha t were fine on paper int o th e realities of rigorous, organised, well-defined academic disciplines , an d the potential student s di d no t exis t wh o wishe d t o stud y suc h subjects . English wa s a mil d cas e i n point. Th e Reveren d Thoma s Dale, th e first Professor of English at University College, too k some interest in grammar and philology , but a strictly didactic attitude towards literature which he maintained shoul d b e studied solel y for the moral lessons it imparted. He left Gowe r Stree t rather rapidly , and when he turned up a few years later as th e firs t professo r of English a t King' s College h e brought hi s mora l messages with him. With the appointment of the Reverend F.D . Mauric e at King' s i n 184 0 the outloo k for literature brightened considerably . H e taught th e subjec t throug h th e stud y o f actua l text s fo r th e firs t time , agonising ove r the propriety o f using unbowdlerised versions of Chaucer and Shakespeare' s King John, and use d literatur e an d politica l histor y i n tandem t o present a coherent and upliftin g stor y of the forging of English national identit y throug h th e labours o f the rising middle classes. 10 This imparted som e intellectual content to the subject and lifte d i t off the rotelearning floor ; bu t Mauric e single-hande d coul d no t ge t Englis h full y airborne, an d h e was not th e kind of systematic thinke r who could eve n begin t o visualise the task of mapping out the aims, the methods, and th e contours o f a subject, whic h ha s t o be tackle d i n making a collectio n o f intellectual interests into an academic discipline . University College had 9

Examiner s were listed in the University o f London Calendar, starting in 1844 . Ala n Bacon , 'Englis h Literatur e become s a Universit y subject : King' s College , London as Pioneer' Victorian Studies, 29 (1986), 591-612. 10

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to wai t unti l 1865 , whe n i t returne d th e complimen t by gaining Henr y Morley fro m King's , t o find its first successfu l professo r of English, an d Morley mad e a considerabl e mar k no t onl y by lecturing t o women an d pressing forward the cause of university education for women at a crucial point i n th e 1860s , bu t als o i n advancin g hi s subjec t wit h hi s massiv e survey of English language and literature , English Writers, which helped in providing th e disciplin e wit h foundatio n texts. 11 Thu s Londo n mad e distinct contributions to the development of English into a true university subject. Bu t pullin g of f thi s tric k require d mor e scholarl y weigh t tha n London could muster, and in fact it was to be the example of Oxford in the late 1880 s which definitel y propelled Englis h studie s int o thei r moder n orbit. History i n Londo n wa s a muc h mor e sickl y plant , largel y lef t a s a tiresome extr a chor e fo r whoeve r chance d t o b e teachin g classic s o r English. It is true that King' s obtaine d a distinguished historian, Samuel Rawson Gardiner, as professor in 1872. Gardiner publishe d between 1863 and 190 1 a great multi-volume history of the early Stuarts and Cromwell, based on careful use of primary sources; and afte r he had lef t King's for All Souls he produced i n 188 9 a volume of documents, The Puritan Revolution, which i n associatio n wit h Stubbs' s earlie r Select Charters an d G.W . Prothero's slightl y later Select Documents of the Reigns of Elizabeth and James / , were t o provid e th e cor e fo r th e stud y o f constitutiona l histor y fro m original document s and henc e formed a key element in the rise of History as a discipline. A s a historian Gardine r regarded himsel f as primarily a genteleman-scholar o f private means , whic h indee d h e ha d bee n quit e literally fo r twent y year s befor e acceptin g hi s firs t academi c post , a t King's; an d he then took his lecturing duties as lightly as possible, so that he could ge t on with his serious work at home. This, you may say, neatl y anticipates th e life-styl e o f many moder n professor s and lecturer s and i s not at all remarkable. Bu t Gardiner seems to have kept his lectures, which he gav e t o th e girl s o f Bedfor d Colleg e a s wel l a s a t King's , an d hi s research in separate compartments, and he apparently ha d no interest in trying t o lif t th e undergraduat e stud y o f History ou t o f its conventional and borin g rut. Other nineteenth-century History professors of note were notable, lik e E.S . Beesl y who wa s a t Universit y College fo r over thirty years from 1860 , for the rarity of their appearances i n the lecture room. In his case this afforded ampl e time to become the first British academic to be in clos e touc h wit h bricklayers and othe r trad e unionists , to establish a reputation as the leading home-grown socialist intellectual, and to sustain the labour newspaper of the day, the Beehive, with a steady flow of leading articles.12 Excellen t activities , precedent s whic h hav e ha d man y 1

' Negle y Harte and John North, The World of University College London, 1828-1978 (1978), p. 77. 12 S . Maccoby , English Radicalism, 1853-1886 (1938) , pp . 121 , 122 , 207-8. Hart e an d

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twentieth-century followers; bu t thei r contribution to the development of the subject was not apparent t o contemporary generation s of students. History i n Londo n wa s al l but invisibl e when the thirty-four-yea r old A.F. Pollar d mad e hi s entr y i n 1903 , fresh fro m th e highl y efficien t an d disciplined collaborativ e scholarship of the D.N.B. which he had helped to edit an d write in the 1890s , an d determined t o transform university study of th e subjec t int o somethin g equall y purposeful , rigorous , an d indispensable fo r an y educate d person . Hi s methods , an d eve n hi s concepts, may be questioned; bu t it is impossible t o quarrel with his view that History, a t that time, was 'the Cinderella of the Arts', or indeed with Sidney Webb' s mor e sweepingl y dismissiv e referenc e to 'th e dwindling Faculty o f Arts' als o mad e i n 1903. 13 Histor y wa s a t leas t represented , however nominally , b y thre e professor s an d si x lecturers , an d ha d expanded i n staf f number s sinc e th e 1830 s wit h th e arriva l o f the ne w colleges o f Bedford , Westfield , Roya l Holloway , an d Eas t London . Dwindling her e wa s a n absenc e o f intellectua l growth. I n som e othe r subjects it was a case of the vanishing trick: the first Professor of Spanish at University College left in 1830 to take part in the July Revolutio n in Paris, and the subject was not to be taught again until 1964.14 But above all what had dwindle d wa s the prospect whic h Thomas Arnol d ha d perceive d in 1837, tha t th e ne w Universit y shoul d provid e a new , demanding , an d enlightened 'genera l o r libera l education ' throug h a marriag e o f th e modern subjects , history , languages , poetry , an d philology , wit h th e traditional mathematics , classics, and logic. 15 Arnold ha d foresee n fro m th e beginnin g a rif t betwee n examination syllabuses determined b y th e Universit y and course s of study settled by the teachers, when he wrote: 'We must thus either shape our examinations according t o th e syste m o f instructio n actuall y pursue d b y othe r institutions, o r w e mus t ris k th e appearanc e o f dictating t o the m thei r course o f study.' 16 Thi s correctl y identifie d a proble m whic h wa s t o rumble o n unti l th e Saunder s reform s o f th e lat e 1960 s permitte d th e teachers of the separate colleges t o devise their own 'School-based' degree syllabuses; whereupon a new problem arose, of the possible balkanisation and devaluatio n o f th e Londo n B.A . degree . Meanwhil e Victoria n professors wer e sometimes irked by the failure of the degree examination syllabus to correspond wit h what the y wished to teach, an d especiall y at King's coul d becom e s o considerably irked tha t the y refused t o teach t o the syllabu s o r t o ente r thei r student s fo r th e Londo n degree . Thu s academic obstinac y an d institutiona l oddity i n part accoun t for the fac t North, World,?. 104 . 13 A.F . Pollard , The University o f London and the Study o f History,his 190 4 inaugural lecture, cited i n hi s Factors i n Modern History (1s t edn. 1907 , 3rd edn . 1932) , pp. 231-5 . 14 Pollard , Factors, p. 254 . Hart e and North , World, p . 39. 15 P.P . 1840 , XL , T . Arnol d t o the Chancellor, 31 May 1837 , pp. 191-2 . 16 Loc. cit.

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that man y nineteenth-centur y Londo n student s spen t a yea r o r tw o at King's o r Universit y Colleg e an d the n move d o n t o tak e thei r B.A. s a t Oxford o r Cambridge . Thi s behaviour , reminiscen t o f th e peripateti c habits of German students an d therefore perhaps welcome to the spirits of some at least of the University's founders, was so general among the more able an d ambitiou s student s o n th e Art s sid e that. a mor e deep-seate d cause may be suspected. The majorit y of the distinguished students listed by th e centenar y historian s o f bot h college s complete d thei r undergraduate studie s at Oxford or Cambridge; i t was characteristic tha t the on e Londo n ma n t o reac h th e to p o f the Civi l Servic e befor e 1914 , becoming Permanen t Under-Secretar y at th e Home Office , ha d bee n a t King's an d then at Trinity, Oxford. 17 Just a s th e Universit y wa s a free-marke t institutio n whos e degre e examinations, o n certai n undemandin g conditions , coul d b e take n b y anyone who paid th e fees, and toward s which the colleges in London were free t o adopt a take-it-or-leave-it attitude, s o also the colleges themselve s were free-market institution s whose professors mainly collected only a fee income, pe r studen t an d pe r course , an d wer e naturall y disincline d t o regard thei r academi c wor k a s a full-tim e occupatio n i f the y ha d th e slightest talent which could attract othe r income. Sauce for the goose was sauce fo r the gander, an d student s adapte d t o the free-market situation , paying only for those courses they wanted and stayin g at a college only for as long as it suited their interests. It rather looks as though the nineteenthcentury market place directed a stream of able young men to the Londo n colleges who required toppin g up before they were ready to go on to tackle Greats at Oxford or the moral science Tripo s at Cambridge, and another stream of the less able or less wealthy who were content to stay the course and take a London B.A. The high ability stream, it may be surmised, were those wh o wer e exclude d fro m th e conventiona l public-schoo l rout e t o Oxbridge, fo r a variety of financial, social, and religiou s reasons; for them Victorian Londo n serve d a s a kin d o f superio r sixth-for m college , a n Oxbridge feede r tha t broadene d an d deepene d th e narro w an d sociall y exclusive intake of Isis and Cam . Paradoxically, th e brave new university experiment of the beginning of Victoria's reign , founded t o break the monopoly of the older universities, to challeng e alik e thei r religiou s discriminatio n an d thei r neglec t o f learning and of modern subjects, ended he r reign as a virtual dependency of Oxbridge . Amon g th e consumer s o f highe r education , London' s student bod y wa s continuall y creamed of f by Oxbridge; an d amon g th e producers, th e grea t majorit y o f London' s teacher s wer e supplie d b y 17

H . Hal e Bellot , University College London, 1826-1926 (1929) , pp . 363-6 ; FJ.C . Hearnshaw, The Centenary History of King's College London, 1828-1928 (1929), pp. 336-9, 3967; Jill Pellew , Th e Home Office, 1848-1914 (1982) , App . B , p . 20 8 - h e wa s Si r Dalzel l MacKenzie Chalmer s (1847-1927) , a member , amon g man y othe r things , of the Lor d Chancellor's Sleepin g Sickness Committee.

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Oxbridge. I n 190 1 th e Universit y a s suc h acquire d fo r the firs t tim e a Faculty o f Arts, composed o f the newly-instituted category of'recognise d teachers', then seventy-fiv e i n number. About 7 0 per cent of this Faculty had firs t degree s fro m Oxfor d o r Cambridge , an d a mer e doze n ha d London first degrees; a select ban d whic h included Gregory Foster , the n lecturer in English at University College and at Bedford and later the first Provost of University College, and J. W. Adamson, lecturer in educational theory and practice at King's and author of a history of English education which wa s for long a standard work. 18 In outline what had happened wa s that Oxfor d an d Cambridg e ha d bee n rouse d fro m thei r intellectua l torpor, i n som e measur e spurre d o n b y th e threa t o f competition fro m London, an d ha d bee n force d ou t o f their institutiona l archaism, i n th e series o f university reforms that bega n i n the 1850s , an d ha d recapture d the academi c initiative . Scholarl y distinctio n an d intellectua l lif e wer e thus adde d t o a socia l reputatio n tha t ha d neve r bee n dimmed , an d London missed it s early Victorian opportunity. I n late Victorian London the tables had been turned, and th e stirrings towards the establishment of single-subject Honour s degree s i n th e Humanitie s i n th e 1890s , whic h were t o mar k th e pat h o f twentieth-centur y advance , wer e largel y responses t o an d imitation s o f the Honour s School s o f Oxford an d th e Tripos schemes of Cambridge, i n which the first decisive moves had bee n made. Unsurprisingly , th e majorit y o f London professor s see m t o hav e lived i n Oxfor d o r Cambridg e a s member s o f thos e cultura l societies , paying fleeting visits to thei r lectur e rooms t o coun t thei r student s an d collect their fees . The roa d fro m th e dependen t statu s of 1901 t o the glittering prizes of the 198 6 brownie points was, naturally, paved wit h good intentions : and with great visions, such as those of Pollard, who saw History as the queen of Sciences, th e schoo l o f administrators an d statesmen , and Londo n a s the plac e wher e it s ful l developmen t coul d b e realised ; o f Si r Israe l Gollancz, wh o abandone d a Cambridg e fellowshi p t o com e t o King' s College i n 1903 , drawn t o Londo n b y hi s wis h to be clos e to th e newlyfounded Britis h Academy that , a s its first Secretary, h e aspired t o build into a national institution, and b y his desire to try out his great talents as a popularise r o f Englis h literatur e o n a reall y wid e audience ; o f T.W . Arnold, wh o had a mission to make London th e great imperial centre for the stud y o f oriental language s an d Islami c culture ; or o f Margaret J . Tuke, wh o looke d forwar d i n 1911 , whe n splendi d ne w building s wer e going ahea d i n th e magnificen t sit e whic h ha d jus t bee n acquire d i n Regent's Park , t o turnin g Bedfor d Colleg e int o ' a complet e University College' fo r women, quit e different , a s sh e said , 'i n ou r aim s an d wor k from, say , Newnha m Colleg e a t Cambridg e o r Somervill e College a t 18 University Calendar, 1901, Vol. II, pp. 53-8. A Short History of Education (1919), and English Education, 1789-1902 (Cambridge, 1930 ) wer e J.W. Adamson' s most used books .

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Oxford', more 'a kind of little University to ourselves,' equal to any in Arts and in Science.19 There were many more. There were others who virtually invented ne w subject s fro m th e vantag e poin t o f their Londo n chairs . R.W. Seton-Watson , not conten t wit h inventing most of the ne w nation states of Central an d Easter n Europ e after th e First World War, invented East Europea n studies , firs t a t King' s an d the n a t th e newly-create d S.S.E.E.S. J.G . Robertson , splittin g a chair i n German betwee n Bedfor d and Universit y College betwee n 190 3 and 1933 , played th e chie f part in making Londo n int o th e leadin g centr e fo r German studie s i n Britain , feeling confiden t enoug h o f London's futur e t o tur n dow n th e offe r o f a chair a t Cambridge i n 1910 . W.P. Ker, professor of English at University College for m 188 9 to 1922 , had energ y left over from shapin g the Englis h Honours degre e i n th e earl y 1900 s t o invent Scandinavia n Studies , and virtually expired utterin g the words 'Do not forget the Danish tongue'. Sir Sidney Lee , who in 191 3 became th e first professor of English at th e Eas t London College , had o f course already invente d the D.N.B. and went on to inven t th e moder n styl e o f royal biography , documente d an d replet e with ora l evidence , i n hi s live s of Victoria an d Edwar d VII . Whil e Sir Allen Mawer, th e second Provos t of University College, may be ranked as co-inventor o f th e stud y o f Englis h placenames . Cyri l Burt , whos e invention of the I.Q. turned out, alas, t o have been a shade too inventive, can b e safel y lef t t o th e Facult y o f Education ; bu t I mus t regretfull y accept, bein g a n economi c historia n myself , tha t th e inventio n o f economic history, in which London had such a notable role in the interwar years with R.H. Tawney , Lilia n Knowles , Eilee n Power, and others, and a tradition stretching back to the appearance of historical elements in H.S. Foxwell's rendering of political economy, probably belongs in the Faculty of Economics.20 19 Pollard , Factors in Modern History, p . 250, and Memoi r b y V.H. Galbraith , Proceedings of th e British Academy, XXXV (1950), pp. 257-74 . Sir Israel Gollancz, Memoir in Proceedings of th e British Academy, XV I (1930) , pp. 426-8 . T.W . Arnold , Memoi r i n Proceedings o f the British Academy, XVI (1930) , pp. 452-7. Margaret J. Tuke , evidence to the Royal Commission on University Education i n London (the Haldane Commission), Evidence , P.P . 1911 , XX , qq . 7195-6. 20 R.W . Seton-Watson, Memoir , Proceedings of th e British Academy, XXXVII (1951) , pp . 350-3 - h e was, o f course, relian t o n the work of the equally distinguishe d Si r Bernard Pares i n the establishment of the School of Slavonic and Eas t European Studie s in 193 2 as an independen t Institute. J.G. Robertson , Memoir , Proceedings of the British Academy, XI X (1933), pp . 366-9 ; W.P . Ker , Memoir , Proceedings o f the British Academy X I (1924-5) , pp . 416-17; Sir Sidney Lee , Memoir, Proceedings of the British Academy X V (1929 , pp. 458-9 ; Sir Allen Mawer , Memoir , Proceedings o f th e British Academy XXI X (1943) , pp . 438-9 . Economic history questions appeared i n the examination papers on Political Economy set by Foxwell, e.g . in 1896 , University Calendar, 1896 , p. ci, while they had no t appeared in the days whe n Nassa u Senio r o r hi s successor , Jacob Waley , wer e th e Politica l Econom y examiners, e.g . University Calendar, 1858 , p . cli , University Calendar, 1868 , p . cxiii-iv . Economic History , o f course , sit s o n th e frontie r betwee n th e Humanitie s an d Socia l Sciences and tend s to be disputed territory .

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In addition , n o universit y coul d aspir e t o memorabilit y withou t accumulating a galler y o f eccentrics an d a stor e o f legends. Th e mor e erudite examples range d fro m Si r Ernest Barker, who during his time as a classics lecturer at King's recorde d th e distressing effects produced b y the short skirts of the young ladies in his class - sadl y he did not live to see the mini-skirt - t o C.E.M. Joad, the Birkbeck philosopher who so impressed the B.B.C . tha t the y promoted hi m to be a professor, and whos e mental agility and ai r of profundity delighte d millions of wartime listeners to the Brains Trust , whil e hi s laps e i n travellin g b y trai n withou t a ticke t convinced the m tha t academic s wer e huma n a s wel l a s useful . Dam e Lillian Penson , tha t formidable scholar and academic politicia n wh o put Bedford firml y o n th e ma p an d dotte d thos e part s o f the ma p o f Africa which wer e coloure d re d wit h offshoots o f London University , was i n a class o f her ow n a s th e firs t woma n Vice-Chancello r i n Britai n an d th e only known Head of Department t o insist that all her academic staff wear gloves while lecturing.21 Strong personalities , larg e wome n an d bi g men , wer e a n importan t ingredient in the forging of London's reputation ; but by no means the sole factor. Th e twentieth-centur y flowering of excellence, n o les s tha n th e twentieth-century expansion in size, have been part of the national history of universit y education , alternativel y encourage d an d admired , an d distrusted an d starved , b y government s an d publi c opinion , i n a n academic variation on the stop-go them e whic h has served Britai n fo r so long as a substitute for policy - a story which it would be out of place to attempt t o describe, let alone explain, here. Certain o f the features in the changing nationa l environment , however, were of particular importanc e to London: women, salaries, an d professionalisatio n may be singled out. By the end of the nineteenth century women formed mor e than a third of the studen t body of University College. Although King's kep t them a t arm's length physically and institutionally in their Ladies' Department i n Kensington, wome n wer e similarly important there . Bedford , starte d i n 1849 as a kind of sixth-form colleg e for girls, began teachin g for Londo n degrees a s soon a s they were opened t o women in 1878 . Westfield (1882 ) and Roya l Hollowa y (1887 ) wer e als o makin g thei r presenc e felt , contributing t o London' s outstandin g rol e i n pioneerin g universit y education fo r women . I t i s notable , however , tha t th e Haldan e Commission thought , i n 1911 , tha t onl y Bedfor d amon g th e women' s colleges was capable of becoming stron g enough t o take a place alongside King's an d Universit y College a s a fully-fledge d 'constituen t college' of 21

Si r Ernest Barker, Memoir, Proceedings of the British Academy XLVI (1960) , pp. 344-5 . C.E.M. Joad (1891-1953 , Wh o Was Who, 1951-60; he was Reader in Philosophy at Birkbec k College, 1930-46 . Dame Lillian Penso n (1896-1963) , Wh o Was Who, 1961-70. London also provided th e firs t woma n professo r i n th e countr y whe n Carolin e Spurgeo n becam e Professor of English at Bedford Colleg e in 1913 .

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the University , remarkin g o f Westfield an d Roya l Hollowa y that , while admirable, 'the y ar e bot h residentia l college s organised mor e upo n th e lines of the colleges of Oxford and Cambridg e than on those of the Scotch or German universitie s which the University of London reconstituted [on Haldane lines ] woul d resemble. ' Th e 191 1 Repor t continued , harshl y revealing the durability of administrative views of geography, by asserting that: 'Th e Roya l Hollowa y College , moreover , i s s o fa r distan t fro m London tha t i t canno t hop e effectivel y t o giv e o r gai n strengt h eithe r through its students or its teachers by a more intimate connexion with the University than it now possesses.'22 The colleges survived Germanic logic rather bette r than they have weathered monetaris t economics. Medical education an d qualification s had bee n amon g the chief goals in th e women' s figh t t o ge t int o th e universities ; and i n King' s Ladies ' Department domesti c science figured prominently as eminently suitable for females , althoug h Bedfor d di d no t thin k o f it a s a prope r university subject.23 Bu t whil e wome n di d stud y thes e subjects , an d som e o f the natural sciences , thei r stron g preferenc e fo r th e Arts , fo r English , languages, history , o r th e classics , ha d rapidl y becom e apparent . Th e great potential power of women as a motive force for growth in the Arts in London was that, unlike the men, they had nowhere else to move on to. As long as able men students migrated to Oxford and Cambridge to complete their degrees , th e Londo n college s ha d littl e incentiv e t o rais e th e standards of their courses and n o market fo r more specialised or higher level degrees . Wome n students , b y contrast , onc e the y were insid e th e London colleges , coul d no t realisticall y pla n thei r educatio n wit h th e expectation o f escaping t o Oxbridge, for the number of places a t th e new women's college s ther e was minute. The genera l effec t wa s that Londo n was in a better position t o attract an d retai n abl e women than abl e men; that it had a more stable body of students likely to stay for a full three years and fo r who m i t wa s therefor e wort h providin g differen t an d bette r courses; and tha t th e pressures of student demand becam e mor e focuse d on the nature and quality of complete degree packages, rather than on the utility an d attractivenes s o f individual lecture courses. There was, t o be sure, som e ris k tha t som e girl s woul d trea t Londo n a s a n inexpensiv e finishing school, just a s some boys treated it as a sixth form on the cheap. It was voiced by A.J. Butle r when he was considering the offer of the chair of Italian a t University College in 1898 . 'N o students, no pay; no pay, no lectures; no lectures, no students!' he wrote. 'Still , if I could come in my own time (which would probably b e about 5 p.m.) and were not expected to hol d fort h mor e tha n twenty-fou r o r s o times in th e year , no r t o give assistance t o young ladies about to spend a winter at Rome in acquiring a 22 23

Haldane Commission, Report, P.P. 1913 , XL, p . 67. Haldane Commission, Evidence, P.P. 1911 , XX, q . 7206.

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colloquial knowledge of the language, I think I could be of some use.'24 All th e same , th e wome n wer e i n genera l seriou s student s inten t o n getting B.A.s , fo r personal satisfactio n or t o go into teaching , an d thei r presence helpe d pus h th e college s an d th e Universit y into th e teachin g and degre e reform s that gathere d momentu m from th e 1880 s and le d to the specialised Honour s degrees that ruled unchallenged as the essence of the B.A . fro m th e earl y 1900 s unti l the 1970s . The mor e frivolou s an d wealthy girl s o n th e whol e di d no t fanc y London , a s th e professo r of Mathematics at Royal Hollowa y explaine d i n accounting fo r the absence of non-resident student s a t th e college : 'Englefiel d Green' , h e said, 'i s a place whic h has in the past bee n inhabite d b y rich people , and I do not think, as a rule, as far as my experience goes , that very rich people's girls are very anxious to attend a University College.' An opinion echoed by his Principal's vie w that 'I do not think that the people who would naturally attend a University College exist very largely in the neighbourhood of. . . Egham.'25 A t th e sam e tim e women , dedicate d rathe r tha n wealthy , moved int o university teaching, by no means exclusively in the women's colleges. One-fift h o f the first Faculty of Arts, in 1901 , were women; an d one-third o f this admittedly small group had Londo n degrees, compare d with les s than one-sixt h of the mal e lecturers, so that in thi s sphere one may depict women as spearheading the University's recognition of its own products. B y 1921, in the aftermath of war, a quarter of the teachers in the Faculty were women, and b y 1939 , on the eve of war, the proportion ha d grown to 30 per cent; since then, in the aftermath of decades of feminism, it has fallen back to about it s 192 1 level.26 The influenc e o f women, a s teacher s an d a s students , has bee n very considerable. I t would be wrong to claim, however, that it was decisive in propelling th e Art s onward s an d upwards , fo r women did no t begi n t o move into positions of power and authority in the academic structure until the 1930s . Butler's 189 8 letter pointed to the two matters which were to be decisive: salarie s an d full-tim e work . Unsalarie d professor s tende d t o work part-time , an d i f the y di d devot e thei r live s t o scholarshi p thei r devotions did not take place in college. A stroke of good luck might break the pattern. Richar d Quain , th e surgeon, lef t Universit y College a small fortune in 1887 , and becaus e o f his conviction tha t medica l men ought t o have a liberal education a large part of the bequest was earmarked for the endowment of a chair of English, to the great and endurin g benefit o f the subject an d perhap s i n les s visibl e way s t o th e benefi t o f medica l practice.27 Quain had links with University College from hi s early career; 24

Quote d in Harte and North , World, p . 106 . Haldane Commission, Evidence, P.P. 1911 , q. 8626 . 26 University Calendar, 1901 , Vol II , pp . 53-8 ; 1921 , pp. 118-21 ; 1939,pp . 202-12; 1986 , entries for Classics, English , Germanic Languages , History , and Romanc e Languages . 27 D.N.B. Richard Quai n (1800-87). 25

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more unpredictable wa s Amelia Edwards' s actio n i n 189 2 in endowing a chair o f Egyptolog y expressl y fo r occupatio n b y Flinder s Petrie , th e virtually unschooled so n of a roaming railwa y surveyor, who had starte d digging abou t in the pyramids in 1883 and had developed, single-handed , techniques of scientific excavatio n an d method s o f dating. Thus , almos t by chance, Egyptolog y receive d it s first academic recognitio n in Britain, and Universit y Colleg e i n du e tim e acquire d Petrie' s grea t teachin g collection for housing in the converted stable in which it still rests.28 These developments wer e exceptional , an d i n an y cas e Egyptia n archaeolog y when stretche d a s fa r a s th e go d Mi n wa s no t a fi t subjec t fo r undergraduate study . Mor e typicall y th e scholarl y lif e o f Victoria n London a s a city, which was extremely vigorous and innovative , went on in voluntar y an d specialis t learne d societies , an d i n th e chamber s o f gentlemen scholars ; som e of the circl e migh t das h of f a lecture now an d then i f they happene d t o have a connexion wit h th e university , bu t tha t was not the centre of their loyalties.29 The ne w teaching University of London in 1900 made the crucial move that wa s to lead t o the transformation of this situation, when it ruled tha t anyone called a professor must have a guaranteed annual salary of at least £600 befor e bein g eligibl e fo r acceptance a s a n 'appointe d teacher ' an d professor o f the University . This was les s than one-thir d o f the salar y of the firs t Principa l o f the University , unde r th e ne w dispensation - a differential whic h ha s become somewha t erode d ove r time - bu t was still sufficient fo r jogging along.30 It was not riches, but it was on a par with the incomes of keepers of collections in the British Museum and th e Victoria and Albert, an d with first-class clerks in the Treasury, wh o were superior beings. Above all, it set a modestly attractive goal for an academic career , and i n retur n demande d full-tim e wor k withi n th e slightl y elasti c definition o f 'full-time ' t o whic h academic s hav e subsequentl y become adjusted. 31 Fro m thi s everythin g els e followed : universit y teachin g 28 Si r Flinder s Petrie , Memoir , Proceedings o f the British Academy XXVII I (1942) , pp . 315-7. 29 A case i n poin t wa s th e Philologica l Society, a centr e of activity for generations of English scholars. W.P. Ker (University College), R.C. Latham (Universit y College), J.W. Hales (King' s College), R.C. Trench (King's College) - later Archbishop of Dublin - were active members , but th e main impetus came from F.S . Furnivall. Furnivall was a typical University Colleg e studen t i n that h e completed hi s degree a t Trinit y Hall , Cambridge . Called t o the Ba r i n 1849 , he spent mos t of his life a s a freelance scholar, secretary o f the Philological Societ y an d founde r o f th e Earl y Englis h Tex t Society . H e wa s chiefl y responsible for conceiving th e project o f a New English Dictionar y an d fo r the work on it from 185 7 to 1879 , when it was take n over b y Si r James Murra y with the suppor t o f the O.U.P. Wha t becam e th e O.E.D. might , therefore , throug h th e Furnivall-Philological Society-University Colleg e link s hav e bee n th e Londo n Englis h Dictionary : R.W . Chambers, Philologists at University College, pp. 22-5 , in R.W . Chambers , ed. , University o f London, University College, Centenary Addresses (n.d . c. 1928). 30 Negle y Harte, Th e University o f London, 1836-1986(1986), p . 177 . 31 Whitaker's Almanack for 1910, pp . 179-200 .

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became a career, just a s college tutoring had becom e a career i n Oxfor d and Cambridg e after th e marriag e ba r fo r fellows wa s lifte d i n 1877 . I n Oxbridge caree r don s turne d t o devisin g honour s degree s tha t woul d provide job satisfactio n and professiona l justification fo r their work, and produced character-buildin g recipe s wel l adapte d t o teachin g fro m authorities and curbin g the influence of research professors, and idea l for turning ou t me n t o ru n th e countr y an d th e empire . I n Londo n caree r professors, backe d a t first sketchily and b y the 1930 s more adequately by lecturers groupe d i n department s an d enliste d i n a professio n wit h promotion prospects , turne d als o t o professionalising their work and t o producing th e honour s degree s whic h full-tim e occupation s mad e possible. Bein g mainl y Oxbridg e peopl e i n exile , an d henc e naturall y dissatisfied wit h the way things were done i n their old universities, their concept o f honours degrees was slightly different an d place d mor e stress on keepin g u p wit h th e lates t research , t o whic h the y expecte d t o contribute themselves, and on putting young minds through their critical paces. Devotees of Parkinson's La w will glimpse here an excellent example of work being created t o fill the staff time available.32 It would be nearer th e mark t o say that the intellectual case for organising knowledge in distinct disciplines, each with its own honours degree as the vehicle for conveying its fundamental message , ha d existe d fo r some littl e while; and tha t th e opportunity for translating this into academic practice was created b y the funding o f a body of professionals dedicate d t o the task. A.F. Pollard wa s among th e most dedicated, an d the History degree which he did so much to shape ma y b e offered a s an exempla r of the process, withou t implying that i t was or is exemplary. The stor y is peculiarly apt, sinc e Pollard wa s not funde d whe n he arrived a t Universit y College in 190 3 as Professor of Constitutional History without stipend, but became funded with a regular salary fro m 190 7 while i n th e middl e o f organising th e ne w syste m o f intercollegiate teaching and lecturing to deploy the combined resources of all the colleges to lift th e refurbished History degree out of limbo and into the limelight. 33 The degree , with its 'seamless web' approac h leadin g to 32

C . Northcot e Parkinso n spen t th e mos t productiv e part s o f his career a t Liverpoo l and a s Raffle s Professo r o f History i n Singapore , bu t perhap s hi s mos t formativ e year s were a s a postgraduate at King's College . 33 Intercollegiat e lecturin g i n English seem s t o have precede d tha t i n History. I t wa s referred t o enthusiastically b y Gregory Foster i n 191 1 (Haldane Commission), Evidence, P.P . 1911, XX , qq . 9580 , 9673, thoug h h e ma y hav e ha d i n mind n o mor e tha n co-operatio n between Universit y Colleg e an d Bedfor d College ; oddly, sinc e Pollar d wa s sitting besid e him a t th e tim e als o giving evidence, Gregory Foster does not see m t o have hear d of the elaborate syste m o f intercollegiate teachin g i n History , drawin g i n teacher s fro m King' s College, th e Londo n Schoo l o f Economics , Roya l Hollowa y College , Westfiel d College , and King' s Colleg e Women' s Department , a s wel l a s Universit y Colleg e an d Bedfor d College, whic h wa s i n operation fro m 190 4 (University Calendar, 1904 , Vol. II , pp . 266-9) .

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the culminatin g point o f studying a limited topic in depth fro m origina l documents, was recognisably similar to the present syllabus, which differs more i n the range o f choice than i n underlying structure: the contents of the bottle s have altered mor e than th e labels on them. I n explaining the purpose o f the study of History Pollar d returne d t o Thomas Arnold an d the origin s o f London University , an d spok e ou t fo r th e provisio n o f a 'liberal education ' a s th e essenc e o f a university , in contrast t o the then current fashio n of emphasising th e nee d fo r more technical education t o counter economic competition from Germany. 34 Plus fa change. In 183 7 a 'liberal education' meant a basic grounding in all th e art s an d scienc e subjects , ancien t an d modern . I n th e 1900 s i t meant, a t universit y level, comin g t o grip s wit h th e variet y o f subjec t matter an d metho d encompasse d b y one single Arts discipline. In either case i t wa s see n a s offering educatio n fo r intelligent living and working, not a s a form o f vocational o r professional training. This was not idl e or pious talk : i t represente d wha t student s wanted . Pollar d himsel f recognised tha t i t wa s necessar y t o loo k t o th e qualit y o f teachin g i n schools i n order t o ensure the flow of students into the subject, and with that en d i n vie w h e wa s instrumenta l i n foundin g th e Historica l Association i n 1906 ; i t i s somethin g t o whic h universit y teacher s ar e turning wit h renewe d concentratio n i n th e 1980s . I n th e even t student numbers increase d fro m genera l cause s rathe r tha n a s a respons e t o individual efforts . Al l the same , th e Art s subject s mor e tha n hel d thei r share o f the total . Th e numbe r o f London's interna l students increased sixfold betwee n 1902 and 1939 , roughly from 2,00 0 to 12,000 ; in the same period th e number reading History, for example, grew from a handful (i n 1905 there were five finals candidates; in 1906 , nine) to nearly 300. In th e great post-194 5 surge , wit h it s Robbin s accelerator , i n which London' s student numbers peaked in 1981 at just over 55,000, the Arts subjects held a fairly stead y 25 to 30 per cen t in the multi-faculty colleges. 35 This was the hard evidence of strong student demand for what the Arts had t o offer ; a deman d tha t wa s admittedl y largel y determine d b y specialisation a t school, and wa s influenced b y almost everything except precise knowledg e o f what particula r Department s o r College s ha d o n offer, bu t nevertheles s a demand fo r something other than a crude meal ticket o r passpor t t o a specifi c career . I t wa s a deman d fo r specialised, single-subject, honour s degrees, whic h became firmly established a s th e core of all the Arts subjects by the 1930s . In providin g these degrees the teachers becam e mor e specialised , mor e professional , more involved in research. This was the context in which the great personalities flourished. It was also a context in which individuals came to identify more with their discipline and thei r profession in its national network of learned journals 34 35

Pollard , Th e University o f London and the Study o f History, pp . 240-1 . Pollard , Factors, pp. 235 , 254 ; Harte , University o f London, pp. 26 , 34.

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and conferences , an d les s with a particular colleg e or university of which they migh t b e onl y transien t members . Byzantin e Londo n wa s a peculiarly difficul t universit y t o identif y with . The countervailin g forc e came fro m th e Senat e Institutes , grow n fro m th e singl e seed plante d i n 1921 i n th e Tudo r Hut s o f Malet Stree t t o the eleve n which stil l survive today, an d al l of them save for our ally in Advanced Lega l Studies within the Arts orbit. These Institutes have gone with the grain of the tendency of research-based professiona l academic s t o thin k an d liv e i n term s o f communities o f scholar s tha t transcen d universit y boundaries , b y becoming no t jus t Londo n Universit y centre s bu t nationa l an d international centre s i n their fields . Th e communit y of scholars doe s no t simply exis t i n th e abstract , i n journal articles an d boo k reviews , o r assemble once a year in a Small World conference: it may be viewed every day in the I.H.R. common room , th e Classical Studie s seminar room , o r the Warburg library. By the 1960 s it had become quite usual to refer to the Institutes i n words first used b y Sir Douglas Loga n a s 'th e jewels i n th e crown o f London University' , a possibly unguarded phras e whe n jewels are a security risk . The year s from 190 0 to the early 1950 s have sometimes been referred to as the period o f the great revival of the Arts in London. 36 Since there was so little there to revive, it is better to think of this as the first rise of Arts, the period of take-off. The driv e to maturity from th e 1950 s entered th e 'age of mass consummation' , t o emplo y th e happ y word s o f an exa m scrip t o f 1966, a t abou t that time . Maturit y ha s its perils. I n th e 1970 s fears were expressed tha t Arts subjects might, or perhaps alread y had ossified, ther e was muc h tal k of relevance, not yet passe as a buzz-word, and ther e were worries about th e marketability of students with Arts degrees. Som e even pretended no t t o know what the y were for. Retracing step s t o the 1870 s and 1880s , two-subjec t degree s wer e laboriousl y re-invented , meetin g with no more tha n moderat e success . More helpfully an d constructively , honours degrees were scrutinised, overhauled, and given a new look, some of them goin g college-based . Th e worries , thoug h no t unfounded , wer e largely misplaced . Art s degrees are , an d wil l remain, relevan t no t in any vocational sense , an d no t throug h goin g int o contortion s t o mak e thei r subject matte r highl y contemporar y o r otherwis e trendy . The y ar e relevant becaus e the y provid e a trainin g i n learnin g ho w to fin d thing s out, ho w t o selec t an d marsha l evidenc e an d distinguis h probabilitie s from mer e opinions , ho w t o conduc t reasone d argumen t an d tes t hypotheses, an d ho w to express conclusions . T o b e sure, thes e ar e skills which ma y b e acquire d i n othe r way s also , throug h othe r disciplines , although clarit y o f expressio n i s no t a readil y identifiabl e produc t o f information technology , a s anyon e wh o ha s wrestle d wit h a compute r 36

Fo r exampl e b y V.H . Galbrdait h i n hi s Memoi r o f A.F. Pollard , Proceedings o f the British Academy, XXXV (1950) , p. 260 .

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manual can testify. In any case, while you can lead a horse to the water. . . In th e Arts thes e qualities can b e acquired throug h the study of subjects which students in large numbers happen to find interesting and attractive. They are scarce and valuable skills, and they sell well in the job market. It is very easy to consider the Civil Service stupid, in its continued preference for recruitin g Art s graduate s an d it s persisten t Oxbridg e bias. 37 Bu t i t would be difficult a t the same time to condemn Mark s & Spencer or Shell, John Lewis or Ford Motors, Natwest or Sainsbury, as they scramble in the annual milk-round to collar the most promising Arts graduates. More worrying , maybe , i s th e tendenc y o f academic s t o becom e s o professionalised tha t the y talk only to each other and mak e their subjects so abstrus e tha t the y ar e unintelligibl e excep t t o a handfu l o f fello w specialists. Thi s has bee n a general tendenc y in the world of learning, in no way peculiar to the Arts or to London, an d i s a necessary consequence of th e cumulativ e effect s o f increasing specialisatio n an d refinemen t o f methodologies. Som e subjects , indeed , deliberatel y se t ou t t o driv e unqualified practitioner s an d amateur s ou t o f their field, and t o anne x fields o f knowledg e i n th e best-approve d manne r o f closed-sho p professions lik e medicine, the law, or architecture. 'Everyone think s tha t h e o r sh e ca n writ e histor y an d biograph y without an y preliminar y trainin g o r an y specifi c research, ' Pollar d ha d remarked i n 1904 , 'an d th e publi c wil l bu y an y boo k i f th e autho r possesses a handle to his or her name'. 38 One ai m of the London Histor y School was to put an end to this lamentable state of affairs, an d some, who apparently hav e not noticed the Pakenham family, think that in the 1980s this ha s bee n achieve d wit h th e extinctio n of amateurism an d th e tota l annexation o f the production o f history by academic historians. 39 That is an erroneou s view. Besides, not all history produced i n the universities is monographic or unreadable, and Londo n has its share of those who reach a public with an unsatiable appetite for the subject: Neale's Queen Elizabeth was a best-seller in the 1930s , and it is not without its successors (as well as its detractors). The Arts , indeed , nee d t o communicate with the public and no t keep their intellectua l riches to themselves. London ha s never been backwar d in doin g this . Classics , cruell y characterise d a s havin g becom e 'self absorbed an d self-enclosed , and thu s doomed t o self-destruction' i n this 37 Whitaker's Almanack fo r 1986 records tha t ou t o f 2 2 Permanen t Secretarie s o r equivalent heads of the main Whitehall departments, one had a London degree, a B.A. in English, whil e twelv e ha d Oxfor d an d seve n ha d Cambridg e degrees . I n th e large r population of what Whitaker defines as 'Public Offices' ther e are 62 Chairmen, Directors, or the equivalent of the various authorities, of whom 1 4 have London degrees, six of which are i n the Arts: the holders are chiefl y t o be found i n the museums and galler y world. 38 Pollard , Factors, p. 251. 39 Davi d Cannadine , 'Th e Stat e o f British History', Times Literary Supplement, 1 0 Oct. 1986, pp. 1139-40 .

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century, after losin g its Victorian functio n o f equipping future statesme n with a fund o f Latin tags, in fact flourishes on a strong, if minority, interest in th e ancien t world . An d a s almos t incidenta l by-product s i t ha s contributed A.E. Housman, who wrote A Shropshire Lad while Professor of Latin a t Universit y College, and Loui s Macniece , wh o was a lecturer in Classics a t Bedfor d Colleg e i n th e 1930s , t o th e stor e o f poetry whic h Thomas Arnol d ha d sai d coul d neve r b e examined . Si r Mortime r Wheeler, whos e contributions to archaeology nee d n o rehearsal, was one of the earlies t tell y dons a s well as the founder o f London's Institute ; the one did a s muc h t o make archaeology on e of the public's, an d th e fund givers', darlings , a s th e othe r di d t o advanc e it s technique s an d achievements. Anthon y Blunt , Directo r o f th e Courtaul d fro m 194 7 to 1974, was already widel y known for his work in making the history of art generally accessible , lon g befor e h e becam e notorious . Si r Nikolau s Pevsner, Professor of the History of Art at Birkbeck until 1969, created the incomparable guide s which every discerning travelle r has i n hand whe n looking a t Th e Buildings o f England. Hu w Wheldon , a n L.S.E . graduate , brought ar t history , architectura l history , an d muc h els e besides , t o millions o f viewers. 40 Whil e insid e th e Slad e ar t i s created , an d th e incomparable, sinc e the days when Augustus John was a student, easily outshines the indigestible. And s o one could go on. There i s a recor d her e o f successful communicatio n wit h th e worl d outside th e university. It is one which is being well maintained. No t only is there no shortage of telly dons, but of much greater importance there is no shortage o f the developmen t o f fresh approache s i n th e Arts , sometimes within ol d subject s like classics, sometime s in ne w subjects that emerg e from older ones, like linguistics, which are exciting for the public as well as the academics . Self-congratulatio n or self-absorptio n are no t part o f the tradition o f th e Facult y o f Art s i n London . Thos e browni e points , transitory as they may seem, are firmly grounded. The Facult y may seem to exis t onl y o n ceremonial occasions, whe n it s Dean take s th e stag e to present honorar y graduands . Bu t i t ha s grea t strengths , grea t achievements, and a great future .

40 R.P . Graves, A.E. Housman: The Scholar Poet (Oxford , 1979) , esp. chaps . 5 and 6 . Sir R.E. Mortime r Wheeler, Memoir, Proceedings oj'the British Academy', LXIII (1977) , pp. 486 97. Si r Nikolau s Pevsne r (1902-83) , (Sir ) Anthon y Blun t (1907-84) , Si r Hu w Wheldo n (1916-86), Who's Who (v.A.).

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4 Laws W.L. Twinin g A comprehensiv e histor y o f lega l educatio n i n Englan d ha s ye t t o b e written. 1 Th e stor y i s complex an d coul d b e constructed i n a number of ways. O n almos t an y interpretatio n i t would mak e depressin g reading . One outstanding feature, which Max Weber and others have emphasised, is the very minor rol e played b y the universities both i n the formation of the lega l professio n and i n th e developmen t o f the commo n law . Webe r treated thi s a s th e distinguishin g characteristic betwee n th e mode s o f

This is a revised version of a lecture delivered at Queen Mar y College on 28 October 198 6 as part o f the sesquicentennial celebrations of the Universit y of London. I n th e course of preparing th e lecture I have benefited from hel p and advic e of numerous individuals and institutions. Professo r Michae l Thompson , Negle y Hart e an d Andre w Lewi s provide d invaluable advic e an d material . Davi d Sugarma n joine d m e i n interviewin g Professor s Albert Kiralfy , L.C.B . Gower, Si r Jack Jacob, George Keeto n and Lor d Wedderburn , al l of who m provide d invaluabl e informatio n insight s an d correctives . Professor s Anton y Allott, Franci s Jacobs, Jeffrey Jowell , Michae l Zande r an d Graha m Zellic k supplied m e with a mas s of information abou t th e five London la w schools. Member s o f the Externa l Division an d Judit h Maynard , Secretar y o f th e Boar d o f Studie s i n La w provide d invaluable assistance. Among others to whom I am indebted are Dr John Baker, Professor F.R. Crane , Jacky Gorring e an d Professo r Robert Stevens . This lecture is a celebration , interpretation an d commentary, rather than a descriptive history. However, i n the course of its preparation, I acquired sufficien t materia l to form a small archive. This will in du e course be deposited in the Institute of Advanced Lega l Studies in the hope that it will be of help to real historians . 1

Standar d account s include : L.C.B . Gowe r 'Englis h Lega l Training' , Modern La w Review, 1 3 (1950) , 137 , B. Abel-Smit h an d R . Steven s Lawyers an d the Courts, (London , 1967); Report o f the Committee on Legal Education (1971) , Cmnd. 4595 (Ormrod Report) . Th e modern histor y of legal education i n England, 1800-198 0 is currently being re-interprete d by Davi d Sugarman , se e especially 'The Legal Boundarie s of Liberty: Dicey, Liberalis m and Lega l Science' , Modern La w Review, 4 6 (1983) , 10 2 an d 'Lega l Theor y an d th e Common La w Mind : Th e Makin g o f th e Textboo k Tradition ' i n Legal Theory an d the Common Law, ed . W.L . Twining , (Oxford , 1986) . Ther e are, o f course, man y particula r studies, to o numerous to mention here .

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thought of civil law and commo n law systems. 2 The standard overvie w - a s presented b y Gower, irreverently glossed by Abel-Smit h an d Stevens , an d give n respectabilit y b y th e Ormro d Report of 19713 - ca n be briefly restated as follows: civil law was studied at Oxford an d Cambridg e fro m a n early date, but th e study of English Law did no t becom e firml y establishe d i n th e universitie s unti l th e lat e nineteenth century . Systematic stud y of law was never accepted b y those in powe r a s a necessar y preparatio n fo r practice; indee d it s desirability was ofte n questioned . Today a la w degre e i s th e norma l firs t stag e for qualification a s a barriste r o r solicitor , bu t w e remai n on e o f th e few countries i n th e worl d i n whic h a la w degre e i s no t a necessar y qualification fo r practice. W e ar e no t her e concerned with the history of entry to the legal profession; however, in assessing the contributions of the University o f Londo n i n th e fiel d o f law, i t i s wort h rememberin g th e limited an d ambiguou s rol e tha t universit y la w facultie s pla y i n preparation fo r practice an d i n professional life. The y hav e never had a monopoly, o r anythin g approachin g one , ove r lega l education . La w schools ru n b y th e professions , privat e crammer s and , mor e recently , polytechnic la w school s (som e o f which , unlik e th e universities , ar e directly involve d i n professiona l training ) al l pla y a significan t part . Similarly, unlik e th e continen t o f Europe, lega l scholar s hav e mad e a n extremely modest impact on legal development. 4 In thi s standard account, the foreshortened histor y o f the discipline of law in the universities emerges as a series of false starts and disappointed expectations. Fro m th e Middl e Age s unti l th e late sixteenth century the Inns of Court were the only centres for the study of English law. In thei r heyday the y wer e vigorou s intellectua l communities , which serve d t o provide a genera l educatio n a s wel l a s professiona l training . Bu t th e educational functions of the Inns atrophied, especially after the Civil War, and fo r a lon g tim e suc h lega l educatio n a s ther e wa s reste d o n apprenticeship and self-education . Blackstone's lectures , and th e creatio n o f the Vineria n Chair , i n th e period 1753-6 5 failed t o institutionalis e the teachin g o f English la w a t Oxford. S o did the establishment o f the Downing Chair at Cambridge in 1800. Th e Facult y o f Arts an d Law s a t Universit y College, founde d i n 2

Ma x Webe r La w in Economy and Society, ed. M . Rheinstei n (Cambridge, Mass. , 1954) , ch. VII . 3 Abov e n. 1 . 4 Thei r influence ha s increased i n recent years but , as Brian Simpson remarked : 'An y attempt b y th e academic s t o displac e th e highe r judiciary fro m thei r centra l plac e a s expounders an d modifier s o f the la w seem s t o m e t o hav e alway s bee n foredoome d t o failure. I n th e absenc e o f some quit e radica l schem e o f modification th e judges, an d i n particular th e members of the Court of Appeal and th e House of Lords, are hardly likely to abdicate their status in favour of the professors. Wh y should they?' A.W.B. Simpson 'The Survival of the Common La w System ' in Then and Now, 1799-1974, 63-4, (1974) .

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1826, is sometimes said t o be England's first modern law school. But , as we shal l see , th e stor y o f Law i n Londo n i n th e nineteent h century is a rather sad tale of missed opportunities and promis e unfulfilled . 1846 rathe r tha n 183 6 i s ofte n treate d a s th e star t o f moder n lega l education i n England. 5 I n tha t yea r a Selec t Committe e o n Lega l Education wa s se t u p b y th e Hous e o f Common s an d produce d a remarkable report in three months.6 What it found amounted t o an almost total vacuum: It revealed tha t ther e was virtually no institutional law teaching o f any kind in England, wit h th e exceptio n o f Professo r Amos' s teachin g a t Universit y College, Londo n [whic h ha d stoppe d in 1834] . At Oxford, D r Phillimore , th e Professor o f Civil Law , ha d cease d t o lectur e becaus e ther e wer e 'fe w o r n o attendants'. Th e Vinerian professo r had at most thirty-eigh t students becaus e there wer e n o degree s i n Commo n Law . Th e Downin g Professo r o f Law a t Cambridge informe d th e Committe e tha t 'ther e ar e a t presen t n o lecture s given, an d n o attendanc e whatever.' 7 Th e Regiu s Professo r o f Civil La w a t Cambridge continue d t o lectur e becaus e attendanc e a t hi s lecture s wa s a necessary requiremen t fo r a degre e i n Civi l Law , bu t ther e wer e n o examinations. Apar t fro m attendanc e a t thes e lectures , the only qualificatio n for a degre e was laps e o f time, 7 years fo r a Bachelo r an d 12'/ 2 years fo r a Doctor's degree. At the Inns of Court, ther e was no formal instruction, and n o test of proficiency of any kin d befor e Call t o the Bar. 8

The examinatio n whic h intendin g solicitor s wer e require d t o pas s under th e 184 3 Ac t serve d 'merel y a s a guarante e agains t absolut e incompetency',9 an d the Committee had almost nothing good to say about the operation o f articles. In th e Committee' s view , th e consequence s o f thi s situatio n wer e serious: there was no guarantee of minimum competence in either branch of th e profession ; ther e wa s ' a hypercritica l attentio n t o th e technicalities'10 and a lack of concern fo r general principle ; ther e was no class of jurists of eminence concerned with the systematic exposition an d reform o f the law; 11 an d ther e was inadequate provision for the stud y of law for 'the unprofessional student.' 12 5

E.g . Ormrod , 5. Report from the Select Committee on Legal Education, 25 August 1846 , B.P.P . Vol X, p. 1 . 7 iv . 8 Ormrod , 5. This contains a useful, an d generall y accurate , summar y of the Report. 9 184 6 Report , xvi. 10 Id . xxxi x (quoting R. Bethell Q.C.). 11 Ivii . 12 Iviii . Th e Committe e concluded : 'Tha t th e presen t stat e o f Lega l Educatio n i n England an d Ireland , i n referenc e t o th e classe s professiona l an d unprofessiona l concerned, t o th e exten t an d natur e o f the studie s pursued , th e tim e employed, an d th e facility wit h whic h instructio n ma y b e obtained , i s extremel y unsatisfactor y an d incomplete, an d exhibit s a striking contrast an d inferiorit y to such education, provide d a s 6

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The Committe e sa w th e solutio n in th e institutionalisatio n of legal education. They put forward thre e main proposals: 1. A grea t expansio n o f university lega l educatio n i n Englan d an d Irelan d through the creation of new chairs and a proper system of examination for law degrees; systematic law teaching should be revived in Oxford and Cam bridge and extended in London.13 2. Th e Inn s of Court should combine to form ' a special institution', a College or 'La w University ' analogou s t o th e Colleg e o f Surgeons o r Physicians . There shoul d b e an examinatio n o n entry t o the Inns , a forma l system of lectures and a public qualifying examination for call to the Bar.14 3. Intendin g solicitors should be stringently examined both prior to admission to Apprenticeshi p an d b y a final examination tha t shoul d b e 'conducte d more in reference to general principle s than technicalities'. 15 There should be separate provision for classes suited to the needs and situations of articled clerks, t o supplemen t articles , bu t wit h som e provision fo r attendance a t certain classes in the Inns of Court and for exemption on the basis of attendance at University lectures.

In 197 1 th e Ormro d Committe e commented: 'The histor y o f lega l education in England over the past 12 0 years is largely an account of the struggle to implement the recommendation s of the 184 6 Committee and the effects of that struggle.'16 This oversimplifies the story and, read out of context, exaggerates the significance of the 184 6 Report in respect of both originality an d influence. 17 Nevertheless , the Repor t was prophetic in a number o f ways , includin g anticipatin g exemptions , stringen t La w Society Finals, and some common training for barristers and solicitors. Its more immediat e significanc e wa s two-fold : firs t i t mad e a shar p distinction between 'the practical and mechanical side' of legal study and 'the highe r an d doctrinal ' sid e an d argue d strongl y tha t th e rol e of university law faculties was to concentrate on the latter.18 Secondly, i t accepted tha t some aspects of the practical side could b e the subject of formal instruction and examination, but recommended that these should be the responsibility of separate institutions. As the Ormrod Committee observed, the most striking difference betwee n our syste m of education and trainin g and tha t of most other countries (and, one might it is with ample means and a judicious system for their application, at present in operation in all the more civilised States o f Europe and America ' (Ivi) . 13 Ivii-lix . 14 lix-lx . 15 Ixi . 16 Ormrod , 8. 17 Fo r details see Abel-Smith and Stevens , Gower, and A.H . Manchester Modern Legal History ( 1980), 54-66. 18 Th e contras t betwee n 'higher ' an d 'technical ' studie s pervade s th e report ; se e e.g. xlvii-xlviii.

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add, othe r professions) is 'the existence of independent la w schools run by the professio n itsel f whic h pla y a par t i n th e educatio n o f futur e professional lawyers (particularl y of solicitors).19 Such thinkin g ha d thre e interrelate d consequences : first , i t institutionalised som e extremely dubiou s distinction s betwee n theor y an d practice; educatio n an d training ; an d knowledge , understandin g an d skill. Secondly i t further marginalised th e contribution o f the universitie s not onl y t o professiona l formation , bu t als o t o lega l practic e an d th e operation of the legal system. W e now have a four-stage structure o f legal education an d training : th e academi c stage , th e vocationa l stage , apprenticeship (articles an d pupillage) an d continuing lega l education. 20 The universitie s produce a significant, but not overwhelming, majority of those wh o satisf y th e requirement s o f the academi c stage; 21 unlik e th e polytechnics the y play almos t n o part i n conversion courses for non-law graduates an d i n th e vocationa l stage ; thei r contributio n t o the rapidl y developing field of continuing legal education i s growing, but uneven . Thirdly, question s about the educational objectives of law degrees, th e role o f la w school s an d th e identit y o f academi c lawyer s ar e endemi c matters of controversy in most countries. The structur e of our system has excluded a numbe r o f options: it rules out th e possibility that university law faculties ca n emulate English medical schools , German la w faculties or the Harvard La w School - all of which have been put forward as models in th e pas t 15 0 years. O n th e othe r hand , lega l educatio n i s largel y demand-led an d a significant percentage of students sees the law degree as a passpor t t o a professiona l qualification , thoug h no t necessaril y t o practice. Thu s th e influenc e o f the lega l professio n is mediated throug h students' expectations , som e o f which ar e unrealisti c o r unsuite d t o a university environment . Accordingly , despit e th e yearnings o f some la w teachers, i t i s virtuall y impossibl e fo r a la w facult y t o seek t o b e a n institution whic h i s single-mindedl y devote d t o pur e scienc e o r libera l education o r systemati c la w refor m or t o serv e as a guerrill a base . Th e market pressure s agains t thi s are too strong. Yet , at least sinc e the rise of full-time teaching , academi c lawyers have consistently rejected 'the trade school model' . The y hav e als o regularl y insiste d tha t a la w degree ca n 19

Ormrod , 3. Se e further W . Twining 'The Benson Report and Legal Education: A Personal View' in Law in the Balance, ed. P.A . Thomas (Oxford , 1982) , ch. 8. 21 Th e mos t comprehensiv e figures are t o be found i n J.F. Wilso n an d S.B . Marsh , A Second Survey o f Legal Education in the United Kingdom (1981) . On th e basi s of projected intake quotas fo r 1983- 4 Wilso n an d Mars h predicte d tha t th e outpu t o f la w graduate s i n England an d Wale s woul d b e universitie s 245 5 (6 6 per cent) , polytechnic s 123 8 (3 4 per cent) (Tabl e 43 at p. 45). Thes e figures did not take account of the revival of the External LL.B., th e Licenc e of the Universit y of Buckingham, graduates with mixe d degree s wh o proceed t o a professiona l qualificatio n an d non-la w graduate s wh o tak e th e Commo n Professional Examination . 20

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serve equall y wel l a s a genera l educatio n an d a s a foundatio n fo r law practice. Universit y law schools, especially since the Second Worl d War , have bee n hybri d institution s servin g a variet y o f constituencie s an d uneasily juggling with competing purposes. Similarly the individual law teacher ha s t o struggl e wit h ofte n irreconcilabl e demand s t o b e a n Expositor, Craftsman , Libera l Intellectual , Scientis t o r Censor . Pessimists cal l thi s fallin g betwee n stools; 22 optimist s cal l i t creativ e tension. This is the situation of the London law faculties. The Benthamite Vision and the Austinian Gloss Once upon a time there was a man name d Henr y Tonks, who was Slade Professor o f Fine Art a t University College fro m 191 7 to 1930. In 192 2 he painted a n enormou s canvas depictin g Jerem y Bentha m i n th e foreground, considerin g th e architect' s plan s fo r Universit y College , watched b y Henry Brougham , Thomas Campbel l an d Crab b Robinso n who are ver y muc h in the background. 23 An irreverent wa g once said of the pictur e tha t it s 'lac k o f artisti c distinctio n i s overshadowe d b y historical inaccuracy.' For Bentha m is about twice the siz e of the others; yet he is not officiall y recognise d a s a founder o f the college and playe d a minor and rathe r obscure rol e in its establishment. H e took, as it were, a back seat. For many years the painting hung at ground leve l in the North Cloister. Unfortunatel y i n 198 5 i t wa s vandalise d - whethe r b y a historian, an aesthete or a common or cloistered vandal is likely to remain a mystery. I confes s that I was that irreverent commentator;24 but not, I hasten to add, th e vandal . I hereb y retrac t m y judgement. Fo r i n preparin g thi s essay I have learned tha t the curious perspective of the painting was due, not to incompetence, bu t because i t was intended t o hang under the dome of the Flaxman Gallery and t o be viewed from below. 25 In short, for years we have been looking at i t from th e wrong angle. Ther e ma y be a moral there. Furthermore , lik e thi s essay , th e pictur e i s a celebration , whic h should no t be judged b y conventional standard s of either Histor y o r Art. Indeed, onl y i n a naivel y literal sense i s i t tru e tha t Bentha m wa s no t among th e founder s of University College. I n spiri t th e institutio n was, and i n importan t respect s stil l is, Bentham's College. 26 He departe d i n 22

L.C.B . Gower Th e Futur e of the Legal Profession', Modern Law Review, 9 (1946) 211, at 218. 23 N . Hart e an d J. Nort h Th e World o f University College, 1828-1978, 8-9, 108-12. 24 W . Twining 'Wh y Bentham?', Th e Bentham Newsletter, no. 8 (1984), at 36. 25 Hart e and North, 67. The pictur e has recently been returned to its intended place in the Flaxman Gallery. 26 Professo r J.L. Montrose , one of the most imaginative pioneers of modern attempts to broaden th e study of law, entitled his Presidential Address to the Bentham Club in 1950, 'Return to Austin's College'. No irony seems to have been intended .

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1832, but h e has never left us. Much the same is true of John Austin. Seen from a narrow institutional angle, his tenure of the Chair ofjurisprudenc e was a disaster . Bu t i n th e perspectiv e o f intellectual history , Austin' s ideas, even more than Bentham's, were the single most important forc e in academic la w for nearly 15 0 years - no t only in the University of London, but als o in England an d muc h of the common law world. The stor y is a sad one: Austin narrowed dow n Bentham; the follower s of Austin narrowed dow n Austin and th e opportunity was lost to create a genuinely systematic , interdisciplinary , critica l intellectua l traditio n i n academic law . I t i s only recently that Bentham , rather tha n Austin , has belatedly bee n recognise d a s the tru e 'Fathe r o f English Jurisprudence' and that what passed as the Austinian Expository approach to the study of law i s acknowledge d t o b e a sadl y impoverishe d interpretatio n o f th e vision of that tragi c figure. 27 In assessin g th e contributio n of a great universit y one must, of course, take accoun t o f the achievement s o f successful individual s - teachers , scholars, alumn i an d eve n administrators an d entrepreneurs . On e mus t also try to make som e assessment of its contributions to national lif e - a much more elusive form of enquiry. I shall touch on these. But a university is above all a house of intellect; its currency is ideas. So I make no apology in placing th e idea s of our tw o leading thinker s in the foreground and i n inviting you to consider Bentham's an d Austin' s visions o f law and o f its study, as it were, from below. Then continuing the allegory, let us consider an alternative model - tha t of Austin's brilliant and engaging colleague , Andrew Amos, our first Professor of English Law. I shall present these as symbolising three different vision s of what might have been. First, the n Jeremy Bentham. Whether one loves or hates him, accept s or reject s hi s idea s — or lik e mos t Bentha m scholar s on e i s caugh t i n a posture of deep ambivalence - one cannot ignore him.28 He is there, larger than lif e and mor e persistent. He presented a vision of a science of law and of its potentia l tha t i s clear, comprehensive , coheren t an d intellectually ambitious. Th e compositio n i s classical an d it s outlin e ca n b e sketche d quite simply. The foundation is a theory of value - utilit y - b y which all human institutions , practices, design s an d action s are to be judged. I t is opposed no t only to deontological moral theories (especially all versions of natural la w and natura l rights) , but als o to intuitionist, irrationalist an d sceptical theorie s o f value. I t underpin s an d suffuse s al l o f Bentham' s work. The secon d elemen t i s a n epistemolog y an d a theor y o f language , embodied i n hi s theor y o f fictions . Thi s wa s th e basi s o f Bentham' s method o f classification an d precis e conceptual analysis characterised b y 27

W . Twinin g 'Academi c La w an d Lega l Philosophy : Th e Significanc e o f Herbert Hart', Law Quarterly Review, 95 (1979), pp. 557-60 . 28 Twining (1984) , 44-7 .

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John Stuart Mil l as 'the method of detail'.29 The theor y of fictions had its roots i n Englis h empiricism , bu t ha s subsequentl y bee n recognise d a s anticipating, t o a remarkabl e degree , development s i n analytica l philosophy associated with , for example, Russell , Wittgenstein and J.L . Austin.30 I t i s n o coincidenc e an d highl y significan t tha t Bentham' s approach t o conceptua l analysi s wa s explicitl y the starting-poin t o f the work of our greatest contemporary lega l philosopher, Herbert Hart. 31 Thirdly, Bentha m ha d a somewhat mechanisti c vie w of the nature of man an d o f man i n society . In th e eye s of many, the Achille s heel of his general approac h lie s i n hi s psycholog y an d socia l theory. 32 Thi s ma y indeed mak e hi m vulnerabl e t o criticis m fro m th e perspectiv e o f th e sociology o f law ; ye t psycholog y an d socia l theor y ar e widel y acknowledged to be among the least developed aspects of the discipline of law today . Fourthly, in politics Bentham was - especiall y in later life — a genuine radical, wh o tried t o steer a clea r pat h betwee n reaction an d piecemea l reform on the one hand an d violent revolution and anarchy on the other.33 It is a curious feature of secondary juristic discourse that legal positivism, of whic h h e i s on e o f th e leadin g exponents , i s stil l ofte n treate d a s inherently amoral and conservative. Yet, if the term 'critical' is to be given other than a narrow and contingent meaning, Bentham must surely count as a critical theorist. All o f thes e ingredient s underpi n Bentham' s theor y o f la w an d legislation. This wa s positivist, instrumentalist and normative. 34 I t wa s positivist i n two important senses : first, he insisted tha t law s are human artefacts, created by the will of men with the power to impose that will (the sovereign). Law s ar e posite d b y ma n (nomos] rathe r tha n immanen t i n nature (physis). Secondly , he insisted on a sharp distinction between law as it is and law as it ought to be - a distinction he considered to be essential for clarit y o f though t i n th e servic e o f utility . Hi s mai n concer n wa s normative: on e need s t o hav e a languag e fo r accuratel y expounding , describing an d analysin g actua l law s (an d thei r contex t an d thei r consequences) i n orde r t o criticise , evaluat e an d improv e them . Th e science of legislation is a technology concerned with the design, creation, 29

J.S . Mil l 'Bentham' , i n J.M . Robson , ed. , Collected Works o f John Stuart Mill, 1 0 (Toronto, 1969) , 75. 30 E.g . H.L.A . Har t Essays o n Bentham (Oxford , 1982) , 11 , 128 ; Ross Harrison Bentham (1983), ch. 3. 31 Se e especiall y Hart' s inaugura l lectur e H.L.A . Har t 'Definitio n an d Theor y i n Jurisprudence', La w Quarterly Review, 70 (1954) , 37 , reprinte d i n H.L.A . Har t Essays i n Jurisprudence an d Philosophy (Oxford , 1983) . 32 Fo r a mor e sympatheti c vie w o f Bentham' s psycholog y se e Mar y Mac k Jeremy Bentham: An Odyssey of Ideas, 1748-1832(1962). 33 Op . tit., n. 24. 34 Se e generally H.L.A. Hart Essays o n Bentham (Oxford, 1982) .

