The Social Causes of Husband-Wife Violence

The John K. Fesler Memorial Fund provided assistance in the publication of this volume, for which the University of Minn...

Author: Murray A. Straus

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The John K. Fesler Memorial Fund provided assistance in the publication of this volume, for which the University of Minnesota Press is grateful.

The Social Causes of Husband-Wife Violence Murray A. Straus and Gerald T . Hotaling Editors

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA PRESS OMINNEAPOLIS

1786

Copyright a 1980 by the Vniverrity of Minnesota All rights reserved. Published by the University of Minnesota Press, 2037 University Avenue Southeast, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55414

~ i b r a r yof Congress Caralosng in Publication Data Srraus, Murray Arnold. 1926The social causes of husbandwife violence. Bibliogiaphy: p. Includes indexes. 1. Conjugal vioience-Social aspecrr-Unired StatesAddresses, essays, lectures. I. Horaling, Gerald T., joint aurhor. 11. Tide. HQ809.3.U5S88 306.8'7 79-27071 ISBN 0-8166-0886-5 ISBN 0-81664955-1 pbk.

The University of Minnesota is an equal-opporurnity educator and employer.

Foreword

Despite t h e l i p s e r v i c e r i t u a l i s t i c a l l p paid t o t h e need to integrate s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y and e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h , t o o o f t e n r e s e a r c h on t h e c a u s e s and c o n s e q u e n c e s of social problems l a c k s t h D o r e t i C a 1 guidance. Much t h e o r i z i n g i n s u c h a r e a s , o n t h e o t h e r hand. procee9s i n b l i s s f u l ignorance of s c i e n t i f i c aata. The v i r t u e of t h i s book i s t h a t i t a v o i d s t h e s e p i t f a l l s . It p r e s e n t s r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s v i t h i n a f i r m l y h e l d t h e o r e t i c a l framework, a t t h e same t i m e t h a t some o f t h e e m p i r i c a l f i n d i r g s r i f i n s existino theories. T h e s e f i n d i n a-s .. t o borrow R o b e r t K. nerton's formulation. help to initiare, refornulate, deflect. and c l a r i f y t h e o r i e s , r a t h e r than simply t e s t i n g them; and t h u s c o n t r i b u t e n o t o n l y t o e m p i r i c a l knowledge but also to the consolidation of t h a t h e o r e t i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n s i n t h e a r e a o f f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s and i n t h e g e n e r a l f i e l d of s o c i a l c o n f l i c t a n d v i o l e n c e . what I l i k e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e a p p r o a c h o f f l u r r a y S t r a u s a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s i s t h e i r commitment t o a n i r o n i c perspective. They h a v e a f i n e s e n s e o f t h e i n c o n g r u i t i e s between t h e p u b l i c image of a n i n s t i t u t i o n , :n t h i s c a s e t h e family, and t h e u n d e r l y i n g r e a l i t y . Just as medical r e s e a r c h h a s shown t h a t h o s p i t a l s , which a r e s u p p o s e d t o make p e o p l e w e l l , may make them s i c k and p r o d u c e i a t r o g e n i c d i s e a s e s , s o t h e a u t h o r s show t h a t f a m i l y l i v i n g , s u p p o s e d l y p r e d i c a t e d o n c o n s e n s u s , i n t e g r a t i o n . a 3 d harmony, may l e a d t o f o r m s o f c o n f l i c t a n d v;olence r a r e l y f o u n d o u t s i d e t h e family context. The v e r y f e a t u r e s o f f a m i l y l i f e t h a t c o n t r i b n t a t o intimacy, it t u r n s out, a l s o f a c i l i t a t e high d e g r e e s of v i o l m c e b e t w e e n s p o u s e s . Murray S t r a u s a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s a r e f i n e l y a t t u n e a t o t h e n e e d t o a t t e n d t o t h e u n a n t i c i p a t e d a s well a s t h e a n t i c i p a t e d consequences o r s o c i a l actions. They a r e a w a r e that although evil intents may lead t o desirable c o n s e q n e n c e s , good i n t e n t i o n s may l e a d t o u n d e s i r a b l e ones.

we l e a r n h e r e , f o r example, t h a t more e g a l i t a r i a n

relations b e t v e e n h u s b a n d s a n d u i v e s may h a v e t h e i r o n i c c o n s e q u e n c e o r i t c r e a s i n g r a t h e r t h a n d e c r e a s i n g c o n f l i c t b e t v e e n them, a t l e a s t i n t h e s h o r t rur. The a u t h o r s ' o r i e n t a t i o n t o t h e i r o n i c p e r s p e c t i v e on human a f f a i r s y i e l d s s i g n i f i c a n t i n s i g h t s t h a t c o u l d probably c o u l d n o t have been reached without t h i s stance. ThrOnghcUt t h i s book, t h e a u t h o r s eschew what G e o r g S i a m e l o n c e c a l l e d t h e " f a l l a c y cf s e p a r a t e n e s s . " T h a t is, t h e y n e v e r succumb t o t h e t e m p t a t i o n t o r e g + r d f a m i l y conflicts i n terms o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s c f h u s b a n d s and vives. They a r e s u c c ~ s s f u l a t c o n v e y i n g t h e i d e a t h a t family conflicts, a s a l l t y p e s of i r t e r a c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y , c a n n o t be understood w i t h o u t t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e y t e n d t o d e r i v e irom s o c i a l s r r u c t u r e s and c u l t u r a l norms. The h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f c o n f l i c t and v i o l e n c e i n conzemporary f a m i l i e s , they argue persuasively, ousr b? nnderstood i n t e r m s of f u r d a n e n t a l c o 2 t r a d i c t i 3 ; s buil; i n t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n s of family l i f e . They a r g u e , f o r example, t h a t when t h e r e s o u r c e s o f a s p o u s e a r e low--when that spouse has, f o r example. a low s t a t u s p o s i t i o n i n t h e o c c o p a t i o n a l world--the c h a n c e s a r e h i g h e r t h a t h e o r s h e w i l l resort t o violence in marital quarrels. They draw attention t o the interfamilial consequences of the d e p r i v a t l o n of valued s t a t u s p o s i t i o n with a t t e n d a n t l o s s e s o f e g o i d e n t i t y and s y m b o l i c r e i n f o r c e m e n t of s e l f - w o r t h . Bence, t h e I r o n i c t i n d i n g t h a t w o r k i n g - c l a s s h u s b a n d s , r h o t e n d t o c l i n g t o a n i d e o l o g y o f m a l e dominance more d e t e r m i n e d l y t h a n middle c l a s s husbands. i n f a c t p o s s e s s f e w e r r e s o u r c e s f o r e x e r c i s i n g power i n t h e f a m i l y and t h u s r e s o r t t o v i o l e n c e more f r e q u e n t l y t o compensate. An i r o n i c p e r s p e c t i v e , a l e r t t o t h e ambivalence of homan r e l a t i o n s h i p s , e s p e c i a l l y i n i n t i m a t s s e t t i n g s , has b o r n e c o n s i d e r a b l e f r u i t i n t h i s work. Aware t h a t (to borrow from Bronislaw n a l i n o u s k i ) a g g r e s s i o n l i k e c h a r i t y b e g i n s a t home, t h e y h a v e documented w i t h i n s t r u c t i v e t h o r o u g h n e s s t h a t , c c n t r a r y t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g image, f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s a r e t h e breeaing ground of both love ana h o s t z l i t y , of s e l f l e s s d e v o t i o r and o f d e s t r u c t i v e v i o l e n c e . w h a t i s more, t h e y h a v e shown t h a t t o d e c r e a s e r h e l e v e l o f v i o l e n c e i n f a m i l y s e t t i n g s i x v o l v e s more t h a n c o u n s e l i n g and therapy. It i n v o l v e s E O l e s s t h a n a r e s t r u c t u r i n g of r e l a r i o n s b e t w e e n men a n d women, which, i n i t s t u r n , i s l a r g e l y dependent on a iundamental r e s t r n c t u r i r g of t h e a l l o c a t i o n of power and s t a t u s i n t h e s o c i e t y a t l a r g e . I h o p e t h a t t h e i r s e m l n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n w i l l f i n d a n e c h o among s c h o l a r l y i n v e s t i g + t o r s and s c c i a l p r s c t l t i o n e r s a l i k e . S t o n y Brook.

N.I.

L e w i s A.

Coser

Acknowledgments

T h i s book i s a p r o d u c t o f t h e F a m i l y V i o l e n c e R e s e a r c h Program a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f New S a m p s h i r e . The program began a s a r e s u l t o f t h e s t i m u l u s p r o v i d e d by t h e 1 9 7 0 a n n u a l m e e t i n g of t h e B a t i o r a l C o u n c i l O L P a m i l p R e l a t i o n s . T h e theme o f t h a t c o n f e r e r c e was " V i o l e n c e And The Family." P r e p a r i n g a p a p e r t o r t h e c o n f e r e n c e ( S t r a u s , 1971) and t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h a t f o l l o w e d . made u s s e e b o t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and t h e p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f r e s e a r c h on p h y s i c a l ViOlSnce i n f a m i l i e s . R E a r e now e v e n more c o n v i n c e d t h a t s u c h r e s e a r c h w i l l i n c r e a s e o u r g e l e r a 1 u n d s r s ; a n d i n g of t h b human f a m i l y a n d w i l l p r o v i d e knowledge t h a r w i l l r s d u c ~ a S o u r c e o f v a s t human m i s e r y . The P a a i l y VLolence R e s e a r c h Program a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s what c a n b e a c c o m p l i r h e d when a g r o u p o f g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s a n d f a c u l t y f o c u s on a s i n g l e t o p i c o r e s e v e n a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d of t i m e . u r hope i t c o n f i r m s t h e f a i t h i r o u r work Shown i n t h e f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d by +h.e U n i v e r s i t y o r new Hampshire a n d by t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t t t u t e o f n e n t a l H e a l t h ( g r a n t s number nH27557. nR13050. and ME15161). A l i s t of p u b l i c a t i o n s from t h e P a e i l y V i o l e n c e R e s e a r c h i s a v a i l a b l e on request. we a l s o want t o e x p r e s s o u r a p p r e c i a t i o n t o t h e anonymous r e f e r e e s who r e v i e w e d t h e book. a n d '0 many c o l l e a g u e s , b o t h a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f New S a m p s h i r e a n a elsewhere, whose comments, criticisms, a n d s u g g a s t i o n s h a v e b e e n i m p o r t a n t t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e F a m i l y v i o l e n c e R e s e a r c h Program i n g e n e r a l a n d / o r t h e s p e c i f i c c h a p t e r s i n t h i s book. A Special thanks t o Sieglinde Fizz f o r her Conscientioos typing of t h i s manuscript and f o r h e r p a t i e n c e a c d good n a t u r e t h r o u g h o u t t h i s p r o j e c t . Durham.

New Hampshlre

nurray E . Skraus G e r a l d T. E o t a l i n g

vii

Contents

FOREWORD b y L e v i s L.

Coser

ACKBOYLEDGBENTS

Ex:

L

eBisu

C u l t u r e , S o c i a l Organization, and I r o n p i n r h e Study o f P a m i l y V i o l e n c e , by G e r a l d 1. B o t a l i n g a n d K u r r a y A. s t r a u s Uife-Beating: Bow Common a n d Why? bp t l u r r a p 8. S t r a u s

Evidence The f i a r r i a g e L l c e n s e a s a B i t t i n g L i c e n s e : f r o m P o p u l e r C u l t u r e . Law, a n d S o c i a l S c i e n c e . by l u r r a p A. s t r a u r V l o l e n c e a n d t h e S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e as R e f l e c t e d i n C h i l d r e n ' s Books from 1 8 5 0 t o 1 9 7 0 . by n a r t h a D. u u g g z n s a n d B u r r a y A. s t r a u s A

C u l t u r a l - C o n s i s t e n c y Theory of Family Violence i r l e x i c a n - A m e r i c a n a n d J e w i s h - E t h n i c G r o u p s , by J o s e p h C. C a r r o l l 111. P a r t -------

S o c i a l Q s p i z a t i o n a n d Pq!&&y

SL_a&ezE:

S e x u a l I n e q u a l i t y a n d Wife B e a t i n g , by l u r r a y A. S t r a u s

stress a n d P a m i l y V i o l e n c e , by K e i t h n. F a r r i n g t o n The P a r a d o x i c a l N a t u r e o f P a m i l y R e l a t i o n s h i p s a c d F a m i l y c o n f l i c t . by J o y c e E. P o s s A t t r i b u t i o n P r o c e s s e s i n Eusbaxd-Wife by G e r a l d T. B o t a l i n g

Violence,

Part -IV. ---

The --

InterDlax of culture a&

Sccial Q.;q=gizgtior

10.

"And we Eaven't Bad Iry Problems Sincen: Conjugal Violerce and the Politics of marriage, by Ralph LaRossa

11.

Uife-Employment, narltal Equality, and Husband-Rife Violence, by Bruce u. Brovn

12.

Resources. POVBI, and Susband-Wife VioleLce, by Craig M. Lllen and Burray 1. Straus

13.

A

Soc~ologlcalPerspective on the Preventian of II~E-Beatl~gby Hurray E . Straus

BEPEREBCES ADTBOR INDEX SUBJECT INDEX ABOUT TAE AUTHORS

Part I Overview

Chapter 1

Culture, Social Organization, and Irony in the Study of Family Violence Gerald T. Hotaling and Murray A. Straus

That a c t s of p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e are common--even typical--oi American D a r r i a g E s h a s been w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d ( s e e Chapter 2 and S t r a u s , G e l l e s , and S r e i n n e t z , 1979). Yhar i s n o t known i s why v i o l e n c e o c c u r s , o r what t o d o a b o u t it. The p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h i s book i s s i m p l e : that p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c s between h u s b a n d s and w i v e s i s s o c i a l l y p a t t e r n e d . $1 The c h a p t e r s a r e d e l i b e r a t e l y d i v e r s e . but a l l s h a r e t h e p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t v i o l e n c e grows o u t o f t h e n c t u r e o f s o c i a l arrangements. I n part. t h e d i v e r s i t y is i n e v i t a b l e The mejor d i f f e r e r c e s , because t h e a u t h o r s a r e d i f f e r e n t . however, a r e b u i l t i n t o t h e p l a n o f t h e book--to present l o s t of t h e c h a p t e r s m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n vieupoin;. p r e s e n t t h w r i e s t o e x p l a i n t h e p r e v a l e n c e of v i o l e n c e i n the famly. S i n c e t h e s o c i a l c a u s e s of husband-wife v i o l e n c e a r e d l v e r s e a n d complex, the different chapters s e e k t o show how d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f t h e s e f a c t o r s m i g h t o p e r a t e t o produce violence. The c h a p t e r s a l s o d i f f e r b e c a u s e . no m a t t e r how c o g e n t i t must b e s u p p o r t e d by e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e . t h e theory, Consequently, f i v e of t h e c h a p t e r s r e p o r t s u c h d a t a . Aere also deliberate diversity exists. i l l u s t r a t i n g such a i f f e r e n ? methoas a s c a s e s t u d i e s , c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s of popular l i t e r a t u r e , b r i e f q u e s t i o n n a i r e s t u d i e s , and a survey of a n a t i o n a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample of couples. Each o f r h e s e t h e o r i e s , and each of t b e s e methcds, h a s l i m i t ~ t i o h sa n d a d v a n t a g e s . Tcgether, they h e l p unravel t h e paradox of m a r i t a l violence.

Ch.1.

S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e and I r o n y

Page 4

MRRITAL VIOLENCE A N D THE SOCIAL STRUCTUSE

Any a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d uhg p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c s o c c u r s s o o f t e n i n American m a r r i a g e s must t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e way s o c i e t y S t r u c t u r e s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of h u s b a n d s and wives. O f c o u r s e , a p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t .simple is r e c e s s a r i l y deceptive. Our i n t e n t i o n i s n o t t o c o n v r n c e t h e r e a d e r t h a t t h e a s p e c t s o f s o c i a l p a t t e r n i n g t o v h i c h t h i s book g i v e s a t t e n t l o n a r e t h e only causes o f m a r i t a l violsncs. We acknowledge t h e complexity of m a r r i e d l i f e , b u t t e m p o r a r i l y n a r r o w o u r f o c u s s o t h a t we c a n g a i n a c l e a r e r u n d e r s t a r d i n g o f t h a t p a r t o f t h e complex v h c l e o f h u s b a n d / v i f e c o r f l i c t t h a t i s c r e a t e d by t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f o u r s o c i e t y . P h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e among f a m i l y members u s u a l l y i s considered an i n f r e g u s n t occurrence; when v i o l e n c e d o e s e r u p t , t h e h u s b a n d o r w i f e who r e s o r t s t o it i s t h o u g h t t o b e d a f e c t i v e o r abnormal. N e i t h e r v i e u seems t o h e c o r r e c t . R a r s a n d r i o t s a s i d e , p h y s i c a l a g g r e s s i o n o c c u r s more o f t e n among f a m i l y members t h a n among a n y o t h e r s . noreover, t h e f a m i l y is t h e p r e d o m i n a n t s e t t i n g f o r e v e r y form o f p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e from s l a p s t o t o r t u r e a n d murder. I n f a c t , some form of p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e i n t h e l i f e c y c l e of f z m i l y members is s o l i k e l y t h a t it c a n b e s a i d t o be a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l ( s e e t h e s e c t i o n o n "Family Sccialization i n I f t h i s i s indeed t h e case, then Violence" i n Chapter 2). v i o l e n c e is a s t y p i c a l of f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a s i s l s r e . The a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t , with rare exceptions, f a m i l y members u s i n g v i o l e n c e a r e n o t m e n t a l l y ill. I n s t e a d . v i o l e n t a c t s b y o n e f a m i l y member a g a i n s r a n o t h e r a r e t h e r e s u l t of s o c i a l l y l e a r n e d and s o c i a l l y p a t t e r n e d behavior. The a s p e c t s o f c a u s a t i o n t h i s book d e s c r i b e s a r e what s o c 1 0 1 o g i S t s r e f e r t o a s " s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . " T h e c o c c e p t of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e is a l m o s t a s e l u s i v e a s it i s i m p o r t a n t f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g how s o c i e t y works a n d how s o c i a l l i f e a f f e c t s A r e c e n t volume ( B l z u , 1 9 7 5 ) g i v e s a m p l e our relationships. t e s t i m o n y t o t h e v i d e v a r i e t y o f ways i n v h i c h t h e c o n c e p t i s used. But a m i d s t t h i s d i v e r s i t y of d e f i n i t i o n , a g a n s r a l i h t e r p r e t a t i o n e x i s t s , a s s t a t e d i n t h e program o f t h e 1 9 7 4 m e e t i n g o f t h e American S o c i o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n : Whatever t h ~ sp~cific orientation, the s t r u c t u r a l a p p r o a c h i s d e s i g n e d t o e x p l a i n , no: t h e behavior of individuals, but t h e s t r u c t u r e of r e l a t i o n s among g r o u p s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t f i n a s expression i n t h i s behapior. (Blau, 1975:2) o u r s p e c i f l c a p p r o a c h t o s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e c o n t a i r s two main e l e m e n t s . F i r s t , we u s e t h e t e r m t o mean t h o s e a s p e c t s of s o c i e t y t h a t a r e r e l a t l v e l y e n d u r i n g a n d t h a t t r a n s c e c d

Ch.1.

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t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r moment. Rot t h a t s o c i a l indeed, it c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g e s . But s t r u c t u r e is fixed: c o m p a r e d v i t h o t h e r f a c t o r s b e i n g e n a m i r e d , i t is r e l a t r v e l y stable. Second. we i d e n t i f y t u o d i f f e r e n t b u t i n t e r r e l a t e d processes of social patterning: c u l t u r e and s o c i a l organization. I n r e a l i t y , c u l t u r e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n c a n n o t be s e p a r a t e d . b u t f o r a r a l y t i c a l porposes i t is a n important distinction. The f o l l o w i n g two s e c t i o r s s u n m e r i z e t h e c o n c e p t s o f c u l t u r e and of s o c i a l organization. These w i l l b e f a m i l i a r t o many r e a d e r s o f t h i s book, e s p e c i a l l y s o c i o l o g i s t s , and c a n be s k i p p e d o v e r . Rowever, u e want t o a d d r e s s t h 3 s e i n o t h e r p r o f e s s i c n s concerned with family violence, such a s psychologists, social workers, psychiatrists, police O f f i c e r s , and lawyers. T h e s e s e c t i o n s s i l l h e l p a l e r t them t o t h e s e c r u c i a l a s p e c t s of t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l perspective. T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a r t b e c a u s e it c o n t r a s t s s h a r p l y with t h e more u s u a l p s y c h c l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r r i o l s n c e . The C o n c e p t of C u l t u r e when w e d e s c r i b e " c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e 1 ' we a r e r e a l l y t a l k i n g about causes. The q u e s t i o n a d d r e s s e d i n P a r t I1 o f t h i s book i s t h e e x t e n t t o which c u l t u r e c a u s e s v i o l e n c e between f a m i l y members. B e f o r e t h a t q u e s t i o n can b e a n s w e r e d , o n e must f i r s t b e c l e a r a b o u t v h a t c u l t u r e i s . The t e r m c u l t u r e means s o m e t h i n g r o u g h l y s i a i l a r t o s o c i a l heredity, t h a t is, t h e t o t a l l e g a c y o f p a s t human behavior e f f e c t i v e i n t h e present o r vhat is a v a i l a b l e t o be l e a r n e d from o t h e r s ( W i l l i a m s , 1970). T h a t c o n c e p t c o v e r s a v a s t domain, r a n g i n g f r o m how t o h o l d a s p o o n o r s a y t h e old f a t h e r t o t h e c.o m ~ l e z i t i e so f m a t r i x a l o e b r a . Thus a m-r e a t d e a l o f t h e c u-l t u r e o f a s o c i e f v i s n o t o f d i r e c t l n t e r e s t t o t h o s e concOrned w i t h understanding t h e f a m r l y . ~

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2

The a s p e c t o f c u l t u r e o f d i r e c t i n t e r e s t i s what a r e c a l l e d s o c i a l norms. A s o c i a l norm p r e s c r i b e s t h e c o r r e c t t h i n g t o do * h e r i n t e r a c t i c g v i t h a n o t h e r p e r s o n . To b e c u l t u r a l norms, t h e s e norms must b e p r e s c r i p t i o n s s h a r e d by t h e s o c i e t y c r s e c t o r o f a s o c i e t y i n which t h e b ~ h a v i o r t a k e s place. They a l s o n u s t b c r u l e s o f b e h a v i o r t h a t a r e l e a r n e d from o t h e r s . C u l t u r a l norms i n l a r g e p a r t a c c o u n t f o r d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e f a m i l y p a t t e r n s o f p e o p l e i n d i f f e r e n t s o c i e t i e s and i n d i f f e r e n t subgroups w i t h i n one s o c i e t y ( f o r example, d i f f e r e n c e s between s o c i a l c l a s s e s o r b e t v e e n g r o u p s s u c h a s Prench-speaking and English-speaking Canadians). C u l t u r a l norms r e g u l a t e a l m o s t a l l a s p e c t s o f f a m i l y life. They p r o v i d e a b l u e p r i n t o f t h e b e h a v i o r a p p r o p r i a t e f o r husbands, wives, c h i l d r e n , g r a n d f a t h e r s ; i n fact, for

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e a c h of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h i n a family. Thus. t h e c u l t u r e c o n t a i n s n o r m s s p e c i f y i n g how m a r r i a g e s a r e t o b e a r r a n g e d (and, i f necessary. dissolved), who f s L O b e r e g a r d e d a s a member o f t h e f a m i l y . what a c t i v i t i e s a h u s b a n d s h o u l d c a r r y o u t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e r i f e and v i c e v e r s a , how c h i l d r e n s h o u l d b e b r o u g h t uo, a r d s o on. I f t h s i d e a o f c u l t u r a l n o r m s a s c a u s e s of f a m i l y b e h a v i o r were t a k s n l i b e r a l l y , a l l f a m i l i e s w i t h i n a g i v e r s o c i e t y would b e e x p e c t e d t o a c t i n t h e same w3y. O b v i o u s l y , t h a t is n o t t h e case: e v e r y f a m i l y i s i n some ways u r i q u e . T h e r e f o r e . e v e n t h o o g h c u l t u r e d o e s , on t h e a v e r a g e , d e f i n e what f a m i l y l i f e is l i k e , i t c a n n o t t e l l t h e whale s t o r y . Ue must r o u n d o u t t h e s t o r y somewhat by c o n s i d ~ r i n gwhat s o c i o l o g i s t s c a l l s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . Social Organizational Influences Social organization refers to the patte-n of r e l a t i o n s h i p s amcng i n d i v i d u a l s a n d among groups--how t h e p a r t s a r e r e l a t e d t o e a c h o t h e r a n d t o t h e whole. Some a s p e c t s o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n are d i c t a t e d by t h e c u l t u r e , many are n o t . Whether o r n o t it i s p r e s c r i b e d h y c u l t u r e . e a c h a s p e c t o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n h a s c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a t are d i s t i n c t from t h e c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s . F o r example, a f a m i l y might c o n t a i n ore, two, three, four, or eight children. C u l t u r a l " r u l e s " s p e c i f y how many c h i l d r e n o n e s h o u l d have: t h e middle-class r u l e s of t h e recent past t e n d e d t o s p e c i f y two o r t h r e e c h i l d r e n . AnyonE who had r o c h i l d r e n was u n d e r c o n s i d e r a b l e c u l t u r a l p r e s s u r e . The p r e s s u r e i s o f t e n s u b t l e . b u t may b e e x p r e s s e d o p e n l y : "Why d o n q t you h z v e a n y c h i l d r s n ? " o r "Kow c o n s you h a v e s i x c h i l d r e n ? ' But s u b t l e o r c o t , s o c i a l p r P s s u r e s t o conform d o e x i s t a n d m o s t o f US f o l l o ~t h e r u l e s of t h e c u l t u r e . Now t h e number o f c h i l d r e n i n a f a m i l y i s a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t of i t s s o c i g l o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d makes a d i f f e r e n c e t o what g o e s on i n t h a t f a m i l y , n o m a t t e r whether t h e p a r e n t s h a d t h a t number o f c h l l d r e n b e c a u s s o f c u l t u r a l r u l e s , h i o l o g i c a l limirs o n f e r t i l i t y , o r c o n t r a c e p t i v e f a i l u r e . T o t a k e a s i m p l e e x a m p l e , if t h e f a m i l y e a t s t h e e v e n i n g meal t o g e t h e r , t h e number o f c h i l d r e n p r e s e n t r i l l i n f l u e n c e how l o n g a n y o n e c h i l d c a n , o r t h e a v e r a g e , t a l k a t t h e dinner table. Rssume t h a t e a c h c h i l d g e t s a r e q u a l c h a n c e I f t h e r e a r e two a n d t h a t t h e m e a l l a s t s 30 m i n u t e s . children, each c h i l d can t a l k f o r t e n minutes (allowing t e n minutes f o r t h e p a r e r t s t o s a y something). But i f t h e r f a r e f o u r c h i l d r e n , e a c h c h i l d * s l i m i t i s c u t t o f i r e minutes.

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TEE SOCIIL STRUCTURAL CAUSES OP BUSBABD-RIFE V I O L E N C E The p r e c e d i n g t w o s e c t i o n s p r e f a c e t h e s h a r e d i d e a s o f t h e a u t h o r s o f t h i s volume. This is not t o s l y t h a t t h e y a r e i n complete agreement a s t o t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l c a u s e s Of husband-wife v i o l e n c e , b u t a l l f o c u s on t h e c u l t u r a l and O r g a n i z a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s cf Bm-rican marriagss a.d t h e i r r e l a t l o n t o c o n f l i c t and v t o l c n c e . Each c h a p t e r i n t h i s book. w h e t h e r it i s a d e d u c t i o n from a n e x i s t i n g t h e o r y , a case study, o r a s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s , a t t e m p t s t o c l a r i f y some a s p e c t o f t h e s o c i a l causes Of husband-wife violence. The c h a p t e r s a r e d e l i b e r a t e l y d i v e r s e i n approach because r e b e l i e v e t h a t case studies, statistical analyses, and t h e o r e t i c a l deduction a l l a r e n e c e s s a r y i n t h e s e a r c h f o r an e x p l a n a t i o n of m a r i t a l v i o l e n c e . One o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n r e s e a r c h o n f a n i l y v i o l e n c e h a s been t o o h e a v y an e m p h a s i s o n f a c t - g a t h e r i n g r e l a t i v e t o testing causal theories. S i n c e t h i s is p a r t l y b e c a u s e PrOmiSiPg t h e o r i e s h a v e n o t b e e n f o r m u l a t e d , h a l f of t h e c h a p t e r s a t t e m p t t o f i l l t h a t void. 3 u t i n no c a s e i s t h e p u r p o s e o f any c h a p t e r t o set f o r t h a n i n t e g r a t e a o r complete s x p l a n a t i o n of husbacd-wife v i o l e n c e . That t a s k i s a t t h e p r e s e n % s t a g e o f o u r knowledge c l e a r l y beyond what Can be a c c o m p l i s h e d , e v e n t h o u g h p r e l i m i n a r r s t e p s h a v e b e e n t a k e n ( G e l l e s and S t r a u s , 1 9 7 9 ) . with t h l s general understanding, t h e a u t h o r s of t h e various chapters spare t h e reader a repetitious disclaimer a b o u t t h e p a r t i a l n a t u r e of t h e t h e o r y examinea and, i n t h e C a s e o f t h e s t r i c t l y t h e o r e t i c a l c h a p t e r s , do n o t r e p e a t t h a t the conclusions a r e intended t o stimulafs empirical research. n o t t o s u b s t i t u t e f- a ~ r -s-.-u c h d--.-. ata. Thlrs. for .. example. i n t h e f i r s t two c h a p t e r s we t r y t o show t h a t some f a c t o r i n t h e f a m i l y system c o t o n l y produces a high l e v e l o f aggression, b u t a l s o makes w i v e s t h e most f r e q u e n t victims of t h a t aggression. The t h i r d c h a p t e r , a l t h o u g h a d m i t t i n g t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s of f a m i l y l i f e t h a t contribute t o t h i s h i g h l e v e l of aggression, examines through popular c u l t u r e and o t h e r matezials t h e p r e v a i l i n g s e x i s t a t t i t u d e s about t h e r o l e of v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a a i l v system. The r e s u l t i s t o make e x p l i c i t t h e i m p l i c i t s e t ii c u l t u r a l n o r m s a n d v a l u e s + h a t l e g i t i m a t e , and a t t i m e s e n c o u r a g e . v i o l e n c e b e t v e e n h u s b a n d s and wives. ~

.-...

Conversely, Parrington (Chapter 7) and Hotaling ( C h a p t e r 9 ) b o t h r e c o g n i z e t h e e x r s t s n c e o f c u l t u r a l norms, b u t f o c u s on t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s of m a r r i e d l i f e t h a t contribute t o violence. Parrington presents a theory o f i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e b a s e d o n t h e n o t i o n o f optimum Stress l e v e l . H e d e f i n e s stress a s a n i m b a l a n c e between t h e demands w i t h which an i n d i v i d u a l o r f a m i l y i s f a c e d and t h e

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c a p a b i l i t y o f r e s p o n d i n g a p p r o p r i a t e l y t o them. Be a r g u e s t h a t a l l i n d i v i d u a l s and f a a i l i e s d e r r l o p p e r s o r a l and u n i q u e optimum stress l e v e l s a t which t h e y f u n c t i o n most comfortably. Similarlg. Hotaling s p e c i f i e s t h e p a r t i c u l a r combinations of family rules End f a m i l y s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which p r o d u c e a h i g h p r o b a t i l i t y t h a t a f a m i l y member w i l l a t t r i b u t e m a l e v o l e n t i n t e n t t o t h e r u l e v i o l a t i o n s o f o t h e r f a o i l y members. The R i s t o r y o f t h e S t u d y o f F a m i l y V i o l e n c e DeScribir.g a " h i s t o r y " o f t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l s t u d y of i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e may b e p r e m a u r e ; it h a s b e e r a v e r y s h o r t t i m e s i n c e s o c i o l o g i s t s f i r s t t u r n e a 2 c r i t i c a l e y e on t h e phenomenon. But t h e p e r i o d h a s b e e n l o n g enough t o p o i n t o u t some d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n " e a r l i e r " work and t h e p r e s e n t volume. P r e v i o u s e f f o r t s r e r e aimed a t e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e prevalence, t h e c o r r e l a t e s . and, most i m p o r t a n t , the s o c i a l l y p a t t e r n e d n a t u r e o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e ( S t e i n m e t z and S t r a u s , 197'4; Gelles, 1974). I n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e was e s t a b l i s h e d a s a w i d e s p r e a d phenomenon, a p p e a r i n g i n many f o r m s b e s i d e s t h e mars s p e c t a c u l a r c r i m e s o f murder a n d child abuse. S t u d l e s o f husbands and wives r e v e a l e d varying, b u t s u h s t a n t i a l , a a o u n t s of s p o u s a l violence. The most a c c u r a t e m e a s u r e , t o d a t e . of t h e e x t o n t o f h u s b a n d - w i f e v i o l e n c e comes f r o m t h e a n a l y s i s o f d a t a f r o m t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p l e o f American f a m i l i e s p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r 2. S t r a u s f i n d s t h a t , d u r i n g t h e s u r v e y year, one o f e v e r y s i x c o u p l e s (16 p e r c e n t ) r e p o r t e d v i o l e n c e b e t w e e n spouses. If t h e r e f e r e n c e p e r i o d is t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e m a r r i a g e , t h e f i g u r e i s between o n e o f f o u r a n d o n e o f t h r e e c o u p l e s (27.8 percent). S t r a u s w a r n s , however, t h a t t h e s e f i g u r e s a r e p r o b a b l y a f f e c t e d by s u b s t a n t i a l u n d e r r e p o r t i n g . It is a l m o s t c e r t a i n t h a t n o t e v e r y o n s " t o l d a l l . ' P i l o t s t u d i e s a n d i n f o r m a l e v i d e n c e (where some o f t h e f a c t o r s l e a d i r g t o u n d e r r e p o r t i c g were l e s s ) i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s e f i g u r e s could e a s i l y be twice a s largs. P r e v i o u s work on i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e a l s o h a s n e g a t e d t h e c o m f o r t a b l e n o t i o 2 t h a t f a m i l y v i o l a n c e can be e x p l a i n e a S o l E l y hy p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y . T h e s h e e r amouc?. e s w e l l a s t h e ~~~~~~~~d v a r i a t : = c i? r l r e s a t l r t r i t a e i l y V I D ~ F P C E among various S D c l a l q r o u p s , bol:?s ar e x p l a 2 a : i o c a ? . c h c r e l r r ? h e a b n o r m a l i t i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l members. Besides e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e prevalence of violence i n t h e home and t h e e x t e n t of ' s o c i o l o g i c a l c a u s e s , earlier i n v e s t i g a t o r s a l s o have p a i d a t t e n t i o n t o +he p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o family violence. F o r exlmple. some of t h e f a c t o r s f o u n d t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t r a t e s o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e were s u b c u l t u r a l norms ( C o s e r , 1967; Wolfgang a n d Perracuti. 1971), social class (Levinger. 1966; Kohn. 1 9 6 9 ) . a n d a h u s b a n d ' s l a c k o f t h s

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S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e and I r o n y

"resources" necessary t o l e g i t i m a t e h i s positLon h e a d (Goode, 1971: O ' B r i e n , 1 9 7 1 ) .

Page 9 as

family

ThesP writers p o i n t t o f a c t o r s t h a t may make c e r t a i n couples more or less l i k e l y t o e n g a g 5 i n p h y s i c a l aggression; t h e p r e s e n t volume f o c u s e s a t t e n t i o n on t h e Ths o r i e c t i r g q u ? s t i c c n a t u r e of m a r r i e d l i f e i + s e l f . becomes: v h a t c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o r a l p r o c e s s e s make the marital dyad a p o t e n t i a l l y v i o l e n t s o c i a l relationship?

B few s o c i o l o g i c a l investigators as well have r e c o g n i z e d c e r t a i n i n c o n g r u i t i e s i n marriage. F o r example, C u b e r ar,d H a r o f f ' s s t u d y (1965) o f m i d d l e - c l a s s m a r r i a g e s r e v e a l s a t y p e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a r g u m e n t s and f i g h t s . The "conflict-habituated" marriage b a s i c a l l y r e l i e s or h o s t i l i t y t o bind t h e couple t o g e t h e r and t o l e n d s t a b i l i t y t o t h e marriage.

A i c k s and P l a t t ( 1 9 7 0 ) . i n a r e v i e w o f s t u d i e s o f m a r i t a l happiness, f i n d t h a t low h a p p i n e s s o f t e n may b e a s s o c i a t e d with m a r i t a l s t a b i l i t y . Similar findings t h a t a p p e a r c o n t r a r y t o common s e n s e a r e t h o s e of Blood a n d R o l f e (1960) and P i t e o ( 1 9 6 1 ) . who s t a t e d t h a t m a r r i a g e s o v e r t i m e e x p e r i e n c e a d = g & i n c o m p a n i o n s h i p , a f f e c t i o n , and common v a l u e s and b e l i e f s : a s c o u p l e s become more f a m i l i a r v i t h e a c h o t h e r , t h e y become more e s t r a n g e d . L a s t l y , simmel's (1950) c l a s s l c a n a l y s i s o f t h e m a r i t a l d y a a s e e s t h e two-person bond a s t h e most i m t i m a t e a n d , a t t h e same time, t h e most u n s t a b l e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . R e r e i C l i e s t h e i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n of l o g i c a l l y o r g a r l z e l , p r o b r r q :heore-zeal z r d s s p 1 : i c a l s n a l y s ? s : rtay a r s r p p r c a l l y courrer:?turi:ve, :hat IS, tt.ay r o v s a l t h e existence o t p h e ~ o m e n 2 a i d r e l a t r o n s h - p s c o n ' r a z y t 3 zaaa?r sense.

Page T h e c h a p t e r s c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s volume m p h a s i z e l a r g e p a r t t h e i r o n i c n a t u r e of married l i f e and v i o l e n t The i n t r i g u i n g q u e s t i o n , which a l l t h e s n c h a p t e r s a a d r e r is why t h e s o c i a l g r o u p t h a t s o c i e t y m o s t c f t e n l c o k s t o 1 warmth, i n t i m a c y , h e l p , and l o v e . i s a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d It i s t o a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h i s a c r u e l t y and violence. o t h e r ~ r o n i e sa b o u t h u s b a r d - w i f e v i o l e n c e t h a t ue ccw t u r n IRCNP A N D PABILY VIOLENCE The r e c o g n i t i o n a n d s t u d y o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e hz blurred apparently simple i d e a s about t h e r e l a t i o n s h i b e t w e e n t h e r a m i l y and d e v i a n c e . Once we r e c o g n i z e t h a f a m i l i e s a r e n o t e a s i l y c l a s s i f i e d a s e i t h e r normal o a b n o r m a l , h e a l t h y o r s i c k , t h e p i c t u r e becomes c o m p l i c a t e d These complications, though, l e a d t o a f u l l e r a p p r e c i a t i o Of t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f f a m i l y l i f e . A s David n a t z a h a s a r g u e i n h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e o r i e s of d e v i a n c e a n d t h e i h a n d l i n g o f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between c o n v e n t i o n a l and a ~ v i a n , phenomena: o n c e t h e d i s t i n c t i c n h e t w e e n good and e v i l i s made p r o b l e m a t i c , o n c e t h e i r i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n is s t r e s s e d , a s i m i l a r i n s i g h t map d e v e l o p w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e r e l a t i o n s between phenomena and t h e i r purportea causes. (1969:69)

It we a c c e p t t h e n o c i o n t h a t t h e f a m i l y i s a s o c i a l group capable of g e n e r a t i n g c o n f l i c t and v i o l s n c e j u s t a s e a s i l y a s i n t l n a c y a n d l o v e , we c a n a c c e p t t h e i d e a o f i r o n y i n t h e r e l a t i o n of t a m i l y l i f e t o violence. What d o we mean by i r o n y ?

n o s t simply, irony r P f e r s t o

a p o i n t o f view, t h e a b i l i t y t o see Phenomena r e l a t e d t o o n e a n o t h e r i n c u r i o u s ways.

A s fiatza notes:

...

irony refers to the complicated--and suprising--relations between good a n d e v i l phenomena i n sequer.ce. I r o n y is a s t a t e of a f f a i r s o r a r e s u l t o p p o s i t e t o , and a s i f i n mockery of. t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r e s u l t . (1969:691 I n a s o c i o l o g i c a l s e n s e , i r o n y i s a p o i n t of v i e w t h a t recognizes t h e coexistence of i n c o n g r u i t i e s i n t h e c u l t u r e a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n of social life. Thus, the marital r e l a t i o n s h i p is organized according t o c e r t a i n c u l t u r a l v a l u e s t h a t e r e i n t e n d e d t o maximize l o v e , support, and happiness. Xouever. b e c a u s e o f t h i s v e r y s a n e mode o f o r g a n i z a t i o n an6 because o f t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e s s s a n e c u l t u r a l values, c o n f l i c t and v i o l e n c e c o e x i s t with t h e s e more b e n i g n a s p e c t s of m a r r i e d l i f e . Again, a s NatZa t e l l s us, "a k e y e l e m e n t o f i r o n y i s l a t s n c y " (p. 7 0 ) . Qualities i n h e r e n t i n s o c i a l norms e n d s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , d e s p i t e

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t h e i r hidden nature, family setting.+Z

lead

tc

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ZesuLts i c t h e

I r o n y a l s o p o i n t s t o t h e e x i s t e c c * of p a ' t e r n i n g in r e l a t i o n s h i p s where n o p a t t e r n i n g i s o b v i o u s . For example, Reinhold Niebuhr h a s d e f i c e d i r o n y a s "appnrent.ly f o r ? n F r o u s i r c o n g r u i t i e s i n l i f e r h i c h a r e d i s c o v e r e 9 , cpon c l o s e r examination, t o b e n o t merely f o r t u i t o u s ' l1952:viii). The i n c o n g r u i t i e s s u r r o u n d i n g h u s b a n d - v i f e v i o l e n c e are i r o n i c i n N i e b u h r ' s s e n s e cf t h e word, f o r t h e s x i s t i n g e v i d e n c s S u p p o r t s t h e claim t h a t h u s b a n d - v i f r v i o l e n c e i s n o t t h e r e s u l t of r a r d o m e v e n t s , b u t i s p a t t e r n e d i n t o t h e v e r y s t r u c t u r e of m a r i t a l a n d f a m i l y r e l a t i o c s . B e f o r e we s p e c i f y t h e i r o n i e s a p p a r e n t i n h u s b a c d - w i f e uiolence, i t would b e u s e f u l t o p o i n t o u t why t h e r e i s s u c h a r s s i s t a n c e t o v i e w i n g husband-wife v i o l e n c e a s a p a t t e r n e d a s p e c t c f married life. T h e E y t h o f P a m ~ l yN o n v i o l e n c e

The f a m i l y i s u s u a l l y t h o u g h t t o he a g r o u p c o m m i t t e d n o n v i o l e n c e b e t w e e n i t s members. F a m i l y msmbers a r e supposed t o maintain benevolent and l o v i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s . From r h a t is known a b o u t t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e i n American s o c i e t y , t h e r e seems t o b e a d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e i d e a l i z e d p i c t u r e o f t h e f a m i l y and r h a t a c t u a l l y g o e s o n [ S t e i n m e t e and S t r a u r , 1974: C h a p t e r 1; s t r a u s , 1974b). This i d e a l i z a t i o n is a useful, perhaps necessary s o c i a l myth. Its u s e f u l n e s s d e r i v e s from t h e f a m i l y ' s p o s i t i o n a s a tremendously important s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n . Elaborate In p r e c a u t i o n s a r e t a k e n t o s t r e n g t h e n a n d s u p p o r t it. Pestern Countries, one o f t h e s e supportive devices is t h e myth o f f a m i l i a l l o v e a n d g e c t l e n e s s . The i d e a l e x o u r a g e s p e o p l e t o marry a n d s t a y m a r r i e d d e s p i t e t h e s t r e s s e s a n d s t r a i n s of f a m i l y l i f e ( P e r r e i r a , 1963). Thus f r o n t h e standpoint of p r e s e r v i n g t h e i n t e g r i t y of a c r u c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n . s u c h a m g t h o l o g y is h i g h l y u s c f u l .

to

T h i s myth i s t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h c u l t u r a l norms and motion p i c t u r e s . a n d values as reflected i n literature, television. F o r example, B u g g i n s a n d S t r a u s ( C h a p t e r 4 ) f i n d t h e myth c r f a m i l y n o n v i o l e n c e a p e r v a s i v e theme of c h i l d r e n , ~l i t e r a t u r e between 1850 and 1970. U h l l e .the a u t h o r s f i n d t h a t t h e t y p i c a l c h i l d r e n ' s c l a s s i c bock i s marked by a number o f v i o l e n t a c t s , including killings, a l a o s t n o i n t r a f a a i l y f a a i l p v i o l e n c e is d e p i c t e d . This s e e m s r e m a r k a h l e i n l l g h t of t h e f a c t t h a t i n s o c i e t y g e n e r a l l y , p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e b e t v s e n f a m i l y members is more common t h a n be:weer a n y o t h e r a g g r e s s o r - v i c t i m r e l a t i o n s h i p . AS t h e myth o f f a m i l y n o n v i o l e n c e makes c l e a r , a s e t o f c u l t u r a l n o r m s p r o m u l g a t e s a n i m a g e of t h e f a m i l y a s a p l a c e B t t h e s a n e time, a s already of l o s e a n d g e n t l e n e s s .

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mentioned, a s e t o f norms e x i s t s t h a t l e g i t r m a t e s , axd a t times e n c o u r a g e s , t h e u s e o f v i o l e n c e o n f e n i l y members. T h i s i s an e x c e l l e n t example o f a c u l t u r a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n . C u l t u r a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a r e f o u n d i? m o s t , p e r h a p s al: societies. They a r e by n o means e n t i r e l y u n a e s i r a b l e . In f a c t . c u l t u r a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s h e l p p r e v e n t s c c i e t i e s from s t a g n a t i n g , open p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r s o c i a l change, a r d a l l o w w i t h o u t them, we f o r a m e a s u r e o f i n d i v i d u a l iutonomy. n i g h t be s l a v e s t o t h e d i c t a t e s o f c u l t u r e . Each i n d i v i d u a l a n d e a c h f a m i l y must m a n i p u l a t e many, often conflicting, n o r m s a n d v a l u e s t o work o u t a s t r a t e g y a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e i r Own CirCUmStanC'3s a n d a s p i r a t i o n s . The p r o c e s s o f s e l e c t i r g f r o m a n d r e c o n c i l l n g t h e d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f a c u l t u r e is o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s why, d e s p i t e c u l t u r a l n o r a s , f a m i l i e s differ. The c h o i c e o f norms f o r g u i d i n g o n e ' s l i f e leads t o d i v e r s i t y , but t h e r e i s no g u a r a n t e e t h a t one w i l l r e c o g n i z e a l l of t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h a t choice. C e r t a i n unsxpected resuLtS. 01 latent f e a t u r e s of t h e s e choices. make i n d i v i d u a l and f a m i l y l i f e a c o m p l i c a t e d matter. This complexity is e s p e c i a l l y t r u e f o r violence i n t h e faaily. Knowing t h a t o u r f a m i l y s y s t e m i s a v i o l e n t s y s t e m . r a t i o n a l p e o p l e c e r t a i n l y woold n o t c h o o s e t h i s s i t u a t i o n . Yet o v e r 90 p e r c e n t o f B m e r i c a n s marry, and many m a r r i a g e s a r e marked by c o n f l i c t and v i o l e n c e . P e r h a p s what i s important for understanaing t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between v l o l e n c e a n d t h e f a m i l y is n o t i n d i v i d u a l c h o i c e b u t t h e i r o n i e s t h a t seem t o u n d e r l i e t h e norms a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n o f family l i f e . I r o n y 1. C u l t u r a l norms t h a t l e g i t i m a t e a n d , a r times. encourage v i o l e n c e between f a a i l y members a r e i n s t r u m e n t a l i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e family system; but these same Lorms p e r p e t u a t e v i o l e n c e a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of family l i f e . A set o t n o r m s e x i s t s t h a t l e g i t i m i z e t h e s t r i k i n g of f a m i l y members, a t l e a s t under c e r t a i n conditions. These n o r m s s o m e t i m e s a r e used t o j u s t i f y t h e u s e of v i o l e n c e t o maintain t h e family systen. I n n o way s h o u l d t h i s s t a t e m e n t b e i n t e r p r e t e d t o mean t h a t we f a v o r a n y t y p e o f f a m i l y S y s t e m Over a n o t h e r . Whether o u r p r e s e n t f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e s h o u l d b e m a i r t a i n e d o r c h a n g e d is n c t a t i s s u e h e r e . In most f o r m s o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . w h e t h e r it i s a whole s o c i e t y . a bureaucracy, o r t h e f a m i l y system, there is an e m p h a s i s o n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e s t a t u s quo. Even t h o u g h s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n c o n s t a n t l y changes, groop well-beicg is a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d i f n o p r o v i s i o n i s made f o r a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e framework f o r a c t i o n .

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Our i n t e r e s t h e r s is u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t v e e c t h e norms t h a t l e g i t i m i z e v i o l e c c e e r d t h e r o l e t h e s e norms p l a y i n f a m i l y l i f e . Goode (1971) a r g u e s t h a t t h o s e who d e s i r e t o m a i n t a i P t h e p r e s e n t f a m i l y s y s t ? m may USE f o r c e o r i t s t h r e a t a s a f o r m of s o c i a l c o n t r o l . In o t h e r words. n o r m s l e g i t i m i z i r g v i o l e n c e m a i n t a i r c r a e r i n t h e f a n i l y g r o u p by i m p o s i n g s t r o n g s a n c t i o n s u h ~ l a r i n d i v i d u a l tries t o p l a y by o t h e r " r u l e s . " F o r many i n American s o c i e t y , f o r c e o r t h e t h r e a t o f f o r c e i n t h e f a m i l y is seen a s a permitted technique f o r preventing o r c o n t r o l l i n g c e r t a i n b e h a v i o r s o f f a m i l y members. Is Goode notes:

...

t h e m o t h e r who a b a n d o n s h e r c h i l d r e n . t h e f a t h e r who r u n s o f f v i t h t h e c h i l d r e n , t h e w i f e o r husband who t a k e s a s e c o n d s p o u s e , t h e c h i l d who b e a t s up h i s mother. t h e a d o l e s c e n t g i r l r h o w i s h e s t o s p ~ n d a ueekend w i t h h e r b o y f r i e n d a g a i n s t t h e r i l l o f h e r p a r e n t s , t h e w i f e who w i s h e s t o c h a n g e t h e f a m i l y d o m i c i l e w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t o f h e r husband, a 1 1 c a n be a n d s o m e t i m e s a r e r e s t r a i n e d by e i t h e r f o r c e o r i t s t h r e a t , i f n o t from f a m i l y members t h e n a t t h e i r r e q u e s t b y t h e community t h r o u g h i t s command o v e r f o r c e (1971:626). n o s t Americans s e e a moral o b l i g a t i o n f o r p a r e n t s t o u s e p h y s i c a l p u n i s h m e n t a s a means f o r c o n t r o l l i n g c h i l d r e n i f o t h e r means f a l l ( S t a r k a n d McEvoy, 1 9 7 0 ) . and a g o o d proportion see it a s t h e most d e s i r a b l e means f o r Controlling children. Although t h e l e g a l r i g h t of a husband t o p h y s i c a l l y punish a w i f e no l o n g e r e x i s t s ( C a l r e r t , 1 9 7 4 ) . t h e i n f o r m a l c o r m s of c e r t a i n s o c i a l g r o u p s ( a n d speolflc families i n a l l s e g m e n t s o f society) s t i l l l e g i t i m i z e t h e use of p h y s i c a l f o r c e t o c o n t r o l an e r r a n t spouse. Of t h e m o d a l i t i e s t h a t e n s u r e t h a t t h e f a m i l y f u n c t i o n s a s an e f f i c i e n t s o c i a l group. v i o l e n c e i s s e e n t o have h i g h i n s t r u m e n t a l value. It u o r k s - - a t l e a s t i n t h e s h o r t run. T h i s k i n d o f v i o l e n c e is what G e l l e s a n 8 S t r a u s ( 1 9 7 8 ) c a l l 'legitimate-instrumental** violence, violence t h a t i s p e r m i t t e d o r r e q u i r e d by t h e norms of s o c i e t y . Physical f o r c e 1s u s e d t o i n d u c e some d e s i r e d a c t o r t o p r e v e n t some undesired behavior. Legitimate-instromental violence occurs i n a l l role-relationships of t h e nuclear family v i t h g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r frequency. The g r e a t e s t f r e q u e n c y i s i n t h e parent-child relationship in the form of p h y s i c a l t h e marriage p u n l s h m e n t , b u t a s S t r a u s shows i n C h a p t e r 3 , l i c e n s e a l s o t e n d s t o - be a h i t t i n g l i c e n s e . V i o l e n c e c a n a l s o t + k e a ~ ~ l e g i t i m a t e - e x p r e s s i v € l sform. By e x p r e s s i v e v i o l e n c e ue mean t h e u s e o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e t o c a u s e p a i n o r i n j u r y a s a n end i n i t s e l f . Examples o f t h i s t y p e of v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y i n c l u d e t h e videspread

Ch.1.

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b e l i e f s t h a t i t i s b e t t e r t o spank a c h i l d t h a n t o "hold in" o n e ' s a n g e r and b e t t e r t o l e t s i b l i n g s " f i g h t i t o u t ' t h a n t o interfere. R t t i n e s v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y s e t t i n g g o e s beyond s a n c t i o n i n g by c u l t u r a l norms; it i s i l l e g i t i m a t e . This most w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d t y p e o f v i o l e n c e i n t h s f a m i l y i n c l u d e s t h e most s p e c t a c u l a r a n d e x t r e m e forms: child a b u s e a n d murder.

Whenever p h y s i c a l f o r c e i s u s e d w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y , for vhatever reason. t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n u n e x p e c t e d outcomes. C h a p t e r 2 p o i n t s ' t o t h r e e s u c h u n e x p e c t e d outcomes. The f i r s t is t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f l o v e v i t h v i o l e n c e . The c h i l d l e a r n s t h a t t h o s e vho l o v e h i m / h e r most a r e a l s o t h o s e who h i t and have t h e r i g h t t o h i t . The s e c o n d u n i n t e n d e d C o n s e q u e n c e is t h e l e s s o n t h a t when s o ~ e t h i n g i s r e a l l y Pically, i m p o r t a n t . it j u s t i f i e s t h e u s e o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e . a n d most i m p o r t a n t . t h e s e i n d i r e c t l e s s o n s becoms so f u n d a m e r t a l t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r s o n a l i t y and v o r l d v i e w t h a t they a r e gsneralizcd t o s o c i a l relationships, end e s p e c i a l l y t o t h e r e l a t i o c s h i p c l o s e s t t o t h a t o f p a r e n t and c h i l d - - t h a t o f h u s b a n d and wife. T h i s l a s t p o i n t is examined i n d e t a i l i n Joseph C a r r o l l ' s c h a p t e r on t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l r o l e of v i o l e n c e i n Mexican-lmerlcan and Jewish s u b c u l t u r e r . He a t t e m p t s t o show how g e n e r a l f a m i l y n o r m s a n d v a l u e s o p a r a f i n g u i t h i r t h e s e two d i v e r g e n t e t h n i c g r o u p s a c t t o i n f l u e n c e t h e a c t u a l u s e of v i o l e n c e a s w e l l a s i t s p e r p e t u a t i o n i n f u t u r e generations. The i r o n y h e r e is t h a t t h e s e norms, seer. t o b e n e c e s s a r y i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e f a m i l y group, a l s o g a a r a n t e e t h a t v i o l e n c e w i l l become a r e g u l a r f e a t u r e of f a m i l y l i f e in t h e future. T h i s g u a r a n t o e is e n s u r e d by s i m p l e membership i n t h e f a m i l y group. R s G e l l e s (1974) n o t s s : "...the family serves a s basic training v i o l e n c e by E x p o s i n g c h i l d r e n t o v i o l e n c e , maklng them v i c t i m s o f violence, and p r o v i d i n g them w i t h l e a r n i n g c o n t e x t s f o r commission of v i o l e n t a c t s n (p. 1 7 0 ) .

for by by the

Indeed, t h e evidence i s c l e a r t h a t e a r l y experiences with p h y s i c a l punrshment l a y t h e groundvork f o r t h e normative l e g i t i m a c y and a c t u a l u s e o f i n t r a f a n i l y v i o l e n c e . Overs a n d s t r a u s ( 1 9 7 5 ) . i n a s t u d y o f e x p o s u r e t o v i o l e n c s and V i o l e n c e a p p r o v a l , show t h a t t h e more v i o l e n c e e x p e r i e n c e d by a c h i l d , t h e g r e a t e r t h e t e n d e n c y t o f z r o r t h e u s e of v i o l e n c e a s an adult. G u t s a c h e r (1960) s t a t e s t h a t a common e x p e r i e n c e amorg a g r o u p o f m u r d e r e r s h e s t u d i e d was t h e h i g h l e v e l of v i o l e n c e t h e i r p a r e n t s i n f l i c t e d on them when t h e y were g r o w i n g up. Tansy's (1969) s t u d y o f h o m i c i d a l o f f e n d e r s f i n d s t h a t 67 p e r c e n t h a d h i s t o r i e s o f v i o l e n t

ch.1.

Social Structure ard Irony

Pilgs 1 5

Gelles (1919) f i n d s t h a ? r e s p o n d r n % s who had child-rea-mg. s e e n t h e i r p a r e n t s e n g a g i n g i n p h y s i c 3 1 v i o l e n c e v e r s much o r l i k e l y t o physically f i g h t v i t h rhexr our spouses t h a n were p e o p l e uho n e v e r saw t h e i r p a r e n t s p h y s i c a l l y f i g h t (p. 1 7 3 ) .

Welsh (1976) e x p l o r e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w s e n s e v e r e p a r e n t a l p u n i s h m e n t and j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n c y . Be d e f i n e s s e v e r e p a r e n t a l p u n i s h m e n t a s any type of physical discipline u s i n g a n o b j e c t c a p a b l e o f l n f l i c t i n g p h y s i c a l injury. w e l s h q s a n a l y s l s of t h r e e samples of d e l i n q u e n t c h -i l-d r- e n l e d him t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e r- e c i- d -i v-i s t m a l e dsll-.qur?: ~ n ocad n e v e r b e e r e x p o s e d t C L b i l L , b l a r d , IC CddlI:>r, I e 1 s h exte:5icn c o r d o r ti?: w b 5 COr.EIlSzer:. t 1 r . d ~ a m O C g ale ? e l -i r l u e ~ ? sc s r r c c o r E l a t l C n s h i o b2-weer. s e v e r e p a r e n t a l punlshnent and aggression. ~

I n c r e a s i c g e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t a h i g h p r i c e is p a i d f o r a a i n t a i n i n g o r d e r i n t h e family through violeoc?. The norms t h a t l e g l t i e a t e v i o l e n c e a s s u r e a f a m i l y i n s t i t u t i o n a n d a s o c i e t y characterized by v i o l e n c e f o r y e a r s t o come. I r o n y 2. The s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s of family l i f e t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o intimacy a l s o f a c i l i t a t e t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f a h i g h r a t e of i n t r a r p o u s a l violence. Though t h e f a m i l y s h a r e s c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s v i t h o t h e r s o c i a l g r o u p s , a s a s o c i a l g r o u p and a s a n i n s t i t u t i o n t h e family h a s d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Gellss a n d S t r a u s (1978) h a v e c a t a l o g u e d c e r t a i n o f t h e s e f e a t u r e s o f t h e tamily t o p o i n t o u t t h a t a s p s c i a l theory of v i o l e n c e i s necessary for the family group. Some of these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a n d o t h e r s m e n t i o n e d by a u t h o r s i n t h i s volume, s e r v e a d u a l r o l e i n t h e family. o n t h e o r e hand, t h e y c o n t r i b u t e t o w a r d making t h e f a m i l y a warm, s u p p o r t i v e , on t h e o t h e r hand. t h e y s u g g e s t and m t i m a t e environment: r e a s o n s why t h i s s o c i a l g r o u p may be e s p e c i a l l y p r o n e t o violence. we l l s t e l e v e n s u c h f a c t o r s : 1. ILmf RJ&. An elexentary characteristic accounting f o r t h e high incidecce of violence i s t h a t s o many h o u r s o r t h e d a y a r e s p e n t i n t s 1 a c t i r . g w i t h o t h e r f a m i l y members. Bowever. a l t h o u g h t h i s f a c t o r i s i m p o r t a n t , t h e r a t i o of i n t r a f a m i l y violence t o violence experienced o u t s i d e t h e f a m i l y f a r e x c e e d s t h e r a t i o of time s p e n t i n Comparing t h e f a r i i l y w i t h t h e f a m i l y t o time s p e n t o u t s i d e . a n o t h e r g r o u p i n which l a r g e a m o u n t s of time a r e s p e n t , s u c h a s a work g r o u p , p r o v i d e s a c o n c r e t e e x a m p l e t h a t f a r more i s involved t h a n "time a t risk."

ch.1.

S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e and I r o n y

t a k e p l a c e o v e r which e x p e c t a t i o n s can occur.

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3. in tens it^ o f Involpg~Emyg;. Not o n l y i s t h e r e a v l d e r r a n g e of possibilities f o r disputes o r d5ssatisfactione. but, i n addition. t h e degree of i n j u r y f e l t i n such i n s t a n c e s i s l i k e l y t o be much g r e a t e r t h a n i f t h e ssme i s s u e were t o a r i s e i r r e l a t i o n t o someone o u t s i d e t h e family. F o s s ( C h a p t e r 7) c o n s i d e r s t h i s f a c t o r e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t i n generating h o s t i l i t y among f a m i l y members a s well a s i n creating t h e strategies f o r dealing vith c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t among f a m i l y members. 4. I n f r m q i n c a A c t i v i t i e s . nany f a m i l y a c t i v i t i e s h z r e a ' z e r o sum" a s p e c t . C o n f l i c t a r i s e s from s u c h d e c i s i o n s a s w h e t h e r t o p l a y Bach o r n e o d e l s s o h n o n t h e f a m i l y s t s r e o , v h o t h e r t o g o t o a movie o r b o w l i n g , o r how t o l i n e up f o r t h e bathroom. Less obvious, but e q u a l l y important, is the i n f r i n g i n g of o n e ' s p e r s c n a l s p a c e o r s e l f - i m a g e by t h e l i f e s t y l e and h a b i t s o f o t h e r s i n t h e f a m i l y , s u c h a s t h o s e who l e a v e t h i n g s a r o u n d v e r s u s t h o s e who p u t e v e r y t h i n g away, o r t h o s e who e a t q u i c k l y a n d t h o s e who l i k e l e i s u r e l y meals.

a

6. and g~~~g?&?;&s. The d i f f e r e n c e s i n a g e and sex of family members (especially during t h e couoled v i t h the e x -~ istence o -f c h i l d - r. earino v earsl A ~ ~ ~ - - . . o e n e r a t i o n a l and s e x d l f f e r e n c e s i n c u l t u r e and outlook. make t h e f a m l l y a n a r e n a o f c u l t u r e c o n f l l c t . Thlr confllc+ 1s e x p r e s s e d zn s u c h p h r a s e s a s " t h e b a t t l e o f t h e s e x e s " a n d " t h e g e n e r a t r o n gap." ~

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7. B s c r z b e d R o l e s . Compounding t h e problem o f a g e and s e x d i f f e r e n c e s , f a m i l y s t a t u s e s and r o l e s a r e a s s i g n e d , t o a considerable extent. on the basis of biological c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e b a s i s of competence a n d interest. One a s p e c t o f t h i s s t r u c t u r i n g h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y been a f o c u s o f c o n t e n r i o n -- s o c i a l l y s t r u c t u r e d s e x u a l inequality or. i n contemporary language, the sexist o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e f a m i l y . S t r a u s (Chapter 6) a r g u e s t h a t a male-dominated family has especially high confllct p o t e n t i a l when i t e x i s t s i n a s o c i e t y w i t h a n e g a l i t a r i a n ideology. But, a s B l l e n a n d S t r a u s p o i n t o u t ( i n C h a p t e r 1 2 ) . e v e n w i t h o u t s u c h an i d e o l o g i c i n c o n s i s t e n c y , t h e because i n e v i t a b l y not a l l c o n f l l c t p o t e n t i a l i s high, husbands can f u l f i l l t h e c u l t u r a l l y prescribed l e a d e r s h i p roles.

Ch.1.

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8. PaptQ privm. I n many s o c i e t i e s t h e n o r m a t i v e k i n s h i p and household s t r u c t u r e i n s u l a t e s t h e f a m i l y from s o c i a l c o n t r o l s a n d s o c i a l a s s i s t a n c e i n cnp?.cg with intratamily conflict. T h i s c h a r a c r e r i s t i c i s most t y p i c a l of t h e c o n j u g a l f a m i l y s y s t e m of u r b a n - i n d u s t r i a l s o c i i t i e s ( L a s l e t t . 1 9 7 3 ) . Both F o s s ( C h a p t e r 8 ) and A D t a l i n g ( C h a p t e r 9 ) mention t h a t t h e n u c l e a r s t r u c t u r e o f America? f a m i l y l i f e makes less l i k e l y t h e dampening e f f e c t s of t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h i r d p a r t i e s i n h u s b a n d - w i f e a r g u m e n t s and d i s p u t e s . 9. I n v o l u n t a r y p e m b e r s h i z . Birth relationships a r s obviously irivOluztary, and under-age children cannot :hemselves t e r m i n a t e s u c h r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I n addition, Sprey (1969) shows t h a t t h e c o n j u g a l r e l a t i o n s h i p a l s o h a s nonvoluntary aspects. F i r s t , t h e s o c i a l e x p e c t a t l o n is t h a t m a r r l a g e i s a long-term commitment, a s Expressad i n t h e phrase " u n t i l death do u s part.' In addition, emotional, material. a n d l e g a l r e w a r d s a n d c o n s t r a i n t s o f t e n make membership i n t h e f a m i l y g r o u p i n e s c a p a b l e , socially. physically, or legally. So. when conflicts and d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n s a r i s e , t h e a l t e r n a t i v e o f r e s o l v i n g them by l e a v l n g o f t e n aces n o t e x i s t - - a t l e a s t i n t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f what is p r a c t i c a l o r p o s s i b l e .

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famiiy l i f e cycle--the b i r t h of children, naturation of c h i l d r e n . a u i n a-. . and r e t i r e a e r t . The c r i s i s - l i k e n a t u r e o f t h e s e c h a n g e s h a s l o n g been r e c o g n i z e d ( L e l l a s t e r s , 1 9 5 7 ) . A 1 1 o f t h i s , combined w i t h t h e huge e m o t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t t y p i c a l o f f a m i l y r e l a t i o r s h i p s , means t h a t t h e f a m i l y i s l i k e l y t o b e t h e l o c u s o f more, a n d more s e r i o u s . stresses t h a n o t h e r groups. A r e a d i n g o f Chapter 7 emphasizes t h e i m p o r t a n t r o l e o f i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l s t r e s s e s on f a m i l y l i f e i n t h e explanation of i n t r a f a m i l y violence.

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11. E x t e n s i v e KnoYledue of S o c i a l B i O 9 r a E h i e s . B e c a u s e of t h e i n t i m a c y o f t h e m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , s p o u s e s u s u a l l y have a n in-depth kowladge of each other's social h i s t o r i e s - - t h e i r a b i l i t i e s and shortcomings, t h e i r s t r e n g t h s and v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s , t h e i r l i k e s a n d d i s l i k e s (Hepburn 1 9 7 3 ) . I n e f f e c t , t h e members o f m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s h a v e a t t h e i r d i s p o s a l i c f o r m a t i o n t h a t c a n be u s e d t o s u p p o r t a n d e n h a n c s e a c h o t h e r ' s i d e n t i t i e s b e c a u s e e a c h knows a b o u t t h e things t h a t matter t c t h e other. A t t h e same t i m e , t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n c a n b e u s e d t o damage t h e i d e n t i t y of s i t h e r spouse. Goode (1971) s u g g e s t s t h a t i n t i m a t e s a r e a b l e t o l a u n c h v e r b a l a s s a u l t s on t h e p a r t n e r ' s v u l n e r a b l e p o i n t s each other's because t h e n a t u r e of marriage exposes weaknesses. Hotaling (Chapter 9) s p e c i f i c a l l y r e f e r s t o t h e

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e x t e n s i v e knowledge o f p a r t n e r s a s p r e d i s p o s i n g them t o mistakenly a t t r i b u t e malevolent i n t e n t t o t h e a c t i o n s of spouses. These e l e v e n f a c t o r s , and no doubt t h e r e a r e o t h e r s , h a v e b e e n p o s i t e d by a u t h o r s o f t h i s volume a n d o t h e r s a s i m p o r t a n t characteristics o f the family group that c o n t r i b u t e t o its h i g h r a t e o f c o n f l i c t and v i o l e n c s . The i r o n y h e r e i s t h a t many o f t h e s e same f e a t u r e s e n c o u r a g e wzrmth, i c t i m a c y , and s u p p o r t ; f o r example, l a r g e a m o u n t s of time s p e n t fogether, deep emotional involvement, privacy. a n d i n - d e p t h knowledge o f o n e a n o t h e r . The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s e u n i q u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e f a m i l y t o v i o l e n c e as w e l l a s t o i l t i m a c y h a s n o t been verified anpirically. But t h e t h e o r e t i c a l work on t h i s i s s u e s u g g e s t s many i n t r i g u i n g q u e s t i o n s f o r r e s e a r c h . The most i e p o r t a n t i s w h e t h e r changes in thase unique c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a n make t h e f a m i l y a less v i o l e n t g r o u p without S a c r i f i c i n g t h e b e n e f i t s o f a n i n t i m a t e arvironment. F o r example, if we compare n u c l e a r f a m i l y s t r . u c t u r P s w i t h v a r i o u s combinations of e x t e n d e d f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e s , w i l l t h e r e b e a h i g h e r l e v e l o f s u p p o r t between members i c t h e l a t t e r form, a s w e l l a s a l o w e r l e v e l of s t r e s s ? Straus' c o m p a r i s o n of s u p p o r t i v e n e s s b e t w e e n s p o u s e s iii c u c l e a r and i n j o i n t h o u s e h o l d s (1975) s u g g e s t s t h a t l a c k o f s t r e s s may be g a i n e d a t t h e e x p e n s e o f s u p p o r t . And v h a t r o l e d o g r a n d p a r e n t s p l a y i n t e r m s of t h e o c c u r r e n c e of i n t r a f a m i l y sons v i o l e n c e when t h e y l i v e i n t h e same h o u s e h o l d s a s the:: a n d d a u g h t e r s and g r a n d c h i l d r e n ? I n v e s t i g a t i o n s a l s o c o u l d b e f o c u s e d on specific characteristics. For example, t h e a f f e c t of i n v o l u n t a r y f a m i l y membership o n v i o l e n c e c o u l d b e s t u d i e d by c o m p a r i n g n o n m a r r i e d c o u p l e s who l i v e t o g e t h e r w i t h m a r r i e d c s u p l e s , controlling f o r relevant factors. ~ l s o . does intense i n v o l v e o e n t among f a m i l y members f a c i l i t a t e o r dampen t h e occurrence of violence? Do families vith extensive community i n t e r e s t s o r i n v o l v e m e n t s v i t h n o n f a m i l y members e x p e r i e n c e less v i o l e n t i n t e r a c t i o n a t home? T h e s e Examples s u g g e s t c . l g a Lev c t .any s u c h q u e s t l o r i s :hat c 3 u l d h~ b r c u q h t t c b e a r on * h e s p e c l a 1 s o c r a l ?rger:zaczcnal t e e c m r e ? a c d y h e ~ ri r t l u e r c e on t u e b a n a - v l f e s:olcnce. I r o n y 3. The c h a n g e t o a n e g a l i t a r i a n s t r u c t u r e of m a r r i a g e l e a d s t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e s e x i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e f a m i l y b u t a l s o seems t o l e a d t o h i g h e r r a t e s of v i o l e n c e . The t w o p r e v i o u s i r o n i e s c o u l d b e c a l l e d =cz_c i r o n i e s . They w e r e c o n c e r n e d v i t h t h e f a m i l y a s a n i n s t i t u t i o n a n 6 s o c i a l g r o u p e s compared v i t h o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d s o c i a l g r o u p s i n terms of i t s p r o c l i v i t y t o h i g h r a t e s o f v i o l e n c e . T h e l a s t t w o i r o n i e s p r e s e n t e d h e r e a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h micro level processes, that is, w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t

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d i f f e r e a t i a t e f a m i l i e s frcm e a c h o t h e r . The t i r s t o f t h e s e i r o n i e s c o n c e r n s the sexisr o r g a l i z a t i o n of t h e f a m i l y ( S t r a u s , Chapter 6 ) . This c h a p t e r c i t e s n i n e s p e c i f i c ways i n which t h e male-dominated s r r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y a n d f a m i l y c r e a t e s a n d a a i n t a i r s a h i g h o n e o f t h e many ways i n which l e v e l Of m a r i t a l V i o l e n c e . m a l e d o m i n a t i o n c a n l e a d t o f a m i l y v i o l e n c e o c c u r s when t h e male i s threatened. I n o u r s o c i e t y , where m a l e - s u p e r i o r i t y norms a r e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a n s i t i o n , and i n v h i c h t h e p r e s n m p t i o n o f s u p e r i o r i t y must be v a l i d a t e d hy " r e s o u r c e s " s u c h a s v a l u e d p e r s o n a l t r a i t s and m a t e r i a l goods and s e r v i c e s , a s c r i b i n g s u p e r l o r a u t h o r i t y t o men i s a p o t e n t f o r c e i c p r o d u c i n g p h y s i c a l a t t a c k s on wives. R h u s b a n d who w a n t s t o b e t h e d o m i n a n t p e r s o n i n h i s f a m i l y , b u t who h a s l i t t l e e d u c a t i o n , a j o h t h a t is low i n p r e s t i g e and income. a n d a l a c k o t i n t e r p e r s o c e l s k i l l s , may r e s o r t t o p h y s i c a l violence t o maintarn h i s position. Empirical evidence supports these notions. For example, i n f a m i l i e s where t h e h u s b a n d ' s a c h i e v e d s t a t u s i s lower t h a n h l s wife's. O'Brien (1971) f o u n d a g r e a t e r t e n d e n c y t o USE f o r c e a n d v i o l ~ n c eon f a m i l y members t h a n when t h e h u s b a n d h a d t h e - r e s o u r c e m o f a h i g h e r p r e s t i g e occupation. Also, A l l e n a n d S t r a u s ( C h a p t e r 12) found t h a t among w o r k i n g c l a s s h u s b a n d s who w e r e h i g h i n economic o r personal resources, t h e r e v a s n o c o r r e l a t i o n between power i n t h e f a m i l y and v i o l e n c e . However, among t h o s e w o r k i n g c l a s s h u s b a n d s who w e r e low i n r e s o u r c e s , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n m a l e power and v i o l e n c e was 0.49. graphically Tho e x p e c t a t i o n o f male d o n i n a n c e is i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e c a s e h i s t o r y o f J o e and J e n n i f e r r e p o r t e d by La Xossa ( i l Chapter 10). This couple depicrs t h e c o n f l i c t between men a n d women i x t h e t r a n s i t i o n from m a l e s u p e r l o r i t y t o e g a l i t a r i a n f a m i l y norms, most c l e a r i n t h e dialogue betweel Joe and J e n n i f e r about J e n n i f e r ' s employment o u t s i d e o f t h e home, which J o e p e r c e i v e s a s a t h r e a t t o h i s r i g h t t o h e t h e d o m i n a n t asmber o f t h e relationship. The i s s u e of w i f e employment, p e r h a p s t h e most d i r e c t t h r e a z t o male d o m i n a t i o n i n t h e s o c i e t y a s w e l l a s i n t h e f a m i l y , is i n v e s t i g a t e d by Brown ( C h a p t e r 1 1 ) t o d e t e r m i n e i t s p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t o n husband-wife v i o l e r c e . I n a more g e n e r a l v e i n . Brown p r o b e s t h e c o n f l i c t between e m e r g i n g sexual e q u a l i t y a n d e x i s t i n g norms t h a t promote m a l e domination. Logically, we would assume that the increasing breakdown o f t h e s e x i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e f a m i l y would a l s o l e a d t o a d e c r e a s e i n husband-wife violence. But t h i s d e c r e a s e may n o t b e t h e c a s e , a t l e a s t i n t h e s h o r t run. During t h i s t r a n s i t i o n period, a s t h e f a m i l y r e s t r u c t u r e s i t s power d i s t r r b u t i o n , c o n f l i c t a n d v i o l e n c e may a c t u a l l y

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b e i n c r e a s e d a s men f e e l t h r e a t e n e d by t h e i r l o s s o f power. Ironically. a t t e m p t s bq women t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r power = n s o c i e t y a n d t h e f a m i l y map s e r v e t o v i c t i m i z e vomen f u r t h e r . a t l e a s t temporarily. I n t h e l o n g run, t h e e g a l i t a r i a n e t h o s should l e a d t o a d e c r e a s e i n h u s b a n d - w i f e v i o l e n c e , h u t it w i l l n o t d e c r e a s e u n t i l men b e g i n t o a c c e p t e g a l i t a r i a n norms a s l e g i t i m a t e . I r o n y 4. The s u p p r e s s i o n o f c o n f l i c t , widely felt t o decrease violence, may a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e it. Most p e o p l e f e a r c o n f l i c t a n d t r y t o a r o i d it. s o c i o l o g i s t s and p s y c h o l o g i s t s d o r e s e a r c h t o f i n d o u t why c o n f l i c t occurs, o s t e n s i b l y t o be able to provide information t h a t w i l l enable people t o a r o i d c o n f l i c t . n a r r i a g e c o u n s e l o r s and o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s concerned w i t h t h e family, w i t h a f e w e x c e p t i o n s s u c h a s Bach and Uyden (1968) a n d ShOstroB a n d Ravanaugh ( 1 9 7 1 ) , f o c u s much of t h e i r e f f o r t s on h e l p i n g f a m i l i e s t o a v o i d c o n f l i c t . The i m p l i c i t assumption hera i s t h a t t h e suppression of c o n f l i c t w i l l l e a d t o t h e avoidance of h o s t i l i t y and v i o l e n c e . Houever, c o n f l i c t t h e o r i s t s h a v e p r e s e n t e a a c o n v i n c i n g c a s e f o r e x a c t l y t h e o p p o s i t e assumption; t h e y argue t h a t c o n f l i c t i s a n i n e v i t a b l e p a r t o f a l l human a s s o c i a t i o n s (coser, 1956; Dahrendorf, 1959; Sprey, 1969). Furthermore. t h e y hold t h a t any s o c i a l u n i t t h a t a t t e m p t s t o s u p p r e s s c o n f l i c t r u n s a h i g h r i s k of c o l l a p s i n g , e i t h e r because it f a l l s t o adapt t o changing c i r c u ~ s t a n c e s o r hecause h o s t i l i t y accumulates, eroding group s o l i d a r i t y . The application o f c c n f l l c t t h e o r y t o f a m l l y v r o l e n c e o r even 2 has a s s u m e d t h a t c o n f l i c t 1s c e n t r a l t o . p r e r e q u l s l t e f o r , vlolencc. H o v e r e r , a d e l l n e a t i o n of how c o n i l l c t p r o c e s s e s and v i o l e n c e a r e r e l a t e d h a s n o t r e c e i v e d adequate attentlon. P o s s t a k e s o n t h l s I s s u e l n C h a p t e r 8. Foss c o n t e n d s t h a t c e r t a i n unique f e a t u r e s of t h e husband-wife relationship, t h a t is. t h e h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f i n t e r a c t i o n betveen spouses. t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y involvement. and t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n simply l e a v i n g t h e family s e t t i n g . v l l l produce h o s t i l i t y and g e n e r a t e a t t s m p t s t o s u p p r e s s o r ignore hostility. Foss proposEs t h a t t h e avoidance o f c o n f l i c t SiTuationS i r o n i c a l l y t e n d s t o increase h o s t i l i t y a s w e l l a s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of violence. If s u p p r e s s i n g c o n f l i c t l e a d s t o v i o l e n c e d o e s t h i s imply the more conflict the better for marital relatiocships? The q u e s t i o n o f how much c o n f l i c t is d e s i r a b l e i n t h e f a m i l y s e t t i n g i s a n u n i n v e s t i g a t e d and important Empirical challenge. S t r a u s (1978) h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t r h e r e i s a c u r v i l i n e a r r e l a t i o n between t h e amount o f c o n f l i c t and group vell-being. T h a t is. t h e a b s e n c e o f

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conflict in the s e n s e o f c o n f l i c t s o f i s t e r e s t is t h e o r e t i c a l l y impcssible; E v e r if i t c o u l d b e b r o u g h t about, suppression o f c o n f l i c t vould he f a t a l f o r group vell-being. A t t h e same time, v e r y h i g h l e v e l s o f cocflict c a n c r e a t e s u c h a h i g h l e v e l of s t r a s s a n d / o r s u c h r a p i d chazqe t h a t group welfare i s a d v e r s e l y affected. I f S t r z u s ' hypothesis is c o r r e c t , t h a t a c e r t a i n l e v e l of c o n f l i c t i s i n d e e d h e a l t h y f o r t h e m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , how c o u l d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l b e d e t e r m i n e d ? Certain t h e ~ r e t i c a l d e d u c t i o n s made by a u t h o r s i n t h i s v o l u a e a n d O t h e r s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e l e v e l of i n t i m a c y i n m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s may be a k e y f a c t o r i n t h e amount o f c o n f l i c t experienced. S e v e r a l writers h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e more i n t i m a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e more l i k e l y t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f c o n f l i c t (Simme1.1950; S p r e y , 1969; Poss. Chapter 8: Hotaling, C h a p t e r 9: Brown, C h a p t e r 1 1 ) . P e r t a p s , t h e n , t h e lessening of those f a c t o r s t h a t contribute t o intimacy a l s o would r e d u c e t h e amount o f c o n f l i c t i n t h e f a m i l y . P o s s c c h a p t e r p o i n t s o n t t h a t i n some p a t t e r n s o f f a m i l y l i f e a l e s s i n t i m a t e o r i n t e n s i v s i n v o l v e m e n t is characteristic. Rn e x c e l l e n t c a s e i n p o i n t i s d s s c r i b e d b y CubPr a n d H a r o f f (1965) a s t h e " p a s s i v e - c o n g e n i a l ' marriage. a l l f e - s t y l e i n v h i c h a l l e m o t i o n a l and irstrusental satisfaction does n o t d e r i v e from t h e m a r r i a g e . In m a r r i a g e s i n which c r e a t i v e e n e r g i e s a n d t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f i n t e r e s t s and e m o t i o n a l needs a r e n l t e x c l u s i v e l y d i r e c t e d t o t h e m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , less i n t e n s i v e p a t t e r n s o f invclvement w i l l occur. w h e t h e r t h i s t y p e of m a r r i a q s a l s o h a s l e s s c o n f l i c t a n d v i o l e n c e is a c r u c i a l q u e s t i o n f o r t h e s t u d y of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . TRE IRONIC NATURE OF INTRAPAIILY VIOLEBCE

when t h i s book was p l a n n e d , t h e key i d e a s t o b e p r e s e n t e d were t h o s e o f c u l t u r e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . As t h e book b e g a n t o come t o g e t h e r , what m i g h t b e c a l l e d t h e " i r o n i c n a t u r e cf i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e " Kept c r o p p i n g up. T h i s i n no way u n d e r c u t s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c u l t u r e a n d Social Organization a s i n t e r p r e t i v e tools. The d u a l i n f l u e n c e o f c u l t u r e a n d s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n is d e s c r i b e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s volume a s r e v e a l i n g t h e s o c i a l l y p a t t e r n e d n a t u r e cf m a r i t a l v i o l e n c e . The i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f married ccuples, without considering ths socially c o n s t r u c t e d n a t u r e of marriage i t s e l f . c a n n o t e x p l a i n why m a r r i a g e a s a s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a h i g h incidence o f s t r i f e and violerce. But c u l t u r e a d s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e somewhat s t a t i c n o t i o n s a n d d o n o t f o r c e o n e t o f a c e up t o t h e dynamic a n d emergent n a t u r e of f z m i l y i n t e r a c t i o n . I n t h e c o n t e x t of t h i s book, it is l a r g e l y t h e n o t i o n o f i r o n y t h a t p r o v i d e s t h e n e e d e d dynamic. we h a v e p o i n t e d t o f o u r s u c h i r o n i a s .