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and evaluatio n of institutions and law s as instruments of utility.35 The stor y o f poor John Austin, the first Professor of Jurisprudence i n London, ha s recently been retol d i n no less than thre e books. 36 There are several interpretations . I n nutshel l form , th e on e tha t I favou r ca n b e restated a s follows. Austi n was a committed utilitarian , but hi s followers played dow n o r overlooke d thi s aspec t o f hi s thought . H e share d Bentham's concer n for conceptual analysis , but hi s epistemology an d his conception of language were both closer to common sense and cruder tha n those of his master. Politically h e was a strange mixture of reformist an d reactionary; but , more important , hi s primary concer n i n jurisprudence was scientific rather tha n critical. Austin's command theor y of law was in general outlin e and structur e very similar t o Bentham's; bu t i t was als o much simpler and mor e vulnerable to criticism. For over a hundred year s it wa s th e chie f targe t o f critics bot h withi n an d outsid e th e positivis t tradition. I t wa s Austin' s simpl e comman d theory , rathe r tha n Bentham's, tha t wa s th e targe t o f Hart' s Concept o f La w tha t i n 196 1 launched th e mos t importan t moder n versio n o f Englis h lega l positivism.37 In thi s view , Austi n wa s a poo r man' s Bentha m and , i f th e commentators are to be believed, the first Professor of Law at King's, th e ill-fated JJ. Park , wa s an inferior version o f Austin (Par k i s said to hav e been appointe d because h e wa s a n opponen t o f Bentham). 38 Ye t i t wa s Austin rathe r tha n Bentha m wh o cam e t o b e calle d 'Fathe r o f English 'Jurisprudence' an d whos e receive d idea s no t onl y dominate d th e teaching of jurisprudence, but provided the theoretical justification-such as it was - fo r our dominant traditio n of academic law.39 There are two crucial distinctions that are relevant to interpreting this aspect o f our intellectua l tradition. Th e firs t i s the distinctio n betwee n Expository an d Censoria l Jurisprudence. 40 I n A Fragment o n Government Bentham wrote: 'To the province of the Expositor \\. belongs to explain to us what, a s he supposes th e Law is; to that of the Censor to observe t o us what he think s i t ought t o be'. 41 Bentha m gav e a centra l plac e i n hi s scienc e t o exposition; bu t h e made it clear that he cast himself in the role of censor: 'The business of simple exposition i s a harvest in which there seemed no likelihood of there bein g an y wan t o f labourers ; an d int o which , therefore , I ha d littl e 35 36

Ibid.

W . Morison , John Austin (1982) . W.E . Rumble , Th e Thought o f John Austin: Jurisprudence, Colonial Reform an d th e British Constitution (1985) . L . an d J . Hamburger , Troubled Lives; John and Sarah Austin (Toronto, 1985). 37 H.L.A . Hart Th e Concept of Law (Oxford, 1961). 38 R . Cocks Foundations of th e Modern Ba r (1983), 42-3, 50. 39 E.g . Sugarman (1986) at 37-44. 40 Th e locus classicus is J. Bentham , A Fragment on Government, ed. J.H. Burn s and H.L.A . Hart, Collected Works (1977) , preface . 41 Fragment, 397.

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ambition to thrust my sickle.'42 Furthermore, unlike Austin and many later law teachers, Bentha m di d no t insis t tha t systemati c exposition of the 'is ' must always precede criticism.43 Strikingly absent from thi s dichotomy is a third character, th e ordinary legal practitioner - let us call him the craftsman - concerne d t o advise on, apply, manipulate, and argue about and within the law as it is. As we shall see, the biggest deviation from th e Benthamic model is that academic law in London - and indeed in England - has concentrated almost entirely on exposition an d craft ; academic s hav e sporadicall y bee n involve d i n criticism and reform , but systematic intellectual criticism and design, along the line s o f Bentham' s Scienc e o f Legislation , o r som e functiona l equivalent, have been neglected, sometimes explicitly rejected. A second importan t distinction , t o be found in Bentham but more full y articulated b y Austin, is between General and Particular Jurisprudence.44 Particular jurisprudence i s concerned wit h a single system or body of law. General jusrisprudence is , accordin g t o Austin, 'th e scienc e concerne d with th e exposition of the principles, notions, and distinction s which are common to (maturer) systems of law' -including notion s and distinctions and principle s which ar e necessar y t o any system. 45 Fo r Bentham , 'the Expositor i s always the citizen of this or that particular country: the Censor is, or ought t o be, the citizen of the world.' 46 Both Bentham and Austin, therefore, in different ways, saw the scientific study of law as transcendin g the study of particular systems . Bentham chose the role of Censor, Austin that o f Expositor . Bot h wer e mainl y concerne d wit h genera l jurisprudence. In thi s regard , th e cosmopolita n spiri t o f Bentham an d Austi n ha s always bee n par t o f the Londo n tradition . S o far a s I ca n tell , a t ever y point in our history there has been firm resistance to pressures to confin e legal studie s to a parochial concer n with English law. 47 The particular s have changed , bu t a t differen t time s Londo n ha s emphasised , an d ha s 42

Id., 404 . Belo w n. 61. 44 J . Austi n The Province of Jurisprudence Determined, ed. H.L.A. Hart, (1954);J. Bentham Introduction t o Principles o f Morals an d Legislation, ed . J.H. Burn s an d H.L.A . Hart , CW . (1970), 294-5 (Jurisprudence Local-Universal). These recent reappraisals bring out the fact that Austin was more concerne d than Bentham t o develop a n empirical scienc e tha t was close t o th e fact s o f legal practic e an d base d o n politica l economy. Hi s successor s bot h obscured thi s distinctive emphasis and, mor e strikingly, down-played or ignored Austin's broader political an d mora l concerns . Rumbl e and other s have also shown how Austin's enterprise departe d muc h furthe r fro m Blackstone' s tha n di d Bentham' s (e.g . Rumble , 227 n. 101) . I am gratefu l to David Sugarma n fo r this point. 45 Austin , 367. 46 Fragment, 398 . 47 E.g . G.W . Keeto n 'Universit y College, London , and th e Law', Juridical Review, 51 (1939), 118 ; A.N. Allott, 'A Short History of the Teaching an d Investigatio n of Law at the School o f Oriental an d Africa n Studies' . (Unpublishe d Ms., May 1986. ) 43

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been i n th e forefron t of , general analytica l jurisprudence , internationa l law, Roman law , modern civilia n systems, socialist legal systems, oriental and Africa n laws , law s o f the Europea n Community , an d internationa l trade. Intellectuall y a s wel l a s institutionall y our s ha s bee n a cosmopolitan tradition . Ye t I thin k that i t is fair t o say that ofte n i n th e treatment o f those subjects , th e significanc e o f th e distinctio n betwee n general an d particula r expositor y jurisprudence ha s bee n obscured . Fo r Austin, the foundation of all study of law and its claim to be a science lie in general jurisprudence. Bentha m propose d a School o f Legislation; Austin argued fo r a School o f Law; what we have are Facultie s of Laws. Bentham's view s on legal education wer e never published and need not concern us. 48 Austin's were set out in his well-known prefatory lecture on 'The Uses and Stud y of Jurisprudence'.49 Using the Prussian syste m as a model, he suggested tha t the preparation o f a 'theoretico-practical' lawye r should b e divided int o two stages - wha t we would now call the academic and the vocational. The first stage should tak e place in a Law Faculty, th e second i n lawyers' offices . Th e La w Facult y would provide a systematic grounding bot h fo r intendin g practitioner s an d fo r thos e destine d fo r public lif e i n legislatio n o r administration . Londo n woul d b e a particularly suitabl e plac e fo r this , becaus e teachin g woul d eithe r b e carried ou t b y practitioner s o r unde r thei r supervision . 'I n England , theory would be moulded t o practice'.50 The emphasi s woul d b e on general expositor y jurisprudence - wit h logic a s a necessar y foundatio n an d a stron g emphasi s o n Roma n law . Austin wa s prepare d t o concede som e plac e t o the stud y of English law, but it occupied a restricted an d subordinate plac e in his curriculum. This would includ e logic , th e genera l principle s o f jurisprudenc e an d o f legislation (th e two involving ethics generally), international law and th e history of English law. Significantly, he pointed out that: 'In the Prussian Universities, little or no attention is given by the Law Faculty to the actual law of the country.' 51 Austin narrowe d dow n Bentha m b y giving a subordinate place t o the normative, critica l scienc e o f legislation; b y down-playing th e ide a tha t understanding la w i s essentiall y a n inter-disciplinar y endeavour ; an d above all by putting exposition of the law as it is at the core of the academi c enterprise. Austin' s follower s an d successor s dilute d an d narrowe d hi s vision i n som e crucia l respects : the y substitute d th e detaile d stud y o f English la w (Particula r Jurisprudence) fo r Austin's mor e rigorou s an d scientific Genera l Jurisprudence. 52 The stud y of logic dropped ou t of the 48

Th e mos t impiortan t sourc e fo r Bentham' s view s i s 'Proposa l fo r a Schoo l o f Legislation' Bentham Mss , U.C . CVII , (c . 1794). 49 Abov e n. 44. 50 Austin , 390 . 51 Austin , 381 . 52 Se e generally, Morison ch. 5.

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curriculum and, insofar as Austinian analytical jurisprudence survived , it was banished t o separate course s labelled 'Jurisprudence' , which becam e increasingly see n a s a subjec t apart , rathe r tha n bein g th e necessar y foundation an d startin g poin t o f all particula r study , providin g bot h a map o f the discipline of law and a methodology fo r systematic exposition of principles. Andrew Amos: An Alternative Model? 53 The firs t Professo r o f Englis h Law , and Austin' s onl y colleagu e wa s Andrew Amos, a successful barriste r wit h a rising reputation. H e was by all account s a brillian t an d engagin g figure . Shelley' s frien d a t Eton , a wrangler a t Cambridge , a kee n classica l scholar , a livel y an d conscientious teacher , h e coul d no t b e accuse d eithe r o f anti intellectualism or of indifference to education. Yet he can usefully be made to symbolise a significantl y different approac h t o the stud y of law. John Baker has vividly evoked the image : He love d th e fire and thunde r o f actual litigation , and fel t th e intellec t most usefully engage d whe n exploring problems casuall y thrown up in the course of forensic warfare . Order an d analysi s an d dee p reflectio n were necessar y for writers of books; but there was no more place for them in the classroom tha n in the courtroom. The very first lecture (1828) gave a sufficient foretaste : opening with th e law of maritime accretion - b y any reckoning an odd way to begin a general surve y o f Englis h La w - h e proceede d t o tenures , followe d b y a discussion of contingent remainders an d executor y devises and conveyancin g problems associate d therewith ; the n finally , presumabl y somewha t lat e a t night, h e outline d th e histor y o f the form s o f action, illustrate d (doubtles s to gasps of amazement) by the writs de ventre inspiciendo and depipa vini carianda. 54

What i s significant here is not the contrasts in personality and teaching styles of Amos and Austin , but rathe r th e differences an d th e similarities in thei r conception s o f legal education : Austin wa s concerne d wit h th e patient, systematic search for general principles and universal truths. The approach wa s abstract , dr y an d analytical . Amos' s objectiv e wa s 'emphatically practical'; 55 his presentation was anecdotal, unsystematic, even disorderl y an d hi s subject-matte r wa s largel y base d o n first-han d 53

Thi s sectio n draw s heavil y o n John Baker' s admirabl e lectur e 'Universit y Colleg e and Lega l Education , 1826-1976 ' (1977 ) Current Legal Problems, 1-1 3 and Hal e Bello t University College London, 1826-1926 (1926). A collection of Andrew Amos's paper s survives: U.C.L. M s Add . 90 (seve n boxes) . A clea r summar y o f Amos's approach , base d o n his evidence t o them, i s given b y the 184 6 Select Committee of Legal Education , op. cit. at p . viii. 54 Baker , 2-4, citing Amos's 'Introductor y Lecture'. 55 A . Amos , A n Introductory Lecture upon th e Study o f Law, delivere d i n th e Universit y of London, 2 Nov. 1829 .

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experience, 'suc h a s n o perso n i s competen t t o teac h bu t a barriste r familiar wit h th e practic e o f th e Courts'. 56 I n hi s lac k o f concer n fo r systematic theory and for general principle, Amos may have mirrored th e prevailing attitud e o f barrister s o f hi s day . Ye t hi s enterpris e wa s a n exercise in intellect. He invited students to argue with him about difficul t points of law. It has been suggested that his approach wa s a forerunner of the America n cas e method . I t woul d b e mor e accurat e t o sa y tha t i t anticipated th e problem metho d - fo r the focus wa s on problems rathe r than on the texts of reported cases . And th e problems wer e derived from , and presented i n the context of, actual practice. Austin's central focus was general jurisprudence, hi s model product wa s the scientifically educated lawyer; Amos was particularistic, his model the courtroom advocate . It i s tempting to set up Austin and Amo s as symbols of the differenc e between 'theoretical ' an d 'practical ' approaches . Bu t her e the y merely illustrate the inadequacy of such distinctions. For the similarities between them are as important as the differences. The Utilitarians an d Universit y College were concerned wit h 'useful knowledge ' and Austin , no less than Amos, saw his enterprise a s a preparation fo r practice. They also share d the sam e arena , th e classroom ; bot h sa w thei r enterpris e a s layin g a foundation rathe r tha n providin g a substitut e fo r apprenticeship . Furthermore, Amo s ma y hav e taugh t a few tricks of the trad e e n passant, but hi s ai m wa s t o stretc h th e mind s o f his student s intellectually. His problems wer e exercise s i n argumen t an d analysi s base d o n logic . Both were concerne d t o develo p skills o f analysis rather t o purvey information. This i s particularly significan t i n th e ligh t of subsequent developments, especially since Amos, the practitioner, was even less concerned tha n his colleague wit h 'coverage' - th e unfortunate obsession, which through the medium of the professional examinations was to blight both academic and practical lega l education. 07 Thus we have four possible models or ideal types for the role of the law teacher: Bentham' s Censor , whos e subject is the Scienc e of Legislation; Austin's Scientifi c Expositor , whos e subjec t i s genera l analytica l jurisprudence; th e mor e modes t Particula r Expositor , concerne d t o describe accuratel y (wit h o r withou t systematic searc h fo r underlying principle) th e la w a s i t i s i n a give n lega l system ; and th e Craftsman , symbolised perhap s imperfectl y by Amos, whose aim i s to develop even within the University the intellectual and other skills of the practitioner. A fifth, largely mor e recen t role , is the External Observe r whose concern is to understan d la w i n societ y from a n externa l point of view, which ma y involve th e perspectiv e of sociology or political economy or some kind of history. 56

Cited Baker , 3. Ther e is, admittedly, a marke d contras t betwee n Amos' s account s o f his intentions arid practic e an d th e markedl y pedestria n factua l questions tha t h e se t in examinations . Examples of the latter wer e appended t o his Introductory Lecture . 57

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It is , of course, artificial to suggest that these perspectives are mutually exclusive o r necessaril y i n competitio n wit h eac h other . Ar e the y no t complementary an d shoul d no t a balance d syste m include al l of them? Should not one Faculty contain latterday Benthams, Austins and Amoses - an d others besides? But these are useful concept s for analysing many of the tension s and conflict s ove r prioritie s within academic law . The y ar e certainly mor e illuminatin g tha n th e crud e distinctio n betwee n 'academic' and 'practical'. In th e Universit y of London, thre e of these five perspectives have been generally exclude d completel y or at bes t treated a s marginal. Thus at no time has Bentham' s Censoria l (Jurisprudenc e or ) Scienc e of Legislation nor som e non-utilitaria n counterpart provide d th e basi s fo r systematic instruction o n a significan t scale . Muc h o f what passe s fo r criticis m o r policy analysi s woul d hav e bee n rejecte d b y Bentham a s caprice. 58 Th e formal teachin g of practical skill s has been almost entirely confined to the professional la w school s an d the n onl y recentl y an d i n a rudimentar y form. Th e marginalit y o f historical jurisprudence an d sociolog y o f law throughout the history of English legal education give s the lie to the claim that th e primar y objectiv e o f som e degre e programme s i s th e understanding of law in society. 59 All of these have from tim e to time ha d a place in our academic culture , and L.S.E . i n particular has consistently emphasised th e link s between la w and th e socia l sciences. 60 But b y an d large th e disciplin e o f la w ha s bee n concerne d wit h tw o type s o f exposition: a t th e lowes t end , ha s bee n th e acquisitio n o f particula r detailed informatio n o f th e kin d tha t ha s bee n traditionall y teste d i n professional examinations; at the higher end, the central concern has been with diggin g out, analysis and applicatio n o f the more abstract concept s and th e genera l principle s tha t ar e though t t o provid e coherenc e an d system i n lega l doctrin e - wha t migh t b e calle d applie d particula r jurisprudence. Eve n a t L.S.E. , leadin g proponent s o f broader, critica l approaches, scholar s suc h a s Kahn-Freun d an d Wedderburn , hav e insisted - unlik e Bentham - tha t exposition and analysis of the law as it is must precede criticism or sociological study. 61 58

J . Bentha m Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation ed. Hart and Burns , C W (1970),21-22n. 59 I t i s beyon d th e scop e o f this lectur e t o explor e controversia l question s abou t th e extent an d th e natur e o f th e relativ e marginalisatio n o f broade r approache s t o lega l education i n our intellectual tradition. Suffic e t o say that the story is a complex on e and a t no stage did mor e extreme version s o f the Expositor y Orthodox y go unchallenged . 60 Joh n Griffith, 'La w at L.S.E.', L.S.E. (June, 1979) ; Cyril Grunfeld , 'Reflections o f a Convenor' (1978). 61 E.g . O . Kahn-Freund , 'Reflection s o n Lega l Education' , Modern La w Review, 2 9 (1966), 12 1 at 129 ; confirmed b y Professor Lor d Wedderbur n (interview , October, 1986) . Compare the more cautious statemen t b y Kahn-Freund and Wedderburn in the Editoria l Foreword t o the first book i n the 'Law in Society Series' , D.W . Elliot t and H . Street , Road Accidents, 1968 . Fo r a different view , see W. Twinin g and D . Mier s How To Do Things With

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Laws in London, 1836-1908

1836 i s not a very auspiciou s momen t a t whic h t o begin ou r story. 62 By then, th e tw o star s o f University College , Amo s an d Austin , ha d bot h resigned; in 183 3 Professor Park of King's ha d die d a t a young age. They had bee n replace d b y competent , bu t uninspirin g part-timers. 63 Mor e important, la w teachin g wa s revived a t th e Inn s of Court i n 183 3 and i t soon becam e apparen t tha t neithe r Universit y Colleg e no r King' s was able t o compet e wit h the m i n attractin g students . Th e firs t degre e i n English la w i n th e countr y wa s institute d o n th e foundatio n o f th e University, but th e first graduating clas s with LL.B. in 183 9 totalled only three.64 Al l were fro m Universit y College an d non e fro m King's . Brav e efforts wer e made to keep the enterprise going with very few students, but the 184 6 Committe e o n Lega l Educatio n wa s rathe r generou s i n suggesting that University College was the only institution in the country to provide 'an y considerable facilitie s fo r legal education'. 65 At that time there were only two part-timers an d a handful of students. Throughout th e second hal f of the nineteenth-century Law in Londo n languished fo r lac k o f students . Reform s i n th e 1860 s an d 1870 s an d beyond enable d Universit y College t o attrac t som e me n o f distinction, such a s Sheldo n Amos , Bund , Bolland , Hunter , Murison , Scrutton , Pollock, and Taswell-Langmead an d later Holdsworth - but they failed to attract student s and few lasted long. For example, at U.C.L. in 1867-9 the largest clas s i n any subjec t (Roma n law ) had eigh t students; 66 in 1890- 1 there were only thirteen students attending classes. Baker reports tha t in the fourtee n years prior to 190 9 the College ha d produce d a total o f only nine graduates in law.67 For most of this period the situation at King's was no bette r an d wa s ofte n worse . Hearnshaw , th e ofte n acerbi c autho r of King's centenar y history, paints a depressing picture of repeated failure s to for m viabl e courses ; an d fo r lon g period s th e Chai r o f La w wa s perceived a s a sinecure. Law was not the only subject in difficulties i n this period. Fo r example , Hearnsha w reports : 'I n Februar y 185 4 th e Reverend Richar d Jones, who had slept in the Chair of Political Econom y Rules, 2n d ed . (1982) , ch . 2 (attackin g th e fallac y o f The Wa y o f the Baffle d Medi c prescription before diagnosis). 62 Th e main sources for this section ar e for U.C.L.: Baker (1977) , Bellot (1926), Keeton (1939); for King's : F.J.C. Hearnshaw Th e Centenary History o f King's College, London, 18281928 (1928), 91; Gordon Huelin King's College London, 1828-1978(1978); Cock s (1983) . It is fair t o say that the histor y o f laws a t King' s is less well-documented tha n tha t o f U.C.L. 63 Fo r details, se e Bellot Ch. 4 (and Charts ) Hearnsha w at 98 ff . 64 For details se e Harte (1986 ) 106 ; Baker 5-6 . 65 Atvii . 66 Bellot , 327. 67 Baker , 8. Figures fo r the period 1838-190 0 are set out in Harte (1986) at 10 6 and 139 . The bul k o f LL.B. graduate s befor e th e inter-collegiat e syste m wa s establishe d see m t o have been external students .

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since 1833, woke up and announced his wish to retire. The Council placed no obstacle in his path an d expresse d n o thanks for his inactivities.'68 Hale Bello t attribute s thi s unhapp y situatio n t o th e lac k o f full-time teachers: 'I n law, as in history and economics, i n fact, the professors wer e little more than visiting lecturers whose emoluments were not sufficient t o procure a greate r shar e o f thei r services , an d whos e activitie s wer e inadequate t o the creation of a flourishing school of studies in any of their several departments.' 69 Other s emphasis e th e competitio n fro m th e professional schools , despit e o r becaus e o f their poo r quality : for, says Baker, in the days before local authority grants, they offered a quicker and cheaper cras h cours e tha n a la w degree. 70 Perhap s mor e fundamenta l than those inter-related factors was the point that academic law had faile d to find any recognisable role : academic lega l education wa s not seen as a serious for m o f genera l educatio n no r a s a valuabl e preparatio n fo r practice nor, as Austin envisaged, a s a preparation fo r public life. Thus w e must b e carefu l t o se t som e claim s i n perspective . Londo n rightly boast s th e firs t degre e i n Englis h Law , bu t Universit y Colleg e produced onl y 13 5 LL.B.s i n th e nineteent h century ; th e number s for King's ar e substantiall y less. 71 A majority o f those wh o earne d LL.B. s studied privately . Again on e o f the proudes t claim s of the Universit y is that i t provide d opportunitie s fo r man y classe s o f student s wh o ha d previously bee n denie d acces s to University education , especiall y Jews, Catholics, Protestan t Dissenter s and women . Women were first allowed to study Jurisprudence a t University College in 1873 , but the first woman law graduate too k her degree in 1917. 72 It i s advisable no t to make both boasts in the same sentence. The Inter-Collegiate Heyday, 1908-1965 The situatio n was transformed after th e Haldane reform s of 1898;73 these launched the University of London Mar k III. 74 The turning-point in law came i n 1906-0 8 when , unde r th e aegi s o f th e Universit y o f London , 68

Hearnshaw , 243. Bellot , 331. 70 Baker , 7. 71 Persona l detail s o f th e La w Graduate s o f U.C.L . ar e collecte d i n a valuabl e unpublished documen t b y J.H. Baker : University College London: Faculty o f Laws, List of Graduates, 1839-1930(1969-70) (Cop y o n file at I.A.L.S.) . 72 Baker , 7. Women were first admitted t o the legal profession in 1922, Abel-Smith and Stevens, 192-4 . 73 Th e mai n publishe d source s fo r thi s sectio n ar e Keeto n (1939) , Gowe r (1950) , Edward Jenks'English Legal Education, 1885-1935' ; Law Quarterly Review, 51 (1935), 162. In addition I am greatly indebted to Professor George Keeto n for permission to draw on a personal memoi r (September, 1985 ) an d a n extended intervie w in August, 1986. 74 Harte , 158 . 69

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King's, Universit y College , an d th e recentl y formed Londo n Schoo l o f Economics agreed t o pool their resources in a tripartite scheme of lectures leading t o a n LL.B . degre e o f th e Universit y o f London . Thi s inter collegiate system of teaching lasted unti l the 1960 s and survive s today a t postgraduate leve l in the Maste r of Laws. Numbers picked up after th e introduction of the tripartite system, very rapidly a t King's - mainl y amon g evenin g students; more graduall y a t U.C.L., wh o attracted mainl y day students . During thi s period, L.S.E . law student s bega n t o b e treate d a s interna l student s an d L.S.E . academics bega n t o make their distinctive contribution t o law teaching. To star t with nearly all of the teaching was done by part-timers. Only a t L.S.E. wer e ther e an y full-tim e post s a t all . Afte r th e Firs t Worl d Wa r student deman d fo r la w increase d significantl y an d betwee n 191 9 an d 1931 a great advance was made by the establishment of five new full-time chairs an d thre e full-tim e readerships , mainl y finance d throug h th e U.G.C.75 They were filled by some notable scholars.76 Part of the stimulus for thi s 'revolutionar y change', 77 a s Keeto n calle d it , appear s t o hav e come from Si r William Beveridge, who in the late 'twenties proposed tha t all law teaching should b e transferred to L.S.E. 78 The cas e was a strong one: L.S.E. ha d b y far the bes t law library and almos t the only full-tim e teachers; th e tripartit e syste m of lectures made lif e difficul t fo r students who ha d t o move continuousl y between the thre e centres . I t als o upse t college time-tables . However , no t surprisingly , King' s an d U.C.L . resisted - afte r all , eac h ha d bee n teachin g la w for almost exactl y a hundred year s (wheneve r the y ha d student s t o teach) , an d U.C.L. , i n particular, coul d point to an extremely distinguished list of names, even if the incumbents had been paid almos t nothing and most had not stayed for very long . Th e outcom e wa s tha t th e nee d fo r full-tim e teacher s wa s accepted a t King's an d U.C.L . a s well as at L.S.E . Professor Georg e Keeton remember s th e period 1930- 9 as the happies t years of the Inter-Collegiate system. 79 For the first time there was a body of full-time scholar-teacher s o f law who were dedicated t o the enterprise. They wer e young, keen, proud of what they were doing and determined to work withi n th e Inter-Collegiat e system . Unti l th e lat e thirtie s th e 75

Jenks , 171-2. Th e incumbent s o f the Chairs were : 191 9 Commercia l an d Industria l La w - H . Gutteridge; 192 4 Englis h La w - E . Jenks; 192 0 Internationa l La w -E.P . Higgins ; 193 0 Legal Histor y - T.F.T . Plucknett ; 193 1 Roman Law -H.F . Jolowicz . In addition, thre e Readerships i n Englis h La w were establishe d i n thi s period : U.C.L . - G.W . Keeton ; K.C.L. - H . Potter ; L.S.E . - W.I . Jennings . Othe r notabl e pre-193 9 appointment s included: R.S.T . (late r Lord ) Chorley ; H . (late r Si r Hirsch) Lauterphacht ; A.T. (late r Lord) McNair ; D. (late r Si r David) Hughe s Parry; and W.A. Robson. 77 Keeto n (1939 ) a t 133 . 78 G.W . Keeto n (interview) ; Professo r A . Kiralfy (interview). 79 G.W . Keeton , letter t o author (17.9.85) . Interview . 76

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enterprise was quite small (averagin g about fifty students a year fo r the full-time degree) , bu t i n respec t o f bot h teachin g an d scholarshi p th e quality wa s outstandingly high . There were inevitably conflicts, bu t th e three Head s o f Departmen t - o f who m Hughe s Parr y wa s th e acknowledged leade r - worke d a s a team an d managed to resolve the m amicably. B y modern standard s teachin g loads wer e heavy, especially in respect o f sprea d o f subjects. 80 I n 193 1 Keeton recall s bein g aske d b y Jolowicz t o teach equity and trusts, and both the newly introduced course on English legal system and evidence , which he had neve r studied, to the evening students . H e wa s als o aske d t o 'loo k after ' U.C.L . student s in English law - a further six subjects. In 1938 Gower resigned his position at University College , partl y becaus e he was expected t o cover six or seven subjects.81 Others wh o wer e student s an d teacher s durin g thi s er a confir m Keeton's pictur e of harmonious co-operation , o f a generally high level of teaching and som e remarkable achievement s in scholarship, exemplifie d by th e establishmen t of the Modern La w Review and b y the publication s of individuals suc h as Jennings, Jolowicz, Keeton , Lauterpacht , Plucknett , Potter an d Robson. 82 No doubt a great dea l of this story of unpretentious institutional development an d individual excellenc e is attributable to the work of some outstanding long-servin g Heads of Department: Si r David Hughes Parr y wa s Head of Department a t L.S.E. fo r nearly thirty years; George Keeto n was Dean at U.C.L. from 1939-54 ; and Harold Potte r who was Head of Department a t King' s fro m 193 0 until his untimely death in 1950, in the words of the colleg e history, 'worked to build up th e Faculty virtually from nothin g int o one which b y the tim e of his death wa s mor e than pulling its weight in the lif e of the College.' 83 In retrospec t fou r features of this period stan d out. First, the genuinely inter-collegiate nature of the enterprise. Secondly, given its modest scale it was remarkabl e wha t wa s achieve d i n bot h scholarship , teachin g an d public influence. Thirdly , b y 193 9 most of the work had bee n take n over by full-time teachers . Yet the number of full-time teachers responsible for teaching day and evening classes in the internal LL.B., for the LL.M., (as well a s evenin g externa l students ) never exceede d fifteen befor e 1939. 84 Fourthly, throughou t thi s period th e LL.B. degree catered uniforml y for several ver y differen t constituencies : full-tim e da y student s who usually came straigh t fro m school ; an d interna l evenin g students , (includin g 80 81

Id .

Professo r L.C.B . Gower (interview) . 82 E.g . Professo r A . Kiralfy (interview) , Professor F.R . Cran e (' A Note on the Londo n Law Faculty , 1930-85' , communicatio n t o author) ; Professo r Si r Jac k Jaco b Q.C . (interview). 83 Huelin(1978 ) a t 112. 84 Thes e figures are approximate , partl y becaus e th e distinction betwee n 'part-time ' and 'full-time ' teacher s wa s not always a sharp one.

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articled clerks , a few admitted solicitors , and member s of the legal staffs of government departments an d private sector enterprises). There were also three classe s o f external students : student s i n universit y college s i n th e U.K.; student s in law schools overseas that were in a special relationship with th e Universit y o f London; an d independen t externa l students. 85 I shall return to deal in more detail with the story of the External LL.B. and special relationship s - fo r it is in this area perhap s mor e than an y other that th e Universit y o f London mad e a distinctiv e contribution t o lega l education. During the Second Worl d Wa r the London la w schools wer e dispersed: initially L.S.E . wen t t o Peterhouse, Cambridge; U.C.L . t o Aberystwyth and K.C.L . t o Bristol . Harol d Potte r nobl y kep t hi s evenin g clas s for students fro m th e Estat e Dut y Offic e goin g i n London. 86 Afte r a yea r U.C.L. move d t o Cambridge an d King' s followe d i n 1941 . Technicall y speaking th e inter-collegiat e syste m di d no t operat e durin g th e war ; naturally resources were pooled, an d som e lectures were shared wit h the diminished Cambridg e La w Faculty , bu t thi s wa s a n emergenc y arrangement rathe r tha n a continuatio n o f th e system. 87 Durin g thi s period servicemen , prisoners-of-war an d other s were able to read fo r the external LL.B . and a significant number succeeded. 88 After th e war, the three heads of department Parry , Keeton and Potte r were kee n t o revive and develo p th e inter-collegiate system. But, largely because o f an increas e i n number s of students and staf f an d th e nee d t o give younger teachers opportunities to teach their own courses, the system came increasingly unde r strain. 89 More and more parallel lecture course s developed. A t th e sam e time , th e commo n undergraduat e syllabu s and examinations required approva l o f all three departments in regard t o any change in curriculum and methods of assessment. This provided a rigidity that wa s increasingl y resented. Eventually , following th e reform s i n th e University, associate d wit h th e Saunder s Committe e o f 1965-6 , th e present syste m of special regulation s was introduce d i n th e mi d sixties . This allow s eac h Colleg e La w Facult y t o hav e it s own curriculu m an d methods of assessment in the LL.B., although they are all under the aegis of the Universit y of London. Thi s grantin g of'dominion status' 90 to the colleges allowed muc h greater flexibility in a time of rapid expansion , and facilitated th e establishment of a new Faculty of Laws at Q.M.C. in 1965 85

G.W . Keeto n 'Th e Revision o f Courses fo r the LL.B. in London',Jo. Soc. Pub. Teachers ofLaw(NS.) 1 (1948), 189. 86 G.W . Keeto n (interview) . 87 Keeto n (interview). 88 Harte , 238-41 . 89 Keeto n (lette r to author, op. cit. n. 79) , Kiralfy (interview) . 90 Harte , 264-65 . On e o f th e mos t significan t result s o f th e introductio n o f Specia l Regulations wa s tha t interna l an d externa l candidate s n o longer too k examination s tha t were common t o all students .

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and th e introductio n o f a distinctiv e undergraduat e cours e i n la w a t S.O.A.S. (B.A . 1975, LL.B. 1976 ) in 1975. 1965-86

The las t twenty-on e year s hav e see n a n enormou s expansio n an d diversification o f laws in London. Man y flowers have bloomed an d eac h school ha s develope d it s ow n distinctiv e programme an d strengths . I n 1983 a committee of the Heads o f University Law Schools listed fourteen important change s an d trend s i n th e disciplin e of law i n th e previou s fifteen years.91 Th e Universit y of London, mainl y throug h it s five law schools, ha s bot h participate d i n an d contribute d t o nearl y al l of these changes.92 For example: a. Th e scale of the enterprise increased at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels; (i)93 b. Ther e wa s a tren d toward s diversification withi n and betwee n undergraduate law degrees;94 91 Head s o f University La w Schools , La w a s an Academic Discipline'. A respons e t o th e Leverhulme Repor t an d th e U.G.C. Lette r o n a Strateg y fo r Higher Educatio n int o th e 1990s (March , 1984). A n abbreviate d versio n wa s publishe d i n Th e Societ y o f Publi c Teachers of Law Newsletter, Summer, 1984 . 92 Materia l o n th e histor y o f the five London La w Schools i s collected i n the 'archive ' mentioned i n n*. 93 Som e indicatio n o f the change s ca n b e obtaine d fro m th e followin g figures for th e University of London : ( a ) LL.B. (internal): Intake: 1965/ 6 309 ; total undergraduate la w students: 755 1983/4 441 ; total undergraduate la w students: 1186 (Source: Law a s an Academic Discipline, Appendix )

(b) LL.M. (internal) Candidates 1974 23 1985 41

7 17 9 28

Passes

1 9

(c) Institute of Advanced Legal Studies Students registered fo r postgraduate wor k in the University of London. 1965/66 33 7 1984/85 57 3 (I.A.L.S. Annual Reports) 94 Som e example s o f diversification ar e as follows : (a) Eac h o f the five schools has its own curriculum for the three year LL.B. (London) (internal) (fo r details , se e th e prospectu s o f eac h la w school) . Thes e hav e diverged bot h from eac h other and, even more strikingly, from the curriculum as it stood at the end of the inter-collegiate period . (b) I n addition to the three year LL.B., there are several distinctiv e undergraduat e degree programmes offere d b y individual schools. For example: (i) King's: joint fou r yea r programm e i n English and Frenc h La w leading t o both th e LL.B . (London ) an d th e Maitris e e n Droit o f the Universit y of Paris I.

16. Brougham hawkin g share s i n projected Universit y o f London , July 1825. Cartoon by Robert Cruikshank. (British Library)

17. T.H. Huxley , F.R.S. (1825-95) , lecturer a t th e Roya l Schoo l o f Mines, creato r o f th e firs t scienc e degrees. (Imperial College)

18. Duel betwee n th e Duk e o f Wellingto n an d th e Ear l o f Winchilsea , Battersea Fields, March 1829. (King's College)

19. Sidney Webb , Lor d Passfiel d (1859-1947), co-founde r o f th e London Schoo l o f Economics . (Photo: National Portrait Gallery)

20. H.A.L . Fishe r (1865-1940) . President of the Board of Education. 1918-22. (Photo: National Portrait Gallery)

21. R.B.Haldane, ViscountHaldane (1856-1928), Secretar y fo r War , 1905-12, Lor d Chancellor , 1912-1 5 and 1924 , chie f autho r o f 189 8 Ac t and chairma n o f 1909-1 3 Roya l Commission o n th e University . (Photo: National Portrait Gallery)

22. Dam e Lillia n Penso n (1896 1963), Professor o f Modern History , Bedford College , 1939-63 , Vice Chancellor, 1948-51 . (Photo: University of London)

23. Matriculation examination, July 1842, i n the University's original premises in Somerset House . V. A. Huber, Th e English Universities, ed. F.W. Newman , III (1843)

24. Women graduate s receivin g thei r degree s fro m th e Vice-Chancellor , Si r James Paget, i n Burlington Gardens, 1891 . (The Graphic, 23 May 1891 )

25. Westfield Colleg e students , Jul y 1885 , outsid e th e origina l premise s i n Maresfield Gardens, Constance Maynard (Principal, 1882-1913) seated centre. (Photo: Westfield College)

26. Bedford College in Baker Street, students in the Art Studio, 1890s. (Photo: R.H.B.N.C.)

27. Bedford Colleg e in Regent's Park, students in the new Chemistry Laboratory, 1913. (Photo: R.H.B.N.C.)

28. Cartoon , c . 1860, showing the University of London o n the side of Scientific progress in the battle with religious reaction. (Huxley Papers, Imperial College]

29. Sir James Paget, F.R.S. (1814-99) , lecturing o n anatomy a t St. Bartholo mew's Hospital Medica l College, 1874 . (Pictorial World, 2 5 July 1874 )

30. The Institut e o f Historical Researc h i n the Tudor Cottage', Malet Street , 1920s. (Photo: Institute of Historical Research)

31. Sir Mortime r Wheeler , F.B.A. , F.R.S . (1890-1976) , Directo r o f th e Institute o f Archaeology , a t th e excavatio n o f Maide n Castle , mi d 1930s . (Photo: Institute of Archaeology)

32. The Auto-Ico n o f Jeremy Bentha m (1748-1832) , displaye d i n Universit y College Londo n wit h Bentham' s actua l mummifie d head a t its feet, c . 1948 . (Photo: University College London)

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c. Ther e has been increased emphasis on European Law] (iii)95 d. The range of standard subjects has greatly expanded (for example Administrative Law , Family Law, Labour Law, Revenue Law an d Planning Law are found in nearly all London degrees). (iv)96 e. Ther e ha s bee n an increase d involvement i n continuing legal education, especially in the last three years; (v) f. Th e computer has begun to make an impact; (vi) g. Somefourjyear degree s have been introduced; (ix)97 h. Ther e have been several new institutes and research centres.98 The sam e committe e projected a serie s o f likely development s in th e next te n t o fiftee n years. 99 I t i s difficult t o believ e tha t all or mos t of the London la w schools will not b e involved in all of them. The H.U.L.S.C . Report painted a picture of a discipline in the process of rapid expansion and change that started in the mid 1960s and continues today. Change has (ii) L.S.E.: Degre e o f Bachelor o f Laws wit h Frenc h La w (fo r which candi dates are eligible to enter for a Diplome d'etudes juridiques of the University o f Strasbourg) an d Degre e of Bachelor of Laws with Germa n La w (which includes a certifying Examination of the University of Hamburg) (iii) Queen Mary College ha s a joint B.A . i n La w an d Politic s an d particula r strengths in Commercial La w and Intellectual Property. (iv) U.C.L. ha s recentl y introduce d a provisio n enablin g undergraduate s t o opt for a four year programme leadin g to the LL.B. (v) S . O.A.S. has a number of distinctive undergraduate degrees with a unique emphasis o n oriental , Africa n an d Comparativ e law s an d connection s with othe r disciplines , includin g anthropology , languages , religiou s studies and economics . (c) Perhap s th e mos t significan t diversificatio n ha s take n plac e i n th e LL.M . (internal). I n 196 5 thirty options were listed in the Regulations; in 198 6 eightytwo option s wer e listed , o f which seventy-on e were examine d (source , Senat e House). 95 Al l fiv e programme s leadin g t o th e LL.B . (internal ) includ e a t leas t on e cours e relating t o th e E.E.C . Th e majorit y als o contai n a t leas t on e cours e o n foreig n o r comparative la w relate d t o Europe. I n 1986- 7 there wer e course s i n th e interna l LL.M . relating to E.E.C. an d law s of particular European countries . 96 Th e mai n exception s i n 1985- 6 wer e (a ) th e S.O.A.S. , LL.B. , whic h ha s mor e emphasis on oriental and Africa n law s and les s on specialised English law subjects and (b ) Planning law , whic h receive d mor e emphasi s a t L.S.E . ( a ful l optio n o n Lan d Development an d Plannin g Law ) tha n i n the other LL.B . curricula. 97 Se e above n . 94. 98 Se e below, tex t at 00. 99 Th e H.U.L.S.C . Repor t stated : 'Significan t development s in legal education in th e next ten-fiftee n year s ar e likel y to include: (i) continuin g pressur e t o expan d th e rang e o f subjects an d t o adop t broade r approaches withi n the LL.B. (ii) simila r pressure at postgraduate level, especially in respect of inter-disciplinary work, research training and expanding fields such a s foreign law in relation t o commerce, trade and economic development

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been uneve n an d no t a s radica l nor a s systemati c a s som e o f us woul d wish. Th e economi c climate has slowe d and frustrated , bu t no t entirely halted, expansion . Fo r la w i s currentl y on e o f th e mos t buoyan t o f disciplines. Considerable damage has recently been done to libraries and to the age-structure of the law-teaching profession, yet it is probably true to sa y tha t a t n o stag e i n it s histor y ha s th e overal l pictur e o f legal education and trainin g in the United Kingdom presented such a vibrant diversity o f activities or suc h a rang e of opportunities. Within London many of these activities are taking place in the five constituent law schools, but thre e distinctive features o f the federa l Universit y should b e singled out: the External System; the LL.M.; and the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies. The External System From it s inception until 190 0 the University was only an examining and degree-conferring body. 100 Th e shar p separatio n o f teachin g an d examining functions pave d the wa y for what is arguably London's most important contribution to higher education: the external system. In 1985 6 ther e were 24,50 0 students registere d for external degrees in si x main subject areas . It i s estimated that about 75 per cent of these were actively studying. La w i s by far th e bigges t subject , wit h abou t 7 5 per cen t o f all (iii) possibly , an expansion of mixed two-subject honours degrees (iv) possibly , a mor e substantia l lega l inpu t int o othe r general , non-vocationa l degree course s (v) a continuing increase in the demand fro m other disciplines fo r legal inputs into vocationally oriented course s (vi) mor e emphasis o n computer application s t o legal education an d research , no t solely in respect of information retrieval , but also, for example, in the development of'expert systems ' (vii) a rapi d expansio n o f continuing legal educatio n an d o f part-time studies, for the lega l professio n an d fo r a grea t variet y o f other groups ; i t i s particularly significant tha t fro m 198 5 continuing legal education fo r solicitors i n Englan d and Wales will be compulsory for the first three years of practice (viii) development s i n teachin g of practical skills , simulation exercises an d clinica l legal education (ix) change s i n the natur e and environmen t o f legal practice includin g increasing complexity, shift s i n market s fo r lega l service s an d th e varyin g impact s o f information technolog y will continue to exert pressure on th e legal education system to anticipate an d adapt to changing conditions . Law as an Academic Discipline ( 1984), para. 6. 100 I a m gratefu l t o member s o f the Externa l Divisio n o f the Universit y o f London , especially Andre a Kelly , Sa m Crook s an d Jenny Shelburn e fo r help wit h thi s section . Other sources relied on include: Bruce Pattison Special Relations: Th e University o f London and New Universities Overseas (1984) ; Th e Universit y o f London : Th e University's Policy for th e External System (Polic y Statement , July 1983) ; Th e Universit y o f London : Th e External System: A Background Paper (unpublishe d polic y statement , 1986) . A.M . Carr-Saunder s New Universities Overseas (1961) ; Eri c Ashb y Universities: British, Indian, African (1966) ; I.C.M. Maxwell Universities i n Partnership (Edinburgh , 1980).

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enrolments. In 1985 , 358 LL.B.s were awarded t o internal students; in the same year 298 graduated wit h External LL.B.s. 101 Give n a high wastage rate, ther e are overall many more candidates (a t undergraduate level ) in the external programme tha n in the five London La w Schools. 102 The scal e o f the enterpris e i s not , o f course, th e mai n reaso n fo r th e significance o f the externa l system . At differen t stage s i n history , i t ha s served a variet y o f functions , bot h fo r individual s an d fo r othe r educational institutions . For example , for long periods i t met need s tha t today ar e largel y catere d fo r b y suc h admirabl e institution s a s th e C.N.A.A., th e Ope n Universit y an d th e Commo n Professiona l Examination. During the Second World War hundreds of servicemen and prisoners of war were able to continue their studies by reading for external degrees.103 Today, at least three very different categorie s of students avail themselves of the opportunities offere d b y the external LL.B.: a. Well-qualifie d people , ofte n graduates , seekin g t o advanc e alread y established careers or to change career or more generally to pursue an academic interest in law; b. Educationall y disadvantage d people , ofte n wit h minimum qualifica tions, who see the degree (based, as it is, on the principles of open entry and freedo m in respect of methods of study) as providing opportunities denied by conventional insitutions; c. Schoo l leavers, in several countries in the Far East and Africa who have been unabl e to obtain a university place in their own country.104 The 101

Figure s supplie d b y Senate House . I n June, 198 5 th e figures for candidates for the LL.B . were as follows : Intermediate: Internal : 41 5 (including 8 absent); External: (a) Home: 894 (168 absent); (b) Oversea s 129 2 (399 absent). Part I : Internal : 37 4 ( 8 absent) ; External : Home : 47 2 (9 0 absent); Overseas : 29 1 (78 absent). Part II : Internal : 33 1 ( 2 absent) ; External : Home : 28 8 (2 8 absent) ; Oversea s 10 5 (13 absent). These figures exclude mixed degrees. (Figure s supplied b y Senate House. ) 103 A note supplied b y Senate Hous e reads : EXAMINATIONS IN PRISONE R OF WAR CAMPS, 1942- 5 'The University of London provide d 1,30 5 different examinatio n papers t o prisoner of war camps - ove r a fifth of the total . Onl y eleve n othe r Examinatio n Board s exceede d 100 papers, the next largest bein g th e Royal Societ y o f Arts with 324 papers. Examination paper s were sent b y air mai l via Lisbon fro m Ma y 194 2 to March 1944 , when the arrangements had to be suspended owing to the plans for D-Day. The Lisbo n air route wa s resume d i n Jul y 194 4 bu t di d no t prov e satisfactor y unde r th e differen t conditions an d a ne w quicker air-route via Sweden wa s begun on 9 September 194 4 and continued unti l the last despatch o n 7 April 194 5 when the scheme came to its anticipated end with the victorious advance o f the Allied Armies and th e over-running of the prisoner of-war camp s i n Germany.' See further, Hart e (1986) a t 238-41. 104 Andre a Kell y (lette r to author 17.10.86 , cited with permission) . 102

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LL.B. i s not only b y far the most popula r external degree , but 'law s has been the pioneer for the rest of the external programme' - especi ally in the last few years.!°5 Perhaps eve n mor e significan t tha n provisio n fo r individual students has bee n th e contributio n of the externa l syste m to institution-building. Between 184 9 and 194 9 'al l universit y colleges create d i n Englan d an d Wales . . . automatically spent thei r apprentic e year s unde r th e aegi s of the Londo n Externa l Degre e System'. 106 Fro m 185 0 student s o f institutions i n th e Britis h Empir e wer e eligibl e t o registe r fo r Londo n degrees an d fro m 185 8 this facility wa s extended t o students anywhere in the world . Afte r th e Repor t o f the Asquit h Committee in 1945 , Londo n created a scheme of special relationships with eight colleges in Africa an d the West Indies , which proved t o be one of the great success stories of the late colonia l period . S o fa r a s la w i s concerne d th e actua l number s of students wh o graduated wit h the External LL.B . under thi s scheme were quite modest , bu t la w facultie s i n fou r countrie s spen t thei r formativ e years i n specia l relationship s an d severa l others , formall y outsid e th e scheme, were heavily influenced b y the London model. 107 During the period of decolonisation the scheme of special relationships gradually ra n dow n a s universit y college s becam e full y independen t universities. The externa l degree system, however, continued to flourish, with registrations reaching a peak o f 34,198 in 1970. 108 This rise in numbers led to the conclusion that the University was overreaching itself . Durin g th e earl y seventie s it was decided t o wind dow n and severel y to limit the system. First, it was decided t o cease t o register home student s enrolle d i n full-tim e course s i n publi c educationa l institutions an d t o abdicat e thi s rol e t o th e C.N.A.A . an d th e Ope n University. Private Externa l students were still enrolled in the U.K., bu t 105 106

Ibid.

'Th e External System : A Background Paper' , op. at. n . 100 . Th e la w school s directl y affecte d were : Gordo n College , Khartou m (late r University o f Khartoum) ; Universit y College , Gol d Coast/Ghan a (late r Universit y o f Ghana, Legon) ; Universit y College , Dar-es-Salaa m (vi a Makerer e College , Uganda ; subsequently Dar-es-Salaam became a constituent colleg e of the University of East Afric a and the n th e independen t Universit y o f Dar-es-Salaam). La w Facultie s develope d afte r the attainmen t o f university statu s i n th e Universit y of the Wes t Indies , an d i n a mor e complicated way , at the institutions that became Makerer e University , Kampal a and the University o f Nairobi . Th e La w Facultie s o f Hong Kong , Singapore , Malay a (Kual a Lumpur), Malawi an d the first generation o f Nigerian Law Faculties coul d be said t o have belonged t o th e sam e famil y o f la w schools , withou t havin g bee n par t o f th e specia l relationship system , fo r details , se e Pattisio n (1984 ) 133-6 ; L.C.B . Gowe r Independent Africa: the Challenge to the Legal Profession, Cambridge, Mass. (1966); J. Bainbridge The Study and Teaching o f Law i n Africa (Sout h Hackensack , Ne w Jersey 1972) . 108 'Th e External System : A Background Paper' , op. cit. 107

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the degree was no.longer actively promoted. Late r it was announced that , starting in 1977, the University would cease to register overseas students. It i s hardl y surprising , give n th e continuin g demand , tha t thes e decisions cause d consternatio n i n a numbe r o f quarters , especiall y overseas. Subsequentl y i t was acknowledged tha t whil e necessary a t th e time, th e decisio n t o ceas e oversea s registratio n seeme d ungenerou s retrospectively i n the ligh t of the University' s lon g history of work in th e Commonwealth an d o f th e [Government's ] decisio n i n 198 0 t o rais e overseas student fees for those studying in Britain.109 Accordingly in 19823 the process o f winding-down was reversed an d a brand new policy was formulated. Thi s perio d o f retrenchment provide d a n opportunit y fo r a fundamental rethinkin g of the system . The ne w scheme differ s fro m th e old one in several key respects. Fo r example, th e new External System is entirely self-financing ; Londo n Universit y teacher s ar e involve d i n providing instruction for external students; revision of syllabuses has been institutionalised; th e academi c suppor t provide d b y th e universit y is being significantly enhance d i n a number of ways; there is to be a greater emphasis on continuing education and distance learning; and the way has been opened for a measure of exchange between school-sponsored degree s on th e on e hand , an d Externa l syllabuse s and mode s o f study o n th e other. 110 Clearly al l of these new developments have particular significanc e for law whic h ha s b y fa r th e largest , indee d a disproportionate , shar e o f enrolments for external degrees. I t is impossible to do justice to this large and immensel y important subjec t here . But it is far too important t o say nothing about it. Special Relations

My ver y firs t examiners ' meetin g wa s a direc t experienc e o f a specia l relationship. I t wa s 195 9 an d I wa s a Lecture r a t th e Universit y o f Khartoum, whic h tw o year s previousl y ha d becom e a n independen t university. This was to be one of the first occasions on which our students would be given a Khartoum degree . The Sudanes e were ambivalent: they were proud t o be independent of London, bu t the y wer e fearfu l fo r the prestige o f their own degree - a t home a s wel l a s abroad . A fe w facts stic k out i n m y memor y abou t th e occasion. Th e examiners ' meetin g was held in London, at K.C.L. Nearly all o f th e Externa l Examiner s wer e well-know n Londo n la w teachers : Coulson, Crane, De Smith, Gower, Graveson , Grunfeld , Keeton, Lloyd , 109

S.B. Crook s pape r o n 'Externa l Fund-Raising ' fo r th e Working-Part y o n th e Development of the External System (1986) , (quote d with permission). 110 Se e references i n notes 1 , 9 and 1 0 above.

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Nokes, Schwarzenberger. 111 I ha d no t met most of them before. Nearly all had take n th e trouble to turn u p an d wer e very gracious. I wa s dazzled. The meetin g laste d les s tha n a n hour , largel y becaus e th e interna l examiners' mark s an d judgement s wer e accepte d almos t withou t question. The n w e recessed t o drink champagne a t th e retirement party for a thirty-year-ol d lecture r who ha d inherite d a n estat e in Scotland . I decided o n the spot to emulate him - an d I left Afric a an d duly retired to the U.K. shortl y after my thirtieth birthday. Like me, he is still teaching. Later, i n 1961 , I wa s involve d i n negotiation s wit h th e Universit y of London ove r the syllabus for the London LL.B . in the new Law Faculty in Dar-es-Salaam - whic h i n Octobe r 198 6 celebrate d it s twenty-fift h anniversary. We were mor e concerne d in Dar t o innovate an d to localis e and w e tende d t o grumbl e abou t th e constraint s o f th e specia l relationship. But , i n lookin g throug h m y ol d paper s I fin d tha t nearl y everything w e propose d wa s accepte d - includin g a cours e o n th e constitutions an d lega l system s of East Afric a an d a general mandat e t o study local law where this was feasible . Sir Eric (later Lord) Ashby has said that 'the link with the University of London wa s one of partnership, no t merel y of patronage.'112 Unde r th e special relationship , a fair degre e of leeway was given in adapting cours e content to local conditions, but London 'wa s uncompromising in resisting any departur e fro m th e patter n o f the degree'. 113 The foundation of this attitude was a concern to maintain 'standards'; but, as Ashby points out, there was a tendenc y t o lum p togethe r unde r th e ide a o f 'standards' thre e quit e separate ideas' : academi c excellenc e o r quality ; th e particula r method s an d criteria by which such quality was assessed; and curriculum (the structure and pattern o f degrees - notabl y with emphasis on single subject honours). 114 The outcome wa s that concer n fo r quality - largel y supported b y nationalist leaders an d publi c opinio n - a t time s resulte d i n a somewha t rigi d 'consolidation o f orthodoxy'. 115 Nevertheless , Ashb y concludes , th e system o f specia l relationshi p avoide d wha t wer e see n t o b e histori c mistakes i n th e developmen t o f India n universities , an d th e 'suprem e merit' of enabling th e Asquith college s to be accepted a s full member s of 'the international famil y o f universities.'116 Generally speaking , my experience in Africa - especiall y in Khartoum

111

Th e name s o f th e Externa l Examiner s fo r 195 8 ar e liste d i n th e Universit y of Khartoum Calendar (1959) . 112 Ashb y (1966 ) a t 235 . 113 Id . 238 . 114 Id . 259-60. 115 Id . 258 . 116

Id. 259.

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and Dar-es-Salaam - confirm s Ashby' s analysis. 117 We chafed at some of the constraint s tha t we felt were imposed b y London, bu t th e students i n particular wer e concerned wit h the international an d loca l recognition o f their degrees . Moreover , i t i s striking that whe n th e universit y college s became independen t universitie s relativel y fe w change s i n structure , methods o f assessmen t and , t o a lesse r extent , cours e conten t wer e introduced. Eve n Dar-es-Salaam , b y fa r th e mos t radica l o f th e ne w African la w faculties, did not deviate far from the London model in respect of course structure, quality and method s of assessment; insofar as it did, it pioneered adjustment s tha t becam e quit e commonplac e i n Englis h la w faculties afte r 196 8 - suc h a s half-courses and continuous assessment. 118 No doubt in the early stages there were some inhibitions about making too radical a break for fear o f jeopardising th e reputation o f the degree; bu t I suspect tha t a far greater constrain t wa s the limits of the imagination an d expertise o f the innovators. Writing of the early days of Ibadan in Nigeria , its first Principal, D r Kennet h Mellanby , summe d u p why relatively few modifications wer e ever requested o f London: First w e ha d t o us e existin g textbooks . Secondly , man y course s (e.g . mathematics, chemistry ) are of universal applications an d ther e is no specifi c 'African' version . Thirdly, mos t of our staff , bot h Africa n an d European , ha d insufficient experienc e of Africa t o be competent a t th e outse t t o modify thei r

courses. 119

In th e case of law, the special relationship system did not so much serve to put a brak e o n localisation - inevitabl y a slow proces s - a s to limit American influence , whic h wa s muc h mor e pronounce d i n countrie s outside the special relationship system, such as Ethiopia an d Liberia . The institutiona l histor y o f the syste m o f special relation s ha s bee n relatively well-researched an d proclaimed. 120 The mor e comple x huma n story o f individual candidate s fo r externa l degree s — both th e successe s and the failures - remain s largel y unexplored; it deserves more attentio n from socia l historians and student s of education. There ca n b e n o doub t a t al l o f th e historica l an d contemporar y importance o f the external system in providing educationa l opportunity , in institutio n building , an d i n meetin g a variet y o f specifi c need s an d 117

Fo r details , se e Willia m Twinin g 'Lega l Educatio n withi n Eas t Africa ' i n East African La w Today, 11 5 (1966). British Institut e of Int. and Comp . Law, London; and 'Th e Camel in the Zoo' in IssaShivji (ed. ) The Limits of Legal Radicalism (Dar-es-Salaam, 1986) . 1 8 ' Fo r details, see Twining (1966) . 119 Minerva, I (1963) , 15 3 cited Pattiso n (1984 ) a t 162 . Professor Gowe r sugges t tha t 'increasingly in the post-war period th e failure of Commonwealth universities to adapt t o local conditions was due to their reluctance to put forward proposal s rather than London's reluctance to accept suggestions ' (lette r to author, 6 January 1987) . 120 Especiall y Ashby, Carr-Saunders, Maxwel l an d Pa xttison, op. cit. n. 100 .

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demands. Fro m a purel y intellectua l and educationa l poin t o f view th e merits of the system have not been so clear-cut. Consistent attempt s have been mad e t o maintai n standard s i n al l thre e sense s distinguishe d b y Ashby. Th e externa l LL.B . ha s gaine d widesprea d internationa l recognition, but ther e have been costs: for example, a certain rigidity and conservatism; painfull y hig h failur e an d wastag e rates ; fe w Uppe r Seconds and almost no Firsts - thoug h I am pleased t o say that one First was awarded i n 1986 , th e first for many years . The reviva l an d refor m o f th e externa l syste m provide s a grea t opportunity to make external degrees mor e interesting, flexible and up to date. Fo r its potential t o be realised it must be adequately funded, so that its operation ca n b e properl y monitored , ne w forms o f distance learning and educational technology ca n be fully used and, above all, that it should be adapte d t o th e huma n an d educationa l need s of students of differen t kinds. A s a n outsid e observer , I se e tw o danger s which , ar e bot h associated wit h the 'London disease' of spreading academic resources too thinly an d makin g a virtu e o f parsimony. Th e Externa l Syste m i s too important t o be left entirel y to a handful o f dedicated administrators an d the voluntar y effort s o f academics wh o contribut e over an d abov e thei r ordinary dutie s a s full-tim e scholar-teacher s i n th e variou s La w Schools.121 The ne w external system also needs active support, financial as well as professional, not only from law teachers, but also from any body concerned wit h improvin g acces s t o lega l educatio n an d th e lega l profession, bot h i n this country an d elsewhere. 122 A Prose Poem in Praise of the LL.M. Once upo n a time , long , lon g ago the LL.M . wa s a quie t gentlemanl y affair: a handfu l o f academically promisin g students working largely o n their ow n and meetin g occasionall y wit h thei r tutors . Ove r th e years it growed an d growe d an d becam e internationalised . Studen t number s increased, ne w course s develope d - ofte n a s a n outle t fo r individual teachers seeking a less constricting forum than the three year LL.B. for the development of their interests and ideas. Despite this expansion, for many years i t wa s see n a s a sideshow , a hangove r fro m th e day s o f the inter collegiate system - a t best a pleasing avocation, at worst a diversion from 121 Professo r F.R. Crane points out that the involvement of senior London law teachers declined significantl y afte r th e introductio n o f Specia l Regulation s (lette r t o author , December 1986) . Individuals who teach or examine for external degrees are paid pro rota, but participation is not part of their contractual dutie s and normally no allowance is made in respect of their duties in their respective shcools. What is surely needed is a small group of full-tim e academi c staf f (perhap s o n temporar y secondment ) wh o ca n devot e themselves single-mindedly to this important enterprise. 122 Th e Commonwealt h Legal Education Association is currently engaged i n a study of Access to Legal Education and th e Legal Profession in the Commonwealth.

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the serious enterprise of teaching undergraduates . Then th e LL.M . wa s privatised . Fro m a margina l sidesho w i t ha s developed int o a juristic bazaar with nearly 500 students from ove r fifty countries; ther e ar e a t presen t ove r eight y courses o n th e book s rangin g from chil d la w and juvenile justice to Chinese, Islamic and African lawand, indeed , spac e law . I t ha s bee n sai d tha t accordin g t o presen t projections, th e rate of growth of numbers of lawyers in the United State s relative to population i s such that by about A.D. 2050 there will be more lawyers than people in that country. Some fear that , according t o present trends, there will be more courses than students in the LL.M. b y the year 2000. Others se e this as evidence of the vitality of Laws in London . The mai n impetu s fo r refor m ha s com e fro m th e impositio n b y Government of a requirement to charge differential fees for overseas (nonEEC) students . Within a relativel y short tim e thos e wh o ha d oppose d differential fee s o n principl e foun d themselves , largel y b y economi c necessity, acting as sales persons and recruiter s for their own institutions. As one who has consistently opposed thi s provision, I have to admit tha t one good result of the policy - perhaps the only one - is that it has led to an enormous improvemen t i n th e LL.M . Decayin g course s tha t ha d sa t untouched on stalls for twenty years were revised or dropped; brand new glossy products - som e produced no t far from her e - com e off the presses almost weekly . Financ e officer s trembl e whe n students , quit e rightly , demand valu e for money. Tutors prepare proper reading-list s and cours e materials; teaching in the LL.M. count s as part of one's teaching load; the Institute o f Advance d Lega l Studie s buy s books . Britis h Counci l representatives complai n tha t thei r tim e is taken u p b y over-eager sale s persons claimin g to represent wel l over 10 0 British institutions of higher education. I t i s rumoured tha t i n one of the fring e subject s students ar e wooed wit h beer i n th e 'Jerem y Bentham' ; ye t down th e road, th e stor y goes, a lecturer stands on the tabl e in front o f a packed roo m an d trie s to deter people by saying: 'Go away - i f all you want is to get rich quick' . . . to whic h th e student s reply: 'S o we do an d s o do you.' Fo r i t i s widely, though erroneously , believe d tha t th e LL.M . i s a profit-makin g enterprise. It would not be appropriate on a celebratory occasion to pursue some of the more controversial aspects of this matter here. For whatever reason, it is clear that in recent years the LL.M. ha s been enriched and tightened up into on e o f th e largest , mos t varie d an d mos t genuinel y cosmopolita n postgraduate programmes in the world. For better or worse, it is a bazaa r - a n extraordinarily diverse group of clients in search of a variety of wares and service s from a prett y diverse group o f stall-holders. I n th e first few weeks of term, new postgraduates are advised to shop around an d sampl e what i s on offer , befor e committin g themselves. The recor d i s said t o be held by one keen student, who starting at 1 0 a.m. on Monday manage d t o attend forty-fiv e lecture s and tutorial s by Friday evening , including three

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different course s on intellectual property, a private tutorial on Mongolian law and a small seminar discussing the meaning of the auto-icon. Like al l bazaars , th e fascinatio n lies in th e diversit y of the customers and o f th e ware s o n offer . I n time , on e hope s tha t mos t peopl e fin d something t o sui t thei r needs . Ther e are , o f course, som e carper s wh o would homogenis e th e enterpris e b y creating a monopolisti c superstore along th e lines of Sainsbury or Marks an d Spencer . T o my mind this is a mistake. Rathe r w e shoul d celebrat e th e LL.M . fo r what i t is : five law schools, ove r a hundred academic s an d practitioners , an d student s fro m all over the world jostling together - ofte n i n friendly competitio n - i n a great big, booming, buzzing marketplace of ideas and information, lightly regulated i n an incomprehensible way by the invisible hand o f that great poker player of academia, Senat e House . The Institute of Advanced Legal Studies 123 In 198 6 th e Universit y o f Londo n ha s eigh t Institute s an d Centre s devoted wholly or partly to the advancement of our discipline. These are: The Institut e of Advanced Lega l Studie s Centre of European La w (K.C.L. ) Centre of Law, Medicine and Ethic s (K.C.L. ) Institute for Economics an d Relate d Discipline s (L.S.E.) Centre for Labour Economic s (L.S.E.) Centre for African Studie s (S.O.A.S.) Centre for Commercial La w Studies (Q.M.C. ) Centre for the Study of Socialist Legal Systems (U.C.L.) Few will contest the proposition tha t the most important of these is the Institute o f Advance d Lega l Studies , whic h celebrate d it s fortiet h birthday i n 198 6 with a visit from th e Chancellor. I n 193 4 one of the two conclusions o f th e ver y disappointin g Atki n Committe e o n Lega l Education wa s that ther e was a need for an institution which would be a national headquarter s fo r academi c researc h an d woul d promot e th e advancement o f knowledge o f the la w i n th e mos t genera l terms . 'Th e natural orga n fo r thi s purpos e wil l b e foun d i n th e establishmen t of an 123 Th e mai n source s fo r this sectio n ar e Institut e of Advanced Lega l Studies , Annual Reports; I.A.L.S. , Report o f the Policy Review Sub-Committee (Chairman , Si r Rober t Megarry ) (May, 1986) ; Si r Davi d Hughes-Parr y 'Th e Institut e o f Advance d Lega l Studies ' J.S.P.T.L. (N.S. ) (1949 ) I , 183 ; Lor d MacMilla n A Ma n o f Law's Tale (1952 ) a t 217-18 ; Aubrey Diamon d 'Will i Steine r an d th e Institut e o f Advanced Lega l Studies' , Th e Law Librarian, 15 (1984), 46-7; Report of th e Legal Education Committee (Atkin Report) 1934 , (Cmd 4663); Gowe r 'English Legal Training' (1950) op. cit., n., above. I am grateful to Professor Aubrey Diamond , Professo r Si r Jack Jacob Q.C., Murie l Anderso n an d Barbar a Tearle for informatio n used i n this section; th e opinions expressed ar e my own.