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~t f i r s t g l a n c e , t h e s e r o n i e s n a y seem t o b ? o n l y a m u s i n g oddities. They a r e more t h a n t h i s . Recognizing the e x i s t e n c e of t h e s e C o u n t e r i n t u i t i v e p r o c e s s e s S e n s i t i z e s US t o t h e complexity of f a m i l y l i f e . Ironies highlight the fundamental c o n t r a d i c t i o n s t h a t r e s i d e i r t h e c u l t u r a l rorms and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of family l i f e . They f o r c e u s t o b e wary o f a c c e p t i n g t h e conmon-sense d i c h o t o m y between v i c e a n d v i r t u e , good a n d e v i l . l o v e a n d c o n f l i c t .

Lastly, the exploration of ironic rel+tiooships n a t u r a l l y l e a d s t o t h e o p e n i n g up o f new a n d i n t e r o s t i n g r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s on f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . Rather than viewirg irony as r e s i d i n g i n nature o r i n t h e universe, a s o c i o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e cn i r o n y l e a d s u s t o f o c u s on t h e c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t u e e n c u l t u r e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and i t s r o l e i n g e r e r a t i r g t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s of f a m i l y life.

NOTES *Part of t h e f i r s t s e c t i o n of t h i s c h a p t e r is a r e v i s e d v ~ T S i 0 n o f p a r t o f " c n l t u r a l and S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n a l I n f l u e n c e s o n v i o l e n c e E e t v e e n F a m i l y nembers" (straus 1974b). 1. For t h e purposes of t h i s chapter, violence i s defined. f o l l o w i n g Gelles a n d S t r a u s ( 1 9 7 8 ) . a s "sn a c t c a r r i e d o u t with +he i n t e c t i o n of, o r perceived a s having t h e i n t e n t i o n o f , p h y s i c a l l y h u r t i n g a n o t h e r person." The " p h y s i c a l h u r t " c a n r a n g e from s l i g h t pain, a s i n a s l a p , t o murdsr. Blthough t h i s i s t h e b a s i c d e f i n i t i o n o f v i o l e n c e u s e d i n Our r e s e a r c h , i t is u s u a l l y a l s o n e c e s s a r y -0 t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t a number o f . o t h a r c h a r a c t c r i s t l c s o f t h e v i o l 5 n t a c t . s u c h a s w h e t h e r i t i s ~ i n s t r u m e o t a l " *o some o t h e r p u r p o s e o r " e x p r e s s i v e , " t h a t is, an 2nd i n i t s e l f ; a p d w h e t h e r it is a c u l t u r a l l y p e r m i t t e d o r r e q u i r e 3 a c t v e r s u s o n e t h a t r u n s c o u n t e r t c c u l t u r a l norms ( l e g i t i m a t e versus i l l e g i t i m a t e violence). Thus, the blsis fcr th3 * s i n t e x t t o h u r t " may r a n g e f r o m a c o n c e r r f o r a c h i l d ' s s a f e t y ( a s when a c h i l d i s s p a n k e d f o r g o i n g i n t o t h e s t r e e t ) t o h o s t i l i t y s o i n t e n s e t h a t t h e death of t h s o t h e r is desired. The f o r m e r woold b e a n e x a m p l e of " l e g i t i m a t e i n s t r u n e n t a l v i o l e n c e " a n d t h e l a t t e r of " i l l e g i t i s a t s e x p r e s s i v e violecce." 2. C e r t a i n a o t h o r s i n t h i s volume. e-g.. Po55 ( C h a p t e r u s e t h e term p a r a d o x r a t h e r t h a n i r o n y . As n a t z a ( 1 9 6 9 ) notes: t h e r e a r e two m e a n i n g s of p a r a d o x - t h e g e n e r a l and I r t h e g e n e r a l meaning of p a r a d o x , s o n e C h i n g t h e technical. c a n b e b o t h p a r a d o x ( a t e x e t c o n t r a r y t 3 commcn s e n s e ) end i r o n y (an outcome o f e v l n t s t h a t mocks t h e f i t n e s s o f things). P o s s u s e s t h e t e r n p a r a d o x i r t h e g e n e r a l an3 20: t h e t e c h n r c a l s e n s e of a r a p p a r r n t I n t e r n a l c c n t r a d i c t ; o n .

7).

Chapter 2

Wife-Beating: How Common and Why? Murray A. Straus

C h a p t e r 1 made f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s t o t h ; high rates of physical violence that characterize Rmericzn marriages. until recently. s u c b a s s e r t i o n s had t o b e b a s e d on i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c e v i d e n c e , o r on s t u d i e s of s m a l l or perhaps unrepresentative samples, f3r example, couples seeking divorce or couples involved i n "domestic d i s t u r b a n c e " p o l i c e c a l l s . Th=s c h a p t e r . however. r e p o r t s t h e r e s u l t s o f 3 s t u d y of a l a r g e and n a t i o n a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e Sample o f c o u p l e s . The r a t e s o f v i o l e n c s found i n t h i s s t u d y w e r e somewhat l o w e r t h a n e x p e c t a d f o r "ordiParyn pushing, s l a p p i n g , and s h o r i n g , but astoundingly high f o r "wife-briting." In a d d i t i o n t o documenting t h e h i g h i n c i d e n c e of wife-beating, d a t a on " h u s b a n d - b e a t i n g " i s a l s o p r e s e n t e d and "sed t o i l l u s t r a t e a r e c u r r i n g t h e n e o f t h i s volume: t h a t m a r i t a l violencc c a n n o t be u c d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s o f a s i n g l e f a c t o r such as sexrsm. aggressiveness, l a c k of s e l f - c o n t r o l , o r m e n t a l i l l n e s s of h u s b a n d s who b e a t f h e l r wives. Each o f t h e s e f a c t o r s i s i m p o r t a n : b u t d o e s n o t acc0ur.t f 3 r t h e r a t e 3f a s s a u l t by v i v e s OP h u s b a n d s .

The f i r s t o b j e c t l v e o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o p r e s e n t some of t h f~i n d i n g s on v i o l e n c e b e t w e e n s p o u s e s from a r e c e n t l y c o m p l e t e d s t u d y of American c o u p l e s . These f i n d i c g s a r e unique. being the f i r s t s u c h d a t a on a n a t i o l a l l y represectative sample. Although the findings have limitatiocs, t h e y g i v e a + l e a s t some i n d i c a t i o n a f t h e e x t e n t t o v h l c h w i f e - b e a t i r g i s p a r t o f t h e way o f l i f e o f American f a n i l i e s . * l

Ch.2.

if e - ~ e a t i r . 9

Page 24

The s e c o r d o b j e c t i v e is t o e x p l a i n f u r t h s r t h e i r o n y t h a t t h e g r o u p t o which most p e o p l e l o o k f o r l o v e and g e n t l ~ n ~ si s s a l s o t h e most v i o l e n t c i v i l i a n g r o u p i n o u r society. he f i r s t of these objectivas poses tremendous t e c h n z c a l problems. The s e c o r a o b j e c t i v e , i n a d d i t i o n t o the technical probless, poses theoretical problems fundamental to our understanding o f human s o c i e t y . T h e r e f o r e , what f o l l o w s s h o u l d be t a k e n a s h i g h l y t e L t a t i v e . beginning a n s v e r s t o t h e s e questions.

Dat+ w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d on a s a m p l e o f 2.143 couples. T h i s s a m p l e was c h o s e ? i n a way t h a t makes i t e x r r e m e l y l i k e l y t h a t t h e y a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a l l American c o u p l e s . The a g e , r a c e , and s o c i o e c o n o m i c s t a t u s o f t h e c o u p l e s i n t h e sampl? c o r r e s p o n d q u i t e c l o s e l y w i t h c e n s u s d a t a f o r ' t h e S o f e r 50 good. B u t what a b o u t t h e d a t a n a t i o n a s a whole. on w i f e - b e a t i n g ?

WEAT I S RIPE-BEATING? TO do r e s e a r c h on t h e i n c i d e n c e of wife-beating, one must b e a b l e t o d e f i r e i t i n a way t h a t c a n be m e a s u r e d is a objectively. one soon r e a l i z s s t h a t "wife-heating' p o l i t i c a l r a t h e r t h a n a s c i e n t i f i c term. F o r most p e o p l e . w l f e - b e a t i n g r e f e r s o n l y t o t h o s e i n s t a n c e s I n which s e v e r e damage i s i n f l i c t e d . O t h o r v i o l e n c e is t r e a t e d a s normal o r l a u g h e d o f f w i t h r e m a r k s s u c h a s "Hornen s h o u l d ba s t r u c k r e g u l a r l y , l i k e gorgs." o r t a k e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

c o n c o r d , N.R. (AP) The New R a m p s h i r e CDmmission on t h e S t a t u s o f Women h a s r e j p c t e d a p l a n '0 help b a t t e r e d wises, s a y i n g t h a t wife-bsatinq is c a u s e d by t h e rise o f feminism. "Those women l i b b e r s i r r i t a t e t h e h e l l o u t of t h e l r h u s b a n d s , ' s a i d Commissioner G l o r i a B e l z i l o f Aashua. A t a meeting acnday, commission members, n e l d r i m Thornson, s a i d any a p p o i n t e d by GOV. program t o h e l p b a t t e r e d w i v e s would b e "an i l r a s i o n o f privacy.*# ( P o r t s a o u t h Berala, Sept.

13. 1 9 7 7 )

T h i s s t a t e m e n t s u g g s s t s t h a t a c e r t a i n amount o f v l o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y is " n o r m a l v i o l e r c e " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t i s d e s e r v e d ( f o r e x a m p l e by " i r r i t a t i n g t h e h e l l " o u t of o n e ' s spouse) and t h a t , c o n t r a r y t o i t s p c s l t i o n on ViolencE o u t s i d 4 t h e family, t h e s t a t e should n o t i n t a r f s r e .

Ch.2.

Rite-Beating

Psge 2 5

A r s c E n t c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h a s t u d e n t who had d e c i a e d t o do a term p a p e r o n v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y s u g g e s t s t h e same conclusion. S h e came t o see me t o r h e l p on how t o r i r r o w t h e t o p l c ?o s o m e t h i n g manageable. I suggested chat s h e c o u l d c h o O R t c c o n c e n t r a t e O r husband-wife violence, p a r e n t - c h i l d v i o l e n c e , o r r i o l e n c a between t h = c h i l d r e n i n a tamily. She was a s t o u l d e d a t t h e l a s t p o s s i b i l i t y and s a i d "Well, I never thought o f my b r o t h e r h i r t i n g me a s v i o l e n C 4 . ' T h e r e seems t o b e a n r m p l i c i t , taken-for-granted c u l t u r a l norm t h a t makes z t l e g i t i m a t e f a r f a m i l y members t o h i t each other.

A t what p o i n t d o e s o n e e x c e e d t h e bounds o f " o r d i n a r y " marital violence? When d o e s i t become " w i f e - b e a t i n g ? " To s o l r e t h i s problem t h a t R i c h a r d G e l l e s and I t o o k f o r o u r research, we g a t h e r e d d a t a o n a c o n t i n u u m of v i o l e n t a c t s , r a n g i n g f r o m a push t o u s i 2 g a k L i f s o r gun. This allows r e a d e r s t o draw t h e l i n e a t w h a t e v e r p l a c e seems most a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e i r purpose.

EEASURING WIPE-BEATIBG But t h i s " s o l u t i o n " c a n a l s o b e a means o f a v o i d i n g t h e issue. So b e s i d e s d a t a o r e a c h v i o l e n t a c t , tie combinEd t h e most s e v e r e a c t s i n t o what c a n b e c a l l e d a " s e v e r e s i o l s n c e index" or, f o r p u r p o s e s of t h i s chapter. a " W i f e - B s ~ t i n g Icdex." The C o n f l i c t T a c t i c s S c a l e s (CTS) were u s e d t o g a t h e r T h e s e s c a l e s p r o v i d e d a t a on how t h e s e d a t a ( S t r a u s . 1979). f a m i l y menbers a t t e m p t t o d e a l w i t h c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n themselves. The P h y s l c a l v i o l e n c e I n d e x of t h e CTS c o n t a i n s t h e f o l l o w i n g e i g h t items: K.

Throwing t h i n g s a t t h e s p o u s s

I. P u s h i n g , s h o v i n g , o r g r a b b i n g Slapping Kicking, b i t i n g , o r h t t t i r g with t h e f i s t 0. R i t o r t r i e d t o h i t w i t h s o m e t h i n g P. . Beat uo Q. T h r e a t e n e d w z t h a k c l f e o r gun R. Used a k n l f e o r gun 8. N.

The o v e r a l l V i o l e n c e I n d e x c o n s i s t s o f t h e e x t e n r t o which aLy of t h e s e a c t s were c a r r i e d o u t d u r i n g t h e p r r o i o u s 12 months. The Wife-Beating I n d e x c o n s i s t s o f t h e e x t f n t t o which a c t s N t h r o u g h R o c c u r r e d .

~ h . 2 , Wife-Beating

P a g e 27

The c h o i c e o f a c t s N t h r o o g h R a s t h s W i f e - B e a t i n g 1ndeZ d o e s n o t r e f l e c t c u r c o n c e p t i o n o f what i s p e r m i r s i b l 4 ~ i o l e n c e . I f i n d nsne o f t h e s e t o be a c c e p t a b l r f o r b a t u e e n a n y human b e i n g s , i r c l u d i n g p a r e n t a c d c h i l d , b r o t h e r a n d s i s t e r , h u s b a n d and w i f e , s t u d e n t and t ~ a c b e r . m i n i s t e r and p a r i s h i o n e r , or collaaguss i n a depattment. I n s h o r t , I f o l l o w t h e maxim c o i n e d by J c h n valusex: " P e o p l ~ sre 1 0 t f o r h i t t i o g . ' What, t h e n , is t h e b a s i s f o r s e l e c t i n g i t e m s R t h r o u g h t o make up t h e W i f e - B e a t i n g I n d e x ? 1 t i a s i m p l y the'. t h e s 9 a r e a l l a c t s t h a t c e r r y v i t h them a high' r i s k of serious physical injury t o t h e victim. With t h e s D c o n s i d e r a t i o r s i n mind. WE c a n t u r n t o t h e q u e s t i o c o f t r y i o g t o estimate t h e e x t e r t of uifs-beating i n t h e united states.

R

TEE SXTENT OF YIPP-BEATIAG The p r o c e d u r e s f o r e p a s u r i n g v i o l s n c e just d e s c r i b e d w e r e used i~a s t u d y o f a n a t i o n a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p l s o f American f a m i l i e s , made p o s s i b l e by a g r a n t from NIMs. ?. p r o b a b i l i t y s a m p l e of 2.1Y3 f a m i l i e s was s t u d i e a . In approximately h a l f t h e c a s e s t h e person providing t h e i n f o r m a t i o f was a woman and ir h a l f a mar. To b e e l i g i b l e f o r i P c l u S i o n i n t h e s t u d y , t h e r e s p o n d e n t had t o b? c r a member of a male-female c o u p l a , a g e d 1 8 t o 70. The c c u p l e d i d n o t have t o h a r e c h i l d r e n , n o r d i d t h e y have t o be l e g a l l y married. Our s a m p l e c o n t a i n s c o u p l e s v i t h and wiThout c h i l d r e n , ar.d m a r r i e d a n d u n m a r r i e d c o u p l e s i n a b o u t t h e s a n e p r o p o r t i o n a s a r e found i n t h e population.

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YEarlp Incidence. The most d i r e c t , b u t i n some ways a l s o a m i s l e a d i n g , s t a t i s t i c e m e r g i n g from t h s d a t a an t h e Z.lU3 c o u p l e s i r o u r s a m p l e i s t h e t . f o r t h e 12-morth p e r i o d preceding t h e i x t e r v i e w . 3.8 p e r c e n t of t h e r e s p o n d e n t s r e p o r t e d o n e o r mcre p h y s i c a l a t t a c k s t h a t f a l l u c d ? r o u r operational d s t i n i t i o n o f wife-beating. Applying t h i s i C c i d e n C e r a t e t o t h e a p p r a x i e a t e l y 47 m i l l i c n c o u p l e s i n t h e u n i t e d S t a t e s means t h a t , i n a n y o n e y e a r . a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1.8 m i l l i o n w i v e s a r e b e a t e n by t h e i r h u s h a n a s . I mentioned t h a t t h i s can be a m i s l e a d i n g f i g u r e ; two o t h e r f a c t s must be c o n s i d e r e d : how o f t e n t h e s ? b e a t i n g s Occur. a n d how t h e y f i t i n w i t h t h n o v e r a l l p a t t e r n o f v i o l e n c e i n t h e family.

~ h . 2 . Wife-Beatirg

P a g e 29

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F r e M g E y @rlX t h s Y g s . Among t h o s e c o u p l e s i n which a b e a t i n g o c c u r r e d , i t v a s t y p i c a l l y n o t a n i s o l a t e d i n s t a n c e , a s c a n b e s e e n from t h e " F r e q u e n c y * c o l u m s o f able 1. Kovever, the mean f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e o v e r s t a t e s t h e c a s e ; i r a few c a s e s v i o l e n c e was a l m o s t a d a i l y O r weekly event. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e median g i v e s a more r e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e o f t h e t y p i c a l f r e q u e n c y o f v i ~ l e n c e i n the violent families. T h i s i s 2.4, t h a t . i s , t h ? t y p % c a 1 p a t t e r n is c v e r two s e r i c u s a s s a u l t s p e r year. But o f c o u r s e t h e r e is g r e a t v a r i a r i o r . For about a t h i r d 3f + h e c o u p l e s who r e p o r t e d a n a c t t h a t f a l l s i n o u r c a t e g x y cf wife-beating, b e a t i n g occurred c n l y once d u r i n g t h o year. A t t h e o t h e r E X ~ ~ E BwPe r e c a s e s i n which i t O c c u r r e d o n c e a week O r more o f t e n . About 19 p e r c e n t r e p o r t e d two b e a t i n g s d u r i n g t h e y e a r . 16 percan' r e p c r t e d t h r e e o r f o u r , and 3 2 p e r c e n t r e p o r t e d f i v e o r more. A more l i t e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e d a t a can h e O b t a l n e d frcm l o o k i n g a t t h e f i g u r e s i n T a b l e 1 f o r e a c h t y p e of v i o l e n t a c t . Whec t h e c a t e g o r y o f " w i f e - b e a t i n g " i s r e s t r l c t e d t o t h o s e who u s e d t h e t e r m *'beat up" t o d e s c r i b e v h a t h a p p m e d ( i t e m P ) , t h e f i g u r e is 1.1 p e r c e n t , with a median of 1.7 b e a t i n g s p e r y e a r . w h i l e t h i s i s much l o w e r than t h e 3.8 percent f i g u r e t h a t t a k e s i n t o account a l l t h e s e v e r e v i o l e n t a c t s , i t still r e p r e s e n t s o v e r h a l f a m i l l i o n families.

Inother aspect of D u r a t i o n of f i a r r i a a e Rates. that must b e c o n s i d e r e d i s t h e p r o p o r l i o ~o f vife-heating f a m i l i e s i n which a b e a t i r g occurred. Onfortunltely, o u r d a t a f o r e v e n t s b e f o r e t h e y e a r o f t h e s u r v e y aa n o t i d e n t i f y t h e a s s a i l e n t and t h e victim. 111 t h a t c a n b e r e p o r t e d is t h a t 28 p e r c e n t of t h e c o u p l e s i n t h e s t u d y e x p e r i e n c e d a t l e a s t o r e v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t and 5.3 percent e x p e r i e n c e d v i o l e n c e t h a t we c o n s i d e r a b e a t i n g .

IG some o f t h e r e c a s e s . i t was a s i n g l e s l a p o r a S i n g l e beatlng. Bouever. t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l r e a s o n s vhy e v e n a s i n g l e beating i s important. F i r s t , i n my v a l u e s , even or.€ s u c h e v e n t i s i n t r i n s i c a l l y a d e b a s e m e n t o f human l i f e . Third, many, if not S ~ c o n d . p h y s i c a l d a r g e r is involved. most. s u c h b e a t i n g s a r e p a r t c f a f a m l l y power s t r u g g l e . Often o n l y one o r two s l a p s f i x t h e b a l a n c e of paver i n a f a m i l y f o r many y e a r s - - o r p e r h a p s f o r a l i f e t i m e . P h y s i c a l f o r c e i s t h e u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e t h a t most of u s l e a r n a s c h i l d r e n t o r e l y o n i f a 1 1 e l s e f a i l s and t h e i s s u e 15 c r u c i a l . A s t h e husband i n t h e f a m i l y d e s c r i b e a i n C h a p t e r I D s a i d when a s k e d why he h i t h i s w i f e d u r i n g a n argument:

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more o r less t r i e d t o r u n me and I s a i d and s h e g o t h y s t e r i c a l and s a i d . "1 c o n l d k i l l you!" Lnd I g o t r a t h e r a n g r y ar.d s l a p p e d hei n t h e f a c e t h r e e o r f o u r t i m e s and I s a i d

no.

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wife-Beating - D o n ' t you e v e r s a y ? h a t t o me h a v e n ' t had a n y p r o b l e m s l c c e .

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L a t e r i n t h e i n t e r v i e w , t h e husband e v a l u a t e d of p h y s i c a l f o r c e a s follows:

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You d o r . l t u s e it u n t i l you a r e f o r c e d t o it. A t t h a t p o i n t I f e l t I had t o d o s o m e t h i n g p h y s i c a l t o s t o p t h bad ~ p r o g r e s s i o n of events. I took rn? c h a n c e s v i t h t h a t a n d it worked. I n those circumstances my judgment was c o r r e c t 3 r d i t worked. S i n c e s u p e r i o r s t r e n g t h and s i z e g i v e s t h e a d v a n t a g e t o men i n s u c h s i t u a t i o n s . t h e s i n g l e b e a t i n g may b e a n s x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r n: m a i c t a i n i c g m a l e d o a i n a n c e i n t h e f a m i l y system. k c c u r a x o f Estimates. How much c o n f i d e n c e ca' be p l a c e d i n t h e s e f i g u r e s ? I am r e a s o n a b l y c o n f i d e n t t h a t t h e s a m p l e is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f R m e r i c a n c o o p l e s g e n € r a l l y . But t h a t is o n l y one a s p e c t o f t h e accuracy question. Tha o t h e r main a s p e c t i s w h e t h e r o u r r e s p o n d e n t s " t o l d a l l . " BEre I have doubts t o r t h e following reasons: 1. U n d ~ r r e p O r t i ~of g domestic violence is l i k e l y t o o c c u r among two g z o u p s of p e o p l e , f o r o p p o s i t e r e a s o n s . For a l a r g e g r o u p , v i c l e n c e i s s o much a n o r m a l p a r t of t h e f a m i l y s y s t e m t h a t a s l a p , p u s h , o r s h o v e (and s o m e t i m e s e v e n more s e v e r s a c t s ) i s s i m p l y n o t n o t e w o r t h y o r d r a m a t i c enough t o b e remembered. Such o m i s s i o n s a r e E s p e c i a l l y l i k e l y when we a s k a b o u t e v e c t s o v e r t h e e n t i r e l e n g t h o f a aarriage.

2. P a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e r e is a l s o underrepart:ng a t the O t h e r e n d o f t h e v l o l e n c e c o r t i n u u m - - t h o s e who ~ x p s r l e n c e d such severe violent a c t s a s being bitten, h i t vith objects. b e a t e n up. o r a t t a c k e d w i t h a k n i f e o r gun. ThEse a c t s g o beyond t h e "normal v l o l e n c e ' o f f a m i l y l i f e . Such a c t s a r e admitted reluctantly, b e c a u s e o f t h e shame i n v o l v e d i f o n e i s t h e v i c t i m , o r t h e g u i l t if o n e i s t h e a t t a c k e r . 3. If i n a l reason f o r regarding t h s s e f i g u s r s a s d r a s t i c u n d e r e s t i n a t e s l i e s i n t h e n a t u r E of o u r sample. S i n c e a m a j o r p u r p o s e o f t h e s t u d y was t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e ~ x t e P t t o which v i o l e n c e i s r e l a t e d t o o t h e r a s p e c t s o f h u s h a n d - w i f e i n t e r a c t i o n . we s a m p l e d o n l y c o u p l e s l i v i n g together. D i v o r c e d p e r s o n s were a s k e d o n l y a b o u t t h e c u r r e n t m a r r l a g e ( a g a i n b e c a u s e o f i n t e : r i e w tims l i m i t s and r r c a l l accuracy problems). Since "excessive' violence is a major c a u s e o f d i v o r c e , and s i n c e o u r sample i s l i m i t E d t o c o u p l e s l i v i n g t o g e t h e r , t h e s e d a t a p r o b a b l y o a i t many o f t h e high v i o l e n c e cases.

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These C o r s i d e r a t i o n ~ , p l u s t h e h i g h e r r a t e s i n o u r p i l o t s t u d i e s and i n f o r m a l e v i d e n c e (where s c n e o f t h e f a c t o r s l s a d i n g t o u n d e r r e p o r t i n g were l e s s ) s u g g e s t t h a t t h e t r u e incidence f o r violence i n a marriage is probably c l o s e r t o 50 91 6 0 wrcert o f g.&& c=&~ t h a n it i s t o t h e 28 p e r c e n t who were w i l l i n g t o d e s c r i b e v i o l e n t a c t s i n a Bass i n t e r v i e w survey. WIPE-BELTING I S NOT RESTRICTED TO WIVES Although t h i s c h a p t e r i s concerned p r i m a r i l y w i t h vife-beating, a n a d e q u a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e phenomsron r e q u i r e s t h a t we c o c s i d e r i t i r a w i d e r c o n t e x t . We m u s t reCogPize t h a t one d o e s n o t have t o be married t o be t h e v i c t i n o f p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e by a p a r t n e r . Our n a t i o n a l s u r v e y ( P l l o and S t r a o s , 1980) a s t o d y by iiennon (1976) o f s t u d e n t s l i v i n g t o g e t h e r , a n d much i n f o r m a l e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t t h a t c o u p l e s who a r e no? m a r r i e d h a v e r a t e s o f v i c l o n c ? t h a t a r e a s high o r hlqher t h a n t h o s e married. In fact, cloplee d o n o t have t o l i v e t o g e t h e r . Once a s t e p i s t a k e r t o u e r d a aarriage-like arrangement. a s i n a boyfriana-girlfriend r e l a t i o n s h i p , and E s p e c i a l l y if r e g u l a r s e x i s i n v o l v e d . t h e v i o l e n c e r a t e jumps d r a m a t i c a l l y . Violence can no l o n g e r b e f i g u r e d i~ t h e r a t e s p e r 100,000 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a s s a u l t s i r g e n e r a l . I n s t e a d , s i m p l e p e r c e n t a g e s , t h a t is, r a t e s p e r h u n d r e d , a r e more l o g i c a l . Why t h i s h a p p e n s i s i m p o r l a n t i n i t s e l f and a l s o b e c a u s e it t h r o w s a g r e a t d e a l o f l i g h t o n t h e situation o f wives. ADSBAND BEATING N O W we come t o f i n d i n g s t h a t may b e surprising t o some readers. The r a t i o n a l s a m p l e d a t a c o n f i r m what a l l o f o u r p i l o t s t u d i e s h a v e shown ( G e l l e s . 1974; Steinmetz, 1977; Straus, 197Y): t h a t v i o l e n c e b e t v e e o h u s b a n d ar.d v i f e is n o t a one-way s t r e e t . Thr o l d c a r t o o n s o f t h e v i f e c h a s i n g a husband with a r o l l i n g pin o r throwing p o t s and pans a r e c l o s e r t o r e a l i t y t h a n most o f u s ( e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e o f u s w i t h f e m i n i s t sympathies) r e a l i z e . T h i s can be s e e n f r o a a n i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e w i f c c o l u m n s i n T a b l e 1.

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t h e VOfd VlOleDCe. i f-i c p -i c l e n t -Acts. I f we l o o k -S go' cf v i o l e n t a c t s s a m p l e d by t h e C R T ,

a t the specific t h e r e i s eviaence f o r +.h e~ o n~ t and -.. D a n t h r o v i n o s t e r e a t v o e . s i n c e t h e number o f w i v e s who t h r e w t h i n g s a t t h e i r h u s b a n a s is a l m o s t t w i c e a s l a r q e a s t h e number o f h u s b a z d s who t h r e v t h i n q s a t the:= wives. F o r h a l f o f t h e v i o l e n t a c t s , however, t h e r a t e i s h i o h e- -r f a r t h e husband: + h e f r e o u e n c v is h i s h e r f o r t h e husbands i n a l l b u t t v a o f t h e items. The b i g g e s t d i s c r e p a n c y i n f a v o r o f wives o c c u r s i n k i c k i r g and h i t t i n q v i t h objects. Such a c t s a r e less d e p e n a e n t o n s u p e r i o r physical strength. T h i s Eggma t o s u p p o r t t h e v i e v t h a t a n important d i f f ~ r E n c E between m a l e a n d f e m a l e d o m e s t i c v i o l e n c e s t e n s from t h e s m a l l e r s i z e , w e i g h t , and m u s c l e d e v e l o p m e n t o f most women, r a t h e r t h a n from a n y g r e a t e r r e j e c t i o n o f p h y s l c a l f o r c e on m o r a l o r normativ: grourias. typss

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Pollcy m u l i c a t i o n s . A l t h o o q h t h e s e f i n d i n g s show h i g h r a t e s of v i o l e n c e u i q ~ ,t h i s f a c t shcula not d i v e r t a t t e n t i o n from t h e n e e d t o a i v e u r i m a r v a t t e r t i o n t o w i v e s a s t h e imlaedlate f o c u s o f s o c i a l policy. There a r e a number of r e a s o n s t o r t h i s : (1) P o a l i d i t y s t u d y c a r r i e d o u t i n p r e p a r a t i o r i for this research ( B u l c r o f t and s t r a u s , 1975) shows t h a t u n d e r r e p o r t i n g o f v i o l e n c e i s g r e a t e r f o r v i o l e c c e by h u s b a n d s t h a n i r i s f o r v i o l e n c e by w i v e s . This i s probably b e c a u s e t h e u s e of p h y s i c a l f o r c e i s s o much a p a r t o f t h e m a l e way o f l l f e t h a t i t i s t y p i c a l l y r o t t h e d r a m a t i c and o f t e n t r a u m a t i c e v e c t t h a t t h e same a c t o f v i o l e n c e i s f o r a voman. To b~ v i o l e n t i s n o t u n m a s c u l i n e . But t o b e p h y s i c a l l y violent. & unfsminine a c c o r d i n g t o contemporary Raericac standards. C o n s e q u e n t l y , i f it were p o s s i b l e t o a l l o w f o r t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n r e p o r t i n g r a t e s , even i c s i m p l e p r o b a b l y would b e t h e more ~ u m e r i c a . 1 terms, w i f e - b e a t i n g s e v e r e problem. (2) W e n i f one does n o t t a k e i n t o a c c o u r t t h i s d i f f e r e n c s i n u n a e r r e p o r t i n g , t h e d a t a i n T a b l e 1 show t h a t h u s b a n d s h a v e h l g h e r r a t e s o f t h e most d a n g e r o u s and i n j u r i o u s forms o f v i o l e n c e (beating-up and u s i n g 6 k n i f e o r gun). ( 3 ) T a b l e 1 a l s o s h e w s t h a t when v i o l e n t a c t s a r e committed by a husband, t h e y a r e r e p e a t e d more o f t e n ? h a > i s

t h e c a s e f o r wives. (4) T h e s e d a t a d o n o t t e l l u s what p r o p o r t i o n of t h e v i o l e n t a c t s by r i v e s were i n r e s p o n s e t o b l o w s i n i t i a t e a by husbands. W o l f g a n g ' s d a t a on h o s b a ~ d - w i f e h o m i c i d e s ( 1 9 5 7 ) suggest t h e t t h i s is an important factor.

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(5) The g r e a t e r p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h of men makes i t more l i k e l y t h a t a woman WLll b e s e r i o u s l y i n j u r e d when b e e t o n up by h e r h u s b a c d t h a n t h e r e v e r s e .

( 6 ) A d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y l a r g e number o f a t t a c k s b y h n s b a r d s seem t o o c c u r v h e c t h e w i f e i s p r e g n a n t ( G s l l e s . 1 9 7 6 ) . t h u s p o s i n g e d a n g e r t o t h e a s y e t unborn c h i l d . ( 7 ) aomec a r e l o c k e d i n t o m a r r i a g e t o a s u c h g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n men. B e c a u s e o f a v a r i e t y o f economic and social constraicts, t h e y o f t o r have no a l t a r n a t i v e t o p u t t i n g up w i t h b e a t i n g s by t h e i r h n s b a n d s ( G e l l e s . 1976; B a r t i n , 1976; S ? r a u s , 1976a. 1 9 7 7 b ) .

I n s h o r t , w i v e s a r e v i c t i m i z e d by v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y z o a o u c h g r e a t e r e x t e r t t h a n a r e h u s b a n d s and s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e t h e f o c u s o f t h e most immediate r s m e d i a l s t e p s . Bowever, t h e s e d a t a a l s o i n d i c a t e t h a t a fundamental s o l u t i o n t o wife-beating cannot be r e s t r i c t e d t o she i m m e d i a t e p r o b l e m of t h e a s s a u l t i n g husbands. Rather, v i o l e n c e is embeadPd i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s o c i e t y a n 6 t h e f a m i l y system itself (straus, 1 9 7 6 ~ ) . Ths p a r t i c u l a r l y b r u t a l form o f v i c l e n c e known a s w i f e - b e a t i n g i s l i k e l y t o end only w i t h a c h a n g e in t h e c u l t u r a l and s s c i a l orgatizational facCors underlying parent-to-child, child-to-child, a n d w i f e - t o - h u s b a n d v i o l e n c e a s ~€11. Some of t h e s p a c i t i c s t e p s t o accomplish t h i s change a r e o u t l i n e d i n C h a p t e r 13. T E E CRUSES OF RIPE-BEATING ROY I t u r n t o t h e proposition t h a t t h e causes of vife-beating a r s t o b e f o n n d i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f American S o c i e t y and i t s f a m i l y system. Demonstrating t h i s , svsn i n p r i n c i p l e . i s a v a s t undertaking. I n d e e d , ?ha: i s whni t h i s book i s abcut. In t h i s chaoter. I w -i -l -l s i m ~ l v i d e r t i f v s e v e n o f t h e maln f e c t o r s and * h e a e n s r e l t e n o r o f t h e argoment. P l g u r e 1 g l v e s a n overvlsw of t h e s e f a c t o r s and some o f t h e l r r n t e r r e l a t l o n s h i p s .

.

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3 combination of t h e s e f a c t o r s ( p l u s o t h e r s cot diagrammea f o r l a c k o f s p a c e ) makes t h e f a m i l y t h e most v i o l e n t o f a l l c i v i l i e n i n s t i t u 5 i o n s and a c c o u n t s f o r t h a t a s p e c t o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e which we c a l l w i f e - b e a t i n g . Let US l o o k b r i e f l y a t e a c h o f t h e s e f a c t o r s .

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of Ea&x s ~ 9 f L L g i . An e s s e n t i a l 1. s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r a n y u n d e r s t a n d i n g of f a s i l y v i o l e n c e i s t h e hlgh l e v e l of c o n f l i c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f families. In e l e v e n r e a s c n s f o r t h e t y p i c a l high l e v e l of C h a p t e r 1, c o q f l i c t w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y ware i d s n t l f i e d a n d b r i e f l y explained. These r e a s o r s i n c l u d e d t h e broad r a r p a o f a c t i v i t i e s s h a r e d by f a m i l y members, w i t h c o n s e q u e r t g r e a t e r

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Wifa-Beating

P a g ~3 4

o p p o r t u n i t y f o r c o c f l i c ' s o f i n t e r e s t t h a n i n more n a r r o w l y focused groups; t h e a g e and s e x d i f f e r e n c e s b u i l t i r t o t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e family: and t h e assigcment o f f a n i l y r o l e s on t h e b a s i s of a g e and s e x r a t h e r t h a n i n t e r e s t a r d C O P ~ S ~ ~ C C E . A l l f o u r c h a p t e r s i n P a r t I11 c o n s i d e r v a r i c u s aspscts of intrafamily cocflict. Chapter 8 c s n s i d e r s t h e s s c o ~ f l i c t si n t h e l i g h t o f c o n f l i c t t h e c r y a n d t h e p a r a d o x o f 'he l o v e - h a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o o f t e n f o u n d il f a m i l i e s .

2% yZq& L e v e l of V i o l e n c e i n f & socie; et The h i g h l e v e l of c o n f l i c t i n h e r e r t i n t h e family, coebrned v i t h t h e huge e m o t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t t y p r c a l o f f a m i l y r e l e t i o n s h i p s . means t h a t t h e f a m i l y i s l i k e l y t o b e t h e l o c u s of a c r e , a n d more s e r i o u s , c o n f l i c t s t h a n o t h e r g r o u p s . B u t c o n f l i - t and v i o l e n c e a r e n o t t h e same. V i o l c n c e i s o n l y o n e olpans o f d e a l i n g with conflict. What a c c o u n t s f o r t h e u s e o f violence t o deal vith conflicts within the f ~ m i l y ? A f u n d a a e o t a l s t a r t i n g p l a c e i s t h a t we a r e p a r t o f a v i o l e n t society. T h e r e is a c a r r y - o v e r from o n e s p h E r e of l i f e t o a n o t h e r . a s I h a v e t r i a d t o show i n a p a p e r c o m p a r i n g l e v e l s of family violence i n d i f f e r e n t s o c i e t i e s (Straus, 197la). However, g r a n t i n g t h e c a r r y - o v e r p r i n c i p l e , t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n i s b y n o means s u f f i c i e n t . C o n f l i c t i s 31sO h i g h , f o x example; i n academic departmects. E u t t h e r e h a s n e v e r been an i n c i d e n t of p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e i a any 3f t h e s i x d e p a r t m e n t s i n which I h a r e t a u g h t d u r i n g t h e p a s t 25 y e a r s . I n fact. I have o n l y heard o f o n e such i n c i a a n t o c c u r r i n g anywhere. C l e a r l y , o t h e r f a c t o r s must be p r e s e n t . 3, sad 4. F z m i l ~SgCii&@si~~ i n Zio&ens%. One 3f t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t of t h e s e o t h e r f a c t o r s i s t h a t t h e f a m i l y i s t h ~s e t t i n o i n which most DeODle f i r s t e x o e r l e n c e physical violecce, and t h e s e t t i n g t h a t e s t a b l i s h e s t h e e m o t i o n a l c o n t e x t a n d meaning o f v i o l e n c ~ . &

Learning about violence starts with physical p u n i s h m e n t , which is n e a r l y u n i v e r s a l ( s t e i n m e t z a n d S t r a u s , 1974). When physical punishment is used. several c o n s e q u e n c e s c a n be e x p e c t e d . F i r s t , most o b v i o u s l y , i s l e a r n i n g t o do o r n o t d o w h a t e v e r t h e p u n i s h m e n t i s i c t e n d e a t o teach. L e s s o b v i o u s , b u t e q u a l l y o r more i m p o r t a n t , a r e t h r e e o t h e r lessons t h a t a r e s o deeply learned t h a t they become a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of o n e ' s p e r s o n a l i t y and w o r l d view. The f i r s t o f t h e s e unintended consegusnces i s t h e C s s o c l a t i o C Of love with violence. PhysLcal punishment t y p i c a l l y b e g i n s i n i n f a n c y w i t h s l a p s t o c o r r e c t and t e a c h . Iomay and Daddy a r e t h e f i r s t a n d u s u a l l y t h e m l y o n e s to h i t an icfaLt. and f o r m a s t c h i l d r e n t h i s continues throughout childhcod. The c h i l d t h e r e f o r e l e a r n s t h a t t h o s e who l o v e him o r h e r t h e most a r e a l s o t h Y s e vh3 h i r . Second. s i n c e p h y s i c a l p u n i s t m m t i s used t o t r a i n t h e c h i l d o r t o t e a c h a b o u t danqa;ous t h i n g s t o be a v o i d e d , it e s t a b l i s h e s t h e moral r i g h t n e s s of h i t t i n g o t h e r f a m i l y

T ~ E t h i r d u n i n t e n d e d c o n s e g u e n c e is t h e l e s s o n t h a t when s o m e t h i n g i s r e a l l y i m p o r t a n t , i t j u s t i f i e s t h e u s a o f p&ysical force. These i n d i r e c t l e s s o n s a r e c o t c o n f i n e d t o p r o v i d i r g a model f o r l a t e r t r e a t m e n t o f o n e ' s own c h i l a x e n . Sathet. t h e y bECOme s u c h a f u n d a m e n t a l p a r t o f t h e i c d i v i a u a l ' s p e r s o n a l i t y and o u t l o o k t h a t t h e y a r e g e n e r a l i z e d t o o t h e r social relationships, especially t o the relationship closest t o t h a t o f paren? and c h i l d - t h a t o f h u s b a n d a n d wife. Thus, e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h p h y s l c a l punishment l a y t h e groundwork f o r t h e n c r m a t i v e l e g i t i s a c y o f a l l t y p s s o f v i o l e n c e b u t e s p e c i a l l y i n t r a f a m i l y violence. Rs s u g g e s t e d by box 4, i t provide: a r o l e aodel-indeed. a spzcific 1973)--for n s c r i p t n ( s e e C h a p t e r 4 ar:d Gagnon a n d Simon, such actions. nany c h i l d r e n do n o t even nesd t o g e n s r a l i z e t h i s s o c i a l l y s c r i p t e d p a t t e r n of behavior from the parent-child n e x u s i n which i t was l e a r n e d t o o t h e r f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s : i t our e s t i m a t e s a r e c o r r e c t , m i l l i o n s of c h i l d r e n c a n d i r e c t l y o b s e r v e p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e between h u s b a n d s a n d v i v e s ( s e e a l s o Ovens a n d S t r a u s . 1 9 7 5 ) .

5, C g l _ s g = & E m . The p r e c e d i n g discussion has f o c u s e a . o n t h e way ir. which v i o l e n c e becomes b u i l t i n t o t h e b e h a v i o r a l r e p e r t o r y of husbands and wives. Though important, e a r l y experience could not account f o r t h e high l e v e l of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e , were it n o t a l s o s u p p o r t p a b y C u l t u r a l norms 1 E g i t i n i z i n g such v i o l e n r p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s . S i n c e most o f u s t e n d t o t h i n k of norms t h a t c a l l f o r l o v e a n d g e n t l e n e s s w i t h i n t h e f a s ~ l y , it i s d i f f i c u l t t o p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e r e a r e b c t h @ jgg? and & fa&? cultural n o t m s l e g i t i m i z i n g t h e u s e o f v i o l e n c e between f a m i l y members. Chapter 3 documerts t h e evidence f o r t h e e x i s t e r c e o f s u c h n o r n s and C h a p t e r 5 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e i n d i r e c t e f f e c t o f c u l t u r a l norms.

Z, = p a l I n e a u a l t ~ ~2 s C2g1=3 ! 9 g 5 2 g g ~ s g 2 s The l a s t two c a u s a l f a c t o r s , b o x e s 6 a n d 7 o f P i g u r e be c o n s i d e r e d t o g e t h e r a n d summarized i n the p T o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e s e x i s t o r g a n i z a t i c n o f t h e s o c i e t y and Its f a m i l y s y s t e m ; s o n e o f t h e m o s t t u n d a m e n t a l f a c t o r s i n t h e high l e v e l of u i f e - b e a t i n g . C h a p t e r 6 a n d P l r t IV demonstrate t h i s proposition. P o l i c y recommendations aimea a t p r e v e n t i n g v i f e - b e a t i n g a r E examined i n C h a p t s r 13. Some a s p e c t s a l s o h a v e been p r e s e n t e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r . S l n c e t h e s e i s s u e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i r d e p t h i n o t h e r chapte:s, I w i l l n o t e o n l y t h a t boxes 6 and 7 of F i g u r e 1 summarize t h e main e l e m e n t s o f s e x i s m t h a t l e a d $ 5 w i f e - b e a t i n g . 6 , agfi

Women. ----1, c a n

P e r h a p s d e v o t i n g a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y s m a l l p a r t of t h e t h i s c h a p t e r t o s e x u a l i n e q u a l i t y - - o n e o f t h e most t e x t Of important c a u s a l f a c t o r s i n uife-beating,--will dranetize

t h a t sexlsm is o r l y one p a r t of t h e complex c a u s a l m a t r i x o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e ( c u t l l n e d i n F i g u r e 1 ) . T h a t male d o m i x a n c e does n o t p r o t e c t men from v i o l e n c e by o t h e r men a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s complexity. '1f t r u e e q u a l i t y b e t w e e n t h e s e x e s w e r e somehow t o h e a c h l e v e d tomorrou, a l l forms o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e ( i n c l u d i n g w i f e - b e a t i o g ) would c o n t i n u e t o e x i s t - - t h o u g h p r o h a b l y a t a Somewhat l o w e r i r c i d e n c ~ - - ~ n l ~ ssst e p 5 a l s o a r e t a k e n t o a l t e r t h e f a c t o r s i d e n t i f i e d i n b o x e s 2. 3, 4. and 5 o f F i g u r e 1. The l e v e l c f n o r - f a m i l y v i o l e n c e a l s o must b e lowered t o end t h e t r a i n i n g i n v i o l e n c e t h a t is p a r t o f g r o w i n g u p i n a t y p i c a l American f a m i l y . Violence is t r u l y woven i n t o t h e f a b r i c o f American s o c i e t y . and i n t 3 t h e p e r s o n a l i t y , b e l i e f s , v i l u e s . a n d b e h a v i 3 r a l s c r i p t s of most of our populatioo. E l l m i n a t i o n o f wife-beating depends n o t o n l y on s l i m i n a t i n g s e x u a l i n e q u a l i t y . b u t a l s o o n a l t e r i n g t h e s y s t e m o f v i o l e n c e o n which s o much o f American s o c i e t y depends.

ROTE 1. T h i s c h a p t e r , originally p r e s e n t e d a t t h ? c o n f e r e n c e DEiicing t h e Issues,n Center f o r o n " B a t t e r e d wires: R 9 6 2 a r o h o n women. S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y . Hay 2 0 , 1977; and a t t h e S e c o n d World C o n g r e s s , I n t e r n e t i o n a l S o c i e t y on F a m i l y L a w . f l o n t r e a l , J u n e 14. 1977, is a s h o r t e n e d and Bow Common a n d why." r e v i s e d v e r s i o n of "wife-Beating: 2. Number r e p r i n t e d v i t h p e r m i s s i o n from V i c t i m o l o g p s o l , 3, 1977. (c) 1 9 7 7 V i s a g e P r e s s . I n c . The m a t e r i a l s i n t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d more f u l l y i n a f o r t h c 3 r n i r g book. Violence ;gali_s=g Behjn_& ==a& ( s t r a u s . G e l l e s . and s t e i n m e t z , 1980).

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P a g e 38

The c u l t u r a l c o r m s a n d v a l u e s p s r m i t t i g g d husband-wife v i o l e n c e r e s e m b l e what Bern 3 ~ Ben (1970) c a l l " n o n c o r s c i o u s i d e o l o g y . " This i d e s points o u t t h a t on some i s s u e s ( t h e Bess e x a m i n e d t h e r o l e o f women i n America!? s o c i e t y ) o u r p e r , s p e c t i v e i s s o d e e p l y h e l d and s o s u b t l e t h a t we c a n n o t Even i m a g i n e a l t e r n a t i v e b e l i e f s and attitudes. Only when lsnonconscious ideologiesn a r e challerged a r e people a p t t 5 d i s p l a y t h e d e p t h o f s u c h a b e l i e f system. Orly u n d e r c h a l l e n g e is t h e r a t i o n a l e o f t h e i a ? o l o g y l i k e l y t o surface. Bs t h e c h a p t e r s i x t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n aake c l e a r , our society f a i l s t o recognize the m a s s i v e c u l t u r a l " s c r i p t i n g " (Gagnon and Simon. 1973) t h a t makes it more p e r m i s s i b l e t o s t r i k e 3 f a m i l y member t h a n t o h i t a f r i e n d , co-worker. o r stralger. One o f t h e r e a s o n s t h e s e c u l t u r a l norms O K s c r i p t s a r e i g n o r e d i s 2 d e e p l y h e l d b e l i e f t h a t v i o l e n c e i s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of human n a t u r e . This b e l i e f b l i n d s psople t o s e e i n g t h a t c u l t u r a l norms s p e c i f y who may ba h i t a n d uhc may n o t , a r d how h a r d , and under what c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Another f a c t o r b l i n d s people to the Culturally patterned nature of family viclencs t h e manifest (548 C h a p t e r 1): t h e i r o n y t h a : ideology ( a s c o n t r a s t e d with t h e "ncnconscious ideology") emphasizes peace, harmony, and g e n t l e r e s s amorg f a m i l y members. The r e a l i t y t o which t h e c h a p t e r s i r P a r t I1 t e s t i f y is t h a t norms legitimizing i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e a r e p r e s e n t a r d powerful. They nay n o t b e e a s i l y r e c o g n i z e d , b u t * n o n c o n s c i o u s i d e o l o g i e s * seldom are. Beccgnizing these taken-for-granted c u l t u r a l norms i s c r i t i c a l t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e S o c i a l c a u s e s of f a m i l y violence: family V i o l e n c e must b e s e e n a s s mode o f b e h a v i o r a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h y e a r s of c u l t u r a l and f a m i l y socialization.

Chapter 3

The Marriage License as a Hitting License: Evidence from Popular Culture, Law, and Social Science Murray A. Stmus

T h i s c h a p t e r emphasizes a thene that u n d e r l i e s many of t h e o t h e r c h a p t e r s . It i s t h e a b i l i t y t o s e e through o r p r o b e behind t h e o f f i c i a l v e r s i o n of r e a l i t y . o f f i c i a l norms nsy exalt the family a s a group devoted to g e n t l e n e s s and l o r e , b u t t h i s c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e s e norms c o e x i s t w i t h a more S u b t l e s e t o f norms t h a t l e g i t i m a t e t h e nse of f o r c e and v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y s e t t i n g . The c h a p t e r a l s o r a i s e s a number of c r i t i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s f o r UnderstandIcg v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y system. Although i t demonstrates the e x i s t e n c e of p r o - v i o l e n c e norms. t h e q u e s t i o r o f how s u c h norms come i n t a e x i s t e n c e i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e is not ansvered. Why a r e t h e y b e i n g m a i n t a i n e d , s o n e t i a e s with great fervor, by men and women a l i k e ? T h r o u g h o u t t h i s volume t h e r e a r e h i n t s to answers t o these questions. F o r e x a ~ p l e ,t h e c h a p t e r o n v i o l e r c e i n c h i l d r e n ' s books ( C h a p t e r 4) i l l u s t r a t e s o r e o f t h e ways t h a t c u l t u r a l norms a r e t r a n s m i t t e d from generation to generation. The c h a p t e r s i n P a r t III show some o f t h e ways t h a t t h e n a t u r e of f a m i l i e s c r e a t e s a high l e v e l of c o n f l i c t , and t h e c o n a i t i o n s u n d e r which c o n f l i c t t u r n s into violence. Finally, P a r t I V h e l p s u s avoid t h e t r a p of o r evec f i x i n g a n a n y o n e f a c t o r a s $ks c a u s e , t h e main c a u s e , o f husband-wife v i o l e n c e . Each o f t h o s e c h a p t e r s shows r h a t n e i t h e r c u l t u r a l norms n o r f a m i l y s z r u c t u r e a l o n e c a n a c c o u n t f o r t h e high r a t e of husband-wife violence. But t o g e t h e r t h e y form an e x p l o s i v e c o n b i n a t i o n .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ch.3.

n a r r i a g e License

Page 40

I n C h a p t e r s 1 and 2 , and i n a s e r i e s of o t h e r p a p e r s a n d books ( G s l l e s . 1974, 1977: S t e i n m e t z and S t r a u s . 1974; S t r a u s , 1 9 7 3 ) . e v i d e n c e was p r e s e n t e d t h a t t h e f a m i l y i s ~ l e e m i n r n t i- n a -l -l l v D e~-s o~-f o h v s i c ~a l v i-o l e n c e . f r o m s l a D S t o t o r t u r e a n d murder. T h e s e s t u d i e s s u a> a p s t t h a r t h e f i r s t -~ p r i o r i t y f o r t h o s e corcerned with t h e l e v e l of v i o l e n c e i n hmerican s o c i e t y s h o u l d n o t be v i o l e n c e i n t h e s t r e e t s , but v i o l e n c e i n t h e home, and t h e f a c t o r s t h a t l e a d t o i t .

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The most a p p r o p r i a t e p l a c e t o b e g i n i s vith a Ye d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p h y s i c a l p u n i s h m e n t of c h i l d r e n . b e l i e v e t h a t p h y s i c a l punishment s e r v e s a s t h e primary mechacism by v h i c h members o f o u r s o c i s t y l e a r n t o u s ? b o t h v e r b a l and p h y s i c a l a g g r e s s i o n . P a r e n t a l u s e of p h y s i c a l p u n i s h m e n t i s r e m a r k a b l y s i m i l a r t o many e x p e r i m e n t s on a g g r s s s i o n using e l e c t r i c shocks. Even more i m p o r t a n t . p h y s l c a l p o n i s h m e n t p r o v i d e s a p o w e r f u l r o l e model t h r o u g h which t h e c h i l d l e a r n s t h a t i f one t r u l y v i s h e s t o i n f l u e n c e another, physical force is effective and s o c i a l l y acceptable: t h a t it i s l e g i t i m a t e , o f t e n m o r a l l y n e c e s s a r y t o u s e p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e on t h o s e one presumably l o v e s : and t h a t one should respond t o aggression with aggression. Since s t u d i e s i n t h e United S t a t e s and Great B r i t a i n show t h a t a t l e a s t 9 3 p e r c e n t of a l l p a r e n t s use p h y s i c a l p u n i s h m e n t ( S t e i n m e t z and S t r a u s , 1 9 7 4 ) . a n d t h a t a t l e a s t h a l f contlnue t o use it through t h e s e n i o r year i n high s c h o o l ( S t r a u s , 1971; S t e i n m e t z , 1 9 7 4 ) . i t i s a n a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l s o c i a l learning experience. noreover, t h i s r o l e m o d e l i n g i s s u p p l e m e n t e d f o r a n a m a z i n g l y l a r g e number o f c h i l d r e n by e x p l i c i t i n s t l g a t i o n t o a g g r e s s i o n . Exhortation t o v i o l e n c e is n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o slum f a m i l i e s . Parents t y p i c a l l y p s r e i t o r u r g e a c h i l d t o f i g h t back i f a s i b l i n g is aggressive. n o r e o v e r , 7 0 p e r c e n t of t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n o n e n a t i o n a l s a m p l e s u r v e y f e l t t h a t "when a boy i s g r o w i n g up, it i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r him t o h a r e a few f i s t f i g h t s " ( S t a r k and ticEvoy, 1 9 7 0 ) . IS f o r h u s b a n d - v i f e aggression, t h i s chapter v i l l a t t e m p t t o shov t h a t a m a r r i a g e l i c e n s e is a n i m p l i c i t h i t t i n g license. The a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e s h o v s t h a t t h e t y p i c a l a d u l t i s more l i k e l y t o b e a t t a c k e d - - v e r b a l l y , p h y s i c a l l y , o r e v e n morally--by h i s o r h e r own s p o u s e t h a n by any o t h e r p e r s o r . D a t a on h o m i c i d e s i n a t l e a s t a d o z e n different ccuctries (Curtis. 1974; wolfgang, 1956: Bohannan, 1960) show t h a t m u r d e r e r s a n d t h e i r v i c t i m s were more o f t e n members o f t h e same f a m i l y t h a n o f any o t h e r murder-victim relationship. I n fact. when woman a r e murdered, i t i s o v e r u h e l m i n g l y by t h e i r h u s b a n d s . End. to c o m p l e t e t h e p i c t u r e , when h u s b a n d s n u r d e r w i v e s t h e p t e n d t o do s o w i t h g r e a t b r u t a l i t y . a s i n d i c a t e d by s u c h t h i n g s a s m u l t i p l e s t a b wounds o r m u l t i p l e gun s h 3 t s . a s compared v i t h t h e s i n g l e s r a b o r s i n g l e s h o t t y p i c a l when w i v e s n u r d e r husbands (Yolfgang, 1956).

Ch. 3. f l a r r i a g e L i c e n s e

P a g e 41

T h e r e t o r e , something i n t h e f a m i l y system n o t o n l y p r o d u c e s a h i g h l e v e l of p h y s i c a l a g g r e s s i o n . b u t a l s o makes w l r e s t h e v i c t i m of t h a t a g g r e s s i o n . Chapter 6 examines t h i s h i g h r a t e o f a q g r e s s i o n a g a i n s - women i n t e r m s o f t h e s e x i s t O r g a n i z a t i o n o f s o c i e t y and the family, and i d e n t i f i e s n i n e of t h e p r o c e s s e s t h a t l i n k s e x u a l i r e g u a l i t y t o p h y s i c a l a g g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t women. s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e m o s t obvious linkage: t h e use o r i m p l i c i t t h r e a t o f p h y s i c a l i n t i m r d a t i o P t o keep voaer subordinate.

TEE PARIDOX OF FABILY VIOLEBCE XORnS A S n o t e d i n C h a p t e r s 1 a n d 2, t h e norms a n d v a l u e s r e l a t i n g t o i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e pose a paradox. On t h e o n e hand, t h e r e i s t h e "myth of f a m i l y n o n v i o l e r c e " (Steinmetz and Straus. 1974; Straus. 1974b) t h a t r e f l a c t s c u l t u r a l n o r 8 6 a n d a s p i r a t i o n s f o r t h e f a m i l y t o b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by love, gentleness, a n d harmony. o n t h e o t h e r hand, s o c i a l norms e x i s t t h a t i m p l y t h e r i g h t o f f a m i l y members t o s t r i k e each other, t h e r e t a r e l e g i t i m i z l n g i n t r a f a m i l y a s s a u l t s . a t l e a s t under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s .

a s n l t e d i n o u r d i s c u s s i o n of The n y t h of F a m i l y Nonviolence i n C h a p t e r 1, c u l t u r a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s and d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s o f t h i s t y p e a r e p r e s 9 n t i n Every s o c i a t p t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r e x t € n t . ( B e n e d i c t , 1938; E a b r e e , 1950: Ry+n a r d S t r a u s , 1954). P h y s i c a l aggression is a prime e x a m p l e of t h i s i n Bmsrican s o c i e t y . Although t h z r o a r e c l e a r norms a n d v a l u e s restricting v i o l e n c e a n 3 e m p h a s i z i n g t h e v a l u e o f p e a c e and harmony, e s p e c i a l l y between f a m i l y members, s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a h i g h l e v e l o f a c t u a l v i o l e n c e e x i s t s , a l o n g w i t h r o r m s g l o r i f y i n g a g g r e s s i o r and v i o l e n c e . I n respect t o t h e family, t h e l e g i t i m a t i o n of violence is sometimes e x p l i c i t o r e v e n mandatory--as i n t h e c a s e of t h e r i g h t a n d o b l i g a t i o n of p a r e n t s t o u s e an a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l Ir fact. of p h y s i c a l f o r c e t o t r a i n and c o n t r o l a c h i l d . p a r e n t s a r e permitted t o u s e z l e v e l of p h y s i c a l f o r c e t h a t is denied prison a u t h o r i t i e s i n c o n r r o l l i n g innares. Ir the c a s e o f h u s b a n d - w i f e r e l a t i o n s , s i m i l a r norms a r e p r F s e n t and powerful. but l a r g e l y i m p l i c i t , unrecoyniz?d, o r covert. what i s t h e e v i d e r c e t h a t s u c h norms e x i s t ?

Ch.3.

Page 42

t l a r r i ~ g eL i c e n s e IBPORilAL nANIPESTETIONS OF CULTURAL NORMS PERMITTING OR APPROVING lAAlThL VIOLENCE

I n g e h o r g Dedichen, who l i v e d v i t h h r i s t o t l e O n a s s i s f o r years, d e s c r i b e r a n i n c i d e n t i n which 0 c . a s s i s beat. h e r s e v e r e l y u n t i l h e q u i t frcm e x h a u s t i o n : 12

The fol1ow:ng day i n s t e a d of apologizing, " A 1 1 Greek husbands, I t e l l Onassis explained, you, a l l G r e e k men w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o c , b e a t t h e i r wives. I t ' s good t o r them." And t h e n hz l a u g h e d ( S h e a r e r . 197S:q). n o s c o f t h e American o r E n g l i s h p u b l i c r e a d i n g t h i s m i g h t i t a s a Greek p e c u l i a r i t y . But, j u s t a s c n 3 s s i s ' s t a t e m e c t i s a n e x a g g e r a t i o n f o r G r e e k men, o u r d e n i a l of t h i s norm E x a g g e r a t e s i n t h e o t h e r d i r e c t i o c . c r c e one i s a w a r e t h a t t h e r e are norms l e g i t i m i z i n g m a r i t a l (and e s p e c i a l l y husband-tc-wife) violence, i r s t a n c s s such a s t h e a b o v e pop up c o n s t a n t l y . One a m a z i n g examplE i s t h e a r c i e n t (and f l a g r a n t l y s e x i s t ) j o k e t o l d o n t h s BBC women's program " P e t t y c o a t L a n e ' i n t h e s p r i n g o f 197'4. One woman a s k e d a n o t h e r why s h e f e l t h e r h u s b a n d d i d n l t l o v e h e r anymore. R e r answer: "Ha h a s n ' t h a s h e d me i n a f o r t n i g h t . "

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h t a h i g h e r l i t e r a r y l e v e l , p l a y s p r o v i d e many ~ x a m p l e s of t h e marriagE l i c e n s e a s a h L t t i n g l i c e n s e , i n c l u d i n g S e v e r a l by G e o r g e B e r n a r d Shaw, 3 r d t h r~e c e n t p l a y a b o u t a L e s b i a n C o u p l ~ , "The K i l l i n g 0 f . S i s t e r George," i n which J u n e makes t h r e a t e n i n g m o t i o n s t o w a r d A l i c e : Slice: June: Alice:

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c o t m a r r i e d t o you. you knov.

The a b o v e a r e , o f c o u r s e , o n l y l i t e r a r y r s f l e c t i o a s o f t h e c u l t u r a l n o r m s t h a t c a n be o b s e r v e d i n e v e r y d a y l i f e . T h e s e e x a m p l e s r a c g e fcom c a s u a l r e m a r k s s u c h a s t h a t c f t h % r a i l w a y c o n d u c ? o r who, vhen a s k e d by a voman f o r h e l p w i t h a s t o b b o r n s e a t , d i d s o and r e m z r k e d , "sowe o f t h e s e s e a t s a r e j u s t l i k e women: yon h a v e t o k i c k them t o maki t h a e work" ( p r o t e s t l e t t e r t o Th€ Nev York Times, J u l y 19. 1974:5). O t h e r e x a m p l e s a p p e a r i n t h e meaia w i t h a t l e a s t t a c i t a p p r o v a l of t h e i r c o n t e n t s . a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n of t h e v i d e l y r e a d column by Ann L a n a e r s ( O c t o b e r 29, 1973): Dear Ann L a n d e r s : Come o u t o f t h e c l o u d s , f a r Lord's sake. and g a t down h e z e v i t h u s humans. I a n s i c k t o d e a t h of ycur holier-than-thau a t t i t u d e t o w a r d women whose h u s b a n d s g i v e them a w e l l - d e s e r v e d h e l t i n t h e mouth.

Ch.3.

narriage License

Page 43

D o n ' t you know t h a t a man c a n be p u s h e d t o t h e b r i n k a n d sone:hing's g a t t o g i v e ? h c r a c k ir! t h e t s e t h c a n be a v o c d e r f u l tensLon-breaker. It's a l s o a l o t h e a l t h i e r t h a n keeping a l l t h a t a n g e r b o t t l e d up. By h u s b a n d h a u l s o f f e n d s l u g s me e v e r y E e r Be f e e l s b e t t e r a n d s o months and I d o n ' t nind. d o I b e c a u s e h e n e v e r h i t s me u n l e s s I d e s e r v e it. So why son'?. y o u c o n e o f f i t ? - P e a l m p p y Dear R.H.: If y o u d o n ' t mind a c r a c k i r ~ t h e t e e t h e v e r y f e w m o n t h s , i t ' s a l l r i g h t w i t h ma. I h o p e you h a r e a g o o d d e n t i s t . I number o f h u s b a n d s and w i v e s i n t e r v i e w e d b y C e l l e s expressed similar attitudes, s o t h a t G e l l s s developed a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t y p e s o f " n o r m a l v i o l e n c e " ' h a t includes s u c h c a t e g o r i e s a s "1 a s k e d f o r it." "I d e s e r v e d i t , , * "Shp needed t o b e brought t o h e r senses," 4tc. (G2llos. 1974:58). Other examples occur i n connection with family d i s t u r b a n c e p o l i c ~c a l l s , w i t h w i v e s a s well a s h u s b s n d s o f t e n a s s e r t i n g t h e i r r i g h t t o h i 5 e a c h o t h e r b i c a u s ~t h e y a r e s a r r i e a ( P a r r a s , 1 9 6 7 ; Y o r k s h i r e P o s t . Bay 23, 1 9 7 9 : 9 ) . T h e s e s a n e a t t i t u d e s a r e w i d e l y s h a r e d by o f f i c i a l s of t h e c r i a i c a l j u s t i c e system. s c a s t i m e s t h i s presumea r i g h t t o h i t is l i n k e d t o t h e r a c e o r s o c i a l c l a s s of t h e couple, a s shown i n Deny of P a m a s ' e x a m p l s s a n d i n a n E n g l i s h j u d g e ' s remark, ' i f he had bean a m i n e r i n South w a l e s I might h a v e J a n u a r y 29. 1974:l). o v e r l o o k e d it" (London D a i l y B i r r o r , T h i s r e m a r k made h e a d l i n e s , b u t o n l y b e c a u s e w e l s h m i n e r s PrOteStEd. E f i n a l example i s p r o v i d e d by a m a r r i a g e c o u n s e l i n g c a s e ( S t r a u s , 1973:120) i r w h i c h t h e h u s b a n d h i t h i s w i f e o n Re a r d h i s m l f s f e l t t h a t he c o u l a n o t numerous occasions. i r t h e h e a t of t h s trem?ndous help h i a s e l f because, a r g u m e n t s , h e " l a s t c o n t r o l . " T h e c o u n s e l o r , however, tried t o p e r s u a d e t h e c o u p l e t h a t t h e h u s b a n d ' s b e h a v i o r was n o t s i m p l y a r e v e r s i o n t o " p r i m i t i v e n l e v e l s , b u t i n f a c t was He d i d s o by a s k i n g t h e h u s b a n d under normative control. "Why d i d n ' t you s t a b h e r ? ' T h i s c o n v e r s a 5 i o n b r o u g h t o u t t h e implicit. unrecognized, b u t c o r e 5 h e l e s s o p e r a t i n g noro t h a t p e r a i t t e d t h e h u s b a n d t o h i t h i s wife b u t n o t t o s t a b h e r . T h i s u n r e c o g n i z e d norm l e g i t i m i z i n g i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l s a c e . u n l e s s it producss s e v e r e i n j u r y , p a r a l l e l s t h e C a l i f o r a i a " w i f e - b e a t i n g m s t a t u t e c i t e d below.

Ch.3.

n a r r i a g e License

L e g l t l m a t i o n o f Husband-Wlfby t h e C o u r t s a n d P o l l c s

Page 94 Vlol~nce

T h e r e 1s c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e t h a t Even t h o u g h l a w s g i v i n g husbands t h e r i g h t t o "chastise" a r e r r i n g v i f e a r e n o l o n g e r with us. t h e u n d e r l y i n g s p i r i t 3f such laws lingers. T h a t s p i r i t i s now p r i m a r i l y extralegal, b u t i n i m p o r t a n t ways it is s t i l l embodied i n t h e l e g a l s y s t e m .

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Immunilp $o&r. o n e o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t of t h e s e l e g i t i m i s a t i o n s o f h u s b a n d - w i f e v i o l e n c e is t o b e f o u ~ di n t h e d o c t r i n e o f " s p o u s a l immunity' t h a t , t o t h i s day, i n many j u r i s d i c t i o r s p r e v e n t s a w i f e f r o m s u i n g h e r h u s b a n d f o r a s s a u l t and b a t t e r y . I n other jurisdictions, t h e law h a s been c h a n g e d c c l y r e c e n t l y . Truninger (1971:269) c i t e s t h e f o l l o w i n g example: I n S e l f vs. S e l f ( 1 9 6 2 ) t h + w i f e a l l e g e d t h a t unlawfully a s s a u l t 4 t h e d e f e n d a n t husband p l a i n t i f f and b e a t upon, s c r a t c h e d and a b u s e d t h e person o f p l a i n t i f f , " and t h a t a s a r e s u l t p l a i n t i f * ' s u s t a i n e d p h y s i c a l i n j u r y t o her p e r s o n and e m o t i o n a l d i s t r e s s , and among o t h e r i c j u r i e s did receive a broken arm.' The hosband's motion f o r a summary jodqmsnt was g r a n t e d by t h e t r i a l c o u r t .

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o n a p p e a l . t h e C a l i f o r n i a Supremp c o u r t r e v e r s s a the t r i a l court's judgment, thus overruling eeveral older California cases supportirg i n t e r s p o u s a l immunity. The r a C i o c a l e o f c o u r t s r e t a l n i n g t h e common l a w sp3usal inmucity d o c t r i n e f e a r was t h a t a l l o w i n g t h e t o r t a c t i o n "would d e s t r o y t h e p e a c e and harmony of t h s hone, and t h u s would b e c o n t r a r y t o t h e p o l i c y or the 1 2 ~ . ~ ~

PGar ~f f h e P o l i c e i~ P$. As T r u n i n g e r a l s o p o i n t s out, it i s d o u b t f u l Whether a v i f e g a i n s much, o t h e r t h a n t h e p r i n c i p l e , from a b i l i t y t o s u e h e r husband f o r a s s a u l t acd battery: t h e a c t u a l o p e r a t i o n of b o t h t h e c i v i l and in c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m s p u t s up s n o r m a u s o b s t l c l e s and, any case, it t y p i c a l l y does nothing t o prevent imeEdiate repetition o f t h e o f f e n s e w h i l e t h e case is bsing adjudicafed. U s u a l l y t h e o n l y way i n which a r i o l € n t s p o u s e c a n b e removed from t h e h c a e i s by a r r e s t , b u t t h e p o l i c e make s u c h a r r e s t s r a r e l y . I n fsc', u n t i l t h - 1976 r e v i s i o n . t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n of P o l i c e C h i e f s ' *r%ining manual recommends t h a t a r r e s t , s g p i be made i c s u c h c a s e s . The c o - a r r e s t g u i d e l i n e p r o b a b l y i s more clcsely f o l l o w e d t h a n a n y o t h e r i r t h e t r a i n i n g manozl b s c a o s e i t s o c l e a r l y f i t s t h e e x p e r i e n c e end v a l u e s 5f t h e p o l i c * . In gereral. t h e p o l i c e see. t o st-are t h e belief i n t h e l e g i t i m a c y of s p o u s a l vioLence. prsvided tha rEsulting

Ch.3.

l a r r i a g e License

P a g e 115

i n j u r i e s o r destruc:ion a r e w i t h i n llmits. s o r e p o l i c p d E p a r t m E P t S h a v e i n f o r m a l " s t i t c h r u l e s - w h e r e b y t h e wouna r e q u i r e s a c e r t a i n ( h i g h ) number of s t i t c h e s b e f s r e a n o f f i c e r m a k e s a 2 a r r e s t ( F i e l d a n d F i e l d , 1973:229). Parnas (1967) c l t f s c a s e a f t e r c a s e o f t h e p o l i c e a v o i d i n g a r r a s t s i n s ; t u a c i o n s a a n d a t i c g o r e were t h e p a r t i e s n o t husband and wife. Almost a n y p o l r c s n a c c a n c i t e nuwprous e r a m p l a s o f h u s b a n d s ' c l a i m i n g t h e r i g h t t o s t r i k e t h e i r w i v s s . a n d many p o l i c e t h e m s e l v e s b e l i e v e t h i s t o be t h e law (TLunirger, 2972: 272: C o o t e . 2979) .*1 o b t a i n i n g e v e n b a s i c p h y s i c a l p r o t e c t i o n is o f t e r d i f f i c u l t a s i s g r a p h i c a l l y shown i n t h e f o l l o w i n g i n s t a n c e (REV York T i m e s . J u n e 14. 1 9 7 6 ) : It was a b o u t 4 o * c l o c k i n t h e a f t e r n o o n " t e n a c a l l came i n t o t h e 1 0 3 r d P r e c i n c t s t a t i o n h ~ u s e i n J a m a i c a , Q u e e c s , f r o m a woman v h o s a i d h e r husband had b e a t e n her. t h a t h e r f a c e was p l e s d i n g and b r u i s e d . S h e t h o u g h t some o f h ? r r i b s had been broken.

W a n y o n h e l p me?- s h e p l e e d e d t o t h e p c l i c e o f f i c e r who a n s w e r e d t h e phona. 'By h u s b a r d ' s g o n e now, b u t h e s a i d h e v o u l d come b a c k a n d S h e wes a l s o f r i g h t e n e d , s h e s a i d . k i l l me.' t h l t h e would s t a r t h e a t i n g t h e c h i l d r e n r b r t e returned. 'It's n o t a P o l l c s Department thrng," +he "I+'s r e a l l y a f a m i l y thing. o f f l c e r t o l d her. Y o u ' l l h a v e t o g o t o F a m l l y C o u r t tomorrow. T h e r e ' s n o t h r r g t h a t I c a n do."

o f P r o s e c u t o r s t o &i. D s s p i t e t h e r e p e a t s d n a t u r e and f r e q u e n t s e v e r i t y of m a r i t a l v i o l e r c e , i t i s e r d u r e d f o r l o n g periods--often mary y e a r s - - b y l a r g e Gumhers o t women. Some o f t h e r e a s o n s t h a t s o many w i v e s t o l e r a t e t h i s s i t u a t i o n f o l l o v from t h e v a r i a b l e s a n a l y z e d i n t h i s paper. o t h e r f a c t o r s h a r e been i d e n t i f i e d i n G s l l e s ' p a p e r "Pbused Hives: why Do They S t a y ? " ( 1 9 7 6 ) . sooner o r l a t e r , however, t h e s i t u a t i o n brings l a r g e nuabers of w e e n t o t h e p c i n t o t desperation. Soma r s s p o r d t o t h i s b y l e a v i n g . or e v e n by k i l l i n g t h e h u s b a c d ; others attempt t o secure a w a r r a n t f o r t h e a r r e s t of t h e i r h u s b a n d s . Por o b v i 3 u s l y d i f f e r e r t reasocs, each of t h e s e a l t e r n e t i v e s is t y p i c a l l y unsatistactory. I f t h e wife e t t e a p t s t o bring charges, she f a c e s b e i n g " c o o l e d o u t * a t e v e r y s t e p by o f f i c i a l s sf t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e system. T h i s p r c c s s s is i l l u s t r a t e d by P i e l d a n d F i e l d ' s t a b u l a t i o n o f t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7,500 s u c h a t t e m p t s ir. W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. i n 1966: I n v a r i a b l y , t h e p o l i c e h a d t o l d +hem t h a t , i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t themselves, t h e y had t c " g e t = warrant from t h e d i s t r i c t attorney.' They

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announced t y p i c a l l y , "I h a v e come t o g e t one." TO them t h i s i m p l i e d a n a u t o m a t i c p r o c e s s , like d r o p p i n g n i c k e l s i n t o a v e r d i n g machine, and t h e y expected a r o u t i n e procedure culminating i n t h e i s s u a n c e of a warrant f o r t h e i r husband's arrest. T h e i r h e i g h t e n e d f e e l i n g of p r e c i p i t a t s d a n g e r r e i n f o r c e d t h i s e x p e c t a t i o n . and t h s i r e e n s e o f g r i e v a n c e and d e s p e r a t i o n was f u r t h e r s o l i d i f i e d bv t h e l o n o v a i t t h e v e n d u r e d b e f o r e t a l k i n g with t h e i r - i t i a l s c r e e n i n g policeman o r the d i s t r i c t attcrney. Of t h e s e 7,500 women, f e w e r t h a n 200 l e f t h a v i n g secured their o b j e c t i v e (1973:232). F i n a l l y , e v e r when t h e c i r c u m s t a n c a s a r e s u c h t h a t t h e p c l i c ~ and d i s t r i c t a t t o r n e y c a n n o t a v o i d b r i n g i n g c h a r g e s . few s u c h c a s e s g e t t o t r i a l . R s u r v e y c f t h e a s s a a l t c a s e s i n t h e District of Columbia showed t h a t o v e r t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f t h s c a s e s ! ! c t , i n v o l v i n g h u s b a n a s and w i v e s went t o a d i s p o s i t i o n o f t h e merits o f g u i l t o r i n n s c e n c e . The e n f o r c e m e n t pattern was reversea in Orly about one-sixth of a l l h u s b a n d - w i f e CZSES. a r r e s t s involving marital violence ultimately e n d e d a t t r i a l cr v i t h a g u i l t y p l e a . 3 c d t h e crime c h a r g e d by t h a t t i m e v a s i n v a r i s b l y a misdemeanor r a t h e r t h a n a f e l o n y ( F i e l d and F i e l d . 1973: 224).

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V i c t i m Com~ensaticr. :rother vay i r which t h ? l a w continue5. 5.2 e f f e c t , t o l e g i t i m i z e husbans-wife a s s a u l t c r o p s up i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e w o r k i n g s o f b o a r d s a n a commission^ t h a t h a v e b e s n s e t up i n E n g l a n d and a f e u Aaericaa s t a t e s t o compensate vicfims of crimes. The E n g l i s h b o a r d e x p l i c i t l y r u l e d a g a i n s t c c m p e r s a t i o n when t h s v i c t i m is a s p o u s e ( W i l l i a m s . 1979) and t h i s a l s o seems t o be t h e c a s e v i t h t h e C a l i f o r n i a l s v ( E d e l h e r t z and G e i s , 1979:278; T r u n i o g e r , 1971:270).

T& Les=&a s t e r n

aFd c u l t u r a l &E~;PQ 2f I P t r a f a l l l E The s i t u a t i o r d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n i s v e l l by t h e p h r a s e u s e d a s t h e s u b t i t l e o f P i s l a and Field's a r t i c l e (1973) c n t h e c r i m i n a l p r o c e s s i r c a s e s o f m a r i t a l violence: " N e i t h e r J u s t i c e Nor Peace." 4 s i t u a t i o n s o p e r v a s i v e i s n o t l l k e l y te he a r e s u l t of h i s f l r i c a l accident. n o r is i t l i k e l y t o b? a c o n s e q u e n c e 3 f t h e many d i f f i c u l t i e s i n d e a l i n g l e g a l l y w i t h m a r i t a l v i o l e n c e and t h e low r a t e o f s u c c e s s a c h i e v e d by i n v c k i c g c r i m i n a l law. These d i f f i c u l t i e s and u n c e r t a i n t i e s , a f t e r a l l , l o not d e t e r t h e o a l i c e and c-~e u- r- t ~s - f~rom rnvokino criminal adjudication processes for many crimes--such 35 p r o s t i t u t i o n - - w i t h an even love? r a t e o f s u c c e s s i n c c n t r o l . Rather, t h e f a i l u r e t o invoke c r i m i n a l p e n a l t i e s r a f l e c z s h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n u i t i e s i n t h e c u l t u r a l n o r m s t h a t make t h e

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marriage l i c e n s e a h i t t i n g license. This is e l a o s t c l c a r i n t h e C a l i f o r n i a P e n a l Code s e c t i o n on w i f e - b e a t i n g , which p r o h i b i t s an a s s a u l t o n l y i f it r e s u l t s i n s e v e r e p h y s i c a l injury. B u t t h e most c l e e r c o n r e m p o r a r y l e g a l e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e r i g h t o f husbands t o u s e p h y s i c a l f o r c e i s found i n t h e immunity o f h u s b a n d s f r o m p r o s e c u t i o n f o r r a p e o f t h e i r wives. E x p e r m e n t a l a n d S U T V EEVZdenCe ~ on Approval of l a T i t a l Vlolence T h e r e is a s l o w l y g r o w i n g body o f E m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h o n i n t r a f a m i l y a g g r e s s i o n a n d v i o l e n c e , some o f which p r o v i d e s e v i d e n c e o n t h e c u l t u r a l norms we a r e c o n s i d e r i n g . The s n r v e y c o n d u c t e d f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s R a t i o n a l Commission of t h e Causes and P r e v e n t i o n o f Violence foand t h a t a b o u t one q u a r t e r o f t h e p e r s o n s i n t e r v i e w e d s a i d t h e y c o u l d approve a husband o r w i f e h i t t i n g e a c h o t h e r under c e r t a i n circums;ances ( S t a r k and 8cEvoy. 1970). T h a t f i g u z e is probably a considerable underestimate because of the e x i s t e n c e of o p p o s i t e corms--the more s o c i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e a c 3 - s i c l e n c e n3rms a n d t h e i m p l i c i t o r c o v e r t p r o - v i o l e n c e norms. The c o n t r a d i c t c r y a n d c o v e r t n a r u r e o f t h e c o r m s approving marital viclecce makes expsrinental and o b ~ e r v a t i o n a l studies particularly approprilte, because t h e s e s t o d i e s d o p o t depend on t h e w i l l i n g n e s s o r a b i l i t y t o v e r b a l i z e norms a n d v a l u e s . Urfortunately. for practical reasons. all t h e o b s e r v a t i o n a l s t u d i e s have beer of But t h e r e parent-child v i o l e n c e (Rellak and i n t e l l . 1974). h a v e been e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s o f m a r i t a l a g g r e s s i o n o r s t u d i e s t h a t b e a r OL m a r i t a l a g g r e s s i o n . he f i r s t o f these studies also r e f l e c t s g e n e y a l phenomenon o f male h o s t i l i t y t o women:

ths

One o f t h e l e i s t r e c o g n i z e d i n d i c e s of mals h o s t i l i t y t o f e m a l e s i s t h e r e a c t i o n of men who watch a v i o l e n t a c t a g a i n s t women, r a t h e r than c o a m i t t i n g o r i n i t i a t i n g it t h e m s e l v e s . Three p s y c h c l o g i s t s from R i c h i g a n S t a t e u n i v e r s i t y s t a g e d a s s r i e s o f f i g h t s t h a t were t o be w i t n e s s e d by UnSuspectiCg passersby. The r e s e a r c h e r s f o u n d . t o t h e i r a n a z e m e n t , t h a t ma15 w i t n e s s e s r ~ s h e d t o t h e a i d o f men being a s ~ a u l t s d by e i t h e r women o r o4n, and t h c t man h e l p e d women b e i n g h i t by o t h p r women. Rut n o t o n e male b y s t a n d e r i n t e r f e r e d when a male a c t o r a p p a r e n t l y b e a t up a woman ( P o g r e b i n , 1974:49-55 and 8 0 ) .

mora

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I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i c t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e s s f i c d i n g s a s r e f l e c t i n g male h o s t i l i t y t o women, i t a l s o seems l i k e l y t h a t t h e y r e f l e c t t h e rorm p e r m i t t i n g a s s a u l t s b e t w s e n spouses. T h a t i s , t h e m a l e b y s t a n d e r s d i d n o t come t o t h e a i d o f a female v i c t i m of a male a s s a i l a n t because t h e y i n f e r r e d t h a t h e was t h e womac's husband. This, i n fa=%, is t h e r e a s o n a number o f b y s t a n d e r s g a v e f o r n o r i n t s r v e n i n g a s K i t t y Genovese was m u r d e r e d (Rosenthal. 1964). T h i s c o r c l u s i o n i s f u r t h e r given credence because i t a g r e e s v i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s of " b y s t a r d e r i n t e r v e n t i o n , ' s u c h a s t h e e x p e r i m e n t s r e p o r t e d a n d summarized by Bickman ( 1 9 7 5 ) . Bickman c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e s o c i a l d e f i n i t i o n of what a c t i c n s a r e r i g h t f o r t h e b y s t a n d e r i s a more p o w s r f u l d e t e r m i n a n t o f i n t e r v e n t i o n t h a n t h e s e v e r i t y of t h e c r i m e o r c o n c e r n f o r t h e welfare of t h e victim. Closely r e l a t e d t o t h e s e f i n d i n g s i s an unpublished e x p e r i m e n t by C h u r c h i l l a n d S t r a u s i n which t h e s u b j e c t s w e r e g i v e n a d e s c r i p t i o n of a n a s s a u l t a n d a s k e d t o i r d i c a t e what p u n i s h m e n t t h e y f e l t was a p p r o p r i a t e . I n t h e course of t h e a s s a u l t , t h e v i c t i m was k c o c k e d u n c o n s c i o u s . In h a l f t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s t h e a s s a i l a n t was d e s c r i b e d s s t h e vomanvs husband. I n t h e o t h e -r h a~l f . t h e d e s c r i o t i o n was i d e n t i c a l e x c e p t t h a t t h e c o u p l e was d e s c r i b e d a s " g o i n g t o g e t h e r " f o r a year. The mean p u n i s h m e n t s c o r e when t h e v i c t i m was n o t m a r r i e d t o t h e a s s a i l a n t was 4.15, compared v i t h 2.65 when t h e v i c t i m was t h e wife. Boreover. t h i s experiment p r o b a b l y understates the differerce, i n t h a t it s p e c i f i e d t h s t t h e u n m a r r i e d c o u ~ l ehad been o o i r o t o a e t h e r f o r a v e a r . The d l t f e r e n c e p k o b a b l y would h a v e - b e e p much g r e a t e r i f t h e u n m a r r i e d c o u p l e had n o t b e e n d e s c r l b e d a s h a v z c g a quaslmarltal relatlorshlp. ~

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I n a f i n a l set o f e x p e r i m e n t s b e a r i n g on t h i s i s s u e . couples interacted i n a standardized laboratory task involving conflict. The d a t a f o r m a r r i e d c c u p l s s was compared v i t h t h e d a t a f o r u r m a r r i e d c o u p l e s i n t h e Sam9 E s t u d y b y Ryder (1968) f o u n d that task situation. s t r a n g e r s were t r e a t e d more g e n t l y t h a n were s p o u s e s . S i m i l a r l y . u s i n g an e x p e r i m e n t a l t a s k t h a t r e q u i r e d t h e c o u p l e t o r e a c h a d e c i s i o n , W i n t e r , P e r r e i r a , a r d Bowers (1973) f o u n d t h e u n z e l a t e d c o u p l e s l i s t e n e d r e s p e c t f u l l y t o one a n o t h e r whereas m a r r i e d c o u p l e s were o f t e n rude t o ane another. Although t h E r e i s a l o n g d i s t a n c e betveen r u a e n e s s and violence. i t s e e m s l i k e l y t h a t what Ls m a r i f e s t e d i n t h e s e two e x p e r i m e n t s i s t h e b e g l n n i n g o f t h e j o u r n 3 y t h a t f o r many c o u p l e s u l t i m a t e l y e n d s i n v i o l e n c e ( S t r a u s , 1974a).

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TRZ CYCLE OF INTRAPABILY VIOLENCE I n Chapter 2 t h e role-modeling f u n c t i o n of p h y s i c a l p u n i s h m e n t was d e s c r i b e d , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e i m p l i c i : l e s s o n e v e n mandatory, t o ose p h y s i c a l t h a t it i s permissible, v i o l e n c e o n t h o s e o n e l o v e s most. But t h e l e a r n i n g o f s o c i a l s c r i p t s f o r a g g r e s s i o n b e t v e e n f a m i l y members t a k e s p l a c e i n many o t h e r ways, a n d I w i l l c o n c l u d e by b r i e f l y menticning j u s t one o f t h e s e : o b s e r v a t i o n by c h i l d r s n o f a g g r e s s i v s b e h a v i o r between t h e p a r e n t s t h e a s e l v s s , a n a physical violence i n particular. W h e n t h e F a m i l y V i o l e n c e R e s e a r c h Program began, we were u n d e r t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t v i o l e n c e b e t v e e n s p o u s e s i s r a r e . and t h a t middle c l a s s p a r e n t s t a k e p a i n s t o a v o i d physical f i g h t s i n t h e presence o f t h e i r children. The i d e a t h a t p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e b e t w e e n s p o u s g s i s r a r e was t h e f i r s t o f t h e myths a b o u t i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e t h a t t h e d a t a from t h e program f o r c e d u s t o abandon. S u b s e q u e n t l y , a s t u d y by B u l C r O f t a n d S t r a u s (1975) s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e i t e a o f p a r e n t s ' b e i n g a b l e t o h i d e p h y s i c a l f i g h t s may a l s o b e iccorrect. 121 u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s and t h s i r I n t h i s study, p a r e n t s each s e p a r a t e l y completed p a r a l l e l q u s s t i o n n a i r e s , i n c l u d i n g o n e s e c t i o n t h a t d e a l t w i t h c o n f l i c t s betweec t h e parents. T h e r e was a s e r i e s o f i t e m s c o n c e r n i r g modes o f coping with t h e s e c o n f l i c t s ( t h e C o n f l i c t T a c t i c s S c a l e s 1979 a n d u s e d i n C h a p t ? r s 2 and 1 2 ) . deSCrlbEd i n S t r a n s , T h e s e i t e m s were a r r a n g e d i n o r d e r o f c o e r c i v e n e s s . s t a r t i n g w i t h d i s c u s s i n g t h i n g s calmly, and e n d i r g with h i t t i n g t h e A v i o l e n c e i n d e x u a s computed o t h e r with a hard o b j e c t . from t h e l a t t e r q u e s t i o n s .

we f o u n d a s u r p r i s i n g l y h i g h c o r r e l a t i o r . between t h e computed on t h e b a s i s o f d a t a o b t a i n e d f r s a t h e n d t h~~. e scsrec on t h e b a s i s of +~~. he s t u d e n t a ~~....- o h t a i n n n q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o m p l e t e d by e a c h p a r s n t : the Correlation brtween t h e p a r e n t - r e p o r t d a t a and t h e c h i l d - r ? p o r t d a t a f o r h u s D a n d 9 s v i o l e n c e was .64, ard f o r t h e wife's violence The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s i n d e x t h e c o r r e l a t i o n was . 3 2 . finding i n t h e present context is t h a t it indicates the d e g r e e t o which c h i l d r e n know a b o u t a c t s o f p h y s i c a l a 4 9 Z 9 s s i o n b e t w e e n t h e -i -r D a r e n t s . a t l r a s t d u r i n q t h e T e a r t h ; c h i l d is a s e n i o r i n h i g h s c h o o i . c o o s e q u s n t l $ . p a r ; n t s seem a g a i n t o b e s e r v i n g a s r o l e m o d e l s f o r l n t r a f a m i l y p h y s i c a l a g g r e s s i o n and f o r l e a r n i n g t h ~ s o c i a l c o r m s w h i c h - - t o r e p e a t t h e o p e n i n g s t a t e m e n t 2f t h i s c h a p t e r - a a k s t h e f a m i l y t h e most f r e q u e n t s e t t i n g f o r a g g r e s s i o n o f a l l types. r a n g i n g from i n s u l t s , t o s l a p s . $ 0 b a i t i n g , t o r t u r e . a n d murder. SCOrJS

~

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ch.3.

narriage License

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P a r t of t h i s c h a p t e r i s r e p r i n t e d with permission from n u r r a y R. S t r a u s , " S e x u a l I n e q u a l i t y . C u l t u r a l Warms, and W i f e - B e a t i n g , " o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d i n YtztLE&zy. 1976: 1 (Spri~g):5(1-76. ( c ) 1976 V i s a g e P z e s s , 1r.c.; a ~ idn E m i l i o c. Viano. e d i t o r , V i c t i m s a n d So~ie$x, W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., V i s a g e P r e s s , 1976. 1. P r o g r a m s t o l c f o r m a n d t r a i n p 3 l i c e t o d e a l more e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h f a m i l y d i s t u r b a n c e s h a v e bpen i n i t i a t e d i n see Bard. 1969, 1971, 3nd C h a p t e r 13. s e v e r a l cities.

Chapter 4

Violence and the Social Structure as Reflected in Children's Books from 1850 to 1970 Martha D. Huggins and Murray A. Straus

The previous chapter showed that cultural norms make the marriage license a hitting license. The research reported in the present chapter vas designed to see if this approval of violence between family members is a theme in books written for children. The resalts show that childrer's books do depict a great deal of riolence. including killings. In addition, they reinforce the lesson of physical punishment by depicting riolence as an effective means of secoring justice or of achieving some valued end. Aowever, althongh this chapter shows that children's books describe and justify violence. for violence the findings are not what we expected. Giver the high rates of familp violence pointed cut in Chapters 1 and 2 . it is i r o ~ i c that in these stories little of the violence takes place between members of the same iamlly. Thsre is a ride discrepancy between the reality of family life and the idsalized picture implied by the lack of family violence in children's books. Bs in television, physical aggression is largely depicted as something that occurs between strangers. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the discrepancy between the violent reality of family life and the media's avoidance of shoving violence between family members. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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of t h e h i g h l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d n a t i o n s o f t h e v o r l d , the u n i t e d S t a t e s i s c l e a r l y one o f t h e a o s t v i o l e n t (Palmer, 1972:15). Nany e x p l a n a t i o n s h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d f o r t h i s phenomenon (Graham a n d G u r r , 1 9 6 9 ) . and u n d o u b t e d l y a cumber of f a c t o r s o p e r a t e t o maintain p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e a s a c o n t i n u i n g a s p e c t o f American s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . On2 f a c t o r t h a t h a s been a s u b j e c t of c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n t r o v e r s y i s t h e mass media. Some i n v e s t i g a t o r s a r g u e t h a t v i o l e n c e i n t h e media r e f l e c t s t h e v i o l e n c e o f t h e s o c i e t y ( d i s c u s s e d i n Lynn, 1 9 6 9 ) . O t h e r s m a i n t a i n t h a t v i o l e n c e i n t h e mass meaia and i n s p o r t s s e r v e s a s a s a f e t y valve, permitting aggressive d r l v e s t o be d r a i n e d off--the "drive discharge" and "catharsis" models (BEttelheim, 1967; Freud, 1959: Peshbach and S i n g e r , 1971; Lorenz, 1966). Both the "reflection" and t h e " c a t h a r s i s " t h e o r i e s s e e v i o l e n c e i n t h e media a n d i n s p o r t s a s h a v i n g e i t h e r a n e u t r a l o r a n e u t r a l i z i n g role. They t h e r e f o r e c o n t r a s t s h a r p l y w i t h t h e o r i e s t h a t h o l d t h a t v i o l e n c e i n t h e media i s p a r t o f t h e p r o c e s s of t r a n s m i t t i n g and encouraging violance. Among t h e l a t t e r a r e t h e " c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n " t h e o r y o f S i p e s (1973). .social l e a r n i n g " t h e o r y (Bandura. 1973). and " g e n e r a l s y s t e m s t h e o r y n ( S t r a u s , 1973). The t h e o r e t i c a l a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i s s u e s u n d e r l y + n g COntrOverSy a r e s o c o m p l e x t h a t a n e v e n t u a l resolution w i l l require, a t the mimimum, an accuaulation and *triangulation' of evidence from a variety of investigations. A i s t o r i c a l s t u d i e s of a v a r i e t y of c u l t u r a l f o r m s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y needed. A s t u d y of c h i l a r e n ' s books t h e r e f o r e seemed d e s i r a b l e b e c a u s e (1) most o f t h e a v a i l a b l e research on t h e mass media a n d v i o l e n c e f o c u s e s o n television. C h i l d r s n ' s books, however, may b e j u s t a s important o r more i m p o r t a n t . Our i n f o r m a l o b s e r v a t i o n i s t h a t t h e i m p a c t o f a book r e a d by a c h i l d ( o r t o a young c h i l d by a s i g n i f i c a n t p e r s o n s u c h a s a p a r e n t ) i s e x t r e m e l y powerfol. (2) The a v a i l a b i l i t y of c h i l d r e n ' s b o o k s f o r o v e r one hundred y e a r s e n a b l e s a d e g r e e of h i s t o r i c a l depth n o t p o s s i b l e f o r a n y o f t h e o t h e r mass media. this

Thgoretical Perspective. W e believe t h a t the r e l a t i o n between l i t e r a t u r e a n d s o c i e t y i s " d i a l e c t i c " : l i t e r a r y and c t h e r a r t i s t i c p r o d u c t i o n s r e f l e c t t h e c u l t u r e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t l c n o f t h e s o c i e t y . e s p e c i a l l y its dominant s t r a t a . However, o n c e it i s i n e x i s t e n c e , l i t e r a t u r e s e r v e s t o c o n t r o l a n d mold t h a t c u l t u r e a n d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . If the a r t i s t ' s work is t o be a c c e p t e d , h e o r s h e must draw on t h e Cnltural h e r i t a g e o f s o c i e t y and a p p e a l t o i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s i n t h e l i v e s of members o f s o c i e t y . It t h e same time, t h e work o f a c a r t i s t - - o n c e a c c e p t e d - - b e c o m e s s p a r t o f t h a t c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e a n d is o n e o f many e l e m e n t s i n f l u e n c i n g and c o n t r o l l i n g what g o e s on i n t h e s o c i e t y .

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P r e v i o u s c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s s t u d i e s h a v e g i v e n some i n d i c a t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between changes i n s o c i e t y and changes i n l i t e r a r y contents. s t r a u s and Boughton

A------- - cross-lagged correlation. S i n c e we w i l l n o t b e p r e s e n t i n g s u c h d a t a , t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r i s n o t o f f e r e d a s a t e s t of t h e s e assumptions. Our aim i s more modest; simply t o p r e s e n t t h e r e s u l t s of o u r h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s , together with our i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e trends.

-

s p e c i f i c Obiectives. One o f t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h e s t u d y is t o determine i f t h e l e v e l of i n t e r p e r s o n a l physical v i o l e n c e d e p i c t e d i n c h i l d r e n ' s b o o k s h a s been i n c r e a s i n g o r d e c r e a s l n g d u r i n g t h e 1 2 0 - y e a r s p a n from 1850 t o 1970. He pose no h y p o t h e s i s a b o u t t h e d i r e c t i o n of change, b e c a u s e t h e a v a i l a b l e evidence does n o t s u g g e s t any o v e r a l l ' o r decrease i n t h e l e v e l of v i o l e n c e i n t h e Unitea S t a t e s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d (Graham a n d G u r r , 1 9 6 9 ) . The s e c o n d o b j e c t i v e is t o g a i n i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e way s o c i e t y d e f i n e s and l a b e l s p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e f o r i t s n e x t geEBration. The s t u d y e x a n i n e s t h e e x t e n t t o which v i o l e n c e i n l i t e r a t u r e i s d e p i c t e d a s an nexpressive" a c t ( c a r r i e d o u t t o c a u s e pain o r i n j u r y a s an snd i n i t s e l f ) o r a n "instrumenzal'* a c t ( c a r r i e d o u t t o a c h i e v e some e x t r i n s i c Sznilarly, the proportion of violent acts purpose). p r e s e n t e d by t h e a u t h o r s a s " l e g i t i m a t e u and " i l l e g i t i m a t e * s u g g e s t s how s o c i e t y e v a l u a t e s a n d l a b e l s p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e . F i n a l l y , t h e c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s was d e s i g n e d t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n o n r h e s t a t u s e s , r o l e s , m o t i v e s , and e m o t i o n s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s involved i n violence. azd t h e p r e c i p i t a t i n g conditions, outcomes. a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s of v i o l e n c e . To t h e extent t h a t violence i n l i t e r a t u r e mirrors violence i n the society, such information provides i n s i g h t i n t o t h i s important aspect of s o c i a l structure. To t h e e x t e n t t h a t literature influences society, such information g i v e s i m p o r t a n t c l u e s t o t h e " s c r i p t n (Gagnon a n d Simon, 1 9 7 3 ) f o r v i o l e n t behavior presented t o children.*l

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SAIIPLE B N D SETHOD g~mle. R t h r e e - s t e p s a m p l i r g p r o c e s s was u s e d . The f i r s t s t e p was t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f what, f o r want o f a b e t t e r tar.. can be c a l l e d "children's classics,' books r e c o g n i z e d by a l i t e r a r y e l i t e of t h e s o c i e t y . we f o c u s e a on t h i s t y p e of l i t e r a t u r e because, a s Marx s u g g e s t e d (1964). t h e i d e a s o f t h e e l i t e s t r a t a t e n a t o be t h e dominant and i n f l u e n t i a l i d e a s i n t h e s o c i e t y . Prom . t h i s perspective, it i s n o t t h e m o r a l e v a l u a t i o n s of the popula3.on a t l a r g e t h a t g i v e r i s e t o a group's d e f i n i t i o n s of r e a l i t y , b u t m a i n l y t h e e v a l u a t i o n s of t h e a o m i n a n t c l a s s ( P a r k i n . 1971:92). On t h e . b a s i s o f t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s , we s o u g h t o u t lists o f r e c o m m e ~ d e d a n 3 e s t e e m e d c h i l d r e n ' s b o o k s , f o r example, the nuotable Children's Books: 1965-1972' p r e p a r e d by t h e Book E v a l u a t i o n Committee o f t h e American L i b r a r y A s s o c i a t i o u . * 2 The body of work c o m p i l e d by t h i s method is a c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y o r d e r e d l i s t of a l l b o o k s p u b l i s h e d b e t w e e n 1850 a n d 1970 t h a t were i n c l u d e d i n a n y of t h e lists o f recommended books.

The s e c o n d s t e p o f t h e s a m p l i n g p r o c e s s was d e s i g n e d t o y i e l d f i v e b o o k s p u b l i s h e d i n 1850. a n d f i v e p u b l i s h e d e v e r y f i f t h y e a r t h e r e a f t e r . i n 1855. 1860. a n d s o on, u p t o a n d i n c l u d i n g 1970. f o r a t o t a l o f 1 2 5 books. For t h o s e r e a r s i n which many b o o k s a p p n a r e d , t h e s a m p l e o f f i v e was drawn by random numbers. If t h e r e rere f n u e r t h a n f i v e b o o k s i n t h e sample y e a r ( a s sometimes happened i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s ) . b o o k s from t h e c l o s e s t a d j a c e n t y e a r w e r e i n c l u d e d , f o r e x a m p l e , a book p u b l i s h e d i n 1856 is i n c l u d e d i n t h e s a m p l e S i n c e t h e s e a r e a l l "classic" o r "recommended" f o r 1855. b o o k s we w e r e a b l e t o f i n d 115 o f t h e o r i g i n a l l y s e l e c t e d 125 b o o t s i n n e a r b y l i b r a r i e s . The m i s s i n g tsn books w e r e r e p l a c e d by a random s e l e c t i o n f r o m among t h e o t h e r b o o k s published d u r i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e years. The t h i r d s t e p i n t h e s a m p l i n g p r o c e s s c o e s i s t e d o f u s i n g a * . a b l e of random n u m b e r s t o select f i f t e e n d i f f e r e n t p a g e s from s a c h book. W e followed t h i s procedure t o prevent longer books from disproportionately influencing the resnlts. Our d a t a t h a n d e s c r i b e a n y a c t o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e t h a t o c c u r r e d o n o n e of t h e s a m p l e p a g e s 1s 125 "recommendedn c h F l d r e n v s b o o k s p u b l i s h e d f r o m 1850 t h r o u g h 1970.13

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The b a s i c u n i t o f a n a l y s i s c o n s i s t s of i n t e r D e r s o n a 1 v i o l e n c e , which u e d e f i n e a s the

identifying t h e book i n - w h i c h i t o c c u r r e d a n d p r o v i d i n g s p a c e t o c o d e t h e t y p e o f i n f o r m a t i o n i d e n t i f i e d a few p a r a g r a p h s back. B o r e s p e c z f i c i n f o r m a t i o n on ? a c h o f t h e s e variables w i l l b e g i v e n when t h e r e l e v a n t data are

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p r e s e n t e d . *4 FREQUENCY A N D TRENDS I N VIOLENCE n a r y o b s e r v e r s o f t h e American t h a t America i s a v i o l e n t s o c i e t y . example, c o n t e n d s t h a t :

s c e n e have s u g g e s t e d Palmer ( l 9 7 2 : l 5 ) , f o r

" S i n c e its i n c e p t i o n , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s been i n t h e f r o n t ranks of violent societies. Born i n r e v o l u t i o n , v r a c k e d b y c i v i l war, i n v o l v e d i n numerous v a r s , it h a s a l s o t h e t r a d i t i o n of bloody r i o t i n g , homicide and a r r e s t . " A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t a t i s t i c s c i t e d by P a l m e r , e a c h y e a r there a r e 15.000 c r i m i n a l h o m i c i d e s , 35.000 suicides. 300,000 S e r i o u s a s s a u l t s , a n d 50,000 f o r c i b l e rapes, and t h e s e a r e minimum e s t i m a t e s . T h e s r more e x t r e m e f o r m s o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e o n l y p a r t i a l l y i l l u s t r a t e a more w i d e s p r e a d p a t t e r n o f v i o l e n c e i n t h e United S t a t e s . P o r example. p h y s i c a l f i g h t s b e t w e e n h u s b a n d a n d w i f e may o c c u r i n h a l f t o t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of a l l m a r r i a g e s ( s e e Chapter 2). and p h y s i c a l f i g h t s b e t w e e n s i b l i n g s a r e s o common a s t o b e a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l ( S t r a u s . Gelles, a l d S t e i n m e t z , 1 9 7 9 ) . Is t h e v i o l e n c e t h a t i s s o much a p a r t o f American l i f e f o u n d i n the l i t e r a t u r e f o r children? Ths a n s w e r t o t h i s r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n i s a c l e a r "yes." lore than three-quarters of the 15-page 'book-segments" h a d o n e o r more v i o l e n t e p i s o d e s , w i t h a t o t a l of 264 s u c h e p i s o d e s . The l a r g e s t number o f v i o l e n t e p i s o d e s i n a s i n g l e book was 1 0 ( i n &IS_: &gf&g). The mean number o f v i o l e n t a c t s p e r book-segment u a s 2.1. The f l g u r a o f 2.1 v i o l e n t e p i s o d e s p e r book-segment means t h a t a 50-page book is l i k e l y t o i n c l u d e a b o u t s e v e n v i o l e n t a c t s and a 150-page book. a b o u t 2 1 v i o l e n t a c t s . T h e , v a r i e t y o f methods u s e d i n -a o w i t i e s oz & e n E p . t h e s e b o o k s 0 cause physical p a i r o r i n j u r y t o another C o v e r s most o f t h o s e k n o m t o t h e human r a c e . Thess ranged flom m e r e l v s h a k i n o someone t r v o s u c h i n c i d e n t s \ . t c h -i t t i n o a n d k i c k i n g (39 i n c i d e n t s ) , t o r t u r e (6 i n c i d e n t s ) , h u r n i n g ( 1 1 i n c i d e n t s ) , s t a b b i n g ( 4 3 i n c i d e n t s ) , a r d s h o o t i n g (40 incidents). The m o s t f r e q u e n t t y p e o f v i o l e n c e i n v o l v e d p o u n c i n g o n someone, grabbing then f o r c e f u l l y o r causing them t o f a l l (66 i n c i a e n t s o r 25 p e r c e n t of t h e t s t a l ) . Boverer. s u c h r e l a t i v e l y m i l d f o r m s v e r e o u t n u m b e r e d by a b o u t two t o o n e by more s e v e r e f o r m s s u c h a s s t a b b i n g . shooting. t o r t u r e , and b u r n i r g .

..

~

T h i s f a c t i s a l s o r e f l e c t e d i n t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a c t s on t h e h a s i s o f t h e r e s u l t i n g p h y s i c a l i n j u r y : 22 p e r c e n t o f t h e 264 c a s e s d e s c r i b e d a p h y s i c a l i n j u r y , a n d a n

Ch.9.

V i o l e n ~ e i n C h i l d r e n ' s Books

P a g e 56

a d d i t i o n a l 33 p e r c e n t d e s c r i b e d a v i o l e n t d e a t h . Clearly, a r e n o t dealing w i t h " k i d s t u f f . " The e s s e n t i a l l y a d u l t n a t u r e of t h e v i o l e n c e portrayed i n t h e s e books w i l l be shovn a t g r e a t e r l e n g t h l e t e r .

YE

-

55 60 6 5 70 75 8 0 85 90 95

0

g -

0 5 10 15 20 75 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 6 5

Time Period <,{ Publication

Figure 1. Mean number ofviolcniacispei 15 pages hy ycai publiihcd

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V i o l e n c e i n C h i l d r e n ' s Books

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H i s t o r i c a l Trends. F i g u r e 1 g i v e s t h e mein number o f v i o l e n t a c t s p e r book-segment f o r each five-year time period. This c h a r t r e v e a l s no long-tern "secular" trend. T h i s f i n d i n g i s c o n s i s t e n t v i t h t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of Graham a n d G u r r (1969:628) c o n c e r n i n g s t u d i e s of a c t u a l r a t h e r t h a n fictional v i o l e n c e . A t t h e same time, t h e r e is a p a t t e r n t o t h e h i g h s +nd l o w s i n f i c t i o n a l v i o l e n c e . The h i g h s t e n d t o o c c u r when t h e s o c i e t y i s e n g a g e d i n war. Thus, t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t s i n F i g u r e 1 o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h s Bmerican C i v i l war (1865). World s a r I ( 1 9 1 5 ) . w o r l d War 11 ( 1 9 4 5 ) . and d u r i n g t h e p e a k o f t h e V i e t Nam d e n o r s t r a t i o n s i n t h e u n i t e d S t a t e s ( 1 9 7 0 ) .*5 These d a t a . s h o r i n g t h a t v i o l e n c e i n c h i l d r e n ' s f i c t i o n i s a s s o c i z t e d with t h e c o l l e c t i v e v i o l s n c e of t h e s o c i e t y , a r e r e m a r k a b l y c l o s e t o t h e f i n d i n g s o f s t u d i e s t h a t show a n i n c r e a s e i n a c t u a l v i o l e n c e ~ U g ag s o c i e t y d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f war ( E r c h e r a n d G a r t n e r . 1976: Aenry a n d Short. 1954:102). The a r c h e r a n d G a r t n e r f i n d i n g s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y impressive b e c a u s e t h e y a r e b a s e d o n d a t a f o r 110 different nations. The c o r r e s p o n d e n c e betwepn t h e f i n d i n g s o f o u r c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s v i t h a n a l y s e s b a s e d on a c t u a l l e v e l s o f v i o l e n c e i s a l s o o f methodologicaL i n t e r e s t i n t h a t i t provides a d d i t i o n a l support f o r using content a n a l y s i s t o understand t h e operation of a society. FICTIONAL VIOLENCE A N D SOCIAL CONTROL OF DSVIANCF The d a t a j u s t p r e s e n t e d s u g g e s t t h a t v i o l e n c e i s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f ~ r e c o m e n d e d " c h i l d r e n ' s books. Housver. S i n c e Our i n t e r e s t is n o t i n c h i l d r e n ' s l i t e r a t u r e 2% ge, but in using c h i l d r e n * ~ books t o gain a greater U n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r o l e o f v i o l e n c e i n American s o c i e t y . o u r f o c u s will b e on t h e n a t u r e o f v i o l e n c e and i t s correlates. Re have already presented one such correlate--the association of f i c t i o n a l v i o l s n c e with p e r i o d s of n a t i o n a l c o l l e c t i v e violence. T h i s can b e lnterpreted a s manifesting t h e pricciple that a r t i s t i c p:oductions r s f l e c t the s o c i o c u l t u r a l matrix of t h e a r t i s t . Rs s u g g e s t e d t h a t f i c t i o n nay s e r v e t o mold a n d c o n t r o l SOc2ety. a c d i t i s t o t h i s i s s u e t h a t we now t u r n . Durkheim (1950) and E r i k s o n (1966) h o l d t h a t m o r a l v i o l a t i o n s a r e S i n g l e d o u t f o r p u n i s h m e n t and p u b l i c d i s a p p r o v a l a s a means o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e commitment o f t h e s o c i e t y t o i t s m o r a l norms. Thsoretically, t h e high i n c i d e n c e of v i o l e n c e i n t h e s e books c o u l d b e a v e h i c l e t o e x p o s e a n 6 p u z i s h t h o s e who U S 8 v i o l e n c e . S e v e r a l of o u r f i n d i n g s . however, s u g g e s t t h a r t h i s i s .ot t h e c a s e . I n f a c t , t h e i m p l i c i t message i s t h a t v i o l e n c e is e f f e c t i v e i n r e s o l v i n g s e e m i n g l y i n s 3 l u b l e problems.

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The f i r s t E v i d e n c e f o r t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t h e l a r g e proportron of the violent incidents classified a s "instrumental violence" (defined a s t h e use of violence t o forc? another t o carry out, o r t o h i n d e r m o t h e r from c a r r y i n g o u t . some a c t ) . Some 7 2 p e r c e n t o f a c t s were classified a s instrumental violence. compared v i t h 28 percent c l a s s i f i e d a s "expressive violence" (acts carried o u t t o c a u s e pain o r i n j u r y a s an end i n i t s e l f ) . % v i o l e n c e i n t h e s e books is p o r t r a y e d overwhelmingly a s u s e f "1. E second t y p e o f evidence a g a i n s t t h e t h e o r y t h a t t h e v i o l e n c e i s a v e h i c l e f o r conveying moral d i s a p p r o v a l o f v i o l s n c e is shown i n t h e outcomes. Of t h e 171 i n s t r u m e n t a l v i o l e n t a c t s t h a t c o u l d b e c o d e d f o r outcome, 60 p e r c e n t w e r e d e p i c t e d a s a c h i e v i n g t h e d e s i r e d outcome.

T h i r d , WE c l a s s i f i e d e a c h a c t a c c o r d i n g t o w h e t h e r t h e book's a u t h o r p o r t r a y e d it a s l e g i t i m a t e o r i l l e g i t i m a t e . Of t h e 261 a c t s t h a t c o u l d b e c o d e d 03 t h i s d i m e n s i o c . 48 p e r c m t were p r e s e n t e d a s s o c i a l l y l e g i t i m a t e a c t s . gained when the Pinslly, a d d i t i o n a l i n s i g h t is t h e legitimacy dimensions are instrumentality and cross-classified, r e v e a l i n g t h a t most o f t h e a c t s of i n s t r u m e n t a l v i o l e n c e (55 p e r c 9 n t ) were d e p i c t e d a s s o c i a l l y l e g i t i m a t e w h e r e a s " o r l y " 28 p e r c e n t o f t h e e x p r e s s i v e a c t s of v i o l e n c e were d e p i c t e d a s l e g i t i m a t e . Thus. when v i o l e n c e i s p o r t r a y e d a s a means o f a c h i e v e m e n t , it t e n d s t o b e g i r e n t h e s t a m p o f s o c i a l a p p r o v a l by t h e a u t h o r s of t h e s e books. Bnt when it i s p o r t r a y e d a s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f emotion, it i s d e p i c t e d a s i l l e g i t i m a t e . We s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s relationship represents t h e combination of the h i s t o r i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t emphasis on achievement i n Rmsrican s o c l e t y coming t c g e t h e r v i t h t h e n a t i o n s 1 h e r i t a g e o f violence. O v e r a l l , t h e e r i d s n c c s u g g e s t s tha't t h e high frequency o f V L ~ ~ E D C 51 I c h i l d r e n ' s books is n o t p a r t of a s o c i a l c o n t r o l process r e s t r i c t i r g violence. The v i o l e n c e i n t h e s e s t o r i s s i s t y p i c a l l y c a r r i e d o u t t o a c h i e v e some e c d o r s o l v e scme p r c b l e n : i t is u s o a l l y successful: end, when used f o r such l n s t r u n e r t a l purposes. it i s most o f t e n depicted a s Socially legitimate. Thus, t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t children's books a r e a means o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l a n d socialization, thep contribute t o the institutionalization o f v i o l e n c e i n American s o c i e t y .

-a v o c a b n l m of n o t i v e s . Even if t h e s e b o o k s a r e n o t p a r t o f a p r o c e s s by which t h e s o c i e t y e x p o s e s and l a b e l s violence a s a deviant act. o t h e r s o c i a l c o n t r o-l andSocialization functions i n r e l a t i o n t o violence a r e not r u l e d out. U e have suggested j u s t t h e opposite--that these hooks p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n l a b e l i n g v i o l e n c e a s l e g i t i m a t e and i n teaching the socially appropriate ~~~~

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o c c a s i o n s f o r its use. A s Bandura (1973) shows. a g g r e s s i o n a n d v i o l e n c e a r e , f o r t h e nos7 p a r t , s o c i a l l y s c r i p t e d behavior. Among t h e n o s t i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s of t h e s c r i p t f o r v i o l e n c e t a u g h r i n these c h i l d r e n ' s books a r e "motives" o r reasons t h a t communicate t o t h e c h i l d s o c i e t y ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f the o c c a s i o n s o n v h i c h v i o l e n c e may be used. Our i n i t i a l a n a l y s i s made u s e o f 34 c a t e g o r i e s , some o f which s e r e p r e d e t e r m i n e d a n d t h e r e m a i n d e r a d d e d a s we came a c r o s s reasons t h a t d i d n o t fit t h e c a t e g o r i e s . These 34 c a t e g o r i e s t h e n were groupea unaer s i x major heaaings.

I n designing t h e study, we f ~ l tt h a t v i o l e n c e i n children's b o o k s O f t e n would be p r e s e n t e d a s a msans o f punishing o r preventing s o c i a l l y disapproved behavior, e s p e c i a l l y on t h e p a r t of c h i l d r e n . To a l l o w t h i s hunch a f a i r o p p o r t u n i t y t o b e p r o v e d o r d i s p r o v e d , we combined a l l c o d i r g c a t e g o r i e s t h a t could b e c o n s i d e r e d v i o l e n c e used t o e n f o r c e s o c i a l norms o r values. we i n c l u d e d any i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e p u r p o s e o f v i o l e n c e was t o e n f o r c e a l e g i t i m a t e authority: t o p u n i s h v i o l a t i o n s o f a e s t h e t i c norms ( t a b l e manners, etc.). Jack of thrift, lying, stupidity, wickedness, o r greed; c r t o promote t h e g e n e r a l triumph of good o v e r e v i l . The " S o c i a l C o n t r o l w c a t e g o r y i n t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g t a b u l a t i o n shows t h a t a l l t h e s e i n s t a n c e s came t o Only 1 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l number o f v i o l e n t a c t s . TABLE 1.

----Reason

NOST COMEON REASONS FOR IIITIATIBG VIOLENCE X

(N=264) Goal Blockage o r F r u s t r a t i o n Emotional S t a t e s Social Csntrcl Self-Def e n s e War ..

22 22 18 18 10

No A p p a r e n t Other

The l o w p e r c e n t a g e o f v i o l e n c e f o r s o c i a l c o n t r o l d o e s n o t come a b o u t b e c a u s e any o t h e r r a t i o n a l e d o m i n a t e s t h e p o r t r a y a l o f v i o l e n c e i n t h e s e books. In fact. t h e two categories that share t o p p l a c e , "Goal B l o c k a g e o r P r u s t r a t i o n " a n a " E m o t i o n a l S t a t e s , ' i n c l n a e o n l y a b o u t 22 p e r c e n t e a c h of t h e t o t a l C a s e s . The G o a l B l o c k a g e c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e s u s i n g v i o l e n c e t o remove a n o b s t a c l e : f o r example, t o femove a b a r r i e r t o t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f h u n g e r , t o a t t a c k a person blocking a t t a i n m e n t o f a goal. t o a s s e r t one's

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pouer i n general, The o t h e r t o p c a t e g o r y , "Enctioral S t a t e s . " i n c l u d e s v i o l e n c e m o t i v a t e d by some s t r o n g e m o t i o n s u c h a s shame o r h u m i l i a t i o n . r e v e n g e , o r r a g e o v e r h a v i n g been i n s u l t e d . The S o c i a l C o n t r o l . s e l f - D e f e n s e , a n d War c a t e g o r i e s c o m b i n e d come t o 46 p e r c e n t o f t h e m o t i v e s Jr r e a s o n s f o r v ~ o l e n c e . Thus, t h e t y p e s o f v i o l e n c e f o r which a m o r a l c a s e c a n b e a r g u e d a r e s l i g h t l y less f r e q u e n t t h a n t h e combined f r e q u e n c y of v i o l e n c e t o a t t a i n some o t h e r e n d , g r a t u i t o u s v i o l e n c e . o r v i o l e n c e a s a r e s u l t of a n e s o t i o n a l state. Clearly, i f t h e s e a r e morality Tales, an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e m o r a l c o d e b e i n g communicated is t h e " e y e f o r a n e y e , t o o t h f o r a t o o t h ' a s p e c t o f t h e Old T e s t a m e n t . By and large, t h e s e c o n c l o s i o n s a p p l y o v e r t h e e n t i r e p e r i o a from 1 8 5 0 t o 1970- R o s e r e r , t h e S o c i a l C o n t r o l c a t e g o r y t e n d e d t o b e more common p r i o r t o 1930. I n a d d i t i o n . one o f t h e subcategories occurred only i n the period 1955 to 1970--violence u s e d t o p u n i s h t h e " s t u p i d i t y " of o t h s r s . P e r h a p s t h e i n c r e a s i n g b u r r a u c r a t i z a t i o n o f modarn s o c i e t y and t h e a t t e n d a n t denards f o r r a t i o n a l i t y , s o well described by Weber (1964). l e a d s t o d e p i c t i n g " s h e e r s t u p i d i t y " (Irrationality) as one of the more s e r i o u s m o r a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s o f c u r time. C ~ i t a Punishment. l Pnother a s p e c t of t h e vocabulary o f motives c o n t a i n e d i n t h e s e books concerns v i n l e n t aeath. T h e f a c t t h a t someone was k i l l e d i n 3 3 p e r c e n t o f t h e book-segments provides an opportunity t o gain i n s i g h t i n t o t h e s o c i a l d e f i n i t i o n o f k i l l i n g and d e a t h t h a t i s p r e s e n t e d t o children. Rn i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h i s d e p i c t i o n comes t o l i g h t because t h e death o f t e n o c c u r s because t h e victim h a s c o m m i t t e d some m o r a l wrccg o r c r i m e . T h a t is, a l t h o u g h t h e terms " c a p i t a l punishment" a n d " d e a t h p e n a l t y " a r e n o t u s e d , t h e s e h o o k s g r a p h i c a l l y d e s c r i b e u s e of t h e d e a t h p e n a l t y . And, a s Bruno B e t t e l h o i i n (1973) s a y s a b o u t "...those great American f o l k h e r o e s , The T h r e e L i r s p P=gsn ( i n u h t c h t h e b i g bad wolf is b o i l e d a l i v e f o r b l o w i n g t h e h o u s e down): 'Children lore the story But t h e i m p o r t a n t l e s s o n u n d e r l y i n g t h e e'joyment a n d drama o f t h e s t o r y e q u a l l y captures t h e i r attcntion."*l

...

we f e l t t h a t t h e b o o k s s a m p l e d c o n t a i n e d many s u c h examples o f t h s i u p l i c i t u s e of t h e death penalty. To c h e c k this, r e crosstabulated t h e variable indicating deatt o r o t h e r i n j o r y with t h e a c t t h a t p r e c i p i t a t e d t h e violence. The r e s u l t s show t h a t c a p i t a l punish men^ ( t h e k i l l i n g o f a c h a r a c t e r who c o m m i t t e d a m o r a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n o r c r i m e ) o c c u r r e d i n 2 2 p e r c e n t o f t h e i n s t a n c e s i r which a c h a r a c t e r died. Since t h e s e a r e h a p p e n i n g s of g z e a t d r a m a t i c intensity, what B e t t e l h e i m c a l l s " t h e i m p o r t a n t l e s s o n u n d e r l y i n g t h e Enjoyment and drama o f t h e s t o r y " is l i k e l y t o make e s t r o n g i m p r e s s i o n on t h e c h i l d ' s m i r d . It i s n o t a t a l l f a r - f e t c h e d t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s l i t e r a r y background is part of the basis f o r the widespread, seemingly

ch. 4 .

V l o l e n c e i n C h i l d r e n ' s Books

i r r a t i o n a l commitment t o t h e d e a t h p e n a l t y m e r i c a n s ( s e e G e l l e s a n d S t r a u s . 1975).

Page 6 1 Og

s o nany

RRCE, SEX, h N D PBUILY

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Race. The r a c i a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f v i o l e n t c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e s e b o o k s a n d t h e i r v i c t i s s d o e s n o t shov a n y s t r i k i n g d e v z a t i o n from t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e United States population. Of t h e i n i t i a t o r s of a g g r a s s i r e a c t s , 80 p e r c e n t were w h i t e . 9 p e r c e n t b l a c k , 1 p e r c e n t o r i e n t a l , 7 p e r c e n t I n d i a n , a n d 8 p e r c e n t " o t h e r . ' The d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r v i c t i m s o f t h e s e z g g r e s s i v e a c t s is a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a n e (79, 7, 2. 5 , and 6 p e r c e n t ) .

Ch.4.

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Sex. n o s t o f t h e v i o l e n c e i n t h i s s a m p l e of books t o o k p l a c e - - ~ e t v e e n men. uinety-one percent of the aggressors w e r e male, a s were 8 6 p e r c e n t o f t h e v i c t i m s . Thus. v i o l e n c e i n t h e s e hooks i s overwhelmingly d e p i c t e d a s a male actlvity. If t h e p e r i o d c o v e r e d by t h i s s t u d y is o n e s h o w i n g a g r a d u a l movement t o w a r d s e x u a l e q u a l i t y , t h i s t r e n d s h o u l d be r e f l e c t e d i r a g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r s who e n g a g e i n " m a s c u l i n e " a c t s of a l l t y p e s , i n c l u d i n g aggression. The l o w e r l i n e o f Figure 2 does i n d i c a t e j u s t such a trend. A l t h o u g h t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f vomeu a g g r e s s o r s i s g r o w i n g , t h e r e a r e many u p s a n d downs i n F i g u r e 2. G e c a s (1972) d i d n o t f i n d a n y s u c h t r e n d o v e r time i n a s t u d y of a d u l t m a g a z i n e f i c t i o n , a n d it may b e t h a t t h e " t r e n d " r e o b s e r v e d r e f l e c t s a c o i n c i d e r c e c f random f l u c t u a t i o n s . Arguing against t h i s possibility is t h e f a c t t h a t t h e correlation of 0.45 h a s a p r o b a b i l i t y o f c h a n c e o c c u r r e n c e o f l e s s t h a n I n addition. 0.05 when m e a s u r e d o v e r 2 5 time p e r i o d s . Pigure 2 suggests a c y c l i c a l pattern within t h e general trend. A s p e c t r a l a n a l y s i s (Dixon, 1965) was t h e r e f o r e c a r r i e d o u t t o determine i f a dependable c y c l i c a l p a t t e r n c o u l d be s e e n in t h e time s e r i e s ; t h i s a n a l y s i s r e v e a l e d a c y c l e o f f o u r time p e r i o d s (20 y e a r s ) , accounting f o r 38 p e r c e n t of t h e v a r i a n c e . I n t h e a b s a n c e o f o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n , it i s d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t t h i s 20-year cycle. One p o s s i b i l i t y is t h a t a c h i l d r e a d i n g t h e s e b o o k s a t a g e 10 would h a v e r e a c h e d m a t u r i t y a n d p e r h a p s v o u l d h e w r i t i n g b o o k s of h i s 3r h e r o v n i n 20 y e a r s . T h a t g e n e r a t i o n ' s a u t h o r s might t h e n t e n d t o p r o d u c e w o r k s o f f i c t i o n i n f l u e n c e d by t h e d e p i c t i o n o f f e m a l e c h l z a c t s r s i n t h e b o o k s t h e y had r e a d a s a c h i l d . But whatever t h e e x p l a n a t i o n . t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s c y c l i c a l p a t t e r n . i n c o m b i n a t i o n v i t h t h e upward s e c u l a r t r e n d , a c c o u r t s f o r 58 p e r c e n t o f t h e v a r i a n c e i n t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f f e m a l e a g g r e s s o r s s u g g e s t s t h a t more t h a n c h a n c e f a c t o r s a r e shown i n F i g u r e 2. I n addition. t h e i n c r e a s e i n female aggressors is consistent v i t h an increase i n the proportion o f wcmen a r r e s t e d f o r v a r i o u s c r i m e s , e s p e c i a l l y v i o l e n t c r i m e s ( R o b e r t s . 1971) .*8

--

Adults Versus Children. On t h e b a s i s o f a c t u a l and pctential injuriousness, a n d i n t e r m s of t h e p u r p o s e s d e p i c t e d , we s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t s i n t h e s e b o o k s a r e n o t " k i d s t u f f . ' The most d i r e c t e v i d e n c e i s t h a t 80 p e r c e n t of t h e i n i t i a t o r s o f v i o l e n t a c t s v e r e c d u l t s . HOr was t h i s f i g u r e o f t e n m i t i g a t e d b y a s e o f a n a n i m a l o r o t h e r nonhuman c h a r a c t e r s : 80 p e r c e n t o f t h e a g g r e s s o r s v e r e humzn c h a r a c t e r s . The i m a g e p r e s e n t e d t o c h i l d r e n i n t h e s e hooks i s of a d u l t s being physically violent. Boreover, t h e p e r c e n t a g e of a c t s i n which t h e a g g r e s s o r is an a d u l t h a s g r a d u a l l y been i n c r e a s i n g o v e r t h e 120-year s p a n o f t h i s s t u d y , as t h e u p p e r l i n e shows i n P i g u r e 2.

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The p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f a d u l t figures as physical aggresso:s is a n i n s t a n c e o f f i c t i o n t h a t d o e s c o t m i r r o r r e a l i t y , n o t b e c a u s e a d u l t s i n o u r s o c i e t y a r e not--;iolent. bnt because c h i l d r e n zg. Pushing, shoving, h i t t i n g , and p b y s i c a l f i g h t i n g a r e more common among c h i l d r e n t h a n among adolts, r a t h e r t h a n t h e reverse.89 T h i s r e v e r s a l may r e p r e s e n t o n e o f t h e mp-hs c o n c e r n i n g v i o l e u c e i n Rmerican m i d d l e - c l a s s s o c i e t y . namely, t h a t v i o l e n c e i s a p p r o v e d o n l y when i t s e n d i s s e e n a s s o c i a l l y w o r t h y o r v a l u s d , as punishment of w r o n g d o e r s o r n p r e v e n t a t i v e ' a i r r a i d s . * l O

-

P&Ly Violence. A n o t h e r myth t h a t these books t r a n s m i t is t h e n o t i o n t h a t p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e between f a m i l y members i s r a r e . T h e r e is a w i d e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t v e e n t h e o m m-. i t. t e. a-t. n i d e a l i z e d v i c t u r- e o~-f t h e -. f a m-i-l ar a--s a- o r a u=. o c..-. -n o n v i o l e n c e h e t w e e n its members a n d " h a t a c t u a l l y g o e s on. The a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t v i o l e n c e i s t y p i c a l o f f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s (Steinmetz and S t r a u s . 1973: Straus, 1974b: S t r a u s . G e l l e s , a n d S t e i n m e t z . 1 9 7 9 ) . I n childhood. t h e p e r s o n s most l i k e l y t o s t r i k e a c h i l d a r e s i b l i n g s a n d parents. I n a d u l t h o o d . t h e v i c t i m o f a s s a u l t o r murder i s most l i k e l y a f a m i l y member. A s s h o v n i n C h a p t e r 3. informal norms. l a r g e l y unverbalized, make a m a r r i a g e l i c e n s e a h i t t i n g l i c e n s e ( s e e G e l l e s , 1974; S c h u l z , 1 9 6 9 ) . ~

..-

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n t h e s e c h i l d r e n ' s books, 9 1 p e r c e n t o f t h e v l c l e n t i n c i d e n t s t a k e p l a c e b e t v e e n p e r s o n s who a r e ggt related. Two p e r c e r t o f t h e v i o l e n c e was by f a t h e r s and two p e r c e n t by mothers. I n o n l y a s i n g l e i n c i d e n t d i d a husband h i t a w i f e a n d i n none was t h e a g g r e s s o r a w i f e o r grandparent. These f i n d i n g s a r e p a r a l l e l t o t h o s e r e v e a l e d i c a n i n f o r m a l s e a r c h f o r i n s t a n c e s of husband-wife v i o l e n c e i n 20 r ~ o r e l sf o r a d u l t s ( s t e i n m e t z a n d s t r a u s , 1 9 7 4 ) . The a b s e n c e cf h u s b a n d - v i f e v i o l e n c e i n a d u l t f i c t i o n a n d t h e v i r t u a l a b s e n c e o f any i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e i n c h i l d r e n ' s f l c t i o n c a l l s f o r an e x p l a n a t i o n , especially since s o much c o n t e m p o r a r y f i c t i o n a t t e m p t s t o show r e a l i t y i n grim d e t a i l . although t h e s e d a t a do not permit a c f z~ n l t i v e a n s w e r , re s u g g e s t t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o c e s s e s may b e a t work. F i r s t i s a p r o c e s s of s o c i a l c o n t r o l . The s o c i e t y d o e s h a v e a commitment t o f a m i l i a l n o n v i o l e n c e , e v e n t h o u g h it e x i s t s s i d e by s i d e v i t h more c o v e r t norms p e r m i t t i n g and e n c o u r a g i n g i n t r a f a n i l y v l o l e n c e ( C h a p t e r 3). Thus, t h e c u l t u r a l representations of society tend t o portray families i n a way t h a t v i l l n o t e n c o u r a g e p e o p l E t o v i o l a t e t h i s norm. s e c o n d i s a p r o c e s s of s%G& coQsfzEi&g f Eg&&&. The s o c i e t y must h a v e i t s members d e f i n e t h e f a n i l y as a p l a c e o f l o v e and g e n t l e n e s s r a t h e r t h a n a p l a c e o f v i o l e n c e b e c a u s e of t h e t r e m e n d o u s i m p o r t a n c e o f s e c u r i n g c o n a i t n e n t t o t h e f a m i l y a s a s o c i a l group. The a y t h of f a m i l y

Ch.4.

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P a g e 6U

n o n v i o l e n c e i s o n e o f t h e many ways t h a t t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e f a m i l y is s t r e n g t h e n e d a n d s u p p o r t e d . It helps encourage p e o p l e t o marry and t o s t a y married d e s p i t e t h c a c t u a l s t r e s s e s of family i n t e r a c t i o n .

Third, most s p e c u l a t i v e l y . the ~ p f ; & a_f fagu n o n v i o l e n c e d i s c o u r a g e s members o f t h e i n t e l l e c t o a l e l i t e , w h e t h e r n o v e l i s t s o r s o c i o l o g i s t s , from p r o b i n g i n t o t h i r a s p e c t of t h e family. We h a v e a l l been b r o u g h t up on t h i r l i t e r a t u r e and even r e a d i t a s a d u l t s . Apparently. havinc accepted t h e l i t e r a t u r e ' s b a s i c premises, n o v e l i s t s avoie w r i t i n g a b o u t p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e between f a m i l y nsmbers, and sociologists have p r a c t i c e d " s e l e c t i v e i n a t t e n t i o n " tt r e s e a r c h on t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e f a m i l y ( S t e i n n e t z and S t r a u s , 19741.

SUBBARY B N D CONCLUSIONS

Our s t u d y o f 125 ' c l a s s i c " O r "recommended' children's b o o k s p n b l i s h e d from 1850 t o 1970 r e v e a l e d an e x t r e m e l y h i g h i n c i d e n c e of p h y s i c a l violence. Almost a l l t h e books d e s c r i b e d o n e o r more a c t s o f a c t u a l o r t h r e a t e n e d v i o l e n c e . The t y p i c a l c h i l d r e n ' s book c a n b e e x p e c t e d t o h a v e one violent incident, a t h i r d o f which i s l e t h a l , f o r e v e r y seven pages o f t e x t . T h e r e was n o g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e o r d e c r 9 a s e o v e r t h e 120 y e a r s s t u d i e d . However, t h e p o r t r a y a l o f v i o l e n c e t e n d e d t o b e h ~ g hd u r i n g p e r i o d s i n which t h e S o c i e t y was e n g a g e d i n war, a n d t o b s low d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f economic d i f f i c u l t y .

i f t h e d e p i c t i o n o f v i o l e n c e were c o n s t r u e d a s a v e h i c l e t o e x p r e s s s o c i e t a l d i s a p p r o v a l of violence. i t would b e p r e s e c t e d a s e v i l . a n d t h e p s r p e t u a t o r s o f v i o l e n c e Tte o p p o s l t e serms T O be t h e c a r e . For u c u l d be :ariahcC. exlmpl*. ' r : s t r u m e r t a l n v : o l e i c r was f r s q u s n t , 3rd 7 y p ; c a l l p z e r u l i e d L L t t e a : t l l r . m € ~ t 3f t h e a g g r e s s o r ' s > , l r p o s ? .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s e books do have important f u n c t i o n s o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n and s o c i a l control. T h e y p r o v i d e s c r i p t s a n d r o l e m o d e l s t h r o u g h which g e n e r a t i o n s o f young B m e r i c a n s h a v e l e a r n e d how t o b e h a v e violently. Among t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e s e complex s c r i p t s t h z t must b e l e a r n e d a r e t h e m o t i v e s t h a t o n e c a n l e g i t i m a t e l y i n v o k e t o j u s t i f y v i o l e n c e , t h e k i n d s o f p e r s o n s who c a n b e v i o l e n t a n d a g a i n s t whoa v i o l e n c e i s p e r m i s s i b l e , t h e l e v e l of s o c i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e i n j u r y , and t h e Emotions t h a t a r e a p p r o p r l a t e o r r e q u i r e d o r t h e p a r t of t h e a g g r e s s o r ( f o r e x a m p l e , j o y o r r e m o r s e ) a n d t h e v i c t i m ( f o r examFle, rage, tears, o r humiliation). A l l of t h e s e e l e m e n t s and t h e i r COnPlex i n t e r r e l a t i o n s a r e d e p i c t e d f o r t h e c h i l d i n t h i s s a m p l e o f books.

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V i o l e n c e b e t w e e n f a m i l y members is a m a j o r e x c e p t i o n t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t c h i l d r e n ' s books p r o v i d e a s c r i p t f o r Violence. V l o l e n c e w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y was r a r e l y p o f t r a y e d , reflecting t h e s o c i a l m y t h o l o g y of f a m i l i a l nonviolence. he myth o f f a m i l y n o n v i o l e n c e may ;n t u r n r e f l e c t t h e h i g h stake that society h a s i n s e c u r i n g ana m a i n t a i n i n g comeitment t o t h e f a m i l y a s a s o c i a l group.

NOTES *Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 1975 a n n u a l m s o t i c g of t h e Eastern S o c i o l o g i c a l Society. T h i s r e s e = r c h was p a r t l y s u p p o r t e d by N a t i o n a l I r ~ s t i t u t e o f f l e n t a l S e a l t h g r a n t nomber 18-15521 am3 by a summer f e l l o w s h i p awarded t o t h e s e n i o r a u t h o r by t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f New E a m p s h i r e G r a d u a t e W e would l i k e t o e x p r e s s o u r a p p r e c i a t i o n t o P a u l school. K a p l a c f o r h i s work o n c o d i n g t h e 125 b o o k s , t o L o r e n Cobb f o r a s s i s t a n c e w i t h t h e s p e c t r a l a n a l y s i s , a n d t o P a u l Drew, Arnold L i n s k y . S t u a r t P a l m e r , a n d Donna P e l t z f o r v a l u a b l e comments a n d criticisms o n a n e a r l i e r d r a f t . 1. Assuming t h a t l i t e r a t u r e d o e s i n f l u e n c e society, a c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s hy i t s e l f c a n o n l y i n d i c a t e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e message. I t d o e s n o t p r o v i d e d a t a on t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o r on t h e s p e c i f i c s e c t o r s of t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h a t a r e most, l e a s t , o r not a t a l l influenced. In a complex modern s o c i e t y , b o t h t h e i n t e n s i t y a n d t h e e x t e n t o f i r f l u a n c e a r e h i g h l y p r o b l e m a t i c , f o r t h e same r e a s o n s t h a t "funcYiOna1 i o t e g r a t i o l " i n g e n e r a l i s p r o b l e m a t i c i n s u c h s o c i s t i e s (Cohen, iY69: 151-156). 2. The f o l l o v i n g s u p p l e n e n t a r y m a t e r i a l i s a v a i l a b l e o n (1) L i s t o f books analyzed. ( 2 ) L i s t of book request: l i s t s used t o l o c a t e b o o k s f o r e a c h o f the f i r e year periods. (3) c c d f and c o t e s h e e t used i n t h e c o n t e n t analysis.

3. F o r 193 o f t h e books, we w e r e a b l e t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e a p p r c x i m a t e a g e - o f - c h i l d r a n g e f o r which t h e book was c o n s i d e r e d s u i t a b l e . We c o q e d t h e a i d p o i n t o f t h 9 a g e r a n g e f o r e a c h book. T h e s e median a g e s r a n g s d from f i v e books w i t h a r e c o a m e r d e d a g e o f s i x y e a r s t o one book f o r 16 y e a r 016s. T h e mean of t h e median a y e s was 10.8 y e a r s a n d t h mode ~ was 10 y e a r s (26 p e r c o n t o f t h e c a s e s ) . Y. A l t h o u g h u e coded o n l y a c t s of interpersonal v i o l e n c e t h a t o c c u r r e d on t h e p a g e s drawn i n t h e s a m p l e , we r e a d a s much o f t h e rest o f t h e book a s n e c 3 s s s r y t o determine such t h i n g s a s t h e s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e a c t o r s and t h e i r motives. E copy o f t h e d e t a i l e d c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s c o d e may b e o b t a i n e d from t h e N a t i o n a l A u x i l i a r y Publications Service. S e e f o o t n o t e 1.

Ch.9.

V l o l e n c e i n C h i l d r e c ' s Books

Page 66

TWOd i f f e r e n t c o d e r s made t h e c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s . E test o f t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e was c a r r i e d o u t t h r e e d a y s a f t e r t h e a c t u a l c o d i n g h a d begun. A l l b o o k s c o d e d t h a t d a y w e r e d o n e by b o t h c o d e r s . For t h e 3 6 0 c o a i n g s compared ( 1 0 b o o k s , 36 v a r i a b l e s p e r b o o k ) , t h e r e was a n 87 p e r c e n t a g r e e m e n t . TO p r e v e n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c o d e r s from i n f l u e n c i n g t h e t r e n d a n a l y s i s . e a c h c o d e r a n a l y z e d o n l y two o r t h r e e of t h e hooks f o r a given year. ' T h e r e f o r e , p o s s i b l e " d r i f t " or c h a n g e s i n coding s t a n d a r d s t h a t might have o c c u r r e d a s t h e c o d i n g p r o c e e d e d would n o t b i a s t h e t i m e s e r i e s a n a l y s i s . 5. None o f t h e h o o k s p u b l i s h e d d u r i n g t h e peak y e a r s w e r e "mar s t o r i e s . " I n addition, l i t t l e of t h e violence p o r t r a y e d i n a n y o f t h e s e b o o k s is t h e k i l l i n g o r wounding o f a n enemy s o l d i e r . c a t e g o r i e s were y erpr=sslve. r r . s t r u m s % t l l . srr.ce b ~ t hc o a p 0 l e r . t s nay b e orassnc. SEE laus. Fellas. a- .~~d-Ster?.ae-z 11973) f o -r 3 .-S -..--.. ~ - d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s and r e l a t e d i s s u e s i n i d e n t i f y i n g t y p e s o f violence. The c a d i n o> o f e s c h a c t a s e i t h e r o r i m a r i l p ~~. i c s t r u a s c t a l o r e x p r s s s r s e was c a r r i e d o u t s s p a r a : e l y from t h e c o d r c g o t such v a r i a b l e s a s t t n s p e c i f r c r a a s o r s f o r lLl?ia:ina V : O -~ ~E~CP ( S E E T a b l e 11 and t h e r e 1s i h e r P f 3 r e 2 ,~ s m a l l d i s c r e p a n c y between t h e two v a r i a b l e s . If the tvo n o n i n s t r u m e n t a l c a t e g o r i e s a r e s u b t r a c t e d f r o m T a h l e 1, t h i s p r o d u c e s 7 1 r a t h e r t h a n 72 p e r c e n t i n s t r u m e n t a l a c t s . 6.

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7. R e t t e l h e i m was r e f e r r i n g t o t e a c h i n g t h e w o r k - e t h i c i t h i s q u o t a t i o r , b u t we f e e l it i s e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e violence-ethic t h a t i s a l s o presented.

e . Of c o u r s e . a s t h o s e f a m i l i a r w i t h c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s realize, t h i s d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h a t women h a v e e n g e g e d i n more v i o l e n t + c t s . Changes i n t h e s o c i a l 3 a f i n i t i o n of women s i a i l a r t o t h o s e o c c u r r i n g i n t h e s e children's h o o k s may a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f women by t h e p c l i c e a n d p u b l i c p r o s e c u t o r s , l e a d i n g t o a n increase i n a r r e s t r a t e rather than an increase i n incidence of v i o l e n c e . 9. Eowever. i f t h e u n i t o f v i o l e n c e i s h o m i c i d e o r t h o s e a s s a u l t s t h a t e n t e r t h e o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s , then t h e peak age i s t h e middle t o l a t e t w e n t i e s . 10. E s s s r t i n g t h a t t h i s i s o n e way i n which c h i l d r e n ' s l i t e r a t u r e r e f l e c t s i d e a l r a t h e r than actual s o c i a l patterns p o i n t s up t h e w e a k n e s s o f t h e " d i a l e c t i c a l i n t e r p l a y " theory, namely. t h a t it i s u n t e s t a b l e : n o t h i n g can r e f u t e it. C o r r e s p o n d e n c e c a n be c l a i m e d a s an i n s t a n c e o f s u p p o r t of t h e ' f r e f l e c t i o n ' l p r o c e s s a n d a d i s c r e p a n c y c a n he c l a i m e d a s p a r t of t h e *influence" process. N e v e r t h a l e s s , a s Cohen (1969:6) notes. u n t e s t a b l e t h e o r i e s c a n have h s u r i s t i c

Ch.4.

Violence in Children's Books

Page 67

value. In the present caso it sensitizes us to finding instances that, in our judgment, reflect one or t h e other of thase two processes and to speculate abwut the underlying reasons. If these speculations point to isportant social processes, It can be said that the theory has heuristic value, especially so if it leads to sobseqoent research to test these speculations.

Chapter 5

A Cultural-Consistent! Theoy of Family Violence in Mexican-American and Jewish-Ethnic Groups Joseph C. Carroll

up t c t h i s p o i n t we h a v e b e e n c o 3 s i d e r i n g c u l t o r a l norms t h a t d e a l d i r e c t l y with violexce. Rowever, t h i s chapter suggests that pven c i l l t u r a l c o r m s t h a t d o 2% have a m a r i f e s t r e f e r e n c e t o v i o l e r c e a l s o a f f e c t t h e l e v e l of violence. ? o r example, norms Day s t r u c t u r e f a m i l y r o l c s i n a way t h a t i c c r e z s s s t s n s i o n a n 4 h o s t i l i t y i n t h e f a m i l y , even though t h a t i s c o t what i s i n t e n d e d . Carroll argues t h a t the e l e m e n t s 02 a c u l t u r e t e n d t o b e i n t e r a s p e n d e n t . Hs a p p l i e s t h i s " c u l t u r a l c o n s i s t e r c y " t h e o r y t3 nexican-Saerican and Jewish-American f a m i l i e s . in For example, Carroll concludes that m e x i c a n - l m ~ r i c a n f a m i l i e s , norms c a l l f o r male dominance i n husband-wife r9la:ionships and f a t h e r dominance i n p a r e a t - c h i l d r e l a t i o c s h i p s , whereby it i s n o t l e g i t i m a t e f o r a w i f e o r c h i l d to contest the husband or fsther, are s y s t e m a t i c a l l y 1:IkeZ t o a high lsvsl of violence. In Jewish families, i t is nct i l l e g i t i m a t e t o a r g u e w i t h one's husband, uifs. o r father. C o n f l i c t s a r c n o t s e t t l e d on t h e b a s i s o f a s c r i b e d power, b u t or. t h e b a s i s oE d i s c u s s i o n and k r o v l e d g e ( e i t h e r s c r i p t u r a l o r scientific). To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h i s i d e a l i s folloved, c o r f l i c t s can be s e t t l e d without resorting t o violecce. while t h i s c h a p t e r examines o n l y two e t h n i c S n b c u l t u r e s , it is a promising beginning t o t h e development of a typology o f f a m i l y s u b c u l t u r s l norms and their role in permitting or d i s c o u r a g i r . g t h e u s e o f v i o l e n c e a s a means of coxflict resolutioc.

~h.5. C u l t u r a l Consistency

Page 6 9

The c o x c e p t c i t h e s u b c u l t o r e o f v i o l e n c e r p f p r s t o norms t h a t d e a l d i r e c t l y with t h e e x t e n t t o v h i c h v i o l p n c e may b e u s e d e r a t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r v h i c h v i o l e n c e is permissible. Eowever, t h i s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n d o e s no* d e a l w i t h t h e q u e s t l a n of how s u c h n o r m s a n d v a l u e s c o n = i n t o b e i c g and why t h e y p e r s i s t a s c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s . One e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e development of t h e s e c u l + u r a l p a t L e r n s asserts that specific c u l t u r a l elements r e f l e c t t h e '~=fgg. White s u g g e s t s t h a t c p e r a t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r e 3s c u l t n r e may h a v e s y s t e m i c p r o p e r t i e s , i n t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e of c u l t u r e c o n s i s t s o f i n t e g r a t e d c o m p o n e n t s r e l a ' s d by Thus. norms c o n c e r n i n g ~ F ? l e n c e c a u s e a n d e f f e c t (1975:36). t e n d t o r e f l e c t a n d he c g n s i s t e n t with tke values c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a group.

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The p u r p o s e o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o d e v e l o p s u c h a cultlral-consist=rcy t h e o r y o f v i o l e n c e and t o apply t h i s t h e o r y t o Mexican-Bmericar a n d J e w i s h e t h n i c g r o u p s . These g r o u p s w e r e s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e t h e y seemed t o h a v e m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s a n d norms, a l l o w i n g f o r e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e t h 4 0 r y from two d i f f s r e c t s t a n d p o i n t s . The two g r o u p s may b e Seen a s e x t r e m e s on a c u l t u r a l v a l u e c o n t i n u u m on which o t h e r e t h r i c g r o u p s may b e p l a c e d a n d compared. Dther theories besides cultoral consistsncy assert t h a t a colture r e f l e c t s t h e t y p i c a l p e r s 0 r . a l i t y o f z s o c i e t y ' s menbers o r t h a t a c u l t n r e r e f l e c t s t h e pressurPs and l i a i t a t i o n s inherent in the organization of a s o c i e t y . These e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t f o r a f u l l u r a e r s t a n d i n g of a cultur;, b u t t h e y a r e o m i t t e d from t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r t o a l l o w room t o a d e q u a t e l y d e v e l o p a c u l t u r a l - c o o s i s t e n c y theory. A

CULTURBL-CORSISTEICY TEEOBY OF VIOLEBCB

S i c c e t h e g o a l of t h i s c h a p t e r i s t a a x p l a i o t h e c a u s s of family v i o l e c c e i n c e r t a i n e t h n i c groups i n terms of c u l t u r a l c o n s i s t e n c y , we must f i r s t l e f i n e what we mrar by a subculture. R c c o r d i r g t o Wolfgang, s u b c o l t u r s s a r i s r vhan n o t a l l o f t h e v a l u ~ s ,b e l i e f s , o r norms i n a s o c i e t y a r e g i v e n e q u a l s t a t u s by a l l g r o u p s . S u b c u l t u r a l g r o u p s may p a r t i a l l y a c c e p t o r deny e l e m e n t s o f t h e c e n t r a l o r dominant values. y e t r e m a i n w i t h i n t h e c u l t u r s l s y s t a m (1967:99). T h u s a g r o u p o f p e o p l e , f o r e x a m p l e , a n e t h n i c g r o u p , may s h a r e v a l u e s and norms r e g a r d i n g f a m i l y l i f e t k a t a r s n o t i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e g e r e r a l l y a c c e p t e d by t h e w i d e r s o - i e t y . In our definition, values f o r family l i f e r e f e r t o h a s i c v a l u e s of t h e a t h c i c group r a t h e r t h a n t o t h o s e t h a t d e a l e x p l i c i t l y with v i o l e r c e . Examples of more b a s i c ValuSs a r e t h o s e of power r e l a t i o n s a s s i g n e d by a g e a n d s e x , o r t h e practice of religion.

Ch.5.

C u l t u r a l Consistency

P a g e 70

llthough t h e y a r e n o t concerned with s p e c i f i c eLhric groups. P a r s o n s a n d S h i l s ' d i s c u s s i o n of t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f They s t a t e : c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s is relevant. C u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s t e n d t o become o r g a n i z e 3 i n t o Systems. The peculiar feature of this s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n i s a t y p e o f i n t e g r a t i o n which we may c a l l c o n s i s t e n c y o f p a t ? e r n (1953:Zl). The C o r s i s t e n c y o f p a t t e r n o f s u c h a s y s t e m w i l l exsst to the extent t o v h i c h t h e same combination of value judgments.. . r u n s Ccnsistentlp throughont t h e actors' responses t o d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o r s : t h a t is, t o a d i f f e r e n ? c l a s s of objects, d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t s i n t h e sane class, and t h e same O b j e c t s on different o c c a s i o n s (1953: 1 7 2 ) . I n a c u l t u r a l system, a s t h e 5erm is used above. O r i e n t a t i o n s toward a p a r t i c u l a r r o n s o c i a l o r s o c i a l o b j e c t a r e interdependent. S o c i a l o b j e c t s may be i n d i v i d u a l s o r Culcural patterns r e f e r t o t h e c o l l e c t i v i t i e s (1953:s). e x t e n t t o which s y s t e m s o f i d e a s o r b s l i e f s , a n d s y s t e m s o f v a l u e o r i e r t a t i o n s a r e s h a r e d by members of a c u l t u r e . A c c o r d i n g t o P a r s o n s a n d S h i l s , t h e problem f o r t h e s t u d s n t of c u l t u r e i s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l u e j u d g m e n t s t h a t l e a d t o c m s i s t e n c y of p a t t e r n s . I n o r d e r t h e r e f o r e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x i s t e n c e of S y s t e m a t i c c o h e r e n c e w h e r e t h e r e h a s n o t been e x p l i c i t s y s t e a a t i z a t i o l , if i s n e c e s s a r y f r r t h e s t u d e n t o f c u l t a r e t c nzcover t h e * x y l i c i t C u l t u r e 2nd t o d e t e c t w h a t e v e r common p r e m i s e s may u n d e r l i e a p p a r e n t l y d i v e r s ? 3r.d u n c o n l e c t e a I t e m s o f o r i e n t a t i o l (1953:22). The p o s i t i o r t a k e n i n t h i s c h a p t e r i e t h a t e a c h s t h r i c g r o u p s h a r e s a set o f "commoa p r e m i s e s " t h a L c o n s t i t u t e t h e s o u r c e of mcmbers' a c t i o r l i r a l l a r e a s of l i f e . Thes? a r e t h e b a s i c v a l u e s o f t h e group. Thns, t o a r r i v e a t t h e a c t u a l l e v e l o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e , we must e x a m i n e t h e b a s i c f a m i l y v a l u e s o f t h e e t h n i c group. T h e r e is l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t norms f o r f a l i l y v i o l ~ n c sd o e x i s t i n some e t h r i c g r o u p s . L e w i s (1960) f o u n d t h + t s e v e r e Parents believed p u n i s h m e n t was t r a d i t i o n a l i n T e p o z t l a n . i n e a r l y p u n i s h m e n t t h a t began a b o u t t h e t i m e s c h i l d l e a r n e d t o walk, a l t h o u g h t h e most s e v e r e punishmen: of c h i l d r e l o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n t h e a g e s o f f i v e a n d twslrs. L e w i s r e p o r t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h p u x i s h m e n t i n t h i s v i l l a g e had become l e s s s e v e r e . it was n o t uncommon f o r f a t h e r s t o b e a t t h e i r c h i l d r e n with a s t i c k o r rcpe.

Ch.5.