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Institute o f Advance d Lega l Studies.' 124 Thi s proposa l wa s al l tha t remained o f the mor e ambitious plans fo r a Legal Universit y of London, which had bee n revived by Harold Lask i who was a member of the Atkin Committee. The Government took no action on the recommendation, but after th e War Professo r David Hughe s Parry persuaded th e University of London t o set up such an Institute . This wa s in 1946. 125 Forty years on th e institute is well-established as an importan t centre both nationall y and internationally . Within th e Universit y of London i t plays a n absolutel y pivota l role , bot h symbolicall y an d practically , i n sustaining inter-collegiat e co-operatio n i n ou r discipline . I t house s th e best law library in the university and on e of the three best in the country. It i s the headquarters fo r many visiting scholars fro m al l over th e world, for approximatel y 700 graduate students, for the Board of Studies, and for all law teachers in the university. 126 Without th e Institut e law s i n Londo n woul d b e fragmente d an d drastically impoverished. I t i s also fair t o say that th e significanc e of the Institute lie s a s muc h i n it s future potentia l a s i n its past achievements . For, i t is a widely held view , which I share , tha t i t ha s a long way t o go before i t fulfil s it s promise. Fo r muc h of its history, the Institut e has no t had fund s t o match it s aspirations. 127 Onl y i n respect o f its building which was given to the University by Sir Charles Clore - can it be said that it ha s eve r been adequatel y provide d for . Its greates t achievemen t is the library; yet , i n 1983- 4 approximatel y sixt y la w school s i n th e Unite d States (an d several in Canada) wer e reported t o have more books than are at presen t i n th e Institut e Library . Harvar d ha s nearl y 1,500,00 0 volumes; the Bodleian Law Library about 290,000; I.A.L.S. has 174,000 , slighly fewer tha n Emory University Law School, and slightl y more than Hofstra. 128 Allowance must be made for the crudity of such statistics; also for 'rationalisation' , which is Newspeak fo r cutting costs. Thi s prevent s 124

Atki n Report, op. cit. n. at 13 . Th e Institut e celebrated its fortieth birthday i n October, 1988 . Som e historians giv e its date of birth a s 194 7 (e.g. Harte (1986), 247) or 194 8 (Abel-Smit h an d Steven s (1967) , at 185) . The Universit y of London formally decided t o establish i t in 1946; it began work in 1947 and was formally opened by the Lord Chancellor o n June 11,1948. The phenomeno n of a perso n celebratin g thei r thirty-nint h birthda y i n severa l successiv e year s i s quit e familiar; o n a generous interpretatio n o f history th e Institute has a unique opportunit y t o celebrate it s fortieth birthday fo r three years i n succession . 126 Othe r achievement s o f th e Institut e includ e Th e Index o f Foreign Legal Periodicals (1960-83); List of Current Legal Research Topics; the annual W.G. Hart Workshop; the University o f London Legal Series and miscellaneou s bibliographica l an d specia l publication s (for details , se e Annual Reports}. 127 Man y of the constraints wer e foreseen by Sir David Hughes-Parr y in 194 7 (op. cit. n. 123. 128 Th e mai n source s fo r these figures are David A. Thomas,' 1983-84 Statistical Survey of La w Schoo l Librarie s an d Libraries' , La w Library Journal (1984-5) , 77 , 575 ; I.A.L.S . Report o f th e Policy Review Sub-Committee (1986). 125

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wasteful, necessar y an d usefu l duplication . I t als o create s o r obscure s vacuums of responsibility, especially in interdisciplinary areas such as law and psychology , la w an d socia l history , America n lega l history , lega l education and training, forensic science, access to justice, and many other areas wher e lega l practic e intersect s wit h broade r world s o f practica l affairs. Thi s is just not good enough for what aspires t o be the second bes t academic la w librar y i n th e country. 129 Ther e i s no poin t i n allocatin g blame - indee d ther e ar e many individua l heroe s an d heroine s i n the Institute's history : bu t thi s clearl y represent s a collectiv e failur e o f imagination an d o f will o n th e par t o f both th e academi c an d th e legal communities over a period o f forty years . The Institut e organises or hosts many valuable academic activities, but it has never quite achieved the aim of becoming the national headquarters for academi c law. 130 I n thi s respec t w e coul d stil l lear n a lo t fro m ou r neighbours i n th e Institut e of Historical Research . Th e I.A.L.S . is both inter-collegiate an d international ; i t ha s som e wa y t o g o befor e i t i s a centre fo r sustaine d interdisciplinar y research . Again , i t ha s lon g bee n recognised tha t the Institute has great potential for strengthening the ties between th e academi c an d practisin g branche s o f the lega l profession . This is reflected in the composition of the Committee of Management an d in some valuable occasional seminars ; but what has been achieved to date falls far short of what could be . This is not captious carpin g by a disgruntled academic . Fo r much th e same assessment was made in a report o f a Policy Review Sub-committee chaired b y Sir Robert Megarr y i n 1986 . This concluded that the Institute 'has yet to develop into what it should b e and wa s originally intended t o be, th e nationa l centr e fo r researc h wit h a wid e spectru m o f scholarly activities'.131 Thi s remarkabl e document , whic h represente d a n unexpected volte face fro m a n essentiall y pessimisti c an d defensiv e approach, wa s unanimousl y an d enthusiasticall y endorse d b y th e Committee of Management an d the Board of Studies and, despite the chill economic an d politica l climate , step s ar e currentl y bein g take n t o implement its recommendations . One o f th e mos t importan t recommendation s o f th e Ormro d Committee tha t ha s ye t t o b e implemented , i s that ther e shoul d b e a n Institute of Professional Legal Studies , which would be a means by which universities an d othe r institution s coul d b e involve d i n professiona l 129 Th e modest y o f our nationa l aspiration s ca n b e gauge d b y comparin g th e lates t S.P.T.L. 'Statemen t o f Minimu m Holding s fo r La w Librarie s i n Englan d an d Wales ' (revised 1986) , Legal Studies (1986) , 6 , 195-21 5 wit h equivalen t document s i n othe r common law countries. 130 O n 'rationalisation ' within London , see Megarry Report, op. cit., Appendix A . 131 Id . 5 . Unlik e som e Londo n Institutes , th e I.A.L.S . doe s no t registe r researc h students; it provides services t o postgraduates registered in the various schools , but doe s not itsel f earn any income from fees .

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education an d training in a co-ordinated way. 132 It is a constant sourc e of amazement t o visitor s fro m abroa d tha t i n Englan d th e universit y law schools ar e almos t totall y uninvolve d i n professiona l trainin g afte r th e academic stage . A s I have argued elsewhere , there is also an unme t need for researc h in , an d systemati c developmen t of , th e direc t teachin g o f professional skills. 133 Th e Institut e o f Advance d Lega l Studies , i n addition t o aspiring to be an excellent library and centr e of research, ca n perform a vital role in strengthening link s with the practising profession. Twelve year s afte r th e Atki n Repor t th e Universit y o f Londo n implemented a recommendatio n tha t ha d bee n ignore d b y government . Fifteen year s afte r Ormro d seem s a good tim e to revive another idea tha t has no t yet found officia l favour . Conclusion

When ful l historie s of legal educatio n i n Englan d an d i n thi s University come to be written, three themes ought t o be treated a s central. The first is economic: during the past 15 0 years academic law has been perceived and treated as a low-cost enterprise . Fo r the first hundred year s in Londo n nearl y al l teachin g wa s lef t t o parsimoniousl y remunerate d part-time teachers . A majo r chang e cam e wit h th e shif t t o full-tim e teachers. Bu t staff-studen t ratio s hav e alway s bee n amon g th e worst , research fundin g ha s been almos t non-existent, and professiona l training today i s Ormrod-on-the-cheap . Som e heroi c feat s hav e bee n achieve d with minima l resources ; bu t th e potentia l o f our disciplin e i s fa r fro m being realised . Recentl y th e climat e of opinion ha s begu n t o change. I n 1983 the Heads of University Law Schools argued tha t while law remains one of the mos t cost-effectiv e subjects , nearl y al l recent development s i n our rapidl y changin g disciplin e involv e a t leas t som e increase s i n uni t costs. Thi s messag e ha s bee n reiterate d i n 198 6 b y a forcefu l repor t of Australian La w Schoo l Deans , b y th e Polic y Revie w Committe e o f the I.A.L.S. and, i n more muted terms , even by the U.G.C. The second them e i s political . Th e ofte n disma l histor y o f lega l education an d training in England has been in part a story of failures of cooperation. A t crucial points - fo r example, in 1846; in 1900; in the series of abortive attempt s t o establish a grea t Lega l Universit y in Londo n and , more recently , i n th e Ormro d an d Benso n exercises , th e mai n interes t groups - th e Inns of Court, th e Solicitors and the academic communityrefused t o co-operate . On e resul t wa s tha t Governmen t wa s free d fro m sustained pressure to provide public funding on the same scale as for other professional subjects , such as medicine or engineering. 132 Ormro d Report , op . cit., n. a t pp . 88 , 98, discussed i n Twining (1982 ) op. cit., n. a t 209-13. 133 'Takin g Skill s Seriously ' Commonwealth Legal Education Newsletter, 4 4 (1986) , appendix.

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The uneve n histor y of laws i n th e Universit y of London illustrate s a converse pattern . Fo r som e o f th e mai n succes s storie s - th e inter collegiate system , especially in the inter-war years; th e External system; the Institut e of Advanced Legal Studies; and th e recent strengthening of the LL.M . - ar e al l instance s wher e th e constituen t colleges , whil e maintaining thei r distinc t identities , hav e bee n abl e t o sin k thei r differences an d engag e i n joint enterprise s o f the Universit y of London. The twi n factors of our geographical location and the opportunity to pool the resource s o f five law school s remai n ou r greates t sourc e of potential strength. Perhaps th e most important lesson of history is that legal education, in this country and in most parts of the world, has tended to be demand-led. The scal e an d natur e o f th e enterpris e o f academi c la w ar e largel y determined b y th e popularit y o f the subject , rather tha n b y th e idea s of planners o r academics or governments. Legal education in London in the nineteenth centur y languishe d fo r lac k o f students . Toda y th e hig h demand fo r legal education is a remarkable international phenomenon. In this country law is better protected than most disciplines by the buoyancy of demand, bot h a t hom e an d overseas . Ther e is , of course, a constan t tension betwee n wha t students want, or think they want, and wha t thei r teachers think they ought to want or want to offer them . But an institution such a s our s i s well-placed t o resolve many o f these tension s if we stand firm on a single principle. Over time law teachers can exert proper control over thei r situatio n onl y i f the y hav e imagination , th e wil l an d th e persistence t o reiterat e a n uncompromisin g messag e t o colleague s an d administrators, t o the legal profession, to providers of funds - bot h public and private - and , abov e all, to our students: 'We demand excellence. ' Today thi s may sound lik e crying in the wilderness. We are living in a period o f cuts, an d o f official incomprehension , hostility an d ineptitude . Morale i s low. The lega l profession is experiencing what may prove to be an historic series of traumas. We have been damaged, but largely because of buoyant demand we have not been maimed. Indeed never in our history have law s i n Londo n bee n stronger . Nevertheless , the las t fifteen years have bee n ver y painful , fo r al l o f us . Students , younge r teacher s an d libraries hav e bee n amon g th e mai n victims . Ther e ar e tw o mai n responses to this kind of adversity: one can stonewall: or one can counterattack. Th e reviva l of the Externa l Syste m and th e recen t repor t o n th e Institute of Advanced Lega l Studie s represent th e latter approach. The y deserve our ful l support . I n thi s regard I am reminded of two precepts of Lord Butterworth , one of the mos t successful Vice-Chancellor s in recent years. In th e seventies, he used to say to me: 'My boy, in a period of stopgo, stop-go, alway s be ready t o go.' Later, when the cuts came, he said to us: 'When everyon e else has thei r heads beneat h th e parapet, tha t is the time to CHARGE!'134 134

Reconstructe d an d cite d wit h permission .

5

The Sciences Sir Hermann Bond i There wa s plent y o f outstandin g researc h an d scholarship , an d som e university-level teaching, in London fo r hundreds of years before th e city acquired a university . Indeed, man y notabl e scientist s wer e associate d with th e ne w Universit y fro m th e star t i n 1836 , an d muc h innovator y teaching an d examinatio n o f the science s went on fo r more tha n twent y years befor e a separat e Facult y of Science and a firs t degre e i n Scienc e were established. Initially the University, if not wholly committed t o the idea o f the unit y of all knowledge, since its arrangements acknowledge d the independence of the disciplines of Law and Medicine , held to the view that all knowledge which was not strictly vocational or practical belonge d to a singl e family . Thu s i n th e University' s earl y year s mathematics , chemistry, and physic s were subjects within the Bachelor of Arts degree, and i n institutional terms the Faculty of Arts embraced al l those sciences which wer e no t para-medical . T o u s thi s ma y loo k lik e a confusio n o f obviously separate branche s of knowledge and enquiry , but i t is no more confusing o r inconsisten t tha n th e contemporary , twentieth-century , continental Europea n usag e o f th e term s 'science ' an d 'scientific ' t o include what we think of as 'humanities' or 'arts', a usage very reasonably justified o n th e ground s tha t 'science ' refer s t o al l branche s o f learning involving systematic thought and discipline d research. During th e tim e tha t th e boo t wa s o n th e othe r foot , an d 'arts ' wa s understood t o include 'science', several individual scientists in a number of institution s associate d wit h th e Universit y - th e Roya l Colleg e of Chemistry, the Royal Institution, the Department of Science and Art, and the Governmen t Schoo l o f Mines, a s wel l a s i n King' s an d Universit y Colleges - wer e making notable contribution s to advancing the frontiers and method s o f experimental science , an d t o th e creatio n o f completely new area s o f scientific enquiry , which were t o lead t o th e declaratio n of scientific independenc e i n 1858 . Th e natur e an d subjec t matte r o f mathematics, chemistry , physics, or botany have long pedigrees and have long bee n wel l understoo d i n th e worl d of learning an d b y the educate d public. Thei r contents , methodology , an d theoretica l structur e wer e

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becoming mor e sophisticate d an d complex , an d a t th e sam e tim e ne w subjects were being invented or defined a s a result of pioneering researc h in, fo r example , electricity , heat , magnetism , organi c chemistry , o r geology. Thi s expansio n o f knowledge la y behin d th e comin g o f age of science. I t wa s th e wor k o f man y peopl e i n man y countries , a n international community of scientists, among whom the London scientists were outstanding. Th e critica l par t playe d b y London ca n b e seen fro m the career s o f some of the ke y people. Si r Charles Lyell , a geologist, was one such person. H e had onl y a brief period a t the University, at King' s College in the 1830s , but it was a very influential and productive period of his life. I am ofte n struc k by the difficult y o f the subject of history. Before you can appreciate th e contribution that somebody made, you have to put yourself int o th e fram e o f min d o f thos e wh o precede d hi m an d hi s contribution. The greate r tha t contribution , the more it has changed ou r mode o f thought, th e less we can imagine that one could hav e thought as people did , a s th e mos t intelligen t an d imaginativ e did , befor e th e contribution o f the particula r perso n i n mind . I n thi s case, wha t wa s so outstanding abou t Charle s Lyel l wa s tha t h e firs t sa w th e challeng e to explain an d interpre t geolog y i n the light of the present. Hi s slogan was : 'The present is the key to the past'. Indeed this was diametrically opposed to th e widel y current opinio n a t th e time , tha t th e shap e o f the Earth' s surface an d it s rock s ha d bee n forme d b y a serie s o f unimaginabl e catastrophes goin g o n i n quit e a differen t wa y fro m th e wa y tha t th e Earth's surfac e i s changin g now . Th e momen t yo u tal k abou t a n unimaginable past , yo u ro b yoursel f of the rea l abilit y t o interpret , t o understand an d t o fathom wha t ha s bee n going on. I t i s only when you have totally exhausted th e possibility of accounting for what you observe, through th e actio n ove r lon g period s o f the force s w e see at wor k today , that yo u migh t conceivabl y b e drive n t o a catastrophi c theory . Bu t i n geology, as you know, Lyell is essentially the one we support, th e one who turned geology , i n a certai n sense , int o a science . H e wa s neve r mor e effective i n hi s propagand a activitie s tha n durin g hi s perio d a t King' s when h e lectured i n a mos t activ e manne r an d gav e popula r lecture s to many. Universit y College an d King' s Colleg e wer e founded unde r ver y different auspices ; on e withou t an y religiou s affiliation , th e othe r a s Anglican, ye t thei r subsequen t wor k an d thei r subsequen t development was remarkably similar. It is interesting that Charles Lyell, who was born in 179 7 an d live d t o 1875 , gave hi s most effectiv e lecture s at King' s an d that th e content of them was thought questionable from th e point of view of faith, bu t tha t h e was nonetheless a member of the staff . Muc h late r in life, b e became on e of the early supporters of Darwin, an d i s said t o have arranged fo r the publicatio n o f the wor k o f Wallace an d o f Darwin. H e came to King's whe n he was not much over thirty. My second giant of the past was born i n 1825 : Thomas Henry Huxley. He wa s a long-ter m membe r o f thi s Universit y an d hel d th e Chai r o f

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Natural Histor y at the School o f Mines for thirty-one years, having befor e that alread y bee n a lecturer there . There is no doubt tha t th e bulk of his work wa s done i n thi s University . H e wa s th e leading figur e i n securing the establishmen t o f th e separat e Facult y o f Scienc e i n 185 8 an d th e introduction o f th e ne w degre e o f Bachelo r o f Science , step s o f centra l significance in the nineteenth-century reordering an d systematising of the structure o f knowledge . Th e recognitio n o f Scienc e a s a separat e an d distinct branc h o f knowledge wa s undoubtedl y a practica l a s well as a n intellectual necessity , althoug h som e migh t sa y tha t th e institutiona l separation o f Arts and Sciences , which Huxle y helped t o ensure, was not an unmixed blessing. Huxley's astounding amoun t of research i n biology, particularly perhap s i n th e comparativ e anatom y o f different animals , was hi s chie f clai m t o persona l distinction . H e wa s o f cours e on e o f Darwin's greates t supporter s an d probabl y th e mos t outstandin g publicist o f Darwin' s views . H e wa s als o a grea t writer , no t jus t o f technical work, but o f work of wide public interest. He became a Fellow of the Roya l Societ y when h e was onl y twenty-six. The title s of some of his books soun d modern : Th e Course o f Phenomena o f Organic Nature] Zoological Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature; Science and Culture; Evolution and Ethics; one coul d ver y wel l publis h unde r suc h title s today . H e ha d a grea t interest in elementary educatio n and worke d hard t o improve it. My thir d giant , James Clar k Maxwell , was bor n i n 183 1 and die d i n 1879. H e becam e a Fello w of the Roya l Societ y a t th e ag e o f thirty an d spent five years at King's Colleg e from 186 0 to 1865. Those were the most fruitful year s of his lif e a s far a s scientific researc h wa s concerned. I t wa s while a t King' s tha t h e perfecte d hi s theor y o n gases . I t wa s whil e a t King's that h e published th e equations of electro-magnetism that bear his name. T o non-physicist s i t ma y b e necessar y fo r m e t o stres s wha t a tremendous figure he was in physics, in theoretica l physics certainly th e greatest figure of the nineteenth century. His equations are as important , as relevant , a s muc h truste d a s the y eve r were . An d i n suc h a rapidl y advancing subjec t as physics, to say that abou t an y work a century and a quarter late r i s quit e astounding . H e resigne d fro m King' s Colleg e t o devote himself to the care of his family's estates in Scotland an d the n was recalled fro m thi s exil e albeit i n hi s ow n country . I canno t reall y cal l i t retirement becaus e h e wa s onl y i n hi s lat e thirtie s a t th e time . H e wa s recalled fro m ther e a s th e firs t Cavendis h Professo r i n Cambridg e t o create an d buil d u p th e Cavendis h Laboratory , a tremendou s task . H e spent th e las t eigh t year s o f his lif e i n Cambridge . H e als o wa s a grea t writer: Theory o f Heat, writte n i n 1871 , evidentl y whil e h e wa s o n hi s Scottish estate; and th e Treatise on Electricity an d Magnetism whic h came ou t in 187 3 not lon g afte r h e went t o Cambridge, an d i s still to my mind th e best text book on the subject. Both describe work that he did while he was at King's . My fourth figure stretches into this century, Sir William Ramsey (1852-

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1916). He held the Chair o f Chemistry at University College from 188 7 to 1913. H e wa s a towerin g figur e i n chemistry . H e mad e man y contributions t o organic, inorgani c and physical chemistry but is perhaps best know n for his discovery o f and wor k on th e inert gases . Som e of the discoveries wer e i n collaboration , bu t I d o no t thin k ther e i s any othe r figure i n chemistr y t o whom on e ca n giv e th e honou r o f having adde d a complete colum n t o th e periodi c tabl e o f elements : heliu m an d neon , argon an d crypton , zenon , an d eve n radon . H e als o wrot e a great book : The Gases of the Atmosphere: th e History o f their Discovery, which was writte n in a popula r styl e i n 1896 . H e wa s on e o f th e earlies t Nobe l Laureate s (1904) an d becam e a Fellow of the Royal Societ y when he was in his midthirties. There seems to me a link between these four giants, a link it is well for us to ponder. They were each researcher s o f the highest calibre. I f they had done nothin g bu t writ e thei r researc h communications , w e would hol d them i n great honour . Bu t ever y one of them als o regarded i t as his duty and a s something tha t ha d a justified cal l on his time to write books tha t any educate d perso n coul d understand . Thi s is not a n eas y task . This is not a task that one can carry out at speed. I t needs deep thought and it is highly integrative . I t bring s knowledg e together . Again it reminds m e of the subject of history. In history more honour is given to a great integrative work o f scholarshi p tha t bring s muc h knowledg e togethe r tha n t o th e discovery o f this or that fragment of a letter or correspondence, howeve r illuminating, whic h on e coul d cal l research . Toda y i n scienc e we are so wedded t o research an d th e results of it, however few might understand it , however highl y specialised i t is, that w e give no honour and therefor e n o incentive to devote time to integrative work. I think modern scienc e is the poorer fo r thi s attitude . Th e separatio n o f scienc e an d th e educate d general publi c is often noted , an d deplored . I do not thin k it is the fault of the public , i t i s tha t w e d o no t follo w th e exampl e o f the peopl e I hav e spoken abou t an d giv e enough tim e and encourag e young people t o give enough time, effort an d menta l work to what is needed t o make our subject intelligible to others. It is remarkable that at least some of the four scientists I have discussed and severa l o f the othe r figures who follo w late r wer e appointed t o their positions very young in life. They were outstanding people - no doubt they showed a t leas t som e o f their brillianc e relativel y early , bu t d o pleas e reserve som e o f you r admiratio n fo r th e appointin g committees . Remember tha t i n those days ther e was no retiring age . I f you appointe d somebody a t th e ag e o f thirty, h e migh t b e with yo u fo r half a century . Even if your choice was good, this might not be ideal. True the expectation of life wa s les s tha n i t i s now, tru e there were som e tragi c cases of early death (Maxwel l wa s on e o f them) ; tru e tha t a numbe r o f peopl e lef t London fo r elsewhere, be it Scottish estates, or whatever; yet such events could no t b e foreseen b y the bodie s tha t appointe d them . I n appointin g

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people o f that capacity, o f that brilliance, and ma y I say of that character , so earl y i n lif e th e Universit y of London ha s somethin g in it s histor y of which it can justly be proud . One o f the difficlties i n this country has been, and again it sounds a very modern remark , t o give enough valu e to the experimental part of science which effectively is an application o f engineering. The necessit y of treating the practica l an d experimenta l par t o f science a s an integra l par t o f the education o f a scientist is not something that has always been understood . Thomas Graham , a Professo r wh o was first at Anderson s Universit y in Glasgow an d the n cam e t o London a s the secon d Professo r of Chemistry at Universit y College in 183 7 when only thirty-one years old but alread y an F.R.S. , introduce d th e first practical teachin g i n chemistry anywher e in th e world , an d h e reall y revolutionise d th e teachin g o f th e subject . Physics, I regre t t o say , ha d t o wai t rathe r longer . Agai n i t wa s a t University College that practica l classe s in physics were first introduced, by Georg e Case y Foster , Professo r ther e fo r nearl y fort y years ; h e established the m immediately on his arrival i n 1865 , at th e ag e of thirty. These were real revolutions . I wis h t o draw attentio n t o some o f the statistic s on th e Universit y of London an d the Royal Society - statistic s drawn from the data for which I am mos t grateful t o Dr Berridge . It is pleasant t o know that in 183 7 there were, outside the medical field for which I have no figures, four Fellows of the Royal Society active in the University of London. On e was Professor of Chemistry a t King' s College , anothe r Professo r o f Chemistr y a t University College , a third Professor of Physics at University College an d a fourth Professor of Physics at King's College. This is very nice symmetry and i t show s ho w eminen t thi s Universit y had becom e whe n i t was stil l only a year old . One o f the great figures at King's Colleg e was Sir Charles Wheatston e who straddled th e divide, if there is one, between science and engineering . He was Professor of Experimental Philosophy from 1834 , again in his very early thirties . H e was very active in establishing telegraphy, but as a pure scientist h e was also th e first to study how rapidly impulse s travel alon g wires and he worked on many such topics. Similarly Professor Williamson at Universit y College , wh o wa s Professo r o f Chemistry ther e fo r thirtyeight year s fro m 184 9 t o 1887 , firs t i n practica l chemistr y an d the n i n general chemistry , came t o University College when he was only twentyfive and ha d t o wait several years befor e h e became a n F.R.S . I a m no t sur e whether ther e was a practical chemis t at th e same time but chemistr y wa s the n suppose d t o include both. Professo r Williamson worked ver y successfull y o n molecula r structur e and di d a grea t dea l t o introduce th e science degree a s we have it today . At King's ther e had been a rather older man, Daniell, best known to the public a s th e invento r o f th e Daniel l Cell , th e firs t practicabl e sourc e of electricit y an d therefor e essentia l t o th e beginnin g o f electrica l

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engineering. H e wa s bor n i n 179 0 an d wa s Professo r at King' s Colleg e from 183 1 to 1845 . He became an F.R.S . when he was only twenty-three. He did a great deal of work on the atmosphere and he may well have been the first person to state that all the extremely complicated behaviour of the atmosphere mus t be explicable in terms of physics and chemistry . When you tak e a subjec t tha t ha d looke d totall y mysteriou s an d se t it within what boundarie s o f knowledg e i t mus t becom e explicable , a majo r contribution has been made . A differen t school , a schoo l o f thought, a schoo l o f work that starte d with somebod y whos e associatio n wit h thi s Universit y wa s mor e geographical tha n anythin g else , i s exemplifie d b y Si r Franci s Gallo n (1822-1911) wh o did an enormous amount in founding the whole subject of huma n inheritance , an d studie d variou s huma n characteristics . H e introduced finger-printing, for he discovered that this was a characteristic of each of us. He was the one who first started mental testing. He was the first one t o point ou t wha t a tremendou s amoun t o f knowledge could b e received fro m th e stud y o f identical twins . H e wa s a grea t believe r i n eugenics, whic h i s now viewed a s rathe r mor e doubtful . H e starte d th e whole statistical school of genetics which is still so important, bu t h e was also very active in meteorology. H e was the first person t o draw weather maps and introduce the term anticyclone. In addition t o founding his first laboratory close to University College, he was a student at King's College. One wh o wa s ver y muc h influence d b y hi m wa s Kar l Pearso n (1857 1936), a Professo r a t Universit y College fro m 188 4 t o 1933 . He i s wellknown t o anybod y i n th e subjec t as , i n a sense , th e fathe r o f moder n statistics an d a s th e perso n wh o introduce d statistica l experiment s i n biology. He introduced tha t enormousl y misused and misunderstoo d ch i squared test . Bu t i t i s perhaps no t righ t t o blam e somebod y fo r having produced somethin g th e mechanic s o f whic h ca n b e taugh t bu t th e inherent meanin g o f which w e see m t o fin d muc h mor e difficul t t o ge t across, even if today we have many mindless applications of his important invention. He to o was a great author: Th e Ethics of Free Thought, was one of his books . H e worke d togethe r wit h Wheldon, th e Profeso r o f Zoology, and i t wa s a very fruitfu l co-operation . He als o got going th e subjec t of experimental psychology. In our own time, G.B.S. Haldane was Professor at University College from 193 3 to 1957, a good span of time. He was born in 189 2 and lived until 1964. His contribution to genetics, to evolution, his introduction of the whole idea o f gene linkage, were formative influences in science . Peter Medawa r spen t a sizeable period at University College. He is best known fo r his wor k o n th e subjec t o f immunology but als o contribute d greatly t o the philosophy of science. I am a n admire r bot h of the content and th e titl e o f his boo k wher e h e describe d scienc e a s 'th e ar t o f th e soluble'. I think this is one of the happiest expression s I have heard an d I have greatly admire d wha t he has done in this field, a field that so many

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successful practisin g scientist s ignor e bu t a ma n o f his stature , a Nobe l Laureate, pursue d wit h grea t vigour . Universit y Colleg e ha d th e grea t school o f Physiology wit h A.V. Hill and Andre w Huxley. Let m e no w mov e fro m th e lif e science s themselve s t o th e subjec t o f crystallography, wher e J.D. Berna l was such a formativ e influence . Fo r much o f his life , ove r thirt y years , h e wa s Professo r a t Birkbec k College with numerou s student s wh o becam e eminent , an d exerte d grea t influence, throug h usin g crystallograph y a s a metho d t o stud y th e structure of substances an d th e nature of liquids, and as an instrument for advancing th e understandin g o f life an d it s origin. I n th e sam e field we had Kathlee n Lonsdale , wh o wa s o n th e staf f o f University Colleg e fo r many years . Sh e came fro m Bedfor d Colleg e an d wa s one of the earlies t women Fellow s o f th e Roya l Society . I t i s strang e t o thin k tha t tha t happened onl y as relatively recently as 1945 . She was rightly honoured a t a very early stag e for her outstanding wor k in this field. At King's , i n th e firs t hal f o f th e century , ther e ar e tw o name s I particularly want to mention, both Nobel Laureates: Charles Barkla and Edward Appleton . Bot h ha d a fruitfu l par t o f thei r caree r a t King's ; Barkla a relatively short period fro m 190 9 to 191 3 and Appleto n twelve of the most fruitful year s of his life. Barkla worked on x-rays and establishe d many o f thei r properties , notabl y feature s characteristi c o f individual elements, thereb y creatin g a n enormousl y usefu l too l fo r research . Edward Appleton is the man to whom we owe most of our early knowledge of th e uppe r atmospher e an d especiall y o f it s electrica l properties , establishing th e notio n o f the ionospher e a s we call it. I n th e sam e field there wa s Sydney Chapman , Professo r at Imperia l Colleg e fro m 192 4 to 1946, and V.C.A. Ferraro who was Professor at Queen Mary College from 1952 to 1974 where he went after he had been a Reader at King's College . In m y ow n wor k I hav e bee n a tremendou s admire r o f Si r Henr y Massey who, for nearly four decades, was Professor at University College. His wor k o n atomi c collision s alon e woul d hav e secure d hi s fam e an d honour i n physics, but h e then went on, initially on his own, to create th e British scientific space effort . Thi s was a great feat of innovative thinking, of creating somethin g ne w by a man , wh o whe n th e spac e ag e dawned , was no longer that young - havin g been born in 1908. There wer e man y mor e i n th e ban d o f innovativ e an d remarkabl e people: Ambros e Flemin g of University College whose thermionic valves ruled electronic s fo r the firs t hal f of this centur y an d O.W . Richardso n who did much to explain what went on in them. Richardson was at King's College fro m 192 4 to 194 4 an d receive d th e Nobe l Priz e whil e there i n 1928. In London we also had one of the great mathematical thinker s of our time, Alfred Nort h Whitehead, wh o was at Imperial Colleg e for ten years. He ha d worke d wit h Bertran d Russel l o n Principia Mathematica. Afterwards h e did a tremendous amount on his own on the foundations of mathematics an d o n th e natur e of thinking. Modes o f Thought i s one o f his

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most famous books. It is perhaps not so well-known that Lord Penny, who became a force in the land, was a Reader at Imperial College from 193 6 to 1945.1 suspect that for the last four of these years Imperial College did not see such a lot of him, but it was his base, the place where he had als o been a student. Lor d Blackett (Patric k Blackett ) mus t of course b e mentioned . He wa s th e ma n chose n t o lea d th e Physic s Departmen t a t Imperia l College whe n th e enlargemen t an d growt h o f this was decide d upo n i n 1953. H e wa s there for twelve years. H e had alread y bee n famou s fo r his outstanding wor k on cosmi c ray s for which he received th e Nobe l Prize. He wa s not youn g whe n h e cam e t o Imperia l Colleg e bein g i n hi s midfifties. Since he ha d bee n fo r many year s a professional naval office r hi s physics career wa s perhaps no t quite as long as one might have thought. After h e arrived a t Imperial College, and while engaged o n the enormous administrative tas k of helping th e growt h o f the institution , he began t o found a completely new school of investigation in geophysics. He achieved this not in his early days, but when he was at Imperia l College . A great school of this University is the School of Biophysics which was founded b y J.T . Randal l a t King' s College . H e arrive d i n 194 6 a s Wheatstone Professo r o f Physic s an d i n 196 1 becam e Professo r o f Biophysics, a departmen t tha t wa s very muc h hi s creation. I mus t als o mention Mauric e Wilkins , who received th e Nobe l Prize for the work h e did i n tha t Department , whic h als o ha d Rosalin d Frankli n wh o died so tragically young. Some people started whol e schools: Sir Ian Heilbro n i n chemistry a t Imperia l College ; Ernes t Chain , biochemistr y a t Imperia l College; Donal d Hey , organi c chemistr y a t King' s College . A grea t chemist, Si r Harry Melville , was Principa l o f Queen Mar y Colleg e fro m 1967 t o 1976 . Quee n Mar y College , incidentally , ha s anothe r ver y interesting characteristi c a s bein g th e plac e wher e aeronautica l engineering, a t th e join betwee n scienc e an d engineering , mad e a fine beginning. H.H. Rea d did fundamental wor k on the origin of granite and of other materials , metamorphic rock s and th e like, and wa s Professor at Imperial College for sixteen years. David Brunt created meteorology as an academic subjec t a t Imperia l Colleg e an d ha d a n outstandin g school . Nearer ou r time , Professo r Wibberley of Wye College did muc h to make land us e an d agricultura l economics , an d no w planning , academi c subjects. At Royal Holloway an d Bedfor d Ne w College the activities i n science are closel y connected wit h Si r Willia m McCrea , who was bor n i n 190 4 and i s still a very creative scientist. He was at Royal Holloway for twentytwo very active years where he had as his colleague Professor S. Tolansky, F.R.S. Comin g bac k t o Imperia l College , i n th e whol e movemen t o f turning optics, fro m wha t man y considere d t o be a dead subject , into a modern, highly active one, Dennis Gabor had a very major part for which he received th e Nobel Prize. But McCrea, wh o had earlie r been a Reader and Assistan t Professo r at Imperia l College , wa s an oustandin g man i n

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stimulating whol e lines of research in theoretical astronomy an d has made the most remarkable contributions . The relatio n of the Universit y to the Roya l Societ y can be depicted i n figures. I n 183 7 there wer e fou r Fellow s i n th e University . By 186 1 a n interesting situation ha d arise n becaus e b y tha t tim e there were a larg e number o f Fellows o f the Roya l Societ y i n th e medica l institution s and hospitals. I n tha t year , accordin g t o my count, ther e wer e twenty-thre e Fellows attached or linked in some way to the great hospitals o f the City, while there were nineteen outside the medica l field at teachin g colleges. Forty year s late r th e numbe r o f medical one s had diminishe d slightly to twenty-one, but thos e who were in ordinary teaching positions numbered thirty-two, plu s fiv e mor e wh o ha d retired : th e retirin g age s an d th e greatly increased expectatio n o f life had begu n to have an influence . Let me finish by paying tribute to one particular person, at a particular school o f this Universit y no t ye t mentione d i n m y tal k - th e Londo n School o f Economics wher e tha t outstandin g perso n an d grea t her o o f mine, Kar l Popper , becam e Professo r of Logic and Scientifi c Metho d i n 1946 and held the Chair unti l his retirement twenty-three years later. It is remarkable tha t thi s philosophe r o f scienc e (wh o als o mad e grea t contributions to the philosophy of politics and o f history) was brought to this countr y b y th e Londo n Schoo l o f Economics. N o scientis t shoul d think that tha t great institution has no connection with science. Popper's philosophy has been inspiring an d fruitful , an d ha s taught us all a great deal about th e nature of science and what we should honour scientists for: not fo r bein g righ t becaus e i n th e en d w e ar e al l wrong , i t i s no t th e business o f a scientis t t o b e right , bu t fo r bein g stimulating , for bein g creative, fo r bein g read y t o b e teste d an d disprove d b y experiment , for influencing others , fo r bein g innovative . Th e achievemen t o f thi s University in being innovative, in contributing to the shaping of modern science, an d i n keepin g th e way s ope n fo r futur e a s ye t unknow n developments, has been by no means inconsiderable. In many areas it has been decisive.

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6 Medicine L.P. Le Quesne The 15 0 years sinc e the foundation of the university have seen profound, accelerating chang e an d developmen t i n al l th e sciences , non e mor e s o than i n thos e relate d t o medicine. * Bu t th e stor y o f medicin e i n th e university comprise s mor e tha n it s contributio n an d respons e t o thes e developments, for , with it s inescapabl e involvemen t in th e day-to-da y treatment o f the sick , it als o reflect s th e grea t change s tha t hav e take n place ove r thi s period i n society and i n the provision of health care. An d there is a further strand i n the story, for the history of medical education in London lon g pre-dates th e foundation of the university, as at th e time of this even t ther e wer e i n existenc e a numbe r o f medical school s whic h looked askance at th e formation and claim s of this new institution. 1 From th e time of their foundation, in some instances dating back to the twelfth century , th e great Londo n hospital s ha d bee n centre s of medical education, base d o n th e apprenticeshi p system . Throughou t th e eighteenth centur y thi s practic e ha d increase d an d developed , wit h students bein g attached t o individual teachers, to whom they paid fees . I n due course this led, through the pooling of fees, to the formation of medical schools, eac h o f these being essentially an off-shoo t o f its parent hospital , *For thei r hel p an d advic e i n th e preparatio n o f this lecture I a m deepl y gratefu l to M r Negley Harte ; D r Malcol m Godfrey ; Sir John Ellis ; Mr s Gillia n Roberts, th e Academi c Registrar, and the staffof the Academic Department in the Senate House; to the staff of the University Library; an d t o many othe r friend s an d colleague s too numerous to mention. 1 Fo r detaile d account s o f the histor y of medicine within th e Universit y see: (a ) H.H . Bellot, 'Th e Universit y o f London' , Th e Victoria History o f th e County o f Middlesex, vol . I (Oxford, 1969) , 315-44 ; (b ) Tod d Report , Appendi x 14 , F.G. Young , Th e Origi n an d Development o f th e Universit y o f Londo n wit h Particula r Referenc e t o Medica l Education'. For a mor e genera l revie w o f th e developmen t o f medica l educatio n i n th e 19t h century see : (a ) C . Newman , Th e Evolution o f Medical Education i n th e Nineteenth Century. (Oxford, 1957.) ; (b ) C . Singe r an d S.W.F . Holloway , 'Earl y Medica l Educatio n i n England i n Relation to the Pre-Histor y o f London University' , Med. Hist. (1960) , iv. 1-17 . G. Rivett, 'The Development o f the London Hospita l System , 1823-1982' (1986 ) contain s much backgroun d informatio n relating to the medical schools .

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which owned an d controlle d it . In th e early years of the nineteenth century, none of the existing schools provided a n organised , comprehensiv e course , th e student s frequentl y enrolling at different school s for various courses. The teachin g which they received a t thes e school s wa s largel y confine d t o th e clinica l aspect s of medicine. Fo r th e stud y o f anatomy , which , becaus e o f inabilit y t o preserve th e cadaver , i n thos e day s too k plac e onl y durin g th e winte r months, th e students attended privat e schools , th e most famous of which was the Great Windmil l Street School, 2 run by John and William Hunter. Influenced n o doub t b y th e circumstance s i n whic h the y worke d an d reflecting th e altogethe r coarse r natur e o f life i n th e metropoli s i n thos e days, th e majorit y o f student s were , b y ou r standards , uncout h an d boisterous. A s reader s o f the novel s o f Dickens will know, this aspect o f medical student behaviour continued well on into the nineteenth century. At tha t tim e ther e wa s n o singl e examinatio n givin g entr y int o th e profession o f medicine, whic h wa s base d o n a n hierarchica l structure , though thi s was rapidly breakin g down . A t th e top were the physicians, licensed b y the Royal College of Physicians,3 'eminent, distinguished and proud' men , wh o 'advise d rathe r tha n did'. 4 Belo w the m wer e th e surgeons, whos e origi n wa s i n th e manua l craft s rathe r tha n learning , their statu s bein g guarde d b y th e Roya l Colleg e o f Surgeons. 5 Finally , During th e perio d covere d b y thi s lectur e ther e wer e fiv e important , relevan t government enquiries , thre e concerne d wit h th e Universit y an d tw o wit h Medica l Education i n general, a s detailed below . Throughout th e tex t they are referre d to by th e name i n brackets, thu s (Todd Rep.): (a) Rep. Roy. Comm. Advancement o f Higher Ed . in London. (Th e Selborn e Rep. ) 1889 . [C5709] , xxix . 323 ; (b ) Rep . Roy . Comm . fo r proposed Gresha m Univ . in London (Th e Gresha m Rep. ) 1893- 4 [C7259 ] xxxi. 807; (c) Rep. Roy . Comm . Univ . Educ . Londo n (Th e Haldan e Rep. ) (i ) 191 0 [Cd . 5165] , xxiii . 639. (ii ) 1911 [Cd. 5527] , xx. 1 . (iii) 1911 [Cd. 5910] , xx. 453. (iv ) 1912-3 [Cd. 6015], xxii. 581. (v ) 191 3 [Cd. 6717] , xl. 297; (d) Rep . Inter-Departmenta l Committ . on Med . Schs . H.M. Stationer y Office . 1944 . (Th e Goodenoug h Rep.) ; (e ) Rep. Roy . Comm. Med . Ed . (The Todd Rep. ) 1967-8 . [Cmnd . 3569], xxv , 569. 2 Fo r an accoun t of this school see: G. Gordon-Taylor an d E.W . Walls, Sir Charles Bell, His Life an d Times (Edinburg h an d London , 1958) . 3 Th e Roya l College of Physicians of London wa s founded in 1518 . The requirement s for obtainin g th e Fellowshi p o f th e Colleg e wer e a classic s degre e fro m Oxfor d o r Cambridge, followe d by an examination, conducte d in Latin unti l 1820 . 4 'I n th e word s o f one o f the Act s o f Parliament the y were "profound , sad , discreet , groundedly learned and deeply studied in Physic". They were eminent, distinguished and proud, the y advised rathe r tha n did , an d they were not paid - the y were reimbursed for their expenses and accepte d present s in gratitude for advice. Their lef t hand did not know what thei r righ t hand wa s doing when gold wa s quietly passed int o it, even though that right hand migh t be very well able t o look after it s own interests.' Newman, pi. 5 Originall y unite d with the barber s i n the Company o f Barber Surgeons , founded i n 1540, i n 174 5 the surgeon s brok e away t o form th e Compan y o f Surgeons, becomin g the Royal Colleg e o f Surgeons of London i n 1800 , an d changin g its titl e to that o f the Roya l College of Surgeons o f England i n 1843 . The customar y qualification i n the early years of the nineteenth century was M.R.C.S., requirin g a course in anatomy, and attendance for

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there were the apothecaries; originally retail druggists, over the years they had acquire d th e right to prescribe, in so doing becoming the forerunners of th e moder n genera l practitioner ; thei r statu s wa s formalise d by th e Apothecaries Act of 1815. 6 Despite th e man y disparitie s betwee n thes e thre e branche s o f th e medical profession, there was one striking similarity in that in no instance did th e licensing bodies have any authority over the schools, nor did they have an y responsibilit y for the selectio n of students and th e natur e an d content of the teaching, s o that ther e was no organic connectio n betwee n the teachin g an d th e examination . I n th e earl y years o f the nineteenth century there was increasing dissatisfaction with this state of affairs, an d it is a reflectio n o f thi s dissatisfactio n tha t medica l me n wer e closel y involved wit h th e movement s tha t le d t o th e foundatio n of University College,7 originall y calle d Londo n University , in 1825 , and als o tha t of King's Colleg e in 1828. 8 It i s of interest that a number of these men, like Charles Bell , had receive d their medical education in Edinburgh, where, since the middle of the eighteenth century, there had been a more coherent system of medical teaching, closely related to the University. The foundatio n of these two colleges marks the beginning of the story of medicine in the Universit y of London, for both colleges had a Faculty of Medicine, wit h professor s i n al l th e mai n subjects , bot h planne d a coherent cours e o f study i n on e school , bot h planne d t o acquir e a new hospital, expressl y organise d fo r studen t teaching , an d th e medica l members o f eac h colleg e wer e insisten t tha t t o achiev e thei r aim s th e colleges mus t have university status, with the right t o grant degrees . It i s altogether appropriate tha t this lecture should be delivered in this School, fo r no t onl y di d Th e Middlese x Hospita l nearl y becom e th e teaching hospital fo r University College,9 but i n the earl y days students from bot h Universit y an d King' s College s walke d th e ward s o f Th e Middlesex Hospital . Furthermore , no t onl y wa s Si r Charle s Bell, 10 a one year at the surgical practice o f an hospital; frequently these were preceded b y up to fiv e years apprenticeship , ofte n with a general practitioner . 6 Th e Societ y o f Apothecarie s wa s founde d i n 1617 . The Apothecarie s Act , 1815 , conferred o n the Society the right to give a qualification t o practise medicine - th e L.S.A. This was changed, i n 1907 , to the L.M.S.S.A. (Licentiate i n Medicine an d Surger y o f the Society o f Aopthecaries). 7 Fo r a ful l accoun t o f the earl y years o f University College, se e H.H. Bellot , University College London, 1826-1926 (1929). 8 Fo r a ful l accoun t o f the earl y year s o f King's College , se e FJ.C. Hearnshaw , Th e Centenary History of King's College, London, 1828-1928(1929). 9 Se e Gordon-Taylor and Walls , pp . 141-3 ; also H . Campbel l Thomson , Th e Story o f the Middlesex Hospital Medical School (1935 ) 23-4 . 10 Charle s Bel l (1774-1842) . After qualifyin g i n Edinburgh , Bel l move d t o London , where h e taught in the Great Windmill Street School. Surgeo n t o the Middlesex Hospital , 1814-36, during whic h perio d he was the first Professor o f Surgery a t Universit y College , 1828-30. He was one of the founders of the Middlesex Hospita l Medical School in 1835 . I n

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surgeon o n th e staf f o f th e Hospital , th e firs t Professo r o f Surger y a t University College , bu t th e first Professor of Medicine was a Middlese x physician, Si r Thomas Watson , an d i n additio n thre e o f the inaugura l professors i n th e Medica l Facult y a t King' s wer e o n th e staf f o f Th e Middlesex Hospital. 11 A distinguished Middlese x student , Sir Anthony Home, incidentall y the first Middlesex ma n t o be awarded th e Victori a Cross, i n a memoir written many years later, wrote of one of these three men tha t h e .. . 'wa s refine d i n appearance , belongin g t o a famil y o f university distinction. He united thi s with the suggestion of a don, and of one translated to an uncongenial soil. Perhaps a life-long pasture on Greek roots might have been naturally to his taste. He did not invite questions at the bedside, nor do I think that I ever heard hi m make a clinical remark during his round'.12 Of th e origina l intention s of th e founder s o f these tw o ne w medica l schools, onl y one , th e constructio n o f two ne w hospitals , wa s attaine d within a few years. I n 1830 , afte r previou s unsuccessfu l attempts throug h Parliament, Universit y College lodge d a n appea l t o the Crown Council for incorporatio n a s a university . The applicatio n wa s strongly opposed by the long-established but slumbering schools of medicine in Oxford and Cambridge an d b y th e existin g medica l school s i n London . Thi s opposition wa s cogentl y expresse d b y th e leade r write r i n th e Medical Gazette, wh o wrot e o f th e application : 'Al l o f thi s i s exceedingl y contemptible: the Council of London University know - o r ought to know — that, as a medical school, their institution was wholly uncalled for; that there were, and are connected with the great hospitals in London, schools at leas t a s good a s theirs'. 13 Four year s later, ninety-nin e physicans and surgeons fro m th e Londo n schools , includin g such illustriou s names a s

1836 he was invited t o the Chair of Surgery in Edinburgh, a post he held until his death. A distinguished surgeon , h e mad e importan t contribution s t o ou r understandin g o f th e nervous system . A gifted artist , he produced a series of splendid anatomica l drawings , an d also o f soldiers wounde d a t Waterloo . Gordon-Taylo r an d Walls' s boo k i s an attractiv e account o f his life an d times . 11 Herber t Mayo , Surgeo n t o Th e Middlese x Hospital , Professo r o f Anatomy an d Physiology; Franci s Hawkins , Physicia n t o Th e Middlese x Hospital , Professo r o f th e Practice of Medicine; Si r Thomas Watson, Physicia n to the Middlesex Hospital, Professo r of Forensic Medicine . 12 Si r Anthony Home, 'Fifty Year s Ago , a Retrospect', Middlesex Hosp.J., 1 3 (1909), 622. The individua l in question was Dr Francis Hawkins . Sir Anthony Home was awarded the V.C. i n 1858 , for gallantry in the India n Mutiny . 13 Medical Gazette, 6 (1830), 377-9. The articl e contain s anothe r oft-quoted passage 'A s to the rest, if appending a few letters after their names b e considered b y young gentlemen as an advantage, w e would advise the physicians and surgeons connected with the hospital schools forthwit h t o confe r diplomas . W e shoul d thu s hav e "Master s o f Medicine an d Surgery" in the University of St Bartholomew's - i n the United College s o f Guy's an d St Thomas -or, what would come nearer the mark, in London Universit y at Mile End Road.'

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Astley Cooper 14 and Richar d Bright, 15 petitioned th e Kin g no t t o grant the privilege s o f a universit y 't o th e medica l schoo l i n Gowe r Street' , stating 'tha t th e Londo n Universit y resembles in no respect th e ancient universities o f England; tha t i t i s a joint-stock association, founde d an d supported b y money subscribed i n shares, which may be bought and sold in th e market , lik e thos e o f canals , gas-work s an d othe r speculativ e undertakings . . ,' 16 As is well-known, this opposition was partially successful, an d i n 183 6 the Universit y of London wa s constitute d solel y as a n examinin g body, with power s t o giv e degree s t o student s fro m Universit y an d King' s Colleges, an d t o any other college s in the United Kingdo m approve d b y the Priv y Council . I t i s true tha t i n th e cas e o f medical school s suc h a n application require d the approval of the Senate as well as that of the Privy Council, but th e University had n o power of inspection, nor of control of appointments t o the staff , no r of teaching in the schools, which remained free t o accept an d teac h student s for whatever qualification they chose, a consequence which was t o have a profound effect o n th e development of medicine withi n the Universit y for over 10 0 years. All th e principa l Londo n school s wer e recognise d b y th e Senat e an d Privy Council, 17 bu t thi s mad e littl e differenc e t o them , th e majorit y continuing a s isolate d teachin g institutions , dominated b y th e clinica l staff, th e attitude of most of whom was essentially empirical not academic. Although in many respects similar , the medical schools of the University and King's College s nonetheles s differed fro m the others in that they were integral part s o f thes e multi-facult y colleges , an d the y continue d t o appoint professor s in the main subjects, including medicine and surgery . These clinical appointments were modestly salaried, part-time posts, and the duties were solely teaching. The declare d object s of these two colleges 14 Astle y Pasto n Cooper , (1768-1841) , F.R.S . 1802 ; P.R.C.S . 182 7 an d 1836 . Distinguished surgeo n and anatomist. Lecture r i n Anatomy, S t Thomas Hosp. Med. Sch. , 1789-1825. Surgeon to Guy's Hospital 180 0 unti l his death. 15 Richar d Bright , (1789-1858) , M.D . (Edinb. ) 1812 ; F.R.S . 1821 . Physician , late r consultant physicia n t o Guy' s Hospital , 182 4 unti l hi s death . Pionee r i n correlatin g clinical findings with those at autopsy, notabl y in the case of Bright's Diseas e (nephritis) . 16 Med.Gaz., 14(1834) , 147-151 . 17 I n Londo n th e eleve n school s founde d b y 183 5 wer e recognised , togethe r wit h si x private schools ; recognition wa s granted to thirty schools elsewher e i n England, t o sixteen in Ireland , an d thre e i n Scotland , wher e a numbe r o f individua l teacher s wer e als o recognised (Univ . Calendar , 1844) . In 185 0 the Charter of the University wa s modified to enable it to grant degrees to students no t only fro m College s i n the United Kingdom , bu t also 'i n an y o f Ou r Colonie s o r Possession s abroa d o r i n Ou r Territorie s unde r th e Government o f the East India Company'. By 1898, 10 6 medical schools were recognised , twenty-two i n London , fort y elsewher e i n England , twelv e i n Scotland , twenty-on e i n Ireland an d eleve n overseas . (Univ . Calendar , 1898-9. ) Th e reorganisatio n o f th e university i n 190 0 restricte d th e school s geographicall y to , i n broa d terms , Greate r London.

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were confined to teaching and there was at that time no concept, at least in the fiel d o f medicine, tha t th e professor s shoul d undertak e research , i t being considere d apparentl y tha t thi s wa s a n extra-mural , intellectual activity that they might indulge in if they so wished. This is well illustrated by Lord Lister, 18 who graduated fro m Universit y College in 185 2 with a Gold Meda l in the M.B., and wa s later Professor of Surgery at King's: he carried ou t th e researche s whic h le d t o th e introductio n o f antiseptic surgery in a room i n his own house in Glasgow. Nonetheless, we should remember tha t i t wa s Liston, 19 Charle s Bell' s successor a s Professo r of Surgery a t Universit y College, who carried ou t th e first major operation under anaesthesi a i n thi s country , a t Universit y Colleg e Hospital , i n 1846.20 One o f the first acts of the Senate of the new University was to set up a committee to draw u p regulation s for degrees. Amongst the first of these were th e M.B . an d M.D. , th e latter , n o doub t reflectin g th e origin s of medicine in the humanities rather than the sciences, including, until 1885, a pape r i n logi c an d mora l philosophy . Th e firs t examination s for th e M.B. degre e were held i n 1839 . Prio r t o startin g studies for this degree students ha d t o b e eightee n year s old , an d t o hav e passe d eithe r th e University Matriculation Examination, or obtained an arts degree from a university recognise d b y th e Universit y o f London . Ther e wer e tw o examinations afte r tw o an d fou r year s stud y i n recognise d institutions. The emphasi s i n th e first examination was on the basi c subjects such as anatomy, botany , an d materi a medica , wherea s i n th e secon d i t wa s clinical subjects, but there was not the same clear-cut distinction between clinical and pre-clinica l subjects as later became customary. 18

Joseph Liste r (1827-1912) , M.B . (London) , 1852 ; F.R.C.S. , 1852 ; F.R.S. , 1860 ; Professor o f Surgery , Univ . o f Glasgow , 1860-9 ; Univ . o f Edinburgh , 1869-77 ; King' s College, 1877-92 . The founde r o f antiseptic surgery . H e performe d th e firs t operatio n using this technique on August 12 , 1865 . Unsuccessful applican t for the Chair of Surgery in University College, 1866 . Hi s invitation to the Chair at King' s in 187 7 resulted from a memorial t o the Council of the College signe d 'b y all the staf f of the medica l departmen t with the exception of the surgeons, and one unimportant professor.' (Hearnshaw , p. 299.) President of the Royal Society, 1894-1900, the only other surgeon to have held this position being Benjamin Brodie (1858-61) . 19 Rober t Listo n (1794-1847) . M.R.C.S., 1816 ; F.R.C.S . (Ed.) , 1818 ; F.R.S. , 1841 . Surgeon t o Universit y Colleg e Hospital , an d Professo r o f Surgery, Universit y College , 1835 unti l hi s death . A brilliant , dexterou s surgeon , renowne d fo r th e rapidit y o f hi s operating. 20 Th e operation , a mid-thigh amputation , wa s performed on 21 December 1846 . Th e anaesthetic, ether, was administered b y a chemist, William Squire, who later qualified a s a doctor . I t wa s no t strictl y th e firs t operatio n unde r ethe r i n England , a s tw o day s previously James Robinso n ha d extracte d a mola r toot h unde r ethe r anaesthesia , i n a house in Gower Street, now marked with a plaque. For a full account of Liston's operation see F.W. Cock , 'Th e Firs t Operatio n unde r Ethe r in Europe - th e Story of Three Days' , Univ. Coll. Hosp. Mag., (1910 ) 1 . 127-44.

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Although th e impac t o f thi s degre e wa s les s tha n hope d for , i t i s nonetheless a landmar k i n medica l educatio n i n London , fo r it wa s th e first comprehensiv e medica l qualificatio n availabl e t o student s a t th e London schools , an d i t wa s th e firs t t o requir e a define d genera l educational standar d prio r t o embarking on the course of study. Of great interest i s the fact tha t whereas th e papers containe d case-commentarie s there wa s n o clinica l examinatio n a s w e kno w i t today . Thi s i s undoubtedly a reflection of the fact tha t in those days the art o f medicine was largely base d o n an analysi s of the patient's symptoms , with little or no examination of the patient. But all of this was about to change, for the foundation o f th e Universit y coincide d wit h th e grea t burgeonin g o f modern, scientifi c medicine. At that time the leading centre of medicine in Europe, indeed th e world, was Paris, where one of the outstanding figures was Laennec , th e invento r o f th e stethoscope. 21 Thi s developmen t le d directly to the realisation o f the importance of examination of the patient, to the correlation of physical signs with the changes found a t autopsy, and hence a rationa l concep t o f disease . I t wa s no t lon g befor e thi s ne w learning was brought t o London b y physicians who had studie d in Paris, and thi s is reflected b y the introductio n of clinical examinations into the M.B. in 1852 . Alongside thi s growth o f clinical medicine was the development of the scientific basi s o f medicine, exemplified b y th e wor k of the grea t Frenc h scientists, suc h a s Claude Bernard. 22 Late r i n th e centur y leadership in the field of the medical sciences passed t o Germany, where, in contrast t o the scen e i n London , medicin e was embedde d i n th e universities , with strong academi c departments , heade d b y great figures such as Virchow, the founde r o f th e concep t o f cellular pathology. 23 Thes e fundamenta l changes in our understanding not only of disease, but of the structure and functioning o f the body , togethe r wit h the increasin g importance o f the 21

Theophil e Ren e Hyacynth e Laenne c (1781-1826) . M.D . (Paris) , 1804 . Appointe d physician to the Hopital Necker i n 1816 , and Professo r a t the College de France, 1822 . I n 1819 published his book, De ('auscultation mediate, describing the us e of the stethoscope . 22 Claud e Bernard (1813-78) . Originally a pharmacist's assistant, befor e qualifyin g as a doctor in Paris, 1839 . M.D . (Colleg e de France), 1840 ; Professo r o f Physiology, Colleg e de France, 1852 ; Foundatio n Professor o f Physiology at th e Sorbonne, 1855 ; electe d t o the Academic Francaise , 1868 . On e o f th e greates t physiologists ; discovere d th e hepati c synthesis o f glucose, th e digestiv e activit y o f th e externa l pancreati c secretio n an d th e presence o f vasomoto r nerves . Formulate d th e concep t o f th e milieu interieur. Th e firs t French scientist t o be honoured with a public funeral . 23 Rudol f Ludwi g Kar l Vircho w (1821-1902) . M.D . (Berlin) , 1843 ; Professo r o f Pathology, Wiirzburg, 1849, moving t o the chair in Berlin in 1856 . I n his famous book , Die Cellularpathologie (1858 ) h e se t ou t hi s doctrin e o f 'omnis cellula e cellula\ A n outstandin g figure i n nineteent h centur y medicine , h e mad e contribution s i n severa l area s o f pathology, describin g leukaemia , th e factor s contributin g t o thrombosi s etc . A ma n o f strong views, h e was politically activ e i n the City Counci l an d th e Prussian Lower House, often opposin g Bismark .

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basic science s i n relatio n t o th e stud y o f medicine, wer e reflecte d i n th e content an d patter n o f teaching i n th e Londo n schools , an d als o i n th e form o f th e examinations . Thus , th e 1850 s sa w th e introductio n o f microscopy int o various branches o f medicine and medical teaching , an d in 186 0 th e Universit y introduce d a Preliminar y Scienc e Examination , entitled a n Examinatio n i n Mechanica l an d Natura l Philosophy , bu t consisting essentiall y o f physics , chemistr y an d biology . Ther e was , however, n o concomitan t chang e i n th e structur e o f th e school s t o encompass thes e profound changes i n the nature of the study of medicine. The middl e decade s o f th e centur y sa w th e gradua l declin e an d disappearance o f the privat e medica l schools , wit h th e concentratio n o f teaching i n th e mai n medica l schools , bu t i n the m th e teachin g o f these new subjects, and o f anatomy, physiolog y and patholog y was carried ou t not b y professional s i n thes e area s o f learning , bu t a s th e part-tim e occupation o f junior member s o f the hospita l staff , 'gentleme n who' , a s succinctly state d b y Lord Justice Fry , 'tak e up their subject, not as their main wor k i n life , bu t a s a Tiapepyov ; the y delive r lectures fo r a shor t while, bu t loo k t o practic e a s physician s a s th e ultimat e objec t o f their ambition'.24 In contras t t o these small, poorly staffed department s of basic sciences in th e traditiona l medica l school s - department s whic h coul d i n their teaching reflec t th e great change s i n medicine, but wer e unable t o make any significan t contributio n to them - i n University and King's College s these departments wer e ab initio an integral part of multi-faculty colleges. The firs t prope r physiolog y laborator y i n th e countr y wa s opene d a t University College in the 1870 s and th e same period sa w the flowering of the great physiolog y school i n this College, heade d b y Michael Foster, 25 who lef t t o foun d th e Departmen t o f Physiology at Cambridge . H e wa s followed i n the chai r b y a former pupi l of Claude Bernard , J.S. Burdon Sanderson,26 wh o attracte d a hos t o f outstandin g worker s t o th e

24

Th e Selborn e Rep. , para 1068 . Lor d Justice Fry was Vice-President of U.C.L. and a member o f the Senate . 25 Michae l Foste r (1836-1907) . Qualified fro m U.C.L . 1858 ; M.D. , 1859 ; F.R.S. 1872; Professor o f Practica l Physiology , Universit y College , 1869 ; Praelecto r o f Physiology , Trinity College , Cambridge , 1870 ; Professo r o f Physiology , Universit y o f Cambridge , from 1883 . I n collaboratio n wit h T.A . Huxle y develope d practica l laborator y wor k i n physiology, and introduce d practica l physiolog y classe s to Cambridge . 26 Joh n Scot t Burdon-Sanderso n (1828-1905) . Graduate d fro m Edinburgh . M.D. , 1851; F.R.S. , 1867 ; Medica l Office r o f Health , Paddington , 1854-67 ; Physicia n t o Th e Middlesex Hospita l an d Brompto n Hospital , 1860-70 ; Professor of Practical Physiology , U.C.L., 1871 ; Jodrell Professo r of Physiology, U.C.L., 1874 ; first Waynflete Professo r of Physiology, Univ . of Oxford, 1882 ; Regius Professor of Medicine, Univ . of Oxford, 1895 1903.

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Department, amongst them being Victor Horsley, 27 one of the founders of neurosurgery, befor e himsel f movin g t o Oxfor d t o foun d th e schoo l o f physiology in that university. Alongside, an d interwove n wit h thi s permeatio n o f scienc e int o medicine, th e nineteenth century saw profound demographic an d socia l changes, whic h greatl y influence d medicin e an d medica l education . I n the years 181 1 to 189 1 the population of the United Kingdo m mor e tha n doubled, an d thes e years sa w the transformatio n of the countr y from a n essentially rural , agricultura l communit y t o a n essentiall y urban , industrialised society. 28 Associated wit h this change was the growth of a wealthy, educate d middl e class, whose background wa s in industry and the professions , no t th e land ; a cadr e of people who wer e awar e of and interested i n th e development and benefit s o f the ne w sciences, amongs t them medicine. One manifestation of this growing concern with medicine was th e movemen t t o protect th e publi c from th e activitie s of untrained practitioners, leading in 1858 , t o the foundation o f the General Medical Council, with powers to define acceptabl e degree s an d diplomas , an d t o publish a registe r o f appropriatel y qualifie d doctors . Althoug h no t primarily directed t o its improvement, the foundation of this Council had a profoun d influenc e on medica l education , fo r within a fe w years th e Council ha d develope d th e concep t tha t a qualificatio n leadin g t o inclusion of the holder's name on the register should indicate a safe doctor who could, on th e day h e qualified 'practis e any branc h o f his profession on a suspiciou s publi c withou t to o muc h risk'. 29 Thi s concep t undoubtedly raise d th e standards o f general medical practice, bu t a t th e same tim e it led to a confusion, stil l not completely resolved, between the requirements an d purpose s o f an examinatio n leadin g t o a professional diploma, wit h legal implications, and thos e of a university degree, which must, or ought to be, related t o academic attainments. The developmen t of the middl e classes, th e sprea d o f education, an d the realisation of the increasing potential of medicine - a potential which was certainl y rea l i n term s o f diagnostic achievement, but, a s ye t sadl y inadequate i n term s o f treatmen t - le d t o a n increasin g deman d fo r doctors. From 185 8 onwards the Medical Register shows a steady increase in their number, with over 35,000 doctors on the register by the end of the century. Give n thi s increasin g numbe r o f doctors , th e prestig e o f th e London schools , an d th e growin g importanc e attache d t o a universit y degree i n general, one might have expected tha t throughou t the century 27

Victo r Alexande r Hadde n Horsle y (1857-1916) . Studen t a t U.C.H.M.S. , F.R.C.S , 1880; F.R.S. , 1886 ; physiologist , Directo r o f the Brow n Institute , 1884-90 ; Surgeo n t o Univ. Coll . Hosp . an d Nationa l Hosp . fo r Nervou s Diseases . On e o f th e founder s o f neurosurgery. 28 D . Thomson , Europe Since Napoleon. (1985) , Ch . 7 . 29 Newman , p. 200

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the London M.B . woul d have come to play an increasingly importan t rol e in th e Londo n schools , bu t suc h was not the case. I n th e first forty year s following it s inceptio n onl y 79 5 student s obtaine d thi s degree , tha t i s about twent y each year, and i t was not until 1884 that over fifty obtained it, and 189 4 before 10 0 did so. 30 To thi s total of graduates must , of course, be adde d th e numbe r o f students , increasin g toward s th e en d o f th e century, wh o cam e t o Londo n fro m Oxfor d an d Cambridg e fo r thei r clinical training ; nonetheles s i t remain s th e fac t tha t throughou t th e century, an d indee d lon g after , th e majorit y of students at th e Londo n schools qualifie d b y means of some diploma other than the London M.B . Following the introductio n in 186 6 of the Conjoint Diploma o f the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons , a diploma specifically devised for the rapidly growin g cadr e o f general practitioners , th e 'safe ' doctor s o f the General Medica l Council , Londo n student s increasingl y qualifie d wit h this diploma , thoug h i t i s tru e tha t a numbe r o f the m subsequently obtained a university degree. 31 There were a number of reasons fo r this failure of the M.B . t o make a real impac t o n th e schools . Th e leve l of secondary educatio n of many of the students was so poor that many failed th e essential preliminary hurdle of th e Matriculatio n Examination . Similarl y th e failur e rat e i n th e Preliminary Sciences Examination i n its first twenty-five years was nearly 50 per cent, 32 reflectin g no t onl y th e poo r standar d o f th e secondar y education bu t als o th e poor quality o f the teaching o f these sciences. Th e whole series of the M.B . examination s were considere d t o be both mor e difficult an d mor e academic than the alternative roads to qualification, so that i n effec t th e M.B . cam e t o b e considere d a s a n honour s course , reflected i n th e fac t tha t i n th e latte r year s of the centur y the numbe r of those obtainin g th e highe r degree s o f M.D . o r M.S . amounte d t o approximately 5 0 per cen t o f thos e obtainin g th e M.B . eac h year. 33 A further facto r wa s tha t th e Conjoin t Diplom a an d a numbe r o f othe r qualifications coul d b e obtaine d b y a shorte r course , a facto r o f great importance i n that , a t leas t i n thos e years , t o achiev e a medica l qualification wa s fo r man y a mean s t o socia l an d financia l betterment ; and parent s were often unabl e or unwilling to invest in this process mor e than wa s necessary . Finally , th e staf f o f the hospitals , wh o owne d an d 30

Figs , from Univ . Calendars. A s lat e a s 1933- 7 85 % o f Londo n student s obtaine d Registratio n o n a Conjoin t Diploma, and onl y 7 % wit h a university degree. Many students subsequentl y wen t o n to obtain a university degree , but ove r half th e students qualifying fro m th e London school s in thi s perio d neve r obtaine d a universit y degre e (Goodenoug h Report , Appendi x C , Tables A & B). It was only following the introduction o f the new University regulation s for the medica l course , i n 1973 , tha t th e grea t majorit y o f Londo n student s obtaine d Registration o n the basis of the M.B. , B.S . degree . 32 Selborne Rep. Append . 17 . 33 Se e Univ. Calendars. 31

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controlled th e schools, were intimately involved in the affairs an d welfar e of th e Roya l College s rathe r tha n thos e o f th e university ; wit h th e existence o f the Conjoin t Diplom a the y saw n o reaso n wh y the y should seek t o shape th e teachin g at th e schools to university reqirements, with the resul t that ther e was no coherent relationship between this teaching and th e requirements of the M.B. 34 This lack o f a n effectiv e relationshi p betwee n th e school s an d th e university wa s no t confine d t o medicine , an d b y th e '70 s ther e wa s widespread an d increasing dissatisfaction with the purely examining role of the university . This led t o a series of movements and event s which in due cours e transforme d th e university , an d eventuall y th e medica l schools. Before considering these changes there is one other topic to which I mus t refer . Th e universit y was founded t o admit students 'of all classes and denomination s withou t an y distinctio n whatsoever' . Withou t specifically sayin g s o thi s certainl y di d no t includ e women . However , within a fe w year s ther e wa s a n increasin g deman d fo r th e highe r education o f women, marke d b y th e foundatio n of Bedfor d Colleg e i n 1849; thi s deman d include d th e opportunit y fo r wome n t o stud y medicine.35 Th e firs t Englis h woma n t o qualif y i n thi s countr y wa s Elizabeth Garrett , know n afte r he r marriag e a s Elizabet h Garret t Anderson.36 I n 186 1 sh e persuade d M r Hawes , a surgeo n t o Th e Middlesex Hospital, to arrange for her to study in the Medical School; she 34 I n 188 5 th e tw o Roya l Colleges , o f Physicians and Surgeons , petitione d t o obtai n incorporation a s 'Th e Senat e o f Physicians an d Surgeons' , wit h power t o grant medica l degrees. In rejectin g thi s proposal the Selborne Commission, para . 4, argued that it could not b e accepted 'withou t either conferring the power of giving such degrees upo n colleges which hav e n o academica l character , o r creatin g a ne w examinin g an d degree-givin g university in a single faculty: neither of which innovations appear s to us in itself desirable.' This close association between the teaching hospitals and the Royal Colleges continued for man y years. 'Th e old order di d not change and giv e place to the new either quickly o r gracefully. Thi s wa s mad e clea r t o me whe n in 1944 , shortly after th e publicatio n of the Goodenough Report , I wa s lunchin g at on e o f our medica l schools . Nex t t o m e wa s a leading surgeon wh o pointed out that the London teachin g hospitals had clinical facilities which were known all over the world and th e two Royal Colleges conducted examinations which le d t o diploma s whic h wer e registrabl e qualifications . Where , I wa s aske d ver y pointedly, di d th e Universit y impinge on medica l education at all? ' (Si r Douglas Logan , University of London, Repor t b y the Principal , 1946-5 , p. 35 ) (se e also note 30). 35 Th e first English woma n to qualify a s a doctor was Elizabeth Blackwel l (1821-1910). Born i n Bristol . Emigrated t o New York with he r parents , 1832 . Graduated M.D . i n th e Univ. o f Geneva , Ne w Yor k State , 1849 . Returne d t o U.K. , an d he r nam e place d o n Medical Register (1859 ) as she had obtained he r degree prior to the passage of the Medical Act (1858) . I n 187 5 becam e th e firs t Professo r o f Obstetric s an d Gynaelolog y i n th e London Medica l Schoo l for Women. 36 Elizabet h Garrett Anderso n (1836-1917) . Qualified L.S.A . i n 1865 , bein g admitte d to the examination only because her father threatene d legal action if her entry was refused . M.D. (Paris ) 1870 . Senio r Physicia n (1866-92 ) t o th e Elizabet h Garret t Anderso n Hospital, whic h she founded . Closel y involved in th e foundatio n o f the Londo n Medica l School fo r Women, bein g on its staff 1875-1905 . First woman membe r of the B.M.A .