Cultural Corsistency

In years past b o u n d s o i t h e law.

family

P a g e 71 violence

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'he

c a n o n Law i n y e a r s p a s t a c c e p t e d w i f e - b e a t i n g a s a f a i r means o f k e e p i n g a s p o u s e i n o r d s r . I h u n d r e d Y e a r s a~~< a o 5% r t i- o n e d o a t t e r n -no - u- e~ -~ was a n u i n many f a m i l l e s , d u e i n p e r t t o t h e l a c k of S t a t u s o f a woman. a n d i n D a r t t o t h e -i -r c h a t t e l v a l u e i n a m a r r i a g e [ P e n n e l l , l974:lS). ~

The f i n a l q u e s t i o n t o be d i s c u s s e d i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a t h e o r y o f e C h n i c f a m i l y v i c l s n c e is how t h e norms o f a group remain s t r o r g from g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n . wolfgaxg believes t h a t learning processes perpetuate t h e snbcultural norms f o r v i o l e n c e . The development c f f a v o r a b l e

a t t i t u d e s tcvard, and t h e u s e o f . v i o l e n c e i n a s u b c u l t u r e u s u a l l y i n v o l v e l e a r n e d behavJor and a p r o c e s s of differential learning, association. or i d e n t i f i c a t i o n (1967: 1 6 0 ) . S i n c e i m i t a t i o n is a powerful l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s (Baadura, 1973). o n e c o u l d s a y t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e amount o f v i o l e n c e i n parents' behavior toward a c h i l d and toward each o t h e r . t h e g r e a t e r t h e c h a n c e t h a t t h e c h i l d w i l l sct v i o l e n t l y l a t e ; i n l i f e ( s e e c h a p t e r 12, s e c t i o n D). A t t h i s p o i n t i t may b e a p p r o p r i a t e t o a s s e s s t h e i d e a t h a t one's c u l t u r e h a s a g r e a t d e a l t o d3 w i t h t h e Perhaps i n viewing c u l t u r r a s a d e v e l o p m e n t of p e r s o n a l i t y . c a u s e of p e r s o r a l i t y , we see o n l y h a l f cf t h e p i c t u r e . P e r s o n a l i t y may h a v e a l o t t o do w i t h t h e developmene o f culr'lrs. Yicqer (1965) h a s s t r e s s e d t t l s p - l z r i n .n r x a m l n a r l o r o t v h e r h e r - h e sociocultural s y s t e m a f t o c t s :~dis:duaI a c t l o r cr w h e r h e r : r . d i v i ? l a l a c t _ ? > i f f s c r s +h* S O o i O c u l t u r a l system. o r both. Be c a l l s f o r a more c a r e f u l s p e c i f i c a c l o r of c a u s a l r e l a t i o r s h i p s i n s t u d i e s o f c u l t u r e and s t a t e s t h a t t k e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c u l t u r a l n x m s and personality is reciprocal. I n o t h e r woras, " i n d i v i d u a l r e s p o n s e s t o and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of c u l t u r e lea3 to (1965:82). Also, K a r d i n e r (1963) h a s normative variation" r e p o r t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h c u l t u r e and p e r s o r i l i t y changa each o t h e r i n a c y c l i c p r o c e s s , institutional c h a r g e t e n d s 5 0 b e f o l l o w e d by p e r s o n a l i t y change. The f o l l o m i r g d i a g r a m illustrates t h e r e c i p r c c a l n a t u r e of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c u l t u r e 1 v a l u e s , norms. a n d p e r s o n a l i t y .

Ch.5.

Cultural consistency

Exircme male domi-

nance (Caiiilo-Bcron,

Page 72

Old over young (Penaioid)

Fermndei-Marina e l ai., Lewis, Madscn Penaloral

i h c m i c r c r the dii-

Chiidicn 5houId icdrn

ciplinc the be!!^ the hii id (cnrilIo.Beron, Ramirez)

to hc iubmiirive and obedient to rhc father (Fcinnndez-Marina ci a$.)

I Fathci tends to

Mother iuppoits father's authority -.c-----favordaughter (Fernandei-Marina e l a!.. Lewis]

Norms:

(Penalom, Lewis)

Uistsnce and severity in rather-ion icla!ioni [Pcnalosa, Lewis)

+ I

Low degiec of referent power (Lewis1

.1

coercive power

I

4

Son's fear of the father (Fernandcr-Marina cr al., Madsen)

I

i'erpetuoiian:

4 . .

I . Majority o i h o y i deqire t o be itim thcir lather, even though they fear him (Feinundci-Marina el a i l

1.

2.Child ai aduit treats his w r c and children thcramc way his father treated him I P e n a I o d

Figure 1 . Mexican-American paicnt-child violence

ch.5.

Cultural Consistency

Page 73

I n movins erom t h e s e g e n e r a l p r r n c i p l e s to s p e c i f i c e t h n i c g r o u p s . Our f i r s t s t e p was t o c o l l e c t an i n v e c t a r v o f f a m i l y v a l u e s and n o r a s f r o m - t h e l i t e r a t u r e o r each sthcic group. Family v a l u e s were d e f i n e d a s " g e n e r a l l y t c c s p t e d e s p l r a t i o n s a n d i d e a l s which a r e p u b l i c l y sanctisned" (Kardiner, 1 9 6 3 ) . a n d which a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h i n t r a f s m i l y relatioFshipS. N o r m a x e see2 a s more s p e c i f i c r u l e s g o v e r n i n g b e h a v i o r . a r i s i n g from t h s v a l u e s 3nd more c l o s e l y l i c k e d t o violence. For e x a m p l e , a basic value in Ksxican-American e t h r i c g r o u p s would b e t h e dominaocs o f o l d o v e r young, w h e r e a s a norm would b e t h e s e v e r i t y o f parent-child r e l a t i o n s . Nsxt, WE a t t e m p t e d t o d e v e l o p h p p o t h e s e s c o n c e r n i n g c a u s a l l i n k s betveen t h e f a m i l y v a l u e s and t h e a o r n s f o r ViolencE o r n o n v i o l e n c e . The f i n a l s t e p was t o f i n d child-rearirg norms in t h s l i t e r a t u r e t h a t seem t o p e r p e t u a t e b e h a v i o r i n Each e t h n i c gronp.*l

A 1 1 of t h e b a s i c family values i n Figure 1 are c o n c e r 2 e a w i t h t h e a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g a u t h o r i t a r i a n r a l e which t h e o l d e r m a l e p o s s e s s e s i n n e x i c a n - l r n c r i c a n f a m i l i e s . * ? The f u n d a m e n t a l i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y b e t v e e n g r e a t z u t h o r i t y and intimacy suggests t h a t t h e f o u r b a s i c family values prcaote d i s t a n t and s e v e r s f a t h e r - c h i l a r e l a t i o n s . Yirazae (1977) r e p o r t e d t h a t f a t h e r - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s do t e n d r 3 b 5 s o ~ e ~ h a t distant. Lewis (1960) s u g g e s t e d t h a t d i s t a n c e may b e m a n i f e s t e d t h r o u g h a g e n + r a l l a c k of a f f e c t i v e r e l a t i o n s a s f a t h s r s pay l a s s a t t e n t i o n t o c h i l d r e n a s t h e y grow o l d e r .

An e x a m p l e o f s e v e r l t y would b e t h a t c h i l d r e n a r e o f t e n s e v e r e l y pnrished f o r an o f f e n s e such a s l y i n g (Penalosa, lY68:685). P e n a l o s a and L e v i s both r e p o r t t h a t r e l a t i o n s between f a t h e r s and d a u g h t e r s t e n d n o t t o b e a s d i s t a c t o r Severe a s father-son r o l a t i o c s . F a t h e r s map show a m i l d f o r m o f f a v o r i t i s m t o d a a g h t e r s and b e more p r o t e c t i v e and possessive. I m p l i c i t i n t h e a b o v e p a r r g r a p h is t h e f o l l a v i n g p r o p o s i t i o n r e l a t i z g any cne of t h e s e b a s i c family v a l u e s t o more s p e c l f i c norms.

Ch.5.

C u l t u r a l Cons-stency

Page 7 9

1. TO t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h s n a l e p o s s ~ s s e ss g r e a t

amount o t a u t h o r r t y i n f a a l l y l l f e , t h e s o r ? w l l l t h a t c u l t u r e b e c h a r a c t e r r z e d by % = s t a r t a n d s e v e r e f a t h e r - s o n relations.

I n t h e c u l t u r a l - c o n s i s t e n c y t h e o r y f o r nexican-American f a m i l i e s a n i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s b e t v e e n t h s norm o f d i s t a n t . s e v e r s f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e a c t u a l ose Of violence. The s e v e r e f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s may l e a d t o t h e son being a f r a i d of h i s f a t h e r ; t h e son's fear c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h a f a t h e r ' s e x e r c i s i n g of c o n t r o l t h r o u g h h i s temper and v i o l e n t o u t b u r s t s . How d o e s t h e S O P ' S f e a r o f t h e f a t h e r l e a d t 3 t h e d i s p l a y o f t e m p e r a n d v i o l e n t o u t b u r s t s a s a meacs o f c o n t r o l ? Apparertly, t h e presence of r e a r i n a r E l s t i D n s h i p i n h i b i t s t h e d e g r e e o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e s c two p=rt!es. P o s s i b l y t h e d i s t a n c e a n d e m o t i o n a l a l o o f n e s s between f a t h e r and s o n i n d i c a t e s low " r e f e r e n t pover" and t h e r e f o r e t h e n e e d t o u s e " c o e r c i v e power.' R e f e r e n t power i s t h e d e g r e p t o which o n e p e r s o n ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o r o n e n r s s w i t h a n o t h e r a l l o w s t h 9 l a t t e r p e r s o n t o i n f l u e n c e t h e f o r m e r ( F r e n c h and 1959:1611. C o e r c i v e power a o e s n o t d e r i v s f r o m Raven, a t t r a c t i o n o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b u t from t h e threat of p u n i s h m e n t a s a means b y which o n e p e r s o n i n f l u e n c e s a n o t h e r ( F r e n c h a n d Raven. 1959:157). I n o t h e r words. the child COntOrmS t o t h e f a t h e r ' s wishes not because o f a mutual a t t r a c t i o n but because o f t h e t h r e a t of f o r c e an3 t h z high p r o b a b i l i t y o f punishment. The p r e s e n c e o f a g r e a t d e g r e e o f c o e r c i v e power may c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e f e a r o f t h e f a t h e z t & (1958) a c d Badsen ( 1 9 6 9 ) t h a t Fernanaez-Earire r e p o r t a s p r e v a l e n t i n ~ u e r t o - ~ i c a na n d u e x i c a n - ~ m s r i c a n families. Eadsen s t a t e d t h a t Mexican-American college s t u d e n t s asked t o e v a l u a t e t h e f a t h e r ' s r o l e i n t h e Latin

ch.5.

c u l t u r a l Consistency

Page 75

fanily f e l t t h a t i t was t o o a u t h o r i t a r i a n . Studerts r e p o r t e d t h a t "it i s t r u e t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n h a v e a g r e a t r e s p e c t f o r t h e f a t h e r b u t it is a r e s p e c t b a s e d oc f e a r * and t h a t "[the fa-her] should be a f r i e n d t o h i s c h i l a r e n , c o t a d i c t a t o r n (Badsen, 1964:SZ). T h i s f e a r may i m p a i r a c h i l d ' s u n d e r s t a n d i r g of the father's desires r%la%ing t o a c e r t a i n matter. The p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e a n d m i n i m a l c o m n u n i c a t i c n may l e a d t o t h e c h i l d a c t i n g i n a way which t h e f a t h e r f e e l s i s wrong a n d may i n c r e a s e t h e c h a n c e t h a t t h e f l t h e r w i l l a c t violertly. F i v e . p r o p o s i t i o n s l i r k i n g s e v e r e and d i s t a n t f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s and t h e a c t u a l u s e of v i o l e n c e a r e i m p l i c i t i n t h e p a r a g r a p h s above. 2.

The more s e v e r e a n d d i s t a n t t h e f a t h e r - s o n relations, t h e l o w e r t h e r e f e r e n t power i t t h a t relationship.

3.

The l o w e r t h e r e f e r e n t power, t h e g r e a t e r t h e C o e r c i v e power t h a t t h e f a t h e r n e e d s t o b r i n g t o b e a r on t h e son.

4.

The g r e a t - r t h e c o e r c i v e p o v e r , t h e son's f e a r of t h e father.

5.

The more t h e s o n f e a r s t h e f a t h e r , t h e more it may be f o r t h a t son t o difticult u n d s r s t a n d h i s f a t h e r ' s d e s i r e s and the g r e a t e r t h e chance t h a t t h e s o r w i l l n o t a c t according t o t h o s e aesires.

the

greater

6 . TO t h e e x t e n t

t h a t &he son does not a c t accordlng t o t h e f a t t e r ' s desires ard a COerclvE power r e l a t z o n s h i p e x L s t s b e t v e s r f a t h e r and s o n , r h e g r e a t e r t h e c h a n c e t h a t C o n t r o l "111 b e b a s e d cn temppr and v i o l e n t Outburs+s.

u s i c g d e d u c t i v e l o g k , t h e s e f i v e p r o p o s i t i o n s can b e merged t o show t h e r e l a t i o c s h i p between t h e norm of s e v e r e and d i s t a n t f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s and t h e a c t u a l use of v i o l e n c e as f o l l o w s : Ccmbining 2, 7.

3 , a n d 4:

The more s e v e r e a n d d i s t a n t t h e f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e g r e a t e r the. s o n ' s f e a r o f the father.

Then c o a b l n i n g t h e a b o v e w i t h 5 :

Ch.5.

C u l t u r a l Consistency 8.

Plga 76

The n o r e s e v e r e and d i s t a n t t h e f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h g~r e a t e r t h e c h a n c e t h a t t h e SOL w i l l n o t a c t a c c o r d i n g t o the fathsr's desires.

F i n a l l y , c o m b i n i n g 7 w i t h 6 , t h e l i n k between t h e v i o l e n c e a n d t h e a c t u a l u s e o f v i o l e n c e i s made. 9.

norm

for

The more s e v e r e and d i s t a n t t h e f a t h e r - s o n relatlOnShlp, t h e g r e a t e r t h e chance t h a t c o r t r o l w i l l be b a s e d on t e m p e r and v i o l e n t Outbursts.

I t d e d u c t i v e l o g i c is u s e a t o c o m b i n e aLd 9 , t h e following p r o p o s i t i o n i s y i e l d e a .

prlpositions

1

10. TO t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e male p o s s e s s e s 2 g r e a t d e a l of a u t h o r i t y i n f a m i l y l i f e , t h e g r e a t e r t h e c h a n c e t h a t c o n t r o l r i l l be b a s e d on t h e u s e o f temper and v i o l e n t o u t b u r s t s . Thus, according t o t h e cultural-consistency theory, in nexican-American e t h n i c groups, a value r e l a t e d t o family l i f s t h a t h a s nothing d i r e c t l y t o do with t h e use of v i o l e n c e a c t s t o i n c r e a s e t h e a c t u a l l e r e l of violence. The method of l i n k i J g p r o p o s i t i o c s u s e d a b o v e c a n be u s e d t o r e l a t e t h e other t h r e e family v a l u e s t o t h e a c t u a l 12ve1 of family violence. This p a t t e r n of violence i s probably perpsruated t h r o u g h s o c i a l l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s ( 3 a n d u r a . 1 9 7 3 ) . Owens a n d S t r a u s ( 1 9 7 5 ) . f o r example. show ? h a t + h e morc v i a l e n c e e x p e r i e n c e d by a c h i l d , t h - g r e a t e r t h e t c n d a n c y t o f a v o r v i o l e n c e a s an a d u l t . A p p a r e n t l y t h e c h i l d comes t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e b e s t r a y t o h a v e h i s own c h i l d r e n a c t o b s d i e n t l y i s t o u s e p h y s i c a l f o r c e , e v e n if h e was a f r a i d o f i t a s a child. r i n g e r ' s s t a t e m e r t t h a t :ndividual p c r s a n a l i t y h a s a g r e a t d e a l t o do w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c u l t u r e a l s o a p p l i e s here. I f t h e c h i l d f e e l s t h a t t h e u s e of f o r c e i s t h e b e s t way a t c o n t r o l l i n g o t h e r members i f h i s f l a i l y , c u l t u r a l n o r m s t h a t may s u p p o r t t h i s v i e = a r e r e i n f o r c e d . The d i s c u s s i o n up t o t h i s p o i n t h a s c e n t e r e d on t h e formal normative system found in Mexican-8morican famIlieS.*3 nirande (1977) r e p o r t s that this formal st-ucture d o e s e x i s t b a t h a s been i n t e r p r e t E d b o l h a s a s o u r c e o f p a t h o l o g y and a s a s o u r c e o f warmth a n d s e c u r i t y . l l i r a n d e (1977) a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t w h i l e t h e f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e of norms nay e x i s t , f a m i l i a l and s e x u a l r o l e s a r e b e i n g modified a s Mexican-lmericans a r e a s s i m i l a t e d , i n i n c r s a s i r g numbnrs, i n t o A a e r i c a l s o c i e t y . Eaukes and T a y l o r ' s 1975 s t u d y o f t h e power s t r u c t u r e o f n e x i c a n f a m i l i e s s u p p o r t s nirande's point. Thus. i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t c h a n g i n g r o l e s may be m a n i f e s t i n l e s s s u p p o r t o f t h e f a t h e r ' s f c r n a l a o t h o r i t y a n d less d i s t a n t an$ l e s s s e v e r e f a t h s r - s o n

Ch.5.

Cultural consistency

P a g e 77

relations. As a rssult, t h e proposed l i n k b e t v c s r t h = f c r m a l n o r m a t i v e s t r u c t u r e and f a m i l y v i o l e n c e may be weaker t h a n p r e d i c t e d above. On t h e o t h e r hand, r e c e n t r e s e a r c h on f a m i l y v i o l e n c e among Anglo-Americans s u g g e s t s t h a t a s t h a t r a d i t i o n a l m a l e d o m i n a t e d power s t r u c t u r e becomes undermined, t h s r e m a p b e a tendency f o r family v i o l e n c e t o i n c r e a s e i n t h e s h o r t run ( s e e Brown, C h a p t e r 11 a n d A l l e n a n d S t r a u s . Chapter 12). T h i s may b e e s p e c i a l l y t r u e o f f a m i l i e s which become f e m a l e c e n t e r e d ( S t r a u s & &.. 1979).

J e w s traditionally h a v a b e e n c h a r a c t e r i z s a a s h a v i r g a l o v r a t e of family violence. most J e v s would b e c o n s i d e r e d i n o r above t h e middle c l a s s today, and t h i s s t e t u s might c o n t r z b o t e t o t h e i r l o v r a t e s o f family violrnce.*q Souever. e v e n a ? t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y . when most J e w s war? w o r k i n g - c l a s s immigraCtS, t h e y p r o b a h l y a l s o had l o v e r r a t e s o f f a m l l y v i o l e n c e t h a n o t h e r poor e t h n i c groups. Jewish f a m i l y v a l u e s may b e r e l a t e d t o t h e low l e v e l of f a m i l y violence. Figure 2 a p p l i e s t h e cultural-consistency f a m i l y v i o l e n c e t o Jewish-Americans.

1.

theory

of

the extent that intellectuality is s t r e s s e d , t h e e m p h a s i s w i l l b e on r a t i o n a l means a t s c l v i r g f a m i l y p r o b l e m s . r a t h e r t h a n on v e r b a l o r p h y s r c a l c o e r c i o n . To

B f u n c t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y i n J e w i s h f a m i l i e s . which may b e more c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o n o n v i o l e n c e , i s t h e f a c t t h + t ncrms for articulateness, argumentativeness, and parect-child bargaining a r e prasent. T h e s e t h r e s norms w012ld s e e n t o s a n c t i o n c o n f l i c t b u t t o c h a n n e l i t o f f i n t o d i ~ c u s s i o n r a t h e r than physical action. Yaffe r e p o r t e d

Ch.5.

Cultural Consistency

Page

that: EOBe discipline i s far less strict among Jews than among other groups. Jewish parents arr naggers, screamers, nudgers--but not hitters. The child has to go pretty far before he'll get the back of his father's hand. And a lot more ConverSational freedom is tolerated. Jewish children are allowed to interrupt, cantradict the grown-ups, be "fresh* (1968:312).

Importance o f family i n Jewish identincarion (Shapiio and Daihefiky)

1

-

Religiosity ofmaie (Shapiro and Daihefrky, Bemrrein)

Pursuit o f Knowledge: the mind is a great tool. (Beinstein, Gordon, Shapiio and Darhefrky, Siiodtbeck, Yuffe)

Intense parentchild involvomeni (Shupiia and Darhefrky, Yrffe)

4

Anything far the Children (Shapiio and Dashefiky)

4

Cornpaision (Shapira and Dashefrkyj

4

lnlellecruality Shapiio and Darhefrky)

Daiheiiky, Yaffe) Bargaining

Non-Violence

Pwtootion: Bays perceive ihemielvei as like their father (Shapiio and Dahefrky) Figure 2. lewirh.American parent-child violence

c u l t u r a l Ccrsistency

Page 79

S i m i l a r l y . Z u k l s s t u d y o f 300 J e v i s h f a m i l i e s ( 1 9 7 8 ) d a s t r o r g c u r r e n t of e g a l i t a r i a n i s m running through s h families. p a r t i c u l a r l y i n more a s s i m i l a t e d , l e s s O ~ O X ones. T h i s f e e l i n g , combined w i t h t h s c h a n n e l i n g ggressien i n t o verbal rather than physical expression, s t o " t h e high l e v e l o f b i c k e r i n g t h a t o c c u r s between and a n d w i f e , between p a r e n t s a n d c h i l d r e n . a n d b e t w e e r Teasicg, s a r c a s m and r i d i c u l e = r e r e q u l a r l y o v ~ db r D.a r e n t s t o set limits o n c h i l d r e l ' s b e h a v i o r . " Eternally ln competltion. the Jewlsh f s m l l y 1s a aerltocracy.

....

Thus. lt is p o s s l b l e t h a t f r r q u e n t c c n f l r c t may b e a c h a r a c t e r l s t l c of J e w l s h f a m r l l e s . I f t h a t is t h e case, t h e f r e q u e n c y o f c c n f l i c t may b e a s l g n t h a t &wish f a m l l r e s a r e very stable. when c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by frequent Conflicts rather than by the a c c u m u l a t i o n of h e s t i l e and a m b i v a l e n t f e e l i n g s , we may b e j n s t i f i e d , g i v e n t h a t s u c h c o n f l i c ? ~ a r e n o t l i k e l y t o concern b a s i c consensus, i n t a k i n g t h e s e f r e g o e n t c o n f l i c t s a s an i n d e x of t h e s t a b i l i x y o f t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s (Coslr. 1956:SS).

The f o l l o w i n g p r c p c s i t i o n c a n above discussion:

be

developed

from

the

2. The g r e a t e r t h e e m p h a s i s o n a r t i c u l a t e n e s s , argumentativeness. and parent-chill bargaining. t h e g r e a t e r t h e chacce that c o n f l i c t s r i l l be r e s o l v e d t h r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n r a + h e r t h a n v i o l s 3 l cr c o e r c i v e a c t i o n .

Pically, the basis of a cultural-consistency analysis c a n b e s h o v n by c o m b i n i n g p r o p o s i t i o n s 1 a r d 2 t o p r ? s e n t o n e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a b a s i c f a m i l y norm a n d t h e a c t u a l use of violent o r nonviolent action t o resolve a conflict. 3. The g r e a t e r t h e e x t e n t t h a t knowledge is stressed,

t h e p u r s u i t of a n d d e b e t e and c o n f l i c t a r e regarded a s legitimate, the g r e a t e r t h e c h a n c e t h a t c o n f l i c t s w i l l be resolved through discussion rather than violent o r coercive action.

Ch. 5.

C u l t u r a l Consistency

Page 80

CONCLOSIOA I n t h i s c h a p t e r we h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o c o n s t r u c t a c u l t u r a l - c o n s i s t e n c y t h e o r y of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . This theory i s b a s e d on t h e i d e a t h e t c u l t u r a l v a l u e s h a v i n g Po m s n i f s s t r e f e r e n c e t o v i o l e n c e a c t e i t h e r t o i n c r e a s e o r t o h o l d down t h e a c t u a l l e v e l of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e ir c s r t a i n e t h n i c groups. V a l u e s a n d n o r m s w e r e l i n k e d t o g e t h e r , and t h e Corms were ;n t u r n l i n k e d t o t h e a c t o a l l e v e l o f v i o l e c c e i n a n e t h n i c group. The p e r p e t u a t i o n o f t h e u s e o f v i a l e n c e f r o m g e n e r a t l o c t o g e n e r a t i o r was a l s o examined. The flexican-American a n d J e v i s h - a a e r i c a n e t h n i c g r o u p s w e r e used t o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s t h e o r y . A h i g h e r l a v e 1 of family violence was assumed to bf present in n~xican-American than i n Jewish-lmerican fsnilies. The h i g h e r l e v e l o f v i o l e n c e i n Mexican-American f a m i l i e s was proposed t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e v a l u e s of s e v e r e male dominance, s t r i c t d i s c i p l i n e . a n d s u b m i s s i o n t o t t e f i t h e r . s e v e r e a n d d i s t a n t f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s were s e e n t o b e t h s r e s u l t of t h e s e v a l u e s , l e a d i n g t o f e a r o f t h e f a t h e r , poor ccmmunicatiol, and a r e s u l t i n g h i g h l e v e l of p a r e n t - c h i l d violence. Perpetuation of t h i s s u b c u l t u r e i s accomplished t h r o u g h t h e d e s i r e f o r boys t o b e l i k e t h s i r f a t h e r s even though t h e y f e a r then, ard because a c h i l d turned a d u l t t r e a t s h i s w i f e a n d c h i l d r e n t h e same way h i s f a t h e r t r e a t e d h i s family. Modifications i n t h e formal normative s t r u c t u r e of lerican-American f am:lies challnnging the h u s b a n d - f a t h e r ' s f o r m a l a u t h o r r t y v e r e n o t e d and s e e n a s p o s s i b l y i n c r e a s i n g f a m i l y v i o l e n c e , a t 1 ~ 2 s tLn t h e s h o r t run. V a l u e s o f t h e J e w i s h e t h n i c g r o u p a l s o were examined i n this theoretical framevork. The b a s i c f a m z l y v = l u e s emphasized v e r e t h e p u r s u i t of krowlsdga and t h e u s e cf t h e mind r a t h e r t h a n t h e body. The v a l u e o f i n t e l l e c t u e l i t y r e s u l t i n g from t h e s e v a l u e s was p r o p o s e a t 3 l e a d f o t h e favoring of articulateness. argumertstiveness, and b a r g a i n i n g a s a way t o s o l v e f a m i l y a i s p u t e s . Thus, d e b a t e a n d r a t p h y s i c a l c o e r c i o n i s u s e d a n d t h e r e i s less f a m i l y violence. V a l u e s a r e p e r p e t u a t e d i n t h a t boys p e r c e i v e themselves a s l i k e t h e i r f a t h e r s . F i n a l l y . a s n o t e d ir C h a p t e r 1, t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f t h i s chapter, l i k e t h e conclusions of the other t h e o r e t i c a l chapters. a r e n o t put forward a s e s t a b l i s h e d f a c t s . Rather. t h e y a r e intended a s s t i m u l i a r d hypotheses f o r empirical research.

ch.5-

Cultural Corsistency

Pege 8 1 NOTES

*A r e v i s i o n o f a p a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e a m o a l m e e t i n g o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o n F a m i l y R e l a t i o n s . August 20-23, 1915. The p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e c h a p t e r v a s s u p p o r t e d bp A a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f m e n t a l R e a l t h g r a n t number 13050. i would l i k e t o t h a n k Professor Dorothy Pinnegan of Colby-Sawyer C o l l e g e f c r many h e l p f u l s o g g e s t i o n s and c o n m e n t s t h r o u g h t h e d e v e l a p m e n t of t h i s paper.

1. A n o t h e r s o u r c e o f p e r p e t u a t i o n c o u l d b e f e s a b a c k processes t h a t occur i r t h e proposed c a u s a l c h a i n b e i v e e r broad f a m i l y v a l u e s n o t r e l a t e d t o v i o l e c c a , norms o f violence, and t h e a c t u a l u s e o f violence. The u s e o f violence t o control a situation, resulting i n the label of violence. m i g h t s t r e n g t h e n t h e norm of v i o l e n c e t h r o u g h a self-fulfilling prophecy. in fact, the perceived e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a norm o f v i o l e n c e o r n o n v i o l e n c e m i g h t e v e n s t r e n g t h e n t h e more b a s i c v a l u e from v h i c h t h e v i o l e n t I!! o t h e r words, i f t h e o r n c n v i o l e n t norm h a s c r i g i n a t e d . norm o f v i o l e n c e o r n o n v i o l e c c e i s a l e f f e c t i v e means o f c o n t r o l . t h e n t h e v a y o f l i f e t h a t s a n c t i o n s t h i s norm would be f u r t h e r r e i n f o r c e d . 2 . The G r e b l e r e_t_ a_&: (19701 study of urban L l e x i c a n - A e e r i c a n s f o u n d t h a t t h e v a l u e p l a c e d on t h e man a s a u t h o r i t y f i g u r e v a r i e s by income l e v 2 1 a n d n e i p h b a r h o o d . Rowever, nearly tvo-thirds o f t h o s e v i t h medium o r l o w e r income l i v i n g i n a r e a s v i t h a high psrcentage of mexican-lmericans f e l t t h a t t h e hustand s h c u l d have complete c o n t r o l o v e r t h e f a m i l y income. This findirg suggests t h a t t h e v a l u e o f male a u t h o r i t y i s q u i t e s t r o n g i n e t h n i c enclaves.

3. I would l i k e t o t h a n k P r c f e s s o r A l f r e d 0 Mirande o f of C a l i f o r n i a , S i v e r s i d e , f o r b r i r g i n g t o mg + h e Universi:y a t t e n t i o n a v i e w o f t h e Mexican-American f a r i l y which d i f f e r s f r o m t h e view which i s more p r e v a l e n t i n t h e literature. T h i s view implies that K~xizan-Rmrrican f a m i l i e s would h a v e a l o v e r d e g r e e of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e t h a n is suggested i n t h i s a r t i c l e .

4. E r l a z g e r ( 1 9 7 9 ) . i n a r e v i e w of s t u d i e s Examining t h e r e l a t i o n betweer s o c i a l c l a s s acd f a m i l y v i o l e n c e , r s p o r t e d d i f f e r e n c e s betveaa s o c i a l c l a s s e s , with physical p u n i s h m e n t i n c r e a s i n g a s o n e g o e s down t h e s t s t o s l a d a e r . HOveVer, t h e d i f f s r e n c e s z r s n o t a s l a r g e a s many would

Part 111 Social Organization and Family Violence

Important a s a r e t h e c u l t u r a l horns t h a make it l e g l c i m a t e f o r f a m i l y members t o u s p h y s i c a l f o r c e on e a c h o t h e r . t h s y do n o t f u l l e x p l a i n family violence. F i r s t , t h e s e norms z r y=gi$&b g u i d e l i n e s more f o r culturally a c t i o n s t h a n f o r c o l t u r a l l y rs&=$$ a c t i o n s So t h e q u e s t i o n r e s a i n s a s t o why sow* f s a i l i e do a n d o t h e r s do n o t e n g a g e i n s u c h p e r m i s s i b l W e must a l s o e x a m i n e how o r why norm violence. legitimizing violence within t h e f a n i l y ca i n t o being, a n d why s u c h norms c o c t i n u e exist. A s With most a s p e c t s o f s o c i e t y , r o s i n g 1 f a c t o r p r o v i d e s t h e answer t o t h e s e questions. R a t h e r a complex i n t e r w e a v i n g of f a c t o r s e x i s t s t h a t ve a r e j u s t beginning t o unravel. X3verer. Even a t t h i s e a r l y s t a g e i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . i t is c l e a r t h a t nzny o f t h e t h r e a d s making up t h e f a b r i c o f v i o l e n c e i n t h e family a r e t h o s e i d e n t i f i e d i n Chapter 1 a s 9 r.umbfr oE s o c i a l Organizational factors. t h e s e w e r e b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d a; t h a t c h a p t e r . for example, the involuntary nature of aembership i n e f a a i l y , t h e p r i v a c y of t h e f a m i l y a s a s o c i a l i n s t i + u t i o a , a l d assignment. Of r o l e s w i t h i n t h e E a s i l y by a g e a n d s e x r a t h e r t h a n by i n t e r e s t o r competence.

The c h a p t e r s i n P a r t 111 t r e a t some of t h e s e s o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o c a l f a c t o r s i n aetail, i n d i c a t i n g t h e t y p e s of s o c i a l arrangements t h a t g i v e rise t o s i t u a t i o n s i n which p e o p l e f E n a t a r e s o r t t o t h e use of violence. Sioce thesi a r r a n g e s e n t s a r e r e g u l a r i t i e s of s o c i a l l i f e . most o f which h a v e been p a r t o f :he s t r u c t u r e of t h e human f a m i l y f o r p e r h a p s t h o u s a n d s 3f y e a r s , we c a n s p e c u l a + e t h a t t h e y a r e a l s o a t t h e r o o t o f t h e persistence o f n o r m s t h a t p e r m i t v i o l e r c s i n t h e family. C u l t u r a l norms t e n d t o e v o l v e i n a vag that reflects, regularizas, and l e g i t i a i z e s t h e t y p i c a l b e h a v i o r of members of a society. I n s h o r f , as was n o t e d i n C h a p t e r 1, c u l t u r e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e t v s f a c e t s Even s o , t h e y a r e f a r f r o s of a single reality. h a r l n g a f i x e d and immutable r e l a t i o n s h i p t o each other. The e m e r g e n t n a t u r e o f a l l homar life dictates that cul5ure and social o r g a n i z a t i o n w i l l c o n s t a n t l y g e t o u t of Lins

Page 85 y ~ t he a c h o t h e r , w i t h a resulting restore the synchronizat~on.

pressure

tc

The c h a p t e r s i n P a r ? 111 h a s 3 a t l e a s t f o u r t h i n g s i n common. F i r s t , t h e y s h a r e what c o u l d be called an emphasis on structural ~ o n d u c i ~ e n e s s . Each c h a p t e r s e e k s t o e x p l a i n t h e high r a t e of c o n f l i c t and v i o l e n c e i n t h e family by f o c u s i n g on some z s p e c t o f t h 2 s t r u c t n r e of r e l a t i o n s between f a m i l y n e n b s r s and on how t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s c o n t r i b u t e s t o o r dampens v i o l e n c e . Secocd. e a c h c f t h e a u t h o r s , 5n h i s Jr h e r own way. highlights the irony t h a t th? o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e of family l i f e c r e a t e s c o n d i t i o n s f o r warmth a n d i n t i m a c y a s w e l l a s f o r c o n f l i c t and violecce. T h i r d . t h e s e c h a p t e r s d o n o t p r e s e n t nau data, b u t i n s t e a d summarize and e x t e n d a l a r g e number of e x i s t i n g empirical studies ana t h e o r e t i c a l arguments. T h ~ yo r g a n i z e and make d e d u c t i m s from e x i s t i n g t h e c r y a n d r s s e a r c h on v i o l e n c e and f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . Nct t h a t they f e e l c o l l e c t i n g new d a t a i s u n n e c e s s a r p , but o r g a n i z i c g a n d i c t e r p r e t i n g . from a s c c i o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , what i s a l r e a d y kcown a b c u t f a m i l y v i o l e n c e c a n g i v e new i n s i g h t s a n d a s o u n d e r b a s i s f o r f u t u r e empirical research. L a s t , p o s s l b l y t h e m c s t z m p o z t a n t a s p e c t of t h e f o r m a t of t k e c h a p t s r s i n P a r t 111 i s t h e i r exlmtra+.iar o t . ways in which Eccial sarrables ere :n-errelated. Po: uc-il r ? u z d e r s T a r C hou a nanbDr c r r - l e s 2 n ' sariehlc; f i t t o g e t h e r , e x p l a n a t i o n s of f a m i l y c o n f l i c t and v i o l e n c e v F l l b e i n c o m p l e t e .

Chapter 6

Sexual Inequality and Wife Bea Murray A. Straus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

T h i s c h a p t e r d e s c r i b e s a major a s p e c t o t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e u n d e r p i n n i n g husband-wif violence: t h e s e x i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e f a m i l It a r g u e s t h a and t h e s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l . sexism produces v i o l e n c e because men us v i o l e n c e t o m a r n t a i n t h e i r p o s i t i o n a s "head of t h e household." n o r e i s involved i n sexism than t h e " r i g h t n t o b e t h e h e a d o f t h r f a a i l y as s u p p o r t e d by c u l t u r a l v a l u e s end beliefs; sexism is also g r o u n d e d in i ~ s t i t u t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s - - s u c h a s t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t men w i l l m a r r y y c u n g s r wonen a n d t h e s e g r e g a t e d l a b o r m a r k e t i x v b i c h women's j o b s a r e l p s s w e l l A paid--that maKe male dominance a r e a l i t y . society, o r groups within a society, may f a v o r equalitarian relationships, but u n l e s s these n o t i o n s g o beyond b e l i e f s a n d become r s f l e c t e a i n s o c i e t a l arrangements, t h e d o m i n a t i o n of women by men i s bound t o c o n t i n u e . Ban7 cf t h e i s s u e s examined i n t h i s c h a p t e r c r o p up a g a i n and a g a i n t h r o u g h o u t t.he vclume. These i s s u e s a r e c r i t i c a l i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n of practical steps to r e d u c e and e v e n t u a l l y eliminate husband-wife violence, a thrm? e x a m i n e d f u l l y i n C h a p t e r 13.

T h i s C h a p t e r d e s c r i b e s some o f t h e ways i n which r h male-dominant p a v e r s t r u c t u r e of t h e f a m i l y g i v e s r i s e t violence. T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t , a s o u r s o c i e t y msv?s t o v s r a nore e g a l i t a r i a n family system, both t h e a c t u a l l e v e l s o v i o l e n c e a n d t h e norms i m p l i c i t l y p e r m i t t f n g s u c h v i 3 l = n c s w i l l decline. Al'hougb t h i s decrease is t h e l i k e 1 l o w - t e r m outcome, i t is f a r f r o m a c e r t a i n t y . First. man c t h e r f a c t o r s a f f e c t t h e l e v e l of v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l

- -

1.- D e f e n s e cf B a l e P . u t h 0 1 i t ~ . I r t h e c>nL.DxL of a n vidualistically oriented urban-industrial society, the r l p t i o n of s u p e r i o r a u t h o r i t y t o husbands i s a p o t e E t CE p r o d u c i n g p h y s i c a l a t t a c k s on wives. I n such a i e t y , m a l e - s u p e r i o r i t y norms a r e n o t c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d a r e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a r e i + i c n , and t h e pz=sgs~;:Qe if e s u p e r i o r i t y anst be v a l i d z t e 4 by supprior 'r~sources" h a s v a l u e d p f r s o n a l t r a l t s and m a t e r i a l gools and v l c o s (Eodman, 1972). If e v e r y nan wsrs, i n f a c t . D e r i o r t o h i s w i f e i n s u c h r e s o u r c e s 3s i n t e l l i s e n c e . .owledge, o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e . and income, t h e r e would b e c o n c o r d a n c e between t h e a u t h o r i t y a s c r i b s d a n 3 t h e d i v i d u a l a c h i e v e m e n t s e x ~ o c t e dt o acconDanP. t h a t a u t h o r i t v ach:evement-oriented societies. clelrly, such p 9 r i c r i t y i s n o t z l w a y s t h e case, d S s p i t E t h e s o c i e t a l r u o t u r e t h a t g i v e s men t r e m e n d o h s a d v a n t a g e s i n a c c e s s t o €58 t r a i t s a n d r e s o u r c e s . Consequently, many men f e e l n o s t c o m p e l l e d t o f a l l back on t h o "ul+.ima?a r e s o u r c e * * o f y s i c a l f o r c e t o P a i n t a i n t h e i r s u p e r i o r p c s i t i o n (Goode. 71; S e r a u s , 1974b:bb-57). P g r a p h i c i l l u s t r a t i c i ! of j u s t i s p r o c e s s i s t h e c a s e of J o e a n d J e n n i f e r r e p o r t s d Rossa (Chapter 10). B l l e c and S t r a u s g i r e s t ~ t i s t i cb?a , i d e n c e i n C h a p t e r 12.

.

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2. Com&a:p n a s c u l i n i t ~ . T a l c o t t P a r s o n s (1997) has Zrgued t h a t i n modern i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s , t h e s ~ p 3 r z t i o n o f t h e m a l e o c c u p a 2 i o n a l r o l e from t h e f a m i l y and ?he predominance of t h e mother i n c h i l d r e a r i n g c r e c t e s a f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f i c u l t y f o r men i n r e s p p c t t o a c h i e v i n g a masculine s e x u a l i d e n t i t y :

Ch.6.

s e x u a l Inequali'y The b c p h a s a t e n d e n c y t o f c r a a d i r s c t e m i n i n e i d e n t L f i c a t i o n . s i c c e h i s mother is t h model most r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n t h i But h e i s n o t d e s t i n e d t o become a n a d u woman. n o r e o v s r he soon d i s c o v e r s t h a t c e r t a i n v i t a l r e s p e c t s Women a r e c o n s i d e r a i n f e r i o r t o mer. t h a t i t would h e n c e b s shamefu f o r him t o grow up t o b e l i k e a "omin. Rex when b o y s e m e r g e i n % o what F r e u d i a n s c a l l t "latency period," t h e i r b e h a v i o r t e n d s to be marked by a k i n d of cog~gllpg $s;q&&&te h q g r e s s i o n t o w a r d women vho " a f t e r a l l a r e blamc," i s a n e s s e r t i a l c o n c o m i t a n t (p.305).

l l t h o u g h P a z s o n s ' e m p h a s i s i s on t h e p a r t i c u l a r constellation just described a s p a r t i a l explanatior I g s n e r a L l y b i g h l e v e l o f m a l e a g g r e s s i v e n e s s i? HsOCie?les. it a l s o seems l L k e l y t o be p a r t of t h e t h a t s o much male a g g r e s s i v e n e s s i s d i r o c t a d a g a i r s t wives i n p a r t i c u l a r . S i m i l a r l y , Parsons' analy shows t h e o r i g i n s of f e m a l e a g g r e s s i v e perticular structure of the family i n i n d u s t r i a l s c much o f t h i s a g g r e s s i v e n e s s is f o c u s e d s p e c i f i c a l l y aq men, e s p e c i a l l y h u s b a n d s . a s t h e a g e n t s o f women's r e p r e p o s i t i o n i n s o c i e t y . * 2 T h i s c l i m a t e if m n l u a l a r t a g n b c t v s e n t h e s e x e s p r o v i d e s a c o l t e x t :hi? is not o c o n d u c i v e t o a t t a c k s by h u s b a ~ d so n u i r s s b u t p r o b a b l y u n d e r l i e s a number o f o t h e r r e l a t e d pheriomeaa, s n c h a g r o w i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t i n mar7 i n s r e n c e s , " r a p e is a p, trip, n o t a passion t r i p D (Eezt, 1?75:40: Borgzss Aolmstrom. 1 9 7 4 1 . l o r e o v e r . a s i n t h e t y p i c a l homose tape in prisons (Davis. 1910). t h e degradatior humiliation of t h e victim is o f t e n a e a j o r mstivating f o r

3- Economic C o ~ s t r a i r t s, ? a g i s c r i m i n a t i Q Q . Thp ss ecO?.omic a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y a l l o w s u few a l t e r n a t i v e s . Tbe j o b s o p e n t o women i r e 1 3 u e r s t a t u s and. d e s p i t e a n t i d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n . vo c o n t i n u e t o e a r n l e s s t h a n men i n t h e same o c c u p a t f o W i t h o u t a c c e s s t o good j o b s , women a r e d e p f n d e n t c n t h husbands. I f a divorce takes place, almas? a l l hnsban d e f a u l t c?. s u p p o r t p a y m e n t s a f t e r a s h 3 r t t i m e , ev a s s u m i n g t h e y c o u l d a f f o r d thsm i n t h e f i r s t plac C o r s e q u e n t l y , many women c o n t i n u e t o e n d u r e p h y s i c a l a t t a c trom t h e i r h u s b a p d b e c a u s e t h e a l t e r n a t i v e t n d i v s r c e pcverty (Gelles, 1976).

children, b u t a t t h e same time s o c i e t y e o s s r o t p r o r e l t h e r economic recompense f o r h e r doing s o , o r c h i l a c a r C e n t p r s t h a t t a k e o v e r p a r t o f t h e b u r d e n s3 t h a t s h e c a e a r n ecough t o support her children. Occupations d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , l a c k of c h i l d - c a r e f a c i l i t i s s , i n a d s q u a t

p o r t from e i t h e r t h e aovernmsnt o r t h e f a t h e r - - a l l omm i n t o r e m a i r i n g m a r r i e d e v e n whec t h e y a r e t h e f violence.

fir$&or

i&g S W e - ? a r € n t FEpppla. A n o t h e r of t h e norms t h a t h e l p s t o m a i n t a i n t h e s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e i d ? a t h a t c h i l d r e r c a r r o t be a d s q u a t s l y b r o u g h t e parent. Thus, i f a woman i s t o h a v e c h i l d r e n , s h e o h a v e a man. TO t h e l i m i t e d e x t s n t t h a t research s u p p o r t s t h i s view. t h e s i t u a t i o n comes a b o u t o n l y of t h e c o n f o u n d i n g o f p o v e r t y a c d s o c i a l o s t r i c i s n n g l e parenthood. B l t h o u g h i t seems l i k e l y t h a t i f r e s s u r e a n d c o n s t r a i n t s w e r e removed, most women want t o l i v e w i t h a man, a n i m p o r t a r t n i n o r i t y d o e s nd l i v e s , i~ e f f e c t , in a state of fcrced ation. Thus. innumerable and. under present ons, u n n e c e s s a r y s o c i a l and a c o x o a i c c o n s t r a i n t s t h e s i c g l e - p a r e n t f a m i l y from b s i n g a v i a b l e s o c i a l a nd f o r c e s n a r y women t o a c c e p t o r c c n t i n u e Pate, StrSSSfnl relationship. 1. E p s ~ a g c e of ~ j f g rg= Xpggp. undsr t h e - t s y s t e m , b e i n g a w i f e a r d m o t h e r i s t h e most r t a n t s i n g l e r o l e f o r a woman. IndEed, Emerican u r a l n o r a s a r e s u c h t h a t o n e CEnfor b e i f u l l voman ss m a r r i e d . E mar, O R t h e o t h e r hand, h c s t b p o p t i o n o f s t i n g much o r l i t t l e o f h i m s e l f i n t h e h u s b a n d - f a t h e r d e p e n d i n g o n h i s i n t e r e s t , a b l l i t y , a r d c:zcumst.arces. S h o r t , *he s t i g m a of b e i n g a d i v o r c e d aaz i s s a a l l a r e d w i t h t h a t o f b e i n g a d i v o r c e d womac--to whlcn a cia1 term, with o v e r t o n e s of immorality, ha5 been ached: divorcee. T h i s f o r c e d d e p e n d e n c e on t h e w i f e E a s t h e basis f o r a respected positior i r society aakes d i f f i c u l t f o r a womal t o r s f u s f t o t o l e r a t e m i l e v i c l e n c e d end t h e marriage.

7 . A e g a + j x Self-Image. Wnder t h e p r e s e n t social rncture, women t e n d t o d e v e l o p n e g a t i r ~ s e l f - i m a g e s , p e c i a l l y i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e c r u c i a l t r a i t of a c h i s s e s e n t orner, 1972: Truxisger. 1971:260). A s a conraquence, -clings o f g u i l t a r d masochism d e v e l o p , which p a r m i t women 0 t o l e r a t e male a g g r e s s i o n a c d v i o l e n c e a n d , i n some x t r e m e c a s e s , t o s e e k it. P u l l s e x u a l e q u a l i t y would l i m i n a t e t h i s a s a s e x u a l l y s t r u c t u r e d p a t t e r n of bshavior. v e n t h o u g h i t may r e m a i r o r a n individual-to-indisiaual asis. Only 2 de-emphasis on i n d i v i d u a l c o m p e t i t i v e ChiovBment w i l l f n l l y e l i m i n a t e t h i s problem.

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8. Women a s C h i l d r e n . The c o n c e p t i o n o f women a s t h e r o p e r t y o f men i s n o l o n g e r p a r t o f t h e l e g a l s y s t e m o f ndustrial countries. Aowever, Elements of t h i s o u t l o o k l i n g e r i n t h e f o l k c u l t u r c and a l s o s u r v i v e i n c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f + h e l a w , s u c h a s i n 'he s t a t o t e s t h a t d e c l a r e t h e h u s b a n d t h e h e a d o f t h e b o u s e h o u l d a n d g i v e him v l r i o u s r i g h t s o v e r h i s w i f e , l i k e t h e r i g h t t o c h o o s e t h f p l a c e of

Ch.6.

Sexual I n e q u a l i t y

a b o d e , t o which t h e w i f e must conform.*3 I n additio is t h e r e l a t e d c o c c e p t i c n o f women a s u c h i l d l i combination, these aspects of t h e saxist orgaciz S o c i e t y g i v e husbands a c o v e r t moral r i g h t t o use f o r c e OP t h e i r w i v e s a n d o g o u s t o t h e o v e r t l e g a l -p a r s n t s t o use p h y s l c a l f o r c e on t h e i r c h i l d r e n ( s e e G 1979:58).

9 , &l_e o r i e n t a t i o n sE $25 QhB:n_al ~nsticf Not o n l y i s much male v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t w i r e s a t t r i b u t a t h e s e x i s t organization o f s o c i e t y , but t h e f i n a l tnd i s t h a t t h € male-oriented o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e c r j u s t i c e s y s t e m v i r t u a l l y g u a r a n t e 4 s t h a t few vcmaa u i able t o secure legal relief. To b e g i n v i t h , t h e l o n g i n o b t a i n i n g c o u r t o r d e r s and " p e a c e bondsmake u s e l e s s i n s e c u r i c g i m m e d i a t e r e l i e f f r o m t h e dan another assault. Even w i t h o u t . t h G s e d e l a y s . many cannot a t t e n d c o u r t because o f t h e l a c k of c h i 1 a r r a n g e m e n t s d u r i n g t h e l o n g h o u r s o f w a i t i n g f o r a ca Come UP Or because, zs O f t e P h a p p e z s , t h e c a s rescheduled. P-mong a t h e r i m p e d i m e n t s t o s e c u r i n ? p r o a g a i n s t a s s a u l t s by a h u s b a r d a = € + h o s e d s s c r i b e d s e c t i o n o f C h a p t e r 3 o r * ' L e g i t i m a t i o n of Rusban V i o l e n c e by t h e C o u r t s and P o l i c e " : i m m u r i l y from s u i f a i l u r e o f p o l i c e t o a c t a g a i n s t hUsSands, :hs " c o o l i n g by p o l i c e , p r o s e c u t i n g a t t c r r e y s , a n d j u d g e s o f wive a t t e m p t t o b r i n g c o m p l a i n t s , a n d t h e d e n i a l of c o a p s n s by p u b l i c c o m p e n s a t i o n r e v i e w b o a r d s . SEXUAL LIBERATION AWD TPE REDUCTION OF NRRITAL RSSRO A l r h o u g h Goode b e l i e v e s t h a t f o r c e o r i t s t h r e a t u l t i m a t e l y n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e e x i s t e n c a of s o c i e t y , h ~ c o n c e d e s t h a t *'...the amount o f f o r c e now a p p l i e a i n t h various a r e a s of family l i f e is not] e i t h e r necess o r d e s i r a b l e n (Gocde, 1971:92]. One of t h e ways i n uh t h e amount o f f c r c e [ n e c e s s a r y t o m a i n t a i n a v i a b l ~p a t t of f a m i l y l l f e ] c a n be r e d u c e d i s t o r e d u c e t h e d e g r e e i n e q u a l i t y found w i t h l c t h e family. C h i l d r e n ' s immatn i m p o s e s a l i m i t on t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e y c a n be g r e q u a l i t y v i t h t h e i r parents. But t h e p a r t i c u l a r e c o n o and physical conditinns t h a t may have justified s u b o r d i n e t e p o s i t i o n f o r women i n e a r l i e r p e r i o d s o f h i s t a r e C l e a r l y n o ' l c c g e r present.

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The g o a l s of t h e v o a e n l s movement a r e c e n t s ~ r d elimlnating each o f t h e violence-producing lnequit discussed i n t h i s chapter. S i n c e t h e s e f a c t o r s account t h e h i g b l e v e l o f p h y s i c a l a s s a u l t s on women by t h h u s b a n d s , a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h e g o a l s o f t h e f e m i n i s t movem i s t r e m e n d o u s l y i m p o r t a n t f o r a n y r e d u c t i o n of m a r i assault.

Pege 91 t h e process of advocating these fundamental 1 c h a n g e s t h e women's movement h a s mads v s r i o u s coctrihutions. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e i d e o l o g y of t h s movement i t s e l f e n c o u r a g e s women t3 r e s i s t a l l oppression. e s p e c i a l l y physical violence. Thsro n a n e x p l o s i v e growth of " b a t t e r e d - w i f e s h e l t e r s . " g i n E n g l a n d a b o u t 1972 and i n t h e n n i t e a S'ates 1975. T h e s e p r o v i d e imoedia'e physical escape, a r l y f o r t h o s e w i t h young c h i l d r e n who night e h a v e x o a l t e r n a t i v e t o b e i n g v i c t i m i z + d by t h e i r vomen's movement h a s b e e n p e r c e p t i v e i n r e c o g n i z i n g p e r i o r m a l e p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h and s k i l l a r e i m p o r t a n t f t h e p r o c e s s b y which m a l e dominance i s a a i n t a i n a d . r e c o g n i t i o r p e r t l y a c c o u n t s f o r t h e emphasis on k a r a t e her self-defensive training. Enwover, i t i s u c l i k e l y karats w i l l , i n fact, p r o t e c t womeo f r c m a s s a u l t , e t h a n t h e a b i l i t y t o r e s p o n d p h y s i c a l l y p r o t e c t s men a s s a u l t by o t h e r men. Boreover. t h e k a r a t e approach u t i o n a l t z e s t h e r o l e of p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e i r s o c i a l c t i o n and h e n c e i n c r r a s z s t h e l i k e l l h o o a o f f u r t h e r ce. Ieverthelsss, the ehphasis on physical ~ f e n s e t r a i n i r g i s an important s p u & s t e p towards e n t o a l e l i m i n a t i o n o f v i o l e n t rsp:essiDn of rsaen. h i s e v e n ? u a l i t y w i l l Only Clme a b o a t i f t h e more e n f a l p r o b l e m s o f s e x u a l i n s q u a l i t y c a r be 0v;:coms. ately, e m p h a s i s h a s s h i f t e d from t r a i n i n g i n t h e u s 9 s i c a l force t o t r a i r i n g i n "assertiveness," which i s o r t a n t S t e p i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of s e x u a l e q u a l i t y . * u Bevsrtheless, t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s of t h e period of s i t i o n cannot be overlooksd. The l o n u - r u n c o n s e q u e n c e s a more e q u a l i t a r i a n s o c i e t y may b e t 3 l e s s s ~ t h e uency w i t h which w i v e s a r e v i c t i m s o f a s s a u l t by b z ~ . d s . E u t , w e s u g g e s t e d e a r l i e r ( s e e a l s o Kolb and a u s , 1974: W h i t e h u r s t , 197U). t h e & & ~ ~ = ECYo n~s e q n e n c e s y b e t h e o p p o s i t e , b e c a u s e a s i z a b l e number of mec w i l l e a s i l y g i v e up t h e i r sex-stereotyped roles. A 1 1 three t e r s i n P a r t IT document t h i s i n d i f f e r e n t ways: a case of a s p e c i f i c couple, l o g i c a l deduction, and s t i c a l d a t a on a l a r g e s a m p l e o f c a u p l e s . Like a d i t i o n a l l y o r i e n t e d women, men a r e c o c d i t i o n e d by t h e i r l r u r e t o p e r c e i v e o n l y t h e p r e r o g a t i v ? s and a d v a n t a g e s of e t r a d i t i o n a l male r o l e , a n d t o i g n o r e i t s b u ~ d e n r , s t r a i n t s , 2nd disedv3ntages. Thus, a l e s s v i o l e n t w o r l d d l e s s v i ~ l e n c e i n t h 4 f z m i l y r e q u i r e men's a s w a l l a s men's l i b e r a t i o n . Ocfortunately, p r o g r e s s t o w a r d s e x u a l e q u a l i t y end reedom f r o m s e x u a l l y s t e r e o t y p e d r o l e s h a s r o t b a s n a s g r e a t a s seemed p o s s i b l e i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s . R t present (1978-74). t h e r e is even c o n s i d e r a b l e d o u b t t h a t t h ? F q u a l B s t a t e - h y - s t a t e t a l l y by the R i g h t s Bmendaent w i l l p a s s . I n t e r n a t i o n a l Women's Year Commission f o u n d t h a t s t a t - l a v s

Ch.6.

Sexual I n e q u a l i t y

(which g o v s r n most d o m e s t i c m a t t e r s ) c o n t i n u e t o g i s u b s t a n t i a l l y fewer z i q h t s t h a n t h e i r husbands i n r i n h e r i t a n c e , divorc5, p r o p e r t y ownership, domestic and a d u l t e r y ( u n i t e d P r e s s , O c t o b e r 30. 7 9 7 7 ) . Kan show t h a t t r a d i t i o n e l s e x r o l e s r e m a i r e n t r e n c h among t h e ycung. F o r example, a survey o f 1 7 - p a r t h e Wational Bssessment o f E a u c a t i o r a l P r o g r s s e foun n n l y h a l f o f t h i s a g e g r o u p t h i n k s a l l women s h o u l d b t o p u r s u e careqrs O u t s i d s t h e h o n e (Be* F o r k T i r n s s , 2 1977: 826: see a l s o R e i n h o l d . 1 9 7 7 ) . 8.5 a r e c e n t c o e m e n t a r o r p u t it: "Scrakch alm3s man, and y o u ' l l f i n d w i s t f u l memories nf h i s a o f h e r a s o c k s and c o o k i n g Sunday lunch...." (Prarckn. 1977; a l s o Stapp and Pines. 1976). The d e t l i l s v a r y , of c o with t h e s e t t i n g and t h e socioeconomic l e v e l , but t h e o f m a l e s u p e r i o r i t y r e e a i r s t h e same. I n t h a t same a r P z a n c k e t e l l s abou' a f r i e r d :

...

who h a s made a name for herself i e d u c a t i o n a l f i l m s i n new Ycrk, had a i c n e r i n LJ Anqeles r e c e n t l y with a n o t h e r o l d f r i e n d . uh h a s made a much b i g g e r n a n s f o r h i m s e l f i n televisior. S e t t l i n g down over late-night brandies, s h e was s t u n n e d vhsn h e t u r n e d t o h e r I can't imagine being andsaid, V c u krow, m a r r i e d t o you. I d p a n i c 2nd run." "Why?" S a l l y askea, h u r t t h a t F h e i r f r i - ~ d s h i o vhich m v e r e v e n t o u c h e d on t h e s u b j e c t of had m a r r i a a e . seemed s u d d r n l v f l a w e d . "You're 1 star," he s a i d . But. S a l l y p o i n t e d o u t , h l was t h e o n e g e t t i n g q u c t e d i n T i n e a n d B e v s r e e k and was p r o b a b l y e a r r i n g $100,000 a year t o her 820,000. "Eaybe so." he s a i d d e c l a r a t i v ~ l y . " b u t u n d e r n e a t h !t a l l I think you're smarter t h a n I am."

-.

what l u r k i n g t e r r o r s p o s s e s s men when t h e i r womln a c h i e v e s u c c e s s on t h e i r own? Ths t r u t h o f t h e m a t t e r is, t h a t i n s p i t e o f V i r g i n i a slims, ve h a v e n ' t come s u c h a l o n g r a y . b a b i e s ( P r a n c k e , 1977:uU).

xual Inequality

Page 9 3

T h e r e a r e , of c o u r s e , many o t h e r f a c t o r s which te t o t h e e x i s t e n c e a n d m a i r t e n a n c s 5f norms ng i n t r a f a a i l y v i o l e n c e . Owens a d S t r s u s ( 7 9 7 5 ) , ample, p r e s e n t d a t a on t h e c o r r e l a t i o r o f c h i l d h o o d n c e s of v i c l e n c e ( i n c l u d i n g v i c t i m i z a t i o n ) with ence a t t i t u d e s and velues. See a l s s t h e d i s c o s s i a c e i n f l u e n c e of s o c i e l y ' s p o s i t i v e Evaloation of E i n C h a p t e r Y; ar.d i n S t r a u s . 1979a. 19146.

.

S e e w h i t i n g (1965:137) a r d t h e d i s c u s s i o r . of " t h e fs: o t h e r y t h " =a S t s i n a e t z a c d S t r a u s (1979:lO-13) n which t h e p a t t e r n o f m a l e - f e m a l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b u i l t t h e s o c i e t y h e l p s t o c r e a t e antagonism bEtw~Enr h e and h e n c e s t r e c g t h e n s tho associatiJn between y and v i o l e n c e .

. It

i s p e r t i n e n t t h a t . EvEn i n a s t a t e known f o r i t s a n d f a m i l i a l e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , a s r e c e n t l y a s 1971, l i f o r n i a S t a t e B a r I s s o c i a t i a n v o t e d ~ p tt o r e p e a l e g i s l a t i o n ( T r u c i n g e r , 1971:216). 4. The combir.ation of sexual equality, ffaals rtiveness, a n d s e x u a l l i b e f a t i c r mioh' a l s o c o n t r i b u t e educing rape. I f women w e r e t o e s c a p e t h e c u l t u r a l l y s o t y p e d r o l e o f d i s i n t e r e s t i n a n d r e s i s t a r c * 3' s e x . were t o t a k e o n a n z s s e r t i v e r o l e i n e x p r - s s i n a + h e i r sexuality. r a t h e r t h a r . l e a ~ l n gs u c h s x p r a s s i o n t c t h s e r t i v e n e s s o f men, womsn's L E V s t a t u s m i g ? t c s n t r i b u t a t o r e d u c t i c r i n r a p e i n s e v e r a l nays. P x r s t , many r a p e s an i l l e g i t i m t e e x t e r s i o r . of s a n c t i o r e d t e c h r i q u ? s of e r c o m i n g " t h e c u l t u r a l l y p r e s c r i b e d r e s i s t a n c e of women EX ( K i r k p a t r i c k and Kanin. 1951). Seccnd. the u n d i n g o f SEX a n d a g g r e s s i o n t h a t i s b u i l t i n t o o u r r u r e c o u l d be r e d u c e d ( S t e i n m e t z a n d S t r a u s , 1974: 70-13). rd, t o t h e e x t e n t t h e t s h a r p l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d sex r o l e s of "compulsive responsible for t h s , phenomena c u l i n i t y ' and s t r u c t u r e d a n t a g o n i s m b e t w e e n t h e s e x e s , e l i m i n a t i o n o f s e x u a l i n e q u a l i t y woold r e d u c e t h e Dumber "power t r i p " a n d " d e g r a d a t i o n c e r e m o n y l m o t i v a t e d r a p e s o v n m i l l e r , 1975).

Chapter 7

Stress and Family Violence Keith M.Fanington This c h a p t e r emphasizes t h e e f f e c t of f a m i l y s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o n t h e amount Of S t r e s s e x p e r i e n c e d . Parricgton suggests t h a t compared w i t h most o t h e r g r o u p s , t h ? f a m i l y E x p e r i e n c e s more stress a n d may b ~ less c a p a b l s Of c o p i n g w i t h i t . The f a m i l y , b e c a u s e o f i t s u r i q u e s t r u c t u r e , e l s o may b e l e s s e f f i c i e r t i n d e a l i n g v i c h s t r ~ s s f n ls i t u ~ t i m s . It is interesting to contrast this s o c i o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e with t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a "medical" model f o r t h e cortr31 of violence. "Curzngw v i o l e n c e t h r o u g h d r u g s snd s u r g e r y h a s a p o w e r f u l a p p e a l t o laymen a n a SciEntiSts alike. I f a day d o e s a r r i v e when it becomes r o u t i n e t o t a k e a p i l l when we f e e l t h s Urge t o k i c k a co-worker o r t h r s v a punch a t o u r mate, i n t r z f a m i l y v i o l e n c e w i l l p r o b a b l y s t i l l exist. I f t h e f a m i l y r u n s o u t of n o n a g g r e s s i o n p i l l s . o n e s p o u s e c o u l d blame t h e o t h e r f o r b e i n g l a x , and might f e e l j u s t i f i e d i n h i t t i n 3 t h e O t h e r s o t h a t he o r s h e won't forget the n e x t time. o r p e r h a p s a mother w i l l s l a p h e r c h i l d because t h e c h i l d r e f u s e s r o swallow t h s nonaggression p i l l .

FaSringCOn's point of view is that r e g a r d l e s s of m e d i c a l t e c h n o l o g y , t h e s t r u c t u r e o t r e l a t i o n s t i p s b e t w e n f a m i l y members must change i t v z o l e r c a i s t o be redoze*. If c o n f l i c t s o t i n t e r e s t and s t r e s s i n family l i f s a r e i n e v i t a b l e , t h s n t h o f a m i l y must d e v e l o p a Structure for resolving thase conflicts nonviolently. B l t h o u g h C h a p t e r 13 o f f e r s some suggestions. a c h i e v i r g t h r s e ends will be difficult. since, a s Farrington p o i n t s out. f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e works a g a i n s t t h e n o n v i o l e c t r e s o l o t i o r of s t r e s s f u l s i t u a t i o n s .

P GENERAL STRESS FBhlEQOEK The c o n c e p t o f stress h a s h a d a h i s t a r y markPd by c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n c e p t u a l ambzguity and d i s s e n s i o n (nechanic, 1962: C h a p t s r 1; 1968:296-300; Lazarus, lQ66:Ct.ap%?; 1: Levzne a n d S c o t c h . 1967:163-165; S c o t t a n d Sowazd, 1970; (1) acGrath. 1970). S t r e s s has been d e f i n e d ana s t u d i e d a s a t h r e a t e n i n g o r d i s r u p t i v e s t i m u l u s (Grinker and S p i e g s l , 1945; B a s o w l t z & g . , 1955:7; Hill, 1958: Janis. 1958:13); ( 2 ) 3 p a r t i c u l a r r e s p o n s e o r p a t t e r 3 of r e s p e n s e s i n ? h e face o f s u c h a s t i m u l u s (Eas0wit.z a_&.. 1955:289: Janis, 1958:13; E e c h a n i c , 1962:7): o r (3) a s k a t e o f t h e organzsm a s it is e x p ~ r i e c c i n gs u c h a s t i m u l u s ( S e l y e . 1956: Dohrecrend. 1961; Wolff. 7 9 6 8 ) . The ? r o b l e m s s r i s i c g from t h i s l a c k o f a common d e f i n i t i o n h a v e l e d a number o f t h e o r i s t s t o abandon t h e a t t e m p t t o a c h i e v e s p e c i f i c i t y , and i n s t e a d t o u s e t h e term " s t r e s s " t o r e f e r t o a g e n e r a l f i e l d o f s t u d y t h a t e n c o m p a s s e s a l l o f t h e s e more s p e c i f i c phenomena ( J a n i s , 1958:ll-13: L a z a r u s , 1966:27; Levine ana Scotch. 1967:169: BcGrath. 1970:16). T h i s i s t h e approach taken i n t h e "general s t r e s s madel,* a c c o r d i r g t o which f a m i l y v i o l e c c s w i l l be a n a l y z e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r .

er

Components Of S t r e s s The phenomenon of s t r e s s c a n b e s e e n a s compossa o f s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t elements. Drawing fcam s c h e m e s d e v s l o p s d by E i l l ( 1 9 5 8 ) . Dohrenvend ( 1 9 6 1 ) . L e v i n e and S c o t c h ( 1 9 6 7 ) and BcGrath (1970). t h e g e n e r a l s t r e s s model t r e a t s t h e f o l l o ~ i r ga s t h e c o m p o n ~ n tp a r t s o f a n y s t r e s s s i t u a t i o c : 1. --The S t r e s s o r --

Stimulus.

T h i s r e f e r s t o any s i t u a t i o n

o r condition, e n c o u n t e r e d by a n i n d i v i d u a l o r g r o u p , t h a t i s capable of producing d i s r o p t i o n o r threat for that l n d i v i d o a l o r group. When t h i s c o n d i t i o n o c c u r s , it c a n b e

Ch.7.

S t r e s s and F a m i l y V i o l e r c e

s a i d t h a t t h e s t i m u l u s is i m p o s i n g a "denand" on i r - v c l v e d , by r e g u l r i r g t h a t Some r e s p o n s e be a a l l e v i a t e t h e s t r e s s o r s i t u a t i o n a n d remove t h e t h r d a n g e r o r disruption. Some t h e o r i s t s h a v s v i e w e d StrPssor s'im necessarily synorymoos with major tragedi catastrophes. This i d s a is u c f o r t u n a t e , f o r i t igno s u b t l e e f f e c t s of l e s s d r a m a t i c s t i m u l i . Re S Eoward r o t e : The c o n c e p t o f s t r e s s h a s b e s n t 3 o c l o s T equated with extreme trauma acd duress. a s s o c i a t i o n h a s hed t h e e f f e c t o f d i v e r t : a t t e n t i o n away from t h e s t u d y o f s t i m u l i t h a r e w e a r i n g t o t t e o r g a n i s m , and t h a t hav important physlological acd psychologicl COnSsquences f o r it, b u t which a r e n e i t h c d r a m a t l c o r e s p e c i a l l y ur.usual...both trauaati and n o n t r a u m a t i c but wearing events ar S t T e S S f U l i n ? h e SeCSE t h a t t h ~ yb o t h p r o d u c the same types cf ptysiological ac p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e s (1970:266-267). IC f a c t , i t is n o t e v e n n e c e s s a r y t h a t the. s t i m o l viGved i n n s g a C i v e t e r m s . Hany c e u t r a l l y o r even p o s i d e f i n e d r t i m o l i a x e c a p a b l e o f p l a c i n g g r e a t demands B. t h o s e e x p e r i e n c i n g them ( K o l a e s a n d Bahe, 1 9 6 7 ) . p e o p l e r e s p o n d a s much t c t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n o f a s i t u a t i t o the actual situation, virtually a l l stimuli i n S o c i a l environmezt have t h e p o t e n t i a l t o produce s t r e s s some i n d i v i d u a l s .

2. O ~ j ~ g DEmand. v e This r e f e r s t o t h e "object realit? of a g i v e n s i t u a t i o r . To t h e e x t e n t t h a s t r s s s o r StimU1uS p o s e s demands t h a t a r e i n d e p e n d e n t of cognitive procosses of d e f i n i t i o n and percoption, I n d i v i d u a l O r g r o u p i n v o l v e d c a n be s a i d t o b e e x p e r i e n c objective demand. While p e r h a p s q u i t e csmmon a T p h y s i o l o g i c a l o r S i o c h e n i c a l l e v e l s of hnnan E r i s t e n s t r e s s o r s t h a t cornpletsly bypass c o g n i t i v e auarsness e v a l u a t i o n a r e p r o b a b l y somewhat r a r e a t t h e s o c i a l l e v Rowever. t h i s i s no? meant t o i m p l y t h a t o b j e c t i v e dsmana n e v e r a n importanC aspect of "sociolzglcal" str situations. For example, f a c i n g t h e t h o u g h t of p a r a c h u t fxom a p l a n s . 0; b e i n g c o n f r o n t e d b y w h i t a p p e a r s t o be armed c r i m i n a l , a r e s i t u a t i o n s t h a t p o s e a r e r y r e a l t h r t o t h e unfortunate victim, irdependent of that pars3 s p e c i f i c e v a l u a t i o n and d e f i n i t t o n of t h e s i t u a t i o n .

-- ---

3. S u b j ' = i & E Qg-=d. ?.ppley and ?rumbull h Observed t h a t . "With t h e e x c e p t i o n of EXtreBs and s u d l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g s i t u a t f o r s . it i s r e a s o n a b l e t o s a y t h a t s t i m u l u s i s a s t r e s s o r t o a l l i n d i v i d u a l s txposed t 3 i (1967:7). T h i s v a r i a t i o n i n what i s v i e w e d a s s t r e s s f u l

145s

and Family V i o l e c c e

Page 97

i n d i v i d u a l d i f f c r e z c f s i n l e a r n i n g and e x p e r i s a c e . h a s a p t l y n o t e d , "Ran is vulnerable [ta s t r o s s ] he r e a c t s n o t o n l y t o t h e a c t u a l J X I S ~ C C S of b u t t o t h r e a t s and symbols of danger e r p e r i e c c s a i n t" (1968:3). therefor^, ii f r e q u e n t l y h a p p e n s t h a t a 5 p o s i n g 10 r e a l " O b j e c t i v e " danger i s nonerhsless e d a n d d e f i n e d + s p r o b l ~ m a t i c . 12 s o c h a n i r s t a n c e , es l i t a e d i f f ~ r e l c f how mnch o b j e c t i v e demand g exists: what p : irportazt is that the definition e r o r t h r e a t h a s been made, and t h s i n d i v i a u a l f s ) d w i l l be a c t i n g i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h i s d e f i n i i i o n . t h e t e r m i n o l o g y o f t h e g e n e r a l stress s o d e l . t h i s c a n r r e d t o a s " s u b j e c + i v e ' demana.

RPsBzse S a D a b i l i t L s s . T h i s c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e s a l l a s k i l i s , a t t r i b u t e s . a n d r e s o u r c e s t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l up h a s a t i t s d i s p o s a l i n d s a l i ~ g v i t h s t r e s s o r i. RlthOUgh the list of pOssibl9 T%spDnse l l t i e s is F c d l e s s , some o f t h e more i m p o r t a n t o m s a i n c l u d e p a s t e x p e r i e n c e Ln a s a l i n g w i t h s i m i l a r 1886, v a r i o u s s k i l l s t h a t h a r e been l e a r n e d o r a c q u i r e d , l l i g e n c e and c r e a t i v i t y , t h e m o t i v a t i o n r o d e a l w i t h t h e a t i o n , s u p p o r t and e n c o u r a g e m e n t f r o m o t h e r s i n * h e - a 1 s y s t e m , t h e a s o o r t o f e n e r g y a v a i l a h l c , 325 t h ? i t y t o ccctrol o r e t s emcticnal state. ill o f these s e e l e m e n t s a r e v i e v e d by t h e g e n e r a l s t r e s s a o ? e l a s n i n g t o form a r e s e r v o i r of p o s s i b l ~ r e e p o c s a s t o ssful stimuli. 5, thgice of 2eazss. Rhen a n i n d i v i d u a l o r g r o u p i s r o n t e d by a s t r e s s o r s t i m u l u s , o n e o r more r e s p o n s e s be s e l e c t e d from t h o s e a v a i l a b l a a n d a p p l i e d 'cward s stressor. Obviously, j u s t as i n d i v i d u a l s ana g r o u p s y s u b s t a n t i a l l y v i t h r E g a r d t o what :hey s e z a s p o s i n g a e a t o r problem. s o a l s o w i l l t h e y v a r y i n t h e i r c a p a c i t y d e a l w i t h v a r i o u s e i t u a t i a n s acd i n t h e repocses t h a t Bousver, it seems e y w i l l make 11 a g i v e n s z t u a t i o n . a s o n a b l e t o assume t h a t , i r t h e g r e a t ~ a j o r i t y o f c a s e s , e f f o r t w i l l b e m d e t o meet t h e i n p a n d t n g d e a a n d s t o t h e a t e s t degree possible. This d o e s n o t imply t h a t t h s b e s t i c e "ill a l u a y s b e made, b u t it d o e s a s s o n e ths: t h e i v i d u a l o r group w i l l he n o t i o e t s a t o a c t i n i t s b e s t e r e s t by making what i t b e l i e v e s t o be an a p p r 3 p r i a t e 6 , S t r e s s Lev1.2. I f t h r~e s p o n s e made t o a s t : e s r o r s t i m u l u s i s S u t f x i e n t t o meet and s l i m i n a t e t h e d p n a n d s b e i n g p o s e d by t h a t s t i m u l u s , i t c a n be s a i d t h a t n a s t e r y , o r ~ u c c ~ s s f u rlE s o 1 u t i o P of t h e problem, h a s t a k e n p l a c e . Under t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e s t r e s s o r s i t u a t i o n s h o u l d no l o n g e r be p r o b l e m a t i c . I n f a c t , t h s i n d i v i d u a l o r group w i l l p r o b a b l y b e more e f f e c t i v e i n d e a l i n g w i t h s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s i n t h e f u t u r e b e c a u s e o f t h i s experience ( S c o t t and a o v a r d . 1970:272). I n t h i s s e r s e , it c a n b t a r g u a d ' t a t stress h a s c e r t a i n p o s i t f v e consequences, p r o v i d e d it

Ch.7.

S t r e s s and Family BLoleece

r e m a i r s w i t h i n r e a s o n a b l e limits. Eowever, ? h e r a s p o n s e made t o a s t r e s s o r s t i n o t g u a r a n r e e t h a t demand w i l l b e e l i m i n a t e d insLances, t h e responsefs) rill b~ insuffi inappropriate. and m a s t e r y w i l l n o t occur. Th s u c h f a i l u r e on t h e p a r t o f r e s p o n s e c o p a D i a c c o r d i n g t o t b e g e n e r a l stress model, a n i n c r e a " s t r e s s l a v e l ' of those Lnv~lved. Viewing "stress" a s t h e d i s c r e p a n c y betw€en d response capabilities is cot a nev i a e a : c a n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n i s s u g g e s t e d by Mechanic (1962: 1968:301) and XcGrath (1970:17-211, and i s i n p l i c i a n d s o w a r d ' s e p r o h l e n - s o l v i n g w s t r e s s model (1970 1965). E c c o l d i n g t o t h i s view. t h e g and S c o t t , d i s c r e p a n c y between i m p e n d i n g demands an* 4 a i s t i l g c a p a b i l i t i e s . t h e g r e a t e r t h e s t r e s s l e v e l of t h e i o r group i n question. I n u s i n g t h e term " s t r e s s r a t h e r t h a n simply ' s t r e s s , " t h e g r n e r a l stre a s s u m e s t h a t man a n d t h e g r o u p s h e f o r m s a r e i n ?. c s t a t e of s t r e s s , and t h a t a s-&Qt_e congru?rce demands a n d r e s p o r s e c 2 p z h i l ; t = e s f o r acy indLoi group i s impossible.

In a c c o r d a n c e v i t h t h i s v i e w t h a t s t r e s s "constant" i n huaan e x p e r i e n c e , t h e g e n e r a l s t r e s s Suggests t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s ana groups adapt t o t h i s f a c l i f e by d e v e l o p i n g a s L r e s s l e v e l a t v h i c h t h e y f e e c o m f o r t a b l e a r d f u n c t i o n most E f f e c t i v e l y . ThPsa flop s t r e s s l e v e l s d e v e l o p o v e r time, a n d t h e y r e p r e s e combined p r o d u c t o f a number of s o c i a l , psychological StruCturaL f a c t o r s . Scot'. and Howard s u g g e s t t h a t i h = w i d e I n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e s e optimum s t r e s s 1s w i t h some p e r s o r s a c d g r o u p s d e a a n d i 3 g more c o n g r u e n c e others: The c a t u r e o f t h i s l s v e l v a r i s s tremendously BmOng individuals: T h e r e a r s p e r s o n s xho r e g u i r e h i g h and s u s t a i n e d l e v e l s o f s t i m u l a t i o r i n o r d e r t o f e e l c o m f o r t a b l e and s a t i f l e d : t h e r e a r e o t h e r s vho r e q u i r e c a m p a r a t i r e l y l a w levels of srlmulatlcn, a n d v h o f s e l most C o m f o r t a b l e when demands made o n them arr tightly d i s p e r s e d a r o u r d v e r y low a c t i v i t y l e v e l s (1970:270).

I n a d d i t l o n t o p u r e l y i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n optim str%ss l e v e l . s u b s t a n t i a l m a c r o s c o p i c v a r i a t i o n b e t v s E n a among s o c i e t i e s is a l s o l i X s l y , w i t h sems g r 2 u p s a c c u r t a m t o a much h i g h e r l e v e l of s t r e s s t h a n o t h e r s . B e c a u s e t h e s e optimum s t r e s s l e v e l s a r e , i n e f f e c t , c u m u l a t i v e p r o d u c t o f a l l p a s t e x p e r i e n c e , t h a y a r e lik t o be f i r s l y e c t r e n c h s d a r d q u i t e r e s i s t a n t t c r a p i d

s~

and F a n i l y V i o l e n c e

Pilge 9 9

nge.

On t h e o f h e r h a r d , a n i n a i v i d u a l o r g r o u p ' s is l i k e l y t o be s u b j e - ? to f l u c t u a t i o n , d e p e r d i n g on t h e p a r t L c u l a r s t i m u l i d. F o r t h e most p a r t , t h e s e c h a n g e s s h o u l d b e 811nor. 211OY%Dg t h e s t r e s s l e v e l t o r e m a i n w i t h i n limits. In those le, o r a t least tolerable. i n which c h a n g e s a r e n o t minor, w h e r e s t r e s s l e v e l exceeded, t h e s i t u a t i o n becones problematic.

+&& s t r e s s l e v e l

d i n g t o t h e g e c s r a l s t r e s s model, c h a n g s s i n e v e 1 o c c u r w h e t h e r t h e d i s c r e p a n c y between demands n s e c a p a b i l i t i e s is "positiven o r "negativeo i n Just a s t h e demands b e i n g p l a c e d ??. a n 1 o r g r o u p n a y b e c o o g r e a t , s o t o o c a n t h e y be t o o G r a t h u s e s t h e t e r m s " o v e r l o a d " and u u n d e r l o a a m t o h i s d i s t i c c t i o n , and s t a t e s :

.

re is ncw a substantial body of it~ratDre...whlch s u g g e s t s t h ~ t tress-like f f e c t s may r e s u l t f r o m a n env:ror.ment that p l a c e s t o o l i t t l e a s n a n d on...tha f o c a l organism works s u c h a s Paliner's t h e o r y l i n k i n g " t ? n s i ~ n ' and ce (197U; 1972). Klausner's s t u d i e s of s t r e s s - s e e k i r g , A e r o c ' s i n v = s + i g a t i o n of t h e ' l p a t h o l o g y of b o r e a o a " and s e i d ~ r b e r g ' sc l i n i c a l d e s c r i p % i o c of t h e "trauma t l 9 s s n e s s 1 ' (1972) seem t o s u p p o r t t h e c o 9 t e n t i o n ? h a t t l e demand c a n b e j u s t a s d a n g e r o u s 2s t o o much.

o s u m n ~ r i z et h e n o t i o n o f s t r e s s l e v e l , it c a n be s a i a " S t r e s s n o t o n l y r c v o l v e s a * s t a t e ' of t h e f o c a l SP and a ' s t a t e ' of t h e environment, but a l s o i n v o l v e r The .latlonship between t h e two11 (McGrath. 1970:16). ter t h e discrepancy betvefn e x i s t i n g demanas and l a b l e respocse capabilities, t h e g r e a t e r v i l l be t h e s5 l e v e l of t h a t i n d i v i d u a l o r grcup. T3 t h e e x t e n t t h i s i m b a l a c c e i s n o t p r e s e n t l y , and d o e s 0 9 t s u d d e n l y me, t o o g r e a t : a s l o r g a s m a s t e x i s t i n g demands c a c b s t s a t i s f a c t o r i l y from w i t h i n t h e s e r e s p o n s e c a p a b i l i t i e s ; d a s l o n g a s enough demand e x i s t s t o c h a l l e n g e t h e d i v i d u a l o r group s u f f i c i e n t l y . f h e s t r e s s l e v e l c l n be i d t o h e a t a minimal. nonproblematic l e v e l . iioverer. if i n c r e a s e i n t h e a c t u a l s t r e s s l e v e l of a r i n d i v i d u a l o r r o u p i s a s i g n i f i c a n t d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e optimum s t r e s s ~ v e l o f t h a ; i n d i v i d u a l o r g r o u p , t h i s c h a n g e is l i k e l y t o ve o v e r a l l n e g a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h o s e i c v o l v e a .

Ch.7.

S t r e s s and Family V i o l e n c e

unresolved S t r e s s S l t u a t l o n s I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h u s f a r , it h a s b e e n a r g u e d t h variables i n t e r a c t t o determine an individual's o r g s t r e s s level. From t h i s p r o p o s i t i o n , i t f o l l o w s t h a t a i l u r e t o a c h i e v e m e s t e r y o v e r a p a r t i c u l a r st s t i m u l u s c a n b e ~ t t r i b u t e dt o ( 1 ) t h e n a t u r e o f t t . ~st situation, and/or (2) t h e r e s p o n s e ( s ) made by Experiencing t h i s s t r e s s o r s i t u a t i o n . As ve s h a l l characteristics cf e a c h o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s o f t h e s e x p e r l e f i c s c a n p r e c l u d e s u c c e s s f u l r e s o l u t i o n 3f t h e p a t hand. that

First, i n considering s t r e s s o r s t i n u l i , it i s o problems v a r y i r terms o f t h e i r p o t e n t i a

response. n o m a t t e r what t h e y a t t e a p t . S c ? r t and Pouara (1970:271; Yoward a n d S c o t t , 1965:146-147) b a v s identified t h r e e t y.p. e s of problem s r t u a t l o n s t h a t p r e l u d e s u c c e s s f u l map:=ry: (11 prctl+ms *tk- jcsc d e a a c l s r r FIC?:s :f ?he org??:sa.n r e p o r r e c?p=.b:lil:=s. (2) p r o b l = l r i k a t t a w * co demands e x i s t . s o t h a t i t is i m p 3 s s i b l e t o mse s ~ c c e ~ ~ F u 1 1 yIP . a n y of t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s , no n a t t s r e s p o n s e ( s ) a r e chosen, t h e y simply w i l l n o t be s u f L t o a c h i e v e maszerp a v e r t h e s t r e s s o r s t i m u l u s . C o n c e r n i n g t h e r e s p o r s e s made t o s t r e s s s i t o a t S c o t t a n d Howard (1970:272: Eoward a n d S c o t t . 1965:147have r.icely d e l i c e a t e d a typology o f possLble resp3c T h e s e i n c l u d e (a) t h e a s s e r t i v e r e s p o n s e , i n which t i n v o l v e d meet t h e p r o b l e m "head-on," and a t t e m p t t o s o l v i n a d i r e c t and meafiirgful f a s h i o r . , (b) t h e d i v ~ r e s p o n s e . i n which r e s o u r c e s a n d e E e r g y a r e a p p l i e d t o problem b u t a r e ~ 1 s d i r e c t e d . t.t;us l e a v i n g t h e a c t u a l pr v i r t u a l l y untouched, and ( c ) t h e i n e r t response, i n e f f a %on-response.' i n which t h e r e i s no m e a n i n g f u l a t t 4 made t o r e s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m a t h a l d . Even r n stress s i t u a t i o n s i n which a n i n d i v i d u a l group faces a stresscr stimulus that is potecti solvable--in t h a r they possess response cepabili sufficient ro meet i t s demands--only by z h o o s i n g a s s e r t i v e response w i l l they a c t u a l l y achieve msster Divergent o r i r e r t responses a r e not a c t u l l l y d i r e c t e d t h e problem ir q u e s t i o n ; t h u s , t h e s e r e s p o n s e s a r e u n a b t o C o n t r i b u t e d i r e c t l y t o a r e s o l u t i o n of t h a t problem.

s t r e s s and P a n i l y V i o l e n c e

Psge 1 0 1

~ e n c e so f t h e F a i l u r e t o A c h i e v e n a s t e r y

r t h e a b o v e r e a s o n s , t h e r e a r e r u a e r o u s stress t i o n s i n whlch t h e demands p o s e d by a s t r e s s c r s t i s u l u s o t b e met s u c c e s s f u l l y . Responses t o t h e s e s z r P s s o r s e made, y a t m a s t e r y o f t h e s i t u e t i o n f l o s s n o t r e s u l t . p l a i n e d e a r l i e r , ' h i s d i s c r e p a n c y between demand a n d e c a p a b i l i t i e s r e p r e s e n t s t h e s t r e s s l e v e l of t h s u a l o r group i n question. And, t o t h e a x t e n t t h a t i s c r e p a n c y r e p r e s c c t s a d r a s t i c o r m a j o r c h a n g e 2n Stress l e v e l - - i n t h e d i r e c t i o n away from o n e ' s o p t i m a l s level--it i s t o be e x p e c t e d r h a t t h i s u n r e s o l v e d s i t u a t i o n may become e v e n more p r o b l e m a t i c a v e r t i m e . o r s x a m p l e , ? h e c o n t i n u e d p r e s e n c s o f t h s s t i l l onmet nay h a v e a s e r i o u s i m p a c t npon t h o s e i n r c l ~ e 3 . F o r e, t h e f a i l u r e t o r e s o l v e a problpm o f f = ~ l t y n i c a t i o n betweex a h u s b a n d a c d w i f e c a r e a s i l y l s a a t o , m o r ~s e r i o u s , m a r i t a l p r o b l e m s .

s

1 second p o s s i b l e consequ-nce 3f a? iniffmcLive o n s e t o stress may b e t h a t , n o t o n l y h a s t h i s r e s p o z s e ed t o d e a l with t h e c r i g i 2 a l problem, b u t i t pay h a v e 1s w ~ l f f v e r t e n t l y i n t r o d u c e d new s t r e s s o r s t i m u l i . 8:3) s u g g e s r s , t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a r e s p o n s ? mede t o a 55 s i t u a t i c n may t u r n o u t t c he mare d ~ m a g l r gt h i n t h e cts of t h e s t r e s s S i t u a t i o n i t s e l f . Par zxsmple, e r e a s a h u s b a n d h i t t i n g h i s w i f o might a p p e a r t o i ? r m i n a t a f e c t i v e l y a c u r r e n t nari'al argument, t h i s divergent sponse could, on a l o r g - t e r m b a s i s , c s u s s r ? s c n t m e r f and s t i l i t y t o b u i l d up w i t h i n t h e w i f e , t h u s p o s i n g an e v e n r e s e r i o o s problem f o r t h e f u t u r e .

E l s o , t h s r e i s what S c o t t a r d Rovard h a v e t e r m e d t h e c o r d o r d e r problem" o f h a n d l i c g t h e u n r e s 3 l v e d t = n s i o n s t have a r i s e n d u r i n g t h e a t t e m p t t o r e s o l v e t h e c u r r e n t 45.5 situation. These " t e n s i c n s n r e f e r t s a s t i t e of rgy arousal within t h e individual. I n t h e words of Sco't EOwBrd:

...

e v e c when p r o b l e m s E r e s u c c e s s f u l l y s o l v e a . 3 t i m e gap e x i s t s between t h e i n i t i a l p r c v o c a t i o n and t h e u l t i m a t e r e s o l u t i o n . During t h e t i m e i r which t h e problem i s b e i n g d s a l t w i t h , t h e organism 1s i n a s t + t e o f q r s a t e r ar l E S S = r Bobilization, a s t a t e i n u h i c h Energy and r e s o u r c e s are bound up s o t h a t t h s o r g a n i s m experiences tension. In cases of successful are evantually problem salving. tonsicns d i s s i p a t e d and t h e organism r e t u r n s t o i t s u s u s l l e v e l of functioning. when p r o b l e m s a r e c o t Solved, however. tensions persist until The mechanisms a r e f o u n d t o c o p e w i t h them. f a i l u r e t o master t h r e a t s t h e r e f o r e gives r i s e t o a second-order problem: t h a t of dealing

...

Ch.7.

Stress ard Pamllp Vrolence

Page 102

Page 103

r---~ C T ~ S S O should ~

.~

~resentno further difficult~. Rcuever.. ir -~ instances, the stressor situation will not be resalved he responses made. Ir these situations, the disczspancy een demand and responsa capabilities rspresents an ease in stress level. This increase in stress leo.1 has potenfial to produce additional problems for those Ired. Let us now apply this framework to the stuay of ~

~~~

APPLYING TRE G W F R A L STRESS MODEL TO InTBAPAnILP B I O L 3 7 C Y ss and %he Family

A number of theorists have already begun to irdicite importance of "stress" for explaining a major portion of afaeily violence, especially in the area of chila sbuse. example, Blumberg (1964-1965) views overz~alonsphysical shment of children by parects as being as much s result the various 5treSSe~experienced by *he child's pareots t is a result of the actual desire or neea to coctrol child's behavior. In Plumberg's words, "When everything getting On top of 2 no+her she smacks more" 64-1965:19Y). Gil (1971) explains . socioec3nomic fferences in child abose as resulting at least partially m the difterential number and saverity ~f strassful eriances characterizing family life at different social ss levels. In explaining violence directea toward laren, Gelles' "social psychological' model of child use (1973) attributes primacy to a variety of "situational The ccnmon thread rurnicg through these statements is at any theory that attempts to explain irtrafamily olence nust give primary consideration to the structural biables likelp to determine a family's predisposition to olence. This is precisely what the stress fraseuork 1 1 0 ~ s US to do. since it views these structural - ~- variables StrPsSOr SIinuli thac impose demands on individuals and milies, and to which scme response must be made if stress VelS are to remain within tolerable limits. ~

There can be little doubt that the modern family, both a social unit and through its indiviaual members, cour.ters numerous stressor stimuli in the course of its y-to-day existence. As Campbell statss,

[ M o d e r n ] c h a n g e s [ i n f a m i l y s o l i d a r i t y ] a o 30 n e c e s s a r i l y s i g n i f y a d e c l l n e i n t h e impnrtanc Of t h e f a m i l y . They do r e f l e c t t h e i n c r e a s i n p r e s s u r e s which t h e f z m i l y i s under--but t h ~ s s t r e s s e s f r e q u e n t l y stem p r e c i s e l y from t h e f a c t h a t more i s b a i n g drmanded o f f a n i l y l i f e t h a n e v e r b e f o r e (1969: 251)

-

The s t r e s s o r s t i m u l i t h a t c o r f r o n t f a s i l i e s and members s t e m f r o m many d i f f e r e n t s c u r c e s . For example a r e relatsd t o t h e functions t h a t t h e famil7 is "entr u i t h p e r f o r m i n g , b o t h w i t h r e g a r d t o i t s i n d i v i d u a l me and t o t h e l a r g e r s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . Others a r e t h e of PErtiCUlar c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of i 3 d i v i d u a l family such a s t h e i r s t a t u s i n t h e scc'el s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s y s t t h e i r p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n i r t h e " f a m i l y l i f e c y c l e . " Eo r e g a r d l e s s of t h e S p e c i f i c o r i g i n s o f t h e s t r e s s c r s t h a t c o n f r o n t any p a r t i c u l a r family. t h e p o i n t t n b h e r e i s t h a t t h e s e c o n f r o n t a t i o n s a r e f a c t s of l i f e - - n o t i s o l a t e d and o u t - o f - t h e - o z d i n a r y CccurrencEs

I n addrtion t o these external stresses, the f i t s e l f is o f t e n a s o u r c e o f stress. i n t h a t many p r o c a n be t r a c e d back t c p a r t i c u l a r f a m i l y s i t o a t i m stroctures. F o r example, Croog (1970) n o t e s t h a t problems a s i n t r a f a m i l y v a l u e c o n f l i c t s , t h e p a r t i c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e various stages of t h e family c y c l e , and problems o f r o l e c o n f l i c t a r e p o t e n t i a l s o o Of Stress t h a t a r i s e f r o m d i r e c t l y v i t h i n t h e E a s i l y u IP a d d i t i o n t o t h o s e s t r e s s e s t h a t e m a n l t e from w i t h i f a m i l y a r e numerous e v e n t s e x p e r i e n c e d by i n d i v i d u a l me m t h e " e x t e r n a l world,* v h i c h a r e t h e n b r o u g h t back t h e family s e t t i n g . R l t h c u g h t h e f a m i l y i s comnsnly Lho o f a s a p l a c e v h i c h f a m i l y members c a n b r i n g t h e s e e x P r e s s u r e s and " l e t o f f s t e a m , " t h i s a c t i o n may h a v e o As n e g a t i v e consequences f o r t h e family a s a uhsle. s t a t e s , "The r e l e a s e of t h e s e e m o t i s c s n a y i n t h s m s c r e a t e t e n s i o n s i t u a t i o n s t h a t h a v e t h e e f f e c t s of strss a s f a r a s o t h e r f a m i l y members a r e c o n c e r n & " (1970: Even i n s i t u a t i o r s i n v h i c h t h e f a m i l y i t s e l f i s n o t s o u r c e o f a p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m , t h e f a m i l y may o e r e r t h e a m p l i f y t h e e f f e c t s o f t h a t p r o b l e m on i t s members, o p e r a t i n g a s a " c r y s t a l i z i n g e n t i t y v i t h i n vhich t s t r e s s o r s e m e r g e a n d e x e r t t h e i r i m p a c t " (Crsog. 1910:25 V l o l e n c e a s a Response t o S t r e s s If t h 9 f a m i l y d o e s e x p e r i e n c e numezous stres i t E o l l c u s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l f a m i l y mcmbsrs, situations. f a m i l i e s a s s o c i a l u n i t s , o f t e n w i l l b e c a l l e d on t o i t t s to meet a n d e l i m i n a t e t h e demands p o s e d b y v a r i stressors. 3.36, a s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , when c o n f r o n t e d w a s t r e s s f u l s i t u a t i o n , t h e s e p e o p l e w i l l l o o k '0 t h r e p e r t o i r e s o f r e s p o n s e c e p a b i l i t i e s a s t h e y t r y t o come

s t r e s s and Family V i o l e n c e

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response t h a t produces mastery. l e a r l y . a s Goode (1971:629) has suggested i n h i s u r c e t h e o r y " of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e , t h e p o t e n t i a l t o u s e c e c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s a n i m p o r t a r t r e s o u r c e of d u a l s o r groups. P n t i n t o t h e terms o f t h e g e n e r a l 5 model, t h e c a p a c i t y f o r v i o l e n c e r e p r e s e n t s a p o r t i o n i n d i v i d u a l ' s o r group's response c a p a b i l i t i e s t h a t can p l i e d t o t h e s o l u t i o c o f v a r F o u s problems.

st o n l y i s v i o l e n c e a Qpss&&f r e s p o n s e t 3 s t r e s s f u l .lors: in o u r s o c i e t y , it o f t e n r e p r e s e n t s a n &&t response. X s stein me?^ and Straus note. i c a n s h a v e a l v a y s had a p r o p e n s i r y t o u s e v i o l e n c e t o B major r e n a t i o r a l and p e r s o n a l goals4* 1 9 7 : 1 U l ) n f o r t h e prevalence of v i o l e n c e thr2ughout o u r t y ' s h i s t o r y h a s been t h a t 5 u r s o c i a l norms and r a l v a l u e s a c t u a l l y s a n c t i c r a n d l e g i t i m i z e t h u~s e o f n c e a s a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o r i n many s i t u a t i o n s ( s e e er 3 ) . T h i s C o r m a t i v e E p p r o v a l ? f v i o l e n c e seems t o b e i a l l y t r u e w i t h i n t h = c o n t e x t o f ths f a m i l y , w h e r r , f o r l e , i t i s a c c e p t a b l e , o r a t l e a s t p e r m i s s i b l e , t o spank sbehavlng c h i l d o r slap a nagging rife when unstances " c a l l for" s u c h behavior. IS

V i o l e ~ c eUsed a s a R e s p o n s e t o S t r e s s ?

The u s e of v i o l e l c e a s a p o s s i b l e r e s p o n s e t o s t r e s s uations represents an interesting paradox. The i l a b i l i t y of n o s t r e s o u r c e s f o r any p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l f a m i l y is l i k e l y t o depend o r a number of s t r u c t u r a l acd r s o n a l f e a t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g s o c i o e c o n c n i c s t a t u s , 39%. and x. Borever, v i r t u a l l y everyone p o s s e s s e s th+ r e s o u r c e o f s n t i a l violence. It i s t r u e t h a t d i f f e r e n t i n a i Y i a u c l s 1 r e q u i r e v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s t o provcke then t o e r t e n t t h a t t h e y w i l l commit a n a c t o f v i o l e c c a o r ression. I l s o , t h e a c t u a l means o f e x p r e s s i n g v i o l e n c e , t h e r e s u l t i n g msuccessn of t h e a c t , r i l l v a r y g r e a t l y . ever, t h e p o i n t t o b e made h e r e i s t h a t , w h e r e a s t h e s e s s i o n o f most o t h e r r e s o o r c e s v a r i e s from p e r s 3 n t o e r s o n and f a m i l y t o f a m i l y , t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r v i o l e n c e i s a c o n s t a c t " p a r t o f a l l i n d i v i d u a l and f a m i l y r e s p o c s e pabilltles, n o m a t t e r how e x t e n s i v e o r how minimal t h e malrder of t h e response c a p a b i l i t i e s . on t h e o t h e r hand, a l t h o o g h e v e r y o n e cqn u s e v i o l e n c e , a t e v e r y o n e do=. V i o l e n c e is n o t a l m y s t h e r e s p o n s e hosen t o a s t r e s s f u l s i t u a t i o n . I n f a c t . i t i s used Elatively infrequently. Thus. o ~ eq u e s t i o n of m a j o r m p o r t a n c e c o r c e r a s t h e i s s u e o f ~ g q pv i o l e n c e i s usEd a s a n S S E r t i V 0 r e s p o n s e t o a s t r e s s s i t u a t i o n . a n d Kg1 it is u s e d n those instances.

Ch-7.

S t r e s s and Family Violence

The A v a i l a b i l i t y o f R l t e r n a t i r e R e s p o n s e s t o S t r s s s One o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n a n s q u e s t i o n c o n c e ? n s t h e n a t u r e of t h ? o t h e r r e capabilities. A s B e t t e l h e i m s u g g e s t s . " w h e t h e r o r n w i l l u s e v i o l e n c e o r avoid it depends e n t i r e l y 0 . a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n 5 a r e known t o a p e r s o n f a c i n problem" (1967:301). S i m i l a r l y . S t e i n m e t z and S t r a u s a this

We b e l i e v e t h a t t h e w i l l i n g n e s s and a b i l i t y t o us6 p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e i s a 'resource'.... E f a m i l y member c a r use this resource tc CompePSate f o r l a c k o f o t t e r s u c h r s s o u z c e s i r money, k n o u l e d g e , a n d r e s F s c t (1974:9). Goode h a s d e v e l o p e d t h i s g e n e r a l i d s a i n b:s rtsg t h e o r y of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e (1971). Goode i d e n t i f i e s " f o a n d i t s t h r e a t " a s on9 o f f o u r m a j o r s e t s of r e s s u r c e s t a n i n d i v i d u a l c a n u s e i n c ? L c m p t i r g +o a c h i e r e d e s r r s d i V i o l e n c e c a n b e u s e d a s z r e s o u r c e uhen o t h e r a l t e r p a resources, i.e.. e c o n c m i c , p r e s t i g e , and t r a i t r e s o o r a r e u l a v a i l a b l e o r have proved i n e f f e c t i v e . RDusver, G e m p h a s i z e s t h a c t h e a c t u a l u s e of v i o l e n c e i s l i k e l y t d e p e n d e n t upon t h e s t a t e o f the individual~s resources. Thus. lf o t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e r e s o u r c e s do e it i s l i k e l y t h a t o n e o r more o f t h e s e w i l l be t r i a d s o l u t i o n t o t h e problem i n s t e a d o f v i o l e n c e . as states: most p e o p l e do c o t w i l l i n g l y c h o o s e overt v l o l e n c e vhen t h e y command o t h e r means b e c a u s e t h e c o s t s of using f o r c e a r e high i n a r y s o c i a l system, but especially i n t h e family.... C o n s e q u e n t l y , it i s a g e n e r a l r u l e t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e o t h e r r e s o u r c e s a n i n d i v i a u a l can command, t h e more f o r c e h e c a n m u s t e r . hut the l e s s h e w i l l a c t u a l l y d e p l o y o r u s e f o r c e i n 3n o v e r t manner (1971:628). Thus, we s e e t h a t v i o l e n c e and a g g r e s s i o n a r e ' s u b s t i t u t f o r o t h e r t y p e s of r e s o u r c e s vhen t h e s e o t h e r r e s o u r c e s a r o t a par' o f e x i s t i n g r e s p o n s e c a p a b i l i t i e s . S U b c ~ l t u r a lo r F a m i l y Norms R e g a r d i n g V i o l e n c e Ox t h e o c e hand, it h a s b e e n a r g u e d t h a t o u r s o c i h a s norms a n d v a l u e s t h a t p o s i t i v e l y s a n c t i o n t h e u s e vlOlePCe i n t h e f a m i l y s e t t i n g . Rnd t h i s l e g i t i m i z a t i o n a g g r e s s i v s b e h a v i o r is l i k e l y t o i n c r e a s e t h e e x t o n t which violence is ~ c t u a l l y u s e d a s a " p r o b l e m - s o l o technique" within t h e family.

h.7.

S t r e s s and Pamily Violence

Page 107

Aouever, a s Wolfgang a n d P e r r a c u t i s u g g e s t i n t h e i r s u b c u l t u r e o f v i o l e n c P t h e c r y (1967), i t i s a l s c l i k r l g * t h e n o r m s g o v e r n i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e u s e of o l a n c e w i l l a l s o vary somewhat wirhiq s o c i e t y . Thus, i n cme s e g m e n t s of s o c i e t y , v i o l e n c e nay be r e g a r d e d a s mars u l t u r a l l y a c c e p t a b l e t h a n it is i n o t h e r p o ~ t i o n so f A s t h i s 1eg:tiaation of violence v a n e s , the ociety. r e d i s p o s i t i o n t o use violence a s a response t o s t r e s s t u a t i o n s should vary accordingly. Thus, in those ubcultures.' a n d i n t h o s e p a r t i c u l a r f a m i l y ur:ts, vhere i s t i r g norms most e x p l i c i t l y s a n c t i o n violence and grfssion, we s h o u l d most o f t e n ~ x p p c t T o S p O n 9 5 o f a o l e n t nature. st E x p e r i e n c e w i t h V i o l e n c e

E m p i r i c a l e v i d e c c e s u g g e s t s t h a t p e r s o c s who b e h a v e g g r e s s i v ~ l y w i t h i c t h e i r f a m i l i e s t e n d t o have f a m i l y a c k g r o u n d s o f v i c l e n c e (Xeinpe e l 2.. 1962: S t c s l ? and o l l o c k . 1968: G i l . 1 9 7 1 ) . T h i s s u g g e s 5 s t h a t . n o 5 o n l y i s i o l e n c ~a l e a r n e d b e h a v i o r . b u t i n a d d i t i o n , i s t a u g h t end r z n s n i t t e d by t h e f a m i l y a s p a r t o f t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n recess. Thus. it c a n be a r g u e d t h a t t h e f a m i l y o p e r a t e s a s " t r a i n i n g ground" f c r v i o l e n c e ( S t e i n m e t z and S t r a u s , 974: Pa?? I V : G e l l s s a r d S t r a u s , 1978). Violence.

Tension. and F r u s t r a t i o n

Thus f a r , d i s c u s s i o n h a s c e n t e r e d on t h e use o f i o l e P c e a s a n a s s e r t i v e r e s p o n s e t o a s t r e s s 3 r s:imulus. h e i m p l i c a t i c n h a s been t h a t violent?, wher u s e d i n t h i s ashior. r e p r e s e n t s a r a t i o n a l a t t e m p t on t h e p a r k o f a e r s o n t o d e a l w i t h a p r o b l e a a t i c s i t u a t i o n i n what t h a t e r s o n b e l i e v e s i s a n a p p r o p r i a t e and e f f e c t i v e a a c n e r t o h i e v e a d e s i r e d end. T h i s c o a c e p t i c n of s t r e s s - i n d u c e d o l e r c e seems c o n p a r a b l e t o what G e l l e s and S t r a u s h a v e r a e d i n s t r u m e n t a l violerce--"the u s e of p a i r o r i n j u r y a s p u n i s h s e n t t o i s d u c e a n o t h e r p e r s o n t o c a r r y o u t some a c t

Ch.7.

S t r e s s and Family Violence

o r r e f r a i n f r o m ar act11 ( 1 ' 3 7 8 ) . Aovever, t h e r e i s a n o t h e r p l a c e i n t h e g e n e r a l model where v i o l e n c e i s e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r - a s a c o n s e q of t h e s e c o r d - o r e e r problems o f t e n s i o n and f r u s t r a t i s c a n r e s u l t from u n r e s o l v e d stress s i t u a t i o n s . In fa 15 h e r e t h a t i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e is l i k e l y t3 occu often--not a s an assertive, prcblem-oriectsd at+e achieve mastery of a s i t u a t i o n , but rathor a "irrational.' lashing-out b e h a v i o r spawned by s e e u n r e s o l v a b l e problems. And, just a s the concep s t r e s s - i ~ d u c e d v i o l e n c e appear; t o corresp3nd c l 3 s a G e l l e s a n d S t r a u s * definition o t " i n s t r u m e n t a l " v i o l e n c does t h e idea of violence a s a r e a c t i m t o frus'ratio t e n s i o n seem r o u g h l y c o m p s r a b l e t o " e x p r a s s i v a " V i o l e c d e f i n e d by t h e s e a u t h o r s - - - t h e usof p h y s i c a l f a c a u s e p a i n o r i n j u r y a s ar. end i t s e l f " ( G e l l e s a n d s 1978)

.

F r u s t r a t i o n and S t r e s s AS u s e d by S o c i a l scientists. the concfp f r u s t r 3 t i o n seams t o r 9 f e r most o f t e n t 3 i n e m o t i o n a l s a c c o m p a n i e d f r e q u e n t l y by a n g e r and a n x i e t y , t h a t may a vhen a n i n d i v i d u a l i s p r e v e n t e d from a t t a i n i n g a ass gnal. W e s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s a f f e c t i v e s t a t e of f r u s t r a can, l i k e tension, b e viewed a s a ' s e c o n d - o r d e r prob S p r i n g i n g from t h e f a i l u r e t o s a t i s f a c t o r i l y r e s o l v e s t r e s s situation--in e f f e c t , ar " e m o t i o r a l c o u n t e r p a r t t h e unexpended e n e r g y t h a t S c o t t a n d Bovard t e r m " t e n s i o

Tb* i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f s t r e s s - p r o d u c e d " f r u s t r a t i o n " t h e g e n e r a l stress modal a p p e a r s t o b s c o i s i s t e n t w i t rest o f t h e framework. I m p l i c i t i n t h i s trsatmen f r u s t r a t i o C a r e a l l of t h e n e c e s s a r y e l e m e n t s o f a s s i t u a t i o n discussed earlier: (a) a s t r e s s o r s t i m u l u s , t h e form o f a d e s i r e d g o a l , and p r e s s u r s s . b o t h i n t e r n a l external. t o a t t a i n t h a t aoal: lbl o b i e c t i v e scd S u b l e c t i v e demand t o a c h i e v e t h a t Goal:. t.c .l t h e r e s p o n s e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f t h e p e r s o n f r o m which an a s s e r t i v b , a n d (a divergent. o r a r t u e r t r e s p o n s e , w i l l be c h 3 s e n : d i s c r e p a n c y between demand and r e s p o n s e , i m p l y i n g t h a t . o l e recson o r another, t h e d e s i r e d g o a l h a s n c t be attaiced.

..

Vlewing f r u s t r a t i o n i n t h i s manner. t h e g e n e r a l s t r e model i s a b l e t o t r e a t a v i d e r a n g e o f s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o and c o n d i t i o n s a s n f r u s t r a t i c g . " For e x a a p l e , a mother m beccme u f r U s t r a t E d ' by t h e f a c t t h a t h e r young c h c o n t i n u a l l y c r i e s and misbehaves. e husband and f % t whose r a c i a l and e d u c a t i o c a l b a c k g r o u n d p r e v e n t s hLm f o b t a i n i n g a s t a b l e job t h r o u g h v h i c h he can s u p p o r t f a m i l y may w e l l be " f r u s i r a t e d * . by t h i s s i t u a t i o n . a no may f i n d t h e h o u s e w i f e - m o t h e r r o l e " f r u s t r a t = n g q l i n t c r s s

T h s Q e n e r a l s t r e s s model would n o t d e n v

the

important

e e n a s a r i s i n g from a n u n r e s o l v s d s t r e s s s i t u a t i o n . t h e a e n e r a l stress model s e e s a l l f r u s t r a t i o n a s l y i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f Stress, ln. t h ~ t it u l t i m a t e l y s f r o m t h e discrepancy b e t v e e n a d e s i r e d g o a l a n d t h e i t y t o aChieVE t h a t g c a l .

7s.

.ration

and t h e Family

A number o f i n v e s ? i g a t o F s h a v e l r c k e e fTuS+r?.ti3E w i t h afamily violence. F o r example, G i l ' s t h e ? r y of c h i l d = (1971) h o l d s t h a t t h e p o v e r t y e x i s t i n g i n t h e l o v e r econonic levels cf society creates frustrstions s e d 1c c h i l d abuse. O'Brien e x p l a i n s v i o l e n c e between n d s a n d w i v e s by s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e i n a b i l i t y t o h i e v e a d e q u a $ e e c o n o m i c r e v a r d s m i g h t r e s u l t i n "f a n i l y t e r e d v e n t i n g of t h e a g g r e s s i v e n e s s on t h e p a r ? of t h e s b a n d which had its antecedence in frusL.rstions o u n t e r e d i n t h e l a r g e r s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e s o c i a l and nomic w o r l d " ( 1 9 7 1 : 6 9 6 ) . s h i t e h u r s t (1974) p r e d i c t s t h a t t r e n d t o w a r d g r e a t e r e q u a l i t y f o r women may u s 1 1 p o s e a j o r s o u r c e of f r u s t r a t i o n , a n d h e n c e o f v i o l e n c e , f 3 r men c a n n o t c o p e w i t h t h e i r new s t a t u s .

BUT. v h a t i s i t a b o u r t h e f a m i l y t h a t h a s promptea t h e s e d o t h e r f r u s t r a t i o n - b a s e d t h e o r i e s of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e ? I s ere a s p e c i a l connec'ion b e t v e e n f r u s t r a k i o n and t h e mily? Is t h e f a m i l y a more l i k e l y s e t t i n g t h a n o t h e r c i a 1 groups f o r t h e geceration. and a c t i n g s u t . of ustration?

The f a m i l y c a n be r e g a r d e d a s a u r i q u e s o c i a l e n t i t y i n P a r t of t h e r e a s o n e r a s of i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r f r u s t r a t i o n . o r t h i s s p e c i a l positioz, a s discussed e a r l i e r , i s that the a m i l y r o u t i n e l y e n c o u n t e r s numerous s t r s s s o r s t i m u l i i n t h e c u r s e of i t s d a i l y Existence. The s h e e r number o f S t r e s s e s a c e d p r o b a b l y e n s u r e s t h a t et l e a s t some o f t h e s e c a n n o t b e esolved. I c additicn, t h e f a m i l y owing t o i t s p o s i t i n n i n o c i e t y a n d t h e m e c h a n i c s o f i t s i n t ~ r n a ls t r u c t u r e , i s i k e l y t o bp c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a number o f s t r e s s o r s t h a t h a v e l o v probability o f s u c c e s s f u l r e s o l u t i o n s c a h e n c e s h i g h Some o f t h ? more o t e n t L a l fcr g e n e r a t i n g frustrat:on. ommon " i n s o l u b l e n demands f a m i l i e s o f t e n f a c e i n c l u d e t h e

Ch.7.

S t r e s s and Family V i o l e n c e

t h e s ~ ~ ~ e s s fr euglu l a t i o n o f t h e c o n f l i c t s t h a t s o c c u r among i n t i m a t e s , +nd t h e s u p e r v i s ' o n of t h e a c t o f a l l t a a i l y members i r t h e e x t e r n a l world. Thus, t h e f a m i l y seems t o e n g e n d s r f r u s t r a t i o r b o t h q u a n t i t a t i v e l y and q u a l i ? a t i v e l y , it f a c e s problems i n t r y i n g t o c o u n t e r s t r e s s o r s t i a u l i . G e l l e s and S t r a u s probably do n o t o v e r s t a t e t h s a y i n g t h a t " t h e f a m i l y , by v i r t u e o f i t s s t r u c f u n c t i o n s , c a n be viewed a s a n i n h e r e n t l y f r u i n s t i t u t i o n f o r i t s members* (1978:28). Response C a p a b i l i t i e s o f F a m i l i e s However, t h e l a r g e number a n d v i d e v a r i e t y of d stress e x p e r i e n c e s a I e o n l y p a r t of t h e r e a s 9 frustration i s typical of families. Enothor s s t o f InCIEaSeS t h e l i k e l i h o o d of frustration w i t h l n - h e These t a c t o r s d e r i v e from t h e a b i l i t y of f a m i l i e s t o t h E s t r e s ~ e st h e y do f a c e . A l t h o u g h t h e f a m i l y may b e r e l a t i v e l y " s t r e s s - p does not n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w t h a t t h e fam w e l l - e q u i p p e d t o c o p e w i t h t h e s e s t r e s s o r s and t h e a t h a t t h e y impose. on t h e c o n t r a r y , apparently t h e u r b a n f a m i l y i s "a l e s s t h a n s u c c e s s f u l g r o u p d e a l i n s t r e s s e s a n d p r o b l e m s " ( G e l l e s a n d S t r a u s . 1978). it

T h e r e a r e many r e a s o n s f o r t h i s i n a d e q u a c y example, t h e s t a t u s p o s i t i o n s represented within t h e generate diverse, often conflicting, interests, and c o n f l i c t s nay i n t e r f e r e v i t h o p t i m a l decision-making. b e c a u s e t h e t y p i c a l moderr f a a l l y i s r e l a t i v a l y s m a l l i m i t e d rumber o f p e o p l e can be used a s r e s o u r a t t e m p t i n g t o cope v i t h a d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n . I n add t h e i n t i m a t e and i n t e n s e n a t u r e o f f a m i l y r e l a t i c o f t e n means t h a t d e c i s i o n s a r e made e m o t i o n a l l y r a t h e r rationally. T h e s e and o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e 1 t o render t h e family a r e l a t i v e l y i n e f f i c i e n t s c c i a l w i t h r e g a r d t o both t h e decision-waking and t h e p e r f , o f t a s k s b a s e d upon t h e s e d e c i s i o n s . Thls i n e f f i c o f t e n makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o mest t h e demands o f s u c h f a m i l y r a s p o n s i b i l i t i a s a s s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f t h e youo f u l f i l l a e n ? o f t h e e m o t i o r a l n e e d s o f a l l f a m i l y aembez s a y n o t h i n g of t h e more d r a m a t i c c r i s e s t h a t f r s q u b e f a l l inaividoal families.

t r e s s and Family Violsnce posed

stress

hy t h e s e s t i m u l i . model, the result

Page 1 1 1 Bnd, according t o t h e of t h i s unfortunate

f o r t h e g e n e r a t i o n of f r u s t r a t i o n . a s a R e a c t i o n t o F r u s t r a t i o n and T e n s i o n n i f we agree t h a t t h e likelihood of frustration g i n t h e f a m i l y 1 s h i g h , t h e e r u p t i o n o f xip&pgce i s aiced. R c a u s a l l i n k a g e is n e c e s s a r y t o d e t z r n i n e how frustration i n t h e fam'ly translates into i v e behavior. OaUSE t h e general stress model equatfs the it i s u s e f u l t o no?s o f t e n s i o n a n d f r u s t r a t i o n , t o S c o t t and Howard's treatment ~f tension 272-273) i n attoepticg t o detersice t t a relatiocship .n f r u s t r a t i o n a n d v i o l e n c e . These a u f h o r s a r g u e t h a t . a n i c d i v i d u a l i s f a c e d w i t h t h e " s e c o n d - o r d s r problem" - t e m p t i n g t o r e s o l v e t h e t e n s i o n c r e a t e d by a f a i l u r e a t y, t h e o n l y r p a l c o u r s e of a c t i o n s v a i l a b l e i s t o a t e t h i s a c c u m u l a t e d t e n s i o n t h r o u g h some mechanism o f e. Tha; s u c h a l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g is a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e n a l s t a t e o f f r u s t r ~ t i o c i s s h o r n by what EEndura :31-39) has r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e "aggressive d r i v e l e s n of v i o l e n t behavior, most n o t a b l e o f which i s d gt alL's " f r u s t r a t i o n - a g g r e s s i o n h y p o t h e s i s ' ' 11939). h e t h e r one p r e f e r s t o a t t r i b u t e t h i s behavior t o ses o f s o c i a l l e a r n i n g (Bandura a n d F a l t e r s . 1963; ,a, 1973; S t e i c m e t z and S t r a u s , 197U) o r t o i n n a t e gical potertial ( D o l l a z d p i gL.. 1939; a r d r e y , 1966: z. 1 9 6 6 ) . t h e r e c a n be l i t t l e d e n y i n g t h a t V i o l e n c E is i n l y o n e o f t h e more p o p u l a r means o f " b l o w i c g o f f i n our society. ffcr o n l y is v i o l e n c e a fig_ousg: nism o f t e r s i o n r e l e a s e , but, a t l e a s t i n emerica. r e s s i o n i s d e f i n e d a s a Erg&r e s p o n s e t o f r u s t r i t i o n " inmetz and Straus. 1974:9). Thus, t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t family h a s an R i n h e r e n t l y f r u s t r a t i n g " chanctsr, r e s s i v e violence should be expected t o occur often within family s e t t i n g . It s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t a d i s t i n c t , qualitative r e n c e e x i s t s b i t w s e n v i o l e n c e t h a t ts a n a s s e r : i v e . umental reponse t o a s t r e s s o r s i t u a t i o n , and v i 3 l e n c e is a n e x p r e s s i v e r e a c t i o E t o f r u s t r a t i o r and t e r s i o n . d i f f e r e n c e h o l d s even though t h e same stressor a t i o n c a n b e t h e s o u r c e o f v i o l e n c e i n b s t h o a s e s . and thouqh t h e s e two t y p e s o f v i o l e n c e can be outwardly istinguishahle.

.

The r e a s o n f c r making t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s t h a t v e r y f e r e c t c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s a p p e a r t o be i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e t y p e s of v i o l e n t a c t . on t h c o n e hand, strass-induced,

Ch.7.

S t r e s s and Family V i o l e r c e

Page 112

instrumental violence is problem-oriented goal-directed--an a t t e m p t t o d i r e c t l y meet a n d r e s o l v e demands p o s e d by a s t r e s s o r s t i m u l u s .

and the

On t h e o t h e r hand, frustration-produced, expressive It v i o l e n c e l a c k s t h i s r a ? i o r a l , problem-solving dimension. is n o t an a s s e r t i v e r e s p o n s e , a n d it i s n o t r e a l l y d i r s c t e a t o w a r d t h e s o l u t i o n o f a problem. l l t h o u g h t h i s k i n d of v i o l e n t b e h a v i o r i s g o v e r r e d , a t l e a s t t o some e x t e n t , by i n t e r n a l i z e d norms t h a t s p e c i f y s p p r o p r i l t s t y p e s o f c o r d u c t i n g i v e n s i t u a t i o c s ( G e l l e s and S t r a u s , 1978:21)--+nn thus i s n o t r e a l l y " u n c o n s c i c u s " o r "beyond t h e c o n t r o l " o f t h e actor--the f a c t remains t h a t e x p r e s s i v s violence doss not represent the rational, c a r e f u l l y chosrn rssponss t o a S t r 4 s s o r S l t u a t i o L t h a t i n s t r u m e n t a l v i o l e n c e doss. E x p r e s s i v e Vlolence and C c t h a r s x The g e n e r a l stress m o d e l ' s t r e a t m e n t of . e x p r e s s i v e v i o l e n c e d o e s n o t i m p l y a d h e r e n c e t o v h s t S t e i n m e t z and S t r a n s h a v e t e r m e d t.h ~ e " c a. thars%s ~ v t h n IlqlU!lu-~K. ~ Straus. 1974). P r o p o n e n t s of t ( D o l l a r d ey G . . 1939: B e t t 1968) h a v e a r g u e , ~ ~ violence tends t o ..,- - - - - . f e e l i n g s t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e more s e r i o u s a g g r e s s i o n r e s u l t s ; hence. t h e y r e g a r d t h e l i m i t e d Expression o f a g g r e s s i o n a s d e s i r a b l e and b e n e f i c i a l . Acwersr. t h e a e n e r a l s t~r e s s model does not consider frustration-produced violence i n such functionalist terns: r a t h e r . it e x p r e s s e s an e m p i r i c a l f a c t regarding intrafamily violence--that it is often a c o n s e q u e n c e o f u n r e s o l v e d stress s i t u a t i o n s , a n 8 t h a t t h e "intervening* process is frustration. ~

~~~

-.

~

~~

P o s s i b l y , e x p r e s s i v e v i o l e n c e d o a s improve a s t r e s s s i t u a t i o n temporarily. Even S t r a u s , a s e v e r e c r i t i c o f t h e c a t h a r s i s v i e w p o i r t , c o n c e d e s , ' T h e r e c a n be l i t t l e d t h a t an o u t b u r s t of a g g r e s s i v e a c t i v i t y i s o f t e n f o l l o v e a s h a r p r e d u c t i o n i n t e n s i o n , a n e m o t i o n a l r e l e a s e , and a f e e l i n g of quiescence. Thus, t h e r e is o f t e n a r =meed3 c a t h a r t i c e f f e c t " (1979a:25). However. even i f v i o l d o e s d i s s i p a t e accumulated f r u s t r a t i o n and t e n s i o n , t outcomes a r e probably o n l y temporary and s u p e r f i c i a l . P a long-term rievpoirt, it is doubtful t trustration-caused v i o l e n c e w i l l have acy mfaningf p o s l t i v e a f f e c t o n a problem: Expressive violenze r a r e 1 d i r e c t e d a t t h e g e r i u i n e c a u s e s o f a problem. Therefore. is u n l i k e l y t o change t h e c o c d i t i o n s t h a t caused t h e t e n s and r r u s t r a t l o n i n t h e first place. I n f a c t , because o f p o t e n t i a l f o r r e i n f o r c i n g f u t u r e v i o l e n t b e h s v i o r (Feshb 1970; Bandura. 1973:31-39: Steinmet2 and Str 1974:14-1.5)- e x p r e s s i v e v i o l e n c e n o t o n l y f a i l s t o impro p r e s e n t troablesome family s i t u a t i o n , but a l s o can c u n i n t e n d e d and u n d e s i r a b l e long-term consequences.

ch.7.

S t r e s s and Family V i o l e r c a

v w e r l o a d " v e r s u s "Underload"

Page 1 1 3

Stress Situations

E S O U T C ~ o f Some d i f f i c u l t y i r t h e scheme p r o p o s e d h e r e whether any q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t between e r l o a d " and "underlOzd*- s t r e s s s i t u a t i o n s i c their t r n t i a l f o r g e n e r a t i n g e x p r e s s i v e violent;. Rs d i s c u s s e d a r l l s r . t h e g e n e r a l stress model d e f l n e s s t r e s s a s sgp ~ g n i f i c a n t discrepancy between demand and r e s p o r . s e a p a b i l i t i e s , w h e t h e r demand e x c e e d s r e s p o n s e c a p e b i l i t i ~ s r v i c e versa. The c o n n e c t i o r s between s t r e s s , f r u s t r a t i c n , r d v i o l e n c e may be f a i r l y c l e a r i n t h e c a s e o f " o v e r l o a d " t r e s s situations: what a b o u t t h e c o r n e c t i o c s between x p r e s s i v e v i o l e n c e and " u n d e r l o a d " s t r e s s s i f u a t i o n s marked y excessive rootine, l a c k of challenge. and e g e n e r a l bsence o f s t i m u l a t i o n ?

g s g a r d i n g t h e c o m p a r a t i v e effects af ' * o v n r l n s d * r s r s u s n d s r l c a d " s t r e s s s i t u a t i o n s a s c a u s e s c f v i o l e n c e and g r e s s i o n , t h e p r e s e c t i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l stress d e l is t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e y a r e . i n e f f e c t . t h e same. This c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e "Clockwork Orange" t h e o r y o f f a m i l y l e n c e (GElles and Straus. 1978:30-32). vhich suggests t a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r o f t e n o c c u r s i n s i t u a t i o n s where e g l o v e f i t s t o o s m o o t h l y a n d f a m i l y members t r y t o . ' s t i r n g s upv j u s r t o maks t h i n g s i n t e r e s t i n g . " On t h e s t r e n g t h t h i s +hecry, then, o n e would e x p s c t p s r s n n r t o s t t a c k t h e r s VhEn t h e i r l i v e s a r e marked by boredom and l a c k o f citcment. j u s t as t h ~ y do when f a c e d by u n s o l v a b l e oblems. Aovever, t h e r e a r e t h o s e who would p r o b a b l y u e s t i c n t h i s a s s u m p t i o n ( P a l m e r , 1970; 1972: G e l l e s a n d traus, 1978:31), sugges5icg t h a t t h i s a s p e c t of the elationship between stress a c d v i o l e n c e n e e d s much n v e s t i g a l i a n b e f o r e t h i s q u e s t i o n c a n be r e s o l v e d .

Ch.7.

S t r e s s and Family B i o l e c c e

I f Sound, t h e g e c e r a l s t r e s s mods1 would seam t o a s t r o n g p o s i t i o n t o c o n t r i b u t e s o b s t e n t i a l l y tow It allows f o integrated theory of family violatce. incorporation of elements fron several imp social-psychological approaches t o family violenca example. frustration-aqgression t h e o r y and s o c i a l l e theory. Et t h e same time, t h e g e n e r a l s t r e s s model i n t o a c c o u n t t h e v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l f a c t o r s t h a t de?s which f a m i l i e s w i l l b e most l i k e l y t o E x p e r i e n c e s what r 3 ~ o u r c e st h e y w i l l h a v e a t t h e 3 d i s p o s a l i o a e s t r e s s , a n d , most i m p o r t a n t o f a l l , t h e l i k e l i h o o s t r e s s H i l l r e s u l t i n v i o l e n c e ( F z r r i n q t o n , 1975:37-45

NOTE * P o r t i o n s of s e c t i o n s o f t h i s p a p e r a p p e i r i n nTow G e n e r a l T h e o r y o f S t r e s s a n d F a m i l y v i o l r n c s . * by F a r r i n g t o n , a p a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 1975 a n n u a l r e e t i t h e R a t i o n a l C o u n c i l on F a m i l y R s l a t i o o s .

Chapter 8

The Paradoxical Nature of Family Relationships and Family Conflict Joyce E. Foss

Not a l l v i o l e n c e b e t v e e n f a m i l y members i s the result of a conflict. Ind c o t a l l c o n f l i c t s end i n v i o l e n c e . whether o r n o t t h e i n e v i t a b l e c o n f l l c t s of family l i f e eventuate i n viclence d e p e n d s p a r t l y on v h e t h e r t h e r e a r e a l t e r n a t i v e methods f o r r e s o l v i n g t h e c o r f l i c t . Bowever, i n C h a p t e r 7 P a r r i n g t o n p r o p o s e d t h a t f a m i l i e s may be s t r u c t u r e d i n a v a y t h a t a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t s t h e i r capabilities f o r resolving confllcts. In t h i s chapter. Poss examines t h i s c o n t e n t i o n i n more d e t a i l and a l s o c o n c l u d e s t h a t i n i n t i m a t e groups l i k e t h e family, s t r u c t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t s work a g a i n s t e f f e c t i v e c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n . rmong + h e f a c t o r s w o r k i n g a g a i x s t f a m i l i e s ' u s i n g c o n f l i c t ~ e s c l u t i o nt e c h n i q u e s t h a t h a v e a low p r o b a b i l i t y o f p r o d u c i n g v i o l e n c e a r e t h e high emotional investment betveer family members. t h e i r t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y i n v o l v e m e n t . and t h e k n o w l e d g s t h a t members c a n n o t s i m p l y p i c k up a n d l e a v e when a c o n f l i c t d e v e l o p s . S i m p l e a v o i d a n c e is a w i d e l y u s e d t e c h n i q u e t o p r e v e n t an e s c a l a t i o n i n t o v i o l e n t encour.ters. but it is a very d i f f i c u l t s t r a t e g p i n groups t h a t a r e s t r u c t u r e d t o g e n e r a t s high l e v a l s of i n t e r a c t i o ~ , ecoromic interdependence. and s m o t i o n a l commitment. Besides. a s Poss notes. t h e avoidance o f c o n f l i c t i n in+imate groups u i l l l e a d o n l y t o more c o n f l i c t .

Ch.8.

P a r a d o x i c a l Family R e l a t i o n s h i p s

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i n t e r p e r s o n a l violence and aggression. The i s s u e c f t h l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n f a m i l y s t r u c t u r a and c o n f l i c t a n r v i o l e n c e 1s i m p o r t a n t f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . Firs?, neithel f a m i l y s o c i o l o g i s t s n o r c o n f l i c t t h e o r i s t s g D n e r a l l y ha.,! t a k e n f u l l a d v a n t a g e o r t h e f a m i l y a r e n a a s one i n which c o n f l i c t approach might be u s e f u l l y a p p l i e d ( P a r r i n g t o n an( POss. 1977: Skolnick, 1973: Spre?, 1 9 6 9 ) . Second. more s p e c i f i c a l l y , c o n f l i c t t h e o r y h a s bear i a e n t i f i s a a s r p o t e n t i a l l y f r u i t f u l a p p r o e c h t o t h e s t u d y o f v i o l e c c e ir f a m i l i e s ( G e l l e s and S t r a u s , 1 9 7 4 ; S t e i r m e t z snd Strams, 1974:5-6). F u r t h e r , s e v e r a l o t h e r frameworks i 3 s n t i f i e a a a valuable i n t h e area, such a s resource, structura, exchange, and f r u s t r a t i c n - a g g r e s s i o n t h e o r i s s ( G e l l p s an[ S t r a u s , 1374). a l s o i n c l u d e c o n f l 2 c t a s a c + n t r a l coccept. Yet, thoogh c o n f l i c t o f t t n is p r e s e l t e d a s c e l t r a l t c , o r a p r e c o n d i t i o n for, v i o l e n c e . a s p e c i f i c t h e o r y of hor c o n f l i c t p r o c e s s e s a n d v i o l e n c e a r e r e l a t e d h a s n o t been adequately delineated. Lewis C o s e r ' s work o r c o c f l i c : p r o v i d e s a found for t h i s analysis: h i s extensive attention t o i n t i g r o u p s makes h i s work r e a d i l y a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e fsm T h i s c h a p t e r p r e s m t s a number o f p r o p o s i t i o n s c o n c e f a m i l y C o n f l i c t and v i o l e n c s and summarizes t h e formul In d i a g r a m m a t i c form. A major emphasis i n t h e chapt c a r e f n l s p e c i f i c a t i o n of k e y c o n c e p t s i n t h e a r e a .

TKX F91ILY PS A STRUCTURAL P E R A D O X COSerls a n a l y s i s of c o n f l i c t i n i n t i m a t e groups h i on a r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p a r a d o x i c a l n a t u r e of t Structure. I n t i m a t e groups a r e paradoxical i n t h a t t h s S t r n c t u r a l e l e m e n t s t h a t make h o s t i l i t y l i k e l y a l s o c r e a The h i g h probability t h a t h o s t i l i t y w i l l be s u p p r e s s e d . key characteristics of i n t i m a t e groups a r a t h e freguency of i n t e r a c t i o n and the total persona i n v o l v e m e n t among g r o u p membsrs. The f o l l o w i n g p r o p o s i t i i l l u s t r a t e t h e p a r a d o x i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e s e s t r u c t f e a t u r e s with h o s t i l i t y and t h e s u p p r e s s i o n o f h o s t i l i t y T W O f o c a l variables 1 r t h l s p a r t of t h e analysis a r e c o n f l l c t of I n t e r e s t a s d h o s t l l l t y . wblch a r e d e f l r e d a s rollo~s:

Conflict s f lpterest: hr. n o b j s c t r v € a s z t u a t l s r . In which two or more partles hold contradictory s a l o e s a n d c l a l m s o v e r scarce s t a t u s . power, a n d r e s o u r c e s .

8.

Paradoxical Paaily Relationships

Pags 117

T h i s d e f i n i t i o n of c o n f l i c t o f i n t e r e s t c o n c u r s v i t h er's use of phrases l i k e "conflict situation" o r c a s i o n s f o r c o n f l i c t ' t o r e f e r t o a s i t u a t i o n i n which i n t e r e s t s o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e o b j e c t i v e l y a t odds. r s h a r p l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s between such a s i t u a t i o n and l l c t i t s e l f , which r e f e r s t o a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d o f 5 g f 6 ~ ~ ehavioral strategy. T h i s d i s t i x c t i o n w i l l be f u ? t h e r Ros'ility a l s o o r e d when c o c f l i c t i t s E l f is d i s c u s s e d . no? a b e h a v i o r o r a c t i o n , b u t i s a ~ c Q j ~ ~ f fi eve l3i n g o f ositioc, t h a t may o r may s o ? o c c u r when p e o p l = h a v s flicting interests. i l y S t r u c t u r e and H o s x l l i t p I n t i m a t e groups

are

by

d e f i n i t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p e r s o n a l i t y i n v o l v a m e n t 2nd bp i g h f r e q u s n c y o f i n t e r a c t i o n ( C o s e r , 1956:611). Following work o f Simmel a n d F r e u d , C o s e r a r g u e s t h a t h a b i t u s l o r tense i n t e r a c t i o r "furnishes frequent occasions for nflict' (1956:62)--or f r e q u e n t c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t , i n rms of t h e p r e s e n t a r g u m e n t . I n r e l a t i o n s h i p s with 3 high equnncy o f i n t e r a c t i o n , c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t w i l l b e e d and numerous. I n c t h e r words. f r e q u e c t i n t e r a c t i o n u c e s b o t h a h i g h number o r E S Z ~ B ~ Pof c o n f l i c t i n g rests and a h i g h f r e q u e n c y w i t h which t h o s e c o n f l i c t s o f .rest w i l l arise. a l , r a t h e r t h a r segmented.

The r e l a t i o n s h i p be?ween degren 9f personality Olvement and c o n f l i c t o f i n t e r e s t i s s i m i l a r . "The more r e l a t i o n s h i p i s b a s n d on t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e t o t a l ocality--as distinct from s e g m e n t a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n " e r . 1956:62), o r t h e more b a s e s on which p e r s o n s a r e r a c t i n g v i t h Ens a r o t h s r , t h e g r e a t e r t h e v a r : D k Y a n d nency of t h e c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t t h a t a r i s e . Two o s i t i o n s can t h e n be s t a t e d : P , o ~ ~ b r & o1.p The more frequent :he i n t e r a c t i o n , t h e more f r e g u e n t a n d v a r i e d a r e C o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t . P r o ~ o g z % g 2. -involvement frequent interest.

The more t o t a l t h e p e r s o n a l i t y i n a relationship. t h e more and variea are conflicts of

c o s e r f u r t h e r a s s e r t s (1956:62): P r o g % i r ; i m 3. C o n f l i c t s --prcduca h o s t i l i t y .

of i n t e r e s t t e n d t o

T h i s proposition s t a t e s t h a t when p e o p l e a r e f a c e 3 w i t h o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t , s n b j e c t i v e f e e l i n g s o f ill w i l l o r position a r e likely t o arise. Bowever, t h i s r u l e i s n o t thout rxcepticn. F o r e x a m p l e , s u b j e c t i v e h o s t i l i t y map

n o t o c c u r when --Aobjectivelyn

'he participants define a s legitimate an u n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of r e s o u r c e s . Yet e v e n t h o u g h c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t do n o t a l w a y s laed to hostility, z t is a p p r o p r i a t e t o s t a t a p r z p o s i t i o n 3 a s a g e n e r a l tendency.

P ro e o s l t l o n 4. --

Preqosnt create hostxllty.

lnteractror

P r o p o s - ? l o % 5. Total prrsonallty tezds tc creat- hostlllty.

t a d s

to

involvement

To t u r t h e r s n m n a r i z e t h e a r g u m e n t t h u s f a r . if l r t r m a t e g r o u p s a r e t h o s e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by f r e q u e n t l n t e r a c t r o n a n d t o t a l personality I n v o l v e m e n t . t h e n :

a=~s&&?; 5. I n t z m a t e

relatlonshlps

tend

t>

create hostlllty.

P a m l l r S t r u c t u r e a n d Suppression o f A o s t z l i t y I n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s tend not only to hostility, but a l s o t o cause a high a f f e c t i v e o r expre i n v e s t m e n t i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t i n t u r n gene efforts to suppress hostility (Coser, 1956:EO-6 a f f e c t i v e i n v e s t m e n t seems t o i n v o l v s t v 3 e l e m e n t s : p o s i t i v e l i k i n g o r a t t r a c t i o n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . ana r e p l a c e a b i l i t y of t h e members o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p * l . Th two concepts a r e roughly e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e concepts C o n p a r i s o n L e v e l a n d Comparison L e v e l o f R l t e r n a t i v s s T h i b a u t and K e l l e y ' s exchange t h e o r y (1959). I n a c c o r d a n c e v l + h Aomans' hypcthssis t h a t i o c r ~ a s e i r t e r a c t i o n 1s r e l a t e d t o '*mutual s e n t l m e n t s o f l l k l n g , " C o s e r s u g g e s t s (1956:62) : ~ ~ = p o s l t l o1.n The more frequent the interactlon. the greater the posltlve affect among g r o u p members. The s p e c i f i c e f f e c t s o f p e r s o c a l i t y i n v o l v e m e n t a r e entirely clear in Caser's discussion, but it s . . reasonabls t o p o s i t t h a t t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y involvemeni a 0 n o t h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t d i r e c t e f f e c t on p o s i t i v e a f f e c t , b i n f l u e n c e s t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e r e p l a c e a b i l i t y of g r E r e l a t i o n s h i p c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t o t a l p e r s o n a members. involvement is l a r g e l y b u i l t on t h e unique c m t r i b u t i o n s B s Simmel p o i n t s o u t , t h i s i s e s p e c i a each personality. t r u e i n d y a d i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s l i k e m a r r i a g e (1950:122-1 when t h i s o c c u r s . t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f o n e g r o u p member a t t h e v e r y l e a s t s e r i o u s l y a l t e r t h e q u a l i t y of g relationships. Thus:

8.

P a r a d o x i c a l Family F e l a t i o n s h i p s P --

? a g e 119

.

r o The more t o t a l t h e p e r s o n a l i t y i n v o l v e l e r t i r a relationship, t h e lower t h e r e p l a c e i b i l i t y o f g r o u p members.

Ps suggested above, positive affect and low l a c e a b i l i t y o f g r o u p m e a b s r s c l n be f u r t h e r r e l a t e a i n a necting proposition. Proeg&r&ip 9 . ---

The g r e a t e r t h e p o s i t i v s a f f e c t a r d t h e l o w e r :he r e p l a c - a b i l i t y of g r o u p members, t h e g r e a t e r the c f f ~ c t i v e or e x p r e s s i v e inv=?:mert 1 n t h e group.

c o s e r f u r t h e r s u g g e s r s (1956, 1962, 1 9 6 8 ) : P r o E o s l f i o n 10. --investment i n

The g r e a t e r the affectivs a relationship, t h e greater the f e a r of d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p .

p=oEosi;t_Zor 11.

The g r e a t e r the fear if d i s s o l u t i o n or a r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e g r e a t m r t h e tecdency t o suppress h o s t i l i t y .

Rnd f i n a l l y , t o summarize. we c a n s t a t e : P r o p o s i t i o ~12. I r t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t e n d produce s u p p r e s s i o x o f h o s t i l i t y .

t3

r u m e n t a l DEpe2dency a r d S u p p r e s s i o n o f E a s t i l i t y The p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o r t r e a t s o n l y t h e h i g h a f l g E f i E p s t m e n t i n i n t i m a t e g r o u p s a c d i t s s u b s e q u e n t e f f e c t on r e s s i o n of h o s t i l i t y . There a r e a l s o significant rueectal icvestmects i n relationships. C o s 3 r v s Dsphasis n t i R a t E g ~ o u p st h a t a r e b a s e d o n v o l u n t a r y a s s o c i a t i o n havs influfnced his l a c k of a t t e n t i o n t3 t h e rumental a s p e c t s of i r t i m a t e r e l a t i o r s h i p s . This i s not a r t h a t v o l u r t a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e n e v e r b a s e d a: l e a s t i a l l y on i r s t r u m a n t a l concezcs. R a t h e r , we s u g g e s t t h a t relationships a r e r o c v o l u n t a r y t h e i r i n s t r u n e n t a l b a s e s me more i m p o r t a r t a n d n o r e a p p z r e n t . T h i s seems ? a b e c + s e w i t h t h e family. rs s p r e y p o i n t s o u t , " p a r t i c i p a t i o n i r t h e f s m i l y i s a t r o l y voluntary matter" (1969:702). I n the first e. c h i l d r e n h a v e n o c h o i c e i n p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n f a m i l y tionships. Secard, f o r a d u l t s , marriags is e s s e r t i a l l y the o l u n t a r y i n t h a t t h e r e i s "no r e a l a l t e r n a t i r e . . . 3 Sprey i e d s t a t e as a l i f - c a r e e r " ( S p r e y , 1969:702). €5 t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s h a v e l i t t l e o r n o cho:ce as t o her t o e n t e r family r e l e t i o n s h i p s i n general. Yet, + h e m m e r t a l dependencies i r family relatiorships ere -recognized ( s s e S c a c z o n i . 1970; 1972:62-66): hsving 2 e n t e r s d a p a r t i c u l a r f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p . I? i s a t b e s t

d i f f i c u l t t o 1 9 a v e it. T h u s , f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r r e l a t i v e l y nonvaluctary o r c o s x i v e a t t h i s l e v s l . d i f f i c u l t y i n l e a v i n g f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s s a y b4 d u e t o t h e a f f e c t i v e i n s e s t m e r t i n i n t i m a t e groups d i s c u s s C o s e r , b u t it i 5 a l s o d u e '0 t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i n v e r f n e a e p e n d e n c i e s o f f a a i l y members. That t h e high inaLrumenta1 investmsct t n f a s u p p r e s s e s h o s t i l i t y may a c C u a l l y h e c o r t r a d i c t o r y . z f f s c t i r e investment, high i n s t r u m e n t a l l n v e s m e n t i relationship may i n c r e a s e f e a r of t h e r e l a t i o n s h dissolving, and i r t o m p r o d a c e a t t e m p t s t o supp hostility. Thus. wa s t e t e a p t r a l l e l t o P r o p c s i t i v n 10:

13. Th? h l g h e r Lhe m s : r u m e n t a l l r v e s t n s n * IP a r e l a t l o n s h z p , t h e h l g h e r + h e p e a r if d l s s o l u t l o n o f t b s r e l a t l o n s h i p .

Propsa:loy

S ~ C SP r o p o s ~ t l o n1 1 f u r L h e r a s s a r t s t h a * f e a r I d l s s o l u t l o n p r o d u c e s suppression of h o s t l l l t y , we can t h , s!lggest t h a t t h s g r e a t e r + h e l n s t r u m e n t a l l n v e s t m e n t i n relatlonshlp, the greater t h e snpprasslon of bostilzty. o n t h e o t h e r hand, a f a m i l y member may be a w a r e of t t i r s t r u o e n t a l d e p e r a m c e of t h e o_t_hsy o n t h e r e l a t i o n s h Z p a, t h u s may r e c o g n i z e t h e l a w p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e o t h e r ' leaving. The p e r s o n may t h e n h a v e l e s s f a a r o f t l relationship's terminating ( p e r h a p s r i g h t l y s ~ ) a c d mc t h e r e f o r e b e &== l i k e l y t o s u p p r e s s h o s t i l i t y . Thr6 factors mitigate against this possibility. First i n s t r u m e n t a l i n v e s t m e n t may i n c r e a s e t h e f e a r o f d i s s o l u t r r i n d i r e c t l y , by i n c r e a s i r g a f f e c t i v e investmen'. This j Suggested i!! Scanzoni's exchange modol o f m a r r i a : (1970:16-25). Second, f a m i l y members may n o t r e z o g n i z e t t instrumental bhses ot thEir relationships. f hi n o n r e c o g n i t i o n may ever be the norm for aarite r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n which c u l t u r a l E m p h a s i s on r o m a n t i c l s v a e t h e b a s l s f o r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p may o b s c u r e t h e i c s t r u m e n t z aspects. Third, e v a n when t h e p e r s o n d o e s r e c o g n i z e t E i p s t r u m e n t a l b a s e s of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , a p e r t n z r voul p r o b a b l y r e c o g n i z e h i s o r h e r own d e p e n d e n c i e s b e f o r ? t h o e o f t h e o t h e r , i f o a l y b e c a u s e o n e i s more s e n s i t i v e t o a s i a m i l l a r w i t h o n e ' s own p r e d i c a m e n t . Consider t h e p o s i t i c of a young woman u i r h s e v e r a l y o u r g c h i l d r e n and feu s k i l l relevant to employment outside t h e home. Eer or i n s t r u m e n t a l d e p e n d e n c i e s on t h e m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s e e s o o b v i o ~ s and e x t r e m e t h a t s h e may n o t r e a l i z e t h 3 c h e h u s b a n d ' s d e p e n d e n c y nay be e q u a l t o h e r s . PErceirFn h e r s e l f a s h a v i c g t h e most t o l o s e s h o u l d t h ? m a r r i a g e b r e a up, s h e w i l l f e a r i t s d i s s o l u t i o n a n d t h s r s f o r e a t t e m p t t suppress hostllity.rZ

Page 1 2 1

Thus, t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t b o t h ( o r ~ 1 1 ) msmbers o f group have an i n s t r u m e n t a l investment, each h a s something t 1 0 5 ~ i f t h e g r o u p d i s s o l v e s a n d s o e a c h may b e f e a r f u l c expressing hostility. For the above rPasons P r o p o s i t i o n 13, t h a t ins:rumental i c r a s t m e n t i n c r s a s P s fez of dzssolution, stands--at l e a s t f o r t h e PreSsPt. 01 f u r t h e r commecf i s i n o r d e r . P r o p o s i t i o n s 10 a n 8 13 s u g g e r that both a t f s c t i v e a r d i n s t r u e p n t a l i n r r s t m e n t s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p l e a d g r o u p members t o f e e r t t e d i s s o l u t i o n c the relationship. Yet, o b j e c t i v e l y speaking, it i s p o s s i b l t c argue t h a t those very l r s o s t m e c t s t h a t lead grrup s l s b e r t o f e a r d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e grGup a r e z l d r s d t t s strpn_gEQs c t h a t relationship--8 curious c o n t r a d i c t i o r i n t h e l i f e c i n t i m a t e groups. F i g u r e 1 s u m m a r i z s s i c d i e g r a m m a t i c form t h e mai o u t l i n e s o f t h e model p r e s e n t e d t h u s f a r . I n t i m a t e groups characterizes by f r e q u e n t i n t e r a c t i o n a n d t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t involvesent, a r e paradoxical i n structure, i r that the promote b o t h s u b j e c t i v e h c s t i l i t y and a t t e m p t s t o s u p p r e s hostility. The i n s t r u m e n t a l i n v e s t m e o t s which C h a r a c t E r i z f a m l y relationships a l s o contriDute t o the suppressioc o hostility.

The p r o c e s s e s 1%i r t i m a t e g r c u p s c o n s i d e r e d t h u s f a p l a c e t h e a c t o x i n a s t a t e of a ~ b i v a l e n c e . O n t h € one h z n a h e o r s h e is t a c e d v l t h a namber o f c o n f l i c t s of i n t s r e s and f e e l s r e s u l t i n g h o s t i l i t y toward another. Dn t h e o t h e hand, h a f e a r s t h c r e l a t i o n s h i p ' s d i s s o l u t i o n a n d a t t e m p t t o suppress hostility. The i r . t i m a t a g r o u p r e p r e s - n t s paradoxlcsl structure likely to produce subjectiv ambivalence o r tension. a.+- t h i s p o i n t i t is a p p r o p r i a t e t o s h i f t 3 u r f o c u s f r o . c a u s a l c h a i n s t o t h e o p t i o n s o r c h o i c e s a v a i l a b l e s c d th c o n d i t i o n s ~ n f l u e n c i n gt h e s e c h o l c e s . The t h r e e b s h i v i o r a options examined are avoidance and s x p r e s s i v s an instrumental conflict. Coser does n o t a s c l e a r l y p r s s e n t h i s s t a g e i n t h e c o c f l i c t p r o c e s s a s z d a c i s i o n poln: a whzch a number of o p t i o n s ere open t o g r o u p membsrs Rather, his analysis lnplies an alnas: icevitabl' progressLoK toward e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t i n i n t i m a t e g r o u p s , Pur'her, Ccser does r o t e x p l i c i t l y i n c l u d e avoidacce a s i p o s ~ ~ b cl he o i c e . a l t h o u g h h e a c e s s u g g s s t some p o s s i h l l consequences of avoidance s t r a t e g i e s .

8.

P a r a d o x i c a l Family F s l a t i c n s h i p s

p3gc 1 2 3

ms of c o n f l i c t EefOrE e x a m i n i r g t h e c o n d l t i o n s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e c h o i c e strategy, w e n e e d t o c c n s i d e r t h s meaning o f som= k e y ~ e p t s . C o n f l i c t s of i n f e r s s : u s r e d s f i c e d e a r l i e r i s a n ective situa?ion ir which t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s hold t r a d i c t o r y v a l u e s and c l a i m s , a i d uc not-3 t h i i Coser * f u l l y d i S t i C g U l S h J S b e t w e e n s u c h an C h j F c t i v f s i t u a t i o n b e h a v i o r a l s t r a f s g i e s l i k ~c0r.f l i c t . ThLs d i s t i n c t i o n maintained here. C o-n f l i c t : -holding

A c t i v e o p p o s i t r o n betweao p a r t i ? s c o n t r a d i c t o r y v a l u e s and c l l i a s over s c a r c e s t a t u s , power, a n d r e s o u r c e s .

T h i s d e f i n i t i o n u n d e r s c o r e s t h e very r e a l p o s s i b i l i t y t persons with o b j e c t i v e l y a r t a g o n i s 3 c i n t e r e s t s l o r o t e s s a r i l y engage i n a c t e g o c i s t i c behavior. It must hO r e s s e d t h a t t h e term c o n f l i c t r e f e r s t o t h e a c t u a l h a p i p r o r g r o u p .embers. No m a t t e r how E e r i o n s t h s n f l i c t s o f i c t e r e s t amorg g r o u p members a p p e a r t o be. n f l i c t i t s e l f has not occurred unless t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t u a l l y e n g a g e i n some t o r n o f a n t a g o n i s t i c b s h a v i o r . T h i s d e f i n i t i o n o t c o n f l i c t i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h s t of ser. a s a " s t r u g g l ~ o v e r v a l u e s and c l a i m s t o s c a r c e .us, power. a n d ~ E S C U ~ C F S " (1956:8). H3wever. we 5 i n g u i s h between two f o r m s o f c o n f l i c t . Instrument21 conflict:

Task-orianted c s n f l i c t .

he d i s t i n c t i o n between ~ x p r e s s i v e and i n s ? r u m e n + a l o n f l i c t i s based cn Coser's m o d i f i c a t i o n d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e f his analysis c t key c o n c e p t s and d e f i n i t i o n s . nost nportant is his discussion of " r ~ a l i l t i ~ ' and con-reallsiic" conflict:

C o n f l i c t s which a r i s e from frustretion of s p e c i f i c demands w i t h i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p and from e s t i m a t e s o f g a i r s o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s , acd which a I E d i r e c t F d a t t h e presumed f r u s t r a t i r g confgcts o b j e c t , c a n be c a l l e d ze_aMs:ig i n s c f a r a s t h e y a r e means t o w a r d a s p e c i f i c result. 4p-realistic g~~flZ:=--. are a 3 t o c c a s i o n e d by t h e r i v a l e n d s o f t h e a h t a g o r i s t s , but by ? h e n e e d f o r t e r s i o n r e l e a s e of a t Least o n e o t them (1956:49). C35er g o e s OE t o s t a t e that " h e n c e f o r t h , w i l l a p p l y t o r e a l i s t i c c o n f l i c t only"

'conflict'

t h s term (1956:60).

&qzfs&c&: A spscrflc stra-egy with the i n t s r t o r goal of l n j u r l n g t h e other.

"Afc~:

S p e c l f x a l l y physrcal aggresslon.

C o n s i s t e n t wl?h + h e t h e o r i e s a t S t e i n n e t z an< S t r a r a n d C o s e r (1956:SO-51). a g g r e s s r o n c a n be s u n s t r a t e g y of e i t h e r i n s t r o m e n t a l c r e x p r e s s r v S c c n f l i c t I n o L h e r ~ o r d s , aggression i + s e l f c a n be c h a r a c t - r i z e d a l ~ s t r u m e n t a lo r e x p r e s s l r e . (1974:U)

D l s t r r g u l s h l n g I r s t r u m e n t a l and Expressrve C s n f l i c t I n s t r u m e n t a l a n d e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t a;? pors ty,pe that, i n r e a l i t y , o f l e n a r e mixed i c t h e same a c t ( C o s e r 1956:53-54). S t i l l , c r i f e r i a b y which we s h o u l d d i s t i c g u i s t h e s e two f o r m s of c o n f l i c t n e e d e x a m i n i n g . C o s e r i s co a l t o g e t h e r c o n s i s r e n t ox t h i s m a t t e r . On t h e s n e hand, h a r g u e s Chat e x p r s s s i v e and i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n f l i c t c s n h d l s t i r g u i s h e d i r terms cf t h - i r consegusPces: "wherea [ i n s t r u a e n t z l ] c o n f l i c t n e c e s s a r i l y changes t h e prsv' tsms of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e participants, hostility [ n x p r e s 5 i v e c o n f l i c t ] h a s no s u c h n e c z s s e f f e c t s a n d may l e a v e t h e t e r m s o f t h e ;Elation u n c h a n g e d n (1956:QO). ,

The f l a w i n t h i s a n a l y s i s i s t h a t i n s t r u n P n t a l c o r f i s e s s e n t i a l l y * f i g s a s t h a c kind of b e h a v i o r a l expzes a t h o s t i l i t y t h a t r e s u l t s i c change o r is instrument

8.

P e r a a o x i c a l Pamily B e l a t i o r s h i p s

Page 125

ccessful. One d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t w h e t h e r a s t r a t e g y was eed i n s t r u m 4 n t a l O r expressive c o ~ f l l ~ : must be i r i c a l l y assessed 2 2 ~ 2 facts a s t c w h e t t s r i l was c e s s f u l ( f o r a d i s c u s s i o n c f p r o h l e a s w i t h PZ ~ 2 % ; f a g o ~ Y S B S 12 a r e l a t e d c c n n e c t i o n , s e e S k i n n e r , 1953:31-35: erwood, 1957: 195-233). Second, t h e a n e l y s i s i m p l i e s t h a t ever a n i n s t r u a e n t a l s t r a t e g y i s ussd, a 5 u c c E s ~ f u l This c o n t r a d i c t s Caser's own o n e is i n e v i t a b l e . p i t i o n t h a t e v e n w b e r e c i c s t r u n s n t a l ccnfl:cL sta'egy s e a , t h e s p e c i f i c m?zns a d o p t p a 3 r a n o t n r c i s s a r i l y u a t e f o r r e a c h i n g t h e i n t e n d e d g o a l (1956:54). Third, a p p r o a c h i m p l i e s t h a t f-xgresgr_ve c o n f l i c : is h q e s s f u l i n f o s t e r i c g t h e a t t a i n n a n t of i r s t r u m e n t a l 5. P i n a l l y , confounding t h e p o t e n t i a l consequences o f a v i o r a l s t r a t e g y v i t h t h e v e r y d e f i n f t i o n of t h e s t r a t e g y ludes empirically examicing relationships between ous s t r a t e g i e s a n d outcomes. A second possibility for distinguishing between s t r u m e n t a l and e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t is t o examine t h e a l i t y of t h e a c t s performed. The m a j o r d i f f i c u l t y v i t h s possibility has already been s u g g s s t e a : that r t i c u l a r s t r a t e g i ~ sc a n o f t e n be used i n b o t h i c s t r u m ? n t a l expressive Conflict. For example, a g g r e s s i o n i s p r c b a b l y t o f t e n i n d i c a t i v e of p u r e l y e x p r e s s i v e behavior, but can a r a t i a n a l c h c i c e of b e h a v i o r i n p u r s u i t of s o n 2 trumental goal. Ttus, t h e a g g r e s s i v e q u a l i t y o f so a c t o a t sufficient e v l d e n o e t h a t t h e a c t n e c e s s a r i l y f a l l s o one o r t h e o t h e r t y p e s of c o n f l i c t .

The t h i r d a p p r o a c h , "sad here, is t o differestiate t r u m e n t a l and E x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i c t e n t g o a l s of t k e p a r t i c i p a n t s . T h i s approach is c o c s i s t e n r t h t h e p o r t i o n s of C o s E r ' s a n a l y s i s t h a t do n o t b a s e t h e s t i n c t i o n CL s u c c e s s o r outcome. a s i n : n...conflicl is ewed by t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a s a means t o w a r d t h e a c h i e v e m e n t r e a 1 1 s t i c e n d s , a means which n i g h t be a h s o d o n a d i f o t h e r a n s a p p e a r t o be more e f f e c t i v e f o r r a a c h i n g t h e s s e a end" 956:54). I n c o n t r a s t , expressive c o n f l i c t has a s its goal h e mere e x p r e ~ s i o rot d i f f u s e h o s t i l i t i e s " (1956:51). Th? me e p p r o a c h i s a l s o used h e r e i n d e f i n i n g a g g r e s s i o n i n rms o f o n e p a r t y ' s g o a l o f i n f l i c t i n g some i n j u r y on t h e her. T h i s g o a l c a n i r + u r n b e a means t o w a r d a c h i e v i n g a r e g e n e r a l i n s t r u m e o t a l o r e x p r e s s i v e goal. The u s e of g o a l s i s i t s e l f a r a t h e r s h a k y b a s i s f o r ese importart distinc+ions. S t i l l . it i s c o n s i s t e r t w i t h e of C o s e r ' s a p p r o a c h e s and a v o i d s t h e p r o b l e m s of his her, outcome-based. approach. Pinally, using,gosls i n f i n i n g aggression i s i n t e r n a l l y consisten: vlth our proach t o i n s t r u m e n t a l a r d e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t , s c d i s m p a t i b l e v i t h c u r r e n t l i t e r a t o r e on f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . * 3

~

~

d i s c u s s i o n , and it s e s a s 1egi:iaate t o include t h e o r e t i c a l l i n k i n t h e c o n f l i c t process. state:

thi Thu

x.