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gained honour s i n every subject for the first M.B. exam , whereupon her male colleague s manoeuvred he r remova l from th e School . Undeterred, she continue d her studie s in a numbe r of other institutions, and i n 186 5 obtained th e Licentiat e o f th e Worshipfu l Compan y o f Apothecaries. Inspired b y Elizabeth Garrett, Sophi a Jex-Blake,37 who had faile d i n her attempt t o achiev e admittanc e o f wome n t o th e medica l schoo l i n Edinburgh, founde d th e Londo n Medica l Schoo l fo r Wome n i n 1874 . Although initiall y n o hospita l o r examinin g bod y woul d accep t thei r students, i n 187 7 the Roya l Fre e Hospita l accepte d thei r student s for clinical work , an d i n th e followin g yea r th e universit y opened al l it s faculties to women, becoming the first university in Great Britain to grant medical degrees t o women, though it was not until the late 1940 s that all the medical schools in London opened thei r doors to women.38 Returning to the nineteenth century, it would be inappropriate t o go in detail into the complex manoeuvres and discussions, including two Royal Commissions,39 whic h surrounde d - indee d ofte n obscure d - th e movement to transform the examining into a teaching university, in which the staff of the schools had some real involvement in its activities. Medical men too k a leadin g par t i n th e proceeding s o f bot h Commissions , o f interest bein ^ th e discussions , stil l o f relevanc e today , o f th e correc t relationship between a university degree and a professional qualification. Of greate r importanc e i s th e appearance , i n th e Gresha m Report , th e second o f the Royal Commissions, of an overt discussion for the first time of the place of research in a university, particularly in the field of medicine. The Commissio n conclude d surel y to the great benefi t o f the university, that 'an y . . . limitation of research t o institutions specially set apart for that purpose would tend to lower the academic character of the schools of the university and th e standard of teaching'.40 As a resul t o f thes e prolonge d negotiations , th e universit y wa s reorganised i n 190 0 unde r ne w Statutes , al l th e medica l school s bein g admitted a s Recognised Schools . Althoug h the university had th e power to inspect them, in practice th e schools remained essentially independent entities, wit h thei r ow n finances , an d thi s chang e ha d onl y a limite d impact o n th e schools , illustrate d b y th e fac t tha t th e historia n o f th e Middlesex Hospita l Medica l Schoo l give s it n o mor e attentio n tha n a n insert simply stating that: 'It should be noted that when the University of London wa s reconstitute d i n 190 0 th e Middlese x Hospita l Medica l 37 Sophi a Louis a Jex-Blake (1840-1912) . In 186 9 accepte d a s a medica l studen t b y Edinburgh University , bu t late r Cour t o f Appeal rule d the y ha d acte d ultra vires i n s o doing. Obtained M.D. (Berne ) 1877, and right to practise medicine. Settled in Edinburgh, where she founded th e Women's Hospital and Schoo l of Medicine, which close d in 189 4 when the University admitted women . 38 A s a result of a recommendation o f the Goodenough Rep . 39 Th e Selborne Rep. , the Gresham Rep . 40 Gresha m Rep. , para 23.

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School becam e a School o f the University'. 41 An important featur e of the reorganised universit y wa s th e introductio n of the Board s o f Studies, in which th e teacher s i n th e variou s discipline s fro m th e variou s school s could, fo r the firs t time , mee t t o define course s of study an d th e relate d exams. I n th e broad fiel d o f medicine and relate d science s seven Board s were established, man y more being added in later years. 42 The three main boards i n medicin e immediatel y se t abou t a thoroug h revisio n o f th e regulations fo r th e M.B. , which , excep t fo r th e introductio n o f th e Preliminary Science s Examination , had remaine d essentiall y unchanged since 1839, and thi s resulted, in 1904 , in the introduction of the new M.B., B.S. cours e an d examination , wit h it s forma l separatio n o f pre-clinical from clinica l studies , an d wit h separat e examination s i n medicine , i n surgery, and i n obstetrics an d gynaecology. The earl y years o f the twentieth century were in fact dar k days for the London Medica l Schools . Th e intak e int o th e school s ha d falle n fro m about 650 per annum i n the 1860 s to some 250 in 1905-9. In part this was due to a general decline throughout the country of the number of students entering medicine , bu t ther e wa s a mor e seriou s reason. Wit h th e eve r increasing importance and complexit y of the sciences related to medicine, the schools , whic h wer e financiall y solel y dependen t o n th e fee s o f th e students, wer e findin g i t increasingl y difficul t t o mee t th e cos t o f th e requisite laboratories , equipmen t an d staff . Although , sinc e th e reorganisation i n 1900 , many of the staf f of these departments were now appointed teacher s o f the university , they remained poorl y paid servant s of the school , an d man y lef t t o work elsewhere, resulting, in mos t o f the schools othe r tha n Universit y an d King' s Colleges , i n smal l poorl y equipped, poorl y staffe d departments . Th e problem s o f suc h smal l departments ha d bee n recognise d fo r some time, and a s early as 187 0 The Lancet had recommende d th e amalgamatio n o f pre-clinical departments, stating bluntly , 'The amalgamation o f the medical schools in London is, we think, one of the most important and pressin g questions of the day. All scientific men are convinced of the absurdity and practical impossibility of carrying o n scientifi c teachin g i n eleve n separat e institution s i n

41

Campbel l Thompson, p. 91. Th e origina l boards related to medicine wer e thos e o f Preliminary Medica l Studies , of Intermediat e Medica l Studies , o f Advance d Medica l Studies , o f Dentistry , o f Pharmacy, o f Hygiene an d Publi c Health , o f Physiology an d Experimenta l Psycholog y (Univ. Calendar , 1900-1) . I n 1951- 2 th e Medica l Board s wer e reduce d t o two , thos e of Preclinical Studie s an d Advance d Medica l Studies . I n 1968- 9 th e Boar d o f Preclinical Studies wa s disbanded, an d thos e o f Medicine an d Postgrad . Med . Studie s (disbande d 1984-5) formed, precede d by those of Pathology (1947-8) and Microbiolog y (1966-7). Th e Boards of Studies in Surgery, and i n Obstetrics and Gynaecolog y were founded i n 1968-9 , followed b y tha t o f Communit y Medicin e i n 1974-5 . Th e date s indicat e th e firs t appearance of the Boards in the Univ. Calendar . 42

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London.'43 Th e Gresha m Commissio n ha d indee d recommende d amalgamation o f th e pre-clinica l departments, 44 bu t becaus e o f th e competition betwee n schools for students, and th e certainty that neither University o r King' s College s woul d join suc h a scheme , nothin g wa s done. Despite this, the first forty years of this century saw the full flowering of the traditional London schools, dominated b y their prestigious, part-time clinical staff , essentiall y isolate d fro m th e university , wit h th e teachin g almost totall y confined to the wards of the great London hospitals, which were still abundantly supplied with patients from the local population and by referra l fro m thei r alumni . From ou r presen t standpoin t i t i s easy to criticise thes e schools , bu t w e should no t overloo k th e exceedingl y hig h clinical standard s o f their staffs , th e many , distinguishe d contributions they made t o clinical medicine, notably in the field of neurology in which they lea d th e world , an d th e fac t tha t eve n i f they faile d i n genera l t o impart scientifi c curiosit y in thei r students , the y traine d generation s o f doctors wit h hig h standard s o f clinica l competenc e an d professiona l conduct. During thes e years of apparent stability and assuranc e we can discern the origins of the forces and concepts , bot h social and academic , which in the year s sinc e th e las t wa r hav e brough t abou t suc h grea t changes . Heralding th e birt h o f th e concep t tha t th e healt h o f th e communit y should no t b e dependent upo n charit y and marke t forces bu t i s a direct concern o f the state , th e passag e o f Lloyd George' s Nationa l Insuranc e Bill in 1911 was a direct forerunner of the Beveridge Report (1942) and th e foundation o f th e Nationa l Healt h Servic e (1948) , a politica l transformation whic h ha s had , an d continue s t o have , profoun d consequences fo r medical education . Coincident wit h th e controvers y surroundin g th e passag e o f Lloy d George's Bill , th e Universit y was bein g examine d by yet another Roya l Commission, arisin g fro m th e dissatisfactio n wit h th e 190 0 reorganisation. Th e Chairma n o f this Commission was Lord Haldane , a distinguished Liberal politician, a man deeply concerned wit h university education, wh o in his youth had bee n greatly influenced b y the Germa n university system . Becaus e o f th e outbrea k o f wa r i n 191 4 th e recommendations o f the massiv e repor t o f his Commissio n wer e neve r adopted,45 but in the field of medicine they had a seminal influence, and a direct lin e o f though t ca n b e trace d fro m Haldan e throug h th e Goodenough Repor t (1944 ) o n Medica l School s t o th e 196 8 Roya l Commission on Medical Educatio n (th e Todd Report). In the pre-clinical sphere Haldan e wa s greatl y influence d b y th e evidenc e o f Ernes t 43

Lancet, n( 1870), 544. Gresha m Rep. p . 848 . 45 Haldan e Rep. Th e passage s referring to medicine will be found i n Cd. 6015 and Cd . 6717. See Note 1 . 44

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Starling,46 th e distinguishe d Professo r o f Physiolog y a t Universit y College, who, i n his evidence, wrote: The medica l schools , howeve r efficient , ar e essentiall y of the nature of'trad e schools'. A s the bo y leaves a secondar y schoo l t o enter a medica l schoo l th e standard whic h is at once set before him i s professional success . The teacher s of sciences with whom he first comes in immediate contact, in many cases no t of marked ability , are in all cases in a position of inferiority to the clinical staff , whose servant s the y are . Th e wor k whic h i s expecte d o f thes e scientifi c teachers i s to get th e student s under the m a s quickly as possible throug h th e various Preliminar y an d Intermediat e examinations , s o tha t the y ma y b e passed o n t o the clinica l work of the wards . The whol e idea o f the firs t thre e years, the most impressionable tim e of the student's career , i s not educationa l but professional. 47 Given evidence of this nature and hi s own cast of mind, it is not surprising that Haldan e recommende d a strengthenin g of the traditiona l scientifi c departments. I n this , o f course, he was not breakin g new ground, and i t was in the clinical field that his report was of the greatest importance. In thi s are a Haldan e wa s greatl y influence d b y Abraha m Flexner, 48 who ha d jus t complete d hi s well-know n stud y o f medical educatio n i n America an d Europe , an d b y Si r Willia m Osier, 49 Regiu s Professo r o f Medicine a t Oxford , formerl y Professo r o f Medicine a t Johns Hopkins , and himsel f greatly influence d b y German medicine . Both o f these men , whilst admirin g thei r clinica l standards , deplore d th e lac k o f scientifi c content in the London Schools. As Flexner put it : There is no certain or direct interaction between the fundamental scientist and the clinicians ; excep t i n th e regio n o f morbi d anatomy , som e elementar y bacteriology, and physical chemistry they barely touch. The clinician lacks the time, eve n i f he has the training, whic h wil l enable hi m to bring t o bear upo n clinical problem s th e artillery which the chemis t and th e pharmacologist ar e forging.50 46 Ernes t Henr y Starlin g (1866-1927) . Qualifie d a t Guy' s wher e h e becam e Demonstrator o f Physiology ; M.D . (Lond.) , 1889 ; F.R.S. , 1899 ; Jodrel l Professo r o f Physiology, U.C.L. 1899-1923 . 47 Haldane , Final Rep. (1913 ) par a 231 . 48 Abraha m Flexner (1866-1959 ) America n educationalist. In 1910 , h e published, for Carnegie Foundation, a critical repor t on American medical schools, followed i n 191 2 by a similar repor t o n Europea n medica l schools . Th e substanc e o f thes e tw o Report s wa s consolidated i n hi s book , Medical Education, a Comparative Study, (Ne w York , 1925) . 49 Willia m Osie r (1849-1919) . Qualifie d M.D . (McGill) , 1870 ; F R.C.P., 1884 ; F.R.S. , 1898; Professo r o f Medicine, McGil l 1874 ; Univ . o f Pennsylvania (Philadelphia ) 1884 ; first Professo r o f Medicine, John Hopkin s Med . Sch . 1889 , wher e h e organised th e first modern, clinica l academi c unit , base d o n bot h clinica l an d laborator y work ; Regiu s Professor o f Medicine, Univ. of Oxford, 1904-19 . A great teache r and bibliophile . 50 Haldane , Final Rep., (1913 ) para. 248 .

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Both Flexne r an d Osie r stresse d th e self-perpetuatin g effec t o f thi s situation, and the need to found clinical academic units with salaried staff . As Haldane pu t i t in his report : The essenc e of (their) contention is that i n a University Medical Schoo l th e principal teachers of clinical medicine and surger y in all their branches ought to b e universit y professor s i n th e sam e sens e a s th e principa l teacher s of chemistry o r physiolog y . . . I f thi s i s once admitted th e res t follows . I t i s simply i n eac h cas e a questio n o f appointin g a universit y professo r an d arranging that his department shall be so organised that he will be able to do his work.51

Shortly after th e First World Wa r th e first five clinical professors in this sense wer e appointed. 52 I t was , however , t o b e sixt y year s befor e this recommendation wa s t o b e full y accepted , an d sentence s essentiall y identical t o those of Haldane ca n be found i n the Goodenough an d Tod d Reports, sav e for the implicatio n tha t i t was a simple matter. Bu t i n th e inter-war years , nurture d i n part b y th e Universit y which, i n 1929 , was reorganised int o it s presen t structure , an d i n par t b y th e Universit y Grants Committee , ther e wa s a strengthenin g o f th e pre-clinica l departments, which , though in most case s remaining small, increasingly became tru e universit y departments , makin g importan t researc h contributions, such as the synthesis of stilboestrol by Charles Dodds, 53 th e discovery o f penicilli n b y Alexande r Fleming, 54 an d th e fundamenta l discoveries in the field of immunology by Peter Medawar.55 Each of these represent a significan t advance i n thei r respectv e fields, but the y have a wider significance . Hitherto th e application s o f science to medicine had, 51

Haldane , Fina l Rep., (1913 ) para. 253. Prof . Sir Francis Fraser , St Bartholomew's H.M.C. , Medicine; Prof . H. Maclean, St Thomas's H.M.S. , Medicine ; Prof . Dam e Louis e Mcllroy , Roya l Fre e Hospita l S.M. , Obst. and Gynae; Prof . F.S . Langmead , S t Mary's H.M.S., Medicine; Prof . C.A. Pannet , St Mary's H.M.S. Surgery; thes e five appointments wer e made 1920-2 . . 53 Edwar d Charle s Dodd s (1899-1973) . Ph.D . (Lond. ) 1925 ; M.D . (Lond.) , 1925 ; F.R.C.P., 1945 ; F.R.S., 1942) ; P.R.C.P., 1962-6; Courtauld Professo r of Biochemistry, th e Middlesex Hospita l Medica l School, 1925-64 . His synthesis of stilboestrol in 1938, the first synthesis of a non-steroidal compound wit h biological activit y of a steroid hormone , le d to the therapeuti c us e of steroids. 54 Alexande r Flemin g (1881-1955) . M.B . (Lond.) , 1908 ; F.R.C.S. , 1909 ; F.R.C.P. , 1944; F.R.S. , 1943 ; Professo r o f Bacteriology , S t Mary' s H.M.S. , 1928-48 ; Principal , Wright-Fleming Inst , of Microbiol., 1946-54 . Hi s isolatio n of penicillin in 192 8 led to th e development o f the whol e range o f antibiotics. Receive d Nobe l Priz e in 194 5 jointly with Howard Flore y an d Ernes t Chain . 55 Pete r Medawa r (1915-87) . F.R.S., 1949 ; Professo r o f Zool., Univ . o f Birmingham 1947; Jodrell Prof , o f Zool. an d Comparat . Anat. , U.C.L . 1951 ; Director, Nat . Inst . for Med. Res. , 1962-71 ; Nobel Prize for Medicine, 1960 . His fundamental observations on the host versus graft reaction le d to the development of tissue and organ grafting and the whole concept o f cellular immunity. 52

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except i n th e important fields of public health and surgery , bee n largel y confined t o the elucidation of disease processes and th e functioning of the human body , wit h littl e direc t applicatio n t o therap y a s oppose d t o diagnosis. Bu t each of these discoveries had , within a comparatively shor t while, important therapeutic applications, and a s such are heralds o f the striking advances i n treatment which are suc h an excitin g component of modern medicine . The growt h of scientific activity in London Schools was also stimulated by th e Medica l Researc h Council , founde d i n 1913. 56 Thi s i s nowhere more dramatically illustrate d than in the work of Sir Thomas Lewi s who from 191 6 to 1945 , whilst on th e full-tim e staf f o f the Researc h Council , was a member o f the clinical staff of University College Hospital an d th e Medical School. 57 His scientifi c contributions still stand a s landmarks in their field , bu t o f greate r significanc e wa s hi s bringin g o f scientifi c investigation t o th e bedside . H e wa s th e founde r o f moder n clinica l science, an d i t ha s bee n thi s application o f the scientifi c metho d t o th e whole rang e o f medica l activity , includin g therapy , whic h ha s transformed medicin e within the last fifty years. Largely determined by the concepts originating in the second decade of this century, the past forty years have seen greater changes i n the Facult y of Medicine tha n a t an y tim e in its history, but befor e turnin g to them I would lik e t o mentio n a n importan t extra-mura l achievemen t o f th e Faculty. Arisin g fro m th e recommendation s o f a Governmen t Commission on University Education in the Colonies set up in 1943, 58 the Faculty, i n th e twent y year s afte r th e War , too k o n th e responsiblity , through a n extensio n o f th e syste m o f externa l degrees , o f nurturin g through thei r formativ e years th e ne w medica l school s i n Jamaica, i n Ibadan and in Khartoum. Th e subsequent achievement s o f these school s is testimon y t o a n enterpris e i n which th e Facult y of Medicine ca n tak e great pride. 59 The change s i n the domestic scen e ar e without doubt mos t strikingl y 56 Th e Medica l Researc h Counci l wa s founde d i n 1913 , a s th e Medica l Researc h Committee. I t wa s rename d th e Medica l Researc h Counci l i n 1920 . See : F . Dainton , Reflections on the Universities and the National Health Services. Nil/field Provincial Hospitals Trust (1983) ch . 3 for a ful l accoun t of the formatio n o f the M.R.C . 57 Thoma s Lewi s (1881-1945) . B.Sc . (Cardiff) , 1902 ; M.B. , B.S . (Lond.) , 1905 ; M.D . (Lond.), 1907 ; F.R.C.P., 1918 ; following qualification, house-surgeo n to Horsley (see note 27); Ass. Physn. , Univ. Coll. Hosp., 1913 ; Physn. , 1919 ; appointe d to W/T staffo f M.R.C. 1916, th e first clinicia n t o hold suc h a n appointment ; Head o f the Dept . of Clin. Res . a t U.C.H.M.S., 1919 , th e first 'unit' outside the main laboratories of the M.R.C. and th e first clinical unit . Made outstanding contributions to knowledge of mechanism of heart, of its diseases and of pain. The father of modern clinical science . Founder of the Med. Res . Soc . 58 Rep . o n Univ. Ed. in Colonies (Th e Asquit h Rep. ) 194 5 [Cmd . 6647] , iv. 673 . 59 See : B . Pattison, Special Relations: Th e University o f London and New Universities Overseas, 1947-1970 (1984) fo r a ful l accoun t of this enterprise.

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shown by the great growth in the numbers and strength of the University, academic department s withi n the schools , especially in the clinical field. This i s clearl y illustrate d b y th e increas e i n th e numbe r o f Appointed Teachers, notabl y i n th e clinica l field. Without questio n thi s growth of academic staf f wa s largel y stimulate d b y th e Goodenoug h an d Tod d Reports, bu t a t th e sam e tim e i t reflect s a rea l chang e i n th e climat e of thought, affectin g no t onl y th e universit y but th e N.H.S . staff , wit h th e schools becomin g increasingl y permeate d b y scientifi c endeavou r an d achievement. Although no doubt the changes were not as fast and as great as som e migh t hav e wished , th e year s 1950-7 5 wer e i n man y respect s golden years , wit h a sens e of ever-expanding horizons , bot h intellectual and financial . The y were years in which many members of the staff of the Faculty were in the forefront o f medical advances, as indeed the y still are, leading th e field not onl y i n thi s countr y bu t throughou t th e world. T o single out from suc h a broad spectru m of achievement any one individual is invidious, and suc h a choice must be largely personal, but it is doubtful if any one individual made a more pervasive contribution than Sir Austin Bradford Hill, 60 Professor of Medical Statistic s a t th e Londo n Schoo l of Hygiene, wh o was a leader i n the application o f statistical methods to the medical an d biologica l sciences , an d i n th e developmen t o f tha t ver y powerful researc h tool , the controlled trial , which has projected scientifi c accuracy int o th e fiel d o f therapy. Hi s wor k wa s als o o f importance for another reason , i n tha t i t focuse s attentio n o n th e growt h an d grea t achievements during this period of the distinguished postgraduate schools and institution s of the Faculty, a contribution which from th e constraints of space alon e are not described i n more detail. 61 A marke d featur e o f thi s growt h o f scientfi c activit y ha s bee n a broadening o f its scope. O n th e on e hand thi s is shown by what ma y b e called the increasing depth of medical research, so that Virchow's concept of cellular pathology ha s been extended no t only into the chamber o f the cell, but, with the growth of molecular biology, into the gene itself. On th e other hand , ther e has been th e outward extensio n of the medical sciences into th e wide r field s o f th e behavioura l sciences , int o al l aspect s o f community medicine , ari d increasingl y int o th e field s o f preventiv e medicine. Whils t th e forme r ha s seeme d t o rive t th e attentio n o f th e 60 Austi n Bradfor d Hil l (1897 - ) . Ph.D. (Lond.) , 1926 ; D.Sc . (Lond.) , 1929 ; F.R.S. , 1954; Reade r in Epidemiology and Vital Statistics, Lond . Sch. Hyg . & Trop. Med., 1933 ; Prof, of Med. Statistics , 1945-62 . 61 (a ) Th e Londo n School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, founded 1924 ; originally the Londo n Schoo l o f Tropical Medicine , founde d 1899 . (b ) Th e Roya l Postgraduat e Medical School , founde d 1931 . (c ) Th e Britis h Postgraduat e Medica l Federation , founded 1945 . (i) Tod d Rep. Appendi x 14 , para. 28-37. (ii ) Fo r a full accoun t o f the earl y years o f the R.P.M.S. , see : C.C . Booth , 'Medica l Scienc e an d Technolog y a t th e Roya l Postgraduate Medical School: the First 50 Years', Brit. Med.J., 29 1 (1985), 1771-9 .

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student mor e firml y t o th e laborator y an d th e bedside , th e latte r ha s widened hi s horizons, and wit h tha t th e horizons of the medical schools . The concern s an d spher e o f interest of a medica l schoo l no w extend no t only fa r beyon d th e wall s o f a singl e hospital , bu t int o th e communit y itself, a developmen t facilitate d b y lega l separatio n o f the school s fro m their paren t hospitals in 1948. 62 This widening i n the scop e o f medicin e has been reflected in the reconstruction of the medical curriculum in 1973, a consequenc e o f whic h ha s bee n tha t fo r practica l purpose s al l th e students no w qualif y wit h a universit y degree , thu s afte r 15 0 year s achieving th e aim s o f the origina l founders . Further, reflectin g bot h th e growing scientifi c content o f medicine an d the problems, already referre d to, o f combining a professiona l qualification with a universit y degree, a growing numbe r of students have obtained i n addition a second degree , a B.Sc., a valuabl e developmen t sadl y retarde d b y presen t financia l constraints. A s a ye t furthe r reflectio n o f th e widenin g perspective s o f medicine, th e Universit y ha s institute d a degre e i n nursin g studies , heralding the concepts of a school of medicine concerned no t only with the education o f doctors, bu t als o wit h tha t o f the man y othe r profession s involved i n the provision o f health care. 63 Just a s th e nineteent h centur y medicin e an d medica l educatio n wer e influenced by changes in society, so it has been in recent years. In contras t to the great growt h o f the inner cities in the previous century, largely as a result of developments i n transport the last ninety years have seen a steady decline in the population o f Inner London, whic h is now over 50 per cent less tha n a t th e tur n o f th e century. 64 Inevitabl y thi s ha s le d t o th e increasing developmen t o f hospitals and medica l service s i n the growin g fringes o f the city, a change whic h has bee n greatly accelerated i n recent years b y the policy of the N.H.S. to equalise the availability o f health car e throughout th e community . As a consequenc e th e medica l school s hav e increasingly com e t o utilise more periphera l hospital s fo r the trainin g of their students. Initially, influenced b y their experience of dispersal of their clinical student s durin g th e year s o f the Secon d Worl d War , th e school s actively sough t t o place thei r student s i n suc h hospital s on educationa l grounds, bu t recently , and increasingly , they have been force d t o do this as th e resul t o f th e effec t o f the N.H.S . polic y decision s o n th e clinica l practice i n th e principa l universit y hospitals. Ther e i s a limi t t o which 62

Prio r t o 1948 , except fo r S t Bartholomew' s H.M.C . an d th e Londo n Schoo l o f Medicine fo r Women , th e Londo n Medica l School s wer e effectivel y owne d b y thei r associated hospital . Partly as a result of a firm recommendation in the Goodenough Rep., and partl y owin g t o th e formatio n o f the N.H.S. , al l of them becam e incorporated, an d separately affiliate d t o the universit y in 1948. 63 B.Sc . in Nursin g Studies, introduced i n 1977 . I n conformit y wit h thi s concept , th e university se t up a Working Par y i n Health Studies , under th e chairmanship of Sir John Ellis, which produced its final report i n 1987. 64 O.P.C.S . Census Report, 1981 . County Rep., Gt. London . Pt 1 . H.M.S.O. 1982.

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such dispersa l o f students is beneficial, and i t is believed b y most Dean s that thi s limit has been reached, i f not exceeded. In contras t t o thes e socia l influences , wit h thei r tendenc y to dispers e the educational activities of the schools, the main thrust has been towards concentration i n thei r growin g scientifi c an d researc h activities . One o f the mai n theme s o f the Roya l Commissio n o n Medica l Educatio n (th e Todd Report, 1968 ) was that, with the growing complexity of the medical sciences an d wit h thei r ever-acceleratin g rat e o f advance , i t wa s increasingly difficult fo r small academic department s to achieve their ful l role, whilst at the same time there was an increasing need for the medical sciences t o b e closel y integrate d wit h multi-facult y colleges wit h thei r strong departments o f basic science. Restating th e them e of the leader in The Lancet, 10 0 years previously, the report stressed the problems of small medical schools , an d recommende d tha t th e twelv e genera l medica l schools an d twenty-thre e postgraduate school s an d institute s should b e amalgamated int o six large schools, each incorporated with a multifaculty college. Given th e lon g history of many of the school s it is not surprising that thes e radical proposal s wer e not welcomed with open arms , an d i n fact the y led to little in the way of concrete change. But within a few years the economic problems facin g th e country introduced a new factor which sharpened th e need for the University to concentrate its resources and for the N.H.S . t o focu s eve n mor e sharpl y o n it s policie s o f resourc e allocation. Face d wit h thes e twin problems th e universit y set up, unde r the Chairmanshi p o f Lor d Flowers, 65 a furthe r Workin g Part y which , although adoptin g a differen t patter n fro m th e Todd Report , agai n pu t forward a plan for the amalgamation o f the schools into larger units. The resulting complex negotiations of the early years of this decade are so close to us that i t is difficult t o see them in perspective. For this reason I do not intend t o conside r the m i n an y detail, 66 an d wil l simply say that , face d with thes e challenge s th e nettl e wa s grasped , an d th e school s o f th e 65 London Medical Education: a Ne w Framework. Report o f a Working Party o n Medical an d Dental Teaching Resources (1980) . Simultaneou s wit h th e stud y o f this workin g party, th e London Healt h Plannin g Consortiu m produce d a repor t entitle d Towards a Balance: a Framework for Acute Hospital Services in London, Reconciling Services with Teaching Needs ( 1980). There wa s som e cross-membershi p betwee n thes e tw o groups , 't o facilitat e a s fa r a s possible a complementar y approac h b y eac h body ' (L.H.P.C.) . I t i s of interest tha t th e Todd Repor t (para . 488) recommende d th e setting up of a Joint Committee betwee n the University and the N.H.S. to review essentially the same range of problems as that covere d by thes e tw o workin g parties , bu t wit h power s o f implementation. Thi s proposa l wa s rejected b y the University on the grounds tha t it threatened th e academic independence of the University . (Sen . Min . July 1969 , para . 5899.) Fo r response of the Univ. to Flower s Rep. see : Reps , o f J.P.C. t o Senate, Sen. Min., (Oct . 1980 ) mins . 245-76 ; (March , 1981 ) min. 747-75 ; (Dec., 1981 ) min. 483 . 66 Fo r a fulle r accoun t see : L.P . Le Quesne , 'Medical Education i n London: th e Last Forty Years' Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. 80 606-14.

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Faculty wer e reorganise d i n a ne w patter n involvin g th e fusio n wit h multifaculty college s of some but no t al l of the schools . This reorganisatio n i s no w nearl y complete . I t i s to o earl y a s ye t t o assess it s success , ye t i t is , perhaps, fai r t o sa y that i t ha s provide d th e university, which educates one-third of the medical and dental students in the United Kingdom, with a variety of powerful schools with the potential to exploit an d lea d the exciting advances i n medical science , though thi s potential i s undoubtedl y weakene d b y th e increasin g cut s i n university finance, which we must hope are only temporary. However , if our schools are t o fulfil thei r true role, there is a further requirement , for they require not onl y powerfu l scientifi c department s bu t als o powerfu l universit y hospitals, wit h adequat e resource s bot h financia l an d clinical , a requirement whic h depend s upo n identit y o f purpos e an d clos e collaboration betwee n th e universit y an d th e Healt h Services . Bu t t o achieve thi s require s resolutio n o f an antithesis . Th e main s pressures on the Healt h Servic e relate to the provisio n o f health car e fo r the here an d now. No t onl y i s a n adequatel y conceive d an d supporte d universit y hospital a n essentia l component i n the provision of this care, but wit h its concern, i n collaboratio n wit h th e medica l school , fo r researc h an d teaching i t ha s responsibilitie s no t just fo r toda y bu t also , an d just a s importantly, for tomorrow.

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Theology Sydney Evans If we accept the maxim that 'Nothing comes from nothing' we are likely to be led on to ask the question for which there is no scientific answer, 'Why is ther e somethin g an d no t nothing? ' Th e maxi m an d th e questio n ar e relevant i n matter s o f the microcos m a s wel l a s i n th e mysterie s of th e macrocosm. 'Ho w come s i t tha t ther e i s a Facult y o f Theology i n th e University o f London?' T o thi s questio n ther e i s an answer : an answe r which calls into use both the language of historical fact an d th e languag e of theological faith . The historica l fact i s relatively straightforward. The fac t i s embedde d in th e Universit y of London Ac t o f 1898 . Tha t Act provide d tha t 'ther e shall b e eigh t Facultie s i n th e University , i.e . Theology , Arts , Laws , Music, Medicine , Science , Engineering , Economic s wit h Politica l Science.' The Act provided tha t the first Schools of the University 'shall be University College , London , an d King' s College , London' . Withi n th e Faculty o f Theolog y th e followin g institution s were give n recognition : Hackney College , Hampstead ; New College, Hampstead ; Regent's Par k College; Cheshun t College ; th e Wesleya n College , Richmond ; th e London Colleg e of Divinity, commonly called S t John's Hall, Highbury . By the same Act a Board of Studies in Theology wa s established as one of thirty-two Boards . Th e Degree s o f Bachelor o f Divinity and Docto r o f Divinity were regulated . But a s we all know, what the University of London is celebrating is 150 years of academic activity , not just eighty-eight years since the passing of the Universit y of London Act of 1898. The perio d o f 150 years dates from the sealing of the Charter of 1836 - a n event which itself was not so much a beginnin g a s the culminatio n o f a series o f incipient beginnings . Tha t story ha s bee n succinctl y unravelled b y a forme r senator, Professo r H . Hale Bellot , an d ca n b e foun d i n th e firs t volum e of th e Victoria County History for Middlesex. H e described the initiatives that led to the founding in 1825 i n Gowe r Stree t o f an institutio n calle d 'Londo n University ' 'designed', h e writes , 't o suppl y th e shortcoming s o f Oxfor d an d Cambridge an d t o effec t a refor m of medical educatio n i n England' . I t

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offered 'highe r education free of religious tests, a non-resident system that substantially reduce d costs , wit h teachin g organise d upo n professoria l lines after the Scottish pattern' . This no w internationall y famou s institutio n (U.C.L. ) brough t int o being b y th e effort s o f Jeremy Bentham , Henry Brougham , James Mill and Josep h Hum e wit h deliberat e exclusio n o f theologica l studie s o r religious affiliation , inevitabl y i n th e climat e o f th e earl y nineteent h century provoke d counter-action . Th e Evening Standard o f 1 9 June 182 8 announced tha t a meetin g would b e hel d a t Freemason s Hal l i n Grea t Queen Stree t o n th e followin g Saturda y t o establis h o n Christia n an d constitutional principles a great metropolita n school to be called 'King's College'. 'Wit h suc h a seminar y i n a prosperou s position' , th e write r declared, 'ther e will be neither motive nor excuse for any parent to inflict upon his offsprin g the disgrac e of education in the infide l and godles s college in Gower Street.' In th e chair a t that meeting on 21 June was Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington. Among the company on the platform were two archbishops, seven bishop s an d a numbe r o f prominen t laymen . A lette r fro m Si r Robert Pee l was read expressin g regre t a t his unavoidable absence . Th e full stor y has bee n tol d in detail by Professor Hearnshaw i n his Centenary History o f King's College, London, publishe d i n 1929 , an d briefl y retol d recently b y D r Gordo n Hueli n i n hi s readabl e accoun t o f 15 0 years, published i n 1978 . If the founding of University College provoked a powerful intervention into higher education in London from distinguished representative s o f the Establishment i n bot h Churc h an d State , th e protagonist s o f King' s College were themselves not without opponents. Because a duel fought by a Prim e Ministe r i n Batterse a Par k i s such a n eccentri c episod e i n th e eventual emergenc e of a Faculty of Theology in the University of London, this bizarr e encounte r deserve s t o b e remembered . T o understan d th e provocation w e need t o remember tha t a Bill of Emancipation o f Roman Catholics i n thi s country , supporte d b y th e Duk e of Wellington and Si r Robert Peel , ha d alienate d som e o f the ultra-Protestants , especiall y th e Earl of Winchilsea. Winchilsea, who hitherto had supporte d th e idea of a new college base d o n th e King' s faith , suddenl y became suspiciou s that the colleg e wa s bein g promote d fo r th e clandestin e trainin g o f young Jesuits. A lette r appeare d i n th e Standard fro m Lor d Winchilse a announcing tha t h e had cancelle d hi s subscription t o the King's College Appeal becaus e th e Duk e o f Wellingto n wa s associate d wit h it s foundation. Th e Duk e gav e hi m tw o opportunitie s t o retrac t an d apologise, which being refused th e Duke issued a formal challenge: 'I now call upo n you r Lordshi p t o giv e m e tha t satisfactio n for your conduc t which a gentleman ha s a righ t t o require an d whic h a gentleman never refuses t o give.' Elizabeth Longfor d tell s th e tal e a t som e lengt h i n he r lif e o f

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Wellington. I quote onl y the even t itself. Lor d Harding e wa s the Duke's second; Lor d Falmout h wa s secon d fo r th e Ear l o f Winchilsea . Joh n Hume was the Duke's doctor . Before giving the Duke his pistol Hardinge unfolded a piece of paper and fro m it rea d Winchilse a an d Falmout h a lectur e whic h dre w tear s t o Falmouth' s eyes. Th e Duk e stoo d wit h a good-nature d expressio n durin g thi s performance. Finally the two pistols were in the principals' hands and cocked. 'Then gentlemen, I shall ask if you are ready', said Hardinge , 'an d give the word fire, without an y further signa l o r preparation.' There was an instant' s pause. 'Gentlemen , are you ready? Fire!' Hume's eye s were fixed in agony on his friend, whose blood he might in another moment be staunching, and he did not notic e tha t Winchilse a kep t hi s righ t ar m glue d t o hi s side . Th e Duk e noticed, an d instea d o f hitting Winchilsea's le g fired wide. Wit h a seraphi c smile Winchilsea the n raised hi s pistol as if in blessing and fired it off into the air. (Befor e actin g a s his second Falmout h ha d mad e Winchilse a promis e on his honour , i f he survive d th e Duke' s sho t no t t o fir e back . Falmout h ha d always considered Winchilse a t o be 'completely in the wrong'.) Having stoo d th e Duke's fire, Winchilsea fel t tha t honour permitted hi m to apologize for the Standard letter. Falmouth produced a draft apolog y which he read aloud to the Duke. 'This won't do, ' said th e Duke in a low voice to Hardinge 'i t is no apology.' For thoug h th e wor d 'regret ' appeare d th e wor d 'apology ' di d not . Hum e promptly pencille d i n th e word s 'i n apology ' an d initialle d them , 'J.R.H.' . This the Duke accepted. H e bowed coldly to the two peers . . . and cantered off the field. It ha d bee n a good mornin g for a Prime Minister

But we must leave the 'fiel d o f Battersea'. Wha t wa s in fact establishe d by th e Universit y Charte r o f 1836 was an examinin g body appointe d b y the Crow n wit h powe r t o gran t degrees . I t ha d n o teacher s an d wa s accommodated in offices in Somerset House. This stange compromise wa s the solutio n adopte d t o enabl e th e grantin g o f degrees b y a procedur e which would override th e opposition o f King's Colleg e to any union with University Colleg e an d avoi d th e absurdit y o f creatin g tw o degree conferring universitie s in th e metropolis . All candidates fo r B.A., LL.B., B.Med. an d M.D . i n th e firs t examination s i n 183 9 cam e eithe r fro m University Colleg e o r fro m King' s College . Ther e wa s n o theologica l option i n the Facult y of Arts and n o degree of Bachelor of Divinity. As a membe r o f th e Senate , Arnol d o f Rugby le d a powerfu l grou p which wished to make a knowledge of the Greek Testament an d Scriptur e history compulsor y fo r a n art s degree . Th e proposa l wa s vehementl y opposed b y th e Benthamites . Th e Hom e Secretar y whe n appeale d t o declared himsel f in favour o f an optiona l pape r in Greek Testamen t bu t opposed t o a compulsory paper. Forcefu l letter s were exchanged. Arnold was defeated. Believing as strongly as John Henry Newma n that religio n is th e onl y soun d basi s of national education , Arnol d resigne d fro m th e Senate, an d for some years King's College held aloof from th e arts degrees

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of the ne w university. When eventuall y in the University of London Act, 1898, degrees in divinity were established, not in the Faculty of Arts but in a distinc t Facult y o f Theology, followin g th e Scottis h rathe r tha n th e Oxford an d Cambridg e pattern , th e reaso n fo r thi s decisio n was , I imagine, a recollectio n o f those 'ol d unhapp y far-of f things , an d battle s long ago'. But i f King's College hel d aloo f in th e earl y years, th e opportunit y of affiliation t o th e ne w universit y was seize d b y a numbe r o f colleges an d schools in the provinces, and notably by those seminaries in which Roman Catholic priest s an d dissentin g minister s receive d thei r training . Th e House of Lords in 183 4 had rejecte d a Universities Admission Bill which would hav e opene d Oxfor d an d Cambridg e t o dissenters . Withi n five years n o fewe r tha n sixtee n educationa l establishment s beside s th e tw o London College s received authority from th e Crown t o issue certification of attendance an d goo d conduct , qualifying thei r holders to sit for degrees in art s an d i n law . Eve n mor e numerou s wer e th e recognise d medica l schools. Hearnsha w comments : 'the University of London becam e no t a teaching institutio n fo r the metropoli s bu t a boar d o f examiners fo r the empire'. Fro m thes e beginning s develope d wha t wa s t o becom e on e of London's greates t service s to th e furtheranc e o f opportunities for higher education - th e nurturing of colleges in the provinces and overseas in a special relationshi p unti l the y gre w int o fully-fledge d autonomou s universities. For all its achievements, th e compromise of 1836 understandably failed to satisf y th e prope r ambition s o f would-b e universit y promoters an d teachers. Toward s th e en d o f the nineteent h centur y voice s fo r chang e became mor e insistent. The nee d fo r an autonomou s teaching university to replac e a n examinin g boar d appointe d b y th e Hom e Secretar y an d answerable to him led to many more unhappy years of wrangling between conflicting interests . Eventuall y me n o f the calibre of R.B. Haldane an d Sidney Web b pressed throug h th e preparatio n o f a 'Londo n University Commission Bill' . Fro m thi s cam e th e all-importan t Ac t o f 189 8 which among muc h els e establishe d a Facult y o f Theology ; significantl y fo r future developmen t i t provide d n o fund s fo r th e salarie s o f professors, readers o r lecturers in this discipline. The ancien t universitie s of England an d Scotlan d wer e founde d b y th e authority of the medieval Latin Church of the West to guarantee teaching standards i n th e studia generalia. They were guilds of scholars ope n t o all nationalities for the pursuit of the humanities and at least one of the higher studies o f theology, la w o r medicine . Th e ai m o f such a syste m wa s t o produce hol y an d well-learne d me n t o serv e bot h Churc h an d State . Entrance t o th e advance d studie s required successfu l negotiatio n o f the trivium an d quadrivium o f th e art s faculty . Followin g th e Reformatio n in England th e universitie s largely becam e 'finishing ' school s fo r Anglican

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gentry: th e emphasi s change d fro m th e scholarl y t o th e socia l virtues , though soun d learnin g wa s no t whol y abandoned . However , fo r a lon g time Oxfor d an d Cambridg e college s remaine d close d agains t al l wh o were not prepared to claim t o be Anglicans . This vacuu m o f opportunit y stimulate d th e foundin g o f Dissentin g Academies, studie d b y m y friend s D r Geoffre y Nuttal l an d D r Gordo n Huelin. I n hi s publishe d lecture s on New College, London and its Library D r Nuttall names no fewer than thirty such institutions. The ejectment of the Nonconformists fro m th e Churc h o f England i n the summe r of 1662 was the signa l fo r the settin g u p o f Dissenting Academies , s o called afte r th e celebrated Academ y i n Genev a founde d i n 155 9 b y Joh n Calvin . Originally se t u p t o provid e trainin g for intending ministers of religion, many o f these academies admitte d son s of Nonconformists wh o were not intending t o follo w tha t precis e vocation . I t i s claimed tha t som e thre e hundred o f their pupils became sufficiently distinguished t o be included in the Dictionary o f National Biography. One suc h Academ y cam e int o bein g i n Londo n i n Hoxto n Squar e about th e yea r 1700 . Th e theologica l tutor , D r Joshua Oldfield , i n hi s Essay towards th e Improvement o f Reason affirmed Hebrew , Ne w Testamen t Greek, and ethics to be necessary ingredients in the curriculum. An earlier Academy i n Newington Green counte d Daniel Defo e among its students. In 173 0 a grou p o f Congregationalist s o f stric t Calvinis t persuasion , meeting in a hostelry of this name, formed a King's Head Society. This group founded Homerto n College . I n 185 0 Homerto n Colleg e joine d wit h Highbury Colleg e an d th e Cowar d Colleg e t o la y foundation s i n th e Finchley Roa d of a building know n to many of us as New College - on e of the Divinit y Schools name d i n the Act of 1898 . Fo r mor e tha n a century New College flourished as a Christian communit y o f theological learnin g and gave the Faculty of Theology i n recent years such scholars and friend s as Principa l John Huxtabl e an d D r Geoffre y Nuttall . Th e uniqu e New College collectio n o f theologica l book s gathere d i n fro m Dissentin g Acadamies i s now safely house d in Dr Williams's Library . Other London-base d enterprise s i n theologica l educatio n mus t b e mentioned. Si r Thomas Gresham , a City mercer , establishe d wha t wa s probably th e firs t majo r endeavou r i n th e fiel d o f what i s customarily called adul t education . I n hi s wil l date d 157 5 h e lef t mone y t o th e Mercer's Compan y fo r the settin g up o f seven lectureships: one o f these was in divinity. His former hous e became Gresham College . The statutes prescribed tha t th e Divinit y Professo r shoul d dea l wit h matter s o f theological controvers y 'especiall y those wherein the Church of England differs fro m th e commo n adversaries , th e papist s an d othe r sectaries' . Divinity lectures on thi s foundation continu e to be given in the Barbica n Centre - bu t with a less restrictive prescription . Controversy does , however , thro w u p ne w initiatives . Th e Londo n College of Divinity was an Anglican evangelical reponse to the theologica l

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debate fire d b y th e publicatio n in 185 9 of Charles Darwin' s Origin of the Species and in 1860 of the volume of essays by seven churchmen entitled Essays an d Reviews. To ensur e tha t ther e woul d b e clerg y whos e trainn g would b e base d o n th e Bibl e an d Thirty-nin e Article s o f Religio n a wealthy evangelical, Alfred Peache , provide d mone y for a college known originally a s S t John's Hall , Highbury . Wilso n Carlisle , founde r o f the Church Army , wa s onc e a studen t there . Durin g Hitler' s wa r th e Principal, D r Donal d Cogga n (late r t o becom e Archbisho p o f Canterbury) ha d th e tas k o f evacuating th e student s fro m th e bombe d buildings t o a temporary hom e at For d Manor , late r to new buildings at Northwood befor e th e College' s eventua l mov e t o becom e S t John's College, Nottingham. Of all the theological institutions in London which have contributed to the maintenance an d development of the University Faculty of Theology, without doub t th e mos t attractivel y house d wa s th e Wesleya n Colleg e opened i n 184 3 o n th e to p o f Richmond Hil l i n a n estat e ofte n acres . Richmond becam e a recognised Schoo l of the University in 1909 . Among the treasures of its library was John Wesley's personal collection of books. Many stream s fro m th e hig h countr y o f theological exploratio n an d education flowe d int o th e rive r o f th e incipien t an d late r developin g Faculty of Theology, an d man y distinguished and devote d scholar s gave their best to the cause of Theology i n the University without any personal remuneration excep t examinin g fee s whe n the y wer e examiners . Bu t something i n th e geolog y o f circumstance s deepene d th e channe l an d extended th e banks of the tributary that spran g u p in the Strand . From th e opening of the college on 8 October 183 6 until the passing of the King's Colleg e Londo n (Transfer ) Ac t o f 190 8 th e colleg e ha d th e characteristics o f a libera l art s colleg e wit h Christia n an d Anglica n foundations an d principles. In the sciences, arts and medicine the college was served by teachers of notable standing in their subjects in spite of the College's endemi c shortag e o f mone y t o pa y th e bills . Som e stud y o f divinity was from th e start required as a basic element along with classics, mathematics an d English . A t th e en d o f three year s a Colleg e diplom a known a s Associateship o f King's College (th e A.K.C.) wa s awarde d t o those wh o ha d satisfie d thei r examiner s an d ha d receive d testimonial s from thei r teacher s o f satisfactor y conduc t an d regula r attendanc e a t chapel. A distinc t theologica l departmen t fo r th e trainin g o f ordinands was not introduced unti l 1846 with the appointment o f three Professors of distinction an d variety - on e 'low' an d one 'broad' an d one 'high' Alexander McCaul , Frederic k Deniso n Mauric e an d Richar d Chenevi x Trench. Throughout th e nineteenth century the Principal of the College was an Anglican i n Holy Orders . The Charte r o f 1829 provided tha t 'n o person who is not a member of the United Churc h o f England an d Irelan d a s by

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law establishe d shal l b e competen t . . . t o fill any offic e i n th e Colleg e except onl y th e Professorship s o f Orienta l literatur e an d moder n languages.' I t doe s no t requir e a dee p knowledg e o f th e current s o f thought i n the nineteenth century to perceive the limitations imposed b y this religiou s requiremen t i n a n institutio n o f highe r education . On e anecdote tha t make s th e poin t tell s o f the appointmen t o f a particula r candidate fo r the Chair of Greek on the grounds that he was the only one applying wh o bot h kne w th e Gree k alphabe t an d wa s prepare d t o subscribe t o the Thirty-nine Articles! The liberatio n of the College from thes e shackles was the achievement of the las t tw o clerica l Principals : Archibal d Robertson , wh o conceive d the solution , an d Arthu r Cayle y Headlam wh o carried i t through. They perceived tha t th e Colleg e wa s becomin g a 'poo r relation ' o n th e periphery o f a developing metropolitan university. The King' s College (Transfer) Act, 1908, was a triumph of imaginative ingenuity tha t achieve d continuit y o f traditio n wit h creativ e change , placing th e secula r department s unde r a Delegac y appointe d b y th e Senate of the University an d s o eligible to receive Treasury funding, an d maintaining th e origina l Counci l of the College , with it s Charter which secured th e College' s righ t t o th e Stran d site , an d continuin g t o b e responsible fo r th e Theologica l Departmen t an d th e trainin g o f ordinands. The last clerical Principal, Arthur Cayley Headlam, adde d to that responsbility the new office of Dean of King's College and Head of the Theological Departmen t unti l h e wa s translate d fro m Londo n t o th e Regius Chai r a t Oxford . Fro m the n o n th e Principal has bee n a layman appointed b y the Crown, and the Dean a cleric appointed b y the Council; and som e reflecting on the College motto have found it matter for research whether th e Sancte wa s alway s represente d b y th e Dea n o r th e Sapienter always represented b y the Principal ! I t speak s well for the relationships between successiv e Principal s and Deans that this condominium hel d th e College communit y togethe r a s on e bod y i n spit e of different source s of income an d separat e governin g bodies . Students , I believe , wer e conscious onl y o f belonging t o one college . Th e worshi p i n th e Colleg e chapel, th e optiona l bu t popula r Monda y mornin g divinit y lecture s available fo r student s o f al l faculties , th e lecture s frequentl y give n t o theological students on Friday morning s by teachers from other faculties , the equal membership of the Students' Union and partnership on the river and a t Mitcha m secure d tha t Sancte e t Sapienter wer e never divorce d bu t enriched b y reciprocal proximity . The Universit y Faculty of Theology, therefore , was fed from thes e several tributaries of teachers and students as I have briefly indicated. Apart fro m these independent sources of supply there would have been no University Faculty. Th e stor y for the nex t half-century is the stor y of the searc h fo r solutions as one by one each of these seminaries was faced wit h the threat

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of closur e b y fluctuation s i n th e numbe r o f fee-payin g students , th e retirements of stalwarts on the teaching staffs , th e increase in the salaries of universit y teachers . Th e inabilit y o f thes e recognise d School s o f Divinity t o rais e thei r ow n salarie s t o th e minimu m require d b y th e university to secure the status of recognition carried with it the inevitable loss o f the righ t t o ente r student s as interna l student s for th e university examinations. It i s interesting t o rea d th e minute s of the earl y meeting s of the ne w University Facult y o f Theolog y an d Boar d o f Studies . Recognise d teachers fro m th e various colleges (A.E. Garvie an d Charles Gor e amon g them) worke d togethe r t o promulgat e th e syllabu s to b e negotiate d b y students for the first examination for the Londo n B.D . Th e requiremen t was formidable: no easy option here! The syllabus was a kind of academic pentathlon, requirin g o f th e candidat e th e abilit y t o handl e ancien t languages, Hebrew and Greek; textual and literary criticism and exegesis of ancien t texts ; th e histor y o f doctrin e an d th e histor y o f Christia n institutions (i n particular th e earl y Churc h an d th e Reformation) ; an d philosophy of religion. By 1939 to the degrees of B.D. and D.D . ha d bee n added thos e of M.Th. an d Ph.D . Every fe w year s academic s fee l th e itc h an d th e urg e t o revis e th e syllabus. Theologians wer e no exceptions. Methods of awarding honours in theolog y have varie d fro m tim e to time, and syllabu s structures hav e been altered . Th e origina l Intermediat e Examinatio n require d b y th e university consisted of seven papers t o be taken at the end of the first year: Elementary Hebrew ; tw o paper s o n S t Mark' s Gospe l — translation an d grammar i n one, subject matte r and exegesi s in the other: Plato's Apology and Crito, translatio n an d subjec t matter : Cicero' s D e natura deorum, translation an d subjec t matter i n one paper, gramma r an d retranslation in th e other ; an d finall y element s of logic with th e optio n o f elements of psychology an d ethic s i f logi c ha d bee n take n i n matriculation . Substantially (bu t without the Latin) that was the first-year syllabus into which I was plunged as a teacher whe n I was demobbed fro m th e Royal Air Forc e in January 1946 , and fou r day s later foun d mysel f Chaplain of King's College . Ne w Testamen t Gree k alon e wa s a demandin g intellectual assault course for veterans returning from fou r or five years in uniform. Afte r 196 0 the Universit y no longe r require d th e passin g o f an Intermediate Examination as a visa for entering the last two years of study for th e B.D. But th e periodical itch and urg e to revise the theological syllabus is not just a n academi c pastime . Revisio n i s demande d b y th e impac t o n theological thinkin g of the changing world of thought in the university at large. During this period of 150 years that we are celebrating, the 'acids of modernity' ha d bee n eatin g int o th e foundation s of received tradition . New question s raise d b y a centur y an d a hal f of scientific enquir y an d critical metho d ha d challenge d man y assumption s o n which theologica l

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teaching ha d previousl y been based . Th e titl e deeds o f Christianity ha d been subjecte d t o searchin g investigation s int o historica l origins , historical relativity , historica l truth . Th e structur e o f theologica l language, th e nature of symbolic communication, the validity of God-talk in a cultur e increasingl y one-dimensiona l i n its assumption abou t what constitutes reality - al l this became grist to the mill of a modern facult y of theology. Wha t ha s change d i n th e tas k o f theological teachin g ca n b e measured partly by syllabus content , bu t even more by teaching methods, essay subject s and examinatio n questions . Al l thi s i s toug h goin g fo r a student wh o come s t o fee l tha t hi s o r he r teacher s ar e cuttin g of f the branch of the tree of knowledge against whic h the ladder of their faith ha s hitherto rested . I n a n ideal world theolog y should b e a second degre e for students wh o hav e learne d t o sharpe n thei r critica l facultie s o n les s emotive material . The mos t serious problem facin g th e Faculty of Theology a s a result of its dependenc e o n it s affiliate d school s was , a s I hav e indicated , th e increasing difficult y experience d b y thes e independen t schools , a s thei r stalwarts reache d th e ag e o f retirement , i n findin g th e mone y fo r replacement o f teachers competen t t o receive university recognition. Th e University authoritie s wer e awar e o f the long-ter m implication s o f this problem fo r th e futur e o f theolog y a s universit y teachers ' salarie s continued t o rise. Not only were they aware, the y were greatly concerned , and no t least for the future of the External B.D. But during the 1930s there seemed n o way, without giving hostages to fortune, in which public money could b e injecte d int o independen t schools , eve n t o subsidis e teachin g given to their students specifically fo r university courses. What i s clear t o m e i s that th e change s tha t hav e i n fac t take n plac e since 194 5 could not have happened had there not been a sufficient groun d swell of desire to find a solution among members of the Academic Council, the Senate and the Court of the University. But the main thrust towards a solution cam e fro m Si r David Hughe s Parry , a non-conformist who later became Moderato r o f the Presbyteria n Churc h o f Wales. Althoug h h e ceased t o be Vice-Chancellor i n July 194 8 be remained a member of both Court an d Senate , becomin g chairma n o f th e Financ e an d Genera l Purposes Committe e whic h controlle d th e Senat e Vote . H e wa s no t a great admire r o f the Establishe d Church , bu t thi s did no t preven t hi m from bein g a personal frien d o f Dean Walte r Matthews , himsel f the most distinguished graduat e fro m th e Facult y o f Theology, an d als o a t tha t time a member of the Senate. I suggest that the continuing existence of the Faculty of Theology owe s more to the mutual liking and trus t of these two outstanding me n than ca n ever be documented. What started th e ball rolling was a request from th e Board of Studies in Theology i n 194 3 tha t th e Senat e shoul d mak e th e Samue l Davidso n Chair o f Old Testamen t Studie s a full-tim e post . Th e Chai r ha d bee n

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created a s a result of a smal l benefaction to the Universit y in 1925 . Th e post wa s onl y part-tim e owin g t o th e inadequat e incom e o f the Trus t Fund. Th e Cour t i n 194 4 concurre d wit h th e Senat e providin g th e additional money required to make the post full-time. The Chair had been located a t King' s fro m 193 0 an d hel d b y a n eminen t scholar , Samue l Henry Hooke , unti l 1946 , whe n h e wa s succeede d briefl y b y Alfre d Guillaume; i n 194 8 William Duf f McHard y wa s appointe d t o th e post . King's Colleg e accommodated hi m in the room tha t had bee n put a t th e disposal of his predecessors . The nex t important push to keep that ball rolling came in a letter to the Senate in 1946 over the signatures of Sir William Halliday and Canon Eric Abbott - a joint request from th e Delegacy and Council of King's College for financia l hel p for theological teaching. What i s important about thi s letter is evidence that i t had bee n written only after consultatio n with the other theologica l schools . Th e Cour t consulte d th e Universit y Grants Committee. Their response was negative, fearing a precedent that would open th e door fo r applications from othe r school s if a grant wa s made to King's Colleg e Theologica l Department . Nevertheles s action followed . The Universit y chose t o follo w th e Samue l Davidso n preceden t an d t o finance additional unattached chair s in theology fro m th e Senate vote. I n 1948 the Chair of Philosophy of Religion, held since 1945 by Edwin Oliver James, wh o had bee n appointe d b y the Council of King's, was made an unattached Universit y Chair i n the Histor y and Philosoph y of Religion: the holder continue d t o be housed in King's bu t bot h he and th e Samuel Davidson professo r gave lectures in the Senate House which were open to the student s of all four theologica l schools. This timel y move on th e par t o f the Universit y to help th e Facult y of Theology wa s not without its difficulties. Administratively, unattached or 'floating' professors , a s the y cam e t o b e called , di d no t compl y wit h normal regulations : the y wer e withou t departmenta l librarie s an d without academi c control . Professo r McHardy , I recall , wa s fa r fro m content wit h the arrangemen t an d neve r reall y felt a t hom e at King' s i n spite of the hospitality and facilities provided. But this discontent served a purpose. I t focuse d attentio n o n th e need t o find a more satisfyin g long term solution to the underlying problem . What went on behind the scenes I have been unable to discover: but the Senate an d th e Cour t returne d t o th e charge , an d ultimatel y i n distributing the grant for the quinquennim 1957-6 2 the Court included in the Senat e vot e provisio n fo r additiona l theologica l post s a t King' s College. Fo r thi s t o hav e happene d a continuin g discussion mus t hav e taken place between interested partie s over several years. I have no doubt that Hughe s Parr y was still active in promoting th e cause, an d so was my predecessor a s Dean , Cano n Eri c Abbott . Evidenc e tha t a solutio n i n principle had bee n arrive d a t as far as the University was concerned ca n be gleane d fro m hi s 1955- 6 Repor t a s Principal , i n whic h Si r Dougla s

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Logan expresse d himsel f as follows : After givin g muc h though t t o th e proble m I a m convince d that , i f we are t o develop a Faculty of Theology worth y of the University, it cannot b e done by adding still further to the number o f professors who are not officially attache d to any School . Th e onl y cours e i s to build u p a proper teachin g an d researc h cadre i n a non-denominational , multi-facult y Schoo l whic h i s i n receip t o f grant from th e Court. I hope that development o n these lines will be feasible in the coming quinquennium .

That Eri c Abbot t ha d bee n activ e in th e matte r becam e clea r t o me when i t was made know n that I was to succeed him a s Dean i n January 1956. Abbott ha d no t only reconstructed th e Theological Departmen t a t King's afte r th e wa r year s o f dispersal a t Bristol , bu t ha d mad t i t a condition o f acceptin g appointmen t a s Dea n tha t th e Counci l woul d support hi m in developing a post-graduate fourth-year college away fro m London t o provid e a ne w an d neede d dimensio n i n th e preparatio n o f students of King's Colleg e who were ordinands. Hi s pastoral concer n for the Department and the College was matched by his concern for the future of the Universit y Faculty o f Theology. Th e writin g was o n th e financia l wall for the Theological Departmen t at King' s a s well as for the Londo n College o f Divinity , Richmon d Colleg e an d Ne w College . Bu t an y proposal fo r a radical change in the Headlam Constitutio n of 1908 would need th e activ e cooperatio n o f bot h Counci l an d Delegacy , o f bot h Principal an d Dean . Principa l Nobl e had, i t appears , a t tha t tim e bee n unwilling to consider radical change such as would upset the equilibrium of the condominium of the College. That canny Scot seems to have taken the line : 'Bette r th e anomal y yo u kno w tha n th e alternativ e yo u don' t know'. When I wa s asked i n 195 6 t o succeed Eric Abbot, that rar e an d agil e spirit, on his departure t o Oxford t o become Warden o f Keble College, I was blissfull y unawar e that I would be required to fulfil th e triple roles of surgeon, executioner and midwife . Bu t s o it was. I could see no future for a Universit y Faculty of Theology unles s it was located in King's College: I coul d se e no future unles s the teachers were on the University pay-roll. This seemed to indicate the setting up of a non-denominational Faculty of Theology suc h a s Si r Douglas Loga n envisaged , under th e Delegacy , i n partnership fo r as lon g a s ma y b e wit h th e Counci l an d th e staf f o f the Theological Department . After a crucia l conversatio n wit h Si r Dougla s Loga n t o discove r whether a solutio n alon g thes e line s woul d b e acceptabl e t o th e University, and encourage d b y him, I took to Principal Noble a proposa l for ne w chair s i n theologica l subjects , finance d b y th e University , established within the Faculty of Arts in King's, the individual holders of the chair s forming a joint teachin g Faculty of Theology wit h teachers in the Theologica l Departmen t unde r th e chairmanshi p o f th e Dea n o f

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King's College , who was Dean o f the whole college as well as Head of the Theological Department . Would th e Principa l o f King' s College , no t ye t Si r Pete r Nobl e bu t destined t o becom e Vice-Chancellor , b e willin g t o negotiat e suc h a n enterprise t o sav e th e Universit y Facult y o f Theology? H e wa s willing ! May ful l credi t b e give n t o hi m fo r choosin g t o embar k o n suc h a hazardous voyage i n spite of his earlier misgivings an d reluctance . I had explained tha t I sa w thi s proposa l a s a temporar y arrangemen t fo r a number o f year s t o enabl e tw o team s o f teacher s t o wor k togethe r i n common cause until such time as a new Charter for King's College should be required and with it the end of the Headlam solutio n of 1908 which had proved suc h a creative success. I knew myself in all this to be 'mine own executioner'. In futur e a Dean of King's College would be a different sor t of animal! The ne w pattern was put on the loom with remarkable speed . At bot h college an d universit y level i t wa s accepte d a s a promising programme . This could not have happened withou t Sir Peter Noble's active support or without th e stron g encouragemen t o f Si r Dougla s Logan , Si r Davi d Hughes Parr y an d other s wh o backe d th e proposa l o n th e Academi c Council an d th e Senate. I n th e College ther e were, o f course, thos e who regretted th e necessity for change, bu t th e Delegacy, th e Council and th e Joint Professorial Board eased th e passage of the scheme. Mr Peter Shaw, Secretary o f the College , M r Davi d Hunte r Johnson, Treasure r o f the Council, an d M r Myle s Tempany , Bursa r o f th e College , wer e indispensible in working out details of organisation an d finance . Once the change had been made the professors petitioned for lecturers, and strang e a s i t ma y no w soun d ther e wa s mone y mad e availabl e for several new appointments. Professor S.R. Sutherland, who was to become Principal o f th e colleg e i n 1985 , arrive d a t th e sam e time , a s di d hi s successor i n th e Chai r o f Histor y an d Philosoph y o f Religion , J.S.K. Ward. When the number of Appointed an d Recognised Teacher s on what I wil l refe r t o a s th e Delegac y componen t o f the Facult y becam e mor e numerous than the component from th e Council side it was right for me to cease t o b e Dea n o f the combine d Facult y an d t o allo w th e Facult y t o choose its own Dean . As I reflect on the years during which all this change and development took place, culminating in the consequential drafting of a new Charter for the College , I a m amaze d a t wha t happened , th e speed wit h whic h it happened an d th e absenc e o f rancour . Meanwhile , durin g th e whol e period fro m 1955-7 5 the study of theology within the college was exciting: teachers an d student s were jointly engaged i n what felt like exploration of truth rathe r tha n th e mer e accumulatio n o f knowledge. Th e problem s presented b y th e traditio n wer e face d wit h critica l opennes s withi n a community i n searc h o f the truth , however disconcerting for previously unexamined inherited idea s it might prove to be.