If the tendency tow+ b o s t i l i t ~ d o e s n o t outweigh t h e tendsn toward s u p p r e s s i o n of h o s t i l i t y , a v o i d a r c e i t h e most l i k e l y outcome.

prQgEsltQr

P v o l d a r c e s a y be d e f l n e d as: voidance: Any -a -nonongagenent

tactic oriented tovar o r dis=ngagament, i n C l u K physical, emotional, and intsllEctu nonecgagement o r w i t h d r a w a l (adapted f r o Rctaling i n Chapter 9 ) .

Coser s u g g e s t s t h a t i n i n t i m a t e grnups 2 s t r a t 2 of i n t e r e s t is dEsticed i a v o i d a n c e il c o r : f l i c t s (1956:62). I n r h s f i r s t p l a c s , i f no a t t s m p t is ma 6911 w i t h c o n t r a d i c t o r y i n t e r e s t s , the original co w i l l remain uzresclved. E t t h e same t i m e , new c e c f l i c wlll arise out of the structure c interest relationship. Thus. When a n avoidance P r o ~ o s l i b o5. ~ used. Conflicts o f I n t e r n s t W l l

l

s t r a t s g y is aCCUmU1aAF.

Porther, slncF Proposition 3 suggested t h a t conflict ct interest create hostility, us c a n s t s t e t h a t t 1 ! accumulation of c o n f l i c t s of intsrest indicate8 P r o p o s i t i o n 15 w i l l c a u s e f u r t h e r h a s t i l i t y . Combining t i t w o p r o p o s i t i o n s , vs c a n s t a t e i n summary:

".

P,!os1t~o3 When a r a v c l d a n c s used, h o s t = l r + y I n c r e a s e s .

strategy

1s

P s this s t r a t e g y of a v o x d c n c e continues, s n d h o s t l l i t r n c r a a s e s , subjective h o s t r l l t y w r l l e v e n t u a l l y b e t o o g r e a + o b e s u p p r e s s e d , and a mor9 a c t l v e c o n f l l c t s t r a t e g y n i l

~

12: ~ T& t e g~ r s a~ t e r + h z h0st;:;ty. L.hs llkely is b o s t ~ l l t y t o outweigh suppression o f h o s t l l i t y .

p

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End, t h e c o r o l l a r y of P r o p o s i t i o n 14, which s t a t e d t h a t if h o s t i l i t y d o e s n o t o u t w e i g h s u p p r e s s i o r o f k o s t i l % t y * h e n a v o i d a n c e i s t h e outcome, f o l l o w s : P r o p o s i t i o r 38. I f h o c t i l i t y outweighs tbs suppresslor. of h o s t i l i t y , conflict--eithsr expressive o r instrumsntal--is the most l i k e l y outcome. The l o g i c of C o s e r ' s a n a l y s i s s u g g s s ~ st h a t a n y k i n d o f avoidance i n an i n t i m a t e = e l a t i o n s h i p w i l l e v e n t u a l l y f a i l i n t h i s manner. eovevsr. i n c o n t r a s t t o Caser, some k i r d s of a v o i d a n c e n a y a c t u a l l y p r o v i d e a f a i r l y s t a b l a r e s o l u t i o n o f c o n f l x c t s of i n t e r e s r , under c e r t a i n circumstancFs. Avoidance car. s l n p l y mean a v o i d i n g r e c o g n i t i o n o r d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s p e c i f i c c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s t h a t h a s € c r e a t e d 0: a v o i d a n c e c a n i n v o l v e m 3 1 f g e n e r a l s t r s t e g i a s hostility. of r e d u c i n g t h e a a o n n t of L n t e r a c t i o n o r personality involvement i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . R e s o l v i c g C o n f l i c t s o f I r + e r e s t Through Avoidance R e d u c i n g t h e amount o f p e r r 0 r ; a l i t y i c v o l v e m e n t a n d / o r icteraction i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p may r e s o l v z a s p e c i f i c c o z f l i c t of i x t e r e s t ; p e r h a p s more i m p o r t a n t , i f we a c c e p * P r O p O s i t i o n ~ 1 a n d 2 t h a t f r e q u e n t i n t e r 3 c t i o n and t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y i n v o l v e m e n t s n g e n d e r c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t , t h e n r e d u c i n g t h e l e v e l t h e s e two e l e m e n t s s h o u l d l o w e r The p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t new c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r a s t w i l l d e v e l a p . Even

though

the

family

terds

to

be

3

cssrcive

institution i n t h a t it is r e l a t i v ? l y d i f f i c u l t t o " l e s v e t h e

f i e l d , " r e g u l a r family p a t t e r n s do provide f o r a c a r t a i n amount o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l w i t h d r a w a l . For e x a m p l e , one s p o u s e may become i m a e r s e d i n work o r i n c h i l d c a r e , thereby 1 e s s e C i n g i n t e r a c t i o n a%d i n v o l v E m e n t w i t h :he o t h e r . Such accoanodatiors involving personal withdrawal a r e represented i n Cuber a n d H a r e f f ' s (1965) t y p o l o g y of m a r r i a g e s . Ic ths "devitalized m a r r i a g e " c o u p l e s g r a d u a l l y d r i f t away f r o m t h ~ i r i n l f i a l clcseness, a n d ir t h e " p s s s i 7 e - c o n g e n i a l m rrieae' t h e c o u o l s views t h e i r m a r r i a s e a s 3 " c s c v e r i e r t - a-~ a n d c o m f o r t a b l e way t o l i v s w h i l e d i r e c t L n g ens's t r u e i n t e r e s t s and c r e a t i v e e n e r g i e s elsewhere" (Skolnick, 1973:239). I n g s n e r a l , m a r r i a g e s t h a t h a r s an o p e n l y r e c o g n i z e d i n s t r u m s n t a l r a t h e r t h a n e x p r e s s i v E e m p h a s i s show l e s s i n t e n s e p a t t e r n s of i n v o l v e m e n t .

.~

~

-.-

Ch.8.

P a r a d o x i c a l Family R e l a t i o r s h i p s

Whether s u c h m a r r i a g e s a l w a y s r e s u l t f r o m an a S t r a t e g y i n c o n f l i c t s o f i n t = r e s t is n o c :he p o i n t . B we s i m p l y w i s h t o n o t e t h a t f a m i l y p a t r e r n s comaonl t h a t allow f o r reducing t h e i n t e n s i t y of i c t e r a t h e r e f o r e l o w e r i n g c o n f l i c t s o f i r t e r e r t a n d ho S t i l l , C - r t a i n c o n d i t i o r s n e e d t o 5 1 n e t i f in a s t r a t e g y i s t o a c t u a l l y reduce, o r a t l s a s t n o t exa c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t a r d h o s t i l i t y . First:

of i r t e r e s t . "4 This proposition is r e l e v a n t both t o t h e s t r a t e g i e s o f w i t h d r a w a l j u s t d i s c u s s e d and t o S p e c i f i c a v o i d a n c e o f particular i s s u e s t h a t d i n v o l v e g e n e r a l i n + s r p e r s o n a l withdrawal. When con l e g i t l m a t a , t h i s s p e c i f i c k i n d o f a v o i d a n c e may t a f o r m of " a g r e e i n g t o d i s a g r e € . v As Sprey p c i n t " f a m i l i e s may l i v e t o g e t h e r i n m o t u a l r s s p e c t i n t h e g r e a t dlffErenCes i n b e l i e f s o r v a l u e s ' (1969:704).

P r o p o s i t i o r 20. I£ a n -c o n s i d e r e d 1eg:timate

avoidance s t r a t e g y is a n d if i t a c t u a l l y r e d u c e s i n v o l v e m e n t i n a r e a s where c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t t e n d t o d e v e l o p , t h e n t h e number of c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t w i l l decrease.

The b a s i c a r g u m e n t i s t h a t a l t h o u g h f a m i l i e s i n ge may be i n t i m a t e E r v i r o n a e r t s , some f a o i l i e s a r e i n t i n a t e than others. moreover, i n s o n s p a t t e r n s o f f l i f e l e g i t i m a c y i s c o r f e r r e a on l e s s i n t i m a t e o r i n i n v o l v e m e n t , s u c h 25 t h e American m a r r i a g e s i d s n t i f i e C u b e r and E a r o f i , a n d many o f t h e E n g l i s h v o r k i a m i d d l e - c l a s s c o u p l e s B o t t s t m a i e d (1957).*5 TJ the e t h a t a n i n t l m z t e r e l a t i o n s h i p becomes l a g i t i m a t e l g iCtimate, t h e n t h e p r e s s u r e s toward h o s t i l i t y inheren i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o E s h i p s a r e lessened.

8.

P a r a d o x i c a l Family R e l a t i o n s h i p s

P'iqe 129

BOYeVer. ve r e e a p h a s i z e d t h i t , as ? z o p = s i r l 3 n s 14 15 s u g g e s t , an a v o i d a n c e s t r a t e g y i n i n t i m a ' ? f a a i l y ationships i n general v i l l not resolve existing c o r f l i c t s iCtereSt, and c o n f l i c t s o f i n t c z r s ? and h o s t i l i t y w i l l mulate. I n a d d i t i o n , avoidance s?rateg;ss, Even u n d e r d i t i o n e o f l e g i t i m a c y a n d s p e c i f y c i t y , may have o n l y m i t e d u s e f u l n e s s i n r e s o l v i n g c o n f l i c t s cf i n t e r = + a-a y e x a c e r b a t e problems o v e r t h e long ruz. In t h * f i r s ? c e , a v o i d a n c e uspd r e p e a t e d l y and i n d i s c r i m i n e t e l y may d t o t h e " c o r r o s i o n " o f r e l a l i o n s h i p s d e s c r i b e d by Blood w o l f e (1960:87-88). Second. a v o i d a n c E u s e d f r e q u e n t l y become t h e c h a r a c t e r i s + i c s t y l e f o r a s a l i c g w i t h ggy f l i c t of i n t e r e s t . Thus, when i n p a r t a n t i s s u a s c o n ? o p which o n e o r more p a r t i e s c o n s i d e r a r o i d a n c s a n e g i t i e a t e straLegy, c o r t i n u e d avoidance w i l l l e a d t o t h o e r a 1 + c c u m u l a t i o n o f h o s t i l i t y d e s c r i b e d above. Perhaps . m p o r t m t , t h e l a c k o f p r e v i o u s p r a c t i c e i n working o u t r i s s u e s w i l l make a t t e m p t s t o d s a l d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e -.ect o n e s more d i f f i c u l t . ACTIVE ANTAGOAISE:

EXPBESSIVF ANTAGONISE IND COBPLIC?

TO t h e e x t e n ? t h a t p e r s o r a l i t y involvement i n a a t i o n s h i p is t o t a l , e x p r e s s i v e antagonism i s l i k e l y t o ur, p a r t l y b e c a u s e g r e a t e r knowledge o f t h e o t h e r makes r g personal attack possible. Bs E o t a l i n g p o i a t s d o u t . ..intimates know how t o s u p p o r t t h e i d e r t i t i e s o f e a c h t h e r b e c a n s e e a c h knovs a b o u t t h e t h i n g s t h e t m a t t e r c r a r e mportart t o t h e other. While t h i s e x t s n s i v e k l o v l e d ~ ? c a n E u s e d t o S u p p o r t a n d e n h a n c e i d e n t i t i e s . s t t h e 59Be t i m 8 t c a n b e u s e d t o damage t h e i d e n t i t y . (see Chapter 9).

..."

11~0, where t i e s a r e " d i f f u s e

and

affec?.ivem

IC3ser.

u s e a common example, o n e c a n n o t e a s i l y d i s t i n g u i s h between a n a c t i o n b e i n g " a mear t h i n g t o do" a n d t h e a c t o r b e i r g "a mean person,. v h e r t h e r e i s t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y i c v o l ~ e m e n t . In a n o t h e r s e n s e , + h e e x p r e s s i v e a n d i c s t r u e e n t a l a s p ~ c t so f

Ch.8.

P a r a d o x i c a l Family F l l a t i o ? s h i p s

t h e relationship a r s s o i r t o r t v i r e d t h a t they a r e t o SEparate. Thus. f o r example, r a i s i n g t h e . r e a s s i q o i n g i n s ? r U a e n t a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s may be i n t by r h e O t h e r a s a n a c c u s a t i o n o f l a z i n ~ s s - 9 a s e d considerations: 'be greater the persorals p r o e o s i t i o f 21. i n v o l v e m e n t , t h e more l t k e l y i s c c ~ f l i c t t a k l t h e f o r m of e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t . SECODB, if much h o s t i l i t y h a s a c c u m u l a t e d . c o n f nore l l X e l y t o be e x p r e s s i v e . Proposition 16 d i s c u s s i o n of avoidance s u g g e s t s t h a t h o s t i l i t y 1 accumulate i n i s t i m a t e groups. Increased hostili' g r e a t p e r s o n a l i t y Lnvalvement, may make it d i f f i c examine i s s u e s oh t h e i r m e r i t s . Thus, ProEc&r&on 22. The g r e a t e r t h e --hostility. t h e more. l i k e l y

accusulation is c m f l i c t f

t a k e t h e e x p r e s s i v e form. E f f e c t s or E x p r e s s ~ v ea?d I o s t r u s m t a l C o n f l l c t C e r t a i n e f f e c t s o f a n a v o i d a n c e outcome h 3 v e a been considered. To sum.marize, u n l e s s a n a v o i d a n c e s i s used i n a c t u a l a r e a s o f c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s viexed a s legitimate. it v i l l f a i l t o resolve the C o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t : t h i s f a i l u r e o f r s s o l u t i o n . con w i t h t h e a d d i t i o r o f t h e a v o i d a n c e i t s e l f a s an i s w i t h t h e i h e v i t a b l e o c c u r r e n c e of rew i s s u e s , v i l l c a aCcumUlatiOr: 0 5 c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t acd an i n c r hostility. The i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s u c c s s s of e x p r e s s i i s s i b u m e n t a l c o n f l i c t need s i m i l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

conflict. Unfortunately, a s &ser argues, t h e u e x p r D S s i r e C O n f l i c L 1 P S s e c s 'he l i k e l i h o o d t h s t t h e or' C o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t w i l l he resolved. First, suggests t h a t exprassivs cooflict terds t o increase in'ensity of t h e encounter. although Coser does F X p l i C i t l y d f f i n s " i n t e n s i t p . " it seems r o u g h l y e q u i v a l e t o a g g r e s s i o n and/or vtolesce (l956:69). BggresrFcn he been d e f i n e d h e r a a s 'a s p e c i f i c s t r a t e g y w i t h t h e i n t e n t o g o a l of i n j u r i c g t h e other," and v i o l e o c e i s a s a b t y p s aggressior. I n l i n e w i t h c o s e r ' s d i s c u s s i o n of e x p r e s s C o n f l i c t and i n t e n s i t y , i t i s suggesied t h a t :

PEPEOS~L-IOL23.

Expressive

lncreasP aggress~on.*6

Confllct

tends

ts

a r a d o x i c a l Pamlly R e l a t i o n s h i p s

P a g e 131

e r f u r t h e r s ~ g g s s t s?I!+:vhCn a g g r e s s i o n i s s s e d , ellhood decreases t b a t c o c f l i c t s of i c t e r e s t w i l l he f u l l y resolved. Ths " z g g r e s s 5 V e o v e r t o n a s " 3? a n er i n t e r f e r e with t h e participaots' a b i l i t y to e r t h e original cl+ias of conflicting interest P r o E s-i t i o r : 2. A g g r s s s l o n -likelihood of

tends t o rsduc?

S U C C E ~ S ~ U ~r e s o l u t i o n

ths of

c ~ r ~ f l i c ot fs i n t s r e s t . y c o m b i n i n g P r c p o s i t i o c s 2 3 a n d 24, i t c 3 n b e f u r t h e r that expressive c o n f l i c t t e n d s t o r e d u c e the ood t h a t c o n f l i c t s w i l l b e r e s o l v e 6 s u c c e s s f u l l y . c o n v e r s e s h c u l d a l s o be n o t e d , t h a t instrumental ~ c t te n d s t o i n c r e a s e t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f successful lict lesolution. L e q i t i m a c n =qa s&&sz -Chat i f a s t r a t e g y is

Besau+apg.

Proposition 19 considered i l l e g i t i m a i s . t h e a t e g y w l l l becoms e n e v i s s u e , thereby iocreasing f l l c t s of i s t e r e s t a n d h o s t i l i t y . T h i s p r o p c s i t i s r was anced i n r e f e r e c c s t o avoidance, but it seams = q u a l l y licable '0 i C S t r ~ m e n t a 1 and expr2ssive conflict ategies. E x p ~ e ~ s i vc eo n f l i c t s e a m s more l i k e l y t o b e i d e r e d i l l e g i t i m a t e t h a n i n s t r u m e c t e l c o c f l i c t , and t h u s l i k e l y t o increase conflicts of interest. Bowever. as u s p o l n t s O U T ( 1 9 7 4 a : 4 4 2 ) , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s Ray v i e w a s tlmate expressive c o ~ f l i c t t h a t milltatss against e a s i n g C o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t , o r may s e e i n s t r u m e n t a l f l l c t a s illfg5tima+E, i n which case instromental . f l i c t wonla i n c r e a s e c c n f l i c t s o f i n t s r e s t .

rts

is considsred Yet e v e n i f expressive conflict i t i m a t e and d o e r n o t add t o f u t u r e c o s f l i c F ; o f i c t z r e s t , may s t i l l b e r e l a t i v e l y i n e f f e c t i v e i n r e s o l v i r g P r e s e n t c o n f l i c t s o t in?eres?. 8 5 P r o p o s i t i o n s 2 3 Bad 2 9 s u g g e s t . expTessive c o z f l i c x introduces elements i n t o an encountsr that interfere v i t h r a c i n g t h e i n i t i a l c o n f l i c t s of interest. P u t a n o t h e r way, e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t i n t e r f e r e s w l t h tte p o s s i b i l i t y a t t a s k - o r i e n t e d c o n f l i c t Occurring.

Under m o s t c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n f l i c t is m a s t l i k e l y t o resolve c o n t l i c t s of interest, r h r l e expressive cOnf11ct and avoidance a r e g e n e r a l l y less ~ffoctive. EOV~VET.any o f t h e t h r e e s t r a t e g i e s c o u l d b e e f f s c t i v e under c e r t a l n conditions. The f i c a l p r o p 3 s i C i u n a s s e r t s that r e g a r d l e s s c f t h e s t r a t e g y ussd, i f conflict is r e s o l v e d s u c c e s s f u l l y , t h e n t h s s t r a t e g y employed w i X l h e reinforced. gpr3s&pTcg 25. Successful rssolution of i n i t i a l c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t r e i n f o r c e s t h s s t r a t e g y used.

Ch.8.

Paradoxical Family Relationships

ch.8.

P a r a d o x i c a l Family R e l a t i o n s h i p s

? a g e 133

P i g n r e 2 s u n m a r i z e s i n d i a g r a m m a t i c form t h e o v e r a l l model.*7 I n * - i n a t e g r o u p s , l i k e t h e f a m i l y . c h a r s c t a r i z e d by f r e q u e n t i n t e r a c t i o n and t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y i n v o l v e m e c t a r e p a r a d o x i c a l i n s t r u c t u r e i n t h a t t h e y p r o n o t e bozh h o s t i l i t y If t h e t e n d e n c y t o w a r d a n d t h e s n p p r € s s i o n of h o s t i l i t y . hostility d o e s PO? c u + w ~ i g h t h 2 tender.cy t o s u p p r e s s In h o s t i l i t y . t h a n t h e most p r o b r t l e outcome i s a v o i d a c c r . general, a v o i d a n c e i s c o t a n e f f e c ' i v e means o f c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n and is l i k e l y t e i n c r e a s e hostility. If h o s t i l i t y c ~ t n e i g h st h e t e n d e e c y t o s u p p r e s s h o s t i l i t y , t h e outcone w i l l b e one o f two forms of c o n f l i c t . Of t h e s e , i s more l i k e l y t h a n i n s t r u m s n t a l expressive conflict conflict. However, e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t i s more l i k ? l y t o p r o d u c e a 9 9 r e s s i o n and a s a r e s u l t i s l e s s l i k e l y t o i 2 8 3 1 v e l n i t i a l c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t t h a r i s i n s < r u n e n t s l m n f l r c t . F i n a l l y , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e s t r s t e g y u s e d , if t h e s t r a ' s g p i s considered i l l e g i t i m a t e . ir w i l l increasp c o n f l i c t s of , w i l l be ilterest, a n d i f ?he s t r a t e g y is ~ u c c e ~ s f u lit reinforced. COACLOSIOBS I n + h i s c h a p t e r we havE examined how c?rtain c h a r a c t o r i s t i c s of i n t i m a t e g r o u p s a f f e c t ~ t r a t ~ g i ef cs r It sfems w o r t h w h i l e i n dealing with c o n f l i c t s of interest. c l o s l r g t o b r i e f l y d i s c u s s o t h s r e l e m e r t s and approac'ms i m p o r t a n t t o s u c h p r o c e s s e s , a s w e l l a s same i m p l i c a t i n n s o f t h e model o f f e r e d h e r e . Pdditional f e a t u r e s of i c t i m a t e g r o u p s s h o u l d be i n c l u d e d : f o r example, t h e e f f e c t of a t h i r d p a r t y o r mediator on c o n f l i c t proc3sses. a n i m p 3 r t a r t elemex? i n C o s e r e s a n e l y s i s (1956:59-60) a n d i n r ~ c P r 5 work on f a m i l y v i o l e n c e ( A o + a l i n g i n C h a p t e r 9; whitehnrst, 1 9 7 4 ) . F u r t h e r . e x c h a n g e p r o c e s s e s , power r e l a t i o n s . and ~TCCESS?S usrtlrq !c: 2:d 2931.5: ~LPB>~U*:X of r"12?i3r50:~5 a l l sro :rca:rrc?blp llnkid r a * h ? s:r=.'%gics here ~ 2 ccr:r:bu:e a +o a tulle: u~3?rs?3r3:~.7 of cczs:der%d c o n f l i c t and violence i n t h e family. Relevant t o t h e p r e s c n t d i s c u s s i o n is t h e o f t e r c i t e d b a s i c t e c e t and c o n t r i b u t i o n of c o n f l i c t t h e o r y : that c o n f l i c t is a n i n t e g r a l . i n e v i t a b l e p a r t o f a l l s o c i a l l i f e . E x a m i n a t i o n o f t h i s e s s e r t i o n r e q u i r e s r s t u r n i n g ts t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r D s t and c o n f l i c t . 1% s e e m s q o i e e r e a s o c a b l e t o a s s e r t t h a t c_2~f&igtz af ir_+pzgst., ir t h e s e n s e o f o c c a s i o r 2 s g e r e r a t i r g c o n t r a d i c t o r y c l a i m s . are irevitableYet cpzf&zc_i, e s p e c i a l l y t a s k - c r i s n ' . e d o r instrumental conflicl, is c e r t a i n l y n o t i n e v i t a b l r . In fact, t h e t h r u s t cf t h i s c h a p t e r i s t h a t i n i n t i n a t e g r o u p s l i k e t h e family, c o n f l i c t i n t h i s s p e c i f i c senss is very d i f f i c n l t t o c a r r y o u t and i s t h u s h i g h l y l i k e l y t o b s absent.

Ch.8.

P a r a d o x i c a l Family E e l a t i o n s h i p s

Pag

P l n a l l y , we t r u s t t h e a t t e n t i o n t o t e r m i n o l s g y helped keep c o n f l z c t a r d v i o l e r c e concep5unlly d i s P o p u l e r c o n c e p t i o n s o f t e n sesm t o e q n a t a c a n f l z c t and v l o l e ~ c c , c z ?c v:ew

c c n f l l c t a s prcducLnq

In c o n t r a s t t o s o c h a view, ws a r g u e t h violerce. i s t h e absence of s p e c i f i c a l l y i n s t r o m e r t a l c o n f l i f a m i l i e s t h a t l e a d s t o a high l e v e l of i n t e r p c r violence and aggression.

NOTES

*I would l i k e t o e s p s c i a l l y t h a n k D e n n i s P o s s G S r a l d B o t a l i n g f o r t h e i r cornmeit on e a r l i e r d r a f t s of chapter. 1. P e r s o n a l i t y i c o o l v e n e n t and a f f e c t i v e i n v e s t m e n t b~ related (see P r o p o s i t i o n s 8 and 9 ) . b u t 5h.y coxeptoally distinct. The i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f p e r s o n a involvement i s i t s t o t e l i t y . A f f e c t i v e i n v e s t m e n t iaoo both t h e s t r e n g t h of at:raction or liking and r e p l a c e a b i l i t y of menbers.

2. T h i s i s n o t a n e n t i r e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s c l u t i o coctradiction, p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e i t i g n o r e s un exchange. Yet t o r e s c l o e t h i s q u e s t i o n f u l l y v o u l d r e q ar intricate series of p r o p o s i t i o n s a b o u t cxch p r o ~ ~ s s e swhich , would t a k e u s f a r a f i e l d and would bs beyond t h e s c o p e a r d f o c u s of t h i s c h a p t e r . the

3. R o t a l i n g d e f i n e s a g g r e s s i o n a s "a physical psychclogical a c t o r acts, occurring i n an interper situation, which are judged to be intentio harm-producirg" (Chapter 9). Since he focus5s t h e emp a t t r j b u t i o ~cf a g g r e s s i v e i n t F r t i n f a m i l i e s , ---I n d s t i a i t i o r i s o n t h a p e r c e p t i o n by g s e ~ sof t h e p e r 5 intest. While t h e f o c u s h e r e i s n o t on p e r c a p t i o r s re s u g g e s t t h c t t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s t o d ~ f i n others, a g g r e s s i o n a r e s i m i l a r i n e m p h a s i z i n g i n t e r ~ to r q o a l s o f actors. The p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s i n g i n t e n t o r g o a l s a definitional b a s i s is a l s c r e c o g n i z e d i n t h e s u g g e s t i o n "...to t h e e x t e r t t h a t a c t o r s d e f i n e such behavior n o r e a l ana n o t inrended t o i r j u r e . they a r e c o t aggrss a c t s . ..* ( s t r a u s , 1974.3: 9 4 2 ) . 4. T h i s p r o p o s i t i o n i s s t a t e d i n g e n e r a l tarns, ni i t a p p l i e s n o t o n l y t o avoidance, b u t a l s o t o e x p r e s s i v e i n s t r U m E n t a 1 c o n f l i c t , which w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d l a t e r .

Chapter 9

Attribution Processes in Husband-Wife Violence Gerald T. Hotaling

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B c ? n t ~ a lt e n e t of t h i s c h a p t e r i s "intent" is imputed r a t h e r t h a n obse T h e r e f o r e , a n a c t i o n is i n t e n t i o n a l l y a g q r s Or v i o l e n t o n l y when t h e i m p u t a t i o n i s R t t r i b u t i o n t h e o r y a l e r t s ns t o t h e imp3 Of u n d s r s t a n d i n q why. a n d u n d e r what c o n d i on? p e r c e i v e s a n a c t i o n a s a g g r e s s i v e r a thaP a s onintentioral o r accidental.

The c h a p t e r a t t e m p t s t o s h o v t h a t c e r t S t r u c t u r a l c b a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e f a m i l y prod conditions that ircrease t h e probability t h a t f a m i l y membsr w i l l a t t r i b u t e m a l e v o l e n t i n t e t o t h e a c t s o f a n o t h e r f a a i l y member. The a c t w e refer t o a r e t h o s e t h a t v i o l a t e f a m i l y r u l e H o t a l i n g p c i l t r t o what h e f e e l s i s a c e c t r irony in fanily life: ths factors th C o n t r i b u t e t o t h e warmth and i n t i m a c y of f a m i l reletionship5. s u c h a s t h e s h a r i n g of s e c r e t and p e r s o n a l information. also flcilitat perceiving rule violations a s int?ntion+ll malevolent. A fir!al s e c t i o n o f t h e c h a p t e r examines t h e Yay i n which a t t r i b u t i o n of a g g r e s s i o n o r violence serves t o s t a b i l i z e violence a s a regular feature o r family l i f e .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V i o l e n t b e h a v i o r r e s u l t s from a p r o c e s s t h a t participants construct within a situation. Struct theories of violence have tended to nPglec? i n t e r p e r s o n a l d e v e l o p n e n t o f v i o l e n t b e h a v i o r acd f 136

I

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The r r e z e t 0 r n e : l o r c f ":rrr:al' '2-7 "s=rr?urqS n l r - o r s r ? l ~ + . i o : s C 1 p ~ . 1:ke tt.e farn:ly, is ssen is t e i - q t a c = l : t a t = d by c e r t a i ? 0 r c a r . l z a C i c r a l o r ~ t r u c : u z a l l = n ' u r c s :ne aar::al Scrd. :":mate

l o g i c a l s t a r t l n g p o i n t i n t h i s kind of s o c i a l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s is t h e e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e c o n t s n t i o r he "meaning' of a g g r e s s i o n * l and viclance is atic. The p e r c e p t i o n o f a n a c t a s i n t e n t i o n a l i o n o r a s a c c i d e n t a l herm-doins i s an t a p a r t a n t , = t i o n i n a n a l y z i n g v i o l e n c e ( e - g . , T e d e s c h i , $2 +i., I n many i n s t a n c e s , t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f a g g r e s s i v e a c t i o n s onproblematic. C u l t u r a l v a l u e s and b e l i e f s g r e a t l y t the identification of aggressive acts. ictensity, offensive, and pain-producing a c t i o n s a r e l y t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d a s s i g n s of +ggrEssion or ace. But haaan a g g r e s s i o n need n o t t a k e t h e form of t p h y s i c a l damage; a g g r e s s i o n c a n be n a n i f s s t i n a l , i n d i r e c t , p a s s i v e , and s u b t l e f o r m s of p s y c h o l o g i c a l It i s E s p e c i a l l y when harm-doing a c t i o n s t a k e t h e s e s t h a t judgmental c o n t r o v e r s i e s a r e l i k e l y t o a r i s e . human a g g r e s s i o n i s o f t h i s t y p e and t h e r e a r e good A s B a n d u r a (1973:Y) s t a t e s : o n s why t h i s i s so.

.

P e o p l e o r d r n a r i l y r e f r a i n from d i r e c t persons1 a s s a u l t s because such obvious a c t i o n s c a r r y hiqh ris1s o f r e t a l i a t i o n . Rather, t h e y favor a i s g u i s ~ a modes of agqression that, being d i f f i c u l t t o interpret or t o consider blameworthy, afford p r o t ~ c t i o na g a i ~ s tc o u n t e r a t t a c k . =-.-.----

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:ive and n o c a g g r e s s i v e a c t i o n s . To this end, - w i f e v i o l e n c e w i l l be examined w i t h i n t h e c o ~ t s x to f t i o r theory.

Ch.9.

l t t r i b u t i o n Processes LTTXIBUTION THEOBY

I n i*s s i m p l e s t f o r e , a t t r i b u t i o n t h e o r y d e s c r i b e p r o c e s s by which p e o p l e a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n a n d p r p d i c t behavior. I n o t h e r words, it i n u s s t i g a t e s p e o p l e ' s f o r t h e nearing o r behavior. LS K e l l e y and T h i b a u c

(1969) h a v e d e f i n e d i t :

Attribution r e f e r s t o t h e process of i n f e r r o r perceiving t h e dispositiocal properties 3 ePtitieS....Bttributicn theory describes th PrOCESS by which t h e i n d i v i a u a l s e e k s an a t t a i r s C c n c e p L i o r s of t h e s t a b l e d i s p o s i t i o n o r a t t r i b u t e s (p.7). While t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t t h r e e d i s t i r c t a t t r i b u t i o approaches ( s e e A e i d e r . 1958: J o n e s and Davis. 1965: an 8. H. K e l l e p , 1967, 1 9 7 1 ) . a l l t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s hav common e l e m e n t s . s h a v e r (1975) h a s i d e n t i f i e d some o f t h c o m m o n a l i t i e s of t h e a b o v e t h e o r i s t s i n t e r m s o f t h r e s t a g e s i n t h e a t t r i b u t i o n process. The f i r s t s t a g e i n v o l v e t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of a n a c t l o n , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r s o t l t h r o u g h t h e r e p o r t s of o t h e r s . The s e c o n a s t s g e . and t h , one t h a t is t m p o r t a z t t o t h e theme of t h i s c h a p t e r , i n v o l v e ; t h e a t t r i b u t i o n of inrention. Ona a t t a m p t s t o i n t e r p r p t t h , a c t i o n s Of o t h e r s a s i n + e n t i o c a l a r d g o a l - d i r e c t s d o r a s +b, r e s u l t of a c c i d e n t . reflex, o r habit. The f i n a l s t a g c o n c e r n s t h e i m p u t a t i c 1 a " c e u s e m a n d s e a r c h e s f o r thl a n s v e r t o "why t h e p e r s o n a c t e d a s h e / s h e d i d . " The 3nswe: USna1ly t a k e s o n e o f two f o r m s : t h e action is attributed t i C a u s e s i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t o r t h e s i t u a t i o n ("Re's u n d e r i l o t of p r e s s u r e l a t e l y n ) O r t o t h s undef1y:ng a i s p o s l t i o n o: the person ("He's j u s t i n aggreSSIve person"). This s e q u s n c e of e v e n t s n a y r e q u i r e o n l y s e c o n d s t o c o m p l e t e 01 I n some c a s e s , s u c h a s j u r y d e l i b e r a t i o n s , s e v e r a l d a y s o! weeksThe c o n c e r n w i t h a t t r i b u t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s , e s p e c i a l l ) t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f i n t e n t i o n . h a s bDen e v i d r - n t i n t h ? work o r p s y c h o l o g i s t s i n work an a g g r e s s i o n and v i o l e n c e . 0ve1 t h e years, r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e a r g u e d a h o u t how t h e y wouli d e c i d e when t o l a b e l a r e s p o n s e o r s e t o f r e s p o n s e s a: a g g r e s s i v e o r v i o l e n t (Bass, 1971; Eandura, 1973: ant Tedeschi, 1974). The e m p h a s i s i s t h e s e v r i t i n g s i: on the expsrimenter-subject relationship. 1 . . what c r i t e r i a a r E x p e r i m E n t e r would u s e t o c h a r a - t e r i z e subject r e s p o n s e s a s aggressive. U n f o r t u n a t e l y . t h e q u e s t i o n of hor a person imputes i n t e n t i o n a l a g g r e s s i v e n e s s i n a v a r i e t y of r e l a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s h a s r o t been f u l l y i n v e s t i g a t e d .

a.,

I n t h i s c h a p t ~ r ,t h e a t t r i b u t i o n of a g g r e s s i o n a r d i t s r o l e i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n c f f a m i l y v i o l s c c e w i l l b e examined v i a t h e r u l e s y s t e m a n d s t r u c t u r e of t h o h u s b a c a - w i f e

tribution Proce~ses

Page 139

ship. A n a j Q r q u e s t i o n w i l l be: are there tional rfaturss pecalier to the hushand-wife s h i p t h a * f a c i l i t a t e t h a t f r i b u t i c n of melev?lent

THE NATUEF OF BELATIOIRL RULES

g r o u p s h a v e r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s , v ~ r i a t i o n i n t h e e x t e c t t o which 1s c o n ' r o l l e d h *r r-u- l-e s . I n o r h e-r words.. o,~ rou~s '.heir r u l e s : (1) t h e i r s u b s t e n t i s e behavior they control: and (2) ange. t h a t i s . where a3d when t h s y axamole. w o r k e r s i n a s t e e l p l a n t err- m l e s f o r wte? t o show UD f <)r wsrk. when t o 50 home. uFh work t o g e t d o c s , and hbv t o g e t . t h e work done: arly, i n graduate school dapartments, r u l e s ( a t times c i t ) c o n c e r n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e amount o f work t o b 9 done n given periods. T h e s e s o r t s of r u l e s a r e of l i m i t e d a c t i v e and s p a t i o t e m p o r a l range, i n t h a t they a r e rced p r i m a r i l y with i n e t t u m e n t a l b e h a v i o r an3 a r e c a b l e o c l y d u r i r g s p e c i f i e d t i m e s and i n s p e c i f i e d 3s. T h e i r s c o p e i s not a l l - e m b r a c i n g .

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I n t h e h u s b a n d - w i f e r e l a t i o n s h i p , r u l e s a r e of b r o a d s t a n t i v e scope. Rere, r u l e s e r e d e s i g n e d t o c o n t r o l both t r u m e n t a l and e x p r e s s i v e behavior. Furthermore, t h e y r a v i d s s p a t i o t e m p o r a l range: they are applicable ss S i t u a t i o n s a n d i n a n d o u t c f o n e a n o t h e r ' s presence. i o n s d i f f e r a s t o why r a l a t i o n a l r u l e s a r e o f s u c h b r o a d pa, b u t v a r i o u s a u t h o r s a g r e e t h a t t h e s e r u l e s a t t e m p t t o t r o l a l a r g e amount o f b e h a v i o r . Both D. C o o p e r ( 1 9 7 1 ) a n d R. D. L a i n g ( 1 9 7 2 ) h a v e r e s s e a t h * n a t u r e of r e l a t i o n a l r u l e s i n f a m i l i e s and .ir i m p o r t f o r i n d i v i d u a l members. These a*~thors p h a s i z e t h e p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e of f a m i l y r u l e s : holding t t h e f a m i l y a s an e x t e n s i o n o f c a p i t a l i s t s s c i e t y ates rules through which " d e h u m a n i z a t i o n " of t h e i v i d u a l t e k e s place. Prom t h e i r p e r s p e c t i v e , faxily e s a r e a l l - i n c l u s i v e and r e s t r i c t i n d i v i d u a l g r o w t h and velopnent. Through r u l e s . f a m i l y m e n b a r s e r e f o r c e d i n t o l e s i n which a m a j o r p o r t i o r o f r e a l i t y i s k e p t beyond evezyday e x p e r i e n c e . while t h e i r i d e s l o g i c a l o r i e c t a t i o n map d i f f e r , t h e s e a u t h o r s both h i g h l i g h t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f a m i l y a t t e m p t s t o c o x t r o l a v i d s rangP of behavior. From a somewhat d i f f e r e n t perspective, Denzin (1970) 2nd T u r n a r (1968) o u t l i n e a set o f r u l e s , a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e huaband-wife r e l a t i c n s h i p , vhoss f u n c t i o n it i s t o p r o t e c t and e c h a n c e i c d i v i d u a l i d e n t i ? i e s . * Z Denzin a r g u e s t h a t "zules of rslatioDShiD" a r e generated i n i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s

These r u l e s are: ( 1 ) t a s k m l r s , - 0 s p e c i f y who d c ? ? v h a k when, a n d w i t h whoa; (2) r u l e s s p e c r f y i n g d a f e r e n c e a n demeanor; (3) r u l e s f o r r e g u l a t i n g knowledge, s e c r e c y , a p e r s o n a l problems; and (4) r u l e s s p e c i f y i n g proper csndn of ego a n d o t h e r v h e n n o t i n e a c h o t h e r ' s presenc (1968) s u g g e s t s two r u l e s t h a t v i l l Similarly. Turner d e v e l o p e d b e t w e e n i c t i m a t e s t o p r o t e c t t h e i d e n t i t i e s of o arother. They a r e : (1) t h e a v o i d a n c e o f o n e a n o t h e r s e n s i t i v e z o n e s ; a n d ( 2 ) t h e d e c l a r a t i o n by t h e w i n n e r ? h a his/her victory is a t t r i b u t a b l e t o luck or exparierce r a t h e t h a n t h e i n e p t n e s s of t h e v a n q u i s h e d . T a k i c g Denzin and T u r c e r t o g e t h e r , we c o u l d s a y t h a t r e l a t i o n a l r u l e s a r e a g r e a m e r t s between i n t i m a t e s t h a t e a c h v i l l avoid behavior t h a t t h r e a t e n s t h e s i t u a t e d i d € n t i t i e s * 3 of each. These r a l e s a r e n e c e s s a r y because each h a s r e v e a l e d t o t h e o t h e r i n t i m a t e knowledge. sscrets, desires a n d p e r s o c a l problems. i m p o r t a n t t o i d e n t i t y , t h a t are n o t available t o t h e public a t large. TO summarize t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h u s f a r we c a n c o c c e i v s of r e l a t i o n a l r u l e r a s b e i n g somewhat i r o n i c . For people t o r e m a n i n p h y s i c a l and e m o t i o n a l p r o x i m i t y , r u l e s must b e d e v e l o p e d t h a t p r o t e c t a n d e n h a n c e s i t u a t e d i d e n t i t i e s , and t h a t a t t h e same t i m e restrict a n d c o n t r o l b e h a v i o r .

TEE NRTORE O F RELATIONAL ROLE VIOL1TIONS

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gna$fig&,

and p b i q u o u s . I n addition, they are constantly b s i n g n c d i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t F c n a 1 demands. F o r example, o n e s p o u s e may b e g i n t o i n t e r p r e t r u l e s d i f f e r e n t l y withcut i n f o r a i c g t h e o t h s r of t h e changed perspective. I n such a s i t u a t i c n , v i o l a t i o n s of r u l e s a r e e a s i e r s i n c e t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n r u l e c o n f o r m i t y end v i o l a t i o n become q u i t e p r e c a r i o u s . For e x a m p l e . a h u s b a n d t z l k i n u t o a n o t h e r woman a t a D a r t v ma7 b e COEsidared a r u l e > . v i o l a t o r by h i s w i f e a c c o r i i n g t o h i s d i s t a n c e from t h e woman, t h e e x p r n s s i c r o n h i s f a c e , and t h e c o n t e r t o f t h s C O n ~ P r s a t i C n . T h i s s a y be s o e v e n t h o u g h t h e h u s b a c d n e v e r Intended a v i o l a t i o n of r e l a t i o n a l rules. The p o i n t i s t h a t t h e ambiguous, u n d e f i n e d and i m p l i c i t n a t u r e o f r e l a t i o n a l rules raises the probability t h a t rule violatiors w i l l occur. S i n c e r u l e v i o l a t i o n s may b e e i t h e r i n t e n t i o n a l o r accidental, t h e n e a r i n g o f . t h e v i o l a t i o n t h a t t h o~ t h e r a t t r i b o t e s t o t h e v i o l a t i n g a c t o r i s s i g n i f i c e n t ( S c o t t and Lyman, 1970). The v i o l a t i o n o f r e l a t i o n a l r u l e s l e a d s i n t i m a t e s t c f e e l embarrassment, i r r i t a t i o n , annoyance, and, a t t h e e x t r e m e , s e l f - t h r e a t and p u b l i c l y d e s i g n a t e d d s v i a n c e (Denzin. 1 9 7 0 ) .

T ~ Em a n n f r i n which a v i o l a t i c n 1s p e r c e i v e 3 h s s i m p o r t f o r t h e conseguences. A perscn w i l l g i v e t h e r e r p o r s e appropropriate t o a viclation, according tc his/her p e r c e p t i o f of t h e v i o l a t i o n a s " a c c i d e n t a l " harm-doing o r a s aggression. Most i n t e r a c t i o n between f a m i l y membsrs i s harmOniouS a n d c o o p e r a t t v e . I n d e e d , most r u l e v i o l 3 t i o n s but r a t h e r a s accidents, as a r e sf s e e n a s a g g r e s s i v e . t c s i t u a t i o n a l demands, o r a s r e s p s n s e s t o responses e x t r a n e o u s i n f l u e n c e s , such a s a l c o h o l o r drugs. Actually. r e l a t i v e t o t h e r a t e of r e l a t i o n a l r u l e v i o l i t i o n s p f r c e i v e a a s a g g r e s s i v e , most r u l e v i o 1 a t i o r . s a r e d e n i e d o r d i s m i s s e d . I f t h i s w e r e n o t so. n t i m a ' e r e l a t i o n s h i p s would be v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o maintain.

THE R E L A T I O N BETWEEN TEE BTTPIBUTION OF RULE VIOLATIONS AS AGGRESSIVE BND INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE B s mer.tLor.Ed p r e v i o u s l y , t h e a t t r i b u t i o n of rule viola?ions a s i n t e r t i o n a l l y a g g r e s s i v e is an important s t e p i n t h e occurrence of i n t e r p e r s o n a l violence. R s Turner (1968) p u t s i t :

when e g o p e r c e i v e s t h a t a l t e r i s a t t e m p t i n g f o cegatively a f f e c t h i s interests.. .the chazact=r o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s p e r v a s i v e l y a l t e r e d by heightened preoccupation with sslf-images. i n c r e s s e d use o f ~ m p h a t i c and diagnostic interpretatlocs ot g e s t u r e s . ..and constant e f f o r t s t o a s s i g n c r e d i t and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y (p. 1 0 6 ) . A t t e m p t s t o l o c a t e t h e " i n t e n t ' of t h e r u l e v i o l a t i o n w i l l determine t h e subsequent a c t i o n taken t o reduce t h e harm-doing o f t h e r u l e v i o l a t i o n . I f malevolent i n t a c t i s attributed t o the r u l e violator, t h e pr3bzbility of vi3lence is increased. l a n y e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s have found t h a t t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f o p p c n e n t ' s i n t e n t i s a more i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e i n t h e i n s t i g a t i o r of a g g r e s s i o n t h a n a c t u a l p h y s i c a l attack. If a given a c t is seen a s aggressive, it d r a m a t i c a l l y e s c a l a t e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of c o u n t e r a g g r e s s i o n (Bandura, 1973: E p s t e i n and T a y l o r . 1967: E a s e l l i and a l t r o c h i , 1969).

RESPONSE TO RULE VIFLFTIONS 9 ? T Q I B U T F D

YO 9 G S R I S S I 3 R

The a t t r i b u t i o n o f a g g r e s s i o n a l o n s is n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o r t h e i r l t i a t i c n o t i n t e r p e r s o c a l violsnce. PJllowicg t h s i m p u t a a o n , t h e e t t r i b u t o r w i l l e v a l u a t e t h e s i t u a t i o c and t h e p o s s i b l e a l t . e r r + t i v e r e s p o n s e s h e / s h e c a n make. 8spburn (1973) h a s s u g g f s t e d t h r e e p o s s i b l e t a c t i c s t h e a t l e i b u t o r c a n c h o o s e t o r e d u c e t h e harm-dolng c a u s e d by t h ? r u l e violation (see Elcuchart)

.

&pp&ggd!c=. o r e t a c t i c t h a t c a n be u s e d t o d e a l u L t h is avoidalce. The tactic of a v o i d a n c e violatiors ~ 8 c e s s i t a t ~e s p h y s L c a l w i t h d r a w a l from t h e l o c a t i o n o r a n e i e o t l o n a l d i s e n g a g e m e n t t r c m t h e~n c o u n t e r . The L a c t i c of a v o F d a n c e 1s d i f f i c u l t i n r n t i m a t e r e l a x i o n s h i p s v h - r s t h e r e a r e e x t o r r a l c a r s t r a i n t s on t h e p a r t i c i p a r t s tc r s m s i n i n t h e s l t u a t i o r (SSP F o s s , C h a p t e r 8 ) . Rcc??g$lQ~~. Another t a c t i c is a c c e p t a n c e of t h e r u l e vio1a:ioc. Acceptance of r u l e v i o k t i o n is a l s o d i f f i c u l t Z P l n + i m a t e r e l a t i o n s t l p s , where 'ha rnles serve t o protecr t h e l a e n t i t l e s o t the participants. A c c ~ p t i r . g tb.e r u l e v i o l a t i o n 2s a p p r o p x i a t ~ b e h a v i o r r ? c ? s s a r i l y a l t e r s t h e e ~ p ~ c t ~ t l eoa cnh ~ h a s t o w a r d t h e o t h e r . DisruptLng t h e s e s t a b l e and o r d e r l y i r t e r a c t i o r p a t t e r n s makss v u l n e r a b l e OPE'S identity. I f e i t h e r accept?.nce o r a v o i d a n c ~ is s s l s c t s d i s a t a c t i c by which t o r e s p o n d t o a g g r e s s i v e r u l e v i o l s ' i o n s , t h e likelihood t h a t t h e e n c o u n t e r v i l l end i n v i o l f r c s i s g r c i t l y dialnlshed. It i s t h e t a c t i c of r e t a l i a t i o r that is l ~ a d t c interpezsonal violenca. Whnr a g o cf r e t a l i a t i o n h e l s h e r i s k s r e t a l i a t i o n by other. Initially, ego v i l l l a b e l t h e r u l ? v i o l a t i o n a s aggressi're, t h a t is, t r a c s m i t t c t h e v i o l a t o r tha' hP/she a t t r i b u t e s i n r s c + i a n a l harm-doing t o him/her. Once t h e r u l e v i o l a t i o n i s l a b e l e d , ego can l e g i t i m a t s l y seek r e + r i b u t i o n f r c ~the r u l e violator. If t h e r u l e v i o l a t o r c a n n o t aaequately negotiate t h e aggressive label, he/sh? may counterre'aliate rc a n a t t = s p t t o r i d h i a / h ? r s e l t of c h s aggressive labnl. This process accords with SpEey's contertion (1971) + h a t s u c c e s s f u l management of c o n f l i c t i~ t a m l i e s rEqUirfS t h e a b i l i t y t o negotia+e, bargain, acd cooperate--to manipulate a range of b a h a v i a r a l s k i l l s . If t h e p r o c e s s o f r ~ t a l i a ~ i o ~ - ~ ~ ~ n f e ~ r e ?c oa nI t i nautais o, ~t h e p ~ o b a b l l i t yof Y F O ~ E i ~s Ci n~c r e a s e d . TC snmmarlze t h e

precsdlng

sectim

i n

propositional

tom: 2 rule P r o ~ o s i 2. t ~ ~ ~i f ZtTrlhuted as agqressivs,

violation t h e t is,

is as

Ch.9.

R t t r i b u t i o x PTOC~ESES

Page 144

i n t e n t i o n a l harm-dorng, rhe probability interpersonal vialerce is ircreased.

of

If 'he a t t r i b u t i o n of a g g r n s s i v e n e s s is e a d e , ar e v a l u a t i O P o f t h e s i t u a t i o n w i l l determine a n a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o r s e by w h i c h t o r e d u c e t h e h a r m - d o i n g of t h e r u l s It is p o s i t e d t h a t : violation.

P r o p o s i t i o i i 2. --relationship,

The mare intinete 'hi 'he l e s s l i k s l y w i l l e c c e p t a c c e D r aVOld2nCE b e u s e d a s a t a c t i c t? r e d u c s t h e harm-doing cf r u l e v i o l a t i o n s .

S i n c e acceptance o r zvoldance is d i f f i c u i t iPvolPed i n enaurlcg i n t Z a a t e relationships:

for

thosc

P r o p o s P ~ o r2. -relatiorship,

Th9 Bore intimate .b? ?he more likely w i l l r e t a l i a t i o n be used a s a t a c t i c t o ?educe t h ? harm-doirg of r u l e viola?ions.

If t h e r a c t i c o f r e L a l i a t i o n i s ch?sen, chances i n c r e a s e t h a t v i o l e n c e v l l l e n s u e ; t h p norm of r e c i p r o c i t y will l e g i t i m i z e r ~ t a l l a t i c n .

Prlp.oslti0n --

u.

I f t h e attribution of aggression communicated t o t h e r u l e v i o l a t o r , t h r probability of c o u r t e r r e t a l l a t i c n iccreases. 1s

P r o p o s i t i o z 5. --a b i l i t i e s of

lover the negoiiatiol the a c t o r s involved, t h e higher t h e prcbabiliry 3f c o m t e r r e t a l l a t i o n . The

The P r o p o s i t i o n 6. -counterretaliation,

the

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probability o f v i o l f r x e .

CE2BRCTEPISTICS OF BOLES E N D R O L F VIDLBTIONS TBIT ENERBCE AGGPESSIVE ATTPISOTIOA Whether a r u l e v i o l a t i o n i s a g g r e s s i v e i s t y p i c a l l y i c f e r r e d from, amocg o t h e r t h i n g s , c h a r a c t s r i s t i c s s f t h e r u l e v l o l a t o r (e.g., p o w e r 3 r d s t a t u s ) , c h a r a c t s r i s t i c s 3f the s i t u a t i o n (prEssrce cf alcohol o r csarcioc), and cheracteristics o r tho r u l s violation i t s c l f . This lz'rsr Certail charscteristics of c a t e g o r y i s of I n t e r e s t h a r e . r u l e s a n d t y p e s o f r u l s v i o l a t i o n s do s e s m t o l e a d L 3 t h e v ~ o l a i o r ' s b e i n g S E E P as e g g r e s s i ~ e . The c h 3 r 3 c t e r i s t i c s o f r u l e s t o be c a h r l d s r e d i n t h i s c o r n e c r i o n are t h l s e t h a t : (1) c o n t r o l or restrict. behavior, (2) thzeite?. s i t u a t e d i d o n a t i e s , ( 3 ) a r c h l g h l y c c h n e c i e d 'a o t h e r r u l e s . ica (9) d i s r u p t p s t a b l i s h e d claims. I n the d i s c u s s i o n of each of t h e s e C h a r a c t f r i s t l c s ~e w i l l a t t e m p t t o d e m o n s t r a t ? how

ch.9.

Rttrlbutlon Pracessrs

Pao= 7115

ccr'air s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s of t h s husbind-uif? r e l a t i o n s h i p aggression for rule may e c h a n c s t h e a t t r i b u t i o r o r v101ations.

E x p e r l m e ~ t e l s t n d i e s have found t h a t a c t i o n s t h s ? c o n t r o l t h ~b e h a v t o r of another, or corstrair anath?rrs b e h a ~ i o r a la l ? s m a t i V F S O r OUtCOmeS, 2r? m O r C l i k e l y '3 be a t % r i b u t e d a s a g g r ~ s s i v e (Brown a n d T e d s s c h i , 1 9 7 4 ; Cimezon e n d J a n k y , 1 9 7 2 : T e d e s c h i . c t a&., 197Y). Wh?n an i c t i o a f o r c e s a p e r s o n ~ n t oa p o s i t i o n i n w h i c h a l t e r n a t i v e c s u z s e s of a c t i o n a r e s e v s r e l y l t m i t e d , t h e a c t o r probably w i l l eualoate t h e ac+ion a s gaal-dirscted. Ere r u l l r i a l i t i c n s t h a t o c c u r b e t w e e n I n t i m a t e s more l i k e l y t o b e p a r c e i v e a a s ont trolling thaP rule viola+ions ic other scctal r d a t i o r s h l p s ? S t h a s a l r e a d y been n e n t i o n f d t h a t a v i a o variety o f r u l e s b e t v e e l i n t i n a i e s a r e undofinsd and a x S i g i i o n ~ . Eu?, i r a d d i t i o n , a c a r g a n ~ z e t i o c a l E e a t u r e o f t h e husband-wife r e l ~ t i o n s h i p s a y i l c r e a s c t h e dsqree t o w h i c h z z u l e n i c l a t i n n of o n e s p o u s e i m p i n g e s o c t h e paTt7~FT.

I n n a r y i n s * i < u t i o n a l spheres. t h e viola'ion of rules is u s u a l l y e x a m i n e d by some f c r m o f c i v r l a u t h o r i t y w h o s e f u r c t l o n i s 56 r e l d e r zc o b j e c t i v e judgment. For e x s a p l e . i f l a b o r a c c u s e s D a n a g e m e r t o f v i o l a t i n g c ~ r t a i nc o n t r a c t u a l arrangemen*s a b o u t o v f r t i m s pay and b o t h s i d e s r e m a i r r e s o l u t e ?bout t h e i r " r i g h t n e s s , " o b j e c t i v e r2gotiatc;s w i l l b e c a l l e d 12 t o n e d i a t s t h e d i s p u t ' . T h e r e s o l u t i o n of it* dLspute by recourse t o t h i r d party a r b i t r a t i o r w i l l ' s r n p o r a r i l y h a l t r a c h side's f e e l i n g p ' c c n t r o l l e d * b y t h e other. I n more i l t i a a f s s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , as m a r r r a g ? , arbitration t h 4 z e 1 5 10 i n s t i t u t i o n i l i z e d t h i r d p a r t y d f s i q ~ e d t o h e n d l e r u l e vio1a:ioEs. For example, i f a h u s b a r d r l o l a t e s a r n l s t i o r . a l r u l e by havirg sexual r e l a t i o ~ s with s r o t h e r ~ o m m ,t h e w i f e h a s x c a u r s a o n l y 5 9 t t 4 husband. Zc e f f e c t , t h e v i f e i s u n d e r t h e c o n t r c l of t h e r u l e violator. O t t e r a l t e r P a t i r e s a:e t o b a v c s o m e o n e b u t ro t a l x + o t h e husband, o r +c d l s s o l r e t h e n a r r i a g e , d i r e c t e u t h o r i t y c e n m a n d a t e an s r d t o r h s v i o l a t i o r . A s s p r e y (19711 r s n a r k s : " C o r j u g a l l o v e , t h e bond o f m a r = i a g ~ , i s t h e m o s t ~ X C ~ U S o f~ Ya 1~1 in O U T s o c i s t ~ " (p. 723). The c l o s 9 r t h a p a r t i c i p a n t s i n 2 s o c i i l r?latLo!ixhip, th? more e x c l u s i v e o r s t r a n g e r s i t becomes. P3r our ?UzposeS. a n d t o s u a n a r i z e t h i s set-ior:

P r ~ P C s i t i o L 8. The -institntlccalized

l o v e r
It P r o g p f r c g 2. --BOX intimate

relaticnship, c c n t r o l ot 'hp

a r u l e violation occurs, 'hthe participants in a socisl t h e more o c e i s u n d ? r t h ? r u l e violator.

R u l e v i o l a t z o n s t h a t threaten t h e s i t u a t - a i a e n t i ' y of a person have a high p r o b a b i l i t y af h?ing l z b i l s d a s F l ~ p b u z (1973) ~ states: aggressive. The p e r c s p 5 i o c

3f

a

threat

to

the

situated

f o r it i s . ~ ~ . transforms a harm interaction into e n c o u n t e r (p.423). ~

This chapter holds t h a t t h e attribution

of

eggression

is t h e i n i t i a l s t e g e i n a p r o c e s s of i n t e r p e r s a n a l v i o l i c c e . P u l e ~ l o l a t i o r sp e r c e i v e d a s t h r s a t e n i c g t o t h e s : t u a t e a l d e ~ t l t i e s o f p a r t x c i p a r t s f a c i l i t a t s t h a a t t x l b u r i o : of aggression, but a r e n c t t h e s o l e determlnart. The f o c u s h e r e is n o t 02 t h r e a t as a v e r b n l o r c a n v e r b a l message p r o m i s i n g u n f a v o r a b l e c o n s s q u e n c e s i f demands a r e n o t n e t , b u t on r h e p e r c J p t i o r cf t h r l a t n t o sitnzted identities; t h a t is, t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t o l e ' s i d e c t i t y is being jeoparaizsa, o r t h s perception of a P e g a t i v e s v a l u a ' i o n of w o r t h . The t h r e a t may be i n t e c - L o c a l O r unintentional; what i s c r u c i a l is chat t h e t h r = a ' is p e r c e i v e d 2 s h a r m f u l tc o n e ' s s s n s e of who h e l s h e i s F r a relatioPship. A S m s n t i o C e d . i ~ t i ~ a rt e sl a t i o n s h i p s i a v o l r ? a %ulna1 c o n c s r n t o r t h e i d e a t i t l c s of p a r t i c i p a n t s . I d s n t i t i e a ars s u p p o r t e d a r d Enhanced t h r o u g h i n ' e r a c t i s n . This support i n f a c i l i t a t e d b e c a u s e e a c h i r t i a a t e has a n e x t e n s i v e k n o v l i d g e cf t h e o t h e r ' s c o l l e c t i o n of s o c i 2 1 i d e n t i t i e s I o r s 3 c i a l biography. Ir e f t e c t , l c t i a a t e s k r c v how t o s u p p s r ' t h ? i d e n t x t i e s o f e a c h o t h e r b s c a u s e e a c h hews a b c u t + h c . h i r g s that matter t o each other. l l t h s u g h +.his E X ~ F C S ~ k n o w l e d g e c a r b e u s e d t o s u p p o r t a n d e n h a n c e i d e n t i t i ~ s , st t h e s2me ?lID5, it caC b e u s e d ;o damage t h a n .

T h i s p ~ o c e s si s h i g h l z g h t e d r n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e b y W i l l l a m D e a r P C W F ~ :P~ S C i s n o v e l 24. R&sq sf si&hz &=pb_al i n a d i s c u s s i o c o f t h e n a t u r e of marriage:

V

Two people by no means reckless of eact othsz's righfs and teelings, hut ever tender cf them for thc 805t part, may tcar at each other's heartstring^ i n this sacred bond with impunity: though if +hey uerc acy other twa they uould not Sp28k or look at each other again after th? ootrages -hey exchange....If the h u s h n d a 2 3 wife 32E blunt, outspoker people Like 'h? Laphams, they do lot weigh their words, if they ars more refined, they wsigh them rsry carefully, s r d krov accuratsly just tow fnr thlv "111 vary 3rd in what most s?ns~tiuespot they may be plarted ulth the mast effect (1964:SO).

Bssides possessirg kraviedge of other nemh?rs that can be "sed to do harm, intlaetes a r e predisposed to inpux; harm where DO nalevoler,ce 15 nFCESSarily irtendcd. For ~xnmple. lf 1n the pressice ot cthers, 2 wife sxprssses tha lesire a tor certain material goods th+t are bayond her a e z n s . hushand vho i s sersltive about his aarring p3tential may teil threatened by such a statement. while her ints2t nay have been to share her feelings about 'hings she uould likq to hav2, the COmeFxt may be threatening to tte kushand because he knows :hit she knows that te is sensitivs about such thlngs. Fecause she knlvs ho is sensitive about such likely to feel, she would not have szld ir things, he :s unless sh? meant to commenr o n his earning capscity. Lf 2 PonlntimatF had exp:essfd :he same desire for azrerial goods, +her? would have heen n o reason f a r the hushan3 t o p ~ ~ c e i v e such i statenent 2s threatening t5 his self-ldfLtlty. If a norlntlmate asks, "Why d c n q c you ~ v s r taka your aut Lo drr?er?qs ths question may cat be percsived as The thriazening even when it ==s meant salevolfntly. perceiver cannot he crrtail that rhe nonintinate kn3xs he is his ~ F T s i r i V eabout such ramazks. Because he knovs :hat wife COPS he 1 s s e n s i t i ~ et3 such thl?gsr the sa.4 remark by her vlll be more l i k ~ l yperceived as threztaning. wlfe

Bttr~botion theory offers scne empirical evidence that sort of situatlor say indeed occur. J o n s s in6 Davis (1965) pr3vide ~ x p ~ r i m e n t a~lf s e z r c h0 2 the k n o w l ~ d g epe9ple Two use In deciding wish certainty an acr's intsr.tion+liiy. of the:= COCC~US:OIS are 3f direct corcern to intlmate TJlatlODShipS:

this

Rnovledgf end ahility are preconditions for th2 esslgrment cf ~~~~~~~~~s. Each plays a rcl? ic enablirg the perceiver tc decide uhe'hcr en effect or C O ~ S E ~ U S C C of F action was accidsatsl (1965:221-222).

Ch.9.

Attribution Processes

11. Pro&gZ& -knovledge o f

The aore extensive the s o c i a l biographies, t h e higher t h e c e r t a i n t y t h a t o t h e r ' s r u l s v i o l a t i o n was intentional-

Highly Connected P u l e s The v i o l a t i o n o f a r u l e t h a t i s h i g h l y c o n n e c t e d t o other rules iccreases the probability that th2 r u l e v i o l a t i o n w i l l be p e r c e i v e d a s a g g r e s s i v e . When a h i g h l y c o r n e c t f d r u l e i s v i o l a t e d , it has t h e potential to disrupt t h e e n t i r e f u n c t i a n i r g of t h e organization. For example, i r t b e m i l i t a r y a s i r many bureaucracies, r u l e s a r e c l e a r l y s p e c i f i e l and h i g h l y dlfferentiated. The v i o l a t i o n c f a r u l e i s h a r d l a d an a s t a t u t e basis. The v i o l a t i o n i s coded. 3na " s u i t a b l e punishment' i s predefined. The r u l e s a r e s o f r a g m e n t e d t h a t i t is d i f f i c u l t t o v i o l a t e h i g h l y c o n n e c t e d r u l e s : though t h e r u l e s a r e c o n n e c t P d , e a c h r u l e i s a l s o d i s t i c c t from others.

I n i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , r e l a t i o n a l r u l e s 3:s not d i s x l n c t f r o m o n e a n o t h e r , b u t v a g u e , u n d e f i n e a , a n d Ear t h e nost p a r t highly cornected t c o r e another. As a n e x a m p l e , a TUlE v i o l a t i o n i n which e husband r e f u s e s t o f u l f i l l 2 t a s k t u n c t i o c . by n o t h e l p i n g a r o u n d t h e h o u s e may g e n e r a t s +r a r g u m e n t i n which t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i s made t h a t he i s l a z y a n d d o e s n ' t c a r e whax h a p p e n s a r o u n d t h e hosa. 92 may r e t o r t t h a t h i s w i f e d c e s c o t a l w a y s p l e a s e him w i t h what s h e d o e s around t h e house and, b e s i d e s , h e works and s h e doesn't. R e f e r e n c e t o p a s t e v e c t s may ba b r 3 u g h t i n , a s tc bolster v e 1 1 a s r e c o u r s e to d i s p c s i t i o r a l t r a i t s argumentive points. To summarize:

P z E E L : ~ ~ ~ . relationship,

The more inximate the t h e more vague and u n d e f F n s d

ch.9.

Pttrlbotlon P~CCCES~S s

.

i n the rules, t h e rules.

Page 149

Th* more vagu* a r d u n d s f i n e d t h e h i g h e r t h e c o n n e c t e d n e s s of

P r o E S-i t-i--On 19. -rslaticnship.

The more intimate the t h e higher t h e probability that r u l e r i c l a t i o r s w l l l b s v i o l a t i o n s of highly connected rules.

o

The v i o l a t i o n o f a highly i o 2 . cccnected r u l e heightens t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e r u l e v i o l a t o r w i l l b? p e r c e i v e d 3s aggressive.

Disruption o f Claims StablR i n t e r a c t i o n p a t t e r n s , developed over t h e course of a reletionship, order a n d make p r e d i c t a b l e t h e e x p l c t a t i o n s c f ezch p a r t i c i p a n t toward t h e other. Patterns of " c l a i m i n g b e h a v i o r ' d e v e l o p and become s t a h i l i z a d . Claiming b e h a v i o r , a s t h e p h r a s e i m p l i e s , r e f e r s t o Raking c l a i m s o r demands on a n o t h e r b e c a u s e o f y o u r s o c i a l p o s i t i o n I n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a s ccnpared r e l a t i v e :O t h e o t h e r . v i t h ConTn+im~te r e l a t i c n s h i p s , c a r b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by E & a i & g g g CoBDlacence, w h e r e i n patterns of claiming b e h a v i o r become t a k e n f c r g r a r t e d . R e l a t i D c a l complacence i s 1.55 l i k e l y t o o c c u r i n g r o u p s i a which p e t t f r n s o f c l a i m i n g b e h a v i o r a r e based s o l e l y on secondary o r exchange considerations; f o r example, in employ2r-employee or landlord-tenant relations. Relational rule violations p a t t ~ r ~ ost c l a i m i n g b e h a v i o r being perceived a s aggressive.

that disrupt established have a high p r o b a b i l i + y o f

The i n a u g u r a t i o n o f a s y m m e t r i c a l c l a i m s i n t o a r initially defined egalitarian (symmetricsl) r e l a t i o n s h i p , o r o f s y m m e t r i c a l c l a i m s i n t o an i n i t i a l l y d e f i e d a u t h o r i t a r i a n (asymmetrical) r e l a t i c n s h i p w i l l d i s r u p t t h e harmony o f t h e i n t s r a c t i o n and t h r e a t e n t h e i d 9 n t i t i e s o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s (Eepburn, $773: 27). The l i t e r a t u r e i l l u s t r a t e s t h e e f f e c t of i l t r o a u c i n g s y m e t r y Lnto i n i t i a l l y defined asymmetrical r e l a t i o c s h i p s . R e i s s (1968) p o i n t s o u t t h a t a l m o s t h a l f of t h e c a s e s o f p o l i c e b r u t a l t t y i n v o l v e an open d e f i a n c e of t h e c f f i c ? x ' s authority. That is, t h e a r r e s t e d p a r t y sough? t o d i s r u p t taken-for-granted claies--in t h i s c a s e , a r e j e c t i o c of t h e o f f i c e r ' s a u t h o r i t y - W e s t l e y (1953) r e p o r t s c h a t whDn a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e t h o s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n which t h - y deem v i o l e n t t e c h n i q u e s a p p r o p r i a t e , t h e p o l i c e most o f t s c c i t e d t h o s e i n s t a n c e s i T ~which t h e i r c l a i m s were d e f i e d by u n c o o p e r a t i v e p e r s o n 5 SO t h a t c o e r c i o n had t o b e used t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r

ch.9.

B t t r l b o t i o ~P r o c e s s e s

P a g e 150

self-intsrest. Tedeschi, gi =l. (197U) 2rgllE t h i i o r = t a c t o r t h a t l e a d s p c r s m s t o l a b e l e c t s a s a g g r s s i v c i s tho a d v a n c e r n e x t of s e l f - i n t e z e s t . I disiuptio? 3f established c l a i m s is l i k e l y t o b e p e r c e i v e d as t h e a d v a n c s m s n t 3f t h e O r h e r ' s s e l f i s h i n t ~ x e s t sby t h e p a r t y whose i n t e r e s t s a r m being negatively ettacted. I n intimat? relationships, relaIlona1 coaplaceccs ray p r a d i s p o s n one p + r t y t o view d i s r u p t i o n s of c1ai.s as attemp's t o further self-ipterest of t h e o t h f r . For example, a p r e v i o o s l y l o n v o r k l n g w i f e who d e c i d ? s t o g e t 3 j o b c o u l d b e p e r c e i v e d es a t t e m p t i n g ts d i s r u p t p r e v i a u s l y established claims. Her i n I e n t n a y be s s s e r t i v e . ro+ a g g r e s s i v e , b u t i t may b e p e r c s i v e d a s 2 g g r P 5 5 i v E by hex h n s b a n d who s e e s s u c h an a c t r a n a s n e g a t i v e l y a f f € c L i r g h i s self-intsrest. T h l s p r o c e s s is i l l u s t r a t e d i i r ChaptFr 10 of 'his v o l u m e i n R a l p h I a R o s s a ' s c a s s s t u d y c f J 3 c afid Jennit?~. These f o u r c h a r a c t f r l s t i c s o f r u l e v i o l a t i o n s a r r held to facilitate 'he p e r c e p t i o n of r u l e v i a 1 a t i o r . s a s malevolent. I f r u l e v i a l a t i c r s o c c u r t h a t h a v e one 2r m o r e o t t h e s e C h a r a c c e r i s I i c s , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y is high t h a t such r n l ~v i o l a t i o n s w t l l be perceived as intentionally hzrm-producing.

Up t o now, W P h a v e b e e n p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d v i r h t h c inpotation of irten:icoality t o t h e a c t i o n s o f 0 t h ~ : e~c d it5 role ir facilitating violence. ?.nother larg? c c n s l d e r a t i a n i n a t t r i b u t i o n t h e o r y c0ncerr.s l o c a b i n q t h e "cause'. of t h e a c - i o n . Tt:s p e r c ~ i v s : w i l l s O m c z i n ? s 3'tsmpt t o l r t e r p r e t a n a c t i l r by l i n k i n g i t t o t h e = n v i r m n + r : o r t h e personal dispositior of t h e actor. A good d e a l of e v i d e z c s frcm a t t r i b u t i o n t h e o r y shows t h a t pressures =xis% t o a t t r i b u t e :esponsibility t o thperson, t h a t is, t o h i s / h e r p e r s o c a l i t y o r d i s p o s i t i o n , thr more t i m e s a g g r e s s i v e E c t i o n s o c c u r o r a r e p e r c s i v a d a s occurr:rig. Reletional rule violations that result i~ i n t e r p e r s o n e l v i o l e n c e reir.force t h e perceLv2r i n vi?wing t h e v i o l a t o r 3s a n a g g r e s s i v e person. Experiaantal sviaence f r o m K e l l e y , si =A. (1962) s u p p o r t s t h i s c 0 r t e n : i o n :

En e f f e c t i s a t t r i b u t e d t o o r e o f i t s p s s s i b l ? w i t h which, o v e r t i n e , it c o v a r i e s .

CBUSPS

A s t h ~a s s c c i a ? i o n b e t w e e n rule siols?ions 3rd i r : e r p e ~ ~ O n a l v i o l e n c e tocoEes s i r o n g e r , and o c c u r s under d i f t e r e c t conditions, s o does t h e certainty r h a t the r u l e v l o l a t o r i s an a g g r - s s i v e person.

o t h e r p r o c ? s s e s a l s o a r e a ? work t h a t i r f l u e n c e t h e p e ~ c ? l ~ e tr o v i e w t h e r u l e V i o l a t o r a 5 a x a g g r e 5 s i v e p 2 r s O n envizonment. Far r a t h e r t h a n 2s 2 v i c t i m of h i s / h e z extmple, an e x p e r i a e r t by KarousD s n d P a n s o r (1971) dpmonstra+ed t h a t p e o p l e a r e g f r s r a l l y c o s t - o r i e n r c d in t O r a i r g O v e r a l l eYBluationS. When a n o b j s c t 3r a v e c t h a s b a t h p o s i f i v € a n d r ? g a - i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , p ~ o p l ev 3 i g h t h o n o r e t h a i 'he p o s l t i v e . Ir t h e f s m i l y s i t u s t i c n , preVlOuS r u l ? v i o l e ' i o n s have caused i n t ~ ~ p e ~ s o ~ a l V ; ~ l e n ~ ~s u, b s e q u e n t a c + i o n s t a k s n by :he r u l e v i o l a t c r . c o n t a i n i r g b o t h p o s l t i v e end l q a t i v e f a a l u r s s , nap b e m g r ~1:kely t o be see? a s aggressive. n o r e i m p o r t a n t t o o u r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e Lapn*ation of a g g r e s s i o n t o t h e p e r s o n a l d i s p o s i t i o ~o f t h e s c t a r i s t h = is u s u a l l y s h i g h nature of violence i t s e l f . v:olence I f i n t h = p a s t a + t = ~ . p t st o intensity. paic-producing act. ~ e e o l v er u l e v i o l a t i o c s h a v e e s c a l a t e d t o v i s l e n c - , the p r l b a b i l i t y i s g r e a t e r o f s e e i o g t h e o t h e r a s agg:crsive. E x p e r ; a e n t a l ev;dcsc€ f r o m b o t h K E l l e y (1967) snd P a l s t s r (1966) p o l n t s o u t 'hat t h e p e r c e i v e r h a s a n i n c r e e s i c p l e e d t o a t t r x b u t e r s s p o n s i b l l i f y a s t h e outcomes of s c t i o c s become n o r e s e v e r e . I n a social-psychological sanso. t h e consequeccas f o r t h e r o l e vxalator car b e S E V ~ ~ P , i n tha* changes i r self-concep' may o c c u r a s a t t r i b u t i o n s t o 'he personal ~ h a z z ~ t e r ~ s tair ce ~ t r a r s a i t t e d . The r u l e v i o l a ' s ; say b e g i n t o see h i a / h e r s ~ l f 8 s a g g r e s s F v I o r v i o l e n t a n 0 ic: I n t o x s o f t h e l a r q e r c u l t o r a l m e a c i n g 3f b e i o g a n a g g r ; s s i v e OT v i o l e n t p e r s o n .

The a c t i o n n b s e r v s d h a s air-cL l f f e c t m e ' s ittribntior.. p o s i t i v e o r l a g a t i v s c o r s e q u e c c e s f o r 'he p c r c s i v e r - - r ' is hedoristically relevant. also, p e r c e i v e r b i a s may o c c u r b e c a u s s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a c t o r :a p e r c e i v s r . whar t h e p E r C e i r e r belLeVes t h a t ths a c t i o n he/sh? c b s e r r s s h s s been c o n d i t r o n e d by h i s / h e r presence, pe:sonalisa w i l l affect d i s p o s i t i o r a l a?:rlbufions.

E e c a u s e o f t h e h i g h i n t e r d s p e n d e n c e cf tts c 3 a p l e . t h e s e t w o f a c t o r s *re e s p e c i a l l y r e l e v a n t to i n t i m a t e relationships. Rflati~nal rule viol%?iors are

Ch.9.

B t t r l b u t i o ~P r o c e s s ~ s

Page 152

h a d o n i s t i c a l l y r e l e v a n t aria p e r s o n a l i s t i c t o intimates and miy b i a s t h e a t t r i b u t i o n p r o c e s s . Inciaates may be r e l u c t a n t t o l e b e l a s p o u s e rs a g g r e s s i v s o r v l o l e n t b ? c a u s s t h a~t t r i b u t i o c h e s l a p l i c a t i o n s f o r b o t h . T3 l a b ? l a n p e r s l n may b e t o o i n t l m a t e a s an a g g r e s s x v a c r v i o l s - t d i f f S c u l t t o r e c o n c i l e ulth t h e i m a g e of s p o u s e 3s a f r e e l y cholqn, c l o s e emctianal partcer. The p e r c e i v 9 r m a y t e n d t o e r r L P t h o d x r e c t i o c o f n o n r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e s p u s s ~ s ac'ribute r u l s v i o l s t i 3 r . s $3 t h e X e ~ p O X S i D ~ l i t y =Pa e r ~ i r o n m e n t o r s i t u a t i c r r a t h e r than t c tho partcerqr per~onali*y. ? i n d i n g s from a s t u d y by Ylrrow, 2: gi. [1955), o f w i v e s ' d e f i n i t i o n s cf h u s b a n d s ' + m ; t i o n a l prabl4ms c a n be t h u s i r t e r p r e t e d . They r e p c r f a g r s s t r a l u c t 3 c c ? on + h e p a r t o t w i v e s to l a b s 1 t h e i r h u s b a n d s a s m s n t a l l y ill. Not w t i l a 1 1 p 9 s s i b l e i n + . e r p z = t a t i o n s o r t h e i r h u s h a f i d s * b e h a v 1 0 r a r e E x a m i r e d a n d f o u n d w a n t i n g i s t h e attribution t o p s r s o n ~ ld i s p o s i t i o n made. I n o t h s z words, t h e e v i d e c c e h a s t o b ? o r s r ~ h e l m i n gb e f o r e t h e h u s b e c d l s s e e n a s a m e n t a l l y 111 p e r s o n i n n e e d of p r o f e s s i o n a l h e l p . T h e o t h e r c o n c e p ; r e l e v a n t t o a t t r i b u t i o n b i a s amcng I r t i n a t e s i s what X e l l e g (1971) c a l l s p l u r r l i s t i c i g n o r a n c e . T h i s v & r l a h l P T F ~ ? X S t o t h e l a c k of c o n s e n s u s an an attribution t h r o u g h e i t h e r t h e a b s e n c e o f c o n p a r i s o o 3 r t h e l a c K o f o t h e r observers. T h e p r i v a t e n a t u r e o f t h ? f r m i l y 1373). i? v h i c h m o s t a c t i v i t i e s t a k e institution (Laslett, p l a C B 0 ~ t 0 5 v i s u ct onf family menh?:s, height=ns the l i k e l l h c a d ot p l u r a l i s t i c i g n o r a n c e . I t t r i b u t i o n s a2ds i c t h e f a m i l y s e t r i r g u s u a l l y 'ak? p l a c e w r t h o u t f e e d b a c k f r o m others. The l a c k o f 'bird p a r r y o b s e r v e r s a n d t h e i n s h i l i t y t o o b s e r v e O t h e r s e t s o f = n t i m a t c s d u r i n g t h e r e s o l u t i o n if r u l e violations l e a d s t o e l a c k o f c e r t a i n t y a s t o 'ha proper at'rzbutian. B e c a u s e o f t h i s l a c k o f c e r t a i n t y and t h e p o s s i b i l j t p of e r r c r . d i s p o s i t i o r a l a + t r ; b n t i o n s s a p b e made i n + c o n s e r v a t i v e d i r e c t i o n , blaming t h ? s i t u a t i o n r a t h e r t h r n t h e spouse. Bs was m e ~ t i o n ~ di ? referents t o l a h e l i c o m e n t a l illness. a t t r i b u t : ~ b~ i a s C C U ~b c~ a n i n p o r t a n t v a r i e b l ? il a c ~ o u f i t i n g f o r t h e r e l u c t r n c e of many m a r r i e d p e r s o n s t o s e e k h e l p when i ~ v o l v e di n v i o l e r t r s l a t i o n s h i p s , u n r i l t h e o u t c o m e s b e c o n ? s e v e r e tcr e v e r y o n e i n v o l v e d .

CONCLUSION The r e l a t l o r s h l p between husband-wife v i o l e n c e and t w o a s p e c t s of a t t r i b u t i c n t h e o r y were examined i n t h i s c h l p t e r . The f i r s t o r t h e s e a s p e c t s , t h e a t t r i b u t i o ~ . of i l f O P : i 3 n a l agg1?ssion, was s e e n a s a c r m p o r t a r t v a r i a b l e i n t h e occurrencs of i n t e r p e r s o r a l violence. It was l r g u e d t h a t t h e v i o l a t l o r of r e l a t i o n a l r u l s s , v h i c h a r s d e s i g n ? & t o p r o t e c t t h e i d e ~ t i t i e s of pir:icFpacts in Lntimate relationships, can t n i t - a t e + process wherein r h e v l l i d i t y

~ h . 9 . R t t r l b u t l o n PTOCGS~ES

Page 153

Of t h e r u l e i s n e g o t i a t e d , a n d a t t e m p t s t o Toduca t h e harm-doing of z h s violation a r e b s g u n . l'hs s i c l a t i o n o f iela;:onal r u l s s may b e i c c i d 9 n t a l o r d e l i b e r a t e , the s l g ~ ~ t i C a n ?f a c t o r b e i z g t h e m s a n i n g of t h e v i s i a f i n r t h + t t h e o x h e r a t t r l b u t e s -a t h s v i o l a t c r .

FJUr k i r d s of r u l = v l o l a i i o o s most l i k e l y t s be p e r c e i v e d 2 5 a g g r e s s i v e a r e (1) r u l e v i o l a t i c c s ? t a t c 3 r t r o l b e h a n o r , ( 2 ) r u l e v i o l a t i o n s seer a s t h r a a t s t c s l t u a z s d identirres, (3) v i o l a t i o n s of r u l e s t h a t 2re h i g h l y to other rules, and (9) r u l e vi311tior.s t k a t dlsznpt. e s t a b l i s h e d c l a i m s .

T h e s e c o n d a s p e c t oE a f ! r i b u t i o n t h e o r y e x a m i o a a was t h a t concezned w i t h t h e p r o c e s s o f l o c a i i n q t h e "cause" of t h e actioc. 0 9 c e a perceiver a t t r l b u t e s i r . t e n t l o n a l i 2 y to a n o t h s r ' s a c t i c n s , he/she atturnpis t o i n t e r p r e t t b e cause of t h 4 actio?. P t t r i b u t i o n s a r e made t o t h e e n v i r c c a - s t or slruation, o r t o the persnrality sf t h e actor. Certain f e i z u r e s of l n t x m s t e r e 1 z t i o ~ ~ h : p swere seen a s p r o m a c i c g a t t r r b u t r o ~ a l bias, w h e r e i ~ . s l t u a t ~ o c a la i 3 e ? . v i r ~ c m e n t a l t a c 1 0 ~ 5IFF blamed t o r v l o l e n t a c t i o n s r a t h e r t h i n t h e personal d r s p o s l t l o r of +he actor.

NOTES +A V ~ T S ~ O X ~f th+s c h a p t q r was p r e s e r t e d s t r h e Theory C o n s t r n c t i o ~ Workshop a t t h e Z C X U Z ~m e e t i ~ go f t k 4 B l f i o P a l C o n n c l l on F a m i l y B e l a + l o r s , August 13-20, 1975. The p r e p a z a r r o r o f t h i s c h i p t e r was s u p p o r t s a by N 3 t i o n 2 1 I ~ s t i t u t ro f n e ~ t n~ e la l t h g r a n t No. 13050. I would l i k e t o r h a n k Es. J o y c e E. FCSS B P ~8 5 - S i u ~ d r aL. E t w - 1 1 for many h e l p f u l s u g g e s t i o n s t h r o u g h c u t t h e f o r m u l s t i o x of t h i s chapter.

1. R g g r E s s i C n p ~ y ~ h o l o g i c a act. l situation, that

55 here defined as a physical O r o r acts, o c c u r r i r g i n 3r i c t e r p - r s a r a l are judpcd to he irt=c?i3rally

harm-producing. The d d s t i c c t i n n betvofr: a g g r e s s i o r and v i o l r r c e i s s o p r c b l e m a t l c + h a t i t would t a k e a n r c t i r c c h a p t e r t o d e a l w i t h t h r e a e t s r ( s s e G ~ l l e se r a S f r a u s , 1978). his c h a p t e r f o c u s e s ox hcu a t t r i b u t i o n p r o c e s s e s f a c l l i i a t e v i o l e n c e by p r o d u c i r g a c y c l e o f escals:inq aggressior. 2. I d e n ? . i t y i s s e e r h F r e 8 5 a s o c i c l pheccmenon. T h r o u g h O U T p o s i t ~ ~ n - S B + S , iz t h e s o c i a l structure i n r E l a t l O h t o o t h e r p o s i t r c n - s e t s , i t i s e s t a b l i s h e d where and what we a r e . Mas? b a s i c a l l y , i a e i r i t y i s t h e a n s w a r ts t h p question, "Who am I?" 3. S l t u ~ t e d~ d e n t i t y t o t h e l c c 3 t i o n o f ace's s o c i a l s e l f i n r s l a t l o n t o e s p ~ c i r i cs o c i a l p o s < t i 3 r . For e x a m p l e , a h u s b a n d i n r e l a t i c r t o h i s wife, c r a s t u d t c f i n r e l a t i o c *o h i s / h e r t e a c h e r .

art IV The Interplay of Culture and Social Organization

Tht chapcers i n t h e prec?ding seciior emphasize that cerizin aspacts of f a s i l y the p=ohability a£ Organization increass C03flict. B u t c c n f l i c t 1s n o t t h s s a m e i s violence: the:? a x many n a n v i o l e n + u s y s 3 f sertling conflict. EOVBV~T, in a group c h a r a c - e r i z e d by a h i g h d e g r e e o f c o n f l i c t , w h e r e P O ~ Sl e g i L i m i z s the u s e o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e ( a s shown i n P a r t 11). t h e *?age i s s e t f a r 3 h i g h ~ F V E o~f V i o l e n c e . T h i s c o a b l n a t i o c of s o c i a l O r g a r i z a t i o ~ a la n d c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s f o r m s t h e ~ O C U S ot a l l t h r e e c h e p t e r s i n P a r t IT. T h e t h r e e c h a p t e r s h a v e s o m e t h i n g alse i o COmmoC. A l l i l l u s t r a t e what A l l ? n a n d s t r a u s i n C h a p t e r 12 c a l l t h e " u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e t h e o r y of vi01~r.ce." T M s t h e o r y s t a t a s t h a t v i s l e n c e w i l l b e u s e d a s a r e s o u r c e when o t h e r r e s o u z c s s s r r lacking. T h u s 2 t a n i l y member w i t h l i t t l e p o w e r , mor-y, o r s t a t u s i s n o r e l i k e l y t o r e s o r t t o v l o l e r c e as a means o f w i n n i n g a c ~ c f l i c t .

The c h a p t e r s i n i h l s s e c t i o n u s i v a s t l y d i t t s r e n t rn+%hods, b u t e a c h c o m s s t o g z i p s " 5 t h the type of questicns j u s t l i s t e d . ?<:st, s case study is presented t h a t enables us t o grasp t h e d y n a m l c s o f m a r i t a l c o n f l l c t a n d v i s l s n c e by This s h a r i r g t h = s x p e r l s n c f s o f 2 young c o u p l a . h i s t o r p i s f a l l o w e d by a c h a p t e r t h a t t r a c e s i h t l 0 g i c B l i m p l l ~ a f i l n s f c r m a r l t a l v i o l s c c e cf t h e c h + n g e s i r e m p l o y m a l t of m a r r i e d voaer. a 3 3 Chscges i f t h ? v2y m a s c u l i n t t p i s defined. P i l a l l y . *he t h i r d c h a p t e r i n f h e s e c t i o n us?s statistical a n a l y s i s cf a l a r g e simple cE ClUplES t O 5 9 5 2 t h B " ~ t l i . i t E T A S C U T C E tkEOrj"' of m z r l t a l v l o l e n c ~ .

e Haven't Since": Conjugal Violence olitics of Marriage Ralph LaRossa

J O Ea n d J e n n i f e r , t h e c o u p l e whose s t o r y we f o l l o w i n t h i s c h a p t e r , i s n o t t h e s t u i y of a "disturbed" couple. They, l i k e o t h e r c s u p l e s i n varying degrees, h a v e c e r t a i n c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t - - s o m e o f w h i c h may e n d i n v i 3 l e n c e . T h s l r s t o r y g i v e s u s an i n s i d e view o f t h e i n t e r p l a y of c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l o r g a n i z n t i o n a l factors i n producing w a r i t s 1 violencl. Is pointed out i n e a r l i e r chapters, t h e fact t h a t c u l t u r a l norms p e r m i t v i o l e n c s amsrg f a m i l y mean that membqrs d o e s n o t automatically v i o l ~ n c e w i l l be used t o r e s o l v ? c 3 n f l i c t situations. we must a l s o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o c of t h e marriage. This is vividly i l l u s f r a t e d vhen J o e r e l a t e s t h e t i m e he s l a p p e d J e n f l f e r " t h r e e o r f o u r times." T h i s o = c u r r e a d u r i n g a p a r i o d i n t h e i r n a r r i a g e when J o a perceived Jennifer a s attempting t o doricate t h e ~ r relationship. J o e responded t o this a t t e m p t e d coup with v i o l e r c e because he f e l t hs "had t o d o s o m e t h i n g t o s t o p t h e b a d p r o g r e s s i o n of e v e n t s . " I n short, v i o l e n c a was u s ~ dvhen o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t i n h i s mind v o u l l v a l i d a t e h i s claim t o d o m i n a n t p o w e r u e r s l a c k i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I n an a t t e m p t t o h e l p f i l l t h e need f o r e t h r s g r a p h i s s 3f R n ~ ~ i c a m n arriages, I recently co2ductld a qualrtative s t u d y Of S i x t e e n m a r r i e d c J u p l e s e x p e c t i n g t h e i r f i r s t c h i l d (LaBossa. 1977).t1 By c o n v e r s a t i o n s with t h o s e c o u p l e s l e d me t o c3nclud9 t h a t , contrary to popular opinion, confrontatios azd strugglo a s well a s conssnsus ard e q u i l i b r i n m a r e a t t h e r o o t o f t h e m a r i t a l union. The i d e a t h l t m a r r i a g e is a c c r f l L c t system is h s r d l y nova1 ( s e e

S p r e y , 1969. f o r example). what e v i d s n t l y h i s been however i s e m p i r i c a l s u p p a e t f o r t h i s c o n t e n t i o n . * 2

lickicg

he p u r p o s e of t h i s chapter is to present a. i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e c o c f l i c t theme. The c a s a s t u d y t h a t f o l l o w s t e l l s t h e s t o r y of J o e a n & J e n n i f e r ( P s e u d o n y m s ) , a c o u p l e whose p o w e r s t r u g g l s i s m a n i f e s t e d i n 1 v a r i s t y of ways. heir s t o r y i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g c i f i c s o t b a c a u s s of t h e violent side t o t h e i r relationship. Through ; h e i r e x p e r i e n c e , t h e c o l d war metaphor, i a p l i c i t i n t h o c o n f l i c t a p p r o a c h , t r u l y comes t o l l f e .

JOE A N D JENNIFER Th? f i r s t p r e g n a n c y m e a n t e s s e n t i a l l y t w o z h i n g s t o J o + It m e a n t t h a t a f t e r h a v i n g w a i t e d P e a r l y f o u r and J e n n i f e r . y e a r s t h e y were f i n a l l y s t a r t i n g a f a m i l y , sonsthing they h a d a l u a y s w a n t e d t o do. It a l s o s i g n a l e d a chaogf i n t h e i r work s t r n c t u r e . F o r t h e first t i m e s i n c e t h e y ware married nor? i n o o r t . i n t . f o r t h e J e n L i f s r would n o t b e u o r k i n o . sole f i r s : :=me s m c e t h e y sere marri;d J o e would b e ;he wage e a r n e r . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s l a t t e r p o i n t i s t h a t J o e i n t e n d e d t o a s e h i s new p o s i t i o n t o m+ke a c l a i m f o r dominance i n t h e m a r r i a g e . J o e was a metaphorical speaker. DftEn, vhile d i s c u s s i n g a n i s s u e , he uould ( t o "clarifya a point) brlnp i n a n e c d o t e s from h l s p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s o r r e l a t s t h e i s s u e t o t h e in'ernationzl s t a t e of affairs. There were tmss d u r i n g my i r t e r v i e w s w i t h t h i s c o u p l e . I a u s t c c n f e s s , when I w i s h e d h e v o u l d h a v e b e e n more s p e c i f i c i n h i s answers. I l e a r n e d however t h a t I h a d t o a c c e p t , a s o t h e r s h a d , t h a t J o e u a s j u s t "deep." J o e is a v e r y d e e p always h a s s o e e t h l n g on d r l v e y o u r i g h t up a w a l l !

Jennifer:

thlnker, ard hs h l s m ~ n d . P e car.

Though J o e d i d m o s t o f t h e t a l k i n g , J e n n i f e r was n o t a r a 1 0 5 5 f o r words. Scmetimes s h e found i t d i f f i c u l t t o g e t a word i n e t g e u ~ s eo r r e m e m b e r w h a t q u e s t i o n I h a d a s k e d a f t e r J o e h a d p l c k e d i? u p a n d r u z w i t h i z f o r a u h i l s , b u t t h e n SO dFd I. Phen J e n E i f e r d i d s p e a k . s h e s a i d % h a t was on h e r mind--as d l d Joe: b u t , a s s h e o n c e s a i d , w h a t it t o o k J o e On a number t o say i n a paragraph, she s a i d i n a sentence. o f c c c a s i o n s d u r i n e ~ X Fi n t e r v i e w s v h i l e J o e was b u i l d i n g a n argument (and t h i s v a s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i f 3 3 e ' s argument mas a n attempt t o j u s t i f y why h e s h o u l d b e i n c h a r g e ) a f e u w e l l p l a c s d u c r d r b y J e n n i f e r a n d J o e ' s e d i f i c e u o u l d come tumbling d e w .

Ch.(~- E a v c n ' t 5 a d a n y P r c b l e m s S i n c e

P a g e 159

JOE a r d J e n n i f e r had knoun e a c h o t h e r s i n c e h i g h S c h ~ o l . T h e i r f i r s t r a a c t i o c t o e a c h o t h e r was, a s J e n c i f e r p u t~ t ' m , n t n a l disgust." Both a t t r i b u t e t h i s t s t h e f a c t ? h a t t h e y a r e e a c h h o n e s t t y p e s - - i f t h e y a s n ' t l i k e you, t h e y t e l l you-ard, i n t h e beginning, t h e y t o l d each o t h e r m o r e o f v h a t 'hey d i d n ' t l i k e t h a n o f v h a t t h e y l i P e 3 . In tloe, t h e i r hatred turned r o love. #ha: a t t r a z t a d t h p e t o e a c h o t h e r was t h s i r s i m i l a r i t i e s - - t h e i r o p e a n e s s , t h e i r a g g z e s s i v e n e s s , a n d , i n t e r o s t i r g l y , what t h e y saw a s t h e i t was a i n a b i l i t y of e i t h e r t o dominate t h e other. r e l a t i o n s h i p b u l l t explicitly or. c o r f l i c t a n d h o n e s t y . (Joe once d e s c r i b e d J e n n i f a r a s h i s " c o n f e s s o r , ' +nd he hers.)

T ~ E couple could n o t r e c a l l any s p e c i f i c p a i n t a t vhich " S o m e p l a c e a1or.g t h e l i c e , ' it the7 d e c i d e d t o g s t m a r r l e d . " a s j u s t assumed. Though t h e y n a y n o t h a v e g o n e t h r o u g h t h e r a r r ~ a g e proposal r i t u a l , t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e married s t a t e was 0 x 3 t h e y t o o k v e r y s e r i o u s l y . J o e and J e c n i f e r yere a r e l i g i o n s couple. Joe. I n p a r t i c u l a r , p r i d e d h i n s e l f on h l s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h s B i b l e . They d i d n o t b e l i e v e i z d i ~ o r c s . They f ~ l ti t r e f l e c t e d u e a k n ~ s s - - a c o u p l e ' s i n a b i l i t y t o f a c e l l f e ' s problems.

when t h e y g o t m a r r i e d , t h e y l i v e d s o l e l y o n J e n c i f e r ' s income. B a v i t g g r a d u a t e d from h i g h s c h o o l with a b u s i n e s s a l p l o m a , s h e worked a s a b o o k k e e p e r . J o e was j u s t b e g i n n i n g h l s t h l r d y e a r of c o l l e g e , s t u d y i n g t o be an a c c o u o t a r t . A c t u a l l y . f o r rhE t i r s t t h r e e and a h a l f y e a r s of t h e i r marriage, J e n c i f e r would b e t h e p r i m a r y wage e a r n e r . This y a s b e c a u s e a f t e r J o e was a w a r d e d h i s b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e , he v e n t on ;o a t t a d a p o s t g r a d u a t e b u s i n e s s s c h m l which t o o k h l m a y e a r and a h a l f t o complete. ~ o t hb e l i e v e d t h a t t h e v a y t h e y s e r e a a c h r a i s e d e x p l a i n e d t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s a n d uhy , h a y c o m p l e m e c t e l e a c h other. J e n n ~ f s rd e s c r i b e d h c r p r s - m a r r i a g e f a m i l y l i f e a s o r e i n v h i c h s h s was t h e p r i m a r y d e c i s i 3 n - m a k e r . I uas always very inaependect bsfore g o t BaXrlEd. BS a m a t t e r o f f a c t , my p a r e n t s w e r e n e v e r my r u l e . I was t h e 1812 of my p a r e n t s .

Jennifer:

I

J o e , o n t h e e t h e r h a a d , was b r o u g h t up i n h o m e - - a l l d e c i s i o n s Mere made by h i s f a t h e r .

i

patriarchal

...

Bnd a t my h o u s e i t % a s j u s t t h e opposite. n y f a t h e r was a v e r y s t r o n g f a t h e r Image. ?radltlocal. "Come t o him, your f a t h ~ r w i l l d e c i d e f o r YOU E s rsuldn% g i v ~m r a n y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

502:

."...

J e n n i f e r ' s i i d e p e n d e r c e , t h e y f e l t , was a E u n c t i c c o f 309's h e r t a n n g been f o r c e d t o b e i n d e p e n d e n t a l l a l c n g . was a a a n i f c s t a t i o r of h i s r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t h i s f a t h e r ' s

Ch.10.

K a v e n ' t Had Any P r o D l e m s S i n c e

P a g e 16,

a u t o c r a t i c s t y l e ("I had t o s o r t of a s s e r t n y s z l f * ) , According t o Joe, J e n n i f e r c a a e t o t h e marriage wanting t, "ge+, r i d o f " some o f h e r p o w e r , a n d h e c a a e " w a n t i n g s:re,l s o t h e i r r e l a t l o c s h i p "worked o u t a l l r i g h t . " N e i t h e r v o u l , t r y t o dominate t h e other. Rlthough J o e c l a i m e d t h a t J e n n i f e r wanted l e s s pare: a n d ;ha? s h e would n o t t r y t o d o m i n a t e him, t h i s e v i d e n t l : was &sft h e c z s e . S o a e t 5 m e d u r i n g t h e f i r s t t u ~y e a r s o j t h e i r m a r r i a g e , J o e and J e n n i f e r g o t i n t o i n argum2nt t h a i ended i n violence--Joe s t r u c k J e n n i f e r . T h e c o n f l i c t was I power struggle: J o e supposedly h i t J e n n i f e r becaust J e r n i f e r was t r y i n g t o d o m i n a t e . HE responded u i t h forcr b e c a u s e h e t e l t h e "had t o d o s o m e t h i n g p h y s i c a l t o s t 3 p t h ' bad p r o g r e s s i o n o f evente." The s e q u e n c e opens u i t h mj a s k l n g J e n n i r e r w h e t h e r s h e t h o u g h t s h e r a n t h i n g s now--that 15, d o e s s h e D e l i e v e s h e i s " t h e r u l e f of J O E 35 s h s was " t h e r u l e " at h e r p a r e n t s a n d s i s t o r s . Intervieuer: JeCnlter:

DO y o u t h i n k y o u r u n t h i n g s now?

I t r i e d hard,

NO,

though!

Joe: She t r i e s . One d a y we had a c o n f l i c t a n d s h e mare o r l e s s t r i e d t o r u n me a n d I t o l d h e r n3, a r d s h e g o t h y s t s r i c a l a n d s a i d , "I c o u l d k i l l YOU!" And I g o t r a t h e r a n g r y a n a slappad her i n t h e face rhrfe o r four times a n d I s a i d "Don't y o u 2 V 9 1 5 + y t h a t t o me again." And we h a v e n ' t had any problems since. s o she's s o r t of learned t h a t she ~ s n ' tg o m g t o d o m i n a t e . Jernitsr: too.

Yes,

aT.6

1 krnd

of

llke

idea,

'he

Joe: S h e t h r e w a t e m p e r r a n t r u m when s h e r e a l i z e d t h a t s h e c o u l d n ' t d o m i n a t e ae, and " h e r sha s t a r t e d g e t t i n g h y s t e r i c a l , that's t h e l a s t time, kid! Yeah t h a t ' s t h ? w o r s t a r g u m e n t ue e v e r had! T h a t u a s a drawn o u t It l a s t e d a b o u t f o u r hours. bang o u t f i g h t . It s o r t o f b u i l t and built...

...

Interviewer: you? Jo?:

Were y o u s u r p r i s e d

uheo

Joe

hit

Oh, b e y , was s h e .

J e ~ c i f e z : Yeah. Joe: She s t a r t e d c r y i n g n o t b e c a u s e I h u r ; her b u t b e c a a s e s h e v a s shocked--"How l a r e you!' Ittarvlewer:

u h g d-d

you h x t he:?

10.

E a ~ e r ' t Bad A c ~P r o b l e m s S i n c e jennlfer:

Page 161

T h a t was a l o n g t i m e ago.

It's just ~ o e : T h a t was a r e a l l o n g t i m e ago. L i k e i f you want t o do som?thing l i k e t e a r down a h o u s e , w h a t d o y o u u s e ? Do you u s e a o a t o m bomb. o r d o you os? a c r a n e s n d hammers acd s t u f f l i k e t h a t ? It's j u s t l i k e p h y s i c a l force. You d o r ' t u s e it u n t i l y o u ' r e f o r c G 3 t o u s e it. A t t h e t p o i n t , I f e l t I had t o a 3 something physical to stop thi bad progression of events. I t o o k my c h a n c e s with that and it uorkad. I n those c i r c n n s t a n c 9 s , my j u d g m e n t was c o r r e c t a n d i t W C ~ ~ E I .

~ e c n i f e r : J o e a o e s n ' t usually use force. That U a 5 t h e f z r s t and t h e l a s t t i n € h e ' l l ? V E X a3 that. I t was my f a u l t . I was t r y i c g $ 2 d o m i n a t e him, that's f o r sure. B u t I was always t h a t t y p e of person. Chzt's vhy. I a l w a y s had t o b e t h a t t y p s o f p e r s o n , b e c a u s E I a l w a y s h a d t o naXe my o v r d e c i s i o n s . I n e v e r h a d a n y b o d y e l s e make my d e c i s i o n s . Joe: I'm a v e r y d o m i n a t i n g t h e r e was a c o n i l i c t t h e r e .

psrson,

t30.

$3

I t h i n k r h a t ' s o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s v? Jenlifer: g o t a l o n g s o w i l l , b e c a u s e h e was t h e f i r s t person I vent out with t h a t I couldn't dominate. So h e was a c h a l l e n g e .

T h a t was a s e v e r e c o n f l i c t . I don't know Lf we h a d n ' t s o l v e a t h a t p r o b l e m , i f w a w ~ u l a s t i l l be m a r r i e d , b e c a u s e o f t h e tension. I ' m n o t t h e k i ~ do f p e r s o n t h a t ' s g o i n g t o b? aomlnated.

J09:

J e ~ n l f e r : R c ~I'm

not either.

t h r m g h s process o f compromise, and t a l k i n g t h i s 3ut. We'ra l:ving on r e c o n c L l i a t i o n and compromise and understendirg.

JOB: 50 v e ' w h a d t o a g r e e ,

Though l e n g t h y , t h e S e q u e n c e i s i m p o r t a n t . It is I m p o r t a n t n o t o r l y f o r w h a t i s s a i d , b u t f o r how a s v s l l . F o r example, t h e t e n o r o f J o e ' s comnents--he s p e a k s 2 s if ~ e n n i f e r w e r e a u i l t y o f d i s r e s p e c t or e v e n i n s u b o r a i n s t i o n ( " D m ' t y o u E v e r s s y t h a t t o me again!".. ."Thai's the last time. kid!"). ?"en more, t h e r e is ucdoubt2dly a c s r t a i n a m o u n t o f p r i d e e x p r e s s e d - - h e Gsx he h a d won 7h.t a r g u a s r t . J e n r l f e r , o n t h e o t h e r h a i d , i s q u i c k t o p o i n t o u t " t h a t was t h e f i r s t a_= t h e 68t t i m e f e e l 1 e r e r d o t h e t [ h i t h?r]." S h e w a n t e d t o make i t p e r f e c t l y c l e a r t o me, b u t m o r e

ch.10.

H a v e z ' t Had s n y P r o b l e n s s i n c e

P a g e 16

i m p o r t a n t l y t c JOE, t h a t s h e t o o h a d no i n t e n t i o n o f b e i t dominated--and. p e r h a p s . t h a t shs considered J o a ' s g l c a l i n a 2 a t t e m p t t o do j u s t t h a t ! S h e g o e s on t o a d m i t t h a t sb married J o e b e c a u s e " h e was a c h a l l e n q e . ' Does s h e mean b t h i s that she cozsiders Joe her opponent? Ths c o n f l i c P a t n r s o f t h e l r m a r r i a g e rs e x p l i c i t l y a c k n o w l e d g e d whsn jo c o n c l u d e s by s a y i n g t h a t t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p works "reconci1ia:ion and compromise" (words which c o n n o t , " c o n f l i c t ' a s well a s "ucdsrstandlng." BS n o t e d , J o e was a s t u d e o f f o r t h e f i r s t t h r e e and h a l f y e a r s of t h e i r marriage. When h e g r a d u a t e d , h, a c c e p t e d a n o f f e r t o work a s a n a c c o u n t a n t w i t h a lo=*: Ole month a f t e r J o e t c o k :he j o b , t h e c o u p l e b e g a l firm. t r y i n g t o conceive a child. F o u r m o n t h s l a t e r t h e y founr o u t t h a t J e n c i f e r was p r e g n a n t . They u e r 2 w i d e r a y j u s : b i d i n g t h e i r t i m e , w a i t i n g f o r J o e t o f i n i s h school--the p o i n t a t v h i c h + h e y f e l t i t would b e t i m e t o s t a r t a f a m i l y . They a l w a y s i n t e n d e d t o h a v e c h i l d r e n . R s J e n n i f e r p u t it, they never "really s e r i o u s l y ' c o c s i d e r r d n 3 t hevin: children.

Joe: I think having children is a f l f l l e t P e o p l e t h a t a r e n a r r i s d and d o n ' t h a v e c h i l d r e n t e n d t o g e t more s e l f i s h a s they g e t older. And I t h i n k t h e r e ' s a l o t of t r u t h i n that. Jenciter: I f you s e e p e o p l e w i t h o u t c h i l d r e n , t h e y t e n d t o be v e z y s e l f i s h , s e l f - c e n t e r e d people. JOB: I t h l n k p e o p l e uho h a v e c h i l d r e n

he more o u t g o i n g , a t t i t u d e toward l i f e .

acd

have

a

tead t o healthier

T h e y a l s o b e l l e r e d t h e c h l l d would b r l l g them c l o s e r cther

.

'3

each

Joe: I t h i c k it's going t o p u l l u s tsgether more... E a c h a n d e v e r y l i t t l e i t e m t h a t you d o t o g e t h e r o r c a c d i s c u s s t o g e t h e r o r have il Conmon b r i n g s you c l o s s r t o g e t h s r .

In a n d i t l o n t o t h e s e r e a s o r s , t h e c o u p l e o f f e r e d y e t They w a n t e d %other r e a s o r vhg t h e y o p t e d t o h a v e s c h i l d . t o star* 3 f a m i l y b e f o r ? J e n n i f e r g o t " i o o a m b i t i o u s " i n h e r The f a c t i s t h a t w h i l e J o e may h a v e j u s t b e e n s t a r t i n g jcb. h : ~ c z r e e r , J z ~ n i f e rh a d become q u i t e e s t a b l i s h e d i n hers. S h e b a d b e c a n s tt.e s u p e r v ; s o r o f t h e b z o k k e s p i n g d a p a r t m e n t i n t h e company s h e h a d b e e s w o r k i n g f o r S L n c e t h e y w e r e married. J ~ l z i f ~ ; : I f i g n r f d I b e t t e r have one baror* I g a t t o o a m b i t i o u s i n my job. I was g e t t i n g i

l o t of p r o e o t i o L s a n d I d e c i d e d i f I g o t t o o a m b i t i o u s I may n o t w a n t c h i l d r e n . I might g e t t o o involved 1n m a t e r i a l t h i n g s . ind i n a n o t h e r i n t e r v i e * - -

Tters's a p o i n t i n y o u r l i f e " h e r you Jennifer: If ysu w a i t t o o s h o n l d have 3 family-.. l o n g , you s t a r t t o b e l i e v e t h a t money i s m3re importan; thsn family l i f e . I've seer. r h + t h a p p e n t o some o t h e r p e o p l e . 508 a n d J e n n i f e r ' s d e e m p h a s i s o f " s a t e r i a l t h i n g s " and the:r p o s i t l v r r e g a r d f o r " f a m i l y l i f e ' was, t o a l a r g e degree, an Outgrowth o f t h e i r r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s . Bt the COrs of t h e s e b e l i e f s i s t h e n o t i o n t h a t w o r k i n g i s f o r p e i ~ o n a l f u l f i l l m e n t a n d c o t f o r t h e m o n e t a r y r e w a r d s i t may br=ag. J e n n l f e r spoke o f beiLg a f u l l - t i m e mother, s o I asked her w h e t h e r s h e b e l i e v e d s h e would e v e r r e t u r n t o wort. S h e a s s u r e d me s h e w o u l d , t h a t s h e would l i k e t o work zs a c o n s u l t a c t e v e n t u a l l y , i f o r l y part-time. S h e f e l t it was i m p o r t a n t f o r h e r to p u r s u e h e r c a r e e r , t h a t " i n t h i s It was day a n d a g e . you n e e d more t h e n j u s t t h e f a m i l y . " a p p a r e n t t h a t J c n c l f e r ' s c o r c e p t o f s ~ l fwas r e l a t e d t o h e r c a r e e r a s w e l l a s t o h e r family. So u e s J o e ' s . While 533c:rer's a m b i t i o n s ware b e i n g s t i f l e d , J a e ' s a m b i t i o n s "era being ralged. J e n n i f e r o n c e s a i d t h a t when h e r "quiet," " s u b d u e d ' f a m i l y f i r s t met J o s , t h e y w e r e " s h 3 c k e d t ' by h i 5 f f a n k 3 e s s . The i m p r e s s i o n t h e c o u p l e g i v e h s w e r e r When t h e y s p e a k o f t h e e f f e c t u h i c h moving f r o s s t n d s n t t o v o r k P r h a d on J o e i s t h a t h e h a d l o s t some o f h i s a ~ ~ e r t l v e ~ e i sC s t h e i n t e r i m . T h r o u g h h i s work h e 115s e r i d i n t l y r e g a i n i n g h i s i n d e p e c d e n c e 3nd s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e .

...

JeoriSer: I think JOE is getting more independent He's been working w e l l with a l l the business people he's beEa d e a l i n g w i th lately. RS'S gstti~g more self-confident... Intervrewr: Do you self-conf~dence?

feel

that

Joe

lacked

Jenciier: I t h l n k t h a t "hen y o u f i r s t get out o f s c h o o l Y O U do. You're n o t ussd t o b e i n g -11-h h a s i n e s 5 p e o p l e . You're u s e d t o be=zg with s ~ u d e ~ t s . I D ~ ~ ~ Y I E WFhat ~ ~ :d o

you t h i n k a b o u t y o u r s ? l f -

corfSderce, Joe? Joe:

I thick I'm

g a i r i i g more

self-confidsnce. t s do.

W i t h more e x p e r i e n c e you know w h a t

another self-confidence

b u i l d e r w h i c h J o e was r n r c l v f d

with

Ch.10.

Haven"

Had Eny P r o b l e m s S i n c e

P a g e 16Y

w a s s t u d y i n g f o r t h e C e r t i f i e d P u b l i c B c c o u n t a n t (CPA) exams. Ee d i a n q t w e n t t o b e a CPB. B E j n s t w a ~ t e dt o p a s s t h e exam a n d . a s h e s a i d , " s t i c k my t o n g u e o u t . " (.st whoa? He d i d n ' t s a y . ) J e r n i f e r a l s o w a r t e d him t o t a k e t h e exam s o t h a t h e would be more f l e x i b l e . I f h e d i d n ' t l i k e one j o b , h e would. b e a b l e t o move t o a n o t h e r w i t h more e a s e . The f a c t t h a t b o t h J o e a n d J a n n i f e r ' s i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e p t s o f s e l f were s o r e l a t e d t o t h ~ i r s s p e c t i v e c a r e e r s is particularly interesting. When t h e s u b j e c t o f a r g u i n g came up ( I a s k e d a l l t h e c a u p l e s vhar t h e y u s u a l l y a r g u e d i b o u t ) , J o e a r d J e n r i f e r s a i d t h a t t h s t h i n g t h e y argued. a b o u t t h e m o s t was a c c o u n t i n g a n d b o o k k e e p i n g . When I a s k e d them why t h e y a r g u e d s o much about accounting and bookkeeping, it became apparent t h a t they considsr themSE1Ves. s o r e 01 l e s s , i n t h e same b u s i n e s s - - t h e b u s i n e s s o f h a n d l i n g money--and t h a t i n t h i s b u s i n e s s t h s y b a t h h a r e t h e i r own i d e a s . Actually, t h e y seam t o a p p r o e c h t h e of view. ~- o~, e .a~~s an b n s i n e s s f ~ o m t w o airferDnt ---.-. m i n t s accDuntant, represenzs ~ h e abstract or rhsorotical viewpoint. Jennifer, as a bookkecpsr, represents the c o n c r e t e (down t o e a r t h ) v i e u . ~

Interviewer: Why d o arguing a h o u t i t ?

~

A

you

think

you

end

up

Jennifer: I t h i ~ kr h a t l s s o m e t h i n g we b o t h h a v e o u r own i d e a s o r . Joe: Sometimes I ' m i n c o n s i s t e n t and s h s p o i n t s it o a t . E t Other t i m e s h e r knJwlsdge about t h e subject i s L o r a s h i g h a s mine, s o I h a v e t o s o r t Of E d u c a t e h e r . Jenrifer: I'm more a c c u r a t e a n d knovlsdgeable. P u t i t t h a t way.

he's

sore

R L l~ a t e r on,

Jennifer:

HE'S

an

accountant,

ana

I'm

a

bookkeeperBookkeepers can Joe: Yeah. s h e ' s + b o o k k e e p e r . fLnd e r r o r s , a n d a c c o u n t a n t s c a n make up s y s t e m s 2nd can d e c i d e hou t h e s y s t e l s can z u r o r why, and t h e bookkeepers can figti errors. Jan~:fer: E o o k k e e p e r ~c a n c o r r e c t mistakes.

accountarts'

Tt~' c l a s s i c ~ o z t f l i ~ t - - ~ d u c a t i V~Bn~ S U S s x p e r i e ~ c e - seems t o be a t t h e r o o t of t h e i r d i s c u s s i o c . D e s p i t e what the may a p p e a r t o m o s t o f u s a s a n intellectual ? x s r c i s e , f a c t t h a t J o e and J e n n i f e r ' s i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e p t s o f s e l f a r e

ch.10.

H a r ~ n ' t Had Any P r o b l e m s S i n c e

P a g e 165

s o r e l a t e d t o t h e money h a n d l i n g b u s i n e s s makes t h e i r c o n 2 r o n t a t i o n s more t h a n a d i r e r s i a s . They " e r a , I b e l i e v e , m a n 2 f e s t a t L o n s of t h e same c o n f l i c t t h a t h a d b e a n g o i n g o n be'vsen them s i c c e t h e y n e t i n h i g h school--who d o a i n s t e s whom? Given t h a t t h e o n s e t o f p r e g n a n c y s i g n a l e d a c h a n g e i n t h e work s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o u p l e ' s m a r r i a g e , o n ? m i g h t a l s o s u s p e c t t h a t t h s l r p e r e n n i a l c o n f l i c t vould d e v e l s p i n t o some i n t e r e s t i n g power p l a y s a n d p a r r i e s . This is, i n fact, e s s e n t i a l l y whet happened. J o e may h e v e r e b e l l e d a g s i r s t h i s f a t h e r ' s a t t e m p t t o exE:t c o n t r o l ss t h e h u s b a c d - f a t h e r . T h e 7 4 r e r e , h o w e v e r , l n d i c z t i o n s t h a t J o e t o o would h a v e l i k ~ d t o command J e r n i f e r ' s r e s p e c t a n 3 s u b o r a m a t i o n b e c a u s e t e t o o v a s no* t h e a a n o f t h e h o u s e . Joe:

Hell, I'm

a p u r e male c h a u v i n i s t pig.

and

I ' l l a d m i t it.

Jennifer:

Yeah.

J O E ' Sc h z n v i n i s m , o r more p r e c i s e l y h i s b e l i e f t h a t he s h o u l d d o n i n s t e J e n n i f e r b s c a u s f t h a t ' s t h e way i t s h o u l d be. was o f t e n n o t e s e x p l i c i t a s t h e a b o v e a d a i s s : o n , but t h s r e was n o m i s t a k i n g i t s E x i s t e n c e i n some of J o e ' s o t h e r comments. Por exaeple:

1 doo't r e a l l y d i s c u s s t h e pregnancy that Joe: much w i t h o t h e r s . I l e t J e n n i f e r do a l l t h s aiscussing... my backgrourd with t h e people I n this a r e a : % h e nsn j u s t d o n ' t d i s c u s s pregnancy...ve l e t t h e women t a k e c a r e of that.*3

seems l i k e t h e r e ' s a breakdown i n if you know w h a t I ' m g f t t i c g a t . It s e e m s like z l l t h e women " a n t t o ba c o a l a l n e r s z l l of a s u d d e n . I t seems r o be t h ? t h a t t h e vomEc t h i ~ gt o do. Ey t h e o r y is: would be b e t t e r o f f t o s t a r home a n d t a k e c a r e of t h e k i d s a n d t a k e c a r e o f t h a s o c i a l c l u b s and t h a t s o r t of s t u f f . And t h e men 93 o u t z n d e a r n t h e money... I think t h e basic problem r i t h j u v e r i l e d e l i n q u e n c y and t h e * h o l e m e s s t h a t t h i s c o u n t r y is i n i s t h a t t h s mar g o e s o u t a n d w o r k s , a n d t h s woman ~ O E SOE* a n d w o r k s , a n d t h e c h i l d r e n a r e l e f t Dome...

Joe:

It

TO~ES,

U n f c r t u n a t e l y f o r Joe, J e n n i f e r w o u l d n ' t buy his i d e o l o g i c a l ( t h e c u l t u r e s a y s t h a t ' s :he way i t ' s SUDPOSEB To b e a m a s t e r , one t o b e ) t h e o r y o r who d o a i n a t e s whom. must have a slave. Sat the byproawct of

Ch.10.

A a v e h ' i Had Eny P r o b l e m s S i n c e

~

-.--~.~ ~ ~-

>

~

P a g e 166

~-~

~

- --

-.

~

c a l i & t h e n s o u r c e t h e o r y o f pouer. his t h e o r y a r g u e s t h a t t h e a l l o c a t i o n o f t a s k s a n d power i s b a s e d (or should be basod. it y o u ' r e u s i n g it a s a maxim w h i c h J o e was) o r t h e c o m p a r a t i v e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e members o f a s o c i e t y a n d by t h e l i f e c i r c u w s t a n c s s w-i t h i n w h i c h t h e v l i v e . I n more s z n p l e terms, what t h i ; means f o r t h e ' m i c r o society. marriage, is that the d i v i s i o n o f work m a , most i m p o r t a n t l y . power i s d e e s r m i n e d n o t by i d e o l o g y b u t by who b r i n g s i n more r e s o u r c e s . R r e s o u r c e is d e f i c s d as a n y t h i r g t h a t o n e p a r t n e r may make a v a i l a b l e t o t h e o t h a n , helping t h e l a t t e r s a t i s f y h i s o r h e r n e e d s o r a t t a i n h l s :r h e r g o a l s ( B l o o d a n d Xalfe. 1960:12). Boney a n d e x p e r t i s e . for example, might q u a l i f y a s r e s o u r e s . ~~~

R i t h i n t h e r e s o u r c e t h e o r y system. J o e ' s c l a i m t o pouer w o u l d b e s t r u c t u r a l l y b a s e d o n t h e a s s s r t i c n t h a t h f was b r i n g i n g i n w h a t some c c u p l e s c o n s i d e r t h c m o s t i a p s r t a n t resource--money. Perhaps Jennifer t r i e d t o use t h i s justification t o d o m i l a t e J o e a u r i n g t h e f i r s t t h r e e a c d a h a l f y e a r s of t h e i r m a r r i a g e . S h e was t h e n t h % b r e a d w i n s e r . Rod p e r h a p s J o e , t h o u g h h e ( l i t e r a l l y ) f o u g h t h e r a t t e m p t s d u r l n g t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e i r m a r r i a g e t o make s u c h a claim, e v e n t u a l l y was c o n v i n c e d of h ? r d e f i c i t i o n o f t h e situation. would t h i s e x p l a i n h i s l o s s o f self-confidence t h a t g e t t i n g a job (resources?) h e l p e d him t o r e g a i l ? F h e r h e r o r n o t J o e was m a k i n g a c l a i m b a s e a on r u l e s w h i c h h a d e x i s t e d a l l a l o r g , i t was o b v i o u s h e a n t i c i p a i , e d u s i n g u h a t h e s a w as h i s c a e p e r a t i v e l y g r e a t e r r e s o u r c e s t o s u p p o r t h i s domination. Wi*h t h e t r a n s i t i o x t o p a r e n t h o o d he would become t h e b r e a d w i n n e r , h e would h a v e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , a n d h e would b e i a c h a r g e . . . c r s a he hoped. Joe: I ' m s o r t of p r o u d a n d happy now t h a t my wife's p r e g n a r t a n d w e ' r e going t o have a c h i l d . a n d it was t h e m o t i v a t i n g f a r c e i n terms of me thinking about being the She's breadwinner, assuming a s p e c i f i c r o l e . g o i n g t o b e s t a y i n g home. B e f o r e , I was j u s t a n o t h e r p e r s o n g o i n g o u t a n d WorKing a n d n a v I ' m g o i n g t o b e t h e breadwinner... Icfervisver: JOF:

Do y c u l i t e t h a t ?

I t h l n k it's n i c e t o f e e l t h a t you'rp V h ~ n you raking charge. have r e S p O n E i b i l ~ t i e s , you e n d u p b e i n g i n c h a r g e .

..

O P C S a g a l n , t o J o s ' s f r u s ~ r a t i o n . J e n n i f e r v o u l d n ' t buy h i s t h e o r y o n who d o m i n a t e s whom. S h e mads i t c l e a r a number o f t i m e s d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v i e w s t h a t s h e had n o i n t e n t i o n o f e n d o r s i n g J o e * s claim. The s e q u e n c e w h i c h

ch.10.

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P a g e 167

f o l l o w s i l l u s t r a t e s J o e ' s moves a n d J e n n i f e r " i n t h e l r n e g o t i a t i o n o f power. Intervlever: I n t h e organization m a r r i a g e , a r e you t h e b o s s ?

counntzroves of

your

Joe: I n t h e circumstances here, i n t h e uay w e ' r e d i v i d i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y , now s h e ' s g o f n g t o b e t h e h o u s e w i f e a n d I'n g o i n g t o b € t h 2 p r i n c i p a l breadwinner. T h a t m o r e s me u p 2 n o t c h i n terms o f b a i n g t h e b r e a d w i n n e r a n a having t h e say i n f i n a n c i a l matters. Sh3's going t o be i n c o n t r o l of the house e x ~ l o s i v e l y . S h e ' s g o i n g t o h a v e more s a y i n w h a t g o e s o n v i t h i t , e v e n mare s o v i t h t h e f u r n i s h i n g s o f t h e house. Jenclter: I don't t h i c k he's t h e boss, b?canse I n e v e r t h o u g h t of ~ ~ y s e la fs b e i n g t h e b o s s either. Interviewer: What d o you t h i n k o f 5 0 2 ' 5 n o t i o n t h a t if h e ' s making t h e a o n e y , h e ' s a n o t c h u p o n you? Jennifer:

Oh, t h a t ' s h i s i d e a .

Joe: Well. I think when. ..anybcdy does something t o assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n a s p e c i f i c a r e a , t h e r e i s s o r t of a r a i s i n g o f him t h e r e i n e u t h o r i t y i n t h a t a r e a . ?ha:'s 2 1 1 I'm t r y i n g t o g e t a t . B e c a u s e I w i l l be t h e s o l e b r e a d v i n n e r , my a u t h o r i t y w i l l g o u p slightly.

Irterviever: So y o u r a u t h o r i t y i s going up h s r e and Jenrifer's i s g o i n g dovn h e r e . [I m o t i o n e d v i t h my h a n d s t o i n d i c a t e two a i t t e r e n t levels. 3 Jecnifsr: I ' d s t i l l work o n t h a t one... It's s t i l l g o i n g t o work t h + t m i n e v i l l g o u p there. [Translation: I "ill s t i l l h a v e 3s much a u t h o r z t y a s h e h a s . ] Re t h i n k s t h a t r a y [ b u r I know b e t t e r ] . InfErvLevar: Do you b e l i e v e h e ' s b 4 C 2 ~ 5 9h e r s t h e b r e a d v r r r e r ? Jennifer:

boss

60 c a n t s l i s u e i t i f h e w a n t s .

Interviever:

What d o y o u t h i n k h e b e l i e v e s ?

I t h l n k h e ' s more o f T h a z ' s a b e t t e r word.

Jennifer:

the

a

hsusehclder.

Ch.10.

Havec't

Bad Any P r o b l e m s S i n c e

p a g e 168

Joe: Yeah. I get stepped upon! [Laughter].. . f o r e x a m p l e , i t t h e r e s h o u l a be a p r o w l e r i n t h e h o u s e and t h e y had a gun, I would p r o b a b l y a s s u m e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h a t circumstance because I ' m i n c h a r g e sf t h e weapons. a n d I'm t h e more p h y s i c a l , v i o l e c t p e r s o n a l i t y ? [ L a u g h z e r ] So I would t a k e m a r s r f s p o n s i b i l i ~ y1 n t h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e b s c a u s e I am more k n o v l e d g e a b l e . Now i f s h e was gung-ho on guns, I'd say. "Here, y o u go downstairs..." [Laughter] That s o r t of thing. I n times o f e m e r g e n c y I t a k e over... We e a c h a s s u m e o u r own r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i C o u r o u r area. Intervlever: household. Joe: Yeah. that!

But y o u ' r e g o i n g t o be head o f t h e [ L a u g h t e r ] I l i k e t h e way you

I n t e r ~ i e w e r : w h a t d o e s i t mean t o t h e household? Jennifer:

It n e e n s n o t h i c g .

be

head

said of

[Laughter]

Joe: T h i s is what i t means. It means n s t h i r g , b u t when a j o b i s b o t c h e d u p , t h e buck s t o p s here. T h a t ' s w h a t i t means! [Laughter] What I'm saying is if I the sole breadwinner. I t h i n k o v e r a p e r i o d o f time I'll b e f e e l i n g more a u t h o r i t y i n s p e c i f i c a r e a s doe to t h e Circumstance t h a t I'm f a m i l i a r with. I f s h e s h o u l d g e t a j o b , my responsibility a s s o l e b r e a d w i n n e r woold h a v e t o g o down. And h e r s w i l l s t a r t t 3 r i s e . S h e ' s t h e o n 9 w h o ' s g o i n g t o be i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e k i d more t i m e t h a n I a n , s o 1'8 g o i n g t o have t c l e a n o v e r and say. "OK, s h e ' s t h e b o s s when i t comes TO t a k i n g c a r e o f and making d e c i s i o n s a b o u t t h i s l i t t l e kid." S e e w h a t I'm g s t t i n g a t ? B e c a u s e t h i s t u r n s t h e a r e a of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , bscause s h e ' s more i n t o u c h w i t h it. a n d s3 Jn a n d s3 forth. So what happens is t h a t t h e r e a r e many a r e a s o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . So a t a n y g i v e n p c l n t i n t i m e , y o u a s s u s e " b o s s if t h e caz.'> " b o s s o f t h e ueapons," " b o s s f o r hone defense." "boss f o r b e i r g breadwinner.' 'boss t o r h e a v y manna1 l a b o r , " " b o s s f o r r e p a i r s tool^.^ and rep1aceaents.n "boss over t h e Her--"boss f o r childbearing, childcariny, food, shopping, household decisions*...I was j u s t t r y i n g t o e x p l a i n t h a t b e c a u s e I an e a r n i n g t h e money s o l s l y t h a t I p r o b a b l y w i l l

...

ch.10.

A a v e n ' t Bad Any P r o b l e m s S i n c e

PagE 169

e n d up h a v i n g n o r e d e c i s i o n m a k i n g p o u e r i n t h a t area. Jennlter: more.

Yeah.

b u t I know

hov

to

handle

it

T h e r E 2re a n u m b e r o f t h i n g s w o r t h n o t i n g i n t h e a b o v e sequence. P l r s t of a l l , J o e ' s c l a i m i s bound t o r u n i r t o t r o u b l e from t h e s t a r t . Ee i s a t t e a p t i n g t o a r g u e t h a t he i s t o h a r e " t h e say" i n s i n c e he i s t h e b r e a d w i n n e r , financial Batters. Given t h e i r s e n s i t i v i t y to money handling. Jennifer's f i c a l r e p l y , "Yeah, b u t I know how t o h a n d l e it [ m o n e y ] more [ b e c a u s e I ' m a b o o k k e e p e r a n d y o u ' r e an abstract accountant]," is p r e d i c t a b l e . SBcordly, a l t h o u g h J o e e l a b o r a t e s on h i s c l a i m by a r g u i n g t h a t responsibility Implies authority, and t h a t J e n n i f e r w i l l , b e c a u s e of h e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , b e " b o s s " of Some a r e a s too, t h e t a c t i s s o a e a r e a s h a v e more v e i g h t t h a n o t h e r s . The a r e a i n t h i s h o u s e h o l d which c a r r i e s t h e most v e i g h t i s t h e f l n a n c i a l area. J o e knovs t h i s , but tben so does J ~ r n l f e r . S h e r e t u s f s t o g i v e J o e ' s c l a i m v a l i d i t y by d e r y i n g rt a c c e s s t o t C E i r w o r l d of c o n s e o s u l l r u l e s ("Oh. t h a t ' s h i s idea..." "Re c e n b e l i e v e i t i f h e wants..." "It means n o t h i n g " )

.

Toward t h e e n d o f t h e p r e g n a n c y , i t a p p e a r e d C h a t J o e had n o t g i v e n up on a n i d e o l o g i c a l c l a i m t o power, t h a t h e i n f a c t uould r e s o r t t o both ideology and resources t o s u p p o r t h i s p o ~ e rp l a y . By t h e f o u r t h i n t s r v i e u , J e n n i f e r had q u i t work a n d was t r y i n g t o a d a p t t o b e i n g a h o u s e w i f e . It was d i f f i c u l t f o r h e r . She t o o k a g r e a t d e a l o f p r i d e i n t h 9 work s h e h a d d o n s , t h e b o o k s s h e h a d s e t up, the d e p a r t m e n t s h e s u p p o s e d l y had s t r a i g h t e n e d out. when s h e l e f t , everything i n t h e department s t a r t e d t o " f s l l apart." T h e p e r s o n who t o o k J e n n i f E r q s p l a c e d i d n ' t w a n t t o l e a r n w h a t t o do, so t h e y c l a i m e d , a n d a s a c o n s e q u e n c e J e n n i f e r h a d b e e n c a l l e d a number o f times t o g i v e s s s i s t a r c e o v e r t h e phone. The whole a f f a i r provokfd a c o n f l i c t betveen J o e and J s n n i f e r . I n s p i t e of J e n n i f e r ' s attachment t o her p r e v i o u s j o b , J o e wanzed h e r t o " l e t go." He was a c t u a l l y q u i t e vehemen; a b o u t it. H i s t h r e a t o f r h a t h e u o u l d d o " i f t h e y [ J e n n i f e z ' s f o r m e r c o - u o r k s r s ] c a l l up" i s i n t s r e s t i n g . A9 s a y s h e i s g o i 3 g t c " a c t l i k e a f a t h e r " when h e t e l l s Is i t h i s f a t h e r h e i s g o i n g t o a c t :hem t3 s t o p call:,g. like. h i s E i t h e r t h e p a t r i a r c h who maae a l l t h e d e c i s i o n s f o r J c e ? Erd f o r v h o n i s h e a c t i n g - - J e n c i f e r V s f o r m e r co-workers o r J e n r ~ i f e r , h e r s e l f ?

...

Joe: If t h e y c a l l up h e r e , I ' m g o i n g t o g e t o n t h e phone a n d a c t l l k e a f a t h e r . Bnd 1 ' s g o l n g 70 t e l l them, "Hey, y o u ' d b e t t e r hold u p now, a n d i f you c a l l o n c e a c r e , I ' m g o i n g t o p u n c h you l r t h e mouth." a n d I'n g o i r g t o End I know t h e y a r e g o i n g h a n g up a n them. t o b o t h e r her. I d o n ' t want t h a t t o happen.

Ch.10.

H a v e n ' t Had I n y P r c b l e m s S i n c e

P a g s 170

J o e o n c e s a i d t h a t h e f e l t t h e p r e g n a n c y made him more o f a man a n d J e r n i f s r more of a mornan. P e r h a p s what h e n e a t by t h i s i s t h a t f i r : a l l y h e c a n draw t h a t l i n e a s h i s f a t h e r drew t h e l i n e . w h e t h e r J e n n i f e r w i l l be a b l e t o continue t o r e s i s t remains t o be seen. CONJUGAL VIOLENCE A N D T H E POLITICS OF N A R R I A G E

J o e a n d J e n E i f e r ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p a p p e a r s t o b e b u l l t on rntarpersonal conflict--"an i n c o n p a r i b l e 8 i f f e r s c c E of objective a d e s i r e cn t h e p a r t of b o t h C o n t e s t a n t s t o a t t a i n Ghat i s a v a i l a b l e o n l y t o one, o r o n l y i n p a r t w ( D a h r e n d o r i , 1959:135). The c o n f l i c t between them may b e v i e w e d i n e s s e n t i a l l y o c e o f two ways-as a s i g n of a " d i s t u r b e d " o r '#sick" r e l a t i o n s h i p , or as a normal COnSEquenCe cf t h e m a r i t a l bond. The f i r s t c o n c e p t i o n , t h e c o n s e n s u s approach. assumes t h a t t h e husband-wlfe union i s a r ; l a t i o n s h i p b a s e d an a g r e e m e n t a n d h o m e o s t a s i s . Thf s e c o n d concepticn, t h e c o n f l i c t approach, assumes t h a t d i s s e n s u s and s t r u g g l e s f o r power a r e i n h e r e n t q u a l i t i e s o f a marriage. The f i r s t c o n c e p t i o n i s t h e popular one. m u e v e r , t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h i s c o n c e p t i o n h a s been q u e s t i o n e d i n many of t h e c h a p t e r s o f t h i s book and b y s o c i o l o g i s t s such a s sprey. s p r e y ( 1 9 6 9 ) . f o r example, a r g u e s t h a t t h e ~ o ~ s e n s ua ps p r o a c h i s b a s e d o n two f a l l a c i e s : (1) the bellEf t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e family is a voluntary m a t t e r . and (2) t h e n o t i o r t h a t t h e f a m i l y i s a b u f f e r berween t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d s o c i e t y .

...

TO d i s p n t e t h e s e c l a i m s , Sprep n o t e s f i r s t that membership i n o n e ' s r a t s 1 f a m i l y i s o b v i o u s l y n o t by c h o i c e , and t h a t t h e r e i s no r e a l n o r m a t i v e a l t e r n a r i v e t~ t h e m a r h i e d s t a t e a s a l i f e c a r e e r i n o u r s o c i e t y , and s e c o n d l y t h a t conceiving t h e f a m i l y a s a w o r l d i n t o v h i c h one may withdraw from t h e c o n f l i c t s of everyday l i f e e r r o n s o u s l y a s s u m e s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s a r e somehow a p a r t f r o a r a t h s r t h a n involved i n socisty. A c o n f l i c t approach i s o f course n o t new t o s o c i a l s c i e r c e ( c f . , R o b b e s . n a r x , Simmel). F o r some reason, however, i t h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y been r e s e z v e d f o r e x p l a i n m a macro l e v e l r e l a t i o n s ( f o r example t h e c l a s s s t r u g g l e ) end n o r f a m i l l a 1 o i c r o e n c o u n t e r s ( t h e p r e s e c t e t i o n of s e l f i n everyday l i f e ) . The a p p r o a c h i s just b ? g i n n i n g t o g a i n s l g n i f i c a r t s u p p c r t among f a m i l y r e s e a r c h e r s . P r e s e n r e d h e r e a s a n i s o l a t e d c a s e , J o s and J e n n i f e r ' s may cams a c r o s s a s a d o c o a s n t of a " d i s L u r b s d " relationship. C o n s t d e r e d ic c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e o t h e r c o n p l e ~ i= t h e l a r g a r s t u d y f r o a which t h i s c a s e s t u d y was t a k e n , however, J o e and J e n n i f e r s ' s m a r i t a l e x p e r i e n c e d o e s n o t seem t h a t o r u s n z l . The f a c t i s a l l t h e s a n p l e c o u p l e s , i n o n e way o r a n o t h e r and i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s , were i n v o l v e d i n an o n g o i n g i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n . What a b o u t J o e ' s v i o l e n c e t o w a r d J e n n l f e r d n r i r g t h e f i r s t two y e a r s o f t h e i r story

ch.10.

Raven't

Bad hny P r o b l e m s S i n c e

P a g e 171

,,,arriago? Is t h i s " u s u a l ? " I t i s t r u e t h a t o f t h e s i x t e e n c o u p l e s i n my s a m p l e o n l y two d i s c l c s e d a V i o l e n t ~ n c o u n t e r ( t h e o t h e r couple a l s o s a i d t h e v i f e uas t h e victim; s s e s e d t o be a p r e c i p i t a t o r ) . Not t 3 be o v e r l ~ o k e d boxever i s t h e f a c t t h a t r e c e n t m q u i r i e s i n t o t h e i n c i d e n c e ~f t a a i l y v i o l e n c e s u g g e s t t h a t c o n j u g a l v i o l e n c e may i r d e e a b e a u s u a l o c c u r r e z c e ( s e e C h z p t s r s 1 a n d 2 ) . The r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t J o e a r d J s n n i f e r r s m a r r i a g e may b e s o r e t y p t c a l t h a n we r e a l i z e , o r would l i k e t o b e l i e v a . Recen? a t t s a p t s t o E x p l a i n f a m i l y v i o l e n c e have. in fact. resulted i n t h e dsvelopment o f t h e o r i e s uhich coapleaenf t h e c o n f l i c t approach. The c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s p r o p o s e d by A l l s r . a n d s t z a u s ( C h a p t e r 1 % ) a n d by Brown (Chaprer 11) a r e c a s e s i n point. Each of t h e s e t h e o r i e s s e e s h u s b a n d - w i f e v i o l e n c e a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f an i n t s r p l a p bBtYeen c u l t u r a l a n d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l v a r i a b l e s r a t h e r t h a n psychopathological factors. Implicit in eich i s the assertion that social conflict is t9$2 the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e c o r j u g a l system and of t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y v i t h uhich t h a t system t r a n s a c t s . Drawing from t h e work of Goode ( l Y 7 l ) , Rodman (19721. and R O ~ E T S ( 1 3 7 9 ) . B l l e o a r d S t r a u s ' c h a p t e r p r o p o s e s t h 4 nUlt5rnate Resource" theory of conjugal violsnce. Esse~tially the theory suggests that in an individUallsticallp oriented urban-industrial society (for e x a m p l e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ) where m a l e s u p e r i o r i t y norms a r e weak and somewhat ambiguous and where t h e p r ? s u m p t i o n of male s a p e r i o r i t y must b e v a l i d a t e d by s u p ? r i a r i : y ic " r e s o u r c e s " ( s u c h a s m a t e r i a l g o o d s and v a l u e d p e r s o n 5 1 t r a i t s ) . v i o l e n c e w i l l b e i n v o k e d by a n i n d i v i a u a l who l a c k s o t h e r r e s o u r c e s t o s e r v e a s a b a s i s f o r power. In other words, 9 i o l e n c e may b e u n d e r s t o o d a s t h s " u l t i m a t e r e s s u r c e " f o r s u s t a i n i n g a power c l a i m . E l l e n arc7 S t r a u s ' t h e o r y o f f s r s a c o g e n t e x p l a n a t i o n o f why J o e r e s o r t e d t o v i o l e n c o &: t o s t o p what h e saw a s " t h e bad p r o g r e s s i o n o f e v e n t s . " t h e time o f t h e encounter, Joe lacked t h e resources t o ground h i s p a t r i a r c h a l i d e o l o g y ( " I ' m a p u r e male c h a u v i n i s t pig, and 1 1 1 1 a d m i t i t " ] . E c o n o m i c a l l y s u p p o r t e d by J e n n i f e r , h e c o u l d n o t r e l y on any " e x t r i n s i c " ressurces (sccnomic acd p r e s t i g e c o n f f r r i c g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ) i s a b a s i s f o r power. Purthezmore, J e n n i f e r i m p l i e s t h a t J o e ' s . . - a n s i c " r e s o u r c e s ( v a l u e d p e r s o n a l t r a i t s ) m r e a l s o low d u r i n g t h l i t i m e when s h e r e m a r k s l a t e r on t h a t J o e seemed t o b e " g e t t i n g more i n d ~ p e n d e n t . . . s o r e s e l f - c o n f i d e n t * a s a r e s u l t o f h i s (now) b e i n g w i t h " b u s i n e s s p e o p l e " r a t h 4 r t h a n "sf~fi4nls."fU G ~ Y E ~t t i s iebalance--husband d0minar.t (st i d e o l o g y v % r s u s v i f e dominant r e s o u r c p structure m b a l a n c e t h a t A l l s n and S t r a u s s e e a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h ~ w o r k l n g c l a s s ) - - o p e would e x p e c t ( a s s u m i n g t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e " U l t i m a t e R e s o u r c e n t h e o r y ) t h a t J o e weald r e s o r t t o 3 S l a p in t h e f a c e " t h r e e o r f o u r t i m e s " t o show J e n n i f e r t h a t d e s p l t e h i s l a c k o f " e x t r i n s i c ' and " i r t r i r s i c " r e s o u r c e s , h r i s " n o t t h e k i n d of p e r s o n t h a t ' s [ s i c ] going t o be

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dominated." J o e ' s t h r e a t o f v i o l e n c e d u r i n g t h e f i n a l r e e k s of t h e p r e g n a n c y may p e r h a p s a l s o b e i n t e r p r e t e d w i t h i n t h e R l l e s and S t r a o s framework. Was J o e t h r e a t e n i n g Jenniferqs co-workers ("If y o u c a l l o n c e more, I ' m g o i n g t o p u n c h you i n t h e mouth") 31. was h e i n f a c t i n d i r e c t l y t h r e a t e n i n g Jennifer? A s l o n g a s J e n n i f e r held on t o h e r job, J o e c o u l d n o t b a s e a c l a i m f o r power on h i s g r e a t e r e c o n o m i c p o s i t i o n . T h e E d u c a t i o n v e r s u s e x p e r i e n c e d e b a t s makas i t c l e a r t h a t J e n n i f e r d i d n o t see h e r o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s a s b e l o w J o e ' s . Was h e c o m m u L i c a t i n g t o J e n n i f e r t h a t if h e r c a r e e r was g o i r g t o c o n t i l u e t o i n t e r f e r e h e would h a v e n 2 c h o i c e b u t t o f a l l b a c k o n t h e " u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e " t o show h e r h e i n t E n d e d t o be "boss?" Joe

and J e n n i f e r a l s o illustrate the processes i n Brown's c h a p t e r on " 8 i f e Bnplopmant, f l a r i t a l Brov~ E q u a l i t y , a n d Rusband-Wife Violence" (Chapter 11). n o t e s t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f w o r k i n g w i v e s i n A o ~ r i c a a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e c r e a s e i n husband pou%r t h a t this c h a n g e i m p l i e s ( " S i n c e money i s a r e s o u r c e i n m a r r i a g e , v e may a s s u m e t h a t a s more w i v e s c o n t r i b u t e d ts t h e f a m i l y i n c o m e t h e p a v e r o f t h e h u s b a n d was a f f e c t e d i n v e r s a l y " ) . Brown devsl o D s a- t h e a r v t h a t " t r a c e s o u- t t h e known a n dt h e o r s t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f v i f e employment and s e e k s t o a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n o r w h e t h e r o n e of t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f u i f e ~ m p l o p m e n t is a n i n c r e a s e d l e v e l a f h u s b a n d - w i f e c o n f l i c t and violence." describes

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T h e a r g u m e n t i s made t h a t o n e c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e i n c r e a s e d economic i l d s p a n d e n c s o f t h e u i f e is a change i n h e r a u t h o r i t y e x p e c t a t i o n s from husband dominant to equalitarian. Since t h e male h a s t r a a i t i o n a l l y been ascribed superior s t a t a s i n our society, t h i s a t t i t u d e s h i f t leads to a c o n f l i c t between t h e w i f e ' s e q u a l i t a r i a n a u t h o r i t y e x p e c t a t i o c s and t h e husband's male s u p e r i o r i t y norms. The c r i t i c a l q u e s t i o n from B r o u n l s p o i n t o f view is "Does t h e h u s b a n d a c c e p t the equalitarian authority strocture?' If t h e answer t o t h i s q u e s t i o n is n2, t h e c o n f l i c t w l l l b e s e e n a s i l l e g i t i m a t e and t h e husband v i l l r e v e r t t o t r z d i t i o ~ a ld o m i c a t i n g t e c h n i q u e s i n c r e a s i n g t h e likelihood o f v i o l e n t c o n f l i c t . I f t h e answer t o t h e q u e s t i o n is y e s , t h e i n t i m a c y i n t h e c o u p l e ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i l l i n c r e a s n (owing t o s h a r e d a s p e c t s o f l i f e ) a2d t h i s i n c r e a s e w i l l i n t u r n i s c r e a s e t h e c o n f l i c t i n t h e marriage. ( " I n c r e a s i n g i n t i m a c y b r i n g s w i t h it a n i n c r e a s i n g a w a r e n e s s cf, a n d c o n f r o n t a % o n urth, t h e uniqueness of t h e othsr." s p r e y , 1 9 7 1 r 7 2 9 . ) 5 9 v e v a r . t h e c o n f l i c t b r o u g h t o n by t h e I n c r e a s e d i r t i m a c y w i l l be s e e r a s l e g i t i m a t e - t h a t is, C o n s t r u c t i v e and h i g h l y desirable--decreasing t h s l i k s l i h o o d of violent conflict. Whether Jennifer's economic independence prompted a change i n h e r a u t h o r i t y e x p e c t a t i o n s is not clear. S h e may h a v e h e l d e q u a l i t a r i a n o r v i f e d o m i n a n t e x p e c t a t i o n s E p y e s h e became a b s o k k e e p e r . Be

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t h a t a s it may. t h ~ r ei s n o d o u b t t h a t J e n n i f e r ' s i d e a s o n who s h o u l d b e i n c h a r g e c o n f l i c t e d w i t h J o e ' s t r a d i t i o n a l t h o u g h t s on t h e s u b j e c t . C o n f r o n t e d w i t h the c o r f l i c t b e t w e e n J e n n i f e r ' s a u t h o r i t y e x p e c t a t i o n s , a n d h i s own m a l e s u p e r i o r i t y norms, how d o e s J o e r e a c t ? 9e c o n t i n u a l l y r e f u s e s t o a c c e p t t h e a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e which J e n n i f e r It c o u l d b e s a i d (assuming t h e v a l i d i t y o f proposes. nraun's t h e a~r v l t h a t J~~o e ' s s l a o was o n e m a n i-f e s t a t i o n o~f h -~ is -r e s o r t i n g t o t r a d i t i o n a l d o m i n a t i n g t e c h n i q u e s vhen h i s s u p e r i o r i t y was t h r e a t e n e d . ~

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P a r r i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t i s t h e n e a n i n g w h i c h Joz a n d Jennifer impute t o t h e violent incident. Both s e e t h e e n c o u n t e r a s a n a c t t h a t was a p p r o p r i a t e , given the situation (Joe: "1 h a d t o do s o m e t h i n g p h y s i c a l Jencifer: "It was my f a u l t . " ) Their responses provide an example ot what Gelles (1974:59) calls "normal ~io1encE"--violence t h a t is accepted, approved, and even mandated i n f a m i l y i n t e r a c t i o n . The e x i s t e n c e o f t h i s t y p e o f v i o l e n c e i s y e t a n o t h e r d e m o n s t r a t i o n of how s o c i a l c o n f l i c t c a n be b u i l t i n t o t h e o r g a c i z a t i o x o f a B a r r i s g e .

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It i s L o t e v o r t h y t h a t m a r i t a l v i o l e n c e is being c o n c e p t u a l i z e d by t h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s a s a n a c t t h a t h a s b o t h i d e o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l a n t e c e d e n t s . Their dual ~ C C U S 1s i r a c c o r d v l t h s y c o n c l u s i o n s ao t h e c o n f l i c t approach. S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e c o n f l i c t a p p r o a c h s u g g e s t e d by t h e i n t e z v i e u s d o e s n o t i m p l y s i m p l y a n exchange framework. R a t h e r , t h e c o n f l i c r p r o c e s s emerges as a system*5 i n which t h e m a r i t a l symbol s t r u c t u r e ( c o n v e r t i o n a l s i g n s t r u c t u r e ) a5 w e l l a s t h e m a r i t a l e x c h a n g e structure (rssource structure) influence. ar.d a r e i n f l u e n c e d by, t h e m a r i t a l p o v e r s r r u c r u r e ( t h e a b i l i t y of t h e husband t o a f f e c t m a r i t a l l i f e versus t h e z b i l i t y of t h e wife t o a f f e c t marltal life). I n o t h e r words, marital politics (the d i s t r i b u t i o n +nd e x e r c i s e o f power) i s n o t b a s e d s i m p l y o n i d e o l o g y ( f o r example. t h s husband i s i n c h a r g e b ~ c a u s e that's " t h e v a y i t ' s s u p p o s e d t o be") o r o n e x c h a n g e ( t h e h u s b a n d i s ir c h a r g e b e c a u s e h e i s b r i n g i n g t o t h e m a r r i a g e rewards--money. status--that s a t i s f y h i s v i f a ) , but on a s y t h e s i s o f t h e tuo.*6

Ch.10.

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NOTES *I am i n d e b t e d t o B a u r e e n LaRossa and Howard 8 . S h a p i r o f o r t h e i r h e l p f u l comments o r a n e a r l i e r d r a f t o f t h i s chapter. T h i s e x c e r p t i s r e p r i n t e d from C o n f l i c t and pQvEr La e a r r r a a e : a s c $ L r g f& p=rz$ BLLP by R a l p h Laxossa. Sage L i b r a r y o f S o c i a l Research, Vol. 50. (c) 1977, pp. 69-82 by p f r m i s s i o n o f t h e P u b l i s h e r . S a g e P u b l r c a t i o n s . Inc. (Beverly Eills/London)

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1. The r e s e a r c h i s e s s e n t i a l l y two s t u d i p s il one. manifestly, i t i s a s t u d y of haw m a r r i e d c o u p l a s r e s p o n d t o t h e f i r s t pregnancy--to t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o parenthood. nore important, and a t a h i g h e r l e v e l o f a b s t r a c t i o n , i t i s a s t u d y o f t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d pheoomenologp of t h e h u s b a n d - w i f e relationship. Sixteen married couples vere interviewed during the twelfth, trentieth, tvecty-eighth, ttirty-sixth weeks o t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f i r s t p r e g n a n c i e s . The i n t e r v i e w s v e r e c o n j o l n t ( h u s b a n d and w i f e t o g e t h e r ) and u n s t r u c t u r e d They were c o n d u c t e d i n t h e c o u p l e s ' (nonstacdardized) homes, w e r e t a p e d a n d l a t e r t r a n s c r i b e d . Analysis of t h e interne" transcipts was q u a l i t a t i v e (the conceptual c o m p o n e n t s o t e x p l a n a t i o n v e r e d e v e l o p e d . f o r t h e most p a r t . from t h e d a t a ) .

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2. S p r e y (1969) cites research that he feels "chronicles" o r " i l l u s t r a t e s " t h e c o n f l i c t framework (Bach a n d Q y d s c , 1968; Brim a&.. 1961; x a u k i n s , 1968: L e v i s , 1967; Scanzonl. 1968). To t h e s e o n e c o u l d add L a r s o n (1974) a n d Rausch g (1974). Each of these investigators d o e s o f f e r some f i n d i n g ( s ) t h a t may b e i n t e r p r e t E d a s s u p p o r t f o r t h e c o n f l i c t approach. None o f t h e s e s t u d i e s . however. c o n f r o n t s t h e m a j o r a s s u m p t i o n s o f the c o n f l i c t approach. I n o t h e r words, n o n e a d d r e s s e s t h e q u e s t i o n o f how c o n f l i c t i s i n t r i n s i c t o f a m i l y l i f e , o r how f a m i l i e s manage r a t h e r t h a n r e s o l v e c o n f l i c t s . l o n e of t h e s e s t u d i e s f o c u s e s on t h e p o l i t i c a l d i m e n s i o n , the n u c l e u s . ir. my o p i n i o n , of t h e f a m i l y a s a c o n f l i c t s y s t e m . of t h e s t u d i e s c i t e d , Bach a n d uyden (1968) p e r h a p s comes t h e closest t o addressing these issues. T h e i r r s s e a r c h is, howevEr, b a s e d o r c l i n l c a l i m p r e s s i o n s .

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3. J o e ' s r e f e r e n c e t o " t h e people i n t h i s area" is irteresting. Bosn and r a i s e d i n r u r a l N e w E n g l a n d . J o e seems t o b e c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s a g e a g r a p h i c a l l y b a s e d s u b c u l t u r e and t h a t h e i s p a r t o f it.

4. The i d s n t i t i c a t i o ~o f ' e x t r i n s i c ' r s s o u r c e s i s from B l a u (1964:20-22).

ar~a "intrinsic'

5 . The d e f i n i t i o n o f a system s u b s c r i b e d t3 is Buckley's (1968:493). "Re d e f i n e a s y s t e m i n g e n e r a l a s a complex o f e l e m e n t s o r c o m p o n e n t s d i r e c t l y o r i r a i r e c t l y r e l a t e d i n a c a u s a l n e t w o r k , s u c h t h a t a t l e a s t soma 3 f t h e c o m p o n e n t s a r e r e l a t e d t o some o t h e r s i n a n o r e o r 155s

Ch.70.

Xaven't

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s t a b l e way at af.p 2 3 GE, The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s may b e matual or unidirectional, linear, non-linear O r in?-rrniAtent. a- n d~ ~varvixo , i n d 6 4 r e e s of c a u s a l e f f i c a c y o r prisrizy. The p a r t i c u l a r k i n d s - o f more o r l e s s s t a b l e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o r c o m p o n e n t s t h a t become e s r a b l L s h e d a t any time c o n s t i t u t e t h e p a r t i c u l a r s=us;s"f the systel a t t h a t time."

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6. S p r e y (1972:237) makes t h e p o i n t that a conflic? a p p r o a c h " i m p l i e s a framework o f exchange." He d o e s n o t e x p l a i n r h a t h e meaxs by t h i s . I f however he i s s a y i n g t h a t c o g n i t i v e s o c i o l o g y (symbolic i n t e r a c t i o n , phanoaanslogy) h a s no p l a c e w i t h i n a c o n f l i c t approach, t h e n I must disagree. I n my o p i n i o n (and I b e l i e v e f a m i l y v i o l e n c e r ~ s e a r c h e r s would c o n c u r w i t h me on this), a more a p p r o p r i a t e way o ? s t a t i n g t h e c a s s i s t h a t a c o n f l i c t approach i m p l i e s p o l i t i c s ( t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and a r e r c i s e of p o w e r ) , a n d p o l i t ~ c se n t a i l s n o t o n l y t h e a b i l i t y t o a f f e c t r e i l f o s c e n e n t c o n t i n g e n c i e s (exchange) b u t a l s o t h e a b i l i t y t o a f f e c t t h e d e f i r l t i o 7 . of t h e s i t u a t i o n (symbols). For a d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s i s s u e a s it a p p l i e s t o t h e s t u a y o f m a r i t a l power, s e e S a f i l i a s - R o t h s c h i l d ( 1 9 7 1 ) .

ife-Employment, Marital Equality, and Husband-Wife Violence Bruce W.Brown

A theme i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r that p e r v a d e d t h e d i a l o g u e between J o e a n d J e c n i f e r In this was t h e i s s u e c f w i f e employment. chapter. Frown s u g g e s t s t h a t o n 2 c o n s e q u e n c e o f V~IES VOrkiPq i s an increased level of husband-wife cofflic? and violence. The i n c r e a s e d econDmic i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e m a r r i e d woman c h a n g e s h e r a u C h o r i t y e x p e c t a t i o n s from h u s b 3 n d d o m i n a n t t o e q u a l i t a r i a n , ana l e a d s t o s conrllct betUEPn t h e wife's FEY authori'y e x p e c t a t i o n s m d *he h u s b a n d ' s male s u p e r i l r i r y norms. A crucial cocticgency in Brown's f o r m u l a t i o n is whether t h e husband a c c e p t s t h e If not, e q u a l i t a r i a c authority sTructure. a t t e m p t s t o d i s r u p t h i s power c l a i m s may b e mst with violent rssistzncs, especially i f h e is lacking i n other resources. Ic t h e c a s e of J o e +nd J e n n i f e r , J s n n l f e r ' s a c t e m p t t o a l t e r t h e z u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e o f t b = i r marTiZgE c a u s ~ dJ?E t o use violecce.