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I woul d lik e t o emphasis e th e importanc e of this sense of community between teacher s an d students , a sens e strengthene d her e b y th e vocational commitmen t to the teaching profession or to ordination o f the majority o f the students, strengthened also by the accessibility of teachers and thei r pastoral concer n for individuals, with the worship and musi c of the College chapel as further unifiers. In hi s Idea of a University publishe d in 1852 Joh n Henr y Newma n stresse d th e importanc e an d valu e o f a university as a community with all its members given over to the pursuit of knowledge. He wrote: 'It is the community that makes the university quite literally an Alma Mater, knowin g her children one by one, not a foundry, or a mint , o r a treadmill. ' I f I ma y borro w tw o expressions use d b y the Bishop o f Durham i n hi s scintillatin g lecture in 198 6 o n th e Purpose o f a University, I woul d clai m fo r th e Facult y o f Theolog y a t King' s th e qualities of both 'creativ e edge' and 'conviviality' . During this period a n initiative sponsored b y the Council of the College raised a n endowmen t fo r a ne w Chair i n th e fiel d o f moral an d socia l theology. Th e Chai r wa s name d afte r Frederic k Deniso n Maurice , a s a belated tribut e to an eminent Victorian and teacher here who fell victim to a viru s known as odium theologicum. Professor Gordon Dustan , appointe d the firs t holde r i n 1966 , amon g muc h els e pioneered a continuing interfaculty semina r o f lawyers , medic s an d theologian s t o examin e ne w problems in medical ethics arising out of new knowledge and ne w skills. Another importan t developmen t wa s th e creatio n o f a Department o f Religious Studies in the Faculty of Arts by the enterprise of Professor H.D . Lewis, the n Professo r o f th e Histor y an d Philosoph y o f Religion. Thi s development i s no w incorporte d i n a join t Facult y o f Theolog y an d Religious Studie s organise d i n thre e Departments : Biblica l Studies ; Christian Doctrin e and History ; the History an d Philosoph y of Religion. The studen t is offered variou s combinations leading either t o the Degre e of B.D. o r t o tha t o f B.A. Judging b y publication s emanating fro m th e present tea m o f teachers, b y academi c result s i n examination s an d th e flourishing o f the audience s from othe r faculties fo r the weekl y voluntary lectures i n theolog y for the A.K.C. , th e lon g King' s Colleg e traditio n of exploring religiou s trut h an d it s theologica l expressio n continue s with excitement, rigour and commitment. In 196 8 a completel y unexpecte d approac h wa s mad e t o th e Senat e which wa s t o brin g int o th e Universit y Facult y o f Theology a uniqu e access o f theological strength . Th e Recto r of Heythrop College in Nort h Oxfordshire wrote to the Principa l of the University, Sir Douglas Logan , in January 196 9 formally requestin g on behalf of his College, recognition as a non-grant-receiving School o f Divinity of the Universit y of London. Discussions preliminar y t o thi s formal reques t ha d alread y take n plac e with intereste d partie s an d a warml y supportiv e lette r wa s sen t fro m King's t o th e Senat e Hous e ove r th e signature s of Profesor H.D. Lewi s and Professo r E.L. Mascal l a s forme r an d curren t Deans o f the College

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Faculty. Heythrop i s an institution with a long and distinctiv e tradition within the Lati n Churc h o f the West . It s origin s are t o be found i n Louvain i n 1615, in Liege in 1624 , followed by a move to England in 179 4 during th e wars whic h followe d th e Frenc h Revolution . I n 192 6 the tw o house s of study, on e philosophical , on e theological , operatin g withi n the Englis h Province o f the Societ y of Jesus, wer e brough t togethe r i n th e villag e of Heythrop nea r Chippin g Norton . Th e mov e t o a moder n collegiat e building i n Cavendis h Squar e wa s achieve d i n 1970 . With it s splendi d library an d impressiv e staff of teachers th e College quickly adjusted t o its new situatio n an d introduce d fres h idea s an d nuance s concernin g theological education . Thei r attractiv e prospectu s set s out thei r course s for university first degrees, for higher degrees in theology and philosophy, together with courses tailored to meet the needs of a variety of students for a Postgraduat e Diplom a i n Pastoral Theolog y wit h the recent innovation of an Institut e of Spirituality. Nothing could better illustrate the excellent co-operative relationship betwee n King' s an d Heythro p tha n th e recent appointment t o th e Frederic k Deniso n Mauric e Professorshi p of Mora l and Socia l Theology i n King's o f Dr John Mahoney o f Heythrop. Those who ca n remembe r wha t le d to that due l between th e Duk e of Wellington an d Earl of Winchilsea i n 1829 will appreciate th e irony of this appointment: som e of you ma y eve n be asking if the Earl' s suspicion s of the Duke's real intentions to found a college for producing crypto-Jesuit s have now been confirmed after 15 0 years! What thi s appointment does in fact indicat e is that a lot of ecclesiastical wate r has flowed past Battersea Park an d unde r th e bridge s o f the Thame s i n thi s centur y an d a half . Ecumenical opennes s an d confraternit y hav e quietl y replace d ecclesiastical exclusivenes s i n academi c circles . W e al l rea d an d lear n from eac h other' s theologica l investigation s an d explorations . Th e theological debat e an d th e spiritual quest cannot fai l t o be stimulated by these encounters and exchanges . As I see it, the work of a Faculty of Theology i s not a n end in itself. It s raison d'etre i s t o conserv e th e ancien t wisdo m i n a moder n context , an d thereby to sustain for new generations of men and women the possibility of a spirituality that is passionate, intelligen t and honest; and to do this for a world tha t is struggling to find its way through complexities that obscur e its credibility and threate n it s survival. May Sancte et Sapienter continue to flourish in King's College !

8 Engineering H. Billett It i s perhap s appropriat e t o begi n ou r journe y throug h th e histor y of engineering in the University of London by considering the bronze plaque on the Gower Street wall of what is now the Civil Engineering Laboratory of University College London. Appropriate, first, because that laboratory was arguabl y th e firs t i n th e worl d t o b e dedicate d t o th e teachin g of engineering. And , second , becaus e tha t plaqu e commemorate s the high technology of 1808, namel y the first passenger railwa y in the world built by th e Cornis h engineer , Richar d Trevithick , an d whic h use d a hig h pressure (tw o bar) steam locomotive 'Catch me who Can' to draw a single passenger carriag e o n meta l rail s round a circula r trac k abou t 10 0 ft in diameter. As my former colleague, the late Harry Marriott, put it, 'At the cost o f one shillin g pe r rid e Londoner s enjoye d th e excitin g novelty of being rapidl y move d i n a smal l circl e b y stea m traction' . Thos e smal l circles were centred somewher e between that plaque in Gower Street and Senate Hous e probabl y a t a point not far from Universit y College's ne w Engineering Building . Perhaps I shoul d pas s quickl y ove r th e fac t tha t this was also th e site of the world's first railway accident; a rail broke and the engine overturned! Again, it is appropriate t o start with a railway, however small, because so many of the early teachers of engineering had studie d science, but ha d become practisin g professiona l engineer s i n th e growin g numbe r o f railway workshops springing up in the early 1800s . The Institutio n o f Civil Engineers ha d bee n founde d i n 181 8 ('Civil ' meaning simpl y 'no t Military' ) an d o n 1 7 July 182 7 the 'Counci l of the University o f London' acte d o n th e Institution' s advice b y appointin g John Millingto n it s firs t Professo r o f Engineering . (I n fac t h e wa s 'Professor o f Civil Engineerin g and th e Applicatio n o f the Principle s of Mechanical an d Chemica l Scienc e t o th e Art s an d Manufactures') . Millington had lectured at the Royal Institution of Mechanics and in 1823 had published a book with familiar chapter headings such as: properties of matter; mechanics ; pneumatics; acoustics; hydrostatics; and hydraulics. The 182 8 edition include d a chapter o n th e steam engine . There is thus

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little doubt that the first Chair of Engineering in the U.K. was founded in what is now University College London and that the holder was worthy of the title. Some of our current problems, politics, university politics and financial stringency, ar e in no way new. They could change the course of events just as surel y in 182 8 as i n 1986 . Thu s whe n th e Gowe r Stree t version o f a University of London applied fo r a university charter it was claimed that such a charte r coul d onl y b e granted t o a group o f colleges an d no t t o a unitary university . It seem s probabl e tha t thi s wa s simpl y a contrived public excus e suitin g th e not-too-privat e objection s o f part s o f th e political, religiou s an d universit y establishment s t o th e fledglin g institution in London. In any event, no charter for a university in London was to be forthcoming for another eigh t years. In som e way s mor e importan t fo r th e ne w foundatio n wa s it s tota l dependence fo r many years to come on private gifts an d fees . It s finances were strained t o the limit simply to pay for the new buildings rising on the green fields north-wes t of the city . For engineerin g thi s was crucial . Millington, no t unreasonably , aske d fo r a n annua l guarantee d su m o f £400 for himself and hi s department. The guarante e was not forthcoming and on 26 June 1828 he resigned his chair. He had given some lectures but not t o an organised group of engineering students and went off to manage a Mexican silve r mine. During th e nex t thirtee n year s course s i n engineerin g wer e give n a t U.C.L. under the auspices of professors of physics and mathematic s such as Ritchi e an d Sylvester , who regarde d engineerin g science as properl y belonging within their disciplines. Such an attitude to engineering studies was no t wholl y absent amon g professor s of pure scienc e when I joined U.C.L. in 1946 ; perhaps th e wheel has now turned full circle since when I retired i n 198 0 th e hea d o f physics an d a t leas t tw o o f his professorial colleagues were engineers. Meanwhile o n th e politica l fron t th e proble m o f a charte r fo r th e University of London was eventually resolved by the founding of a second college, King's College, in 182 9 and its opening in 1831, 'for the purpose of maintaining th e connectio n betwee n sound religio n and usefu l learning ' in the metropolis. As there were now 'colleges' in the plural and the matter of religion, afte r th e manne r o f the Churc h o f England, ha d bee n deal t with, som e o f th e publi c objection s t o th e grantin g o f a charte r t o a University o f Londo n ha d disappeared . Thu s i n 183 6 a charte r wa s granted t o 'a group of persons eminen t in literature and science ' to act as a Boar d o f Examiners under the title 'The University of London'. It was clearly intende d t o dea l wit h King' s an d U.C.L . bu t th e term s o f th e charter wer e s o widel y draw n tha t i t coul d accep t an y candidate s wherever they came from a t home or shortly after, abroad . On charte r da y Universit y Colleg e Londo n wa s als o incorproate d under it s presen t title . Th e situatio n o f King's Colleg e remaine d mor e

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complex for some years, but in 1838 the decision wa s taken to form there a department o f Civi l Engineerin g an d Minin g a s applie d t o Art s an d Manufactures. I n tha t Octobe r th e firs t thirty-on e student s wer e recruited. The cours e depende d a t firs t o n servic e teachin g i n mathematics , mechanics, chemistry , physic s an d geolog y wit h in-hous e teachin g o f machine drawing, surveying and mineralogy . As at U.C.L. th e quality of the service teaching was remarkable - chemistr y by Daniell of the Daniell Cell an d physic s b y Charle s Wheatston e o f th e Wheatston e bridge . Incidentally, whe n Daniell died in 1845 the religious criteria se t by King's prevented th e appointment o f Liebig, a Lutheran, to succeed him . A less spectacular Anglican appointmen t followe d in 1848 . In July 184 0 W. Hoskin g wa s appointed a s Professo r of the Arts an d Construction i n connection with Civil Engineering and Architecture and to Hoskin g mus t b e accorde d th e honou r o f being th e firs t professo r of engineering actuall y t o teac h student s i n a genuin e departmen t o f engineering in London o r indeed i n the United Kingdom . Whether prompte d b y thi s event or b y th e deat h o f Sylvester in 184 1 U.C.L. wa s moved i n that year t o re-establish it s chair o f engineering, a chair fille d b y th e distinguishe d railwa y an d civi l enginee r Charle s Vignoles (1793-1875 ) wh o gav e hi s firs t lecture s i n Novembe r 1841 . Trained as a military engineer he spent ten years as a state civil engineer in Sout h Carolin a befor e returnin g in 182 6 as chie f engineer of the ne w Liverpool-Manchester railway . In 183 6 he invented the flat-bottomed rail for us e in permanent way , though in true British tradition it was adopte d in almos t ever y other countr y in the world befor e its adoption her e mor e than a century later! Sadly, financial stringency, though this time not that of U.C.L., intervened. Ther e was then no limited liability act and in 1843 , as a shareholde r o f the Sheffield , Ashton-under-Lym e an d Mancheste r Railway, Vignole s was face d wit h what i n those days mus t have bee n a vast bil l of £8,000 a s his share of the indebtedness of that railway . While restoring his fortunes he could not devote himself full-time to teaching and he resigned hi s chair in July 1844 , but continued to give some lectures and advice t o engineerin g students until th e appointmen t o f Herman Hick s Lewis in 1845. What migh t have been with Vignoles one can only guess, as he wa s electe d F.R.S . i n 185 5 an d Presiden t o f the Institutio n o f Civil Engineers i n 1870 . This period, from 184 4 and culminatin g in the Great Exhibition of 1851 and it s Crysta l Palace , i s o f ver y specia l significanc e fo r engineerin g education. Largely due to the patronage of the Prince Consort there was a great upsurg e of interest in mechanical engineering. Thus th e Institution of Mechanical Engineer s received its Charter i n January 1847 . It held its first meetin g o n 2 7 January jus t afte r si x day s befor e King' s Colleg e Engineering Societ y hel d it s first meeting making it by some margi n th e oldest engineerin g societ y i n th e country . Th e effect s o n Universit y

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College wer e dramati c - i n Februar y 184 7 Eato n Hodgkinso n wa s appointed Professo r of Mechanical Engineering , an d i n th e sam e May , Bennet Woodcroft was appointed Professo r of Machinery. Hodgkinson's work on cast and malleable iron girders may be regarded as makin g hi m th e originato r o f the moder n I-bea m an d fo r thi s an d equally fundamental work on long struts he had received the Royal Medal of the Royal Society and bee n elected a Fellow in 1840 . He had also made the calculations on the strength and deflections of the huge tubular beams in Stephenson' s Britanni a railwa y bridg e acros s th e Mena i Stait . Th e span of 450 feet was a huge advance on the 14 0 feet of the Newcastle High Level Bridge. The elegan t tal l towers were not just decorative but i n fact show the designer's cautio n - the y are high enoug h t o permit th e use of suspension chains if necessary. Hodgkinso n serve d U.C.L. until his death in 186 1 at th e age of seventy-two. Like Hodgkinson, Woodcroft had bee n a pupil of John Dalton in Lancashire, where his inventive interests ranged from calic o printin g an d tappet s fo r looms t o variable-pitc h propellers . Patents fo r these and man y other s ha d prove d s o profitable that shortly before hi s appointment t o U.C.L. he move d t o London a s a consultant. Whilst at U.C.L. he gave evidence on changes he believed necessary in the patent syste m - a new law embodying hi s proposals wa s passed in 1852 and tha t year he left to become the first Superintendent of Specifications in the new Patent Office . I n 185 3 he founded th e Patent Offic e Librar y an d in 185 7 the Patent Office Museum , whose collections formed a nucleus for the Science Museum . This flurry of professorial imports at U.C.L. in 1847 may well be seen as the trigge r for the promotion t o chairs a t King' s of Bradley and Cowper , two o f th e practisin g engineer s appointed , alon g wit h Tennan t th e mineralogist, a s lecturers before Hosking' s arrival . Cowper die d i n 185 2 but Bradle y and Tennan t retire d in 1879. At th e tim e of the Great Exhibition of 1851, Britain held a clear world lead i n manufactur e bu t tha t lea d wa s bein g rapidl y erode d b y th e advance o f engineering in Europe an d America , an advance firmly based on technical education . The onl y Britis h chair s o f engineering wer e a t King's , U.C.L . an d Glasgow bu t German y wa s expandin g it s Technisch e Hochschulen , France ha d it s arra y o f Grande s Ecole s an d Switzerlan d th e Zuric h Polytechnic. However, Britis h products were seen by international juries as deserving most of the prizes at the Exhibition. In a glow of satisfaction at thi s succes s th e Princ e Consor t wa s abl e i n 185 3 t o pres s th e government to form a Department o f Science and Art under the none-toofriendly wing of the Board of Trade. One of its early actions was to provide subsidies fo r schools which taugh t th e science s an d wha t w e would call 'craft subjects ' t o a decen t leve l and coul d demonstrat e thei r success in properly conducte d examinations. By 1872, 1,000 schools and som e 3,600 pupils wer e involve d i n th e scheme , thoug h i t wa s criticise d a s

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encouraging 'cramming ' on syllabuse s said t o be too theoretical t o be of value t o industry . Almos t b y acciden t a suppl y o f candidate s fo r th e emerging course s i n highe r educatio n wa s bein g produced . Tha t som e such actio n wa s neede d wa s show n whe n a t th e 186 7 Pari s Exhibitio n British exhibitors could muste r only ten of the ninety top prizes on offer . Lewis resigned hi s U.C.L. Chair in 1859 , having found i t necessary t o introduce evenin g lecture s t o kee p u p number s fro m th e ever-growing , well-qualified grou p o f pupi l engineer s i n London . A t tha t tim e ther e were, for example, four firms building locomotives in the London area and pupilships and premium apprenticeships wer e an orthodox route to senior posts in the engineering profession. William Pole (1814-1900 ) succeeded Lewis at U.C.L. After a pupilship at Birmingha m h e cam e t o Londo n t o manag e a gas works. In 184 4 he published a classica l wor k on the Cornish Pumpin g Engin e and , almos t more significantly , discovere d tha t h e was colou r blind . Fiftee n years of experimentation i n this field alongside hi s engineering culminated i n his 1859 Proceedings o f the Royal Society paper which led t o his F.R.S . H e spen t the perio d fro m 1844- 7 teaching i n Bomba y bu t th e climate did no t suit him. He returned to assist in the design of Birkenhead and Portlan d dock s and t o join Hodkginso n i n work on the Britanni a Bridge. H e opened his own practice i n London i n 185 8 and a year later began eigh t years in his Chair at U.C.L. Like so many of his contemporaries hi s interests were wide. He wrot e on the 184 4 comet, on musical instruments in the 185 1 Exhibition - no t unrelated t o hi s work o n th e motio n o f fluids in pipe s - o n iro n a s a material o f constructio n an d o n th e diamond s i n th e Imperia l Stat e Crown. Hi s boo k o n th e theor y o f whist ran t o twenty editions. Fo r th e degree of Doctor o f Music he wrote a vocal fugue in eight parts which was acclaimed b y Wagne r an d wa s als o responsibl e late r fo r th e origina l London degree regulations in music. In retirement he became Secretary of the Institutio n of Civil Engineer s a t th e ag e of seventy-one and hel d th e post for eleven years. Pole's retur n t o hi s practic e i n 186 7 exemplified ye t agai n th e fragil e nature o f the finance s o f both U.C.L . an d King's . H e wa s replace d a s Professor o f Civil Engineering by th e first electrical engineer t o hold th e post — Henry Fleemin g Jenkin, a schoo l frien d o f Cler k Maxwel l an d collaborator wit h Lor d Kelvin . Kelvi n credit s Jenki n wit h th e standardisation of the microfarad and Jenkin with Clerk Maxwell (then at King's) wit h that o f the ohm . His wor k on th e effec t o f cable capacity in limiting morse transmission speeds in marine cables won him election to the Roya l Society . He succeede d i n attractin g t o U.C.L. a large clas s of engineering students (including incidentally Alexander Graham Bel l and Ambrose Fleming ) an d perhap s unwisel y propose d a schem e fo r 'th e extension and bette r organisation of the Department of Engineering in the College'. The mone y for this was not forthcoming and afte r only two years

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Jenkin lef t (1869 ) t o tak e u p a Chai r o f Engineerin g i n Edinburg h supported b y public money . His successo r Fulle r was appointed 'o n th e understanding tha t hi s Course s o f Lecture s ar e t o b e delivere d i n th e evening'. B y 187 4 Fuller ha d i n tur n lef t t o tak e the publicl y supported Chair of Engineering in Queen's College Belfast. The College' s inabilit y as a private institution to compete with those endowed from publi c funds is recognised i n the U.C.L. Annual report i n 1874. The financia l stat e o f King's College wa s likewis e precarious an d th e engineering department there was still very dependent on service teaching from chemistr y and physics . Thus in 1868 , whe n Whitworth Scholarhip s were introduced, it was the stretching of the College's finances to re-equip its chemistr y an d physic s laboratorie s tha t coul d b e credite d wit h th e successes achieve d i n th e firs t batc h o f awards . A n almos t fina l blo w arrived whe n in late 186 9 the roo f of the refector y facin g th e rive r fell in , carrying awa y the floor below and burying the basement kitchen in ruins. By good fortun e thi s happened i n the early morning and nobod y was in a building which would have been crowde d a few hours later. The Colleg e could see no means of meeting the costs of rebuilding and when an appea l to th e publi c faile d a star t wa s mad e b y sellin g th e college s silver . Fortunately, th e Clothworker s an d Draper s Companie s cam e t o th e rescue at this time. Fuller's abrupt departur e from U.C.L . was followed, afte r som e delay, by th e appointmen t o f Alexande r Kenned y i n 1874 . Kennedy , a Londoner, wa s educate d a t th e Roya l Schoo l o f Mine s an d serve d a n apprenticeship i n marine engineering befor e designin g compound stea m engines i n Jarrow. Afte r a perio d o f consultancy in Edinburg h an d stil l only twenty-seve n he took up hi s Chair at U.C.L . I n hi s fifteen years he revolutionised th e departmen t an d arguabl y th e whol e teachin g o f engineering. He wrote a classic text on the Mechanics of Machinery but the unique feature of his work at U.C.L. was his introduction of'engineering laboratory' teachin g linke d t o th e theoretica l work . H e ha d buil t an d equipped th e first engineering teachin g laborator y i n th e worl d an d hi s concept o f teaching wa s quickly adopted bot h here and i n America. Hi s fifty-ton tensile testin g machine , buil t b y Greenwoo d an d Batty , wa s a giant o f its tim e and quit e remarkabl y accurate . I t wa s stil l i n us e until U.C.L.'s Ne w Engineerin g Buildin g opened i n 196 1 and eve n the n wa s significantly more sensitive than some of the new machines on the market. The first reliable torsion testing machine was built in the workshop and a small compoun d stea m engin e h e ha d designe d wa s give n t o th e department. In 188 9 he left with Burstall, his assistant, to set up his highly successful consultanc y and was subsequently President in turn of both the Institutions of Mechanical an d Civi l Engineers.

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Imperial College - a Beginning

The Kenned y year s a t U.C.L . sa w als o th e earl y stage s i n th e birt h of Imperial Colleg e an d pursuin g tha t analog y th e Londo n Liver y Companies mus t b e considere d th e mid-wive s a t th e birth . The y ha d already becom e muc h involve d i n th e trainin g o f apprentice s an d craftsmen an d wer e helpin g t o foun d technica l institute s aroun d th e country. A committe e o f Masters an d Warden s forme d i n 187 2 led, b y 1878, to the foundation under the presidency of the Prince of Wales of the City an d Guild s o f th e Londo n Institut e fo r th e Advancemen t o f Technical Studies. It s tw o major objectives were to set up and conduc t a range o f qualifying examination s in technical subjects and t o establish i n the capita l a Central Institutio n intended t o offer technica l educatio n a t more advance d level . Th e examinatio n syste m at onc e becam e a grea t success and i t still is. Finding a home delayed th e founding of the Centra l Institution. The desire d sit e in the City could not be found, so a start was made b y developin g Finsbur y Technica l College , jus t of f City Road , where large number s of students came for day an d evenin g classes. H.E . Armstrong an d W.E . Ayrto n wer e appointe d t o teac h chemistr y an d physics bu t thei r more important tas k was to plan th e advanced course s for th e new institution. As to the site, the commissioners of the 185 1 Exhibition had purchase d eighty-seven acre s i n Sout h Kensingto n 't o be used i n perpetuity fo r the purposes o f art an d science ' and th e Department o f Art an d Scienc e ha d by 188 0 moved the major elements of its Royal College of Science (R.C.S.) and Roya l Schoo l o f Mines (R.S.M. ) int o th e sam e area . John Kyke s Donnelly, a Royal Enginee r office r o n secondment to the Department o f Art and Science, was able to persuade the Livery Companies t o agree that the ne w Centra l Institutio n shoul d b e o n a sit e lease d fro m th e commissioners alon g Exhibitio n Roa d alongsid e th e tw o stat e institutions. A handsome edifice in red brick, embellished by the emblems of Britain's mai n industria l citie s and b y the arms o f the city companies , the Waterhouse Buildin g was opened in 188 4 by the Prince of Wales, who had lai d it s foundatio n ston e i n 1881 . Thu s th e piece s o f th e futur e Imperial Colleg e were already fallin g into place . Armstrong and Ayrton came over from Finsbury . Unwin, who becam e the firs t Dean , wa s appointe d Professo r o f Civi l an d Mechanica l Engineering an d Henric i Professo r of Mathematics. Al l were eminent in their own fields and a t £1,00 0 per annum the y were at the time very well paid - Kenned y a t U.C.L. wa s appointed a t just £20 0 p.a. The Guild's entrance examinatio n wa s se t a t a leve l a t leas t equa l t o Londo n matriculation an d thu s include d language s a s well as technical subjects . Although four-year courses were advocated b y Armstrong and Ayrton the fairly standard thre e year course was adopted. All students worked for the diploma o f Associateship o f th e Cit y an d Guild s Institut e (A.C.G.I.) .

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They coul d als o si t separat e examination s fo r th e Londo n Universit y B.Sc. Th e ne w Centra l Institutio n coul d easil y accommodat e 20 0 day students but i n the first year only six were recruited and onl y 122 by 1887. But b y 189 4 ther e wer e 20 8 full-time student s and tal k of an 'expensiv e white elephant ' wa s silenced . Th e reputatio n o f the Centra l Technica l College, a s i t wa s no w called , gre w apac e especiall y i n electrica l engineering t o which Ayrton's department wa s now dedicated. The Universit y o f London a s establishe d i n 183 6 wa s a n examinin g body but th e two colleges, University and King's , who were its raison d'etre soon found tha t the essentially external degree system frustrated essentia l development o f their courses . Although mos t Central student s also took the Londo n B.Sc . examination s the y to o foun d th e syste m les s tha n satisfactory. The separatio n o f teaching from examinin g and lac k of representation of the two founding colleges on the Senat e of the university led eventually in the early 1890 s to the two old rivals petitioning to be formed into a new university t o escap e 'th e stranglehol d o f examinations ove r education' . The battle s of the 1830 s were resumed an d i t needed th e ministrations of two Roya l Commission s t o brin g forwar d i n 189 8 legislatio n whic h preserved th e University while going some way to meet the aspirations of the colleges . The universit y was no w empowered t o admit a s Schools of the University such suitable institutions in London a s applied. 'Internal ' students from thes e schools were recognised a s a separate categor y and for the first time teachers were represented o n the Senate by members of their new Faculties : th e Facultie s o f Arts , Science , Laws , Medicin e an d Engineering. Fro m th e eventual approval o f the first statutes i n 190 0 the three school s i n th e Facult y o f Engineerin g wer e Universit y College , King's College and th e Central Technica l College. This conjunction was achieved onl y with difficulty an d mainly through the diplomacy of R.B. Haldane, M.P. The Central College, lik e the other Schools of Engineering, needed a say in the framing of new syllabuses and in the appointment o f B.Sc. examiners. They also had a common interest in openin g th e door t o futur e contribution s fro m publi c fund s (smal l Treasury grant s t o universitie s ha d begu n i n 1889) . I n th e event , th e Central Colleg e played a full part in drawing up the new statutes, the dual system of examinations continued and the University acquired the right of inspection, which continued, nominally on a quinquennial basis, into the 1950s. Ther e i s litt e doub t tha t th e college' s retentio n o f it s righ t t o appoint it s own professor s an d th e unanimou s electio n o f Unwin a s th e first engineering representativ e on the Senate finally overcame doubts in the 'Central' as to the wisdom of a link with the University. Perhaps, too , the move of the University administratio n and examinations staffinto th e nearby Imperia l Institut e i n 190 0 als o helpe d t o strengthe n understanding. The problem s a t King' s were mainl y concerned wit h the place o f the

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Department o f Theology and o f the religious test for entry to the College . The new Principal o f King's, Dr Archibald Robertson, was the ideal ma n to fin d a suitabl e compromise : th e religiou s tes t wa s retaine d fo r th e theologians an d fo r candidate s fo r th e A.K.C.L . bu t abolishe d fo r al l others. Robertson's diplomatic skills were recognised when he was elected the first Vice Chancellor o f the reconstituted University. Haldane, havin g pilote d th e Universit y of London Ac t 189 8 throug h Parliament an d havin g see n th e ne w Statute s approved , visite d Charlottenberg i n 1901 . He returned filled with the idea of a great centre of excellenc e fo r scienc e an d engineerin g i n London . Abandonin g th e original notio n of a totally new centre at Sout h Kensington, he propose d that th e Central , Roya l Colleg e o f Science an d Roya l Schoo l o f Mine s should combine to form a new and more powerful school of the University. Amazingly, he persuaded th e recently formed Board of Education to hand over R.S.M. and R.C.S. to the new foundation an d when the transfer was completed in 1905 they even came with a dowry of £2,000 per annum from the Treasury . In a sense the City and Guilds Institute proved more of a problem since it was not anxious to pass over its own creation and property , the Central College, to the new organisation. However it was agreed tha t the City and Guilds College a s it was now to be called, should become part o f the new Imperial College, (I.C.). The basis of agreement was that City and Guilds College would be responsible for all teaching and researc h i n engineering in I.C. but woul d relinquish to R.C.S. it s teaching in chemistry, physics and maths. The relationship of the old 'Central' to the University was now to apply t o the whole of Imperial College . To safeguar d these provisions City an d Guild s Colleg e wa s to be controlle d b y a Delegac y whic h ha d certain rights of veto over the actions of the governing body of I.C. or even of the University . The charte r of Imperial Colleg e was eventually sealed in July 190 7 and ther e followe d a period o f building expansion unti l the outbreak o f war i n 1914 . This was made possibl e by Haldane's effort s i n collecting nearl y £300,000 . A n imposin g ne w hom e fo r R.S.M . wa s eventually sited eas t of the Royal College of Music and linke d to the new extension o f City an d Guild s whic h ra n nort h alon g Exhibitio n Road . Completion o f this wa s mad e possibl e onl y by a gif t o f £87,000 from th e Goldsmith's Compan y - henc e the name of the building. Unfortunately, the completio n o f th e ne w buildin g mor e o r les s coincide d wit h th e outbreak o f war , s o i t wa s requisitione d an d it s firs t occupant s wer e soldiers. In paralle l wit h thes e developments , th e cautiou s move s toward s chemical engineerin g le d t o undergraduat e teachin g o f some aspect s o f engineering a s applie d t o th e chemica l industr y i n th e C . & G . Department o f Chemistry. In fact, although a diploma course in 'chemical engineering' was advertised in 188 5 the early diplomas were all awarded in chemistry and thi s situation continued unti l the Guilds Department o f

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Chemistry close d i n 1912 . However , i t ha d alway s bee n intende d t o replace it by a Department of Chemical Technology which started to work under Professo r Bon e fro m Leed s wh o too k u p th e Chai r o f Chemical Technology i n 1912 . He was fortunate to be available as he had booked on the fateful voyag e of the Titanic but had cancelled because a colleague who was t o have travelled with him ha d becom e ill. The embry o department was intiall y house d i n th e R.C.S . Departmen t o f Chemistr y i n tw o basement room s with a third room available on Mondays an d Fridays . The End of the Century

Alongside thes e politica l manoeuvre s o n th e administrativ e sid e engineering number s wer e risin g steadil y a t King' s an d unsteadil y a t U.C.L. and b y the turn of the century both were approaching 100 . There also emerged new areas of engineering teaching which are all-too-familiar to us today. Thus, in 188 1 Vernon Harcourt , a n acknowledged expert in river, canal , doc k an d wate r sewag e engineering , joined Kenned y a t U.C.L. as Professor of Civil Engineering leaving Kennedy to concentrate on hi s mechanical and electrica l work, and i n 188 5 Ambrose Fleming , a former student, returned to U.C.L. as Professor of Electrical Theory (later Electrical engineering) . Hi s earl y interest s wer e i n electrica l standard s and powe r transmissio n — he propose d th e formatio n o f a Nationa l Standardising Laboratory , a proposa l whic h helped th e founding o f the National Physica l Laboratory . Undoubtedly , h e i s bes t know n a s th e inventor of the thermionic valve which, especially as improved by Lee de Forest, mad e possibl e th e succes s o f the transatlanti c radi o link . Wit h T.H. Beare , wh o had bee n Kennedy' s assistan t an d wh o returned fro m Glasgow o n hi s resignation , h e wa s responsbil e fo r th e developmen t of new laboratorie s frontin g o n t o Gowe r Stree t b y 1893 . Th e civi l an d mechanical laboratorie s wer e the n singl e store y an d i t i s perhap s o f interest tha t th e presen t thre e store y building south of the new entrance building was constructed b y direct labou r with BJ. Lloyd-Evans - late r himself Kenned y Professo r - actin g a s clerk of works. The original roo f was jacked up and the two extra floors built underneath-itself something of an engineerin g achievement in 1924 . A ne w developmen t a t on e colleg e (U.C.L. ) seem s agai n t o hav e triggered somethin g simila r a t anothe r (King's) . Wit h Daniell , Wheatstone an d Cler k Maxwell , electrica l researc h ha d clearl y bee n a fruitful field at King's. A gift of £6,000 from Lad y Siemens in 1890 allowed the new Siemens Electrical Engineering Laboratory t o be built; electrical engineering becam e a separat e departmen t an d th e brillian t Joh n Hopkinson wa s appointe d t o th e ne w chair . Sadl y h e wa s kille d while climbing i n the Alps in 189 8 but fortunatel y h e had brough t with him to King's Ernest Wilson - 'Freddy' to all and a master of theflute- who was appointed t o succeed hi m and remaine d unti l 1930 . The combinatio n of

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Hopkinson, a theoretician said to break almost anything he touched, with Wilson, who could mak e almost anythin g work, was formidable. Another appointe e o f 189 0 was D.S . Capper , Profeso r o f Mechanica l Engineering unti l hi s retiremen t i n 1921 . I t wa s Cappe r wh o brough t electric lightin g t o th e King' s laboratorie s i n 1897 ; t o hi s student s an d friends h e brought muc h more . Palace and College in the Mile End Road

During th e 1890 s decisive steps were taken which led to the emergence of the fourt h majo r colleg e i n th e Facult y o f Engineering , Quee n Mar y College. It s root s in Alderman Bancroft' s endowment, its transformation into th e People' s Palac e i n the Mile En d Road , and th e close associatio n with th e Drapers ' Company , ar e full y describe d i n th e history of Queen Mary College, G.A. Moss an d M.V . Saville , From Palace to College (1985). The interestin g development s fro m th e engineerin g poin t o f view wer e that when , i n 1894 , th e technica l school s tha t wer e par t o f the People' s Palace comple x were reconstituted as the East London Technica l Colleg e its staffincluded professor s of engineering, physics, and art, who provide d courses for University of London degrees; and that the Drapers' Compan y provided ne w engineering laboratorie s an d workshops . During th e next ten years ther e was rapid progres s toward s universit y level teaching: th e first Universit y degree s wer e awarded , an d th e professo r o f engineering (Low), chemistry, and physics, together with the newly appointed colleg e professor o f electrica l engineerin g (J.T . MacGrego r Morris) , becam e Recognised Teacher s of the University of London. This pave d th e wa y fo r the restyle d Eas t Londo n Colleg e t o apply t o become a Schoo l o f the Universit y o f London i n 1906 . Th e Universit y Senate welcomed this , recording it s view that 'there should be a School of the University in the Faculty of Arts, Science and Engineering within easy reach o f th e ver y larg e populatio n o f th e Eas t En d o f London'. Extr a facilities were provided b y funds fro m th e Drapers' Company an d in Ma y 1907 the East London Colleg e became the fourth Schoo l of the University in engineerin g fo r a n initia l perio d o f thre e years . Perhap s th e most notable technical feature of this 'probationary' period (i f such it was ) was the establishmen t i n 190 9 o f a n aeronautica l laborator y i n th e theatr e basement o n th e basi s o f a gif t an d th e commencemen t o f lectures i n aeronautics b y a distinguishe d young Old Studen t A.P. Thurston , late r the first Briton t o be awarded th e D.Sc. i n aeronautics. By 191 0 the E.L.C. coul d justly claim success (ninety-one degrees with twenty-one first s an d highe r degrees ) an d aske d th e Universit y fo r permanent recognitio n a s on e o f its Schools . I t wa s rewarde d wit h a n extension o f five years befor e bein g formall y admitte d i n Ma y 191 5 as a School o f the University in the Faculties of Arts, Science and Engineerin g without limitation.

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The problem s of space and of governance arising from coexistence, on a confined site , wit h th e recreationa l activitie s of the Palac e wer e acute . These are full y describe d i n From Palace to College but ma y b e exemplifie d by th e matte r o f the Palac e Library . Th e Palac e Committe e coul d no t afford t o ru n i t an d wa s please d i n 190 2 t o han d ove r collectio n an d furnishings t o th e Boroug h o f Stepney ; ye t i n spit e o f th e College' s desperate spac e shortag e th e Octago n stoo d empt y unti l 190 9 when i t became essentially the Palace games room with tables for billiards, chess, draughts, card s an d bagetelle . No t til l 192 0 di d i t becom e th e E.L.C . library. Sadl y the matter of space ha d t o await the disastrous fire, which destroyed Queen' s Hall i n February 1931 , to permit the first major steps towards solution , and one might say that th e fire also burnt away the ties of governanc e betwee n Palac e an d Colleg e an d mad e possibl e th e application o f the College for a charter from which it emerged successfull y in 193 4 under its new name Queen Mary College. The First World War and its Aftermath

The perio d o f the 1914-1 8 war was a traumatic time in the history of the University as in the whole country. Student numbers fell to less than half in each of the colleges, workshops turned mainly to work in support of the war effor t an d building s wer e requisitioned , delayin g long-planne d developments. I n th e case of the Goldsmith's extension at I.C., the delay was fro m 191 4 to 1926 . O n th e othe r hand , Chemica l Technolog y ha d occupied thei r 'utilitarian' red brick box in 191 4 and with it a 'temporary' hut that lasted until 1948. The postgraduate course continued through the war, and war-oriente d fue l researc h eve n led to extra staff . At U.C.L. the Civil and Mechanical Departmen t ha d continued to lose professors t o Scottis h Regiu s chairs , Bear e i n 190 1 an d hi s successo r Cormack i n 1914 . However, i n 190 7 a Facult y of Engineering had bee n formally constitute d in U.C.L. with Cormack as its first Dean. Cormack's replacement, Coker , a student of R.C.S., Cambridg e an d Edinburgh, had taken a chair at the City and Guilds College at Finsbury in 1905. There he began hi s wor k o n photo-elasti c method s o f stres s analysi s whic h h e brought t o early fruition a t U.C.L . during the war i n collaboration wit h the hea d o f Applie d Maths , Filon , wh o wa s late r t o becom e Vice Chancellor. Wit h Coke r fro m Finsbur y cam e a goo d dea l o f extr a laboratory equipment . Fleming might ordinarily have retired in 191 4 but stayed o n throug h th e wa r wit h hi s eventua l successo r Clinto n befor e retiring i n 1926 , age d seventy-seven . Thus th e department s a t U.C.L . enjoyed considerabl e war-tim e continuity . Nevertheless , al l thre e colleges, dependin g a s they did ver y largely on student fees, finishe d th e war in serious financial difficulty. To some extent the post-war surge of exservice students and th e raisin g o f tuition fees t o £60 per annu m ( a level which remained fo r the next forty years) restored a delicate equilibrium.

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I.C., i n particular , coul d no t quickl y brin g int o us e th e Goldsmit h extension so that engineering numbers were only some 1 0 per cent above the 191 3 level. U.C.L. an d King' s both moved briefly t o about 50 percent above thei r pre-war entry. U.C.L. benefite d fro m tw o major memorial benefactions for additional space, Viscoun t Cowdray an d th e Hawksley family, which provided ne w hydraulic laboratorie s an d workshops . B y 192 6 private donation s an d grants fro m th e L.C.C . sa w th e Gowe r Stree t buildin g altere d t o giv e much needed space . Industr y and the Ramsay Memorial appeal funde d a new Chai r o f Chemical Engineerin g in 192 3 with E.G. Williams, later a research directo r o f Shell, a s it s firs t holder . Th e ne w buildin g fo r th e Department o f Chemica l Engineerin g i n Gordo n Stree t wa s th e fina l expansion o f space fo r th e Facult y unti l th e openin g o f the Torringto n Place building in 1961 . Although both E.L.C. and I.C. had shown a limited pre-war interest in aeronautics, wit h a lecture r an d wind-tunne l a t E.L.C . an d som e specialist lecture s a t I.C. , i t wa s onl y th e Zaharof f benefactio n t o th e University o f London i n 191 6 which triggere d a majo r move . The chai r was offered t o I.C. but a classic demonstration of the lingering lack of trust between University and College led to delay and t o Zaharoffasking for his money back in 1919 . Luckily the panic reaction which this produced wa s inspired, an d le d t o th e appointment s o f Sir Richar d Glazebrook , jus t retired fro m N.P.L. , and of Leonard Bairstow , a first rate aerodynamicist. The resultin g Department o f Aerodynamics wa s initiall y part o f R.C.S . and only became, even nominally, part of City and Guilds College in 1932. The Eas t Londo n Colleg e wa s bitterl y disappointe d tha t it s ow n pioneering work in aeronatucs ha d no t been recognised b y the offer o f the Zaharoff Chai r bu t whe n Thursto n lef t fo r th e wa r N.A.V . Pierc y too k over and remaine d Hea d of Department unti l the 1950s . Outside the Schools

The Universit y of London legislatio n of 1898 and th e 190 0 Statutes ha d introduced Engineerin g an d Economic s a s ne w Facultie s i n th e University and wit h them th e degrees of B.Sc. (Eng. ) and B.Sc . (Econ.). The concep t emerge d o f Recognised Teacher s who, with th e Appointe d Teachers, made up the faculties and thei r subject Boards of Studies. This meant tha t fo r th e firs t tim e th e teacher s could , a s o f right , influenc e syllabuses and examination s of the University. In addition t o the Schools of th e Universit y ther e wer e withi n th e prescribe d thirt y mile s 'Institutions with Recognised Teachers' where well-qualified staf f in wellfound department s coul d b e 'recognised' and s o make their own input t o the university . Students i n engineerin g departments wit h suc h teacher s could ente r fo r th e Interna l B.Sc . (Eng. ) degree wherea s other s ha d t o enter as external students whose teachers had no direct contact with their

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colleagues i n th e University . Takin g 190 6 a s a n example : Institution s with Recognise d Teacher s included Batterse a Polytechnic , East Londo n College, Finsbur y Technica l College , Northampto n Polytechni c an d South Wes t Londo n Polytechnic . Batterse a an d Northampto n Polytechnics eventuall y became separat e universitie s (Surre y and City) whilst E.C.L . becam e Q.M.C . an d Sout h Wes t Polytechni c becam e Chelsea College , both Schools of the University. Throughout th e country technical colleges which could mee t the University's standards submitte d students for the external B.Sc. (Eng.) for which the syllabuses and indee d the examiner s emerge d from th e Universit y Boar d of Studies. Th e sam e applied t o student s in technica l college s throughou t th e Empire . Ther e were undoubtedl y problems i n such a system of remote control, not least the time lag in introducing new ideas in the external syllabuses. However, in th e engineerin g field, as elsewhere, it is my belief that th e University can tak e prid e i n th e opportunitie s whic h i t provide d fo r thousand s of students an d fo r th e par t i t playe d i n helpin g t o brin g universit y o r polytechnic statu s t o college s throughou t th e Unite d Kingdo m an d indeed aroun d th e globe . Man y o f th e civi c universities , al l th e technological universities an d most , if not all, of the modern polytechnic s sprang fro m institution s whic h orignall y presente d student s fo r th e degrees of this university. The Universit y als o develope d scheme s o f 'Specia l Relationship ' mainly wit h universit y colleges at hom e an d abroa d i n which staf f fro m this universit y helpe d t o develo p existin g o r ne w departments . Suc h departments coul d mak e an inpu t to their own syllabuses and als o to the examining process . I n engineerin g Southampto n an d Leiceste r Universities a t hom e an d th e Universitie s of Khartoum an d Ibada n i n Africa com e to mind a s examples . The Statute s of 1900, although they gave some influence to engineers in the school s o f the University , cam e rapidl y t o b e regarde d a s delayin g development o f syllabuses to mee t new needs an d i n the cas e of U.C.L., King's an d I.C . t o a dua l examinatio n system , sinc e eac h colleg e stil l awarded it s ow n diploma s o r associateship s alongsid e th e universit y degree. Certainl y som e regarde d thes e qualification s as superio r t o th e degree. These and other problems of administration le d to the formation of a government committe e whic h produced th e Hilton Youn g report i n 1926. Even though Senate and Convocation voted to reject the report, the government legislated and th e University of London Act in the same year imposed Commissioner s t o dra w u p th e ne w Statutes . Fortunately , all parties in the university seemed to have learnt a lesson and the subsequent negotiations were reasonably amicable so that new statutes were in forc e by 1929. From th e poin t o f view of the Facult y of Engineering it was fortunat e that I.C. , no t being incorporated lik e U.C.L. and King's , could bargai n away its right to have the final say in appointing professors and readers in

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return fo r th e acceptanc e o f its home-base d A.C.G.I , examination s i n qualifying it s students for the B.Sc. (Eng. ) degree. Thus the B.Sc. (Eng.) Special examinatio n cam e int o operatio n fo r I.C . i n 191 6 an d shortl y thereafter fo r U.C.L., King' s an d Eas t Londo n College . For many years this was a unique feature of the engineering schools in the University and gave them a flexibility and freedom denied t o other faculties. Quinquennial inspection s o f engineering departments, bot h interna l and external , o n behal f o f th e Universit y continue d unti l afte r th e formation o f the C.N.A.A . (Counci l for National Academic Awards) i n 1964. I believ e tha t thes e inspection s were , i n general , muc h t o th e advantage o f th e staf f i n department s concerne d sinc e the y ha d a n opportunity t o see k advic e an d hel p fro m senio r member s o f th e University Facult y o f Engineerin g an d coul d ofte n us e th e Inspectors ' reports t o influenc e thei r paymasters . Th e annua l coursewor k displays, first at the Imperial Institute and later in the Gordon Squar e examination halls, were useful i n providing contact, however brief, between university examiners an d teacher s preparin g externa l candidates . Undoubtedly , there was often criticism i n the School s o f the mechanic s o f the Externa l B.Sc. (Eng. ) and perhap s som e of us who gav e a good dea l o f time to it could have spent tha t time more profitably. Between the Wars

Perhaps th e most remarkable feature of the period between 191 3 and 193 9 was lack of change rathe r tha n change. I n non e of the three 191 3 Schools of Engineering was there much change in student numbers once the postwar 1919-2 3 surge o f entrant s ha d passe d through . Undoubtedly , th e depression o f the thirtie s whic h hit th e engineering industr y so hard was partly responsible. The U.G.C. cam e into being in 1919, but although the flow of public funds t o the University as a whole increased fairly rapidly, as did fund s fro m charities , th e Facult y o f Engineerin g wa s s o badl y underfunded tha t eve n when space becam e availabl e it tended no t t o be properly equipped . Recurren t grant s t o department s wer e s o lo w that sometimes equipment that they had bee n given could not be used. When I joined U.C.L . i n 194 6 from th e comparative luxury of the Royal Aircraft Establishment (R.A.E. ) man y o f the majo r item s in us e wer e ove r fifty years ol d an d most , apar t fro m thos e made i n th e workshop s were over thirty years old. The inter-wa r period was also one of remarkable stability among senior staff. Fo r example, a t City and Guild s Dalb y (C . & M.), Dixo n (C. ) and (E.) eac h serve d fo r more than twenty years as departmental head while Mather (E. ) served th e College for thirty years. At U.C.L . th e Fleming Clinton duo actually spanned forty-nin e years from 188 5 while Coker (C . & M.) wa s head for twenty years. At King's too, Wilson (E.) was head for thirty-three year s an d Coo k (C . & M. ) spanne d bot h war s whils t

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Macgregor Morri s (E. ) was head fo r forty years. Perhaps th e bigges t changes , thoug h fro m a smal l base , occurre d a t E.L.C. I n 193 1 the college occupied one third of the Peoples' Palac e site, but whe n the fire of 24 February destroyed Queen's Hall th e College was unscathed. Even its basement accommodation unde r the Winter Gardens escaped. After elaborate negotiation a new site to the immediate west was found fo r the ne w Palac e buildin g and th e Colleg e effectivel y secure d a whole site . B y 193 4 it ha d it s charte r a s Quee n Mar y College , it s ne w Hatton Theatr e an d ne w electrical laboratorie s just abou t complete . A three phas e pla n t o utilise the rest o f the area wa s ready and a start ha d been mad e o n convertin g th e ol d theatr e int o th e Hig h Voltag e Laboratory. Thi s cam e int o us e in 193 7 and mad e it possibl e t o give a decent hom e to the aeronautical laboratory . Al l this meant that over the two wars the \argestproportionate increase in engineering student numbers occurred at Q.M.C. The Second World War

Some time before the outbreak of war in 1939 its apparent inevitability led to government plans t o evacuate U.C.L. engineerin g to Swansea, King's to Bristol and Q.M.C. to King's College, Cambridge. I.C. was considered less vulnerabl e and , i n spit e o f an unexplode d bom b i n th e Guilds , s o indeed i t proved . Thus , engineerin g course s continue d throughou t th e war - firs t wit h somewha t reduce d number s an d late r i n mor e concentrated for m bu t with increasing numbers. The thre e collaborative enterprises were remarkably successful leading to respect and lasting friendships. G.T.R. Hill, who had succeeded Coker at U.C.L . i n 193 4 was seconded wit h a group of U.C.L. staf f to form th e Air Defence department at R.A.E. at Exeter and H.E.M. Barlo w (E.) was seconded to R.A.E. becoming head of the Radio department. John Collins the hea d o f Civil Engineerin g an d severa l o f his staf f joined th e forces . Thus th e U.C.L . contingen t a t Swanse a wa s led by Clinton's successo r Kapp (E. ) and Lloyd-Evan s (C . & M.) sharin g th e teachin g wit h loca l staff. Similarly , th e Q.M.C . staf f a t Cambridg e fille d gap s i n th e hos t departments, especiall y in aeronautical an d electrica l engineering. The King's-Bristo l relationshi p wa s briefe r bu t mor e intens e sinc e Bristol Universit y suffered mor e sever e bomb damage tha n King' s itsel f and th e King's library lost some 7,000 volumes in their temporary home. The King' s staf f was relatively complete and the y had a separate bas e in the Merchan t Venturers ' Colleg e wher e a new course in radio an d hig h frequency technolog y wa s introduce d i n th e Electrica l Departmen t t o meet urgent war-time needs. King's engineers returne d t o the Strand for the 1943- 4 session in conditions of great difficulty . Th e strain s of war ha d told heavily on the health of Professor Catterson-Smith, head of Electrical Engineering, wh o die d i n 1945 , an d o n Professo r Lobban, hea d o f Civil

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Engineering wh o retired a t the end of that sessio n afte r a long illness . Post- War Recovery

Fortunately, I.C. had suffere d littl e war damage an d returne d rapidly to almost norma l operation . Studen t numbers were about 1 5 per cen t pre war level . Research ha d continue d throughout the war an d th e researc h laboratories wer e full . Tizard' s pre-wa r expansio n pla n coul d mak e progress onc e th e shortage s o f material s i n a hard-presse d econom y permitted. The modest extensio n of Chemical Enginerin g bega n first and was complet e by 1950 . The Roya l School of Needlework was purchase d and becam e th e Unwi n Buildin g bu t th e muc h neede d buildin g fo r Aernonautical Engineering was delayed. Q.M.C. ha d als o escape d seriou s damage; i t ha d rebuil t extensively after th e fire and plan s for further developmen t already existed. Perhap s more significantly th e new Principal appointed i n 194 4 ready to plan th e return t o th e Colleg e i n 194 5 was Ifo r Evans , a great tactician , planne r and fund-raiser . Within a year the nee d t o expand and t o expand west of the ne w Palac e was identified, with th e sit e of the blitze d S t Beret's th e only other possibility. By 1946 total student numbers were up 50 per cent on pre-war a t about 800 and a planning figure of 2,000 had been pencille d in. King's College had suffered considerabl e damage. The most severe was a direc t hit in the corner of the quadrangle which cut off part o f the main building an d lef t undergroun d laboratories , cloakroom s an d th e slop e leading down to the Embankment in a huge hole thirty feet deep and sixty feet across . I n retrospec t thi s may b e seen as a blessing in disguise since nobody wa s hur t an d th e wa y wa s no w ope n t o rebuil d an d exten d antiquated engineerin g laboratorie s unde r th e south-eas t corne r o f the main buildin g wit h a lin k t o chemica l engineering . Plannin g an d rebuilding went on under the watchful eye s of three lively new or newish heads of departments: S.J. Davies (M.), A.D. Ross (C.),andJ. Grief (E.). At U.C.L. on the other hand there had beeen dreadful damage perhap s the most severe at any UK universit y institution. In the main building fire or blas t ha d destroye d mos t o f the library , th e dom e an d muc h belo w including the Physic s Department. Th e 194 1 landmine which destroyed the Grea t Hal l an d muc h aroun d i t lef t th e ten-year-ol d Chemica l Engineering buildin g a hea p o f rubble . Th e Gowe r Stree t building s suffered extensiv e i f superficia l damag e whic h lef t the m ope n t o th e weather fo r much of the war . S o serious was the damage tha t in the lat e 1940s th e possibilit y of moving out o f London t o a green field s sit e was earnestly discusse d a s a n alternativ e t o th e rebuildin g o f Universit y College. Ther e was , however , a remot e silve r linin g sinc e bomb s ha d cleared th e potentia l sit e fo r th e ne w engineerin g buildin g tha t woul d emerge o n Torringto n Plac e som e twenty years later . G.T.R . Hil l (M. )

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was somethin g o f a genius : reall y a n aeronautica l engineer , h e ha d designed and built a flying wing aircraft, whic h Roderick Hill, his brother and later Rector of I.C., who was a most gifted intuitive pilot could fly, but which was a handful fo r most others. H e was a man of infinite charm an d a flamboyan t lecturer . Afte r th e wa r h e was deeply involve d in running Short Brother s of Belfast. Thus the day to day running of the department and it s restoration wer e left t o his deputy and i n 194 8 his successor, BJ. Lloyd-Evans. H e go t th e Civi l an d Mechanica l Laboratorie s workin g again an d h e it was who, when th e government gave the universities first pick of surplus war equipmen t a t a few pence per pound wen t personally with th e colleg e lorr y t o selec t th e tools , instrument s and machine s o n which th e refurbishin g o f man y U.C.L . laboratorie s an d workshop s depended fo r several years. Legend ha s it that he was adept a t driving in over the weighbridge beside the driver and finding a good excuse to leave on foot. I f so, then at around fifteen or sixteen stones that was good value! Barlow cam e bac k fro m R.A.E . i n 194 5 t o a secon d Chai r o f Electrical Engineering and brought with him his eventual successor Alex Cullen and the whole new field of microwave engineering. John Collins came back as the firs t independen t hea d o f Civi l Engineerin g an d a s th e college' s structural consultan t an d Hart , wh o wen t t o wa r a s a lecture r i n surveying, came back in 194 6 to take up a new chair in Photogrammetry and Surveyin g endowed by manufacturers of aerial survey apparatus and equipped mainl y by the War Offic e an d Colonial Office. Initiall y a part of the Civil Department th e group became the fifth independent department in th e U.C. L Facult y o f Engineerin g som e five years later . I n spit e of increased studen t numbers th e other thre e departments someho w foun d room for Chemical Engineering until the Gordon Stree t building had been rebuilt an d re-equippe d i n 1948 . Researc h wa s o f cours e ver y slo w t o restart i n these overcrowded conditions . The Golden Days For all the Engineering Schools of the University the 1950 s and 60 s must now appear as a time of almost unfettered progress , thoug h the problem s of underfunding whic h have arise n s o acutely in the 1980 s emerged fro m time to time. There wa s a fir m belie f i n 195 0 tha t thi s countr y require d a majo r increase i n scientifi c an d engineerin g educatio n an d al l fou r School s responded wit h offer s t o increas e studen t number s i f mor e spac e an d resources coul d b e made available. Th e government' s respons e throug h the U.G.C . wa s t o indicat e a n interes t i n a majo r expansio n t o 3,00 0 students at I.C. by 1962 and to reserve the island site at South Kensington for us e b y th e College . Plannin g wa s complicate d b y th e nee d t o build, demolish and buil d in a way that always left th e College fully operational . In th e event Aeronautics and Chemica l Engineerin g each occupie d thei r

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two extension s i n 195 7 an d 1966 . Th e firs t stag e o f Mechanica l Engineering becam e availabl e i n 195 9 s o tha t th e ol d Waterhous e building could com e down in 196 2 to permit th e completio n of the Civil, Mechanical an d Electrical buildings in 1965 . The Computer Unit formed in tha t yea r gre w an d compute r studie s permeate d th e undergraduat e teaching i n al l departments . B y 197 0 th e Uni t ha d becom e th e Department o f Computing joining Mathematic s an d Meteorolog y i n the new Huxle y Buildin g i n 1975 . Thi s sa w th e effectiv e en d o f I.C.' s academic building programm e planne d in 1953 . At Q.M.C . th e wa y t o th e wes t an d t o expansio n wa s opene d when , under Ifo r Evans ' prompting , th e Colleg e acquire d ninety-nin e yea r leases first on th e bloc k west of the Palac e t o Bancroft Roa d an d the n by 1951 the two blocks beyond. And then in 195 3 the Palace itself, unable t o find a role in post-war conditions, came on to the market. A grant from th e U.G.C. permitte d it s purchas e an d immediatel y th e Colleg e ha d extr a space and its planned new hall. Stage one of the new engineering buildings came into use in 1958 and the U.G.C. had accepted Q.M.C.'s offer t o raise its total numbers to 1,50 0 if the building for stage two engineering, physics and chemistr y coul d b e completed . B y 196 2 th e whol e Bancrof t Roa d complex was in use leaving the old buildings for redevelopment. At las t th e fou r department s wer e properl y housed . I n 1960 , i n a development which has since acquired more than its original significance, an industrial site in Marshgate Lane was leased from the local authority to house a Department of Nuclear Engineering and, in particular, its reactor and t o provide for large scale industry-related projects. The ne w complex was ready in 1966 . Ifor Evans , havin g launche d th e post-wa r expansio n a t Q.M.C . became Provos t o f U.C.L. i n 1957 , just i n tim e t o tel l th e U.G.C . tha t engineering could double its size at U.C.L. if a building making maximum use of the Torrington Place-Gower Street corner site could be built. Whe n the U.G.C . faile d t o respon d urgentl y h e organise d a n approac h t o industry which rapidly raise d enough financial support for half of the new building. Thu s prompted , th e U.G.C . matche d thi s an d promise d equipment grants . Th e Ne w Engineerin g Building , designe d t o b e extremely flexible in use , was occupie d i n tw o stages i n 196 1 mainly by electrical an d mechanica l engineering , an d i n 196 4 b y chemica l engineering and th e rest of mechanical engineering. The old Gower Street buildings wer e converte d t o provid e fo r civi l engineerin g an d fo r photogrammetry an d surveying . Bot h wer e abl e a t leas t t o expan d teaching and research , especiall y in research directl y related t o industry. Subsequently i t ha s prove d possibl e t o ad d tw o floor s t o th e ne w building, bot h funde d b y industry , fo r occupatio n b y electrica l an d electronic engineering . Spac e has als o been foun d t o house biochemical engineering, a ne w disciplin e derived fro m th e joint effort s o f chemical engineering an d biochemistry .

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The pos t wa r restoratio n o f the King' s engineerin g laboratorie s wa s largely complet e b y 195 2 and i t wa s clea r tha t furthe r majo r expanso n could only be achieved on a new site. The old Doulton building across th e river, an d lon g a landmark for travellers approaching Waterlo o Station , became availabl e in 196 1 and plan s were made with U.G.C. approval for conversion to provide for 300 extra engineering and science students. But, to the intense disappointment o f the whole College, the Treasury decline d to make available th e extra fund s required . Fortunately, developmen t o f th e ne w Stran d frontag e an d th e acquisition an d conversio n o f neighbourin g propertie s ha s permitte d useful expansio n o f engineering . Fo r example , th e ne w Macada m Building i n Surre y Stree t provide d ne w civi l engineerin g laboratories . The merge r wit h Chelsea Colleg e ha s provide d strengt h in the electrical and electroni c field . I n mechanica l engineerin g too , ther e ha s bee n 'structured collaboration ' wit h U.C.L . t o exploi t th e complementar y strengths o f th e tw o departments . However , th e King' s Schoo l o f Engineering is now the smallest of the four in the University Faculty, even though th e King' s merge r wit h Quee n Elizabet h an d Chelse a College s forms th e largest single unit in the University. The Robbins and Saunders Reports The Robbin s Committe e i n Highe r Educatio n reporte d i n 196 3 an d recommended a staged increas e in student numbers which would involve London triplin g it s number s b y 1980 . (I n Londo n actua l interna l numbers jus t abou t doubled. ) Robbin s sa w Londo n Universit y a s a cumbersome gian t wit h som e 25,00 0 interna l an d 28,00 0 externa l students. H e sa w th e elaborat e relationshi p betwee n university-size d colleges an d th e centra l universit y a s causin g 'problem s an d inconveniences tha t call for investigation and remedy ' and went on to say that i f th e Universit y 'canno t satisfactoril y and speedil y resolv e thes e difficulties fo r themselves w e recommend that they should b e the subjec t of independen t enquiry' . Fo r thos e wh o stil l remembere d th e Hilto n Young Report urgen t internal actio n wa s vital; when the consensus view turned ou t t o be that th e Federal Universit y was worth preserving it was obvious tha t th e structua l modification s necessar y fo r it s preservatio n must b e sorte d out . Si r Owe n Saunder s the n hea d o f mechanica l engineering a t I.C . an d chairma n o f the Academi c Counci l chaire d th e committee charge d t o com e u p wit h solutions and th e fac t tha t R.E.D . Bishop, hi s opposite numbe r a t U.C.L. , wa s anothe r member , perhap s makes it less of a coincidence tha t th e degree of autonomy on syllabuses and contro l o f examining enjoye d b y th e Facult y o f Engineering sinc e 1926 was recommended fo r the whole University. In addition, the rules on recognition of teachers were liberalised and all teachers became members of Boards of Studies. The ol d Boards of Faculty became Advisory Boards.

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As Dean I was chairman of the last of the former and th e first of the latter and frankly I hardly noticed th e difference except that, as a Dean who was not at the time an elected member of Senate, I attended Academic Council meetings b y invitation. I n additio n Schools wer e given mor e freedo m t o introduce 'taught masters' degrees with the M.Phil as the research degree . These 'Saunders Reforms ' were in place by 1966 and very much matche d the moo d o f th e school s o f engineering . Course-uni t degree s wer e considered a t som e lengt h i n th e Facult y o f Engineering bu t whil e th e engineers thought abou t the m th e Facult y of Science adopte d the m with enthusiasm, enshrining odd-sized units. The University also attempted to change th e natur e o f it s senio r managemen t structur e withi n th e constraints o f the existin g University of London Act . Oppositio n mad e this impossibl e an d le d t o th e settin g u p o f yet anothe r independen t committee under Lor d Murray . I shal l say no more on this as the direct outcome was in my view of little consequence t o this Faculty . Developments, 1966-85

The wa y in which th e ne w course-unit degree regulation s were framed, and the insistence that they must apply uniformly to all faculties and to all colleges involved , were seen by some, myself included, as an attemp t t o claw back t o the central Universit y some of the autonomy granted t o the Schools b y th e Saunder s reforms . I t wa s not , therefore , until th e 1970 s that first Q.M.C. and subsequently King' s and U.C.L. engineers fel t tha t the advantage s o f flexibilit y coul d b e graspe d withou t seriou s disadvantages du e to centralisation. I n engineering, of course, the criteri a in uni t term s fo r th e awar d o f B.Sc. (Eng. ) degrees ha d t o b e carefull y prescribed t o avoid problem s with professional recognition. Certainly a t Q.M.C. the system permitted a smooth transition to the four year B.Eng. degree involving industry which emerged from th e 'Dainton' proposals of 1977. However, I.C. introduced these courses equally smoothly without a course-unit structure. This tren d t o th e involvemen t o f industr y an d broadenin g o f th e curriculum wa s a n importan t featur e o f severa l ne w courses . On e outstanding exampl e o f industrial cooperatio n i n sponsorship , projec t work an d industria l trainin g i s th e 'Tota l Technology ' cours e i n mechanical engineerin g introduce d b y Sir Hugh For d in 1974. Another exampl e i s th e clos e collaboratio n betwee n engineerin g departments a t U.C.L . wit h th e Roya l Corp s o f Nava l Constructor s (R.C.N.C.) i n providin g a cours e leadin g afte r fou r year s of integrated study an d trainin g t o th e B.Sc . (Eng. ) and a furthe r yea r t o th e M.Sc . (Eng.) i n naval architecture and mor e recently marine engineering. The R.C.N.C. not only arranged industria l training and marine experience for their ow n sponsore d student s an d other s bu t seconde d well-qualifie d members of the Corps to the College teaching staff, usually for three to five

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years. Th e senio r corp s membe r ha s alway s prove d acceptabl e t o th e University a s Professo r of Naval Architecture . It wa s intended fro m th e start tha t this collaboration shoul d lead t o related research and Professo r R.E.D. Bisho p envisage d development s int o th e fiel d o f offshor e engineering. I n th e even t thes e hav e bee n th e basi s o f the joint I.C. / U.C.L. venture . Thi s ha s involve d th e civi l department s a t I.C . an d U.C.L. an d U.C.L.' s Mechanica l Engineerin g departmen t i n th e formation o f S.E.R.C.' s Londo n Centr e fo r Marin e Technolog y wit h Bernard Nea l (I.C. ) a s its first coordinator. There has bee n fundin g for new, comprehensively equippe d laboratorie s and also a new M.Sc. (Eng.) course i n offshore engineering . At I.C . industriall y base d course s alread y mentione d hav e le d fro m quite small beginnings within the mechanical engineering department in the fiel d o f management studie s t o a ne w Departmen t o f Managemen t Science an d mor e recentl y t o a Departmen t o f Socia l an d Economi c Studies i n th e Cit y an d Guild s College . Bu t perhap s I shoul d no t hav e breathed a wor d o f thi s sinc e thes e tw o department s fal l withi n th e purview of the Faculty of Economics. Another interestin g development , mad e possibl e b y th e Q.M.C . laboratories i n Marshgat e Lan e ha s bee n th e growt h o f th e Electromagnetics Grou p of the Electrical departmen t fro m its initial work on microwav e antennae . An d a s s o ofte n happen s wit h thi s sor t o f advanced wor k ther e ha s bee n feed-bac k int o th e undergraduat e wor k with th e openin g o f th e Advance d Telecommunication s Laboratory , based o n joint U.G.C . and industria l funding, i n which British Telecom has a special interest. Another sign of the times is the 198 2 wind tunnel in the Aeronautical department a t I.C. specificall y designed for testing road vehicles and funde d b y Honda o f Japan. There is a two-way flow and ou r engineering departments, along with their teaching and research, provide valuable services for industry and indee d fo r the community at large. Fo r many years these services were on a small scale and were paid for, if at all, on a n eve n smalle r scale . Mor e recently, financia l stringenc y ha s ha d a remarkable effec t i n demonstrating tha t our engineering departments ca n help themselve s an d thei r College s t o earn their way out of some of their troubles eithe r by the provisio n of professional service s or, indeed , by marketing thei r idea s an d thei r products . Al l fou r School s no w hav e properly constitute d unit s t o organis e wor k producin g a multi-millio n pound income . Fortunately , ou r goo d exampl e ha s bee n followe d wit h more or less enthusiasm by our colleagues in other faculties either working in their own specialist fields or in multi-disciplinary projects. Engineering is ofte n sai d t o b e undervalue d b y society , i n statu s an d rewards ; bu t within th e Universit y i t i s rightl y appreciated , an d no t solel y fo r thi s ability t o earn incom e from busines s and industry.

9

Music Brian Trowel l There is no mention of music that I have been able to discover in the early history o f University College, 1 wher e th e ide a o f the Universit y began , though it s first professor of German, Ludwi g von Miihlenfels, was a good friend o f Mendelssohn . Perhap s th e college' s utilitaria n atmospher e worked agains t wha t wa s then , i n it s highes t form , a n elitis t art . Th e college does no t see m t o have offere d music , theoretical o r practical, a s a subject i n th e evenin g classe s o n genera l topic s tha t i t arranged , fo r outsiders a s wel l a s fo r it s ow n students , i n th e secon d hal f o f th e nineteenth century. As the college's financial circumstances and social lif e became mor e secure , however , w e d o lear n o f a Musica l Societ y flourishing, i f briefly , fro m 1871-6 . Later , a Musica l Directo r wa s appointed an d sinc e th e lat e 1960 s a remarkabl e serie s o f semi professional opera performances ha s developed . In th e earl y year s o f King's Colleg e - th e Anglican counterblas t t o University Colleg e - thing s were very different. Ther e was a chapel with regular services , an d ther e wer e t o b e ordinands wh o would nee d som e knowledge o f church music . But th e Colleg e wa s shor t o f funds, an d fo r some year s n o musicia n wa s engage d t o direct th e music . The y simpl y hired a barrel-organ, whic h must have had a pretty limited repertory, and presumably neede d onl y an unskilled hand t o turn it. In 183 5 though the College scrape d u p enough mone y t o ask the barrel-organ's owner , a M r Bryceson, t o replac e i t wit h a 'finger-organ' , wit h fou r stop s an d wha t Hearnshaw's histor y of King's Colleg e call s a 'Venetian shell front';2 this we may safely interpret as a Venetian swell , of the louvred variety not the tidal, for making a crescendo or diminuendo. The orga n wa s to cost £110, and fo r economy's sake it was to be build in the same case that had house d

1

Se e H . Hal e Bellot, University College London, 1826-1926 (1929). FJ.C . Hearnshaw, Th e Centenary History o f King's College, London, 1828-1928(1929}, o n which my account is largely based; certain material, especially for the period after 1928 , i s taken from Gordo n Huelin, King's College, London, 1828-1978(1978). 2

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the barrel-organ. As it turned out though, a medical student named Terr y happened t o hav e a spar e organ , presumabl y a smal l chambe r instrument, whic h h e donate d t o hi s gratefu l college . Th e first organist was appointe d o n 1 3 Novembe r o f tha t sam e year , 1835 : Henr y Bevington, doubtles s connecte d t o th e famil y o f that nam e wh o ra n a London fir m o f organ-builders. A larger organ was acquired i n 1848 . I n 1852 W.H . Mon k wa s employed a s director o f the Choir , and tw o years later h e too k ove r a s organis t a s well . I n 1864 , whe n th e chape l wa s enlarged an d beautified, he undertook, with some help, to raise funds for a still larger an d bette r organ . Monk wa s a learne d musician. 3 H e wa s t o edi t th e musi c of Hymns Ancient and Modern (1861) . He lectured on music at the London Institution and elsewhere. He became a professor at the National Training Schoo l for Music in 1876 : this was the body which gave the impetus for the founding of the Roya l College of Music. He edite d much music for Th e Parish Choir series (fro m no . 40), produce d a hymnboo k for the Churc h o f Scotland, and himsel f composed hymns . Other Londo n college s with chapels als o instituted organist-choirmasters ; a t Roya l Hollowa y Colleg e D r Emil y Daymond served as the first Director of Music (1887-99) and later became a member of the Board o f Studies i n Music. 4 Some o f Monk' s earlies t work , producin g popula r edition s o f vocal music, was undertaken in collaboration with another important Victoria n musician, Joh n Pik e Hullah , wh o wa s associate d wit h hi m a t King' s College.5 Hulla h ha d bee n Professo r o f Vocal Scienc e ther e sinc e 1844 , retiring thirty years later in 1874. He was evidently responsible for general teaching i n music and singing , muc h of it no doubt extra-curricula r wor k for evening classes, but he also offered individua l tuition and some classes for ordinands . Hulla h wa s responsibl e fo r introducin g int o Englan d Wilhem's metho d fo r trainin g musicall y illiterate singers , a movemen t which create d th e market fo r John Curwen's late r development o f Tonic 3 Se e th e entrie s unde r hi s nam e i n Grove's Dictionary o f Music an d Musicians, 5t h ed . (1954), by Eric Bolm, and Th e New Grove (1980), ed. Stanley Sadie. D r Bernarr Rainbow , whose long, valuable and unremunerated service as an 'Other Person' on the University's Board of Studies in Music deserves to be recorded here, pointed out to me after my lecture that I had omitte d t o mention Monk' s debt to William Dyce. He would have met Dyce at King's, wher e th e latte r became Professo r of the Theory of Fine Art i n 1840 . Dyce was a learned studen t of church musi c and plainsong , helped foun d th e Motett Societ y in 1841 , and publishe d a sumptuous edition of John Merbecke's Book of Common Prayer Noted (1550) in 1843 . D r Rainbo w ha s establishe d tha t Mon k becam e organis t a t King' s as early as 1847, and tha t the Council instituted choral exhibitioner s to sing a daily choral service in 1849; even i n 184 2 Edward Rimbault ha d note d in Th e Musical World, xvii, p. 375, that th e service a t King' s was 'fa r superior ' t o that a t Westminste r Abbe y o r St Paul's ; Bernar r Rainbow, Th e Choral Revival in the Anglican Church 1839-1872(1970), pp . 79ff. , 220f , 3 1 Of. 4 Se e MJ. Powell (ed.) , Th e Royal Holloway College, 1887-1937(1937). 5 Se e the editions of Grove cited i n footnote 3 above.

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Sol-fa; i t ha s bee n estimate d tha t betwee n 184 0 an d 186 0 som e 25,00 0 choral singers and choirmasters passed throug h Hullah's classes at Exeter Hall an d S t Martin' s Hall , whic h was speciall y built for him b y friend s and supporters . H e was indefatigable in promoting musi c in schools and in Marc h 187 2 becam e Inspecto r o f Trainin g School s fo r th e Unite d Kingdom. H e was also a serious musical historian - a rare bir d i n midVictorian Englan d - an d he put his musical discoverie s into practic e (a happy characteristi c o f Englis h musica l historians) . I n th e firs t fou r months o f 184 7 h e conducte d fou r historica l concert s illustratin g chronologically th e rise and progres s o f English vocal music. His History of Modern Music (1862 ) an d hi s boo k Th e Third o r Transition Period of Musical History (1865 ) wer e developed fro m course s o f lectures giv e at th e Roya l Institution of Great Britain . His God was Handel, whom he likened to 'an oak spreadin g al l ove r Englis h music' ; h e contraste d hi m suspiciousl y with Bach , who , h e thought , addresse d onl y th e learned , askin g 'but is Bach th e Handel , even , o f Germany? ' Hi s goo d wor k an d academi c knowledge were recognised by the award of an Hon. LL.D . of Edinburgh in 1876 , and in the following year he was made a member o f the Society of Santa Cecili a in Rome and o f the Musica l Academy of Florence. One wonder s whethe r Mon k an d Hulla h gav e Willia m Schwen k Gilbert o r Thomas Hard y a taste for music: the former studie d at King' s from 185 3 to 1857 , and th e latter attende d evening classe s ther e in 1859 60. An d on e wonder s whethe r th e Wilhe m metho d involve d whistling: when the Prince Imperial , Napoleo n Ill' s son, came to King's Colleg e in 1871-2 t o atten d lecture s in physics , his Frenc h tuto r wa s disagreeabl y impressed o n their first visit because th e corridors were : filled wit h students who whistled incessantly. As in France I had neve r heard whistling excep t fro m th e lowe r order s I ha d som e doubt s a s t o th e youn g gentleman's designs. Bu t almost immediatel y 1 became convinced tha t they were whistling for their own pleasure. 'It's not a school', said the prince to me, 'it's a nest of blackbirds' - but , just to be sure, the prince never entered into conversation with any of them.

This i s a n unusa l glimps e o f a colleg e usuall y though t o f as grav e an d sombre, dominate d b y ecclesiastic s i n subfusc . Bu t King' s Colleg e certainly had its lighter side. It is not I think generally known that Charle s Wheatstone, th e famou s an d inventiv e Professo r o f Experimenta l Philosophy a t King's College fro m 183 4 to 1875 , ran a family busines s on the side in Conduit Street, manufacturing musical instruments. His latest biographer grandl y lists his intellectual accomplishments: 'He discovered the principl e o f stereoscopy; h e use d hi s encyclopedi c knowledg e of th e literature t o sprea d scientifi c ideas ; h e designe d ingeniou s electromechanical device s an d pioneere d precis e electrica l

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measurements'; and , h e adds, 'h e invented th e concertina'. 6 Nearer ou r own time , anothe r distinguishe d professor , S.W . Wooldridge , founde d and ra n a Gilber t an d Sulliva n Societ y whic h assume d a lif e o f its own outside th e college : i t i s sai d tha t h e wa s remembere d les s fo r hi s geography lecture s tha n fo r hi s impersonatio n o f the Mikado . A mor e professional figure , perhaps , wa s the indigent refugee Russia n who in the First Worl d War , 'whil e receivin g free medica l tuitio n from th e college, free book s (fro m a specia l Jewish fund ) an d fre e meal s (fro m a fun d provided b y the college staff), wa s found t o be making a quite respectable income a s a membe r o f the Russia n Ballet , in which his duties were on some days so engrossing as to allow him n o time to come to college at all except for food'. It was in King's that the first teaching Faculty of Music was eventually to b e founde d i n 1964/5 . Ther e mus t hav e bee n a seriou s climat e of opinion abou t music in th e colleg e at tha t tim e for it to engage in such a space-consuming and expensive innovation. As early as 1919 the College, aware no doubt of its distinguished musica l servants in former times, had very nearl y founde d a Chai r o f Ecclesiastical Music ; bu t fund s prove d insufficient. On e o f th e chair s tha t wa s founded, though , wa s tha t o f Ecclesiastical Art : i t was occupied b y Percy Dearmer , wh o made u p for the failure to endow a musical chai r by giving general lecture s o n music; he was als o of course one of the trimvirat e who edited the popula r but thoroughly scholarl y Oxford Book of Carols in 1928 ; his collaborator s wer e Ralph Vaughan Williams and Marti n Shaw . With th e same pair, he had earlier edite d Songs o f Praise (1925) . Anothe r King' s ecclesiasti c wh o apparently ha d stron g an d seriou s musical interests was the theologian Professor HJ. White, who came to the College in 1905 and was interested enough t o join th e University' s Facult y o f Musi c i n 191 1 - th e onl y University member - thoug h he did not stay long. The tuitio n of music and th e givin g o f general lecture s spread quit e early on into other London institutions, particularly those associated with the educatio n o f women. I n 1848 , th e ubiquitou s Hullah founde d th e music class a t th e new Queen's Colleg e i n Harley Stree t (whic h did not, however, develo p int o a n institutio n o f highe r education). 7 I n th e following year , wit h fou r othe r King' s teachers , h e wa s seconde d t o Bedford College , the n i n Bake r Street , a s professo r o f voca l music , continuing until 1878; 8 from 185 6 he took over the harmony teachin g too , from n o less a personage than th e compose r Willia m Sterndal e Bennet t (who ha d als o taugh t th e pianofort e pupil s fro m 184 9 t o 1855) . Hulla h was succeeded i n both capacities b y his King's colleague W.H. Monk , and Monk, i n 1882 , by Walter Parratt . 'Vocal music' probably mean t a small 6

Huelin , King's College, 13, citing B. Bowers, Sir Charles Wheatstone (1975). Se e Elaine Kaye , A History o f Queen's College, London, 1848-1972 (1972). 8 Se e Dame Margaret J. Tuke , A History o f Bedford College for Women, 1849-1937(1939). 7

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choir of eight or so voices, for it was a class that ran alongsid e another on 'singing' - th e latter no doubt comprising individual lessons. Other piano teachers wer e John Jay, Mada m Alm a Haas , th e Germa n wif e o f the Professor o f Sanskrit a t Universit y College , an d a Mis s Harrison ; Mr s Alexander Kay e Butterworth , mothe r o f th e compose r Georg e Butterworth, taught singing . It i s eviden t tha t Hulla h wa s generall y truste d b y al l hi s Bedfor d colleagues, no t jus t th e musicians , sinc e hi s wa s on e o f thre e name s suggested a s professoria l representative s o n th e Standin g Committe e of Professors proposed fo r a new college constitution in 1868. His young lady students provided th e music and recitations for the Principals' weekly teacum-entertainments: th e Misse s Bostoc k an d Thoma s n o doubt kep t a careful ea r o n thei r progress , whil e profitin g fro m thei r performin g abilities. When th e universit y decided t o admit wome n t o higher educatio n i n 1878, King' s Colleg e fo r Wome n wa s founde d (late r Quee n Elizabet h College an d no w reintegrate d wit h it s paren t institution). 9 Mone y wa s raised in 1883 and 188 6 by mounting an ambitious play by the Professor of Classics a t King' s College , D r Warr , calle d Tales from Troy. I t wa s performed bot h in Greek and English. The scenery was designed by Sir E. Poynter, Walte r Crane , Henr y Hallida y an d Lor d Leighton . The music was by Walter Parratt, Otto Goldschmidt and others. The actor-manage r George Alexande r seems to have produced, an d among the distinguished cast wer e M r an d Mr s Beerboh m Tree , Mr s Andre w Lang , Jan e Harrison, J.K. Stephen , Lionel Tennyson and Rennell Rodd. A sum of no less tha n £65 0 wa s raised . W.E . Gladston e came ; Ruski n presente d George Alexande r wit h a superbly-boun d Shakespeare ; Professo r Warr mock-modestly observed later on that the event 'for a whole season put my name on a level with Homer's'. After this, in the 1890s , music promised to become a strong feature in the College. Madame Haas taught piano her e also, an d he r fello w recitalis t Mr s Hutchinso n looke d afte r th e singing; piano tuitio n was also given by Mr Dyke s (no t John Bacchu s Dykes but his son , a les s purpl e an d passionat e composer) . This musica l interest, however, faded after a time. It wa s not only well-to-do young ladies who needed music. The chora l movement starte d b y Hulla h i n th e 1840 s ha d it s root s i n an d owe d it s success t o a growin g bod y o f avi d amateu r musicians . W e fin d the m signing u p fo r the singing-classe s that becam e s o important i n th e earl y years of George Birkbeck's London Mechanics' Institute , found in 1823. 10 The London Mechanics' Register tells u s that from it s earliest years 'lectures and illustration s wer e regularl y give n o n music' . Th e London Saturday 9 Se e Nevill e Marsh, Th e History o f Queen Elizabeth College: One Hundred Years of University Education i n Kensington (1986) . 10 See C. Delisl e Burns, A Short History ofBirkbeck College (1924) .

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Journal fo r June 183 9 informs us that a n extr a subscriptio n wa s require d for th e classe s i n voca l an d instrumenta l music , wh o gav e occasiona l concerts i n the theatre. By now, however, two-thirds of the clientele were not workin g me n bu t attorney' s clerks , hungr y fo r culture. The classe s were only elementary, for this was befor e the Educatio n Ac t of 1870 had placed musi c firmly in the school curriculum . In 1857 , Dr Lyo n Playfai r (who invented the word-square cypher) was asked to report on the work of the Institute . H e wa s no t impressed . Learnin g too k secon d plac e afte r enjoyment: the classe s ar e cumbrou s and inefficien t . . . th e teacher s of mos t . . . ar e unpaid . . . Each class is ... a little independent republic, appointing its own teacher, an d electin g a secretar y fo r it s especia l managemen t . . . Th e members appear to relish amusement more than instruction . . . The lecture s . . . are as disjointed as one usually finds them at such places: the course for the present quarter is: The Atlantic and Ocean Telegraph A Gossiping Concert Christmas Books of Charles Dickens A Second Peep at Scotland A Broad Stare at Ireland Characters i n Imaginative Literature The Romanc e of Biography Concert by the Vocal Music Class

On th e Apparent Contradictions of Chemistry

Gems of Scottish Song On Explosiv e Compounds Entertainment by the Elocution Class

There wer e classe s i n music , voca l an d instrumental , an d i n si x othe r subjects. Bu t musi c must have accounted fo r well over half the students , who numbered 70 0 in all, for 'elementary vocal music' alone accounted for 340 of them. I t wa s no t surprisin g therefor e that D r Playfai r advocate d radical changes. 11 This popula r appetit e fo r music eventually led to th e foundin g of the Guildhall Schoo l of Music, which wa s at first intended fo r amateurs. I n some ways it is a pity that th e University did not manage t o find a way of building it s higher musica l instruction on thi s broa d foundation , rathe r than tryin g t o construc t it s degree s fro m to p downwards . Th e mor e ambitious provisio n drov e ou t th e less . On e effec t o f th e muc h highe r status tha t Birkbec k achieved fro m 192 0 onwards wa s th e droppin g o f 11

Negle y Harte' s Th e University o f London, 1836-1986: a n Illustrated History (1986) , t o which I ow e a grea t debt , state s o n p . 14 6 that i n 187 7 there wer e n o fewe r tha n 95 0 students i n th e musi c classes , a s agains t 2 9 i n th e clas s preparin g fo r th e University' s matriculation exam.

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music a s a taugh t subject , an d th e sam e seem s t o hav e happene d a t Bedford College . Musicians , of course, were thought t o be strange peopl e with peculiar , almos t mystica l abilities , har d to tie down t o an academic syllabus. The y wer e subjec t t o eccentri c burst s o f emotion , a s a n ol d Birkbeck student recalled in 1922 , looking back some decades i n a letter to the Sunday Times. He wa s amaze d tha t th e silen t reading o f a score coul d produce a n effec t a s violent as hearing th e musi c performed: It wa s in the old days of the Birkbeck Literary and Scientifi c Institution , an d its then shabby home in the rear of a certain bank of blessed memory. I was in the reading-room , and amon g other s seate d nea r wa s th e ol d Professo r o f Music attached to the Institution - I forget his name - an d he had before him the printed score or part of some composition in which he appeared engrossed. I was about to leave, but befor e I could reach the door he hastily rose and fled past m e dow n th e staircase . I followe d a t m y leisur e and , a s I neare d th e bottom, wa s paine d t o observ e our ol d frien d i n th e obscurit y of a passag e which man y ma y remembe r as leadin g to th e theatre . Here, i n th e darkest corner, he ha d take n refuge t o hide the emotio n with which, as I passed, his whole frame seeme d shaken.

The professor' s name, i t seems, was John Henken. He seems otherwise unknown t o fame, and I fear he was not one of those chosen to pronounce upon th e idea of instituting degrees in music, first mooted i n the university as earl y a s 1849 . Te n 'distinguishe d member s o f the musica l profession ' petitioned Senat e fo r musi c degree s simila r t o thos e a t Oxfor d an d Cambridge.12 Th e Universit y di d nothin g immediately , beyon d remembering t o ensur e tha t it s Charte r o f 185 8 empowere d i t t o gran t degrees i n music. The matte r was raised agai n by Convocation i n 1862-3 , and a committee was formed to draft proposals fo r a B.Mus. These were then circulate d t o 'al l th e leadin g musician s whos e addresse s coul d b e found'. James Turle and others replie d - quit e rightly - tha t the Oxford and Cambridg e degree s wer e poo r models . The y require d n o residence , let alon e matriculatio n o r Responsion s o r 'Little-go' ; an d althoug h Ouseley a t Oxford an d Sterndal e Bennet t at Cambridge ha d recentl y set up a n elemen t o f formal examination i n musi c to go with th e submitte d exercise, very few candidates ha d ye t taken it and th e degrees teste d little save academic composition. Georg e Macfarren objecte d t o 'craft' degrees: 'all th e reason s tha t prevai l agains t conferrin g degrees i n paintin g . . . prevail equally in regard t o music', he said. (H e changed hi s tune when he became Professo r o f Musi c a t Cambridge. ) Joh n Hullah , o n th e othe r hand, insiste d characteristicall y o n th e practica l element : candidate s 'should b e called upo n . . . t o exhibit thei r skil l i n vocal o r instrumental 12 Fo r thi s accoun t o f th e earl y attempt s t o institut e degrees i n musi c I a m muc h indebted to Professor Ian Spink' s article '100 Years of the B.Mus.', University of London Bulletin no. 43 (Oct. 1977) , p. 6f.

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performance'. Si r F.A. Gor e Ouseley , wh o was even then reforming th e Oxford Faculty , though t optimistically tha t th e degree 'woul d stimulate many dabbler s in musi c to the master y of the science and art. ' Cipriani Potter, ex-Principa l o f th e Roya l Academ y o f Music , an d sadl y experienced i n trying to combat the then common illiterac y of even goo d young performers , doubted whethe r man y musician s woul d b e abl e t o pass the matriculation exam . The Universit y was indeed daunte d b y the difficulty o f finding candidate s o f sufficient genera l culture to offer Lati n and tw o othe r foreig n languages , English , history , geograph y an d mathematics, wit h eithe r natura l philosoph y or chemistry : once again , nothing was done. In 1822- 3 the foundation of the Royal Academ y o f Music ha d a t first raised hope s tha t i t woul d b e possibl e t o provid e a decen t genera l education fo r performin g musicians. 13 Th e Academy' s firs t principal , William Crotch, was a learned man as well as a composer and executant, and a note d lecture r o n th e histor y o f musica l form s an d styles . Hi s Specimens, a historically chosen collectio n of examples of music, are stil l a useful 'quarry ' today. 14 The Academy' s Prospectus of 1822 engages tha t the youn g musician s shal l a t leas t 'stud y thei r ow n an d th e Italia n languages, writing and arithmetic' , and an early timetable shows at least four o r five hours set aside for this purpose. Almost immediately, though, it was resolved 't o reduce Italian (an d dancing) for those not destined to the stage or singing'. Financial exigency imposed still further cuts : 'some of th e subordinat e branche s o f educatio n (especiall y thos e no t appertaining t o music ) were lopped off , but thi s was to o slight a relief . This made something o f a mockery out of Lord Burghersh's origina l plan that 'th e educatio n shoul d b e general , an d no t restricte d t o particula r departments o f the scienc e an d practic e o f music', an d tha t th e Roya l Academy 'must be considered as a place offering general instruction to all those who seek it.' The sam e difficulty wa s to crop up later on, as we shall see, at the Royal College of Music; and it is still a familiar problem today. It i s musica l expertise , an d competitiv e expertis e a t that , whic h really counts i n a college of music; talen t migh t appear in a low and the n quit e uneducated clas s o f society, and th e tim e for professional training wa s short. Wha t i s more, th e growth of large orchestras no w required large r numbers of rank-and-file musicians ; the new music of Berlioz or Wagne r demanded a highe r leve l of performing skills, an d amon g thes e was th e ability t o play ever mor e difficul t musi c at first sight. Suc h fluency came only with long practice, yet it was vital to the precarious existence of a freelance instrumentalist . Student s an d teacher s bot h kne w that i n a limited period o f training th e readin g o f musical notation must take precedence over the reading of English prose and poetry. Superior education and th e 13 14

F . Corder, A History o f th e Royal Academy o f Music (1922) . Specimens o f Various Styles o f Music (c . 1808-1815) .

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acquisition o f socia l grace s wer e necessar y onl y fo r thos e wh o woul d perform in the salons of the wealthy: solo singers, higher-class pianists and similar virtuosos. But th e 1870 s ushere d i n th e revolutionar y Educatio n Act , whic h placed sight-singin g an d musi c o n th e nationa l curriculum ; an d th e simultaneous revival in Anglican church music , coupled with a growing belief in self-betterment an d a determination to do something to improve social conditions - al l these factors were brought to bear on the question of musical education b y one man o f remarkable vision and energy . This was the Revd. Dr. Henry George Bonavi a Hunt, th e founder an d first Warden of Trinity College of Music. He had studied at Kings' College and Christ Church, Oxford, though I must own with shame that neither of the tw o otherwise excellent histories of King's Colleg e mentions him; nor does th e D.N.B. 15 Traine d fo r bot h th e Churc h an d th e La w (a t th e Temple), h e took the Oxfor d B.Mus . i n 187 6 and th e Dublin D.Mus . i n 1887. Ordained in 1878 , he held several London curacies, finishing up as vicar o f St Paul's, Kilburn , where he founded Kilburn Grammar School ; he was an ardent choralist , composed music , and wrot e a Concise History of Music tha t reached ninetee n editions;16 he was a Fellow the Royal Society of Edinburg h an d fo r man y year s edite d Cassell's Family Magazine an d another called Th e Quiver. Trinity College gre w out of the interests of the London Church Chora l Association an d Churc h Chora l Society , an d th e discussions tha t Hun t engaged in with various concerned Anglican organists: Sir John Goss, EJ. Hopkins o f th e Templ e Church , Georg e Elve y o f St George' s Chapel , Windsor, Georg e Garret t o f St John's College , Cambridge , an d Henr y Smart. It s first President wa s the Heathe r Professo r at Oxford , Sir F.A. Gore Ouseley. The colleg e was to teach music, perform music and test the musical abilitie s o f student s wh o wer e al l t o b e mal e member s o f th e Church o f England. Man y othe r distinguishe d Anglica n organist s len t their efforts an d goodwill , men who had alread y come together in 186 4 to found th e Colleg e o f Organists (thoug h thi s was and remain s purel y a n examining bod y an d di d no t teach) . I n 187 5 Hunt' s colleg e wa s incorporated a s Trinity College , London; within two years the restriction to male Anglicans was dropped an d the college and its examinations were thrown open t o all, 'without restriction of sex or creed'. Unlike the Royal Academy of Music, Trinity College developed a series of public examinations on a national scale , with dozens of local centres ; these were seen as a means of educating both leaders of taste and a broa d constituency o f performers for them t o lead. The initiativ e seems al l th e 10

M y accoun t o f him i s drawn fro m Harol d Rutland , Trinity College of Music: Th e First Hundred Yean (1972) . 16 A modes t littl e 200-pag e handbook , firs t publishe d i n 1877 , its sixteent h edition , 'revised t o date', appeared i n 1902 .

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more remarkabl e whe n w e conside r tha t ther e wer e a s ye t n o schoo l examinations i n musi c an d n o mean s o f training an d assessin g schoo l music-teachers. A t th e sam e time , agai n unlik e th e Roya l Academy , Trinity Colleg e establishe d a s par t o f it s centra l teachin g an d examinations a general arts training for teachers and choirmaster s in its' academic department ; th e art s subject s ha d t o b e passe d befor e a candidate, howeve r musical , coul d qualif y a s a licentiate . I n 192 1 Si r Wilfred Collet , b y the n Governo r o f Britis h Guiana , wrot e a lette r describing hi s earl y trainin g a t Trinit y Colleg e severa l decade s before . 'Many youn g me n attended' , h e wrote , 't o fill up gap s i n thei r musical education. Trinity Colleg e was the only institution requiring educational qualifications a s a preliminary to the grant of diplomas. At the same time it provided teachers with an Arts course. For while the L.T.C.L. of Trinity College ha d a prestig e ove r th e B.Mus . o f Oxfor d o r Cambridge , a s holders o f th e latte r migh t b e devoi d o f an y bu t th e mos t primitiv e education.' 17 The colleg e ha d brough t thi s complet e art s cours e into existenc e by 1879, wit h forty-on e professor s an d lecturer s (ther e wa s eve n a Physiological Schoo l fo r th e stud y o f th e voca l an d aura l organs , associated wit h th e Centra l Londo n Throa t an d Ea r Hospital) . I t ha d three hall s of residence an d a lively socia l life . I n 188 1 the subjec t o f its Gold Meda l Essa y prize, instituted th e year before, was 'The importance of Genera l Cultur e t o th e Musician' . B y the n it s Honorar y Fellow s included th e poet Tennyson, the painter Lord Leighto n an d the historia n J.A. Froude , an d i n 188 7 the poe t Brownin g joined them . Th e Colleg e proved extremel y successfu l and prosperou s an d ran its affairs - unti l recently - withou t any public subvention, deriving almost all its income from examinatio n fees . I t evoke d jealousy. Doubt s wer e raised abou t th e validity of its legal constitution and th e qualifications of its teachers an d administrators. These were easily quelled, but the College girded it s loins and create d a Senate of forty-six to protect itself, including five M.P.s and four lawyers. This was th e colleg e whose Council, i n February 1876 , petitioned th e Senate o f Londo n Universit y t o reconside r th e questio n o f instituting degrees i n music , o n th e ground s tha t th e genera l improvemen t i n education ough t no w t o produc e a sizeabl e numbe r o f adequatel y qualified candidates . Th e sixt y signatories include d Bonavi a Hunt , th e composer Si r Julius Benedict , th e conducto r Si r Michae l Costa , th e organists Si r John Goss , Si r Georg e Elve y an d Frederic k Bridge , an d Arthur Sullivan. A Senate sub-committee now pronounced itself in favour of degrees in music, stressing in its report th e particular rol e that Trinit y College had playe d i n reopening the discussion, 'a body which has bee n 17

Rutland , Trinity College, p. 14 .

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formed t o promote musica l education o n the basis of general culture'. 18 Draft proposal s fo r the degrees o f B.Mus. an d D.Mus . were drawn u p by William Pole , Professor of Civil Engineering a t Universit y College, in consultation wit h th e Professor s o f Musi c a t Oxford , Cambridg e an d Dublin. (Pol e ha d a n Oxfor d D .Mus. ; he composed, an d wa s for thirt y years organist a t St Mark's, Nort h Audley Street.) The detail s o f th e B.Mus . wer e publishe d i n 1877 . Th e genera l impression wa s that th e syllabus was too demanding. Th e matriculatio n requirements wer e a s stif f a s ever . Afte r tha t cam e a n exclusivel y theoretical 'Firs t B.Mus. ' examination , wit h a goo d dea l o f acoustica l theory an d a paper o n the general histor y of music, 'so far as it relates to the growth o f musical forms an d rules' - i n other words, musica l histor y was see n purel y a s a histor y o f th e developmen t o f musica l styl e an d theory. The 'Secon d B.Mus.' examination, taken a year later, covered the notes themselves : harmony , counterpoint , instrumentation , wit h composition as an approved exercise, and further technica l history, tested through set works. A D.Mus. wa s to follow later, with 'further on the same lines'. This was intended to be a 'higher distinction than th e certificate of any purely professional body', needing 'evidence of general culture as well as of special proficiencies'. As migh t hav e bee n foresee n (an d n o doub t wa s foresee n b y th e Oxbridge advisers) , th e syllabu s prove d to o lik e thos e o f Oxfor d an d Cambridge, bu t harder , sinc e it added the problems of matriculation an d acoustics. Fe w candidates attempte d it , an d fewe r passed . I n on e sens e this was t o be expected: sinc e th e Universit y was at tha t tim e purely an examining body , a degree-grantin g mechanis m validatin g th e result s of the teachin g don e b y th e constituen t colleges , a highe r failur e rat e was nothing unusual . I n th e 1860 s nearly half of all candidates fo r all degrees failed. O f eight candidate s wh o attempted th e first part of the B.Mus . in 1877, five passed, thre e wit h first and tw o with secon d clas s honours. I t took thre e mor e year s - no t one - befor e an y of them passe d th e second B.Mus. t o gain th e degree. Ou r first Bachelors graduate d i n 1880 , W.H . Hunt an d H . Moore . I n 188 5 Hun t an d anothe r man , A.H . Walker , passed th e higher hurdl e of D.Mus. On e wonder s wher e the y came fro m and wher e the y wer e taught . A t leas t Walker , I suspect , wa s a 'Trinit y man'; he had a Cambridge B.A . and was thirty when he took his D.Mus. He became a lecturer and examiner in Acoustics at Trinity College, so his hard work in that area was not wasted; he also became Tutor in Music at the University's Correspondence College , was a teacher of pianoforte and composition, an d live d a t 6 2 Enmor e Road , Sout h Norwood , S.E . W e know thi s becaus e h e achieve d th e distinctio n of being included in John Warriner's National Portrait Gallery o f British Musicians (c . 1896). A samplin g a t five-yearly intervals reveals how little sought-after an d 18

Ibid., p. 15.

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how difficult th e B.Mus. was. 19 In 1885 , one candidate attempte d i t and failed. I n 189 0 only one of five candidates passed. I n 189 5 four tried: none succeeded. I n 190 0 tw o ou t o f three satisfie d th e examiners . Thi s two thirds pas s rat e wa s bette r tha n th e genera l pas s rat e fo r all Londo n University Bachelor' s degrees , fo r in th e sam e yea r onl y 472 candidate s passed out of 890. Dissatisfaction wit h th e structure of the university had bee n growing, however, throughou t thi s period . Irresistibl e voices , le d b y Universit y College an d King' s College , wer e clamourin g for a teachin g university , with fund s fo r lectures, a real professoriate , an d examination s harnesse d closely t o th e course s taught . Tw o Roya l Commission s considere d th e problems, in 1888- 9 and 1892-4 . The so-called Gresham report of 1894, on the proposals fo r a teaching university, proved to offer exciting possiblities for music . I n Februar y 1893 , th e si x commissioners, heade d b y the Ear l Cowper, too k evidence from (i n the following order): the Royal College of Music, represente d b y its Director Si r George Grove , an d Lor d Charle s Bruce fo r the governing body ; th e Royal Academ y o f Music, represente d by it s Principal , Alexande r Mackenzie , wit h Thoma s Threlfal l fo r it s governors; an d Trinit y College , represente d b y Bonavia Hunt , recentl y retired as Warden, an d Dr Edmund H . Turpin, th e new Warden.20 The lon g sessions comprised som e 600 questions and answers, and th e minutes o f evidence, take n down verbatim , occup y twenty-fou r closely printed foli o pages . I t i s a fascinatin g document , enormousl y revealin g about th e aim s an d method s o f the thre e institution s concerned, abou t their uneasy relationship to each other and th e minds and personalities of the principa l speakers . I t deserve s t o b e reprinte d i n ful l a s a mos t important sourc e o f information abou t th e philosoph y an d method s o f musical educatio n i n this country; yet I have never seen any reference to it in any book or article concerned wit h the development of musical studies in Britain , an d it s existenc e ha s evidentl y remaine d quit e unknow n t o subsequent historian s o f th e thre e institution s concerned . Grov e an d Mackenzie wer e ver y guarde d an d sometime s disingenuou s i n thei r replies t o the extremely shrewd questionin g of the commissioners, which came mainly from Ear l Cowper. Th e Academ y had had only ten years to accustom itsel f t o th e existenc e o f a powerfu l riva l i n th e ver y well endowed an d well-connecte d Roya l College , an d wa s stil l concerne d about its own inefficiency an d relative poverty . Both the Academy and the College mus t hav e bee n alarme d a t th e fac t tha t Trinit y Colleg e wa s to give evidenc e o n a n equa l footin g with themselves . Th e ne w Guildhal l School o f Music, heade d b y Joseph Barnby , wa s als o a possibl e threa t and, thoug h it was not asked t o give evidence, would be recommended fo r 19

Figure s ar e take n from Harte , University o f London, p. 139 . Report o f th e Commissioners Appointed t o Consider th e Draft Charter for th e Proposed Gresham University i n London (1894) ; see pp. xlvii , 975-99 . 20

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inclusion in the University with the others. Both the Royal schools wished to preserve their independence a t all costs. Grove, thoug h a great love r of music and a musical lexicographer and editor, was not a professional musician but an engineer; he was by now in poor health , an d sometime s floundere d o r veered of f th e point whe n th e questioning grew technical or explored too precisely his College's possibl e future relationshi p wit h th e University . I t woul d appea r fro m hi s an d Lord Bruce' s replies , an d indee d fro m som e o f Mackenzie' s an d Threlfall's fo r the Academy, that they had never seriously discussed wha t the purpos e o f th e Commissio n was , tha t the y ha d n o ide a wha t th e University was, or what a Faculty of Music or a degree in music might do - althoug h the Royal College's charter actually empowered it to grant its own degrees. Grove , a strictly practical man , disliked the whole notion of degrees i n music; 'They are mainly theoretical,' he said; asked i f they are of much advantage, h e replied: 'the world seems to consider them to be of advantage, o r so many people would not apply for them; but I have never been abl e t o se e th e advantage. ' Cowper : 'Yo u d o no t yourself , a s a practical man, see much good in them?' - 'No , I do not indeed; probably from ignorance. ' Ye t h e sa w tha t a ne w type o f degree, draw n u p b y a Faculty mad e u p o f professor s fro m th e college s o f music , migh t b e practical a s wel l a s theoretical . I f a n entirel y practica l degre e wer e proposed, one feel s h e would hav e bee n interested : 'why shoul d yo u no t give a man a degree for being an accomplished performer? ' - 'Thos e who get degree s a t presen t ar e no t ofte n reall y accomplished . The y writ e exercises i n eigh t parts , an d thei r exercises ar e ofte n pu t o n a shel f an d never heard of afterwards. The grea t musician s as a rule have not gone in for degree s . . . I hav e alway s looke d upo n thes e degree s rathe r wit h astonishment.' He became confuse d an d escape d int o lexicography when the question of musical learning and scienc e was discussed, being much more at hom e with 'rules ' tha n wit h 'sciences' . A lon g an d irrelevan t disquisitio n on early Englis h musi c contain s th e totall y erroneou s statemen t tha t 'ou r English madrigal s wer e as much sun g in Ital y the n a s Italia n madrigal s were sun g here' . Th e Britis h uppe r middl e clas s i s excoriate d a t on e moment fo r its alleged indifferenc e t o music and a t th e next for spending vast sums on importing foreign music . But these are side-issues. His other really interestin g replie s relat e t o th e genera l cultur e o f the musician : however one may encourage a performer's cultural education, no t much can b e done b y syllabus and legislation , Grov e thought , excep t i n a few unusual case s - thoug h singer s nee d som e polishing . There is not time, and technica l education must start at too early an age. No test of literacy is asked o f student s o n entr y t o th e colleg e an d genera l culture , thoug h advantageous t o a leader of taste, a composer or conductor, can be insisted on only at scholarship leve l - tha t is, for the solo virtuoso. The Roya l Colleg e offere d lesson s i n genera l knowledg e fro m a

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schoolmaster tw o evenings a week. Grove gav e a n extraordinary answe r to the question, 'I suppose for singers at all events the knowledge of foreign languages i s very material?' — 'As far as the sound goes . .. At the stron g recommendation o f Madam Jenny Lind Goldschmidt , who was our first chief professor of singing, we have an Italian class, but thoug h instituted for pronounciation , gramma r i s to o muc h taugh t a t it . Germa n an d French w e have no t ye t tried . I a m afrai d o f overworking th e children . They sometimes break down a s it is.' When Cowpe r aske d Grove why a University should not give a diploma in practica l musi c withou t th e art s trimmings , jus t a s i t migh t offe r instruction towar d specialise d practica l engineerin g diplomas , Grove , himself an enginee r (bu t not university-trained) , simply could no t gras p the questio n o r th e opportunit y offered ; h e drifte d awa y fro m th e poin t and ramble d of f into irrelevanc e abou t th e totall y absorbin g natur e o f music. But why need h e have worried? The Universit y appeared to have no money , an d n o additional financia l resource s were on offer . Th e ne w and wealthy young College's line was to wait and see, to exploit what little advantage migh t be gained from any association with the University; with patrons suc h as the Prince of Wales, wh y fear Ear l Cowper? Mackenzie's evidenc e for the Academ y wa s also rambling , thoug h h e was evidentl y a mos t likeabl e man . I t i s similar t o Grove's i n failin g t o engage wit h man y o f the questions , bu t Mackenzi e seems t o have bee n much more awar e of the problem o f providing a true and broade r highe r education fo r the Academy's students , an d th e Academ y seem s t o have been bette r a t coaxin g the m int o it . Wha t h e appeare d mos t t o fear , underneath hi s actual words , wa s a re-openin g of the old question of an amalgamation wit h th e College . Himsel f a D.Mus. , h e kne w wha t a university was, and at one moment offered suggestion s for making degrees more practical , a proces s whic h Edinburg h Universit y wa s apparentl y proposing t o institute: 'I see there that the Musical Bachelor and also the Doctor o f Music wil l b e compelle d t o undergo a n examinatio n o n som e instrument. That is the first case I have heard of . I was rather surprised, and I have hardly take n it in, but I saw that as being quite a step in a new direction. I thin k tha t som e suc h tes t i s reall y necessary . Th e presen t examinations are entirely based o n the scientifi c side of music, and reall y give n o clu e to what a man' s innat e talen t i s . . .' A few questions later , however, h e affected t o despise the musical degre e i n principle: 'Man y of us do not see the necessity of the thing, but it exists, and I am afraid i t will never be rubbed ou t probably. I t i s considered absolutel y necessary for a cathedral organist to have a degree.' And indee d the attitudes and technique s of the London degrees, which did no t chang e muc h afte r al l this until the 1960s , were to continue for a long tim e t o inhabi t a curiousl y artificia l sound-world , increasingl y divorced fro m th e rea l concern s bot h o f contemporar y music , an d o f scholarly developments in historical, theoretical and analytica l thinking.

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Bonavia Hunt' s evidenc e wa s quit e different ; i t reveal s rea l an d compelling intellectua l comman d an d a n unshakeabl e belie f i n th e importance o f general cultur e t o the practising musician . I have n o time and n o need t o go into his vision in detail over again; but Trinit y Colleg e would greatl y hav e liked t o form the closest possible associatio n with the University, whether as a School or through a Faculty and Board of Studies comprising recognise d teacher s fro m it s own and other institutions. Hunt rattled off very impressively the University matriculation exemptions that Trinity Colleg e accepte d a s equivalent s t o it s ow n academi c courses , pointing ou t tha t a great man y o f his candidates fo r licentiateship wer e already graduates o f the universities. As many as seventy licentiates out of 160 wer e graduates . Wha t h e wa s afte r wa s th e cultivate d leade r o f musical taste , th e ne w an d intellectua l kind o f musician represented b y the Germa n Klesme r i n Georg e Eliot' s recen t Daniel Deronda. 21 H e rammed hom e th e necessity for a residential Londo n degree , pointin g t o the great , indee d unique , advantage s offere d b y th e musica l lif e an d general culture of a great metropolis, and aske d 'once and fo r all that th e Faculty o f Music shoul d b e mad e a rea l livin g thing' . H e woul d hav e welcomed a professoriate validated b y the University. He saw the social as well as the educationa l advantag e o f his students being able to mix with those o f other disciplines . H e deplore d th e lo w regard i n which existin g university music degrees wer e held, though Trinity College had prepare d many B.Mus . an d D.Mus. candidates for Oxford an d Cambridge, and he saw th e opportunit y fo r chang e an d ne w vigour ; h e eve n predicte d postgraduate developments . H e ha d nothin g t o fea r fro m universit y control, o r fro m servin g o n a facult y wit h teacher s fro m th e Roya l Academy an d Roya l College . Why , h e eve n approve d o f the Guildhal l School of Music, and would have liked them in the scheme as well! It was plainly th e testimon y o f thi s ver y far-seeing , clear-thinkin g an d thoroughly modern-minde d ma n that persuaded the Commissioners t o a view of the University's role in developing musical studies that proved far too optimistic , give n th e seniorit y an d influentia l patronag e o f th e institutions that the y were dealing with. They recommende d at first that not only the Royal Academy, Royal College and Trinity College, but also the Guildhal l School , shoul d actuall y becom e School s o f the University; but th e tw o former wer e no t prepare d t o do s o 'except upo n condition s which i t was not within th e power o f the Commissioners t o accept'. Th e 21 Juliu s Klesmer, however , gains social acceptance precisely because he is not English. Well pai d a s a pianis t an d composer , h e live s lik e a n honoure d gues t i n a wealth y household; n o nativ e English musician coul d have aspired t o such a status. A 'felicitou s combination of the German, the Sclave, and th e Semite', his genius forces only a reluctant admiration fro m on e astonishe d gentleman : 'What extrem e guys thos e artisti c fellow s usually are! ' Thoug h n o 'gentleman' , Klesme r i s nevertheles s eventually permitte d t o marry a n heiress. The contras t with the poor man Elgar' s slow climb to social acceptance could not be more striking.

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music colleges were therefor e lef t outsid e th e University, a s were also, in law (an d fo r similar reasons) , the Inn s of Court. Nevertheless, a Faculty Board o f Music and a Board o f Studies were created . The effec t o f this o n th e musi c degrees wa s slight , an d Hun t himsel f would not , I think , hav e suggeste d anythin g ver y differen t fo r th e historical an d technical syllabus: my enthusiasm for his attitude stems not from hi s musica l idea s bu t fro m hi s eviden t openness , receptivit y an d readiness t o envisage a structure capable o f rapid development . The new Faculty Boar d me t fo r th e firs t tim e o n Frida y 1 2 Octobe r 1900. 22 I t consisted o f Si r Huber t Parr y fo r th e Roya l College , Charle s Villier s Stanford for the Royal Academy, Si r Walter Parratt (who had once taugh t in the University), Dr E.M. Turpi n for Trinity Colleg e and Mr J. Higgs , also from Trinity , as Secretary; h e was later elected Dean. Parr y was to be the Senator fo r the Faculty, along with J.W. Sidebotham , a Trinity man , as membe r for Convocation; Sidebotha m wa s not on the Faculty , but i n 1900 h e wa s a prim e move r o f an Ac t i n Parliamen t t o regulat e music teaching an d teacher-training . Wit h suc h powerfu l representatio n o f Oxbridge and th e senior musi c colleges in Parry an d Stanford , and wit h the Trinity representatives in a minority, it is perhaps not surprising that the Board o f Studies proved s o unwilling to open up the music degrees for potential ne w developments. Musi c continued to be organised entirely by representatives from the Institutions having Recognised Teachers, so that there was hardly ever a purely universit y figure involved i n the Faculty' s deliberations. The degree s wer e reviewe d and slightl y altered; bu t th e Report o f the Board o f Studies i n Musi c o f 7 June 190 1 desired littl e change an d wa s evidently concerne d t o dam p dow n al l consideratio n o f refor m an d t o avoid interferenc e fro m th e University . Nothin g i n th e syllabu s an d teaching was to be spelled out in any great detail , and th e three teaching institutions wer e to rule supreme an d alone , wit h no separate universit y provision fo r musi c whatever . Acoustic s wer e t o b e remove d fro m th e B.Mus. syllabus , perhap s pu t int o th e matriculatio n requirement s an d even ther e with a n alternative ; th e subjec t ha s proved, say s th e Board , 'purely fallacious'. The schem e for the musical part of the exam remained much a s i t was , bu t no w provide d a stead y progressio n throug h th e intermediate examination t o the final B.Mus. in all areas o f music and a little history and analysis. Harmony, counterpoint and 'fre e composition' each require d a n hour' s stud y a week; histor y an d analysi s onl y twent y minutes each, t o be certified b y the candidate's institution . The exercise was t o be an independently-compose d piec e lasting from twent y to fort y minutes; i t must be written for voices with string accompaniment, using 22

Th e followin g account o f the Faculty of Music since 190 0 derives from th e minutes of the Faculty (Oct . 1900-Oct . 1927 ; Oct 1946-present ) and of the Board o f Studies in Music (since Jan. 1901) , preserved i n the University Library.

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real five-par t voca l counterpoin t with examples o f imitation, canon an d fugue, an d 'mus t be a good composition from a musical point of view'. No mention was made of the standards b y which the musical offerings were to be judged, but one may deduce fro m th e theoretical publication s o f future teachers an d examiners , suc h a s C.W. Pearc e an d Perc y Buck , that th e norm wa s th e languag e o f purely academic harmon y an d counterpoint , not founded, except a s a distant memory , on any actual musical style . (I t was i n fac t a debasemen t o f the teachin g o f Fux, wh o ha d codifie d th e ancient heritag e o f Palestrina' s churc h styl e an d interprete d i t i n th e eighteenth centur y fo r th e ne w ag e o f flori d an d instrumenta l counterpoint.) Th e D.Mus . simpl y carrie d th e sam e notion s t o a mor e complex level. The maintenance and defence of this tradition continued t o be the principal concern of the Faculty and Boar d of Studies for over sixty years; music failed t o share in the extraordinary growth of the University, or to gain extra resources, o r to develop significant research teaching . One suspects , however, that Trinity Colleg e was not content. In 1902 , in honou r o f th e recen t coronatio n an d i n commemoratio n o f it s ow n thirtieth anniversary , Trinit y graduate s subscribe d £5,00 0 t o endo w a part-time Professorshi p i n Music , th e Kin g Edwar d VI I Chair , whos e first holder was Sir Frederick Bridge , organis t o f Westminter Abbey . Th e Professor gav e a fe w lectures an d too k par t i n th e deliberation s o f th e Faculty Boar d (whic h were on occasion cancelle d because inquorate , a s indeed was one meeting o f the Boar d o f Studies, whic h had t o reduce it s quorum from si x to four). The Professo r had no special status, and indeed was no t appointe d fo r lif e bu t cam e u p fo r annual re-election , though a three-year ter m wa s recommended . H e wa s no t empowered , le t alon e required, t o ac t a s a n examine r fo r degree s (ther e wer e onl y tw o examiners); an d thoug h thi s ste p wa s recommende d b y th e Boar d o f Studies in 1904 , in answer to a question from th e University, the minutes of 1910 , 191 7 an d 192 5 sho w tha t th e chang e ha d stil l no t bee n implemented. Trinit y continued , nevertheless , t o improv e th e statu s of university studie s and t o increase the numbe r of students. As there were no University or School scholarships for music students, Trinity Colleg e provided fund s fo r no les s tha n eightee n three-yea r scholarship s offere d for ope n competitio n t o matriculate d student s i n th e universitie s o f Oxford, Durha m an d London , t o enable them to prepare for the B.Mus., with tuition and all examination and other fees paid. This valuable facility was eventually dropped whe n funds ra n out. The Boar d o f Studie s continue d o n it s pat h o f masterl y inactivity . When in 190 9 the University asked if there should be more professorships and readership s in music, created by conferment of title, the Board replied that they thought it 'inadvisable to confer the title of Professor of Music on any individual' , an d actuall y refuse d t o appoin t th e necessar y Facult y Board o f Advisors. None of the Faculty's 'Recognise d Teachers' received a salary, of course, or any money for administration or research: only their

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teaching wa s paid for , at an hourly rate. Examiners wer e paid per capita. We should certainly acknowledge how much money the University saved, over many decades, b y its reliance on these teachers. In answe r t o a request, also in 1909 , for provision o f resources for the teaching o f music, th e Boar d replie d tha t 'inasmuc h a s th e teachin g of music is in the hands of the institutions whose teachers ar e 'recognised' by the University , th e responsibilit y o f providin g adequatel y fo r tha t teaching rest s wit h thos e institutions , an d i t i s unnecessar y fo r th e University t o mak e an y specia l arrangement s i n connectio n wit h th e subject'. Anothe r chance missed. Trinity's scholarship s were perhaps in part intended a s an initiative towards provisio n o f this kind. In 191 9 the Board of Studies in History wanted to add t o the B.A. Pass degree a specia l subjec t i n th e Histor y an d Appreciatio n o f Music : a laudable attempt t o spread a n interes t i n music, and t o capitalise on an existing one , i n a universit y wher e non e o f th e constituen t school s contained musi c teachers o r students . Th e Boar d o f Studies a t firs t fel t moved t o approve it, simply adding th e word 'critical' to 'appreciation of music'; bu t a yea r late r th e Boar d propose d substitutin g harmony , counterpoint an d fugu e fo r this special paper , thoug h th e Kin g Edwar d Professor spok e up, I am happy t o say, for the retention of history. Some goo d thing s wer e done . Th e Boar d vette d th e proposal s fo r a General Schoo l Examination in music in 1922 , and tw o years later set up a sub-committee to produce an optional matriculation pape r in music that would b e equivalen t t o it , thu s easin g th e matriculatio n proces s fo r candidates wh o wer e well-prepared . Whe n 'Advance d Lectures ' wer e proposed i n 1924 , the historian Sir Henry Hado w wa s invited to speak on 'English Composers o f the Tudor Period', the first of a long procession of such notables . In 192 4 Sir Frederick Bridge , th e firs t Kin g Edwar d Professor , died; and th e Universit y too k the chanc e o f reviewing the 'possibilitie s which exist for the work of the King Edward Professor' . The Facult y cautiously decided that , 'although the need for a Report did not arise, it was desirable that evidence should be given to the committee on matters concerning th e position o f music in the University'. Dr E.F . Horne r an d th e Dean, the n Stewart Macpherson , wer e asked t o give evidence but, curiously, only in their capacit y a s 'individua l members ' o f the Faculty . I n th e even t D r Horner wen t t o Sout h America , s o nothing wa s done . D r Perc y Buck, meanwhile, ha d bee n smartl y appointe d a s Bridge' s successo r i n th e Chair, thu s avoidin g an y prio r revie w o f the Professor' s duties ; he was asked t o make a repor t wit h the Dean . The y sen t i n a memorandu m in 1926 pointing out that the King Edward Professo r had no powers beyond his ex officio membershi p of the Boar d o f Studies, not even, yet, to act a s an examine r an d concer n himsel f with standards . Th e alteratio n o f this state of affairs wa s however:

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presumably a domestic matter, and there appears to be a likelihood that in the near future th e Professor will be in a position to exercise an influence over, and assume a responsibility for, the degree examinations. Shoul d thi s occur he will be able t o get in touch wit h all students preparing fo r musical degrees an d t o help the m b y courses of lectures, b y advic e i n individual cases, b y plannin g courses o f work , extensiv e o r intensive , an d b y broadenin g opinio n an d outlook. His tas k i n helpin g th e caus e o f practical musi c is , i n th e Universit y o f London, one of considerable difficulty . Th e componen t college s and affiliate d institutions ar e o f a ver y varie d characte r an d diffe r widel y i n educationa l aims, i n socia l character , an d i n geographica l position . Thes e institution s have, for the most part, musical societies of their own, and prefer (as is natural) to preserv e thei r identitie s rathe r tha n t o merg e the m int o a representativ e university body . Th e Kin g Edwar d Professo r ha s alread y take n step s t o get together a round-table conferenc e of all these units, with a view to finding out whether an y feeling of loyalty and dut y to the Universit y as a whole exists or can b e created . I f an y suc h spiri t i s found, o r ca n b e aroused , i t shoul d no t prove impossible t o enlist the sympathy of the great London school s of music which ar e themselves definitely connecte d wit h the University - an d lay the foundations of a great deal of mutual help and goodwill, and possibly of a more ambitious future. I f such a procedure commends itself to the higher authorities it should no t b e difficult t o make some progress i n this half of the work of the Professor of Music.

Here was the prospect o f action at last. Senate was so interested that it offered t o call a special meeting, but thi s the Board declined. Frederick Bridg e had attempte d universit y concerts ; Trinity Colleg e orchestra had played at Presentation Day ceremonies. In 192 3 Bridge had even composed a University anthem on a text from Ecclesiasticus chosen by Rudyard Kipling ; bu t i t ha d no t caugh t on . Th e mai n frui t o f Buck's consultations wa s th e productio n o f Th e University o f London Song Book published i n 1927 ; this contain s a hundre d uniso n communit y songs, fluently arrange d b y Buck (though he turns the lute part of Morley's 'I t was a lover and his lass' into modern academic counterpoint). The songs had been chosen by balloting the many choirs in the University's colleges, following a n initiativ e from th e famou s historia n Si r Bernar d Pares , o f King's Colleg e an d th e Schoo l of Slavonic and Eas t Europea n Studies , who wrot e th e preface . Th e boo k als o give s th e musi c o f th e Londo n University Song, commissioned by Senate in 1925 : it has words by John Drinkwater (whos e father was a Trinity man) and music by John Ireland, a Royal College teacher. The song is not listed in the John Ireland Trust's Catalogue o f Works (1968) , no r i n Th e New Grove; i t to o faile d t o establis h itself, perhap s becaus e o f its metrica l irregularit y (mor e apparent tha n real). I t take s very muc h afte r Parry's Jerusalem, an d i s reproduce d o n p. 202. In general these laudable hopes of developing the corporate musical life of the University came to nothing, because they lacked any social basis in

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University Son g

JOHN DRINKVVATER . JOH

By permissio n o f th e Universit y o f London. mf Broadly.

(All) i . Pil - grira s fro m m a - ny path s we came T

N IRELAND .

Used b y permission. *

o wher e the roads of K m - pirc

8f
fame That yet a - long the years shall

fame That yet a - long the years shall

fame That yet a - long the years shall

*From Curwen Editio n 71691 . Copyright , 1926 , b y Joh n Ireland .

203

Music

/ beat. O

Londo

n maids , an

d Londo n men , Brin g

(Without 8ve«)

in th

e gold-e n ag

ea

(Svei)

-

gain

.

(Men) 3 Lif e call s us, an d w e bi d farewel l To thi s the lates t o f our springs , But o n ou r travel s we will tell How fellowshi p of gentle thing s Is kept fo r ever where the y dwell, Who kno w the song tha t Englan d sings . O Londo n maids , and Londo n men , Bring in the golde n ag e again. (Women) 2 I n n o seclusio n pastur'd round , As where the Ca m and Isi s flow, Our cloister' d learnin g have we foun d Where loud th e tide s of traffi c go . Our nightingale s have been th e sound Of Londo n bell s fro m Flee t t o Bow: O Londo n maids , and Londo n men , Bring i n the golde n ag e again. (All) 4 I n Hel d o r market-place o r mill, Beneath a dear o r alie n sun, We'll buil d a generation still , Of fait h and honou r her e begun , That sires of the ol d English wil l Shall kno w their own and cry—wel l done ! O Londo n maids , O Londo n men , Bring i n the golde n ag e again.

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residential collegiat e life . The Kin g Edwar d Professo r remained a person with n o resource s behin d hi m an d littl e influence . Th e B.Mus . an d D.Mus. drifted ye t further fro m reality , and i n their existing form becam e less an d les s necessary , becaus e bette r degree s i n music , base d o n residential courses , burgeone d i n othe r universities . Afte r th e Secon d World Wa r and the great post-Robbin s expansio n in university provision, the position became much more acute, and after three more King Edwar d Professors ha d served thei r term s - th e organist Si r Stanley Marchant , George Oldroyd , wh o wrot e a valuabl e boo k o n fugue , an d th e ver y distinguished compose r Herber t Howells , who retired in 1961 - th e time was ripe for a new initiative. In it s repor t o n Development Polic y for the Quinquennium , 1962-67 , the Boar d o f Studies in Music mad e th e long overdue bu t epoch-makin g recommendation tha t the time had come to establish a full-time Chair and Department o f Music, with lectureships, preferabl y placed somewher e in the Central Precinct , thoug h in the closest association wit h a School. Th e University wa s delighte d t o act , adde d t o th e endowmen t o f the Kin g Edward Chai r an d move d it , no w a s a full-tim e professorship , wit h proposals fo r a Faculty of Music, to King's College. But who would fill the Chair? What follow s is recent and in some quarters stil l painful history , and though i t is in the end a record o f proud succes s -1 shall not dwell on it at length. The King Edward Chai r was offered t o Robert Thurston Dart , the Professor of Music in the University of Cambridge. H e had been unable to reform th e Cambridg e syllabu s a s h e ha d wished , an d i n 196 5 h e gratefully accepte d th e chance to set up a faculty in London o n new lines. His proposal s wer e radical , an d ther e was no avoiding a clas h wit h th e interests an d teachin g qualification s o f the Recognise d Teacher s a t th e Colleges of Music. He put forward a scheme for the B.Mus. which greatly reduced the emphasis on vocational trainin g and opened out the subject to a wide range o f intellectual, critical and historica l enquiry. There were to be compulsory papers , 'suc h as will quicken the perceptions, stretc h th e mind, an d tempe r th e judgement' , i n th e histor y o f instrument s (no t restricted t o European instruments , nor to the last 500 years), twentiethcentury musi c (includin g jazz, avant-gard e music , folksong an d electro acoustic developments) , an d a choic e fro m fiv e fifty-yea r period s o f musical history. Two optiona l subjects , from amon g th e following , wer e designed t o place music in the context of the intellectual, literary, artistic, religious an d socia l lif e o f it s time , o r t o mak e possibl e th e stud y o f ethnomusicology: musi c an d theatr e (includin g opera, ballet , musica l comedy, masque, film and television) ; music and poetr y (principall y solo song); musi c an d scienc e (includin g acoustics o f concert halls , studios , musical acoustic s and 'noise' - Dar t wa s a leading membe r of the Noise Abatement Society); music and education (methods of teaching music, for the professional and amateur , from Guid o d'Arezzo to Kodaly and OrfT) ;

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music an d religion ; musi c and Europea n societ y (are a studies : Britain , France, Sla v countries, German-speaking lands, Italy, Iberia or Medieval Europe); non-European musi c (tw o areas fro m Chin a an d Japan, India and S.E. Asia, Africa, Middle East, N. and S. America); music in London since 180 0 ('In England, a s in France, th e history of its music is to a large extent identical with the history of the capital city' s musical activities and organisations'); and one traditional subject , composition. T o make room for al l this Dart reduced th e technical musical exercises of the B.Mus. t o two terms ' wor k i n th e firs t year , an d a n optiona l Final s pape r i n composition. H e put u p a sign above th e entrance t o his King's College Faculty which read 'Abando n counterpoint all ye who enter here': many teachers an d gradutes , outrage d b y hi s reforms , n o doub t dre w th e Dantean conclusio n tha t hi s sign , beautifull y copie d o n parchment , indicated the entrance to some musicological Hell. The laconic minutes of the Boar d o f Studie s mus t concea l som e extraordinaril y angr y discussions; th e sniping continue d i n letters printed in the Musical Times of 1966, admirably answered by Dr Paul Steinitz of Goldsmiths' Colleg e and Dr Anthony Milner of King's College. The old D.Mus. - horro r of horrors - wa s abolished an d brought into line with the other higher doctorates as a degre e fo r th e senio r compose r whos e positio n ha d bee n criticall y established, lik e that of a scholar, by published (an d publicl y performed ) work; a musicologis t might als o submit scholarl y publications fo r it. D r Milner was the first new London D.Mus. o f this kind. Many member s o f th e Boar d resigned , fo r Dar t ha d reduce d thei r voting strength by adding t o it several new university members; som e of these possesse d scholarl y musica l o r tangentiall y musica l interests , bu t some di d not . Imposin g figure s wer e enliste d suc h a s Professor s Erns t Gombrich (histor y o f art), Kevi n Nas h (civi l engineering) , N.C . Scot t (phonetics), R.P . Winningto n Ingra m (classic s an d ancien t Gree k music), an d D r D.P . Walke r (intellectua l and musica l history) togethe r with Dr J.R. Marr (Indian music) and other distinguished ethnomusicologists from th e School of Oriental an d African Studies . Th e music colleges, now out-voted, found that a syllabus was to be imposed on them, for many areas o f which they had n o teachers. They tried to set up their ow n degre e o r continu e th e ol d on e alongsid e th e new ; whe n defeated, they very nearly lef t th e University's orbi t altogether. Bu t wiser counsels prevaile d - thank s largel y t o th e effort s o f the compose r D r Bernard Steven s at th e Royal College of Music and D r Arthur Pritchard at the Royal Academy of Music: they and others were prepared t o give the new idea s a chance . Dar t offere d t o teac h Musi c Colleg e student s a t King's fo r certai n subjects ; h e adde d musica l performanc e an d interpretation a s a B.Mus . optio n particularl y suitable for them; and h e made strenuou s attempts , thoug h unsuccessfully , t o obtai n ne w lectureships fro m th e Universit y which migh t b e share d betwee n th e music colleges.

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Dart di d no t giv e wa y o n th e muc h smalle r allocatio n o f tim e t o harmony and counterpoint studies in the B.Mus., and based the m on the imitation o f real musica l styles, not o n th e old academic language. Afte r his death , however , experience suggeste d tha t h e ha d gon e to o far, an d more space was found fo r such work: many music graduates, afte r all, do enter th e professio n a s practitioners . Dar t als o se t ou t a n ambitiou s programme fo r Master's Degrees , an d hi s advent created a tremendous impetus i n highe r researc h whic h his successors Howard Maye r Brown and mysel f have been delighted to build on.23 The B.Mus . proved a most attractive degree, an d withi n a few years London coul d boast the larges t and mos t varie d collectio n o f musi c student s i n th e country . Dar t encouraged th e registratio n o f internal musi c student s a t Goldsmiths ' College, starting i n 1965 ; i n 197 0 Royal Hollowa y Colleg e founde d what has als o become a large an d successfu l departmen t unde r Professor Ia n Spink. H e als o persuade d D r W.H . Swinburn e t o ente r student s a s externals for the London degree from th e fine school of music at the North East Esse x Technica l Colleg e i n Colchester . Al l thi s unremittin g effor t cost Dart dear, and in 1971 he died of cancer at the early age of forty-nine. The presen t world-renowne d excellenc e of London i n musi c studies, particularly i n research , i s sufficiently known , and nee d not form par t of my theme . What i s not sufficientl y know n is how slende r th e resources have been , i n term s o f both financ e an d space , wit h which it ha s bee n achieved. Ou r Universit y began t o feel th e pinch almos t a s soon a s Dart arrived on the scene in the mid 1960s , and the screw has been so tightened since the n tha t th e musi c colleges too now face a period o f considerable difficulty over teaching resources, and this when their teachers have at last achieved salarie d status . Dar t wa s promise d a n Institut e of Advanced Musical Studies , whic h h e intende d shoul d no t onl y foste r it s ow n members' an d students ' researches, but act as a clearing-house and a coordinating and facilitatin g body for the work of other important centres of musical researc h i n th e University , suc h a s th e Schoo l o f Oriental an d African Studies , the Warburg Institute, Chelsea College (now united with King's College) an d the Institute of Education; i n spite of the presence on their staf f o f researchers excellen t in music , these institutions could no t 23 Th e remarkabl e succes s o f musicological an d relate d researc h i n th e Universit y of London ma y b e measured b y the followin g figures for research dissertation s an d shorte r studies (excludin g musical compositions) complete d durin g th e quinquennium 1976-80, compiled fro m th e Roya l Musica l Association's 'Register of Theses on Musi c i n Britai n and Ireland ' (R.M.A . Research Chronicle 1 5 (1979), compiled b y Nick Sandon, pp . 38-116 , with Supplement s 1 (ibid. 16 , (1980) p . 110-134 ) and 2 ibid. 1 7 (1981), pp. 110-134) , both by Sandon; an d 3 (ibid. 1 8 (1982), pp. 85-118), compiled by Ian Bartlett) . Special studies, etc., fo r Master's degrees: London, 102 ; thirty-three othe r British an d Iris h universities , ninety-five (a n average of three each). M.Phil, and doctoral dissertations: London, thirty eight; Oxford, twenty-six ; Cambridge twenty-three; thirty-seve n others , 12 6 (an average of 3.5 each).

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then teac h i n th e Facult y o f Music . Thi s nee d perceive d b y Dar t continues. T o cit e onl y on e example , ther e i s n o mechanis m fo r co ordinating interdisciplinar y researc h int o th e psycho-physiolog y o f musical performanc e and practice , particularly of singing, although this would bes t b e undertake n i n London , wher e one migh t achiev e a tea m drawn fro m a variet y o f institutions, involving established singer s an d teachers i n th e college s of music, anatomists, radiologists, psychologists, phoneticians, educationists , an d electrica l engineers . Man y importan t national musica l institutions active in the metropolis lack homes of their own, suc h a s th e Roya l Musica l Associatio n - th e learne d societ y for musical studies - and the Plainsong and Mediaeval Musi c Society; or they live i n accommodation o f uncertain tenur e - suc h a s the British Musi c Information Centr e o r the Englis h Folk Dance an d Son g Societ y and it s successor body , whic h it seem s ca n n o longer affor d t o ru n Ceci l Shar p House. A t presen t th e Institut e o f Advance d Musica l Studie s barel y exists; it can mak e occasional smal l grants in aid of publication, an d ha s provided a valuabl e foru m i n it s colloqui a a t King' s Colleg e fo r distinguished foreig n musicologist s t o mee t thei r Britis h counterparts . London Universit y has achieve d s o much with its music, and a t s o little expense compare d wit h other subjects , that i t mus t now be prepared t o place it s advocacy , i n th e absenc e o f money whic h i t doe s no t possess , behind th e raisin g o f funds fo r th e preservatio n an d developmen t o f its excellence in music and musicology. In celebrating the past 15 0 years, it is our duty to plan wisely for the next.

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10 The Social Sciences O.K. McGregor This sesquicentenar y i s no t th e occasio n fo r dispassionat e historica l assessment. Fro m me , an old student of the London Schoo l of Economics , it call s rather fo r filial thoug h candi d respec t allied with diffidence, an d this is the spiri t in which I shall approach th e tas k assigned t o me in this series of lectures, commissioned b y the University , to survey the growt h and achievement s of its severa l faculties. Happily , a lecturer in the LS E has no need t o argue whether th e social sciences ar e possible o r desirabl e or usefu l o r to be valued a s good i n themselves. As memories are short, I shall devote much of my time to the more distant than to the recent past in what cannot b e other than an impressionistic retrospect. In 1900 , th e five-yea r ol d L.S.E . wa s admitte d a s a Schoo l o f th e reconstituted Universit y o f London. Th e firs t universit y degree i n thi s country devote d t o the social sciences was the B.Sc. (Econ.) , introduced a year later. These subject s were drawn together within a new Faculty of the University too narrowly designated, even at the beginning, as Economics and Politica l Science . But in fact the Faculty, whatever its title, has always been the L.S.E. and, for internal students in the social sciences, the School is the Universit y o f London. Certainly, a small numbe r o f other School s has played a part i n the development of some subjects though, in the field as a whole , i t ha s neve r bee n othe r tha n a margina l part . Indeed , thi s generalisation goes far beyond our own university because in many of the social science s L.S.E . ha s als o bee n th e chie f influence, especiall y as th e supplier of teachers, throughou t the Kingdom durin g most of this century. In th e early nineteenth century, London was the only major Europea n capital withou t a university. England ha d Oxfor d an d Cambridge ; bot h were expensiv e and sociall y exclusive, and bot h restricte d admission s t o members o f th e establishe d church . Befor e tha t time , th e science s developed i n Scotland' s fou r universitie s ha d mad e a n essentia l contribution t o th e industria l revolutio n i n England . Further , th e

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astonishing and still unexplained vigour of the Enlightenment in Scotlan d had embrace d th e study of society as well as of nature though such lesser but highl y origina l contemporarie s o f Hume an d Smit h a s Hutcheson , Kames, Monboddo, Robertson, Ferguso n an d Milla r hav e only recently begun t o receiv e th e scholarl y attentio n whic h thei r importanc e i n th e history o f social thought merits . No wonder , then , tha t youn g me n fro m th e dissentin g wealthier , commercial an d industria l families an d fro m th e ol d and ne w centre s of population, mad e a n educationa l pilgrimag e to the Scottish universities. No wonder either that Edinburg h becam e th e strongest of the influence s upon th e grou p o f papists , Jews , protestan t dissenter s an d agnostic Benthamities who , unde r th e leadershi p o f Brougham , founde d a n alternative university in London. 1 In th e spirit of the age, they set it up as a joint stoc k compan y offerin g £10 0 share s a t 4 per cen t interes t t o th e general public . That first University o f London survive d for ten years, by which tim e the marke t wa s valuin g th e stoc k a t £23 . It s titl e the n change d t o University Colleg e whe n a ne w Charter wa s sealed . Thi s establishe d a body t o b e know n a s th e Universit y o f London , empowere d t o gran t degrees, afte r examinations , i n Arts , Law s an d Medicine , t o mal e candidates wh o ha d complete d a cours e a t Universit y College , King' s College o r suc h othe r institutio n subsequentl y approve d b y th e Government fo r th e purpose . Thi s requiremen t wa s remove d b y th e Charter o f 185 8 whic h opene d th e non-medica l examination s t o al l matriculated comers . B y the mid-century , some thirty colleges had bee n approved; twent y year s late r Londo n becam e th e firs t universit y i n Britain to admit women on equal terms to all its degrees. In the nineteenth century , British universities were not nurseries for the social sciences . Man y o f th e grea t name s worke d outsid e them . I n London, wit h al l it s advantages , Universit y an d King' s College s faile d even t o establis h a schoo l o f politica l economy , althoug h the y bot h attracted som e talente d economist s fro m tim e t o tim e - Cairne s an d Jevons at University Colleg e and Edgeworth and Cunningham a t King's. H.S. Foxwell , th e sixt h holde r o f the Chai r a t Universit y College, wa s appointed i n 1881 and remained unti l 1927. He has an assured place in the history of the University not only as an economist and a very long serving part-time teacher at L.S.E. but chiefly as the bibliomaniac who assembled after 187 5 the librar y o f 40,000 books an d pamphlet s on economics an d economic though t which th e Goldsmiths ' Compan y bough t i n 190 1 for 1 Amon g th e secondar y sources , H . Hal e Bellot , University College London, 1826-1926 (1929), F.G. Brook, The University o f London, 1820-1860, with special reference t o its Influence o n the Development o f Higher Education (Ph.D . London , 1958) , an d th e commissione d sesquicentennial histor y o f Negle y Harte , Th e University o f London, 1836-1986 (1986 ) ar e particularly valuable .

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£10,000 and gave subequently to the University. This happy event for the University was precipitated by Foxwell's having to raise money urgently when h e decide d t o marr y i n 1898 . Wit h remarkabl e generosity , th e Company also made grants of an additional £4,000 to enable him to make further acquisition s to complete the collection and to bind the pamphlets. Thus, one of the three outstanding collections of economic literature in the world i s now housed in Senate House Librar y in a room also donated b y the Goldsmiths' Company . The indefatigabl e Foxwell went on collecting until his death in 193 6 to the great advantage of Harvard whic h obtained what is now the Kress Library from him. 2 In a n articl e of 189 6 on 'Th e Organisatio n o f Economic Teaching i n London', publishe d i n th e Universit y Extension Journal, Sidne y Web b examined th e 'quit e infinitesima l amoun t o f opportunitie s fo r seriou s study o f economics and politica l questions . .. At University and King' s College, Professor s Foxwel l an d Cunningha m wer e squanderin g thei r very grea t power s o n tin y handful s o f students'. Whe n lecture s a t th e Birkbeck Institution , th e Cit y o f Londo n Colleg e an d th e Institut e of Bankers, th e sporadi c Universit y Extensio n courses , wer e take n int o consideration, 'we have . . . exhausted the whole provision made in 1894 95 for the instruction in Economics for five millions of people'.3 It was no better elsewhere , an d othe r socia l science s wer e only just beginnin g t o make the acquaintanc e o f universities. However, such deficiences i n th e universities wer e i n par t remedie d b y th e Universit y Extension Movement whic h bega n i n 187 2 an d ha s bee n undul y neglecte d i n accounts o f th e period . Th e Londo n Societ y fo r th e Extensio n o f University Teaching, a voluntary body, managed b y a Council under the presidency of Goschen and advise d on academic matters by a joint Board representing the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge and London , was set up in 1876. 2 Th e sa d stor y o f th e force d sal e o f Foxwell' s tw o mai n collection s i s tol d b y hi s daughter, Audre y G.D . Foxwell , an d J.M . Keyne s i n Th e Kress Library o f Business and Economics, Publication Number 1 (1939), pp. 3-30 and pp. 31-8. Harvard's luck with Foxwell' s second collectio n o f more tha n 20,00 0 volumes, picke d u p fro m th e disposal s of countr y house libraries after 1918 , resulted from th e insistence of his bankers in 192 9 that he should repay hi s overdraft. Thus , th e Harvar d Busines s Schoo l acquire d fo r £4,000 the secon d outstanding collectio n pu t togethe r b y this remarkable bibliophile . J.M. Keyne s recalle d that 'He came to regard it almost as a moral faul t to miss a desirable purchase. I remembe r his advice to me ... "I have often regretted not buying a book . . . but I have never regretted buying one." H e ha d n o rules of prudence fo r rationing hi s purchases. Thi s unrestricte d ardour involve d hi m in considerable embarrassment s an d anxiety . Foxwell had but smal l means, an d neve r hel d a well-pai d appointment ; I doubt i f his income reache d £1,00 0 a year a t any time. I t is extraordinary tha t he should hav e managed t o carry on as one of the largest-scale boo k collector s i n the world.' (ibid., p. 32). 3 Quote d J.H . Burrows , 'Th e Teachin g o f Economic s i n th e Earl y Day s o f th e University Extensio n Movemen t i n London , 1876-1902 ' i n History o f Economic Thought Newsletter (Sprin g 1978 ) no . 20 .

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Extension courses in economics were taught by lecturers of the highest calibre over the years, they included F.Y . Edgeworth, James Bonar, H.H . Asquith, Foxwell , J.A. Hobson 4 and , mos t successful o f them all, Phili p Wicksteed, Unitaria n ministe r and discipl e of Jevons, whose Commonsense of Political Economy, published in 1910 , was on m y required reading list as a firs t yea r studen t i n th e Universit y o f Aberdeen i n 1938 . Extensio n lecturers were better paid tha n the holders of Chairs. Jevons never earned more tha n £7 0 a yea r a t Universit y Colleg e where , o n th e Edinburg h model, h e was given a proportion of the fees receive d fro m hi s students.5 Wicksteed commande d £ 5 a lectur e an d probabl y earne d £50 0 a year , around £22,00 0 i n today' s money , fro m tha t source . Extensio n lecture s often attracte d very large audiences. In th e autumn term of 1879, Foxwell had one hundred student s i n the Hampstead Centre; i n the session 1894 / 5, Armitage-Smith, the Principal of Birkbeck Institute from 189 6 to 1918, lectured t o a total of more than fou r hundre d student s in four course s on different economi c subjects in the City and in Poplar. I n the session 1901/ 2, Extension lecturers in London had more than 15,000 paying students in fifty-nine centres . Universit y Extensio n course s i n th e socia l science s achieved a golden age in the years before the First World War when their conduct wa s in the hands of people lik e Graham Wallas , Gilbert Slater , A.C. Haddo n an d Edwar d Westermarck , al l associate d wit h th e earl y years o f L.S.E.6 Indeed, student audience s ther e durin g th e first session were described b y Graham Walla s a s 'mainly of the typ e to which I ha d become accustome d i n th e Universit y Extensio n Movemen t - a few ambitious young civil servants and teachers , and a few women of leisure interested in the subject or engaged i n public work'. 7 The stor y of the foundation of L.S.E. by the Webbs has been tol d so often and s o well that repetitio n i s unnecessary. What mus t be emphasised is the spirit and outlook in which Sidney Webb reared his child. In a letter in 1903 t o th e Vice-Chancello r o f the University , h e wrote of himself as ' a person o f decided views , Radica l an d Socialist , an d tha t I wante d th e 4

M r Burrow s exposes , ibid., th e fictio n firs t containe d i n Hobson' s autobiography , Confessions o f an Economic Heretic (1938) of a 'refusal o f the Londo n Extension Boar d [sic] t o allow m e to offer courses of political economy ' (p. 30) and repeated by R.H. Tawne y i n the Dictionary o f National Biography, 1931-1940. I n fact , Hobso n applie d fo r recognitio n a s Lecturer i n Economics i n 188 8 an d wa s turned down . H e applied agai n earl y i n 1893 ; his name was added to the list and h e taught course s fro m 189 4 onwards . 5 Letters and Journals ofW. Stanley Jevons (edite d b y his wife) (1886) , p. 420 . 6 I hav e take n thi s informatio n abou t th e histor y o f th e Universit y Extensio n Movement fro m th e indispensabl e stud y o f John Burrows , Adult University Education i n London: A Century o f Achievement (1976) , especially pp . 1-44 , and fro m hi s article , op. cit., on 'The Teaching of Economics i n the Early Day s of the University Extensio n Movemen t i n London'. 7 Quote d F.A. von Hayek, 'The London School of Economies', 1895-1945' , Economica, new ser. XIII (1946) , p. 8.

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policy that I believed in to prevail. But that I was also a profound believer in Knowledg e an d Scienc e an d Truth . I though t tha t w e were sufferin g much from lac k of research in social matters, and I wanted t o promote it . I believe d tha t researc h an d ne w discoveries woul d prov e some , a t an y rate, of my views of policy to be right, but that, if they proved th e contrary, I shoul d coun t i t al l the mor e gai n t o have prevented error , an d shoul d cheerfully abando n m y policy'.8 Commenting on the first appointments of staff, Professo r F.A . vo n Haye k observe d tha t 'politic s entere d n o mor e than throug h Webb's conviction that a careful stud y of the facts ought to lead most sensible peopl e t o socialism; bu t h e took care t o select th e staf f from al l shades o f political opinion, more anxious to bring promising men under th e influenc e o f the ne w institution than t o have i t dominated b y any one kind of outlook'.9 Sidney Webb behaved i n accordance wit h that conviction throughou t hi s connectio n wit h th e Schoo l whic h laste d fo r more tha n fifty years. At th e beginning , eleve n members of staff were appointed, al l of them part-timers. They included William Cunningham, A.L. Bowley, Halford Mackinder, Graha m Walla s an d th e ubiquitou s Foxwell . 28 5 students entered i n the first session, there were over 400 five years later and mor e than 2,00 0 on the eve of the First World War . B y then the number of staff had als o increased dramatically ; some had bee n recruited from amon g a remarkably gifted group of holders of research studentships. C.K. Hobson joined i n 1909 , Hug h Dalto n an d Eilee n Powe r i n 1913 , an d Theodor e Gregory an d Bronisla w Malinowsk i i n 1914 . The increas e i n staf f an d student numbers demonstrated th e predicted deman d fo r training in the social sciences which, even in 1905, went much wider than economics and political science. In thi s period, wrote Beveridge, the School was 'a place of evening study and of part-time teachers. Those who came to learn were for the most part already i n employment. Most of their teachers were men already occupie d elsewhere , givin g evening lectures a s a by-produc t o f other interests . Onl y i n thi s wa y coul d th e School , wit h it s ludicrously small financial resources, have obtained, as it did obtain, men of the high distinction it needed'. 10 A memorandu m i n th e nam e o f L.S.E . an d th e Boar d o f Studie s i n Economics an d Politica l Science , submitte d b y th e Chairma n o f th e Board, Sidne y Webb , t o th e Haldan e Commissio n o n Universit y Education in London in 1909, clearly delineated how the School perceived the new undergraduates fo r whom it was going to provide :

8

Quote d Janet Beveridge, An Epic o f Clare Market (1960) , pp. 49-50 . Beveridge , Clare Market, p . 5. 10 W.H . Beveridge , Introduction, p. x , t o th e Register, 1895-1932, of th e London Schools o f Economics and Political Science (\ 934). 9

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Being as regards it s undergraduate class, essentially a Universit y for th e son s an d daughters o f households of limited means an d strenuou s lives, it cannot, like Oxford an d Cambridge , se t itsel f t o ski m fro m th e surfac e o f societ y th e topmost laye r o f rich men' s son s and scholarshi p winners. Widely organised and adequatel y endowed , i t must dive deep down through ever y stratum o f its ten or fifteen million of constituents, selecting by the tests of parental o r other selection o f a career , persona l ambitio n an d endurance , talen t an d 'grit' , for membership o f all th e brain-workin g professions and fo r scientific research , every capable recruit that Londo n rears. Henc e it must stand ready to enrol in its undergraduat e rank s no t hundreds a year, bu t thousand s . .. we can see that (an ) effective Londo n Universit y might number 20,000. n

The memorandum wen t on to emphasise that teaching undergraduates came second onl y to the duty to advance knowledge. I n the first place: The most obvious an d imperative dut y of a rightly organise d an d adequatel y endowed Londo n Universit y is to become the foremost postgraduate centr e of the intellectual world . . . With a highly specialised staff. . . in each faculty, the London Universit y woul d attract , no t on e o r tw o her e an d there , bu t a continuous stream of the ablest and most enterprising of young graduates fro m the colonies and th e United States , fro m ever y university of Europpe an d th e Far East . I n th e provisio n o f facilites fo r thi s highes t grad e o f students th e Senate of the new London University has an opportunity o f combining a san e and patrioti c Imperialis m with the largest-minded Internationalism. 12

Secondly, th e Universit y woul d provid e specia l opportunitie s fo r Londoners wishing to pursue post-graduate work : Here Londo n make s possibl e a postgraduat e lif e unattainabl e i n th e mor e leisurely cloistered home s of University culture. Exactly because th e Londo n University i s se t dow n i n th e ver y mids t o f warehouse s an d offices , monotonous square s an d mean streets , th e poor and talented graduate , livin g inexpensively at his own home, or already gaining his livelihood, can, as a day or evenin g student , pursu e hi s littl e bi t o f original researc h . . . Th e ver y combination o f two such distinc t classes of postgraduate student s - th e one bringing th e trainin g an d experienc e o f alie n universtities , th e othe r contributing the intimate knowledge of the actual processes of bank or factory, government departmen t o r merchants' s offic e - constitute s i n itsel f a n extraordinarily stimulatin g intellectua l atmospher e fo r th e advance d student. 13

Demobilisation i n 191 9 precipitated a n avalanch e o f students whose 1 ' Appendix t o the First Report of the Commissioners on University Education in London, 1910, Cd . 5166, XXIII, 643, Q. 396 , para 11 . Ital. in original. 12 Ibid., paras 1 8 and 20 . 13 Ibid., para 20.

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numbers throughou t th e inter-wa r year s fluctuate d betwee n 2,80 0 an d 3,000, bu t th e characte r o f the studen t bod y change d decisively . At th e beginning of this period, one-thir d were taking full course s for a degree or some other qualificatio n and two-third s were occasional student s payin g for course s o n an ad hoc basis. In 1937 , the proportions had bee n reversed; by then , two-third s o f the student s were registered fo r full-time courses . This group maintained an unaltered division between the two-thirds who were da y students , wit h on e woma n t o thre e men , an d th e remainder , overwhelmingly men, who came to the School in the evenings and went on to tak e a degree. Th e internationa l appea l an d reputatio n o f the Schoo l can b e measure d b y th e increas e o f tw o an d a hal f time s i n oversea s students who numbered ove r 70 0 at th e end of the thirties. Finally, ther e was the steep rise in the number of higher degree students from thirty-two in th e first post-war sessio n t o 293 just befor e th e next war began . Fro m what he called 'thes e cheering changes', Willia m Beveridge, the Directo r from 191 9 to 1937 , concluded: First, i t show s ho w righ t Sidne y Web b ha d been , whe n a s Chairma n o f th e Technical Educatio n Boar d (o f the L.C.C.) in 1893, he had made it a condition of giving mone y t o the School or any other teaching institutio n tha t the institutio n should provid e fo r evenin g study. Second , i t mean s tha t th e Schoo l buildings , from 1919-37 , were occupied mor e full y tha n an y othe r plac e of study probabl y than ca n be found anywher e in the world. 14

Sidney Web b ha d bee n righ t abou t nearl y everything connected wit h the establishmen t an d growt h o f th e School , whic h stand s a s th e rea l memorial o f hi s greatness . H e alway s acte d o n hi s belie f tha t 'i t i s a condition o f progress tha t we allow freedom fo r error',15 and i t is sad tha t elderly socialists , fo r whom th e ligh t ha s failed , shoul d nowaday s hea p blame upo n th e Webb s fo r thei r ow n disenchantmen t an d disappointments. Th e student s o f the 1920 s an d 30 s were taugh t i n a n institution which was quickly establishing an international reputation in its field s o f study . Th e firs t Calendar o f th e Schoo l liste d course s i n economics, statistics , geography , law , economi c history , an d politica l science. Admission t o all or any of the lectures and classes and entitlemen t to al l th e privilege s o f membershi p o f th e Schoo l cos t £ 3 a yea r an d compared ver y favourabl y with th e charge s fo r Extensio n lectures . A n impressive list, it may be thought, for a new institution. Even so, the range of subjects offered widene d rapidl y durin g the directorship of Beveridge. At th e sam e time , newl y appointe d full-tim e staf f greatl y strengthene d economics s o that th e Department bre d Nobe l Prizewinners, made la w a 14 15

651.

W.H . Beveridge , Th e London School of Economics and its Problems (1960) , pp. 52-3 . Appendix t o First Report o f th e Commissioners o n University Education i n London, op. cit., Q .

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major department and established anthropology and sociology, economic history, statistics , politica l scienc e an d geograph y a s importan t disciplines. Th e stud y o f internationa l relation s wa s presen t a t th e beginning i n th e perso n o f Goldsworthy Lowe s Dickinson and acquire d the status of a Chair with the appointment o f Philip Noel Baker. The regim e of the Beveridge years brought new achievements but new strains and conflicts . Mor e students , more staff, and more subjects meant more buildings. From the first conception of the idea of the School, Sidney Webb ha d i t i n min d t o establish a researc h library . This wa s formall y opened at the end of 1896. When it moved to Clare Market in 1902, 16 there were forty-eight reader places, by 1933 these had increased to 550. A great library i s a heavy consumer of space, an d fo r more than ninety years th e School ha s bee n a gian t compelle d t o live on a sit e fit only for a dwarf. What easement there has been in recent years stems particularly from th e labours o f Lione l Robbin s i n raisin g th e million s neede d fo r th e ne w Library. From it s foundation, L.S.E. ha s been no stranger to the begging bowl. Sir Ernest Cassel set up an Educational Trust fro m which in 192 0 a large endowmen t went to funding professorship s and readerships . Earl y in hi s period o f office, Beveridg e tapped th e resource s of the Rockefelle r Trust. Th e Trus t becam e closel y connected wit h the work of the Schoo l and it s massive grants were first used to establish Chairs i n International Law and Anthropology . The Rockefelle r beneficenc e lay behin d tw o of the well-known , fierce conflicts whic h engaged th e Schoo l unde r Beveridge. He was anxious t o pursue his own strongly held views on the nature of the social sciences by exploring th e borde r lan d betwee n natura l an d socia l science . H e tol d the trustees that: To complet e th e circl e o f social science s a thir d grou p of studies i s required , dealing wit h th e natura l base s o f economics an d politics , wit h th e huma n material an d with its physical environment , an d forming a bridge between th e natural an d th e social sciences. 17

He envisaged that thi s territory would be colonised in the first instance by anthropology an d socia l biology . He already ha d socia l anthropolog y so h e presse d socia l biolog y o n hi s colleagues . I t neede d ' a ma n o f biological trainin g t o learn economic s an d politics, ' t o 'apply himsel f to economic an d socia l problems ' an d t o develop link s with other area s of research.18 Beveridge' s programm e ha d secure d genera l suppor t i n th e School when it was adopted i n 1927 , but enthusiasm waned after he chose 16

Fro m 190 3 th e Goldsmiths ' Librar y wa s house d a t th e Imperia l Institute , Sout h Kensington; it moved t o the new Senate House in 1937 . 17 Beveridge , Th e L.S.E. and its problems, p. 88 . 18

Ibid., p. 89.

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Lancelot Hogbe n wh o came to the Chair i n 1930 . One difficult y wa s that Hogben wa s a waywar d colleagu e thoug h a brillian t biologist. Anothe r arose becaus e h e mad e enemie s o f Lionel Robbin s an d th e theoretica l economists as well as getting on the wrong sid e of Harold Lask i an d th e political scientist s by expressing contempt fo r the intellectual procedure s and academi c interest s o f both . 'Th e troubl e was' , wrot e Hogbe n t o Beatrice Webb , 'tha t th e Lef t Winger s wer e just a s dialectica l a s th e Right, an d th e fe w who . . . wer e sympatheti c t o realisti c researc h (a s opposed t o tautologica l necromanc y an d belles-lettres ) wer e no t i n powerful position s . . . But if what is called social science is what is done at the L.S.E. , than k Heaven s I a m stil l a biologist.' 19 Accordingly , wha t Beveridge described a s 'a wedding of natural and economi c science' was never consummated an d he found himself isolated and facing the hostility of most of his colleagues. His attempt, as many thought of it, to impose his own theor y o f the natura l base s o f the socia l science s upo n th e Schoo l soured hi s last years as Director. Hogben's laboratory wa s closed to the relief, s o it is said, of the many unscientific social scientists who could no t abide th e stenc h an d crie s of the animals. The nex t Director, Alexander Carr-Saunders, a biologis t b y earl y trainin g an d occupation , declare d that th e experiment had bee n a mistake. He took the lead in establishing demography a s a discipline in the School under the celebrated scholarship of David Glass. 20 Another strai n aros e fro m th e frequen t an d outspoke n politica l commentaries, expresse d i n n o impartia l manner , o f Harold Laski , th e Professor o f Politica l Scienc e wh o ha d bee n a t th e Schoo l sinc e 1920 , becoming a well-known public figure, and, as Beveridge put it, 'deepening our re d colou r i n man y eyes. ' Lask i became , too , i t shoul d neve r b e forgotten, a teache r love d deepl y b y hi s student s t o who m h e gav e affection a s he received it. Nevertheless, he would have been a problem to any institutio n seekin g t o becom e a strong , unifie d an d unequivoca l School o f the ver y conservativ e Universit y o f London. H e wa s a n eve n greater proble m t o those tryin g to raise mone y to promote teachin g an d research i n the social sciences at L.S.E . At the time, there was a growing student unrest, natural enough with a new war visibly shaping in the years ahead. I n tha t atmosphere , th e political commitment s and adventurou s or infelicitou s o r tactles s phrase s o f Harol d Laski , i n Mosco w o r elsewhere, were thought by conservatively minded people to be dangerous to th e School' s future , predjudicin g th e inflo w o f funds fo r expansion. I t 19

Quote d Jose Harris, William Beveridge. A Biography (Oxford , 1977) , p. 290. Bertran d Russell , Kar l Poppe r an d Davi d Glas s hav e bee n th e onl y teacher s a t L.S.E. to become Fellows of both the British Academy and the Royal Society. David Glass had bee n a studen t o f the School ; a s far a s I know , onl y on e other , Margaret Gowing , originally an economic historian and fro m 197 3 to 1986 Professor of the History of Science in the University of Oxford, achieved these two honours when she became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1988 . 20

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was said, for example, that the City declined t o subscribe to appeals for an enlargement o f th e Commerc e Departmen t becaus e o f th e School' s reputation for socialism reinforce d b y Laski's obtrusive political doctrines and associations . Fortunately , h e woul d no t an d coul d no t b e silenced although th e University trie d hard to keep him quiet.21 In 190 4 Sidney Webb obtaine d mone y from th e railway companies to establish a Railwa y Department . I n 1910 , h e experience d simila r discrimination on political grounds because he supported th e demand of railway worker s fo r higher wages, and Lor d George Hamilton, on behalf of the railway companies, demande d successfull y tha t Webb should cease to be Chairman of the Governors at the School as the price of maintaining funds fo r the Railwa y Department. Selflessly , h e stoo d down . A conflic t between th e mean s of securing private mone y for the social sciences an d the right of teachers to speak thei r minds, publicly as well as in the lecture theatre, i s sometimes inescapable. Ther e can be no solution to the strains set up b y such a conflict sav e th e practice of good sens e and toleranc e on everybody's part . Thes e virtues are ofte n i n short suppl y in universities and experienc e suggest s tha t th e mor e dependen t a n institutio n for the social sciences becomes on private money, and, under some governments, on public , th e mor e essentia l i t is that teacher s who have demonstrate d their academic competence should be irremovable by governing bodies or colleagues wh o dislik e thei r academi c o r politica l opinion s o r wis h t o reduce provisio n for teaching an d researc h i n thei r subjects. There is no other wa y to balance th e power attaching t o the vital contribution which academic mone y raiser s mak e t o thei r institution s and th e freedo m o f expression withou t which universitie s perish . Beyond doubt, the remarkable feature of those turbulent years was the School's assure d take-of f int o intellectua l growth . I n les s tha n hal f a century, it had com e to dominate the development of the social sciences in Britain. I no w turn to the work of the University of London i n teaching the social sciences t o adult students, a significant bu t to o often forgotte n part of its story i n whic h th e Facult y o f Economic s playe d a vita l role . Th e University too k ove r responsibilit y fo r Extensio n Lecture s an d thei r 15,000 student s in 1900 . That syste m had worke d well in late-Victorian days fo r middle class students , with a vocational bent , who could affor d the fees . Bu t th e Worker s Educatio n Associatio n ha d t o b e founde d i n 1903 t o giv e working-clas s peopl e acces s t o democraticall y organise d 21

Th e Hogbe n an d Lask i episodes ar e ver y well an d fairl y presente d b y Jose Harris , Beveridge, chs . 1 1 an d 12 . Of th e account s b y members of the staf f who live d through th e Beveridge years , b y fa r th e mos t judicious, informativ e an d entertainin g is that o f Lord Chorley, 'Beveridg e and th e L.S.E. ' i n L.S.E. The Magazine o f the London School of Economics and Political Science, pt. 1 , no. 44 (1972) , pt. 2 , no. 45 (1973) .

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liberal education t o the end that they might employ more effectively suc h political and economi c power as they had bee n able to grasp. By the mid19208, th e Association , th e universitie s and th e Boar d o f Education ha d established settled working relationships for the provision of adult classes. The central medium of teaching was, and has remained, the Universit y Tutorial class which followed th e University Extension class by imposing upon student s a n obligatio n o f seriou s systemati c stud y an d regula r written work . I t comprise d no t mor e tha n thirt y students , meetin g regularly for twenty-four week s for each o f three years, with provision for a fourth yea r o f advanced work , under a tutor appointed b y a university. The tuto r wa s pai d b y th e universit y and three-quarter s o f the fe e was reimbursed b y the Board o f Education under arrangements devised by Sir Robert Morant . Such classes could be testing for tutor and students alike. G.D.H. Col e ha d bee n th e staf f tuto r responsibl e fo r arranging suc h classes i n London . Afte r h e wa s appointe d Reade r i n Economic s a t Oxford, th e Extra-Mural Departmen t wa s reorganised. Tw o committee s were establishe d unde r a n Extensio n an d Tutoria l Classe s Council , th e one t o overse e extensio n work , th e othe r t o b e responsibl e fo r tutoria l classes. I n thi s way, th e tw o sides of the University' s provision fo r adult education wer e institutionalised . Barbar a Wootto n wa s appointe d Director o f Studie s fo r tutoria l classe s i n 1928 ; sh e was , i n effect , th e academic hea d o f that sid e o f the wor k which extende d als o t o running Saturday an d Summe r Schools . A s man y o f th e classe s woul d b e organised b y th e W.E.A . th e Universit y ha d t o wor k closel y an d sympathetically wit h tha t body . A t thi s time , th e subject s studie d i n tutorial classe s wer e chiefl y economics , widel y an d empiricall y interpreted, and economic history. Of the sixty-eight tutorial classes of the session 1937/ 8 in London, two-third s were in the social sciences and ha d enrolled over 750 students. In addition, some 500 students attended eigh t university Extensio n Course s fo r th e diplom a i n economic s an d socia l science an d a simila r number was going t o other Extensio n Lectures on economics, economi c history , demography , socia l philosoph y an d th e like. Th e Universit y wa s carryin g al l tol d almos t 2,00 0 extra-mura l students i n th e socia l sciences , an d fo r lecturer s i t relie d heavil y o n internal teachers , mainl y from L.S.E . For many working-class people seeking to make a reality of democracy, the adul t clas s offere d th e onl y mean s o f acquirin g th e trainin g an d knowledge withou t whic h th e powe r t o chang e societ y coul d no t b e extracted fro m th e electoral system in local and centra l government. For such folk , th e tutoria l clas s wa s a finishin g schoo l wher e the y learn t t o apply thei r mind s ver y ofte n i n th e firs t instanc e t o th e economi c an d social history of the Industria l Revolution. It was for such audiences tha t historians lik e R.H . Tawney , G.D.H . Cole , H.L . Beale s an d Henr y Hamilton occasionall y wrot e an d frequentl y taught . O f th e economi c historians at the School, Tawney, Beale s and FJ. Fisher were committed

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to adul t educatio n an d too k a han d i n shapin g a tutoria l clas s interpretation o f economic an d socia l histor y just a s ther e ha d bee n a Whig interpretatio n o f political history. Thirt y year s ag o Professor F.A. von Hayek saw this as one of the steps on the road to serfdom. He pointed with trut h an d withou t exaggeratio n t o th e creatio n o f ' a socialis t interpretation of history which has governed politica l thinking for the last two or three generations and which consists mainly of a particular view of economic histor y . . almos t universall y accepte d a s th e basi s fo r th e estimate of the existing economic order.'22 Hayek blame d th e accounts of the socia l consequence s o f th e Industria l Revolutio n whic h wer e embodied i n this interpretation o f economic history for what he described as 'the widespread emotional aversion to capitalism.'23 It i s no t fancifu l t o attribut e a significan t politica l influenc e t o thos e then engage d i n adul t education . I n th e year s befor e th e Secon d Worl d War, the y helped t o give th e Labou r Part y historica l letter s of credit, a framework fo r it s programm e o f social reforms , an d fait h i n th e futur e possibilities o f socia l amelioration . Th e socia l developmen t o f industrialism cam e to be thought of as an inevitable evolution towards a welfare society . In school s and universitie s the 'socialist interpretation of economic history' , which trouble d Hayek , went almost unchallenged. A good dea l o f it , an d o f th e accompanyin g economics , passe d int o th e education o f citizen soldier s during th e Secon d Worl d War . On e o f the University's staff tutors in London i n the 1930s , W.E. (late r Sir William) Williams, becam e hea d o f th e Arm y Burea u o f Current Affair s whic h adopted th e procedures an d outlook of university adult education. In the history and conten t of that form of education lies more than a small part of the explanation of political developments in the aftermath o f that war. Thirty year s later , th e characte r o f economic an d socia l histor y ha d changed; in the School, the mantle of Tawney passed t o Richard Titmuss. But it was sociology, not social administration, which replaced economic history a s a main enthusiam of adult students in the social sciences. Th e Extra-Mural Department catered for this i n 195 3 by establishing a fou r year Diplom a i n Sociolog y wit h written examinations. It attracte d very large number s o f students a t it s pea k i n th e lat e 1960 s and earl y 1970s , when betwee n 20 0 and 25 0 candidates eac h yea r persevere d t o obtai n diplomas. Then, fewer than 10 0 internal students sat for the first degree in sociology. Interna l teacher s o f the Universit y helped i n man y way s t o make th e diplom a possible . The y advise d upo n an d drafte d syllabuse s and the y serve d a s examiners . The y wer e recruite d an d organise d b y John Burrow s whose dedicate d labour s i n Senat e Hous e sustaine d th e Diploma for more than thirty years. The Diplom a ended in 1989 when the heart had gon e out of sociology in adult classes. 22 23

F.A . Hayek , ed., Capitalism an d the Historians (1954) , p. 7 . Ibid., p. 10.

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I have emphasised th e work of the Extra-Mural Departmen t i n order to show that th e teaching of the social sciences by the University of London has gon e far beyon d it s interna l schools . I emphasise , too , tha t fo r th e whole of this century, internal teachers, and tha t mostly means the staff of L.S.E., hav e shouldered considerabl e obligations fo r a very large number of adult student s drawn fro m th e London area . One consequenc e o f th e nineteenth-centur y inheritanc e fro m a n examining universit y ha s bee n th e generosit y whic h Londo n showe d towards emergen t universities at home as well as overseas. There is more than rhetoric in the description of London as a mother of universities. Th e first brood wer e th e younge r civi c universities of Reading, Nottingham , Southampton, Hull , Exete r an d Leiceste r whic h wer e founde d a s university college s befor e an d afte r th e Firs t Worl d War . Readin g received universit y statu s i n 192 6 bu t al l th e other s ha d t o wai t unti l shortly afte r th e Secon d Worl d War . So , for a lon g period, the y all took London Externa l Degrees. I n th e socia l sciences, therefore, they worked largely to London syllabuses ; they all had t o meet London standards , an d their work bore the thumb print of L.S.E. As a resul t o f th e Report 2* i n 194 5 o f th e Asquit h Commissio n 't o consider th e principle s whic h shoul d guid e th e promotio n o f highe r education, learnin g an d researc h an d th e developmen t o f universities in the Colonies and to explore means whereby universities . .. in the United Kingdom ma y be able to cooperate with institutions of Higher Educatio n in the Colonies . . .', the University of London undertoo k to nurture new colonial universities as it had looke d after th e English university colleges. The Directo r o f the L.S.E. , Alexander Carr-Saunders , wa s a member of the Asquit h Commission , an d himsel f took th e lea d i n settin g u p th e Special Committe e o f the Senat e o n Highe r Educatio n i n th e Colonies . The Senat e Committee guided the development of the university colleges in Eas t Africa , Sudan , Centra l Africa , Nigeria , the Gol d Coas t an d th e West Indies . Carr-Saunder s als o organise d th e hel p o f al l th e Unite d Kingdom universities , through a n Inter-Universit y Council, fo r the six university colleges and universities of Malta, Hong Kong and Malaya. He was Chairma n i n 194 7 of the Commissio n tha t le d t o the creatio n o f the University o f Malay a i n 1953 , an d o f th e Commissio n o n Highe r Education for Africans i n Central Africa fro m whic h came the foundation of the multi-racial Universit y College o f Rhodesia an d Nyasaland . For interna l teacher s o f the Universit y of London i n mos t Faculties , these development s impose d obligation s o f advisin g o n syllabuses , assisting teachers in the new institutions and conducting examinations on the London model . The first of the Colleges in Special Relation, Gordon Memoria l College in Khartoum , was established in 1946 , the last to withdraw on becoming 24

O n Higher Education in the Colonies, Cmd. 6647 , 1945 .

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an independen t universit y wa s th e Universit y Colleg e o f Rhodesi a i n 1971.25 Meanwhile , th e ordinar y externa l Degre e o f th e Universit y continued. Unhappily , th e University is a very uncertain statistician an d there ar e n o eve n approximatel y reliabl e statistic s o f th e number s o f candidates fo r examinations from differen t place s for the various external examinations. Nevetheless, there is no doubt tha t a very heavy weight of examining both fo r the indigenou s and oversea s external candidates fel l upon thos e responsibl e fo r th e B.Sc . (Econ. ) an d sociolog y degrees . Without reliabl e statistic s abou t th e B.Sc . (Econ. ) degree , m y ow n memory as chairman o f the internal and externa l Boards of Examiners in Sociology fo r sixteen years wil l permi t on e poin t t o b e mad e abou t th e situation o f internal teachers . Afte r a lon g experienc e o f examining fo r external oversea s candidates , th e Boar d o f Studies in Sociology fough t a battle wit h th e Universit y t o withdraw th e externa l degree . Th e Boar d won because th e failure rate of the degree was over 90 per cent. The Boar d did, however , agre e to provide a degree for candidates wh o had receive d systematic teachin g in an educational institution . In its naivety, the Board had faile d to foresee the binary syste m a t home, an d ende d u p having t o deal wit h almos t 1,00 0 externa l candidate s i n 1971 . Thi s mean t tha t a relatively smal l group o f internal teachers becam e responsibl e for a very large examinatio n and for supervising a horde of assistant examiners who were not internal teachers. Naturally , teacher s in the many polytechnic s submitting candidate s demande d t o mee t interna l teacher s i n orde r t o discuss syllabuses , teachin g method s an d problem s arisin g fro m th e examinations. I do not doubt that the external system had many virtues; it also impose d intolerabl e burden s upo n interna l teacher s o n whos e shoulders landed th e real cost s of the system to the disadvantage o f their internal students . Befor e th e Universit y revive s or extend s th e externa l examinations, it is to be hoped tha t past experience will be examined from the point of view of those who will have to provide the academic services. For th e whol e o f thi s century , th e socia l science s i n th e Universit y o f London hav e bee n concentrate d i n on e powerfu l institution . The gain s from thi s developmen t ar e to o obvious t o be worth listing . On th e othe r hand, i n a universit y a s bi g as London , ther e hav e bee n losse s a s well. Whole generation s o f student s of , say , medicine , architecture , o r engineering hav e neve r mad e th e acquaintanc e o f suc h o f th e socia l sciences as may be relevant to their work . What ha s bee n misse d can be illustrated from developments in the Law Department at L.S.E. and in the establishment o f a Social Researc h Unit , specialisin g in th e Sociology of Medicine, in the Sociology Department a t Bedford College . 25

Th e bes t guid e t o thi s histor y i s th e exhaustiv e stud y o f Bruc e Pattison , Special Relations. Th e University o f London and New Universities Overseas, 1947-1970 (1984).

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Beveridge ha d bee n traine d a s a lawye r an d hi s ver y firs t ste p fo r widening th e intellectua l scop e o f th e Schoo l wa s t o strengthe n tha t Department. I n 192 0 h e brough t i n H.C . Gutteridg e and , thre e year s later, Edward Jenks; he later brought Theodore Plucknett , one of the most distinguished o f legal historians , bac k fro m Harvard . Si r Ott o Kahn Freund, 'lookin g back at th e history of legal studies in this country in the course of the last three-quarters of a century', was: Persuaded tha t th e L.S.E . playe d a pioneering rol e i n the development o f the new subject s an d tha t it did s o especially at thre e periods of its existence: the first was at th e beginning i n the 1890 s and th e first decade of this century, th e second was immediately afte r the First Worl d War an d th e third wa s . . . after the Secon d Worl d War . Th e firs t tw o of these thre e crucia l period s sa w th e evolution of commerical law, industrial o r labour law, and administrative law , and afte r 194 5 th e L.S.E. set the pace for the others b y developing famil y law and th e law of taxation.26

Sir Ott o foun d th e explanatio n fo r thes e innovation s 'i n th e organisation an d scop e of activities of the L.S.E . whic h ar e . . . decisive. The symbiosi s i n the L.S.E. o f law and . . . the other socia l science s i s an important element . More important eve n is the symbiosis of the lawyers, the economists , sociologists , politica l scientists , an d others . Here , and I am no w fo r a momen t speakin g personall y agains t a backgroun d o f memory goin g bac k fo r man y decades , i t i s th e subjectiv e factor whic h counts . . . (in ) a n atmospher e i n whic h one' s assumption s a s a lawye r were unconsciousl y questione d b y th e spontaneou s attitude s o f one' s colleagues, perhaps i t was mutual.' 27 The experienc e o f medicin e ha s bee n similar . Althoug h medica l sociology has a long history without and within this University, only in the last twent y year s ha s th e subjec t foun d it s wa y int o th e medica l curriculum. Margo t Jeffery s becam e Professo r of Medical Sociolog y a t Bedford Colleg e i n 1968 , th e yea r i n whic h th e Tod d Commissio n o n Medical Educatio n recommende d suc h teachin g fo r medica l students . Under he r persuasiv e advocacy , th e Medica l Facult y of the University introduced medica l sociolog y a s a compulsory subjec t in the second M.B . in 1972 . At that stage, medical sociologists were appointed t o teach in the twelve Medica l School s an d thei r wor k wa s co-ordinate d b y a Specia l Advisory Committee on Sociology as Applied t o Medicine which advised the Academi c Advisor y Boar d i n Medicine . I n thi s way , th e socia l sciences wer e introduce d int o medica l education , thei r legitimac y recognised an d thei r influenc e upo n th e practic e o f clinica l medicin e established. Th e forma l introductio n o f sociolog y int o th e medica l 26

'Th e Lega l Framewor k o f Society ' i n Willia m A . Robson , ed. , Ma n an d the Social &i«ic«(1972),p. 206 . 27 Ibid., p. 204 .

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curriculum which , Professo r Jefferys observes , 'b y th e 1980 s ha d take n place in most of the medical schools of the United Kingdom', was a radical innovation. 'Compare d with most of the other new subjects it involves a break awa y fro m th e traditiona l preparatio n fo r medicin e base d exclusively on the detailed stud y of parts of the biological organism . .. Its focus i s no t o n th e huma n individua l pe r se: i t i s o n th e two-wa y relationships between the individual an d society . Sociology as applied t o medicine i s concerned specificall y wit h thos e aspects of the relationshi p which influenc e th e experience s o f health and illnes s in individual s and the response to them of others - relatives , doctors, nurses, administrators and governments.' 28 A similar commentar y coul d b e made in such other fields as industrial and educationa l sociology and socia l psychiatry to which this University has mad e importan t contributions . The conclusio n is that today , i f the social science s are to teach practitioners, polic y makers and politicians t o avoid errors, t o question assumptions, and t o limit the areas of ignorance in which choice must be made, teaching, at leas t specialised teaching for those going into the professions, will have to be more widely spread than it now is within a university as big as London . When reflecting on the approaching centenary of LSE and on the great expansion o f teaching an d researc h i n th e socia l science s whic h i t wil l mark, we might be wise not to dismiss out of hand Shelley' s belief in his A Defence o f Poetry o f 1821 , that We have more moral, political and historica l wisdom , than we know how to reduce into practice; we have more scientific and economica l knowledge than can b e accommodate d t o th e jus t distributio n o f th e produc e whic h i t multiplies. Th e poetry , i n thes e systems o f thought , i s conceale d b y th e accumulation o f fact s an d calculatin g processes. Ther e i s n o wan t o f knowledge respectin g wha t i s wises t an d bes t i n morals , government , an d political economy , o r a t leas t wha t i s wiser an d bette r tha n wha t me n now practise and endure . . . We want the creative faculty to imagine that which we know; we want the generous impulse to act tha t which we imagine; we want the poetry of life: our calculations hav e outrun conception; we have eaten more than we can digest.29

28 Margo t Jefferys, 'Foreword' , pp. ix-x, to D.L. Patrick and C. Scambler, eds., Sociology as Applied t o Medicine (2n d ed., 1986) . 29 Harr y Buxton Forman (ed.) , The Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley (1880), Seventh Volum e Prose III, pp . 134-135.

11 Education Sir William Taylor In hi s articl e o n th e Londo n Da y Trainin g Colleg e publishe d i n th e Education Libraries Bulletin i n 1958 , Richard Gooding s comments: It is surely significant that though logically one would expect a book about the training of teachers t o deal primarily with the evolution of an idea or group of ideas, this is never the case and historie s of teacher training tend t o be written almost exclusively in terms of institutions.1 The broade r an d mor e various the range of ideas tha t hav e entered into the stud y o f educatio n an d th e initia l an d post-experienc e trainin g of educators, th e harde r i t ha s becom e t o generalis e abou t th e proces s i n terms other tha n structura l and institutional . As Richard Peter s pu t it in the firs t numbe r of the London Educational Review: The trouble about educational studies, which, in part, explains the traditional hostility o f universities towards the m i s that , logicall y speaking , the y ar e a mess an d necessaril y a mess . B y this I mea n tha t the y ar e concerne d wit h problems which cannot be tackled, like mathematical problems or problems in physics, by reliance on just one way of thinking.2 Given th e wa y i n whic h th e specialism s an d sub-specialism s tha t contribute to the study of education have developed and proliferated , it is today virtually impossible for any one individual to speak or write usefully about th e field in terms of its prevailing ideas, concepts and theories. Such an enterprise requires a multi-disciplinary team and a book rather than a single chapter . Henc e th e temptatio n t o stic k t o structure s an d institutions, t o narrat e ho w th e Londo n Da y Trainin g Colleg e of 1902 became th e Institut e of Education o f 1932 and th e federal, post-McNair, 1

Richar d Goodings, The Londo n Day Training College,' Education Libraries Bulleting, 2 (1958), p. 5. 2 Richar d S . Peters , 'Th e Rol e an d Responsibilitie s o f th e Universit y i n Teacher Education', London Educational Review, \ (1972) , pp.

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'Central activity' Institute of 1948, and togethe r with the Departments of Education a t King's and Chelse a an d Goldsmiths' , playe d a part i n the post-Robbins establishmen t of a distinc t University Faculty i n 1967 ; to recount the story of the setting up of the Area Training Organisations, th e expansion o f initia l trainin g i n th e 'sixties , th e reorganisatio n an d diversification o f th e 'seventies ; t o describ e th e increasin g rang e o f educational researc h for which the Schools of the University, th e Institut e and Goldsmiths ' becam e responsible , th e withdrawa l o f the University from it s validating responsibilitie s and th e impac t o f new arrangement s for th e accreditation o f initial trainin g and th e support of INSET. It i s a stor y o f n o littl e importanc e withi n th e histor y o f post-wa r education. We are fortunate that large parts of it up to 1972 have already been so well told by Dr. Willi s Dixon in his recently published History of the Institute. 3 In wha t follow s I shal l discuss some of the mor e recen t of these events, especiall y insofa r a s the y relat e t o the interaction betwee n teaching an d researc h i n education i n the Universit y of London an d th e development of the study and practic e of education. Task and Response Much ha s bee n writte n about th e institution s within whic h th e stud y of education is pursued and a certain amount (although not enough) on how ideas and concepts and theories about education have been organised into courses an d programme s o f study . Muc h les s i s i n prin t abou t th e processes b y means of which individual academics or group of academics go abou t th e busines s o f exerting influenc e o n though t an d practic e i n education — or for that matter, on many other professional domains. In general terms , the prescription i s easily enough stated. The primar y functions o f universitie s are teachin g an d research . Thos e responsibl e have to have something interesting and worthwhile to enquire into and to talk about, based on extensive knowledge of the literature an d practice of their respectiv e specialisms . Thei r paper s nee d t o appear i n high-status and widely read journals. And they have to attract students who are either already i n positions of responsibility o r who can be expected i n due cours e to assume them. For a very few individuals and teams , thi s can be all that is needed t o attract attention . Graduate s an d th e medi a wil l ensur e tha t th e worl d beats a path t o one's door. Bu t most academics hav e to try harder. Thei r efforts ar e likely to include : 1. Activ e participatio n i n conference s an d symposi a organise d b y othe r institutions and academi c organisations; initially a matter of responding 3

C . Willi s Dixon, Th e Institute: a Personal Account o f th e History o f th e University o f London Institute of Education, 1932-1972(1986).

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to calls for papers, later of being responsive to requests to speak, to appear on panels and to Chair sessions. 2. Willingnes s t o appl y one s idea s t o specifi c field s o f educational activit y and to the solution of contemporary educational problems, throug h publication, presentatio n and , whe n opportunit y offers , consultation . B y this means contac t can be made with policy makers and practitioners an d th e relevance and usefulness of one's contribution established. 3. Developin g amon g th e member s o f teachin g an d researc h team s a n approach t o disciplinary an d professiona l problems recognisabl e withi n and beyon d th e professio n a s consisten t an d coheren t (althoug h thi s nearly alway s make s the work of the group loo k more homogeneou s tha n its own members feel it to be). 4. Encouragin g a climat e i n whic h th e idea s expresse d b y member s o f the group are regularly exposed t o critical comment and evaluation. 5. Retainin g active contact with former students through disciplinary associ ations, bulletins, meetings and correspondence . 6. Acquirin g status in the international disciplinary or professional network by attendin g oversea s conference s an d meetings , maintainin g regula r correspondence an d exchanging papers with academics and practitioner s in other systems. 7. Attractin g an d respondin g positivel y to requests to serve on the committees an d council s o f disciplinar y an d professiona l bodie s a t hom e an d abroad, a s well as on official an d unofficia l committee s and working groups concerned wit h public policy. 8. Playin g sufficient par t in the political and administrativ e life of the parent institution t o ensure that th e academic an d resourc e claim s of the grou p are respected and a s far as possible met, without giving up so much time to administration an d interna l politic s a s t o threate n th e effectivenes s o f teaching and scholarly productivity. 9. Demonstratin g enoug h interes t in interdisciplinary effort an d enquir y to secure a positiv e respons e fro m colleagues , withou t losin g disciplinary focus o r appearin g t o mak e judgements i n field s wher e n o specia l com petence can be claimed. 10. Avoidin g commitmen t t o politica l o r polic y position s whic h th e judge ments of the da y identif y a s 'extreme' or irrational, or bein g taken up by groups identified with such positions. 11. Offerin g attractiv e facilities and contact s for scholars from othe r universities an d system s for shorter o r longer periods, an d welcomin g academi c visitors. 12. Acceptin g examining responsibilities in other universities. 13. Disseminatin g regular reports on the activities of the group, in a form likel y to be read rather than consigned immediately to file or waste paper basket.

All obviou s enough , although yo u d o no t hav e t o b e a membe r of a U.G.C. sub-committe e engaged i n evaluatin g research performanc e to know that there are variations in the extent to which these requirements

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for th e exercise of influence ar e met . For a departmen t o r institutio n t o exer t influenc e o n professiona l practice, qualit y is obviously of first importance. Siz e also matters. It is by no mean s impossibl e fo r individua l scholars , withou t a departmenta l base, o r ver y smal l groups of two or thre e like-minded people , to mak e their mark; but it is difficult. As far as education is concerned, i n respect of both quality and size , London ha s long had the edge . Early Years For three-quarters of a century the work of this university in the study and teaching o f educatio n wen t o n ver y successfull y withou t benefi t o f a faculty organisation. I n the words of the Report of the 1967 Joint Planning Committee for the B.Ed, degree : The Facult y o f Education ha s bee n institute d i n th e firs t plac e s o tha t th e Colleges o f Education formin g the Londo n Institut e may provide course s fo r the degree o f Bachelor o f Education an d i n due cours e for higher degrees. 4

It cause s n o surprise to anyone wh o has worked i n London, an d who thus ha s n o expectatio n o f logic i n suc h arrangements , tha t th e facult y possessed n o Boar d (thes e function s bein g discharge d b y th e Boar d o f Educational Studies ) an d tha t th e sol e forma l dut y (ther e ar e man y onerous informa l ones ) o f its dul y appointe d Dea n i s t o presen t t o th e Chancellor a t the Albert Hall those upon whom degrees of the university have already bee n conferred. The histor y of education in London University starts much earlier than 1967. It migh t have begun as long ago as 1837 . A year earlier, a course of lectures o n educatio n ha d bee n give n i n Gowe r St . b y th e Rev . James Bryce, Principa l o f th e Belfas t Academy . The n a M r J.H . Morga n published wha t Hal e Bellott 5 call s ' a rathe r confuse d proposal ' t o establish a professorshi p of education, an d eve n offere d som e mone y in support. I n 1841 , Lor d Brougham , whos e earlie r proposa l t o a Selec t Committee o f th e Hous e o f Common s tha t fou r Norma l School s b e established i n London , Exeter , Lancaste r an d Yor k had le d t o th e first parliamentary grant , o f £10,000 , bein g pu t asid e fo r th e educatio n o f teachers, wante d t o foun d a Chai r a t Universit y College , bu t faile d t o secure th e concurrenc e o f th e existin g professors. 6 S o nothin g cam e o f either proposal . It wa s no t unti l th e fina l decad e o f the centur y tha t th e University 4 Minut e 82 9 of the Universit y of London Academi c Council (AC/8/18/1/ 4 date d 2 9 November 1967) . 5 H . Hal e Bellot, University College London, 1826-1926(1929). 6 H.C . Dent , Th e Training o f Teachers i n England and Wales (1975) , p. 11 .

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entered formall y into th e busines s of professional trainin g fo r teaching . But the fifty years from 184 0 to 1890 were not without importance as far as its contribution t o the work of the elementary and secondar y school s was concerned. Man y o f those wh o obtaine d Londo n degree s subsequentl y found careers in secondary teaching. Certificated teacher s benefited fro m opportunities afte r 185 8 to take external degrees. Both University College and King' s Colleg e ha d 'lowe r departments' , whic h stil l flouris h a s independent foundation s i n Hampstea d an d Wimbledo n (Universit y College School an d King' s College School , Margaret Bryant points out that: King's, like London University , in its earl y perio d wa s mor e o f a secondar y school tha n a colleg e o f universit y standing , remindin g u s no t onl y tha t adolescence wa s the n a n ambiguou s an d imperfectl y define d stag e o f development, bu t o f continuing difficultie s i n drawin g boundarie s betwee n secondary an d tertiar y education. [King's ] 'general course of study' designed for youth s admitted a t th e age of sixteen constituted it as a kind of sixth-form college for the London area . . .7

In view of the importance later to attach t o issues of state inspection, it is o f som e interes t tha t i n th e 1870 s th e universit y itsel f decide d t o 'undertake th e Examinatio n an d Inspectio n fro m tim e t o tim e o f an y schools, othe r tha n primary , whic h may appl y fo r such Examinatio n or Inspection, provide d tha t th e cos t t o b e incurre d b e pai d whe n a n application i s made.' Th e Senat e Minute s for 28 February an d 2 6 April 1878 go on t o say: There is a large and increasin g number of schools, either bound b y their legal constitution, o r impelle d b y thei r teachers ' desir e o f standing wel l wit h th e public, t o underg o annuall y th e examinatio n an d criticis m of some external authority, but unable at present to obtain the assistance of this kind which they require, and whic h the Universit y is well fitted to supply.

The Examiner' s reports would be wide-ranging: The Examine r wil l repor t . . o n th e wor k of each class ; o n th e proficiency attained i n respec t o f eac h subjec t o f instruction ; an d o n th e methods , discipline, an d genera l condition s o f the School . Hi s repor t wil l i n th e firs t instance be submitted to the Senate, by whom a copy will be communicated to the Governing body or to the Head Master o r Mistress.

The first attempt to introduce a degree in Education was made in the same year, whe n th e Senat e receive d a lette r fro m th e Colleg e o f Preceptor s 7 Margare t E. Bryant, Th e London Experience o f Secondary Education (1986), p. 198 . See also J. Springhall , Coming o f Age: Adolescence i n Britain, 1860-1960 (Dublin, 1986) .

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urging 'th e institution of a distinctiv e educational degree ' whic h would assist i n 'the recognition of the claims of Education to rank on a par with the other learned profession s to which it is in no way inferior, either in the knowledge necessar y for its successful pursuit , or in its importance t o the community'.8 The College' s reques t wa s unsuccessful , bu t furthe r proposal s wer e made i n the following year b y Miss Buss on behalf of the headmistresse s and by Mr Fitch. In 188 1 the University agreed to recommendations from a Committe e t o se t u p a n examinatio n i n 'Theor y an d Practic e o f Teaching' which would be called a Teachers' Diploma . The Day Training Colleges In 188 8 the Cross Commission proposed tha t in order to improve both the quantity an d qualit y o f elementary teachers , th e universitie s should b e drawn int o their preparation, at that time the province of the forty-thre e residential training colleges supported b y voluntary bodies (thirty of them by the Church of England) all but eigh t of which imposed religious tests. The proposa l wa s somewha t tentativ e a s fa r a s th e majorit y o f th e Commission's member s wer e concerned , althoug h mor e strongl y supported by a minority. The Commission had been concerned about the moral dangers of training teachers outside the controlling atmosphere of a residential environment: 'Do you not find', they asked Dr Morrison [o f the Free Church Norma l School in Glasgow]: 'that the system of having the students, male and female, outside the college is attended wit h any moral danger?'. Their misgivings on hearing that men and women students left th e college at the same time was only partially allayed by his assurance tha t they did so by different doors. 9

Perhaps the Commission would have been happier with the arrangements for undergraduate s tha t applied i n the 1860 s in Gower Street. Classes for women 'met and separated a t the half-hours, that the men might be safely occupied a t thei r coming and going , and th e women were admitted b y a side door t o avoid the risks of crossing the quadrangle'. 10 Schedule 116 of the Code of 1890 invited university institutions to apply for recognitio n a s 'Da y Trainin g Colleges' . I n June o f that yea r King' s College Council 'full y approve d o f the actio n of the Principal , i n lodging an application for such status and before the year was out J.W. Adamso n 8

Universit y of London, Senate Minutes, 26 April 1878. Richar d Goodings, unpublishe d MS, p. 4. 10 Bellot, quote d b y Harol d Silve r an d SJ . Teagu e (eds) , Chelsea College: a History (1977), p. 19. 9

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had bee n appointe d a s 'norma l master ' t o ru n th e ne w Department . Within five years th e Colleg e ha d proposed , althoug h initiall y without success, to start a department t o train teachers for secondary schools. 11 In th e meantime , University College had i n October 189 1 opened it s own Day Training Department.12 It did not prosper. There were too few well qualifie d candidates . It s abl e first head, William Mitchell, resigned to becom e Professo r o f Philosophy an d Englis h Literatur e a t Adelaid e (where he was subsequently Vice-Chancellor and Chancellor). In 189 4 its remaining students were transferred to the Strand.13 One othe r existin g college of the Universit y involved itself directly in teacher training during this period (although Birkbeck College had a close association wit h th e Londo n Schoo l Board' s Graystok e Plac e Trainin g College.) Th e Trainin g Department a t Bedfor d College , se t up in 1892 , had wit h Mari a Gre y College , th e Cambridg e Trainin g Colleg e fo r Women and the centre attached t o the Mary Datchelor School been one of the earlies t centre s fo r trainin g wome n fo r secondar y teaching. 14 Th e initial success of this work was in marked contrast t o the relative failure of efforts t o involve intending schoolmasters. In Bryant's words, 'It is hardly too strong a claim that the idea of a profession of secondary teachin g was established b y women'.15 By th e beginnin g of the Firs t World Wa r ther e were sixty students in the Bedford Training Department. Its head was a Reader in Education in the University. In 192 0 it was renamed the Department of Education. Yet two years later it was closed. As Thomas has made clear in his valuable history of the Department,16 one o f th e factor s i n it s demis e wa s th e polic y o f the Londo n Count y Council in concentrating graduate training in the London Da y Trainin g College, se t u p i n Clar e Marke t i n 190 2 on th e recommendato n o f its Technical Educatio n Board to ameliorate a serious shortage of teachers in the capital . Bedfor d Colleg e ha d bee n a s unhapp y abou t proposal s t o introduce teacher training at the East London College (now Queen Mar y College) as it was doubtful abou t the: assumption o f the Londo n Count y Counci l tha t th e Londo n Da y Trainin g College i s th e University Educatio n Departmen t i n London . . . . w e be g respectfully t o submit to th e Universit y that i n th e opinion of the Council of Bedford Colleg e it is essential to the national interest that centres other tha n 11

F.J.C . Hearnshaw, Th e Centenary History o f King's College (1929), p. 368 . J.B . Thomas , 'Universit y College London, and th e Training o f Teachers', History o f Education Society Bulletin, 37 (1986) . 13 J.W . Adamson , 'The Department of Education' in Hearnshaw, The Centenary History. 14 MJ . Tuke, A History o f Bedford College for Women, 1849-1937(1939), p . 260. 15 Bryant , The London Experience, p . 352. 16 J.B . Thomas , 'Teacher Training a t Bedfor d College , London , 1891-1922' , Durham/ Newcastle Research Review, 10:5 0 (1984), pp. 59-64 . 12

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the Londo n Da y Trainin g Colleg e shoul d b e recognise d a s Department s of Education i n th e Universit y of London, an d tha t o f these centre s Bedfor d College claim s th e righ t t o b e place d amon g th e mos t important . (Senat e Minute 25 Feb. 1920 ) In the event no Department of Education was set up at the East London College or in any other School of the University, and afte r Bedfor d closed its Department i n 192 2 and unti l Chelsea Colleg e became a School forty five years later, King's remaine d th e only Education Departmen t within the Universit y apar t fro m th e Londo n Da y Trainin g College/Londo n Institute. The commemorative booklet published by the London County Council on th e occasio n o f the Day College' s remova l in 190 7 to new premises in Southampton Ro w (late r t o b e use d b y th e Centra l Schoo l o f Arts an d Crafts an d no w par t o f a consortiu m o f Art institute s that th e I.L.E.A . (calls and labels ) The Londo n Institute ) records tha t th e total output of teachers fro m al l th e existin g trainin g college s i n 190 2 wa s onl y som e 3,150. The Londo n Schoo l Board alon e needed 900 . Then as now, significant innovation s in teacher education tended to be driven b y shortag e o r surplu s rathe r tha n b y broade r educationa l considerations. Goodings describes th e position a t the turn of the century as follows : The shortag e o f teacher s i n London , lon g critical , had , b y 1900 , become desperate. Th e numbe r required i n that yea r was more than doubl e the total output o f th e trainin g college s i n th e area . Among th e wome n teacher s i n London ove r hal f wer e untraine d an d o f thos e th e majorit y possesse d n o attested qualification s fo r th e wor k othe r tha n willingnes s t o confes s themselves women over eighteen year s of age who coul d display satisfactory proof of vaccination. A teacher in thi s categor y wa s currentl y know n a s a n Article 68.17 From th e beginning, the University was a partner o f the L.C.C. in the College's work . A n administrativ e relationshi p wa s require d t o secur e recognition b y th e Boar d o f Education o f suitability t o trai n third-yea r students. Bu t a s Gooding s records , i t wa s persona l link s tha t reall y counted. Th e firs t Principa l o f th e College , Joh n Adams , wa s als o appointed a Professor of the University. In the next year, the Master an d Mistress o f Metho d (Perc y Nun n an d Margare t Punnett ) becam e Recognised Teachers . The wor k of the Day Training Colleg e was initially of two main kinds. Students worke d fo r degree s i n art s an d science s i n College s o f th e University an d followe d concurrent professional courses . And graduates were enrolled for the Teachers' Diploma o f the University, predecessor t o 17

R . Goodings, (n.d.), unpublishe d MS.

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the present Post-Graduat e Certificate. Lest w e believ e tha t th e ide a o f a federa l Institut e o f Educatio n originated wit h the McNair Repor t o f 1944, based o n the post-1926 Joint Board arrangements , i t is salutary to be reminded that in January 1905 18 the L.C.C.' s sub-committe e o n th e Trainin g o f Teacher s receive d a memorandum fro m it s educational adviser , D r Willia m Garnett , whic h proposed tha t the Authority's need for teachers should be met by adding to th e outpu t o f th e Londo n Day , th e Graystok e College , an d th e Goldsmiths' Institute , that of four or five new colleges to be set up on the outskirts of London, whic h would form a system with the Principal of the London Da y as its Director . Goldsmiths' and Chelsea

The Universit y had als o take n a han d i n th e suppl y of teachers fo r the metropolis; i n particula r b y th e Academi c Council' s recommendatio n that th e Goldsmiths ' Institute , gifte d unconditionall y t o i t b y th e Goldsmiths' Compan y i n 1904 , should be used a training college for 400 students (late r increase d t o 500 ) an d fo r providin g da y an d evenin g classes up to intermediate and degre e levels and a s a School of Art.19 Few of the many thousands of excellent teachers that Goldsmiths' has sent out into the schools with London awards over the last eighty years have been aware tha t fo r practicall y th e whol e o f tha t perio d th e financia l an d constitutional relations between the College and the University have been a source of anxiety to both parties. Finally, a s far a s institutional involvement is concerned, th e existence of the externa l degre e syste m facilitated th e developmen t of the Londo n Polytechnics, many students of which took university courses, and which also provide d post-certificatio n study for teachers. Befor e th e tur n of the century th e Principa l o f South-Western Polytechnic , later t o be Chelse a College, wa s runnin g 'researc h classes' i n scientifi c subject s fo r schoo l teachers, an d th e Polytechnic' s earl y concer n fo r th e refor m o f science teaching wa s t o b e reflecte d i n th e College' s leadershi p i n scienc e curriculum developments in the 1960s . The schem e o f study for the trainin g course at Goldsmiths ' ha d bee n drawn u p b y the University' s Board o f Studies in Pedagogy. Th e Boar d had bee n establishe d followin g acceptanc e b y th e Commissioner s responsible fo r the ne w statute s of a recommendatio n fro m a conference representing Universit y College , King's , Bedfor d an d th e Colleg e o f Preceptors, which had also proposed the introduction of a one-year course 18

IJ . Hayward, 'Th e London County Council and the Training of Teachers, 1902-52 ' in Studies and Impressions (1952) . 19 A.E . Dean, 'Fift y Years of Growth' in D. Dymond, Th e Forge, the History o f Goldsmiths' College, 1905-1955(1955).

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of post-graduate training. 20 It was not until 1934 that the Board of Studies was renamed 'Education' . Sadly, its records appear t o have been lost. Education as a Field of Study As Den t ha s commented , on e o f the majo r effect s o f th e settin g u p o f university base d da y trainin g colleges was to give the study of education academic status. 21 Suc h stud y wa s o f relativel y recen t origi n i n thi s country. I n th e boo k tha t Gordo n identifie s a s the 'firs t textboo k in th e subject' th e Revd R.H . Quick, 22 afte r restatin g Arnold's aphoris m that : 'It is clear that in whatever it is our duty to act, these matters also it is our duty to study' goes on to say that: All study of this kind, however, is very much impeded b y want of books. 'Good books are in German', says Professor Seeley. I have found that on the history of Education, no t onl y good book s bu t al l books ar e i n German, o r some othe r foreign language. 23

Until the later years of the century, the aspiring student of education was limited t o no t muc h mor e tha n edition s o f classical works of education theory and a number of handbooks of school management. 24 The staf f appointed to the new day training colleges, and some of those taking par t i n th e bette r residentia l establishments , soo n bega n t o contribute to th e literatur e of educational study from thei r own readin g and experienc e — not only texts to be used as the basis of courses, but works of scholarshi p i n th e histor y an d philosoph y o f educatio n an d i n educational psychology. Students did not always immediately appreciate being taugh t i n wha t late r wa s t o b e spoke n o f as 'th e atmospher e o f research' but wit h mature reflection wer e ready to concede its value. Sir Ronald Gould, who for many years led the largest of our teachers' unions, wrote i n hi s autobiograph y o f hi s earl y experience s a t Westminste r College: The firs t lectur e I attende d . . . wa s entitle d 'Th e Psycholog y o f th e Unconscious'. A s I wa s no t quit e eighteen , ha d neve r hear d o f psychology , could no t eve n spel l i t correctly , an d laboure d unde r th e delusio n tha t 'unconscious' meant being knocked silly, I did not find this easy to follow. Bu t 20

Adamson , 'Departmen t of Education', p. 512. Dent , Training o f Teachers, p. 33 . 22 Pete r Gordon , Th e Study o f Education: a Collection of Inaugural Lectures, I (1980) , p. ix . 23 R.H. Quick, Essays on Educational Reformers (Cincinnati, 1887). 24 A list of such texts can be found in D. Hamilton, ' A Note on Masters of Method an d the Pedagog y o f Nineteenth Century Schooling ' i n History o f Education Society Bulletin, 29 (1982), p. 13 . For additional reference s seeJ.B. Thomas, 'A Note on Masters o f Method in the Universitie s of England an d Wales ' i n History o f Education Society Bulletin, 30 (1982), p. 27. 21

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we had a remarkable staff of scholars and teachers , and despit e this confusing start I wa s happy i n my work and actuall y became particularly successfu l i n psychology and th e theory of education.25

The structur e of the concurrent an d th e post-graduate initia l training courses a t th e Londo n Da y and a t King' s was established earl y in thei r history as falling into four parts . The firs t wa s th e principle s o f education , whic h include d element s o f philosophy, logic , ethics , psycholog y an d histor y applie d t o th e processe s o f learning and teachin g in schools. Second was the 'practical development of the scientific principles and included the method s o f teaching particula r subjects' ; generally speakin g thos e which the candidate was studying or had studie d in his or her degree course. Third, fo r th e aspirin g elementar y teachers , cam e wor k i n subject s o f th e elementary curriculu m suc h a s natur e study , P.E. , musi c an d manua l instruction which was not include d in their degree courses , an d i n which th e College staff had thu s to provide courses in content as well as methods . Fourth, for both groups, cam e teaching practice.

These four elements , often categorise d a s Education, general and specia l method, curriculum subjects and schoo l experience, remained mainstay s of the initial training programme fo r many years. In 196 2 the Chairman of the Board o f Studies in Education was to write to the Dean of the Faculty of Art s tha t th e Boar d 'ha s bee n consciou s fo r severa l year s tha t th e Regulations for the Postgraduat e Certificat e in Education neede d rathe r drastic revisio n an d modification . Apart fro m mino r alterations , thes e Regulations have now been in force for about forty years'. 26 Without in any way wishing to diminish the importance of the changes that too k plac e then , an d thos e whic h hav e occurre d since , th e overal l structure of initial training courses is still today very similar to that of the early year s o f th e century . Balance , sequenc e an d timin g hav e bee n modified o n man y occasions . Th e conten t o f what i s taught within each element has been transformed. But the course is still structured in terms of aspects of Education, methods of teaching the subjects in which a student has specialise d a t universit y or polytechnic , other curriculu m subjects, and practica l teachin g i n schools . Argument s abou t ho w muc h tim e should b e give n t o eac h element , it s sequenc e i n th e programm e an d 25

Ronal d Gould, Chalk u p the Memory (Birmingham , 1976), p. 25 . Universit y of London, Minute s o f the Boar d o f Studies i n Education , Lette r fro m Professor J.A. Lauwerys, included in Minute s for meeting on 26 November 196 2 (AC/8/ 18/1/31). 26

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relation t o othe r aspect s o f th e course , th e choic e o f conten t an d it s organisation an d th e criteri a fo r th e assessmen t o f competenc e an d mastery, continues , a s i t ha s ofte n done , t o wax furiousl y i n committe e chamber, corridor an d commo n room. But it does so within a framewor k defined no t by academic fashion or theoretical conceptions of the teachers' role, bu t b y th e endurin g realitie s o f lif e i n classrooms . Give n tha t secondary schoo l curricul a ar e stil l largel y subjec t based , an d tha t children are stil l organised fo r learning in classes and schools , could it be otherwise? The Federal Institute There i s anothe r respec t i n whic h continuit y between th e wor k o f th e university an d its institutions in teacher education half a century ago and today is apparent - tha t of scale. In 1931/2 , when the L.C.C. handed over the Londo n Da y t o th e Universit y an d i t formall y bega n it s lif e a s th e University o f Londo n Institut e o f Education , attendanc e a t th e mai n lecture courses on two mornings a week, which were open to all students in institutions with Recognised Teachers, already totalled 432: 226 from th e London Da y an d th e remainde r fro m King's , Goldsmiths' , Furzedown, Maria Grey and S t Mary's.27 As earl y a s 192 1 th e Senat e ha d propose d tha t th e Universit y might conduct the Teachers' Certificate Examination s for the two-year training colleges in th e Londo n are a a s a bod y bu t thi s had bee n rejecte d b y the college Principals. 28 Th e Departmenta l Committe e o n th e Trainin g of Teachers o f 192 6 use d thi s Londo n proposa l a s th e basi s fo r thei r recommendation tha t throughou t th e country , college s shoul d b e associated wit h the universitie s by mean s o f Joint Boards , whic h would take over examining responsibility from th e Board o f Education itself. It ha s bee n suggeste d tha t th e Committe e woul d hav e like d t o hav e gone furthe r i n bringin g universitie s and college s together, 29 bu t i n th e interests o f realism limite d themselve s to suggesting that college s might appoint universit y representatives to their governing bodies and that both could benefi t fro m reciproca l teaching arrangements . After muc h comple x negotiation , agreemen t wa s reache d i n 192 8 to group the colleges with thirteen universitie s or university colleges (whic h did not include Oxford and Cambridge, an d lef t the colleges in the eastern counties temporaril y i n limbo , a proble m tha t wa s t o recu r i n anothe r form a third of a century later when Cambridge initially declined to award a B.Ed, degree). 27

Dixon , Th e Institute. Lanc e G.Jones, Th e Training of Teachers (Oxford , 1923) . 29 W.R . Niblett , W.R. Humphrey s and J.R. Fairhurst , The University Connection (Slough , 1975). 28

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The twent y trainin g college s associate d wit h Londo n wer e initially linked wit h Universit y College , King's , King' s Colleg e o f Househol d Science (late r Queen Elizabet h College), Bedford, L.S.E. an d Birkbeck . Queen Mar y Colleg e late r linke d wit h Shoreditc h Colleg e t o for m a further group , and L.S.E . dropped ou t when its only college, Avery Hill, moved t o another group. Th e Universit y established a Training College Delegacy t o provide general oversight, on which representatives o f each of the group committees sat and which reported t o Senate. Within a ver y fe w year s th e Boar d o f Education' s 'Referenc e Committee', set up to monitor operation of the new scheme, was referring to the 'cumbrou s Londo n system ' an d th e University was itself showing dissatisfaction wit h aspect s o f th e examinatio n arrangements . Niblet t refers t o a Boar d o f Educatio n documen t heade d 'Violentl y Informa l Interview wit h Representative s of Londo n University' . Fear s tha t th e University migh t withdra w fro m th e scheme wer e not realised , eithe r a t this tim e o r afte r othe r meeting s tha t too k plac e durin g th e thirtie s t o resolve problems in relations between the Board, H.M . Inspectorate , the colleges and th e universities. The Boar d resiste d calls for an enquiry into teacher training , called fo r b y R.H . Tawney , i n Th e Manchester Guardian and b y the N.U.T., bu t th e issue was inflamed by the appearance in 1938 of a document entitled 'Suggestions by a Committee of H.M. Inspector s for a revised Scheme of Training in Training Colleges ' which advocated a return t o the central assessmen t o f examinations an d cours e work. The Wa r intervened , but i n 1942 , following th e Government's 'Gree n Book' o n post-wa r educationa l reform , i t wa s decide d t o undertak e a thorough enquir y int o teache r training . Man y o f th e problem s i n th e relations of central government, the Inspectorate, the training institutions and th e universities that it fell t o Sir Arnold McNair an d the ten members of his committee to examine seem very familiar. The Institute and the New Pattern of Degrees

Willis Dixon's admirable shor t history stops at 1972 . Something needs to be said , therefore , abou t th e event s tha t afte r 197 3 cause d a n initia l flowering in the range of the work of the associated college s for which the University accepted responsibilit y and then, before the decade was out, to the end o f the federal institute. The overal l 'blueprin t fo r a ne w B.Ed , degree ' (t o quot e a T.H.E.S. headline i n May 1974 ) following the post-James White Paper of 1972, was provided b y a working party convene d b y the U.G.C. and th e C.N.A.A. and chaire d by Sir Norman Lindop. Buildin g on earlier work undertaken by a Dip.H.E . stud y group , a three-yea r programm e fo r th e ordinar y degree an d one of four year s for honours was recommended - althoug h some members thought that exceptional students might attain honours in three years .

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Of particula r relevanc e t o wha t late r happene d i n Londo n wa s th e group's suggestion that : Many institutions will want to provide courses on a unit or modular basis, with a choice o f sets o r units for different qualifications . This will make it easier for different student s t o make up differen t programme s and faciliat e entr y fro m other courses. It will also make it easier fo r students following different course s to tak e par t o f thei r programm e together , whic h w e regar d a s offerin g educational advantages. It is , however, essentia l tha t an y progamm e leading to any qualificatio n should b e coherent. There is obviously som e conflict between th e two aims bu t no doubt various ways of reconciling them will be devised.

Given the - anticipation tha t man y universitie s woul d continu e t o participate in validation alongsid e th e C.N.A.A. it is unsurprising that the group's curricula r proposal s wer e in very general form. Student s should be 'brought to an understanding o f some of the fundamental problems of education and its underlying philosophy'. The so-called 'fou r disciplines' approach t o education studie s was espoused. The 197 2 White Paper's proposa l for fifteen week s of practical teaching was accepted . A distinction wa s mad e betwee n th e subjec t studies tha t would nee d t o be followed b y intending secondary teacher s and b y those looking towards careers in the primary school, for whom 'a wider range of subjects' migh t b e more appropriate. The educationa l grounds on which modular or course unit degrees can be defended hav e mainl y t o do with th e differin g need s an d potentia l o f individual student s and th e flexibility that unit s offer i n meeting course and programm e objectives. I t i s no criticism o f the architects o f the new B.Ed, degre e that , give n th e circumstance s o f th e time , logisti c an d administrative consideration s weighe d a s heavil y a s th e educationa l i n favouring a course unit structure. Course units enabled candidate s for a variety of qualifications to be taught together in groups of a viable size, by staff already in post, and i n sequence that could be varied from on e entry group t o another . Students ' programme s coul d b e assemble d fro m th e available units in whichever way seemed most appropriate t o the types of work they would later be called upon to undertake. London alread y ha d the means t o hand. The definition of a course unit was take n ove r from well-establishe d practice i n th e Scienc e Facult y as 'being one thir d o f the averag e amoun t o f study whic h an y adequatel y prepared studen t can reasonably b e expected t o complete in a year'. Set out on paper th e whole scheme was both simple and logical. There was a strong will on the part of large numbers of people, not only in the Institute, but more widely throughout the university - and not least in Senate House - t o make it work. Many of the senior staff of the Institute, both academic and administrative , enjoyed good relation s with their counterparts in the

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Schools. Ther e wer e respecte d universit y teachers i n man y disciplines , perhaps mos t notably in the Sciences, keenly interested in the courses by which futur e teacher s wer e prepared, an d willin g to devote time to their upgrading an d improvement . Others , less happy abou t th e directio n i n which developments were going, were nevertheless willing to give the new arrangements a fair wind, or at the very least to play an active role in order to avoid thei r worst fears being realised . Some academic s wer e influence d b y wha t the y too k t o b e officia l support fo r th e ne w B.Ed . Other s stil l sa w lon g ter m danger s t o th e universities themselves if the C.N.A.A. acquired by default a monopoly in public sector validation. Academics from the Schools sat on the governing bodies o f colleges, an d som e ha d bee n involve d in arrangement s fo r th e post-Robbins B.Ed . No r wa s i t irrelevant tha t man y senio r member s of the universit y ha d childre n wh o wer e o r ha d earlie r bee n student s of colleges in the federal Institute , and thu s acquired eithe r some loyalty to the colleges, or - an d as far as a desire to participate was concerned, the effect wa s th e sam e - a wis h t o se e their academi c wor k thoroughl y reformed. The par t playe d b y th e 'Universit y connection ' i n th e post-wa r development o f the Institut e was als o importan t i n providin g a drivin g force, especiall y th e stam p pu t upo n i t b y D r Jeffrey an d continue d b y Professor Elvin , fo r bot h o f who m th e federa l arrangement s wer e a safeguard o f academic an d professiona l freedom agains t th e power of the state exercise d throug h the Ministr y of Education an d th e Inspectorate . The traditio n thu s establishe d di d muc h t o ensur e th e willingnes s of Institute staff to endure working days and nights of exceptional length and intensity of effort i n setting up th e new schemes. All these factors provided a powerful initia l momentum which carrie d the new arrangements over many of the initial hurdles and difficulties. I n the early stages, overt criticism and opposition were not much in evidence. There wer e n o se t piec e debates , fo r example , o f th e kin d tha t ha d occurred i n Senate i n 194 5 when Dame Lillia n Penson had clashe d with Dr Jeffrey ove r the term s on which the Universit y would accept A.T.O. responsibilites. It wa s no t long , however, before som e of the structural weaknesses of the new arrangements began to manifest themselves. Greatly exacerbated by centrally imposed reductions on numbers and finance, these eventually brought into focus the latent doubts that had from the beginning existed in some quarters of the University about the wisdom of direct involvement in the publi c secto r an d finall y destroye d th e necessar y basi s o f internal support fo r such work. The mai n structura l impediment s t o a continue d universit y involvement i n validatio n aros e fro m th e ver y characteristic s tha t ha d always give n th e Institut e strengt h i n compariso n wit h Educatio n departments i n othe r Universities , namely it s relativ e independenc e o f

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operation an d academi c decisio n making . Unti l th e introductio n o f the 'old' B.Ed , ther e ha d bee n ver y littl e academi c integratio n betwee n th e work o f the Institut e and tha t o f the rest o f the University - except , of course, wit h King' s College , Chelse a Colleg e an d Goldsmiths ' throug h the Boar d o f Studie s i n Education . Th e introductio n o f degre e leve l studies in the colleges in subjects other than Education posed problems of academic control to which in 196 7 the creation of a Faculty o f Education was see n a s th e answer . Althoug h universit y academic s i n relevan t disciplines sat on the committees that controlle d subject teachin g for the old-style post-Robbin s B.Ed. , thes e committee s remaine d par t o f th e Faculty of Education structure. Beginnings and Endings The diversified degree programmes to be offered b y the colleges, following the 197 2 White Pape r 'Education : A Framewor k fo r Expansion' raise d new problems . Whateve r th e eleganc e an d simplicit y o f th e modula r design, subjects offered elsewher e in the University were now to be taught in the colleges not only for a B.Ed, but also for a B.A. and B.Sc. This would require th e direc t involvemen t o f specialis t staf f employe d no t b y th e Institute bu t b y othe r School s o f th e University , wit h n o establishe d personal o r professional relations with the staff in Education. In unitar y universities , th e member s o f the subjec t department s wh o helped t o establish th e ne w pattern o f courses were on th e same payroll, and sa t on the same academic and faculty boards and committees as their Education colleagues . Th e independenc e o f th e Institut e mean t tha t university teachers in subjects other than Education who were involved in the approval an d supervisio n of the new degrees were not members of the academic board s o f th e institutio n responsibl e fo r th e coordinatio n o f courses an d programmes . Furthermore , ther e wer e request s t o offe r degree programme s i n subject s tha t wer e no t taugh t elsewher e i n th e University, suc h a s movement studie s and dance . Fo r thes e it had bee n necessary t o invent a new degree altogether , the Bachelor of Humanities, later shortened t o B.H. All the new two-subject B.A., B.Sc. and B.H . degrees were to be within the Faculty of Education. Academic course control was to be exercised by twenty Joint Subjec t Committees , mad e u p o f one hal f member s o f the relevant Boards of Studies and one half Institute nominees. The control of degree programmes was undertaken by four Joint Degree Committees fo r the B.Ed. , B.A. , B.Sc. , an d B.Hum . respectively. At the pinnacle of this structure, which in the nature of academic life soon sprouted numerous ad hoc and specialist group s to cope with particular problem s and issues, was a Join t Committe e o f th e Institut e an d th e Academi c Council , whic h reported t o the Council o f the Institute , to the Academic and Collegiat e Councils an d thenc e t o Senate. I t wa s within thi s structur e that forma l

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negotiations took place on the introduction and approval o f courses for the new degrees , an d wher e som e o f the underlyin g structura l weaknesse s began t o show themselves. The willin g cooperation o f University Board s o f Studies othe r tha n Education was crucial to the success of the new arrangements. A few were eager, man y wer e willing , som e wer e sceptical . Fo r som e Board s o f Studies in Arts, the course unit degree constituted a real problem . The hopes of the U.G.C./C.N.A.A. working party that 'no doubt' ways would b e foun d t o ensur e coherenc e prove d difficul t t o fulfil . A pape r submitted to the Joint Committee in January 197 5 argued that coherence could b e teste d i n term s o f concepts, methodologies , themes , problems , skills and occupationa l relevance, the last of these being a justification for almost an y combinatio n o f subject s i n th e B.Ed . Deni s Lawto n ha s subsequently written that in the event the committees responsible for the various degrees had neither the time nor the expertise to make judgements about coherence : . . . and th e practice grew of looking (briefly ) a t each programme on a purely ad hoc basis . Mos t programme s wer e passe d unles s specifi c objection s o n th e grounds of incoherence or overlap of material wer e strongly established . Eve n if it had bee n possible to establish clear principles o r criteria o n such question s as coherence , i t woul d hav e bee n extremel y difficul t t o hav e 'policed ' th e system. Onc e again, the ethos o f the cafeteria tende d t o dominate.30

To mak e matters worse , the complications of the new two subject degre e programmes an d th e requirement s o f professional courses, soon mad e i t necessary t o seek approval fo r half and eve n quarter units , suggesting a dangerous fragmentatio n o f effort an d attention . Non e o f this helpe d t o convince thos e sceptica l o f course uni t structures, especially on th e Arts side, tha t th e ne w arrangement s offere d opportunit y fo r a progressiv e development an d deepenin g o f knowledge an d understandin g ove r th e whole duration o f the degree programme . Another structura l proble m wa s th e cos t i n administrativ e tim e an d resources o f servicing th e complicate d machiner y o f academic control . The nationall y agreed validatio n fee s wer e insufficient t o meet th e cost s incurred b y th e universit y central administratio n (whic h had firs t call ) and b y the Institute , which by the end of the decade wa s estimated to be subsidising the process t o the tune of £100,000 per annum. Staff i n th e School s o f the Universit y bega n t o b e anxiou s abou t th e amount o f time the y were require d t o spen d i n Joint Committe e work, including visitation s t o th e college s an d th e provisio n o f ad hoc advice. Whilst colleg e of education teacher s wer e for the mos t par t assiduou s in their attendanc e a t meetings , the demands o n the time of university staff with thei r own students t o teach an d thei r own college's affair s t o attend 30

D . Lawton, Th e B.Ed. : a Case Study', Higher Education Bulletin, 2 (1982).

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to, made it difficult fo r them to come to all the many meetings that had t o be called , fuellin g anxietie s abou t lac k o f prope r universit y control o f courses and awards . A furthe r structura l proble m aros e fro m th e University' s syste m o f recognising teacher s i n associate d institutions . Onl y thos e colleg e teachers so recognised coul d play a full par t in examining students and in the ne w structur e of awards. Despit e change s i n th e rule s tha t i n 197 3 added t o the existing academic and research requirements the possibility of being recognised a s an 'able and value d teacher' of at least seven years standing, and i n 197 5 separated recognition for undergraduate teaching from tha t for post-graduates, onl y a minority of college teachers were able to secure recognition . It say s much for the University and for the colleges that, despite all the actual an d incipien t difficulties , an d thank s t o a n enormou s amoun t of administrative and committe e work , including Boar d of Studies visits , a total o f 480 B.Ed., thirty-six B.A., thirty-four B.Sc . and ninety-fiv e B.H . programmes wer e approve d fo r 197 5 entries. B y thi s tim e th e origina l estimate of 15,000 candidates fo r the new London degrees was having to be drastically revise d i n the light of government decisions on numbers in higher educatio n an d th e future of the colleges . At th e en d of the 'sixtie s the federa l Are a Trainin g Organisatio n ha d comprised th e Institute of Education i n Bloomsbury, the Departments of Education a t King's , Chelse a an d Goldsmiths' , an d thirty-on e constituent colleges. Eleve n colleges of the Cambridge Institut e had als o been temporaril y admitte d t o enabl e student s t o tak e Londo n examinations, sinc e Cambridg e di d no t offe r th e 'old ' B.Ed . (Th e Cambridge arrangement s cam e to an end with the disappearance o f that award.) Ove r th e nex t eigh t years , a s a consequenc e o f th e polic y o f absorbing th e college s o f educatio n int o th e mainstrea m o f highe r education, o f reduction s i n initia l teache r training , an d o f financia l exigency, th e forme r constituten t college s eithe r close d thei r doors , merged wit h polytechnic s o r othe r post-secondar y institution s tha t validated thei r courses through C.N.A.A., joined with each other to form new diversifie d institutions , o r transferre d thei r validatio n t o othe r universities. The Decision to Withdraw The University' s agreemen t t o the new pattern of diversified degrees ha d been for a period o f five years from 1975 . By the time a sub-committee of the Academic Council came to review the position in 197 9 there were only three institutions out of the original thirty-one, plus Goldsmiths' that were likely t o wis h t o continu e t o offe r Londo n award s afte r 198 0 (th e Roehampton Institut e o f Higher Education , a n amalgamatio n o f fou r previously free-standin g voluntar y colleges ; S t Mary' s College ,

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Strawberry Hill ; an d th e Wes t Londo n Institut e o f Higher Education , which ha d bee n forme d fro m Mari a Grey an d Boroug h Roa d Colleges). The origina l estimat e of 15,000 student s had bee n reduced t o 2,450. Having examine d th e historica l background , th e problem s tha t ha d arisen i n maintaining adequate academi c contro l of the new course-unit degrees, and th e Reports, som e of them very critical, of thirty-one Review Panels se t up b y Boards o f Studies to examine the standards achieved i n each subject, the sub-committee discussed four possible courses of action: to continu e th e existin g syste m o f validatio n throug h th e Institut e o f Education; t o continue only afte r a drastic overhau l of the machiner y of validation; t o associat e th e thre e remainin g institution s wit h a multi faculty Schoo l o r Schools o f the University ; or to terminate validation a s soon a s possible afte r 1980 . Thi s last cours e was th e on e which the sub commitee finally recommended.31 The debat e on the sub-committee's recommendatio n in the Council of the Institute, many members of which had been closely identified with the federal Institut e ove r a lon g perio d befor e th e change s initiate d b y th e 1972 Whit e Paper , wa s conducte d i n a sombr e mood , li t b y occasional flashes of anger at the way in which the University was ending a long and valued association . Som e member s wante d t o carry th e argument t o the floor of the Senate , wher e i t wa s believe d ther e woul d b e more suppor t than in the Academic Council for the retention of academic links with the remaining colleges . T o others , however , ther e seeme d littl e poin t i n fighting what ha d becom e a hopeles s case. T o en d validation woul d no t mean tha t King's , Chelse a an d th e Institut e would b e cu t of f from th e work o f th e colleges . B y mean s o f advance d studie s an d researc h programmes an d services for teachers they would continue to relate to the teacher education institutions in the region, including those that validated their courses through th e C.N.A.A. In a way not unknown in academic committees, the Council tea-brea k was utilised to draw up a statement which would satisfy thos e who wished to make their protest bu t would avoid dividing the Senate. This was duly agreed an d included in the report of the Council to Senate on 1 2 Decembe r 1979, which also had befor e it the Academic Council's recommendation . No proposal to defer wa s made. Ther e was little debate an d n o division. The federa l Institut e passed awa y quietly. In this 150th anniversary year the University has examined the last few students registere d fo r it s award s i n th e forme r college s o f education . Those who feared tha t a large number of other universities would follo w London i n withdrawing from validatio n wer e proved wrong . Two o f the three remainin g Londo n college s linked with the University of Surrey ( a 31 Report of the Academic Council Sub-Committee on the Review of Courses at Colleges Associated wit h th e Institut e o f Education , Universit y o f Londo n Senate Minutes, 1 2 December 1979 .

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new venture on its part). In the country as a whole there were still in 198 6 thirteen universities validating initial teacher education courses in public sector institutions . Many o f them also cover B.A. and B.Sc . programme s and course s fo r othe r awards . Ther e i s a flourishin g Conferenc e o f Validating Universities . It ha s recently been propose d tha t a number of smaller college s should forg e link s of a new type with their neighbouring universities, whereby the latter take responsibility for a substantial part of B.Ed, students' subject studies. There are few signs of the feared C.N.A.A. monopoly. An d eve n thos e wh o wer e anxious that th e en d o f validation might se e th e Universit y o f Londo n movin g awa y fro m it s traditiona l openness t o a mor e enclosed , restrictiv e stance , hav e t o conside r th e implications o f th e recen t reviva l o f th e Externa l syste m an d th e University's willing participation i n discussions of credit transfer. Both i n respec t o f the Joint Boar d arrangement s afte r 1928 , and th e federal Institut e for the thirty years from 1945 , the University of London led th e wa y i n establishin g close r relation s betwee n initia l teache r education an d th e universities , with profound effect s o n th e status of the colleges, th e development o f the thre e year course, opportunities for staff actively t o engag e i n curriculu m development , th e growt h o f advance d studies in education, th e bringing of research an d scholarshi p t o bear on problems o f th e classroom , and , no t least , th e qualit y o f each annua l intake t o th e teachin g profession . Th e Universit y als o playe d a n important par t i n placing th e control o f teacher educatio n o n a broade r base tha n tha t whic h ha d existe d prio r t o 1928 , and which , bu t fo r the willingness of the universities, led by London, t o acept a modified version of McNair' s 'Schem e A' , migh t hav e returne d i n th e earl y post-wa r period. Departments and Disciplines The belie f seem s t o exis t i n som e quarter s tha t th e organisatio n o f educational studie s into specialised area s of enquiry i s a product of the early 'sixties. As far as the Colleges of Education were concerned that may well hav e bee n th e case . Th e 196 4 Conferenc e organised b y H.M.I , i n Hull t o whic h Richar d Peter s an d Basi l Bernstei n mad e importan t contributions is regarded as a watershed. But specialisation in the study of education i n London bega n muc h earlier, especiall y at the Institute. In th e earl y days , department s wer e identified mainl y in terms of the subjects o f the schoo l curriculu m o r a s caterin g fo r particular group s of students. Thus th e Colonial Departmen t wa s established in 1927 , and a Department o f Chil d Developmen t i n 1933 . Withi n th e headin g o f 'General Theory ' ther e wer e b y th e mi d 'thirtie s distinc t course s i n principles o f education , educationa l psychology , histor y o f education , comparative education , an d th e Englis h educationa l system . History , administration an d comparativ e educatio n wer e al l King' s Colleg e

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specialities. B y a n agreemen t betwee n King' s an d th e Londo n Da y Training Colleg e i n th e mi d 'twenties , King' s staf f contribute d importantly to the Institute's teaching , especially at advanced levels . In th e initia l training course fo r graduates as it was organised b y the mid 'thirties , principles o f education, teachin g methods, psycholog y an d hygiene, th e Englis h educationa l syste m an d practica l teachin g wer e compulsory elements. I n addition, student s could choose either history of education, or comparative education or further educational psychology . The secon d Chai r t o be founded a t the London Da y Training College, initially o n a part-tim e basis , ha d bee n i n psychology; its firs t occupan t was Cyril Burt: His eigh t year s a t th e Londo n Da y wer e in som e respect s th e pea k o f Burl's career, H e wa s a t th e heigh t o f his powers ; h e wa s i n a n environmen t that suited him admirably; hi s practical an d academic duties were nicely balanced . . . But th e most importan t featur e of the college for Burt was the high status occupied b y psychology . . . the groundwor k ha d bee n lai d b y John Adams, Percy Nunn and Margaret Punnett. . . what Burt did was to bring psychology to life. 32

Referring t o th e recen t criticis m o f aspects o f Burt's work , Hearnsha w goes on to say that durin g his time at the College : Burt may perhaps hav e been over confident, an d pron e to play to the gallery, but ther e wa s n o tain t o f duplicity. No fai r assessmen t o f Burt's wor k an d personality is possible unless this phase of his career is given its due weight. 33

If th e psychometri c traditio n pioneere d b y Burt , whic h a s numerou s authors have since shown was a major influence on pre-war and post-wa r official thinkin g abou t th e organisatio n o f primar y an d secondar y education,34 was t o some exten t continued b y his successors, i t was als o from researc h a t th e Institute that came th e greater understandin g of the limitation o f tes t validit y an d reliabilit y which speede d th e movemen t away fro m eleven-plu s selection . As th e Institute' s wor k i n psycholog y broadene d i n scop e durin g th e post-war period , and th e National Foundation for Educational Research , the precursor of which had bee n located a t th e Institut e in 193 8 with th e help o f Carnegie money , develope d it s testin g activities, diversificatio n into sub-specialities such as educational handicap , readin g researc h an d 32

L.S . Hearnshaw , Cyril Burt, Psychologist (1979) . Ibid., p . 44 . Se e also C.M . Flemin g an d J.A. Lauwerys , 'Advance d Studie s an d Research' in Studies and Impressions. 34 R . Lowe, 'Eugenics and Education : a Note on the Origins of the Intelligence Testing Movement i n England' , Educational Studies, 6 (1980) . Bria n Simon , Intelligence, Psychology and Education (1971) . 33

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longitudinal studie s replaced th e early psychometric focus . Initially created i n 193 3 to provide a base for the work of Susan Issacs , whose wor k a t th e Maltin g Hous e Schoo l i n Cambridg e an d whos e writings o n childre n wer e muc h admire d b y Perc y Nunn , Chil d Development retaine d a separate existenc e from psycholog y unti l recen t times, th e tw o departments onl y comin g togethe r on the appointment in 1973 of a head (Professo r W.D. Wall, formerly Dean of the Institute) who had not only been Director o f the N.F.E.R., bu t who had published widely on child and adolescen t development . The department' s origina l purpos e wa s to train experience d teacher s who would the n becom e lecturer s in infant method s an d nurser y schoo l practice.35 I t represente d a ver y differen t traditio n fro m tha t o f th e Institute's psychologists , drawin g heavil y o n th e wor k o f Freu d an d Dewey and providin g an alternative research pat h t o that bein g pursued elsewhere by Piaget.36 Susan Issacs' involvement with the New Education Fellowship, in which over the years man y London staf f have been active, and he r contributio n to official studie s (notably the 193 3 Hadow Repor t on Infan t an d Nurser y Schools) , couple d wit h the work of her students , gave her ideas great influenc e on the development of the education of the young child, and i n that spher e are stil l powerfully fel t today. 37 The proces s b y whic h 'principle s o f education ' an d 'theor y o f education' wer e redefine d an d contribute d t o b y specialis t staf f an d departments, rather than defined as a single course (and the responsibility in th e earl y day s o f a singl e individual ) wa s accelerate d b y th e appointment i n 194 7 of th e firs t Professo r i n Philosoph y o f Education , Louis Arnaud Reid , whose last book was published in 198 6 and who was still active in the Institute in the months prior to his recent death at the age of ninety-one.38 It wa s during the rapid growt h of the 'sixties that th e Institute began, through Richar d Peter s an d hi s colleagues , t o exer t it s formidabl e influence o n th e developmen t o f philosoph y o f educatio n o n a n international a s wel l a s a nationa l front , no w ofte n referre d t o a s th e 'London Line'. 39

35

Doroth y M . Gardner , 'Studie s in Child Development' , in Studies and Impressions. Margare t Roberts , ' A Celebratio n o f the Centenar y o f the Birt h o f Susan Issacs' , International Journal o f Early Childhood, 1 7 (1985) . 37 Th e archiv e o f th e Ne w Educatio n Fellowshi p i s no w lodge d i n th e Institut e of Education Library . 38 L.A. Reid, Ways of Understanding (1986). 39 Se e David Aspin, 'Th e Philosophy of Education' i n L. Cohen, L. Mannion and J . Thomas, Educational Research i n Great Britain, 1970-1980 (Slough , 1982) , Robert Dearden , 'Philosophy of Education, 1952-1982 ' in British Journal of Educational Studies, XXXI (1983), and Fran k Dunlop , revie w of L.A. Reid , Ways o f Understanding i n Journal o f the Philosophy o f Education (1986) . 36

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Sociology o f Educatio n i n Londo n owe s i t origi n t o th e pre-wa r contribution that Karl Mannheim, then on the staff of the L.S.E., made to teaching a t th e Institute . H e an d Fre d Clark e wer e bot h activ e i n a Christian discussion grou p known as 'The Moot', which also numbere d T.S. Eliott , A.D . Lindsay , Walte r Moberly , Walte r Oakeshot t an d Geoffrey Vicker s amon g it s members. 40 Mannhei m transferre d fro m L.S.E. t o the Institut e as Professor of the Sociology of Education in 1946, but died the following year.41 Professor W.O. Leste r Smith held the Chair from 194 9 t o 1953 , an d wa s succeede d a s hea d o f department b y Jean Floud, wh o followe d th e sam e pat h a s Mannhei m i n transferrin g fro m L.S.E. I n collaboratio n wit h he r forme r colleague s an d students , sh e contributed signficantl y t o empirica l sociologica l studie s i n severa l aspects of education. Once again, however, it was the expansion of the 'sixties that provided the opportunity for the Institute to extend its influence in this field, and for the ne w hea d o f department , Basi l Bernstein , t o establis h a strongl y funded researc h bas e and t o recruit staff who would themselves do much to exten d th e subjec t into colleges an d department s of education within and beyon d th e federal Institute itself. In sociolog y of education London has not only exerted major influence on the development o f an educationa l specialis m bu t i t has been abl e to support theoretical work of great importance, not only to education, but to the parent discipline itself. The Colonia l Department, initially founded t o offer course s of training to those about to teach and administer i n the British Empire, has since, in reflection o f the changing worl d without , gone through thre e more name changes (Departmen t of Education i n Tropical Areas , then Departmen t of Education in Developing Countries, and today, following a merger with the Department o f Comparative Education , Department of International and Comparativ e Education) . It s activitie s hav e don e muc h ove r th e years to ensure that not only are the Institute's name and activities known in every continent, but tha t many of the men and women who today hold senior educationa l appointment s i n Anglophon e Africa , i n th e ol d Commonwealth an d i n man y othe r countrie s ar e it s graduate s o r associates. Thi s i s something t o whic h man y othe r Department s o f the Institute, which has from th e beginning had a large proportion of overseas students amon g it s full-time degre e candidates, and th e Departments a t King's, Chelse a an d Goldsmiths' , hav e als o mad e a prominen t contribution. In thi s respec t i t i s als o opportun e t o remembe r tha t th e Schem e of Special Relations , b y mean s o f which Africa n Universitie s were able in 40

Th e Moo t archive is also held in the Institute of Education Library. C . Loader , Th e Intellectual Development o f Karl Mannheim: Culture, Politics and Planning (Cambridge, 1986). 41

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their fledglin g year s t o teac h fo r Londo n awards, 42 an d th e Externa l Degree system , which is still flourishing , hav e been importan t source s of qualified teacher s an d senio r staf f i n bot h developin g an d develope d 4.0 countries. The man y connections that from th e earliest days Institute and King' s College department s an d academic s ha d wit h educationist s an d institutions overseas, and the large numbers of foreign visitors who passed through London, had always given the University's work in Education an important internationa l an d comparativ e flavour . I n 194 3 th e Facult y Board i n Arts an d th e Academic Council , o n recommendation fro m th e Institute, gave high priority to an appointment to a Chair of Comparative Education. King' s ha d provide d th e lea d fo r suc h work , initiall y b y Nicholas Han s an d Winthro p Young , wh o use d th e Yea r Boo k o f Education, firs t publishe d i n 193 2 an d edite d b y Eustac e Percy , a s a vehicle to drive the subject forward. The first occupant of the Chair when it was established i n 194 7 was Joseph Lauwerys, originally appointed t o the Institut e a s a scientist , bu t wh o ha d develope d increasingl y stron g international interests during the 'thirties and the war years. The first Doctorate i n Comparative Educatio n was awarded in 1948 (to William Connell) . Wor k i n comparativ e educatio n a t King' s unde r Edmund Kin g developed alon g lines distinct from an d complementary to those of the Institute, where Brian Holmes did much to focus attention on the importanc e o f th e comparativ e stud y o f polic y makin g an d th e methodology o f the subject. History o f educatio n wa s on e o f th e earlies t distinc t element s o f educational stud y i n course s o f initial teacher training , partl y n o doubt due t o the historica l interest o f some o f the pioneers i n the field, such as Adams a t the Day Training College and J.W. Adamson at King's. With its establishe d Chai r in History o f Education, i t was King' s tha t le d th e way i n developin g thi s aspec t o f th e stud y o f educatio n i n London . Cooperation betwee n th e Institut e an d King's , especiall y i n advance d courses an d researc h supervision , has alway s been a feature of London's work i n thi s subject , bu t ha s bee n affecte d (althoug h perhap s les s tha n elsewhere) b y the relative decline in the place of history of education as a distinct elemen t i n initia l teacher education , popular thoug h i t remain s with first degree and researc h candidates. 44 Curriculum and Foundations In it s submission prepared in connection wit h the 196 5 U.G.C visit , the Division o f Humanitie s reminde d th e Institut e o f a proble m tha t ha d never bee n far below the surface of its academic organisation: 42

Bruc e Pattison, Special Relations (1984). Dixon , Th e Institute, pp. 28 , 57. 44 Richar d Aldrich, 'Histor y of Education a t th e Crossroads', Th e Historian, 1 1 (1986) .

43

Education 24

9

It has been stated at various times that the structure of the Institute should, by policy, b e on e o f 'vertica l segments ' an d no t 'layers ' i.e. , i t shoul d b e a n organisation primaril y o f departments operatin g bot h a t initia l training an d advanced level . If departments concerned wit h schools and student s continue to be neglected, while those not directly so concerned are further enlarged, th e Institute will have to renounce this policy altogether, and thi s would result, in our view, in a serious dimunition of the contribution it can make to education.

There ar e overtone s her e o f th e familia r division s o f interes t betwee n 'Foundations' an d 'subject ' department s i n Universit y School s o f Education i n th e Unite d State s o r i n Englis h an d Wels h College s o f Education, There are also important differences, arising fro m th e wholly graduate statu s of the student body at the Institute, King's an d Chelsea , and, fro m th e earliest days - highe r degrees wer e offered fro m 191 6 - the involvement i n advance d wor k o f man y o f thos e originall y appointe d because o f their 'curriculum' interests. If ove r th e year s throug h it s wor k i n th e psychology , philosophy , sociology, histor y an d administratio n o f education, th e Universit y ha s made highly significant contributions to the way in which we think about educational polic y an d practice , i t ha s bee n equall y influentia l i n th e content, pedagog y an d mode s o f assessment o f the various subject s tha t feature in the school curriculum. The way in which Jimmy Britten , Nancy Martin an d Harold Rose n influenced th e teaching of English was only one example o f ho w Institute , King' s an d Chelse a staf f partnere d th e professionals i n developing ne w curricula, new methods o f teaching an d new approaches t o assessment. Durin g th e 'seventies the University was able t o establis h Chair s o r t o appoin t persona l professorship s i n suc h fields as scienc e education , mathematic s education , Englis h education , music education , geography education , i n Englis h fo r speakers o f other languages and i n curriculum studies. Many of these titles remain uniqu e within the British university system. Given the growing importance of science in the school curriculum, it is unsurprising tha t eac h o f th e Londo n institution s concerne d wit h th e study of education offere d bot h initial and post-experienc e courses in this field. Th e mos t strikin g development s sinc e th e establishmen t o f th e Faculty were at Chelsea College , where the Centre for Science Educatio n was set up in 196 7 under the leadership of Kevin Keohane . Th e Centre' s initial location - in a former cigarette factory in Pulton Place - was hardly consistent wit h th e pioneerin g M.Ed , i n healt h educatio n which , alon g with award s i n scienc e an d mathematic s education , represente d a new departure fo r London; a move was soon made to Bridges Place - anothe r factory, bu t wit h a bette r resonance , a s i t ha d formerl y bee n use d fo r manufacturing electronic devices. The Chelse a Centr e soo n establishe d a reputatio n no t onl y fo r pioneering Master' s course s bu t als o fo r curriculu m researc h i n man y

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areas of science and mathematics education, and attracted larg e researc h grants. Wit h th e comin g int o existenc e o f th e ne w King' s Colleg e (K.Q.C.), th e former King' s Departmen t an d th e Chelsea Centr e hav e become th e K.Q.C . Centr e fo r Educationa l Studies , whic h wit h som e thirty-eight staff , i s now located at 55 2 King's Road, the former home of the Colleg e o f St Mark , whic h i n aroun d 183 0 wa s th e secon d teache r training institution to be set up in this country. The Universit y has als o ha d a leading par t i n developing th e overall study o f the schoo l curriculum . I n specifi c curriculu m fields suc h a s ar t and design , economics, medi a studies, religious education, socia l studies and moder n languages , th e University also has departments an d group s actively engage d i n teachin g a t bot h initia l and advance d levels and i n research. I t ha s bee n abl e t o initiat e importan t wor k i n multi-cultural education, in statistics and computing, in curriculum analysis and in cross curricula studie s o f primar y an d secondar y education , th e sixtee n t o nineteen age group, and further an d higher education. Indeed, in looking at th e rang e o f courses, department s an d unit s tha t no w featur e i n th e Institute's, K.Q.C.' s and Goldsmiths ' prospectuses , i t is difficult t o find any aspec t o f contemporar y educationa l provisio n o r an y issu e o f contemporary educationa l debat e tha t i s not provide d fo r by someone , somewhere. The perceptiveness , professionalism , knowledge , dedicatio n an d commitment of the many hundreds of staff who have over the years served the Universit y i n thi s fiel d hav e bee n a necessar y bu t no t a sufficien t condition fo r th e influenc e tha t Londo n ha s exerted . Suc h effort s hav e been give n focu s an d directio n b y the ideas generated an d disseminate d by a muc h smalle r numbe r o f people, mos t o f them pas t an d presen t appointed teacher s of the University. Emerson say s somewhere that ther e is no history, only biography. And it i s impossibl e t o loo k a t th e histor y o f the stud y o f Education i n th e University o f Londo n withou t bein g struc k b y th e importanc e o f th e contribution o f outstanding me n an d wome n wh o hav e ove r th e year s offered th e intellectua l an d institutiona l leadershi p tha t ha s give n th e Institute, King's , Chelse a an d Goldsmiths ' thei r distinctive place i n the consciousness of the educated teacher . In thes e democrati c times , whe n man y department s an d unit s hav e non-professorial head s an d th e emphasi s i s on th e tea m rathe r tha n th e individual, i t i s wel l t o remin d ourselve s tha t i t i s o n th e abilit y o f a university t o identify , t o attrac t an d t o hol d thos e wh o ca n mak e a distinctive contribution in the realm of ideas that the future excellence and reputation o f its work in Education, as in other fields, depends.

Education 25

1

Unity and Diversity Questions about how intellectual effort is differentiated and integrated ar e among the most important to be asked and answered in organising studies in a particular field of enquiry. Th e answer s tha t emerge ar e reflected i n the designations and activities of, and relationships between, the faculties, schools, departments , centres , areas , unit s an d othe r group s throug h which intellectual effort i s organised, and in ongoing arguments about th e distribution o f resources , 'rationalisation' , 'restructuring ' an d al l th e other processe s o f academic change . The popula r assumptio n o f academi c conservatis m usuall y fail s t o distinguish betwee n rate s o f chang e i n structure , i n proces s an d i n content. Althoug h such changes ar e obviously related, the y do not move in accordanc e wit h simila r timetables . I n an y fiel d i n whic h activ e research i s underway , th e conten t o f course s an d programmes , a t al l levels, i s continuousl y modifie d b y increment s o f knowledg e an d understanding an d irregula r paradig m shifts . Academi c processe s pedagogy, curriculum , assessment - usuall y change mor e slowly . What matters is that they be open t o revision in the light of validated change s in knowledge and altere d externa l conditions . On th e whole, institutional structures are resistant t o change, servin g to protect settlement s of past conflict s of interest and providin g a more or less ordered framewor k within which current differences ca n be resolved. Many centuries-ol d organisationsa l feature s o f the ancien t universitie s remain firmly in place, despite the revolutions that have occurred in what is taught an d researched upon i n these institutions. On the other side, the sweeping structural changes tha t too k place in the organisation o f initial teacher preparation in the 'seventie s were not accompanied by any very fundamental modificatio n in course content and academi c process . At eac h stag e o f the developmen t o f educational studie s i n London , concern ha s bee n expresse d abou t lac k o f integration , th e danger s o f fragmentation, an d th e nee d fo r some kind of synthesis. Over th e year s many way s have bee n trie d t o brin g staf f i n differen t specialism s close r together an d t o focus th e formidable academic talent of the Institut e and the constitutent departments upo n th e solution of educational problems . Inter-disciplinary seminars ; th e two-subject Master's degree ; joint interdepartmental supervisio n o f researc h students ; th e staf f residentia l weekend; 'centres ' tha t dra w upo n staf f fro m severa l departments; bot h piecemeal an d radica l departmenta l reorganisation , ar e all illustrative of such effort . Valuabl e as these have been, there are educators bot h within and beyond London who regard th e continuing separation of departments and unit s a s a proble m an d regre t th e lac k o f coordinate d researc h programmes, th e small amoun t of inter-citation betwee n disciplines, and the absence of a single unifying concept of teacher professionalism, such as they believe exis t i n the training of , for example, doctor s and lawyers .

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The wor k of any comple x organisation i s facilitated b y the existence of shared purpose s and symbols . But it is a mistake to look for a high level of integration i n bodies a s oriented t o research an d advance d studie s as the Institute an d th e Centr e fo r Educationa l Studie s a t th e 'new ' King' s College. Insofa r as medical parallel s ar e appropriate , a great dea l o f the fundamental researc h carrie d ou t in medical schools and research unit s is the provinc e no t o f doctor s bu t o f physicists , chemists , biologists , biochemists, biotechnologists , electronic s specialist s an d other s whos e training is other tha n i n medicine . In an y event , th e degre e o f fragmentation tha t exist s in educationa l studies i n Londo n ma y hav e bee n exaggerated . Ther e ar e fe w singlediscipline departments amon g the fifteen into which the Institute has over the pas t fe w year s reorganise d itself . Muc h o f th e funde d researc h currently bein g undertake n require s input s fro m mor e tha n on e are a of educational study . Th e mor e o r les s shar p distinctio n betwee n thos e departments whos e work focussed mainl y on subject s taught in schools, and thos e concerned mainl y with advanced studie s and research in the socalled foundations, has with the appointment of Professors and the growth of research in the former curriculum subjects become very much less clear. To borrow structuralist terminology, some aspects of the 'reality' of the study o f Educatio n ma y indee d b e function s o f it s interna l textua l practice, conducte d withi n a discours e largel y disassociate d fro m th e power relation s inheren t i n th e lif e o f othe r educationa l system s an d institutions. Bu t th e relativ e autonom y tha t suc h disassociatio n confer s enables a language to be provided in which possibilities for change can be explored i n way s unthinkabl e withi n mor e tightl y integrate d an d ideologically mor e coheren t systems . Hence , o f course , th e attack s o f totalitarians o f bot h lef t an d righ t o n wha t the y se e a s th e perniciou s influence o f universities on education - an d th e need fo r this an d othe r universities t o foster and maintai n th e scope and quality o f the work they do in this sphere . Towards 2036 Fifteen years ago there was a great deal of gloom in the air about the future of teacher education in general and teacher education i n the universities in particular. Som e aspect s o f th e Jame s Repor t an d th e subsequen t government Whit e Pape r ha d no t bee n wel l receive d b y teache r educators. Th e difficultie s encountere d withi n th e universit y i n establishing a ne w pattern o f validated award s agains t a backgroun d o f rapid institutiona l change i n the college s made i t difficult t o be sanguine about the future . Yet thes e developments ha d littl e real impact o n the majority of those teaching an d undertakin g researc h withi n King's , Chelse a an d th e Institute o f Education . Wit h th e financia l restriction s impose d o n

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universities from th e mi d 'seventie s there were fewer ne w appointments . Some vacancie s wer e lef t unfille d an d staf f student ratio s worsened . Bu t post-graduate initia l training numbers were largely maintained. P.G.C.E. courses fo r primary teacher s were initiated. The rang e o f post-experience and advanced course s increased. Overseas studen t recruitment, hit by the impact o f full-cost fees , was through the efforts o f staff soon quite restored; in thi s as in so many other respects , th e University's international status and lon g standin g professiona l connections hav e stoo d i t i n good stead . Research incom e continued t o increase. The expenditur e of the Institute from researc h grant s an d contract s as a percentage of total expenditure is comparable t o tha t o f some science-oriente d institutions . Th e K.Q.C . Centre's fiv e yea r averag e i s highe r tha n tha t o f an y othe r singl e department i n th e College . Londo n Universit y alone account s fo r some 30 per cen t o f all the mone y spen t b y Englis h and Wels h universitie s on educational research , an d gettin g o n fo r 4 0 per cen t o f al l universit y postgraduates i n Educatio n ar e registere d here . And , no t least , th e Institute is likely to be the first institution within the University to receive its own Royal Charter i n the post sesquicentennia l period. There can be no certainty that any educational institution will still have its present size , shape an d patter n o f organisation fifty, fifteen or, such is the natur e o f the revolutio n int o whic h we hav e bee n backin g recently, even five years ahead. What is certain is that education in all its forms will remain a major and indee d increasingl y important activity of societies at all stage s o f thei r development , tha t institution s wil l b e neede d tha t educate and train men and women for such service, and that curiosity and uncertainty about th e nature of what it is we are about when we set out to educate wil l stil l nee d t o be satisfie d b y mean s of research an d enquiry . There is no doubt, therefore, about th e continuing importance of the work that thi s Universit y undertake s unde r th e auspice s o f it s Facult y o f Education. Fe w universities in the world, and non e in Britain, can claim to hav e playe d suc h a significan t par t i n th e developmen t an d dissemination o f educational ideas and pracdce s as London University.

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Index

Abbreviations use d i n the index (excep t those given in full i n the index entries themselves) B.Ed. Bachelo r of Education H.M.S. Hospita l Medica l School I.C. I mperial College K.C. King' s College K.Q.C. King's , Queen Elizabet h and Chelsea [College ]

L.S.E. Londo n School of Economics [and Politica l Science] Q.M.C. Quee n Mar y Colleg e U.C.H. Universit y College Hospital U.C.H.M.S. University College Hospital Medica l Schoo l U.C.L. Universit y College Londo n

Adamson, J.W., historia n o f education 69 , 231 aeronautics 171 , 173 Amos, Andrew, professor of English Law, U.C.L. 92-9 4 anaesthetics 13 0 anatomy xii i Apothecaries, Societ y of xvii i Appleton, Edward , professo r of Physics, K.C. (ionosphere ) 12 1 Arnold, Matthe w 1 0 —, Thomas 62-63 , 67, 149 —, T.W., orientalis t 6 9 Asquith Report (Universit y Educatio n i n the Colonies, 1945 ) 141,22 1 Austin, John, professor of Jurisprudence,

U.C.L. 87,89-9 2

Baker, Philip Noel, professor of International Relations , L.S.E. 21 6 Barker, Sir Ernest, classicist, K.C. 21n. , 71 Barkla, Charles, professo r of Physics, K.C . (X-rays) 12 1 Beales, H.L. , professo r of Economic History, L.S.E. 21 9 Bedford College , xix, 46, 47, 48, 69-70, 7 1 —, music 186 , 189 —, sociology 22 3 —, Training Departmen t (teachers ) 23 1

Bedford, Duke of, and Bloomsbur y site 16 , 19,21-22 Beesly, E.S., professo r of History, U.C.L. 66 Bell, Sir Charles, professo r of Surgery, U.C.L. 12 8 Bentham, Jeremy, philosophe r 86-9 1 Bernal, J.D., professo r of Crystallography, Birkbeck 12 1 Beveridge, Sir William, Director of L.S.E. and Vice-Chancello r 13 , 21-22, 23, 213, 215 biochemical engineerin g xxi , 179 biochemistry xi v biology xiv , xvi, 11 7 Birkbeck College 24 , 27 —, music 187-88 , 189 Birmingham, University of xvi , xx Blackwell, Elizabeth, first Englishwoman qualified docto r 135n . Blunt, Anthony, art historia n 7 9 botany xi , xiii, xiv, xvi Bowley, A.L., professor of Economics, L.S.E. 21 3 British Museu m 16-1 7 Bryant, Sophie, headmistress , North London Collegiat e Schoo l 41-4 2 Burdon-Sanderson, John Scott , professor of Practical Physiology , U.C.L. 13 2

256

The University of London, 1836-1986

Burt, Cyril, professor of Psychology, London Da y Training College 70 , 245

Dodds, Edward Charles , professor of Biochemistry, Middlesex H.M.S . (steroids) 14 0 Cambridge, Universit y of xii , xiv, xvi, xx, Donaldson, T.L. , professo r of Architecture, U.C.L. 5 68,214 —, refusal t o award B.Ed , degree 24 2 Durham Universit y xii , xxi —, women at xix , 38-39 careers o f London graduates , economic history 21 9 civil service 6 8 economics x x —, industry and commerc e 7 8 Economics and Politica l Science, Faculty —, teaching 7 3 of(1900) x x Carr-Saunders, Alexander , biologist and Edinburgh University xiii , 127 , 210 Director of L.S.E. 217,22 1 Education, Facult y of (1966) xx , 228 Casson, Sir Hugh, architect 5 Egyptology 7 4 chaperones 3 7 electricity xiii , 117 , 11 9 Chelsea College [Sout h Western Engineering, Faculty of (1900) xiv , xx engineering xiv-xv , xvi Polytechnic] 2 , 233, 249 —, merged i n K.Q.C. 25 0 engineers, bridges 16 4 chemistry xi , xiii, xiv, 118, 11 9 —, docks 16 5 Churchill, Winston S. 2 2 —, marine 16 6 —, railway 16 3 civic universities xvi-xvi i English literature xvi , xix, 62, 63, 64, 65 classics xi , 62 Clore, Sir Charles, propert y developer an d English placenames 7 0 benefactor 11 1 Evans, Sir Ifor, Principa l of Q.M.C., Provost ofU.C.L. 177 , 179 Coggan, Donald, Archbisho p of examinations, divinity 15 4 Canterbury 15 2 —, law xii , 96 Colcutt, T.E., architec t 1 3 —, medical 134 , 137 Cole, G.D.H., staff tutor extra-mural Exeter, University of xvii , xxii, 221 classes 21 9 external degrees, pre-190 0 xvi-xvii , 63 College of Preceptors 230 C.N.A.A. [Counci l for National Academic —, post-1900 xxi , xxii, 221, 244 —, in engineering 17 4 Awards] xxii , 103 , 175, 239, 242, 244 —, in law 102- 5 Courtauld Institut e of Art 24 , 33 Extra-Mural Departmen t 219,22 0 Crossland, W.H. , architec t 3 3 crystallography xiv , 121 Fisher, F.J., professo r of Economic History, Cunningham, William, professor of L.S.E. 21 9 Political Economy, K.C. 211,21 3 —, H.A.L., Presiden t o f Board of Education 19 , 33 Dale, Revd. Thomas, professor of English, Fleming, Alexander, professo r of U.C.L. 6 5 Bacteriology, St. Mary's H.M.S . Dalton, Hugh , lecturer in Economics, (penicillin) 14 0 L.S.E. 21 3 —, Ambrose, professor of Electrical Theory, Daniell'scell 119-20 , 163 U.C.L. (thermionic valve) 121,17 0 Dart, Robert Thurston , King Edwar d Foster, Georg e Casey, professo r of Physics, Professor o f Music, K.C. 204- 7 U.C.L. 11 9 Davies, Emily, founder of Girton Colleg e —, Michael, professor of Practical 40, 45, 47 Physiology, U.C.L . 13 2 degree syllabuses 61 , 67, 69, 77, 99, 180-8 1 Foxwell, H.S. , professo r o f Political Deller, Edwin , Principal of University o f Economy, U.C.L . 210-11,21 3 London 23 , 25 demography 21 7 Galton, Si r Francis, eugenic s 12 0 Dictionary o f National Biography 7 0 Gardiner, Samue l Rawson, professor of Dr. Williams' s Library 15 1

257

Index History, K.C . 6 6 Garrett (Anderson) , Elizabeth, doctor xviii, 135-3 6 General Medical Council 13 3 genetics xiv , 120 geography 5 9 geology xiii , xvi, 11 6 Gilbert, William Schwenk, composer 18 5 Glass, David , professor of Demography, L.S.E. 21 7 Goldsmiths' College 2 , 206 Goldsmiths' Librar y (Senat e House) 21 1 Gollancz, Si r Israel, professo r of English, K.C., Secretary of the British Academ y 69 Graham, Thomas, professor of Chemistry, U.C.L. 11 9 Gresham Colleg e 15 1 Grote, George , banker , ancient historian 35 Grove, Si r George, Directo r of Royal College of Music 194-9 5 Guildhall School of Music 18 8 Hackney College, Hampstead 14 7 Haldane, G.B.S. , professo r of Genetics, U.C.L. 12 0 —, R.B., lawyer , politician, cabinet minister 11 , 12-13 , 15 ; and see University o f London, Royal Commissions Hayek, F.A. von, professor of Economics, L.S.E. 213,22 0 Hayter Lewis, T., professo r of Architecture, U.C.L. 5 Headlam, Arthur Cayley, Principal of K.C. 153 Heythrop Colleg e 2 , 159-6 0 Hill, Sir Austin Bradford, professor of Medical Statistics , Londo n School of Hygiene 14 2 Historical Association 7 6 history, xvi, 61-62, 63, 64, 67, 69, 75-76 history of education 24 8 Hobson, C.K. , lecture r in Economics, L.S.E. 21 3 Hodgkinson, Eaton , professo r of Mechanical Engineering , U.C.L. 16 4 Hogben, Lancelot , professor of Social Biology, L.S.E. 21 7 Holden, Charles , architec t 24-2 8 Holloway, Thomas, pil l manufacturer an d benefactor 40 , 45, 47

Horsley, Victor Alexander Hadden , founder o f neurosurgery, U.C.H. 13 3 Housman, A.E., classicist and poet, U.C.L. 79 Hull, University of xxii , 221 Hullah, John Pike, professor of Vocal Science, K.C. 184-85 , 186-8 7 Hunt, Henr y George Bonavia , Warden of Trinity Colleg e of Music 191,19 7 Huxley, Thomas Henry, biologist , Royal School o f Mines xiii , 116-1 7 Imperial College 14 , 18, 29-30, 16 9 —, Central Technica l College 16 8 —, City and Guild s Institute 16 7 —, Royal College of Science 16 7 —, Royal School of Mines 16 7 Institute of Advanced Lega l Studies 109-13 Institute of Archaeology 7 9 Institute of Classical Studie s 28 , 77 Institute of Education [Londo n Day Training College] xx , 29, 225, 232-33 —, Colonial Departmen t 24 7 Institute of Historical Researc h 21-22 , 77, 112 Institution o f Civil Engineers 161 , 165, 166 Institution of Mechanical Engineer s 163 , 166 intelligence testin g 24 5 Ireland, John, composer 201- 2 Isaacs, Susan , professor of Child Development, Institute of Education

246

Jefferys, Margot , professo r of Medical Sociology, Bedford 22 3 Jenkin, Henr y Fleeming , professor of Civil Engineering, U.C.L. 16 5 Joad, C.E.M., reader i n Philosophy , Birkbeck 7 1 John, Augustus, artist (a t Slade, U.C.L.) 79 Keele, University of xxi i Keeton, George, professor o f Law, U.C.L . 98 Kennedy, Alexander, professor of Civil Engineering, U.C.L . 16 6 Ker, W.P., professo r of English, U.C.L. (Scandinavian Studies ) 7 0 King's College , A.K.C. (Associat e of King's College ) 15 2

258

The University of London, 1836-1986

—, Anglican xii , 148 —, buildings 5-6 , 31-32 —, engineering xiv , 163 —, foreign languages 6 2 —, King's College School 22 9 —, Ladies' Department 2 , 71 —, law 9 5 —, medicine 12 9 —, music 20 4 —, Transfer Ac t (1908 ) 15 3 —, women xviii , 39, 43 Kingsley, Charles xv-xv i knowledge, organisation of x , 58, 60-61, 115-16 laboratories fo r teaching, aeronautics 17 1 —, chemistry 11 9 —, civil engineering 161 , 166 —, electrical engineerin g 170 , 17 6 —, hydraulics 17 3 —, physiology 13 2 languages, foreign xvi , xix, 62 —, German 7 0 —, Italian 7 2 —, Spanish 6 7 Lasdun, Sir Denys, architec t 28-2 9 Laski, Harold, professo r of Political Science,L.S.E. 21 7 law xi i Lee, Sir Sidney, professor of English, East London College (general editor, D.N.B.} 70 Leeds, Universit y of xv i Leicester, Universit y of xxii , 174 , 221 Lewis, Sir Thomas, Hea d o f Department of Clinical Research , U.C.H.M.S . (fathe r of modern clinica l science) 14 1 linguistics xx i Lister, Joseph, professo r of Surgery, K.C . 130 Liston, Robert, professo r of Surgery, U.C.L. 13 0 Liverpool, Universit y of xvi , xxi Logan, Si r Douglas, Principa l of the University of London 77,157-5 8 London College of Divinity [St John's Hall, Highbury] 147 , 151-52 London Schoo l of Economics and Politica l Science xx , 11,31,21 2 — la w 94,97,123,216,22 3 Lonsdale, Kathleen , professor of Crystallography, Bedfor d and U.C.L. 121

Lutyens, Sir Edwin, architect 17-1 8 Lyell, Sir Charles, professo r of Geology, K.C. 11 6 Macniece, Louis, poet, lecturer in Classics, Bedford 7 9 Manchester, Universit y of xvi , xxi Massey, Si r Henry, professor of Physics, U.C.L. 12 1 mathematics xi , xiii, 62, 121 Maurice, Revd. F.D., professo r of English, K.C. 65 , 159 Mawer, Sir Allen, Provost of U.C.L. 7 0 Maxwell, James Clark, professor of Physics, K.C. 11 7 Medawar, Peter , professor of Zoology an d Comparative Anatomy, U.C.L. 120 , 140 medical sociology 233-2 4 medicine xii i microbiology xi v Millington, John, first professor of Engineering, U.C.L. 161-6 2 Milport Marine Biologica l Station 3 Monk, W.H., organist , K.C . 18 4 Morley, Henry, professo r of English, K.C. , and U.C.L. 6 6 Munby, A.J., barriste r 37-3 8 Music, Faculty of (1877) x x New College, Hampstead 147,15 1 New Englis h Dictionary (late r the Oxford English Dictionary) 74n . Newman, Cardinal John Henry xvi , 36-37, 45, 149 , 159 Noble, Sir Peter, Principa l o f K.C. 32 , 157 Nottingham, University of xvii , 221 Open University xxii , 103 overseas universitie s xxi , 9, 63, 71, 105-8 , 141, 150 , 174,22 1 Oxford, Universit y of xii , xiv, svi, xx, 68, 214 —, women at xix , 38-3 9 Paley, F.A., classicist 6 5 Pares, Si r Bernard, historian 20 1 Parkinson, C . Northcote, historian 7 5 and n. Parry, Sir David Hughes , professor of Law, L.S.E., and Vice-Chancello r 98 , 111, 155,158 Patent Offic e Librar y (1853 ) 16 4 Pearson, Karl , professor of Biology, U.C.L.

Index 120 Pennethorne, Si r James, architect 7- 9 Penrose, Emily , Principal o f Royal Holloway Colleg e 41 , 45 Penson, Dame Lillian, professor o f History, Bedford, and Vice-Chancello r 71 , 239 Petrie, Sir Flinders, Egyptologis t 7 4 Pevsner, Si r Nikolaus, professor o f Art History, Birkbec k 7 9 philosophy xv i phonetics xx i photogrammetry 17 8 physics xiii , 117 , 11 9 Plucknett, Theodore, professor of Legal History, L.S.E . 22 3 Pole, William , professor of Civil Engineering, U.C.L . 16 5 —, and musi c 19 3 Pollard, A.F. , professor of History, U.C.L. , and Director o f the Institute of Historical Research 67 , 69, 75, 78 polytechnics 174,222,233,24 2 Popper, Karl, professor of Logic an d Scientific Method , L.S.E . 123 , 217n. Potter, Harold , professo r of Law, K.C. 9 8 Powell, Sir Philip, architect 3 3 Power, Eileen , professor of Economic History, L.S.E . 21 3

Quain, Richard , surgeo n and benefactor 73 Queen Elizabeth College 43 , 46, 48 Queen Mar y Colleg e [Eas t Londo n Technical College ] 30-31 , 70 , 172 —, engineering 171 , 17 6

259

Robson, E.R. , architec t 30-3 1 salaries (incomes) of university teacher s 73-74,212 Saunders, Sir Owen, professo r of Mechanical Engineering , I.C . 180-8 1 School of Oriental an d Africa n Studie s [S.O.A.S.] 2 7 School of Slavonic and Eas t Europea n Studies [S.S.E.E.S. ] 70 , 201 Science, Facult y of (1858) xiii , 61 Scott, Si r Gilbert, architec t 6 Scottish universities 3 9 Senior, Nassau , professo r of Political Economy, Oxford, and (briefly ) a t K.C . 65 Seton-Watson, R.W. , professor of East European History , S.S.E.E.S . 7 0 Sheffield, Universit y of xv i Simpson, F.M. , architec t 5 Smirke, Sir Robert, architec t 5 Smith, T. Roger , professor of Architecture, U.C.L. 5 sociology o f education 24 7 Southampton, University of xvii , xxii, 174 , 221 Starling, Ernest , professo r of Physiology, U.C.L. 13 9 student fees 172 , 21 5 student numbers 76 , 96-98, lOOn . Sussex, University of xxi i

Tawney, R.H. , professo r of Economic History, L.S.E. 21 9 teacher trainin g 228-2 9 teacher training colleges (colleges of Ramsey, Sir William, professor of education) 236,242-4 3 telegraphy 11 9 Chemistry, U.C.L . 11 8 Reading, University of xvii , 221 theology xi i Regent's Par k College 14 7 Theology, Facult y of (1900) x x research selectivit y (1986) 6 0 —, non-denominational (1956 ) 15 7 Titmuss, Richard, professor of Sociology, Richardson, Albert , architect 1 7 L.S.E. 22 0 Royal Academy of Music 19 0 Tonks, Henry , Slad e Professor of Fine Art, Royal Corps o f Naval Constructors 18 1 Royal Holloway College xix , 33, 40-41, 46, U.C.L. 8 6 Trinity College of Music 19 1 48,71-72,73 —, music at 20 6 Tuke, Margare t J., Principa l o f Bedford 45,69 Robertson, J.G., professor o f German, Bedford an d U.C.L . 7 0 Robbins, Lionel , professor of Economics, University College London : L.S.E. 21 6 —, buildings 3- 5 —, Robbins Repor t o n Higher Educatio n —, engineering xiv , 162, 172 (1963) xx , 47-48 —, foreign language s 6 2

260

The University of London, 1836-1986

—, godless xii , 58, 148 —, law 9 5 —, medicine 12 9 —, Quain endowment s 7 3 —, University Colleg e School 22 9 —, women at xviii-xix , 39, 45, 66, 71 University Extensio n Movement 211-12 , 218 University of London, Act s and Charters : —,(1836) ix , xxi, 147 , 162,210 —,(1858) xiii , 189,210 —,(1878) xix,3 5 —,(1898) 11,96 , 147 , 168 —,(1926) 2 3 University of London, office s an d buildings: —, Bloomsbury site 16-2 2 —, Burlington Gardens 7- 9 —, Burlington Hous e 7 —, Imperia l Institute 1 3 —, Marlborough Hous e 7 —, Savile Row 7 —, Senate Hous e 24-2 7 —, Somerset House 7 , 149 University of London, Royal Commissions, Committees, an d Enquiries : —, Cowper [o r Gresham] o n U. of L. (1892-94), 11 , 136, 138 , 194-9 5 —, Cranbrook, on U . o f L. (1891 ) 1 1 —, Flowers, on London Medica l Educatio n (1980) 14 4 —, Goodenough, on Medical School s (1944) 138 , 142 —, Gresham, se e Cowper —, Haldane, o n U. of L. (1909-13 ) 13 , 42, 44,47, 71-72 , 138-39,21 3 —, Hilton Young, o n U. of L. (1924-26 ) 22,174 —, Murray, o n U. o f L. (1972 ) 46 , 181 —, Robbins, on Higher Educatio n (1963 ) 180 —, Saunders, on U. o f L. (1966 ) 180-8 1 —, Selborne, o n U. o f L. (1888-89 ) 1 0 —, Swinrierton-Dyer, on U. of L. (1980) 47 —, Todd, on Medical Educatio n (1968 ) 138, 142 , 144,223 University of London son g (John Ireland ) 202-3

Vignoles, Charles , professo r of Engineering, U.C.L . (railway engineering) 16 3

Wallas, Graham , politica l scientist 21 2 Warburg Institut e 27-28 , 77 Watson, Si r Thomas, professor of Medicine, U.C.L. 12 8 Webb, Aston, architec t 14,2 3 —, Beatrice, Fabian, 12-1 3 —, Sidney, Fabian, husban d o f Beatrice, founder o f L.S.E. 11 , 12 , 211, 212-13, 214,215,218 Wellington, Duke of, and K.C . 148-4 9 Wesleyan College, Richmon d 147 , 152 Westfield Colleg e xix , 41, 46, 48, 71-7 2 Wheatstone, Sir Charles, professo r of Experimental Philosophy, K.C. 119 , 163, 18 5 Wheeler, Sir Mortimer, Director of Institute of Archaeology 7 9 Wheldon, Huw, broadcaster 7 9 Whitehead, Alfred North, professo r o f Mathematics, I.C . 12 1 Wilkins, William, architect 4 Winchilsea, Earl of , duel with Wellington 148-49 women and universit y education xvii-xi x —, certificate of higher proficiency for xvii —, Ladies' College , Bedford Square xviii , 42

—, Ladies' College , Cheltenham xvii i —, London Medica l Schoo l fo r Women 136 —, medical education 13 6 —, music 186-8 7 —, North London Collegiat e Schoo l xviii , 41 —, Queen's College, Harle y Street xviii , 186 —, student body, proportio n o f 47 , 49 —, subject distribution 49 , 72 —, teacher trainin g 23 1 —, university government 43-4 4 —, university teachers 7 3 —, Vice-Chancellor 7 1 Woodcroft, Bennet , professor of Machinery, U.C.L. 16 4 Workers Educational Associatio n [W.E.A.] 21 9 Wye College 3 zoology xi , xiv, xvi