1 f o r t h e r c o n + r i b u t i o n of Brcun's c h a p t s r his i r v e s t i g a t l o n o f t h e f a c t z r s ?haL ~ n f l u e n c et h e h u s b a n d ' s a c c e p t a n c e o r r e j e c t i o b o f e q u e l i t a r i a n 2uAh3r5'y pafzerns. l a ?b.= r e a d e r w i l l a o t s . many of t h s f a c t o r s he l i s t 5 a r e bourd up i n a a i s s e x r o l e E x p e c t a r i o n s t h a t le3Ve men unprepared far dovelopin3 r e l a t i o c s t i p s t h e ? c a l l f o r s h a r e d pnvEr a n 3 e q u a l t a s k a l l o c a t i o n w i L h women. 15

R e s e a r c h o n f a m i l y p o v e r h a s emphasized :he hscsficial e f f e c t s o f t h e e q u a l i t a r i a ? marriage style. It h a s been h e r a l d e d i n t h e p o p a l a r c u l t u r e as a c u r e - a l l f o r *h3 a i l m e n t s of c o n t e m p o r a r y s a r r i a g e s . Aovever, o t h e r s s u c h as s t r a u s i n C h a p t e r 6. K o l b a n d S t r a u s ( 1 9 7 4 ) . a n d w h i t s h u r s t ( 1 9 7 4 ) who h a v e s t u d i e d t h e E m e r g i n g e q u a l i t 3 r i z n s a r r i a g s t y l e concluded t h a t , vhcterer t h e u l t i m a t e benefits. Suricg t h e t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d , t h e move t o w a r d e q u a l i t y b e t v e e n t h s s e x e s may c a u s e many p r o b l m s . Such a c h a n a e t o w a r d "re sexual equality i n t h e fcmily, l i k e a n y o t h e r d r a s t i c c h a r g e ir t h ? poses problems, at least soclal structure, duzicg the t r a r s r t i o n periaa. Inaividuals s o c i a l i z e d +o. o p e r a t e i n 028 s y s t s m of f a m i l y o r g a n i z a t i o n m3y h a v e d i f f i c u l t y o p s r s t 5 n g u n d e r new s t a z d ~ r d s( R c l b a n d S t n a u s . 1 9 7 4 : 7 5 6 ) . T h e f o c u s of t h i s c h e p t e r i s e n e x p l a n a t i s n o f c7.e c the f a c t o r s t h a t l e d Whitehurst (197U:76) t o sugger "...that t h e c o c f l i c t bstueen t h e emsrging e q u a l i t a r F e s o c i a l s t r n c t u r e z n d t h e c o r t i n u i n g m a l e - s u p 9 r i c r i t y noro w i l l t e n d tc i n c r e a s e r a t h e r t h a c d c c r e a s s c o n f l i c t a1 v i o l e n c e b e t y e e n h u s b a n d s End wives." T h i s c h s p t - r ?rat€ out the known and theorezical consequences c w i f e - s a p l o y m s n t a n d c c n s i d e r s t h e q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r o n e c t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of w i f e - c m p l o y m p c t i s an i n c r e a s e d l e v e l c husband-ulEf c o r f l i c t a r d v i o l e n c e . LEGITIBRTION OF SERITBL POWER Blood a n d W o l f e ( 1 9 6 0 : l l ) t h i n k t h a t n o c h a n g e i c t h e A m e r i c a n f a a i l y i s more s i g n i f i c a n t t h a c t h e s h i f t f r o m ore-sided m a l e a u t h o r i t y t o t h e . s h a r i n g of pover Prd/or a u t h o r i t y by t h e husband a a d u i f e . P ~ Y C Ta n d a o t h o r i t p a r e PS K o l b i ~ v o l v e di n p r z c t i c a l l y ? v e r y a s p e c t o f m e r r i a g e . * l a n d s t r a u r ; (1974:757) s t a t e :

...

t h e d e g r s e of c o n t r o l ~ x e r c i s e d by f a m i l y m e m b ~ r so v e r a c e a r a t h e r i s a n E l e m e n t o f f a m i l y s:=ucture a f f e c t e d by 8 x 6 i r t u r n e f f a c t i n g macy other aspects cf family i n t e g r s t i l n aod ~nterzct~cr. Blood a n d W o l f e ' s (1960:12) a n a l y s i s c9ntras:i tv? s o ~ r c e s of power i r 'ha o a r i t a l r % l 3 + i o n s h i p : " c u l t u r e a n a c o n p e t n n c s . " B r i e f l y . t h e i r c u l t u r a l E x p l a n a t i o n of p a c e r s t e t s s t h a t D o v e r l i e s i n t h e h a - d s o f t h e p a r t n e r "ha t h e c u l t u r e dictit;s should have t h a t pouPr. Io t h i s case, Elood and Uolfe z p p h r e n t l y a r e s p e c k i n g of i u t h o r i t y , t h e r i g h t t o e x e r c i s e power. I n o u r own c u l t u r e , t h e popular vifv has beer t h a t "the men s h o u l a b e t h e h e s 3 of t h ? house."

Ch. 11.

Ulfe-Fmploymert

Psg= 178

FnPLOYnENT B N D POWER

flacy r e s e a r c h e r s t h i n k t h e t n o o t h e r f a c t o r has a f f e c t e d t h e b a l a n c e of p c u e r i n A m s r i c a r m a r r i a g e s m c r c t h a n t h e i n c r e a s e i n ? h e number o f v o r k i c g v i v % s . klaous (1974:232), f o r example. s a y s t h a t :

...

w i t h 65.7 p e r c e n t o f a a r r i n d vomec presecrly e n g a g e d i r g a i n f u l e m p l o y m e n t . i n c l u a i n g 20.6 p e r c e n t of u o w n w i t h c h i l d r e c u n d c r s i x y e a r s o f age, p e o p l e n c l o n g e r a r e w i l l i n g t o a c c a p i and prrscribirq s t h e rorms legitimating segregated conjugal role organizstior.

AcCordiLg t o t h e r e s c u r c e t h ~ o r yof p c v E r ? h e i n c r e a s e d r e s 3 u x e s o f w o r k i n g w i v s s h a v ~i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o r s f o r m a r i t a l power a n d f o r i d e o l o g y c o n c e r n i n g m a r i t a l a u ' h 3 r i i y . as the wife's S i c c e socey i s a resource i n marriage, r e s o u r c e s i n c r e a s e . h e r pow== p r s s u e a b l y a l s o i n c r e a s e s a n d s h e i s i n a b e t t e r b a r g a i n i n g p o s i t i o n t o s u g g e s t o r demand a more equalitarian + u ? h o r i + y s t r o c t u r e . LS t h e c a s a

o f J o e and J e n n i f e r i l l u s t r a t e s , t h i s t o a more F q U 3 l s h a r i n g o f a n t h o r i t y a p p s 3 r s t o b e p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t f o r husbacds. PC I c u b t , many C O P t ~ m p O r e r y h u s b a n d s a r d w i r e s v i ? v 'he w i f e ' s r r p l c y m e r t e s a n e c e s s a r y income supplement. T h i s , however, d o ? s no? g u a E a r t e e t h e t h u s b e n d s w i l l f i n d some o f t h e l'u:.ictirded Purks c o r s e q u a n c e s " of w ~ f e - e m p l o y m e n t e a s y '3 % & j u s t t o . a n d W21r (1976:28Q). f o r e x a m p l e , t3ur.d t h a t h u s b a n d s of w o r k i n g w i v e s were less s ? t i e f i a d w i t h = h a i r n 3 r r i Z " n s *tr2 husbands of nonworking u i v s s . FurT.hermore, a ? e r p r o f c m i r i s t me? seem t o p r e f e r 3 r f a m i l y woman" t o ' c a r e e r womer." (Stapp and P i n e s , 1976). The r e a s o r f o r husbacds' d i f f i c u l t y wiih a2 e q u a l s h a r i r g of a u t h o r i t y i s e s s e n t i a l l y a c s r f l i c l b e t u e e c +he two b a s e s o f p o v e r j u s t d i s c u s s e d - - c u l t u r a l norms 2nd i n d i v i d u a l r e s o u r c e s . I n t e r n s of i n d i v i d u a l r e s o ~ r c e s , employed Y ~ V E C s h o n l d s h a r e i n t h e au'horitv s t r u c t u r e a t ?h+ m i r r i a g e . ~ o v e v e r ,t h = p o p u l s r c u l t u r e and t h e legal system (veitzman, 1 9 7 5 ) t a l l h u s b a n d s j u s t The transition

K c l b a n d S+raus (197r1:761) c i t e a r e c e n t B a r r i s P o l l t o s u p p o r r t h e i r s t a t e m e n t t h a t " b o t h i n law ?nd i n p o p u l a r o p i l i o c , t h e husbcnd is still e x p a c t s a t o b s t h e t a m r l y 'head' o r leader."

Opposite.

WIPE-EBPLOYBZNT A N D TEE CAELLSAGE TO XSCRIBSD EELE BUTAORITY The r e m a l r d e r o t t h i s c h a p t e r i s c o n c e r n e d v t t h e n ~ x p l a r a t i o r of the hypothesized r e l a t i o n s h i p bsLueen wife-employment a r d husbard-wife n i o l e n c s . "Violent-," a s = s e a i n t h i s c h a p t e r , r e f e r s t o @?ys:cg& v i o l e n c e b g t w e e r h ~ 5 b 2 n d 6a n d w i v e s .

Ue b e g x v i t k t h e p r c p a s i t i a n r h a t smplaymant of t h e wrfe provides her with increased resourc9s. These r a n a u r c e s 12 t u r n l e a d t o i n c r e a s e d power. In the majority of s t n d i e s , power 232% b e e n c o r s t r u e d a s d e c i s i o r - a a k i r g a n d + h e t w o c c n c e p t s h a v e come to bs UP& interchangeably (satilias-Pothschild, 1970). B numbex o f these studFes t o m d t h a t xarklng wives exert nore influence in de~is:o~-rn+kl~g.*2 With = h i s s h i f t toward scre e q u a l pover between h u s b a r d i c d v i f e , t h e w i t ? comes t o e x p e c t a change t o s q u a i i t a r i a n a u t h o r i t y (Blood and Bamblir, 1958). To t h e e x t e n t t h a r t h i s c h a n g e o c c u r s , w i f e - s a p l c y m e n t may l s i d t o a n u r d e r m r n i n g of a s c r i b e d m a l e a u t h o r i t y p l t r e r c s . RF s c z n z o r . i ( 1 9 ' l o : l s s ) s t a t s s , "The w i f e i s more m 0 t i v a t . a ?o 'go along' w i t h him, t o ' g i v e i n * t o h i m , t o l e t ' h i s h a r e h L s way' t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t h e p r o v r a e s maximue z c 3 n o n i c rewards.' If t h e h u s b a n d 1.5 c 3 l a a g e r p r o v i s i n q nzximum e c o n o m i c r e u e r d s , b e c a u s e t h e v i f e is now i n v o l v e d t c %His f u n c t : ~ ~ . s h e 1s c o t i 5 i r c l i n e d " ' 5 go z l o n q w i t h him." Eomans (1961:287) p u t t h i s i d e a more g e r . f r a l l y i n '.he p r o p o ~ i t i o rt h a t " t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t single 53ctoz i n rn8kir.g a man a l a a d e r r s . . . t h e a b i l i t y t o provide r a r e an8 valued r e w a r d s f o r h i s f o l l o w e r s . " I f a h u s b a n d c0 l c n g e r p ~ 3 0 F d ~ ~ Sectusshe r a r a a n d v a l u e d r e w a r d s for h i s " t o l l o u e r , " h e r s e l f D O V pmv:des %hem. t h e h u s b a n d n o l o n g e r i s i n a p o s i t i o n t c be t h e ucquestionsd l e a d e r . The r e s u l t i s a n attempt to shift from a dominant-subrissive t o an e q u a l i t a r i a c a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r s within t h e marriage.

Ch.11.

w~fe-zmploymepi

P a g e 180

norms. E m p i r i c a l d a t a shcv t h e e x i s t e n c e o f such conflic's. S p e c i f i c a l l y , G i a n o p u l o s a n d a i t c h e l l ( 1 9 5 7 ) . Bye (1958 a n d 1 9 6 3 ) . a c d Glilzer-Balbir (1975:Table 7) found t h z t r n - r i t a l c o n f l i c t i s more f r e q u e n t e m c r g c o u p l e s i n u h i c h t h e v l f e i s employed. A s s t a t e d e ~ r l i f r , Whitehurst t h i n k s ' h s t t h s c o n f l i c t betweex t h e emerging equalitarian authority strncture and male superiority norms u i L l i n z r e a s a husband-wife violence. he r e m a i n d e r o f t h i s c h a p t ~ r a e a l s w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r u h i c h U h i t e h u r s t ' s a s s e r f i ? n may be correct. FACTORS INFLUENCING EUSBAND ACCEPTANCE OF THE EQUALITPRIAN AUTHORITY STRUCTURE The h u s b a n d ' s acceptaxce or rejection of 'he e q u a l l t a r - a n a u t h c r l t y s t r u c t u r e i s c l n t i n g e c t upon a c u m b e r of variables. T h e PX&SFP? t h e c r y d e a l s w i t h f ~ u r o f t h o s e variables: 1. d e g r e e c f c o m p u l s i v e m a s c u l i n i t y d e g r e e of a n t i c i p a f o r y s o c i a l i z a t i o c 3. d e g r 4 9 o f r o l e c l a r i t y 4. d e g r e e + C w h i c h t h e t r a n s i t i o n f a c i l i t 3 t e s g 3 a l attainment. 2.

C&"E~&~XB nasculinit~. Pars3ns (1947) sees a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e e f f o r t 2n t h e " ~ O ~ p u l s i ' rmasculinity" ~ p e r t of man t o a s s e r t t h e i r m a s c u l i n i t y a n d x ~ p u d i a t e a ~ainr8.l ider:ification w i t h t h e i r mothers. E l e a e n t s sf t h e c c m p u i s i v e m i s c o l i r l t y s y r d r o ~ e h a v e b s e n a n a l y z i d by a number of o t h e r s o c i o l c g i s t s . For example, S e l s u i c k and P e e k ( 1 9 7 1 ) t h i n k t h a t E w e r i c a r msa a r e s c c i 3 l i z e d t o b e t o u g h aPd t o a v o i d s h o v i r g e m o t i o n s . Evidence f3r t h e i d e a l o f t o u g h n e s s T n men i s s u p p l i e d i n a C a n a d i a c s u r v e y conducted by Goldfarb (1970. as c i t e d i n Uhit?hurst, 1974:80). i r w h i c h 6 1 p e r c e n t of t h s r p s p o n d e o t s f e l t men Ross s h o u l d ba t o u g h a n d n c t b a c k away from a f t g h t . (19721, i n a t o p - s s l e c t i o r study, c o l f i r s e d t h e erarmous p r e s s u r e s b y f a m i l y a n d s o c i e t y fo: b o y s t o b e h a v e lr. t h e toy a c c e p t e d m a s c u l i n e way. Uhen bops w e r e g i v e r . s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e opposiCe sex, t h e y shoved a c x i e t y , l~dicatlng that an inappropriate toy u3uld mean e m b a r r a s s m e n t a n d p o s s i b l y pur.ishment. is f c r One a s p e c t c f t h e w a c c ~ p ~ e dm s s c ~ l i ~ ?m y " h n ~ b ~ c d st o b e d o m z n a n t c v e r t h e i r w i v e s . Fsr many h u s b a r d s , aL e q u a l s h a r i r g o f a u t h o r i t y v l t h i n t h e m a r r i a g s We may b e v i e w e d 2s a " l a c k o f m a s c u l i n i t y # * o n t h e i r p a r t . a r e moving t o w a r d a n a g e o: e o u a l i t y b e t w e e n t h e s e x ? = , and c u r d i f f i c u l t y i n a e k l n g t h i s t z a r s i r l o x d e p e l d s i n p a r t on t h e d e g r e s c f c o m p u l s i v e m a s c u l i n i t y e x h i b i t e d by h u s b a n d s i n our society.

Ch.11.

Wlfe-E~ployment

Pagr 181

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B ? . t i c i E t m so&cii;=gy:op. A n t i c i p a t o r y s 3 c i a l i z z ? i o n i s d e f i n e d a s t h l a d o p t i o n of t h e n o r m s a n d s a l u p s of ? r o l i before being i n a s o c i a l s i t u z t i o n "hers i t i s apprcpriats ( B e r t o n , 1957:265 a n d B u r r , 1973:125). Husbands i r Rm?rican s o c i 9 t y h a v e n o t r e c e i v e d much a n t i c i p a t o r y s 3 c i a l i z 2 t i a n f o r an e q u a l s h e n i n g o f m a z i l a l a u t h 3 r i t y . In fact. just t h e o p p o s i t e s e e m s t o b e t r u s of S m e r i c a n b o y s , who h o l d ~ ~ ~ a1 t t i st u dt e s b y t h ~t01?d.fr a g e o f t w o (Kuhn, 1 9 7 6 ) . E o v e v e r , t c t h e e x t s n t t h a t a r e u a n d more e g u a l L t a r i a n m a r i t a l i d e o l o g y p e r m e a t e s t h e c u l t u r e t h r o u g h t h s mass m e d i a , t h t~e m l n i s t m o v e m ~ n t , a n d f a m i l y a r d s e a a d u c a t i o c i n t h e s c h c c l s , men w i l l f i n d it e a s i e r t o a c c a p t t h i s new m a r i t a l a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e u h e r f a c e d w i t h t h e L s s u 4 il t h F i T 3 % m~a r r i a g e .

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ole C l a r a . C a t t r e l l (1992:6181 d e f i r c s r c l e c l a r i t y -R-a s 'the d e g r e e t o which t h a r a :s a s e t of e x p l i c i t Bs d e f i n l ~ i o n s o f t h ~r e c i p r o c a l b e h a v i 3 r expected." m e n t i o n e d p r e u i o u s l y , t h t~r a r s i t i o n t o e q u a l i t a r i m m a r i t a l authority s t r u c t u r e s i s a d i f f i c u l t one. espscially for husbands. Komarovsky ( 1 9 7 3 ) t o u n d t h a t a l t h o u q h m a l e s a q r e s v e r b a l l y v i t h e q u a l i t y b e t v e e n t h o sexes, *hiy are still a t t a c h e d e m o t i o n a l l y t o t r e d i t i a n a l a t t i t u d e s and p 3 t t e r c s of b e h a v i o r . S i n c e t h e amouct o f r o l e c l a r r t y i n f l u e n c e s t h c E a s E of t r a n s i t i o n i n t o r o l e s ( B u r r , 1 9 7 3 : 1 2 7 ) , o n e o f t h e r e a s o x s h u s b a n d s ere e x p e r i e n c i n g d i f f i c u l t y nay be t h ? l a c k o f c l a r i t y c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r r o l e s es m e r i t e l p a r t n e r s i n an e q u a l i + . a r i a r a u r h a r i t y s t r u c t u r e . R r o l e - m o d e l of a n e q u a l i t a r i a n h u s b a r d is h a r d l y t o b e found i n o u r c u l t u r e and, t h e r e f o r e , no e x p l i c i t s = t o f definitions e x i s t s f o r + k c h u s b a n d t o f o l l o w . nszitsl role p r e s c r i p t i o c s . a l t h o u g h moving i n t h s d i r e c t i o n s f i c c r + a s e a E q U a l i t a T i a n i s m s i n c e 1900, s t i l l t e n d t o r e l e g a t e h u s b a n d s t o t h e p r o v i d e r r o l e and v i n e s t o t h e hoaernak?~ acd child-rearer roles (Brcwn, 1978). The mass a s d i a , in particular, a d v e r t t s i n g d u r i n g s p o r t s evec;s, emphasize t h o " r e a l man" i m a g e (Brovr, 1973). The " r e a l msr" is physically tough, i s d c n i R a n t o v e r wonen, axd has t h e The58 f r e e d o m ? O d o what h e D l e a ~ e s when h s 019a565. C h a r a ~ t e r i s t i c s a r e i n d i r e c t opposition t o c h s r a c t e r i s t i c s n f e d e d t o r e v i e b l s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h v t r e s who s u b s c z i b e t o an e q u a l i t a r i a n m a r i t a l a u t h o r i t y stroctor.?.

-

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F-a c i-l l t a --t i o F of Go21 :
Ch.11.

Wife-Smployeent

P a g e 182

confused (Lenasters, 1971). The c o m i c s c a t o n l y r r f : e c t , b u t a l s o Shape husbands' a t t i t u d e s toward s h a r i n g m a r i t a l euthority. Dagwocd Rumstead :epresocts an importaut a r c h e t y p e i n :he A m e r i c a n p s y c h e - t h ? irrslevast male. DagwOOd LS b r o w b e a t e n by a d o n i n e a r i c g a n d a s s e r t i v e w l f e . is a b u s e d by h i s b o s s . and 15 g e n e r a l l y a f a l l u r e i n everything he t r i e s ( B e r g e r , 1979:lOS). F a i l u r e and ronartalraec:, t h e l . a r e b e l i s v f d f o be + h e f c r h u s b a n d s w h 3 l e t t h e i r w i v e s s h s r e ~ g u s l l yi n marltal authority. n n f i l men come t o p s r c e i v e 53me o f ? h e a d v a c t a g e s t o ;QP_~&&J%~ o f a n e q u a l i t a r i ~ nr e l a t i o n s h i p + h e y w i l l reslst c h a n g e i r t h a t 6 i r e c : i o r . OU~COQO

Eeiecrinc o r +4$ E s g $ l _ ~ r ; ~ ~ ~S:!S+&:tys S~;~_!&UE$. -These f o u r v a r ~ a b l e s - - d e g r e e of compulsive n a s c u l I L i t y . dfgran of role d e g r e e of a n t i c i p a t c r y s o c i a l i z a t i o c , c l a ~ i t y ,a n d d s g r e e t o which t h e t r a c s i t i o n f a c i l i t i t - s g o a l a t f a ~ r m e n t - - a l l p l a y a p a r t i c t h e husband's 3ecision t o accspt or reject t h e e q u a l i t m i a n m a r i t a l au'hsrity 5tr"Ct"re.

Een a r e t r y i n g t o c a p e w i t h t h e c h a n g e s t h r o u g h the t r a d i t i o ~ a l attitudes. R h 4 ~ % h e 511 dominating t e c h n i q u e s no l o n g e r prove ~ f f s c t i v e . men becomc I n s e c u r e a n d a n x i o u s b s c a u s s o f t h s ominous s p e c t e r o f ' f a i l u r e . ' what a r c t h e s e " o l d dominating techniques?" Grsatar monetary resources is one, but t h s ever-increasing p r o p o r t i o n c t e m p l o y e d v i v a s makes t h i s r e s c u r c ? l e s s a n d l e s s available. 9 h i g h e r l e v e l of e d u c a t i o n i s sno'her, but w i t h t h e i n c r s a s i r g e c r o l l m - ? t of women i n c a l l o g ~ , t t ~ t a l s o is i n c r e a s i n g l y l e s s t r u e . I n f a c t , ircrsisss i r e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t may be 02.2 c f t h ? c a u s a l f a c t o r s o f the emergence of presciptiocs for joint airital decision-maklsg (Brovr, 1977). I f nothicg else, at least men nsed t o h a v e t h e n o r m a t i v e p r e s c i p r l m s c o c c = r n i n g b u t t h a t a l s o h a s been m e r i t a l a u t h o r i t y cn t h e i r s i d e , slowly but surely charging (Brown, 1978). Hovevrr, one adVaPtagE t h a t h u s b a n d s still h a v e o v e r t h e i r w i r e s i s t h e i r As W h i t e h u r s t (1974:78) n o t e s : greater physical strergth.

ch.11.

Wife-Employment

P i g e 183

when a l l o t h e r r e s o u r c - s o f a a s c u l i n s i f l e n t i t 7 feil. mer c a n a l u a y s r e l y o n b e i n g ' t o u g h ' a s a s i g n of manhood. Hardlicg uivss i n aggressivs ways is 1 2 some r e s p e c t s a n ? x t e n s i o n o f 'he n c r m a l ways men l e a r n l o h a n d l e a v a r i e t y o f problems..

..

Similarly, K o o l a r a v s k y ' s (1962:227) s t u d y o f b l u e c o l l a r f a m i l i e s l e d h e r '0 coCClUde t h a t t h e t h r e a t o f v i o l s c c e i s a n c t h e r ground of RasculinC pcver. P i c a l l y . Rolfgacg (1969) p o i n t s o u t t h a t " v i o l e r c e :s 2 msans o f s e e k i C q pow-r a n d may b e d e f i n e d as a ? a c t o f d c s p a i r c o m m i t t e d w h s a t h e a o o r 1s c l o s e d t o a l t e r a a t l v e r e s o l u t i o ~ s . " No S o u b l . m i r y c o n t e m p o r a r y h u s b a n d s f e e l t h a t t h e do324 n o t o n l y h i v e bsoc s h u t , but a c t u a l l y s l a a n e d i n t h s i r f a c e s .

VIOLENCE I N T H E FQOALITBRIEN AUTHORITY SlRUCTUPE u p t o t h i s p o i n t , the c h a p t e r h a s been c o n c e r n ~ 3 w i t h corfllcc ever th9 transition t o equalitarian marital authority s t r u c t u r e s . Bowever, t h i s is n o t t o s u g g e s t t h a t the husband's r e j e c t i o n of an e q u a l i t a r i a n a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e is t h e o r 1 7 s o u r c e of c o n f l i c t +Ed v i o l a r c e . e u s b a 3 d s who aCCBpt F q ~ a l i t y i n a u t h a r i ' y f i n d t h a t t h i s l e a d s t o i r c r e a s e d intimacy and coepaniocship i n t h e i r m a r i t a l relationship a w i n g t o t h e l n c r e a s e ir s h a r e d i s p e c t s B l o o d End A o l f e (1960:160) fOursd t h a t t h e s o r e o t iits. decisions were s h a r e d by t h e h u s b a n d a n a w i f e , t h s a c r p s a t l s f a c t i o c was e x p r e s s e d w i t h m a r i t a l c o m p a o i o n s h i p . the

T h i s i n c r e a s e d i a t i e a c y would a p p s a r t o b% a p l u s for e q u a l i t a r i a c marriages, b u t C o s e r (1969) a n 6 S p r e y (1971) c a u t l o n t h a t t h e more i n t i a a t e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s e r e , the more l i k e l y t h a y a r e t o g i v e r i s e t c c o n f l i c t . ireer ( 1 9 4 1 ) found t h a t i n e t h n i c g r o u p s i c which t h e r e a r e l s w e r ~ x p B c t a t i o n s o r ~ m o t i o r a l a t t i c h n s n t s between hnshaaa and if%, m a r r i a g e s t e r d LO b e m o t e s t a b l e . Goode ( 1 9 6 2 ) be r s d u c e d when concludes t h a t m a r i t a l s t r a i n is l i k e l y *he p a r t n e r s l a v e r thFir expect3tiops 3f cmotFocal performance and comply v i t h m i n i s e l r o l e 3 b l i g a t t o 3 s . T h e : ~ t o r e ( a z d s o m e u h a t p e r a d o x i c a l l y ) m a r i t a l c o n f l i c t car he e x p e c t e d io a s t h 4 n a r i t a l p s r l n r r s s h i r f nor? a s p e c t s of l i f e .

Ch. 11.

@FEE-Employmln~

~ h . 1 1 . Wlfe-Employm+~+

Pege 185

APOther a s p c c t a t t h i s p a r a d o x i s ths* if an ~ q u a l l t a r l a n authority s t r u c t a r e i s a c c e p t i d by b o t h ~ p o u s e s . c c r f l l c ? "111'b r i e w ~ da 5 l e g ~ r i m e ~b a~c ,a u s e b o t h p e r t n i r s h a v e e q u a l r i o h x s r o h ~ v et h r i r v i a v s p r e v a i l . Bach a n d Wyden (1968:98) s u g g e s t :h+t "vrzbal ccc.flict b e t w e s ~i n t i m a t g s 1s n o t o n l y a c c s p x a b l ? , e s p e c i a l l y b e t w e e n lf i s c o n s t r u c < i ~ e 3rd highly h u s b a ~ d s ~ r dw i r e s ; desirable." S i n c e t h e c o r f l i c t i s r i a v e d a s l s g i k i m s : r , ths l i k ~ l ~ h o o02 d h u s b a ~ d - v i f e ViCle?.ce as a m e e r s o f c o n t l i c t Ir s h o r t [ a n d a g a i n s o w e u k a t r s e o l u t i o n is decreased. p a r a d a x i c i l l l p ) . t h e h l g h e r 1 E T e 1 o f c ~ n f l i c ti s l i k i l ~t 3 b ~ . associated v r t h &pas p h y s l c a l v i o l e n c e . * 3 Fswsver, s t t h e same ;lme, t h e i ? - c r e a s e d c o n f l i c t n a y l e a d '0 a d a c r e a s G d s t a b r l i t y of t h e m a r r i a g e . Pf;er e x p s z l e n c i n g w h a t m i ~ h tb e termed " i n t i m a t e c o r f l i c t , ' t h e c o u p l e may come t3 t h e CO~C~OSLOP t h a t d i v o r c e is t h e i r b e s t o p z i o n . R%oardl?ss of i t s e e m s obv:ous t h e 3 r g m 3 ~ : s " f o r azd a g a i C 5 t " d i v o r c e , t h a t d i v o r c e i s a more d e s i r a b l e s o l u t i o c t o m e r i t + l c a n t l l c t t h a r husband-wife violencP.

F a t h e r f h a n a t t e m p t -o s u m m a r i z e t h c~o n t e n t s o f t h i s chapter i c runnirg text, a more u s e f u l d s r l c e i s '3 SE* to:th t h e m a i n e l e m e n t s o f t h e t h 4 o r y I n a s s r i e s of propositions. 1s a f i r a l s u m m a r i z i n g ~ F Y L C S , F i g u r e 1 pres+nts t h e causal conafcfions specified ic the t h e x y i n t h e tsrm of a € l o x c h e r t . E m p l o y n f r t o f t h s w+fe ircreased resources of t h e xife.

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Ifcreased resources of t h e i x c r e a s e d power o f t h e w i f e .

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traditional by t h e husbatd 1ikolLhocd of

doolirating l e i d s t o an husband-wife

Acceptance of the equalitarian authority s t r u c t u r s by t h e husband l e a d s t o i n c r e a s = 3 i n t i m a c y betveer. t h s husband acd wife. I n c r e a s e d i n t i m a c y b e t w e e n t h e t u s b a n d aca w i t s l e + d s t o i n C T e a s ~ dl e q i l r ~ 8 f ec o r f l r c t ~ E ~ Y E J t Ph e h u s b a n d a n d v l f e . Legitimate c o c f l i c r leads t o a lecrsassd as 3 llkelihcod of husband-wife viollnce meas o t c o ~ f l i c t~ e s o l ~ t i o n .

NOTES * R e v l s ~ O n of 2 p a p e r p r f s e n t ~ da t t h e z n n o a l o e o t i c g of t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c l l o r F a m i l y R e l a t i o n s , S a l t Lake C i t y , Utah. a u g u s t 20-23, 1975. T h e p r ~ p a r a t i o ~of . t h i s p a p s r was s u p p o r t e d b y N a t i c n a l I n s t i r u t e o f n e a t a l e e i l t h g r a n t No. 13050. The c a r m e r t s a n d criticisms o f L e e C r a n d e l l a n 4 Deac Knudson a r d s d i r t h e r e v l s i o a o f t h e p i p e r . "paver" r s f e r s t3 t h e 1. As u s e d LT t h i s c h a p t e r , p0tsfit:al ability t o coc?rol another's b?havior, ald "authority' r e t s r s t o l e g i t i m i z e d power ( B l c o d 2 ~ d W31fe. 1960:ll).

2. 3ahr. Boverman and Gecas, 1974:366; Plood, 1363:294; Blood, 1965:lYS: Blood inif R5lfa. 1960: 40: tee:, 1 9 5 8 : 3 9 7 ; EcKlnley, 1964:lQY; Scaazsni, 1970:160; The studies just Ci-.?d zr1 a l l Wolfs, 1959:109. inve5tig~t10~5 of Rmerlcan f a n l l i s s . Elth3uqh Eimilar r e s u l t s h a v e b e f n f o ~ n d i n some c r o s s - c u l z u r a l s t u d i e s (xbbatt, 1 9 7 6 : l l z ; ~ l o o e , 1361:159; >uric ina Jecsvic. 1967:328; Lupri, 1969:144; ilichel, 1970:159; Oppoxg, 1970:678; Pichmond, 1976:262; Safilios-Rothschild. 1967:346; W e l l e ~ , 1968:439). cortradictory ~ e s u l t swefa B ~ f f e a . f o u n d by C e r t e r s . R a v e n . a n d R a d r i g u e s , 1 9 7 1 : 2 7 6 ; 1960:224; Randfl and l e s s e r , 1972: 1 3 4 ; nildleon and P u - n s y , 1960:608; a n d S t r z u s . 1977.

of this assertion depends an 3. T h e v a l l d l t y dlszmguishing betvesn c o n f l i c t (in the sense of "ccnflic? of l u t e r e s t " a s d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e f 8) a n d a g q r e s s i s n (in t h e sense o t a malevolect act). If Each a r d W y a i n ' s

a s s e r t i o n is rcad a s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t vprbal aggresstan h e l p s avcid phyS:Cal aggressron, t h e cvidenCF i s o v e r v h r l s i n g l y t h e o p p a s i t e (Straus, 197ua).

Chapter 12

Resources, Power, and Husband-Wife Violence Craig M. Allen and Murray A. Straus

Both L a R o s s a ' s c a s e s t u d y a n d Brown's t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s suggest t h a t "resources" l i k e t h e i r c o m s p r c v i d o d by a w i f e ' s emplcymect outside * h e home i n c r e s s e s h e r power, gpg increases t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e husband w i l l u s 9 v i o l e n c e t o " s t o p t h e bad p r o g r e s s i o n o f e v e n t s , " a s J o e p u t s i t i n C h a p t e r 10. But neither a case study nor a l o g i c a l dednction a r e s u f f i c i e n t evidence f o r a s c i e n t i f i c conclusioc. Snch a c o a c l u s i o r d e p e n d s on a d d i t i o n a l d a t a . a n d t h a t i s what R l l e n a n d S t r a u s ' s s t u d y of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 400 c o u p l e s p r o v i d e s . In addition t o t h e statis'ical fiodicgs. t h i s c h a p t e r t a k e s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l 3 n a l y s i s ~f LaRossa a n d Rrowr o n e s t e p f u r t h e r . It p u t s *5 forward the "ultimaC3 r e s o u r c e t tpory" e x p l a i n t h e relationship b e t w e e n power and v i o l e r c e by t a k i r g i n t o c o n s i d e r ? + i c n c u l t u r a l norms r e g a r d i n g f a m i l y power. Tha t h e o r y h o l e s that i n individualistic, achisvsme~t-oriecttd ~0r.s s u p p o ~ t i ~male g superiority are s0ciet:es. weak o r ambiguous. F o r ?. h a s b z n d t o be ocrg than a census * i l l y i n th? s C a t i s t i c s cc "household heads." he h a s t d v a l i d a t e h i s p o s i t i o n by s u p e r i o r " r e s o u r c e s " s u c h a s oonsy, occupational s t a t u s , o r valued p e r s o r a l t r a i t s . I f t h e h u s b a n d l a c k s s u c h resources, and f e a l s e n t i t l e d t o a p o s i t i o n o f dominance, v i c l P n c ? may b e u s e d a s t h e " u l t i m a C e r e s o u r c e " t o back up r e e l i n g s o f power e n t i t l e m e n t . Data f r c n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 400 c o u p l e s s u p p o r t t h e s e i d e a s . b u t o n l y t o r Workjng c l a s s c o u p l s s .

ch.12.

R e s o u r c e s a n d Power

Page 189

E n m b e r o f s o c l a l o g i c a l t h e o r i s s of family violence. s u c h a s t h o s e by G i l ( 1 9 7 5 ) . Goods ( 1 9 7 1 ) , a r d S t r e u s ( C h a p t e r 6 ) . h o l d ? h a t t h e u s e of p h y s i c a l f o s c e i s t h e u l t i n a t e s a n c t i o r t h a t underlies t h e m a i n t e n a n c ? o f t h e p r e s e c t male-dominan' pattern of family organization. A l t h o u g h t h e a n a l y s e s o f t h e s e a u t h o r s may seem p l a u s i b l e , rest on piecing together scattered, often they impressioni5t:c evidence. W e r e e d s p e c i f i c t e s t s of t h e idea t h a t t h e t h r e a t of physical violence ondarliss the existing family structure. These d a t a , although l i n i t = d i n s e v e r a l ways, a r e a s t e p i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n .

THEORIES OF RESOURCES A N D POWER P o l l o w l n g t h e work of F r e n c h a c d Raven ( 1 9 5 9 ) . Blood a n d V o l f e i n t r o d u c s d t h e " r e s o u r c e t h e o r y " o f f a m i l y power. They d e f i n e d a r e s o u r c e 2s "...anything t h a t o n e p a r t n n r may make a v a i l a b l e t o t h e o t h e r , h e l p i n g t h e l a t t e r s a t i s f y h i s n e e d s o r a t t a i n h i s g o a l s " (1960:lZ). The Blood 2nd WOlfe s t u d y f o u n d t h a t t h e s p o u s e w i t h t h e g r e a t e r cumber o f r e s o u r c e s t e n d s t o h a v e more power o v e r h i s o r her parrner.*l However, Radmin's (1967) s n a l y s i s 3 f d a t a from s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s fouxd t h e t h e o r y t o be s u p p s r t e d i n t h e W n i t e d S t a t e s and P r a n c e . b u t n o t c o n f i r m e d b y S a f a from Greece and Yugoslavia. Ir t h e l a t t e s two c o u n t r i e s . the c o r r e l a t i o n s o f f a t h e r ' s e d u c a t i o n and o c c u p a t i o n w i t h power w e r e i n t h o~p p o s i t e direction from t h a t p r e d i c t e d by t h e r e s o u r c e theory. Rodmar. c o n c l u d e d t h a t , t o explain the distribution of m a r i t e l p o u e r , t h e c u l t u r e 1 c o r t e x t from which norms d e f i r i n g a p p r o p r i a t e r e s o u r c e s a r e d ? t e r a i n e d 1973). In a m u s t be t a k r r . i n t o a c c o u n t ( s e e a l s o Pox. subsequent comprehensive review o f f i n d i c g s r e l z t e d t o t h e resource theory, Rodman (1972) d e v e l o p e d a t h - o r y of n r s s o u r c e s i n u c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t " i n which h e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e d y n a m i c s of e x c h a r g e i n t h e marital dyad c a r b e u n d e r s t o o d o n l y i n f h h c o r . t f x t Of t h e c n l t a r e o f ~h:cb t h e dyad i s a p a r t : The b a l a n c e o f m a r l t a l power i s i n f l u e z c 3 d by t h e i n t e r a c f i o n o r (1) t h e c a n p a r a r i v e r e s c u r c % s o f h u s b a n d a n d w i f e a r d (2) t h e c u l t u r a l o r s u b c u l t u r a l expectations about f h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of m a r i t a l p o u e r (1972:60). TRE ULTIMATE RESCWRCE TEEORY Goode ( 1 9 7 1 ) . Podmar ( 1 9 7 2 ) . a n d R o g e r s ( 1 9 7 4 ) s u g g e s t t h a t v i o l e r c e i s a r e s o u r c e i r v o k e d when i n d i v i d u s l s l a c k other legltimz?e resources t o serve a s bases for t h e i r power.*Z B c c o r d i n g t o ~ o o d e( 1 9 7 1 ) . a s p o u s e who l a c k s t h e p r e s t i g e , money, o r s k i l l n e c e s s a r y t o i n d u c e t h e o t h e r

Ch.12.

AeSoUrces a n d Power

P a g e 190

t o p e r f o r m scme b e h a v i o r m i g h t r e s o r t '0 v i o l e n c e a s e v e n t h o u g h t h e e x e r c i s e of v i o l e n c x i s a n i l l e g i t i m a t e c r n e g e t i v e l y s a n c t i o n e d mode o f e x e r c i s i n g paver. Rodman (1972) a s s e r t s . h o w e v e r , t h a t t h i s p a t t e r n w i l l b2 f o u n d o n l y i n a soci€:y i n which (1) t h e n o r m s which l e g i f i m a t i z e t h e c x s r c i s e o f power a r e weak a n d somewhat (2) t h e a c + u e l e x e r c i s e o f l e g i t i m s t ? p s x z r must ambiguous. b e v a l i d a t s d by t h e r e s c u r c G s i n t h e form o f p e r s o n a l qualities acd m a t e r i a l possession. The O n i t e d S t a t e s t p p i f i e s t h i s kind of scclety, b e c a u s e (1) e q u ~ l i t a r i a n n o r m s a r e rep1ac:cg p e t r i a r c h a l ocrms i n t h e m a r i t a l dyad, ( 2 ) a s 2 c O n s 2 q u e ~ c e . t h e r e i s n o r m a 1 i v s ambiguity a b o u t :he d i s < r : b u t i o n o f m a r i t a l p c u e r ; 8r.d ( 3 ) a d d i t i o n s 1 pow?; c a n be o b t a i n e d by i n c r e a s i n g o n e ' s r e s o u r c e s r e l a t i v e t o t h o s e o f h i s spouse. spouse

a f i n a l resource,

T h e s e c o ~ ~ i d e r a t l o nc os n s t i t u t e what c a n be c a l l e d t h e n u l t l m a t e r e s o u r c e ' t h e o r y of v i o l e n c e , s u g g ~ s t i c gt h a t r i o l t n c e w i l l be i n v o k e d by a p e r s o n who l a c k s o t h e r This theory r s s o u r c e s t c s e r v e as a b a s i s f o r pover. I m p l i e s a c o r r e l a t i o n between power a n d v i a l e n c a o n l y u n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c s s , s l n c ~power c a n b e m a i c t a i n r d by t h e u s e Of r e s o u r c e s o t h e r t h a n v i a l e n c a . I n short., t h e relatlonship be-ween power and marital violecce is c o n t i n g e n t on what r e s o u r c e s o t h e r t h a n v i 3 l e c c e are ararlable. T h e s e c o n s i d ~ r a t i o n sa r e t h e b a s i s f o r t h e main hypotheses t o be t e s t e d . 1. When r e ~ o u r c ? ~ o f i s p o u s e a r e low, t h s greater t h a t s p o u s e ' s power, t h e g r e a t e r h i s o r h e r u s e of v i o l e n c e .

is 2. When TeSOUrCBS 2x4 h i g h , there r e l a t l o n s h i p b e t w e e n p o u s r e n d violen:G.+3

C 3

L i p s ~ t f f 9 r ~ n C e s . P l t h o u g h e l u a l i t a r i s n corms e r e r e p l a c i n g p a t r i a r c h a l n o r m s of a u t h o r i t y i n o u r s o c i e t y , t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s l a g s b e h i n d 'he m i d d l e c l a s s ir. t h i s n 3 r m a t i v e trarisitlon (Kcffmar., 1960: Romarousky, 1962; BcKiclsy, and 1964; Lopita, 1971:108; S c a r z o n i , 1975: Yooog millmott, 1973). Is a c c n s e q u s a c c , h u s b l n d s i n t b ? w r k i n g c l a s s a d h e r e more t o t r a d i t i o r a l o r p a t r i a r c h a l c o r m s o f a u t h o z i t y t h a n do husbands i n t h e middle c l a s s . AdwPver, t h e i r a c t u a l power + e n a s To be l c w e r t h a n t h a t e x e r c i s s d by middle c l a s s husbands. T h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n a r i s e s c u t 3f one working c l a s s o f t h e c r u e l t r l c k s of t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t o r e : husband5, whose i d e o l o g y e m p h a s i z e s m a l e power, t s r d t o POBSBSS f e w e r r e s o u r c s s t t a t c a n s e r v e a s + b a s i s f o r power t h a n do middle c l a s s husbands. The i n t e r a c t i n g e f f e c t o f f e w % F E S O U T C J S w i t h StrOng'r adh?zPnCe t o p a t r i a r c h a l f i O T m 5 l e a d s o s -.o e x p e c t t h a t 2 s i g y p ~+& g,EUE$f&gn=& sr$:ls ~f G s x ~ e ~ E & ~ P ZQe T mrzc&+tgn bgyxpn z p s _ p ~ $ e s , poYgr, 3n_d X L g l E s ~ f . Lacklng monetary, p r e s t i g e , ald e d u c a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s o r which t o b a s e power, low s t a ' u s men a r e more l l k e l y t o c o m p e ~ s a t eb y u s i n g a c t u a l o r t h x s t s n e d

c h . 12. R e s o u r c e s end Power p h y s 1 c a l f o r c e as a b a s i s f o r power.

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saneis. The d a t a t o be r e p o r f e d a r e from a s t u d y o f t h e t a e i l i e s of s t u d e r t s i n i c t r o d u c t o r y s 3 c i o l c g y a n d a n t h r o p o l o g y c l a s s e s a t t k e U n i v ~ r s i t y o f New H a n p s h i r e i n t h e f a l l o f 1972. T h e d a t a w a r € o b t a i n e d by q u ? s t i o r . n a i r e s completed on a v o l u r t a r y b a s i s d u r i n g a c l a s s p e r i o d . Of t h e 583 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s d i s t r i b u t e d . 555 o r 9 2 p e r c l c t w e r e completed. S i n c e t h e a r - a l y s e s t o b e p r e s e n t i d 3+pended on b o t h t h s s t u d e r . t q s and both p a r e n t ' s l i v i n g a t toms l u r i n g t h e student's s e r l o r year i n high school, f u r t h e r cases vere 105t b e c a u s e + p a r e c t o r t h e c h i l d v a s n o t l i v i n g e t home tha' year. I n a d d i t l c n . t h e r e was t h e i r e v i i a b l e l a s s o f some c a s e s b e c a u s e c e z t a i r q u ~ s t i o e sv e r e n o t s n s v e r l d . The 437, r e s u l t i n g f l n a l s a m p l e s i z e r a n g e s f x m 324 3 d e p e n d l n g o r t h e v a r i a b l e s i r c l u d s d i n a g i v e n t 3 b l e - Of t h e s e Cases, 26 p s r c e n t a r e f a m l l i e s i n v h i c b t h e husbacd i s a manual worker. K e g g E Z I ~V i o l e ~ c e . D a t a 03 h u s b a n d - u i f e v i o l e r c ? was -s e c u r z d f r o m on* of t h e c c u p l e ' s c h i l d r e n b e c a u s * o f (1) t h s d l f f l c u l t y Of d i r e c t l y O b s e r v i ~ gt h e o c c u r r e > r e o f v i s l e n t behavior bstveen spouses, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e more e x t r e m e forms: ( 2 ) t h e e t h i c a l p r o b l e m s e n t a i l e d Lr. d e v i s i ~ g a n e x p e r i n € n t a l s i t u a t i o ~ i n which v i o l e n t b e h a v i o r between h u s b a r d s and w i v e s c o u l d be p r e c i p i t a t e d ; and (3) t h e f e a r t h a t the strong cegatire senctians i n our sociery against t h e u : a c t i c ~ a n d EVSP t h e e d a i s s i o n o f v i o l e n c e would l e a d t o r e f u s a l s a n d / o r U n d e r r e p o r t i P o by h u s b e n d r a 2 3 wive=.

T h e v a l i d i t y o f i n t e r v i e w d a t a on f a m i l y p a t t p r r s is a l w a y s o p e n t o q u e s t i o n ones o n e g o s s b e y o n ? s u c h s n b j s c t s as 'he a g e s a r d s e x o f c h i l d r e n , a n d s o n ; rsseazchlrs f s s l t h a t t h i s p r o c e d u r e i s e v e n more g u s s : i o n a b l e when a c h i l d is t h e source of t h e data. Bowever. C a l o n i c o a n d Thomas ( 1 9 7 3 ) r o u n d t h a t c h i l d r e n caE p r e d i c t t h e i r p a r e n t s ' behavior under certax. cixums'arces slightly BPE~ a c c ~ r a t e l y t h a c t h e l r p e r e n t s c a r of c n e a n o t h e r . They a t t r i b u t e d t h f i~r d i n g t o t h e f a m i l i a r i t y c f t h e c h i l d r e c with the11 p a r e r t s q p a s t behevior. Bahr, 39vcrmar, axd Gecas (1974) f o u r d t h a t a d o l e s c e n t s a c r o s s v a r i o u s a g e categcri9s vere quite consistent i n reporting t h ? i r parents' behavior. T h e y s u g g e s t ' h a t it would be e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o r p a r m t s t o hide t h r i r behavior f r o a adolescent children R more comp:ehsnsive o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d of t i m e . e x a w i t b t i o r of t b l s i s s ~ 9 , t o g e t h z r w i t h d a t a 3 2 t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e v i a l e r c e measure used i n t h i s paper. is g l r e n i n E u l c r a f t and S t r a u s (1975). T h a t e r a l y s i s shows a h i g h d e g r e e o f agreamect between s t u d e n t reports of B d a t 2 p r o v i d o d i n d e p s n d ? n t l y by t h e h u s b a n d - w i f e V ~ O ~ E L C aPd spouses themselren.

Ch.12.

R e s o u r c e s a n d power

Pa3e 192

The s p e c l f i c t e c h n i q u e used t o measur? physical v i o l e P C e 1s t h e V i o l e n c e s c a l e o f t h e f a m i l y C p g f l l ~ T z c t i c s S c a l e s (cTs) i n s t r u m e n t ( S t r a u s . 1974a:15; 1979). I n this t s c h r l g u e . t h e r e s p o n d s n t i s f i r s t a s k e d t o i d s c ! i f y t h e major s o u r c e s of d i s a g r e e m e n t and c o n f l i c t d u r i n g t h e r e f e r e n t year. P o l l a v i r g t h i s , a s e r i e s of q u e s t i o n s a r e asked concercicg partner's responses t o c o n f l i c t s 3urirg t h a t year. T h e s e q n e s t i ~ ~ asr e a r r a n g e d i n g r a d u a l l y i n c r e z s i C g o r d e r o f c o e r c i v e n e s s of r e s p o c s e s , bPgir.ning with d i s c ~ s s i ~ tgh i n g s c a l m l y , a n d ? n d i c g w i t h h i t t i n g t h e o t h e r p e r s o n ~ i t hs o w e t h i P g h a r d .

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T h e V i o l e n c e i n d e x c c n s i s t s of t h e f i n a l f i r e i t e m s . E c o ~ p 1 e t . e l i s t o f t h e CTS q u e s t i o n s i s g i v a r i n S t r a u s (1974a: 1979). togsther with data cn ths ini~rna consistency r s l i a b i l i t y o f each index. Validity data e r e q i v e n i c B u l c r o f t a n d S t r a u s (1975).*4 p x g r neasurg. The c n n c e p t u a l l z a t i s c a r d measurement o f c c n j u g a l p o w e r h a s p o s e d many d i f f i c u l t i s s , a s a v i d a n c e d by s e v e r a l c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s (Cromwell and Olson, 1975; R ~ e r , 1963: Olson, 1969: Olson and Rabunsky, 1972; S a f i l l o s - R o t h s c h i l d . 1970: and Turk and B a l l . 1972). Our d ~ f l n i t i o n 1s s x p l a i n e d i n S t r a u s , 1977 and S t r a u s and Ta11m2n. 1971. The s p e c i f i c n % a s u r s used i n t h i s chap:=r is t h e D e c i s i o r Power I n d e x o f E l c o d e n d WYlfe (196D).*5

Rlthoogh i t h a s been widely c r i t i c i z e d ( i n p a r t because i t i s t h e most w i d e l y u s e d m e a s u r e ) . B l o o d a n d w ? l f e ' s measure seemed b e s t s u l t e d t o t h i s r e s o 3 r c h f n r the f o l l o v r r g reasocs: (1) It u s e s a c o n v e n i e n t l i s t of i n d i c a t o r s i n w h i c h power l s t h e o r e t i c e l l y m o s t l i k e l y e e i d e ~ t - - w h o h a s t h r f i n a l s + y i n i m p o r t e n t 2nd t y p i c a l f a m i l y d e ~ i s i o n s . ( 2 ) I t s w i d e U S E in t h e p a s t d s c a d e 2 n d a (3) The h a l t p ? r m i t s c o e p 2 r i s c n w i t h many p r e v i o u s s + u d i = s . many c o r r e l a t e s o f p a v e r a s m e a s u r e d by t h i s s ~ r i o d p r o v i d e v h a t is, i r sftect, " c c r : s t r u c t v a l i d a t i c n " a v ~ d e n c a , a n d a r e c e n t p a p e r by S t r a u s ( 1 9 7 7 ) provides eutdence of concurrent validity. ( 4 ) R e s e a r c h on power l o tilniliss t.35 i n c r ~ z s i n g l yd e m o n s t r a t e d t h e a u l t i d l m e n s i o r . a l n n t u r e o f t h e CCP.COPI..

The t h e c r y b F i r g t e s + e d r e q u i r a s a m f e s u r e r e s 7 r i c t e d t o what C r o m w e l l a n d O l s o n ( 1 9 7 5 ) c a l l r h e " p a v e r OutcYnes" dteenslon. This, of course, deliberately onits othcr c r u c i a l d i m e r s i o r s s u c h a s t h o p r o c e s s e s by which d e c i s i o n s a r e reached. A l t h o u g h f o r c o n v e n i e n c e i n e x p o s i t i 2 r ws f o l l o w t h s c o l v e n t i o n o f u s i n g t h e word eaE.ez Esr t h e p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t m e a s u r e d , f h e r e a d e r m u s t b e a r i n micd t h a t t h i s a s s r e f e r s O n l y t o who makes c e r t a i n som:vhat arbitrarily s e l e c t e d d e c ~ s i o n s . I n p a r t i c u l a r . t t e n e % s u r e e x p l i c i t l y e x c l u d e s v h a t French and R a r e r (1959) c a l l t h e " b a s i s " of power, s u c h a s " r e w a r d power" (the ability t o p r o v i d ? r e w a r d s b e c a u s e o f c o c t r o l of m n € y o r 02h?r v a l u e d g o o a s sr s e r v i c e s ) . " e x p e r t p o s e r v 8 b a s e d o n p s r c e p t i c c cf

s u p e r i o r knowledge, exc. 4 ' p o w e r ourcome" t y p ? m e a s u i - was c e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e :he t h e o r y b-in? tested cnrcerns tho r e l a t i o C S h i p S between c s r ' a i r of French and Raven's "basas" of power ( w h i c h we p r e f e r - 3 i d e n ' i f y a s w r e s o u r c = s n ) and pOW4X outcomes, i n t h e s e r ~ s e of who makes c r i t i c a l d~cisions. S i n c e t h e Flood and Uolfe t e c h n i q u e examines a n s w e r s t h a t i n d i c a t e "who h a s t h l f i n a l s a y " i n r e s p e c t t o t h c s i x 6 e ~ l S 1 0 n ~a.n d s i r c e t h e m e a s u r e i s s c o r e d s o t h a t h i g h s c o r e s show t h a t ? h ~b a l a r c e o f p o u e ? i s o r t h - . s i d e 3 f t h e h u s b a n d a n d l o v s c o r e s shcv t h a t t h e xi*? h i s r ~ l s t i v e l y more d e c i s i o c p o w e r , up w i l l s o s e t i m e s u s e t h e t e r n " F i n a l S a y Power I n d e x " o r V e l a t i v 1 Powei I n d e x ' ?a i d s n t i f y t h i s instrument.

-

f l e a-s u-r e-. -ReSOUrCE - --

POT e a c h S ~ J U S F , a2 Rbsalute Index and a R ? l a t i v e R E s c u r c a I n d e x %#?re c ~ n s t z ~ c l e d . T h e B b s o l u t e R e s o u r c e I n d z x c a n s i s t s of the snm o f f o u r i t e m s r e f e r r i r q t o 2san_ogir Ezes;ao conf=rr_&r,g c h a r a c ? e r i s t i c s ( e d u c a t i o n , o c c u p a t i n . incams. s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h income) and f o u r i t e m s r e f s r r i n g t o v a l u e a (high self-esteem, achievement ori-nts'ion r , ~ ~ ~ g g'~_Q+;s && The former c e c be and soc1ab;llty. ard l c v anxisiy). t h o u g h t o f a s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o what 3 1 a u ( 3 9 h u : Z O - 2 2 ) would c a l l ' m ~ x t r i n s i c ' zr e s o u r c e s , and t h e l a t t - z e s "hat h e i d e n t i f i e s as "intrznsic" resources. A parallel P-lntivs Re50DTC9 I n d e x v a s a l s o c o m p u t e d f o r F 2 C h Sp3U5EI by f i r s t calculating t h e e x t e n ? t o w h i c h a p a z i i c u l a r J ~ U S P h2a E h L g t e r s c o r e on e a c h r 2 5 o n r c ~a n d t h s n sumnic.g ?ktf p o s i t i v e scores.*6 RBSOUICE

P O U F P AND V I O L E N C E

The m o s t e l e m s n t a r y e m p i r i c a l d a t a o r t h e i s s u s o f t h i s p a p s r is t h e c o r r e l a t i o n O p t v e e r t h e b a l a r c e o f power i n t h e r a m l l y ( + s m e a s u r e d b y o u r v e r s i l r . o f t h e 31036 a n a W>lf= '*Decision Power Index") a c 3 :he f r e q u e n c y 3E p h y s i c a l v i o l e w e bezwsen s p c u s e s . Howerer, a s was e x p l a i ~ r ai~ t h e iniroductior, a r d a s w e n o r e agai3. b o l o v , s n c h c o r r e l + ' i o n s a r e n o t an a d e g u a t e ?@s% of u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e ' h a c r y b - c a u s e t h e y do c o t t a k e ~ n - o account t h s r e s o o r c s s t h ? i g i v e lfgiCloicy t o each ac"orTs pcvfr positioc. Neverthelass, t h s S 4 s i m p l e ~ o ~ r ~ l a t i oare n s a ~ 2 p p r o p r i a t e p o i ~ ia ? w h i c h to b a g i n t h e d a t a a n e l y s l s , i r f o r co a t h f r r s a s o n t h a t t o demonsfrate t h e i r inadaquacy.

Ch.12.

ResO~rce6and Power

Page 19I1

T ~ E uppe; arrow of Figure 1 give5 the orr re let ions between the relative p o w 7 index acd t h s us? of violence by tho total sznplr, by the working class par? 3 f +t.e sample, and by fhe mlddle cless part o f th; sample. The ~ o r r e l a t i o ?betweer ~ the Re1er:vs Power Irdox and the wife's violenc~are s h o w in the lover arrow. In gecsrsl, Figure 1 6hox5 C P ~ Ylow and variable correlations between pcusr and violence. However. to the extext that Cocclusions can be drawn, Flguze 1 suggests that in the middle class. ch=re is ro relationship betweer relative power and t h e PASbBgCP VIOI~PCF, but a5 Lhe husband's paver increases, i& x:EQL~ violence decreases (-.16). The pattern is reverse* t 3 r ?he vorklng class, "here there is a slight tendency E l r the husbz~d's Violexce to increase as his power incr~asCS. but nc relatiocship is shown between his porsr and violence. The pattern for the Latal sample is 'he same as i h c p3ttern to= ?he middle class, largely because the preponaersnce of Case5 are middle class (75 to 80 percent, depending 2n the variables ic a qiven set of tabulations).*7

c h . 1 ~ . Resources and Power

P a g e 195

Ch.12.

R e s o u r c e s a n d Power

P a g e 196

RFSOURCZS P W D POWER g&gcs9= R 9 s o u r c ~ s - P a r ? A o f F i g u r e 2 s h o w s t h a t fcr a l l S a B p l s s , a s t h e h u s b 2 x d l s r e c a u r c s r i c c r e a s e , t h ~ r ?i s a t e c d s n c y f o r h i s p o u e r t o i n c r e a s e (r = 0 . 1 9 ) . Eaealy any r e l a t l o r i s s e e p b e t w e e n Che vifglj r e s c u r c s s a n d t h e 30% t o t h e extPct - h i t z b a l a n c s o f power i n ? h e f a m i l y . re1a':lonship e x l s t s , t h e n e g z t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s s u g g e s t %he o t h e r s i d = o f t h e c o i n shoun by t h e f i x d i n g s f o r t h e husband: t h a t is, t h e n o r e t h e w i f e ' s r e s o u x c r s t h a l e s s t h e hUSband'5 POWET.

--------

P f l a t i v s ----Resources. C o r r r l a t i o r s betwesn r$&gd&lg r e s O U r C e s a x 6 t h e h u s b a n d * ~b a l a n c e of p o u e r a r e g i v s r i n Par': B o t F;gure 2. These c o r r e l a ? i o n s r r v e a l t h s same p a t t e r n a s was t o u n d f a r a b s o l u t e r e s o u r c e s € x c ? p t Z h 3 t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e l a r g e r ( s n a v e r a g e of 7 3 p e r c s n t g r e a t e r ) . T h e r 9 t o r e C h e s e d a t a show t h a t b a t h a b s o l u t e a n d r e l a t i v e ~ E S O U T C ~ Sa f f e c t t t . ~ b a l a l c e cf powzr i n fhe f i m i l i e s studied. Acuever, Evan w i t h i n t h e c o > t = x t o f t h e l o r c c r r e l a t i c r s t h a t o r e E X P F C ~ S i n a n a l y s a s o f a s r ~ g l ec a u s a l factor, o c l y t h s h u s b a c d . s r e l a t i v e r e s o u r c e s se?m t o h a v s a subs:znti+l r e l a t i o ~ a h i p t o who h a s the final say. F ~ r t h ~ r m o z e .f o r b o t h h u s b a n d s s c d w i v e s . t h e c c r r + l a t i o n b e t w e e n r e s o u r c e s a n d power i s s t i o n g e r ~ L t h i c t h e w o r k i n g Class t h a r u l + h i n t h e middle c l a s s p a r t of +ha ssnple. Despite i h e s i qualifications, t h s c o r r e l a t i o n s il e a c h sample, f o r b o t h h u s b a ~ a sa n d w i v e s , and f o r b 3 t h t y p e s o f r e s o n r c e s . a r e i r t h e same d i r e c t i o n a s T h a t p r e d i c t P d by t h e r e s o u r c e theary.*8 TAEORIES OF RESOUSCES A N D VIOLElCF n p t o :his p o i n t v e h a v e shown o n l y a u s ~ ka n d = r r a r i c r E l a t = O ~ . ~ h ~b ep t w e e p n o l s n c e a r d t.h? h a l a r c ? o f p a v e r i n family decisloni. We s u g g e s i e d t h a t t h ? s i n p l e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n p o w e r B S ~ v i o l e n c e f a l l s '0 ~ a k ei n t o i c c o o a t t h e dimension o f legitimacy ;r, e x e r c i s i n g power. i n a modern ~ n d u s r a a l s o c l e t y , a s i n aosz o t h e r s o c i e t i e s , p o u s r i s u s u a l i y a s c r i b e d '0 t h s h u s b a n d . But t h e h u s b a n d mus? a l s o p o s s s s s t h e p e r s c c a l a l d m a c e r i a l r;souzces t h a t a r 3 v a l u e d i n such a s o c l e t y . I n s h o r t , i t was a r q u ~ dt h a t d s s p i < - t h e n c r m a r i v s a s s u n p t i c n t h a t t h e h u b a n d w i l l he t h e f a s i l y leader, t h i s s t a t u s must h e v a l i d a t e d by m=irs of apprap2iat.e rescurces. T h e r e f o : ~ , p a g e r i ~ vd i o l e n ~ ew i l l h c r e l a t e d o n l y i t t h e e x e r c l s e o f power i s i l l s y i t i a a i e . A s a f i r s t s t e p i n t e s t i n g t h i s nore s p e c i t i c thsory of t h e relation b e t v e e r power a n d v i o l e n c e , racail :ha? t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n shoved r e s o u r c e s t o be c o r z a l a t r d w i t h power; t h a t is, o r + h e a v e r a g e , husbards ~ x r r c i s i r g s ~ p 9 r i o rpower h a v e v a l l d a i s d t h i s p s s i t i o n b y s u p e r i o r

ch.12.

Resanrces and power

P a g E 197

Cb.12.

R e s o u r c e s a n d Power

Page 198

a b s o l u t e Resources. The c o r r e l a t i o n s i r t h e t o p l i n e show t h a t ? h e g r e a t e r t h e h u s b a n d ' s o f F i g u r e 3, p a r t A, a b s c l u t e r e s o u r c e s . t h e less h i s u s e of p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e . F o r wives, t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s shown i n t h e l o w e r a r r o w o f p a r t A a r e s m a l l b u t i n ? h e same d i r e c t i o n 3s t h o s e f o r husbands: t h e g r e a t E r h e r a b s o 1 n t e ~ e s o u r c e s ,tb.e l e s s h e r violence. For both spouses, but especially for th? husbands. t h e correlations are stronger for the wrklng c l a s s t h a n f o r r h a middle c l a s s . T u r n i n g t o t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s between husband's r e s o u z c e s a n d t h e life15 v i c l e r c e , t h e u p p e r d i a g o n a l a r r o w of p a r ? P i n d i c a t e s t h e same t r e c d : a s ?he husband's absolute resOurcEs i n c r e a s e , t h e wife's v i o l e n c e decreases. This same t e n d e c c y i s e v l d e n t from t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s o f w i f e ' s r ~ s o u c c e s w i t h 'he husband's violence, except t h 3 t t h e c c r r e l a t i o n s . although a l l negative, a r e a l s o a11 near z e r o iT m a g n i t u d e . It a p p e a r s from t h e s e d a t a t h s t t h e h u s b a n d ' s a b s o l u t e r e s o u r c e s a r e more r e l e t e d t o t h s w i f a ' s ana h i s own v i o l e n c e , t h a n t h e w i f e ' s a b s o l u t e r e s o u r c e s a r e r e l a t e d t o h e r h u s b a n d ' s ard h e r cwn v i o l e n c e .

--

R e l a t i v e Resources. A t f i r s t g l a n c e it s e e m s a s t h o n g ~ h p a r t B o f F i g u r e 3 shows c n l y low a n d e r r a t i c r e l a t < o r . s h i p s . TO a c e r t a i n e x t e n t . t h i s i s c o r r e c t . a o u a v l r , p a r t of w h a t seems a t f i r s t t o be e r r a t i c v a r i a t i o n s t u r h o u t t o be t h e o r - t i c a l l y meanirgful r e v e r s a l s i n t h e "sign" of t h e correlations. Let's begin w i t h t h e t o p arrow. T h i s shows e s s e n t i a l l y P O r e l a t i o n s h i p b ~ t v e et h~e e x C e n t t o which t h s husband's r e s o u r c e s e x c e e d t h o s e o t h i s =if€ icl h i s ues o f physical violence. However, t h e b o t t o m a r r o w s h 3 u s a s l i g h t t e n d e n c y t o r s p z whose r e s o u r c e s e x c e e d t h o s e of t h e i r hnsbands t o use physical violence. Although these WE suggest t h a t they indicate correlations are low, rebctions t o a situation t h a t goes against t h e leaaership norms i n A e e r i c a r s o c i e t y . Turning t o t h e r e l a t i o n of each s p o u s e ' s r e l a t i v e r e s o u r c e s t o t h e v i o l e n c e qf q:&x, f o r h u s b a n a s , we find again t h a t t t e r c is little relationship. Bowever, for wives, t h e l o w e r d i a g o n a l a r r s w shows t h a t t h e more h e r r e s o u r c e s e x c e e d t h o s e o f h e r husband, the greater violence. Our i c t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s f i n a i n g i s t h s t t h e c o u n t e r n o r m a t i v e S i t u a t i o n of a xire having greater r e s o u r c e s t h a n h e r husband is a s s o c i a t e 3 with g r e a t e r r l o l e n c e on t h e par' o f b o t h s p o u s e s . b u t e s p e c i a l l y by t h e h u s b a n d whose a s c r i b e d p o s i t i o n i s b e i n g threa$en;d. Ln o t h e r words, t h e f i n d i n g r e f l e c t s e f f o r t s b y w i v e s t o a s s e r t power on t h e b a s i s o f h a v i n g s u p e r i o r r e s o u r c e s , i c t h e m i s t a k e n b e l i e f t h a t s u c h s u p e r i o r i t y i n r e s o u r c e s makes e q u a l o r s u p e r i o r pow=c legitimate. T h i s i s a r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n i n view o f t h e r e q u i r e m e c t t h a t husbands v a l i d a t e t h e i r a s c r i b e d s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n by a p p r o p r i a t e s u p e r i o r i t y i n resources. S u t a s c o u n t l e s s women h a r e discovered. s o c i r t y s t a c k s t h e c a r d s a g a i n s t them by

Ch.12.

RasO%nces

and Pouer

P a g e 199

c r e a t i n g a d u a l s e t of r a g 0i r e m e 1 Satisty: t o e x e r c i s e 1s, g i t i m t f a m i l y , o n e must b o t h h a v e s u p e r : O b v i o u s l y o n l y husbands can meet BESOUPCES B N D T E E LEGITIMlCY OF POVEB llthaugh t h e f i r d i n g s i n t h e precsdicg three sections a r e i n t e r e s t i n g in t h e i r own r i g h t , t h e y w e r e p r ? s e n t r d p r i m a r i l y 70 l a y t h r groundwork f o r a a x e s p e c i f i c t e s t o f t h e t w o main h y p o t h e s e s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e u l t i m s t e r s s s u r c e theory. S p e c i f i c a l l y , i n en i c d i v i d u a l - a c h i e v e m a r t o r i e n t e d SCCiEXY such 15 t h e United S t a t e s , t h e p a t t e r n of rormativsly prescribed male family leaaership that c h a r a c t e r r z e s s o many s o c i e t i e s i s s u p p l e a s n ' s d by ths f o r t h e r r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t t h e husband deaons're%r his e l i g i b i l i t y t o occupy a l s a d s r s h i p p 3 s i t i g r i n p o s r z s s i c q v a l u e d p e r s o n a l c h a r e c t f r i s t i c s and p r o v i d i n g ecocomic goods. I f he d o e s n o t , t h e n t h e l e g i t i n a c y o f h i s p o v r r is undermined. under these circunstacces, w e suggest, aale POW47 w i l l be asSOCia?ed w i t h v i o l e n c e .

ch.12.

Resources and

over

P s g e 200

Th4 f i n d i n g s can b e s u m m a r i z e d u n d e r t w o h s a d i c g s : e high resource group and a low r e s o u r c e g r a u p - f l 0 C c r r e l a t i o n s between P O Y I ~ and v i o l e c c e v e r e t h s c computed w i t h i n each of t h e r e s o u r c e groups. T h i s p r o c P s s was repeated f o r each of
O v e r a l l . t o s u m m a r i z s t h e da'l or. husband's Tielrnc2 shown i n t h e l e f t c o l u m r s o f T a b l e 1 , it s e s u s a s :bough L r t h e middle Cle.55. v i o l e n c e 1s n o t a s s o c i i t e d ~ i t h m a l e pcuer. T h z s i s e l s o t r u e f o r t h c s e w o r k i n g c l a s s m?n who 219 h l g h i n r e s o u r c e s . But f o r v o r k i n g c l a s s r . w h 3 a r e ~ C Y i~ r e s o u r c e s maintaining a superior p v e r position is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e US% o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e . Takinq i n t o accouxt t h e ~ ~ S C U Z C B Sa t t h e wife a c e s n o t a l t e r t h e s e c c n c l u s i m s t o r t h e middle class. But f a r t h e u s r k i n g class. i n e a c h o f t h s w i f e r e s o u r c e g r o u p s , a smsll b u t c o x ~ i s t e n tt e n d e n c y e x i s t s f o r m a l e power t o b e a s s s c i a t e f l ~ i t b h ale violence.

n i t . ? % V:C~EFCE. T h e r i g h t p a n e l 3f T a b l e 1 s h o w s + h ? c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t u s e n t h e d y a d i c b a l a n c e o f p J w n r z r d "ha frequer.cy w i t h which & p ~ use physical vislonc?. These c o r r e l a t i o n s v e r e a l s o computed f o r e x p l o r a t o r y p u r p a s e s . s l r c e we d l d r o t f o r m u l a t e a n y s p e c i f i c h y p o t h e s e s r s g z r d i P . 5 t h 9 way l o w v e r s u s h i g h r e s o u r c e s e i g h t a f f e c t t h e r = l a t l o n o f power t o v i o l e r c e o n t h o p a r t o f wivps.

Ch.12.

Resources and Pover

~

a 2 g0 1 ~

w i t h i n t h e m i d d l E c l a s s ( t o p f o u r c o r r e l a t i s n s ir. th. r i g h t p a n e l ) t h e r e g e c i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s s h c v t h a t t h s more t h e b a l a n c e o f power i s i n f a v o r o f t h e h u s b s n d , ?he l e s s t h e wife's violence. T h i s t e r d a r c y i s p r e s e n t b a t h whe? t h e h u s b a n a ' 5 X E S O U r C E 5 a r e h i g h a n d when t h e y 2 r E l o w s b u t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n is s t r o ~ g e 1 i n t h e l a t t e r case. Withir t h e ~ o r k l n gC l a s s p a r t o f t h e s a m p l e , ContrDllLng f a r t h e 3usbaod's r e s o u r c e s (second block o f f o u r c o r r e l a t l o c s i n t h e r i g h t p a n e l o f T a b l e 1 ) p r o d u c e s a much more c o i n p l i c a f e d set o f c o r r s l a t i c r s : Wher t h e h u s b a n d ' s r s s a u r c e s ir= h i g h , t h e r e i s a s l i g h t t e c d e r c y f o r h i g h husband p>wsr t o h e a s s o c i a T e d u:th low x i r e r i o l s n c s ( a s i r t h a f i n d i n g s f o r class)But when t h e husband's absalate t h e m:ddle g r e a t e r h l s p o w e r * t L e maze ~ P resOUICES a r e l o w , rF.en "he u l o l e r c e ( r =0.31). Both t h e s e f i r d i n g s , and e s p e c i a l l y t h e difrer2nca b e t w e e n t h e C o r r e l a t i o n s f o r low a n d h i g h r E 5 0 U r C O husbandsv a r e c o n s i s t f x t with t h e theory t h a t s p ~ c z t i e s t h a t v i o l e n c e w i l l o c c u r when h u s b a n d s u h 3 l a c k t h e ~ P S O U ~ C S Et o legitimize t h e i r a s c r i b e d power t r y t o E X ~ T C L S E t h a t power. On t h e o t h e r h a n d . we h a v e n o ? a s y e t f o r m ~ l a t e da n y s a t i s f a c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n t o r t h e f i n d i n g t h a t v h e c t h e c c n t r o l f o r r e s o u r c e s i s on t h e b 2 5 i 6 o f t h e rf&=$hpg E g e r s s o f h u s b a n d znd v i f e , t h e c o r r s l a t i a n s a y e Pear zero, e v e s t h o u g h t h e y show t h e s a m e s h i f t f r o m n e g a t i v e f o r t h e h i g h r e s c u r c e g r o u p t o p o s i t i v s f o r ? h ? low r e s o o r c o group. T h e t w o r i g h t c o l u m n s i n P+rt B of T a b l ~7 shsw t h s c c r r e l a t i o n s b e f w e e c t h e h w s b a ~ d ' s p o z e r i ~ 5dt e W L ~ S ' S violence V ~ E Pc o r t r o l s a r e introduced f o r t h e wife's l e v e l c f resou:cE+. The a i d d l ? c l s s s blnck cf f 2 u r c o r r e l a t i o r s shows a p a t t e r n s l m i l a r t c t h a t t o u r d wher ?he c c r t r C L was on t h e b a s i s o r f h e h u s b a n d ' s r e s o o r c e s : c s m e l y , f 3 r 211 r e s O n r c e groups1 t h e n o r e t h e Lusbz?d's p3vsz. * k C less v i o l e n c e o n t h e p a r t c 2 ?he w i f e . eut "he? we l o 3 k a t t h e 125: f o u r c o r r e l a t i o n s i n t h e lowe: r i g h t c o r r a r o f T a b l e 1 , still a d:fterent pattern i s r?vealed. Firs:. the C C r r e l a t i o P s a r s a l l v e r y low. Aouevsr, t h e p a t t p r n of whan t h 5 w i v e s t t e s e c o r r s l a t i o c s tits o u r t h e o r y exactly: a r e h l g h i n resources. h i g h power on % h e par: 3f t h e h u s b a n d 1s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a t e z d e c c y t o w a r d s o i o l a n c a on i h s p a r t o f t h e w i f e - - p o r h + p s a s a means o f r s s i s t i n g msls a o s i n a c c e o r t h e p a r t o f uoner. whose r e s o u r c e s l e a d t h s m t o ' 3 9 s i r e a g r e a t e r s h a r e of t h e pover. Conversely, whec r e s o u r c n s are low, h i g h p c v n r o n t h s p a r - of t h e h u s b a r d i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l e s s ~ i o l f n ca n~ t h e par: o f h i s wife (althouah +hs ~ e g a t z v e c o r ~ f l e t i o n ~h e t w e e n m a l e power a n d t h s w i f e ' s v i o l e n c e a r e low). we c a r s p e c u l a t e t h ~ t t h i s c o r r s l a t i o n represents an a c c e p t a n c e o f t h t~r a d i t i o n a l f a m i l y power h l E r a r C h y a n t h e p a r t of women who l a c k t h e r e s o u r c e s t o c l a i a greater equality. O v e r a l l , t h e d a t e o n v i o l e n c e i n i t i a t e d by w i v e s a r e l i k e t h o s e f o r male violancn. I n both inst2ncas. thz d a t a a x e c o n s i s + ~ r tw i t h t h e ~ O B O U ~ C Et h e o r y o n l y v i t h i o t h e

T

Ch.lZ.

Rescurces and Pouer

PagP 202

working c l a s s p a r t o r t h e sample. S p e c i f i c a l l y , when t h e h u s b a c d ' s r s s c a f c e s a r n h i g h , h i g h m a l e p o v e r i s n o + n e t by v i o l e n c e o n t h e p a r t of t h e w i f e ; whereas i f t h e husband's I E S O U Z C E S a r e l o w , m a l e power t e x a s t c b e met by f e m a l e ViolOLCe. T h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e c o i n i s shout xhen t h e wife's resources a r e conirolled, but t h e correlations i r e a l l v e r y low. Nevertheless, ve icterpret the positive c o r r s l a t i o n b e t w e e n malv p a v e r a n d w i f e ' s violence a s r e f l e c t i n g r e s i s t a n c e t o m a l e d o m i n a t i o n on t h e p s r t o f working c l a s s w i v f s v i t h high r e s o u r c e s , and t h e low n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s a s r e f l e c t i n g a c c e p t a n c e s f male d o a l n a n c e o n t h e p a r t o f w o r k i n g c l a s s w i v e s v i t h low reSOUrCOS~

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SUnflRRY B N D CONCLUSIONS T h e r e s e a r c h p r e s e c t s d i n t h i s p a p e r vis d e s i g n e d t c e x p l o r e two c l o s ~ l y r e l a t e d i s s u e s c o r c e r n i n g p h y s i c a l Violence i n marriage. The f i r s t o f t h e s e i s s u e s is t h e e x t e n t t o vhich t h e use c f physlcal force i s associated v i t h t h e m a i c t e n a n c e o f male dcminance i n t h a f a m i l y . The s s c o n d i s s u e i s a t e s t o f - h e i d e a t h a t h u s b a n d s who l a c k c e r t a i n valued p e r s o r a l t r a i t s and m a t e r m 1 p o s s e s s i s r s ( c a l l e d "resources") tecd t c substitute physical violencs t o T o g e t h e r ;hsse two mzintain a poslrlon of superiority. i d e a s f o r m t h s c o r e a f w h a t ve c a l l t h e " u l t i m s t e r s s o u r c e t h e o r y " of i n t r a f a m i l y violence. S i n c e t h i s is c r c s s - s e c t i o r a l ressarch, 'he causal relatiocships inherent i n t h e ultins'e rcsource theory c a n n o t b e t e s t e d i n a n y d e f i n i t i v e way. R a t h e r , we c o a p u t e a c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t v e e n pcvs: +Ed v'ole2ce a 7 d s i m u 1 5 3 ~ ? 3 u s l y of h e l d c o n s t a n t c e r t a i n o t n e r v a r i a b l a s as + m n a c s discovering i f t h e r e s u l t i n g patrern of r a l a t l c c s h i p s zccords with t h e idea t h a i violence is the ultimate resource u n d e r l y i n g male dcminance i n l m e r i c a h f a m i l i e s . The r e s u l t i n g corralations were uenerelly low. Therefore. w h a t c o n r i d e r c e c r e c a n h a v e ic t h e s e r e s u l t s d e r i v e s t r o m t h e c a n s i s t e r c y v i t h v h i c h we f o u n d p a t t e r c s 3f p o s i t l r e and n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s concordsnt w i t h t h e t h e o r y , and a l s o from t h e f a c t t k t t h e l a r g s s t c o r r = l i t i o ? . s (0.49 a n d 0.31) were found f o r t h o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d t h e most c r u c i a l t e s t of r h e theory. With t h e s e qualifications i n mind, t h e f i n d i n g s caa b e suamarizcd a s fellows: 1. L l t t l e

o r co r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s betveen the b a l a n c e of p o w e r a n d t h e u s e 3 f v i o l e n c e by e i t h e r This f i r d l s g is consistect with t h e ultimate t h e o r y i n t h a t t h e t h e o r y s p e c i f i e s t h a t male dominants w i l l l e a d t o u l c l s n c e o n l y i f t h e husband c a n n o t legitimize his SUperior p ~ e r position throuqh t h e conjugal spouse. resource

ch.11.

P P S O U ~ C BaSn d Power

possession

o f va1:dstlng

P a g e 203

resources.

2. T h e g r e a t e r t h e h u s b a n d ' s r s s o u r c e s , the less his of p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e . Similirly, ths greater the v ~ f e ' s Thes2 findir!gs a r e r e s o u r c e s , t h e less h e r u s e o f v i o l e n c e . consistent with the ultimata resource theory i c t h a t they s u g g e s t t h a t t h o s e who c a r c a l l on r e s o u r c e s t h a t do n o t h a v e t h e c o s t l y s i d e e f f e c t s of violent= "ill u s e l e s s vrolence. USE

3. s u p e r i o r l ? y i n r e s o u r c e s cqdgf&~p f & peegap Was a l s o examined f a r p o s s i b l e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h v i o l e n c e . This a r a l y s i s r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e E x t e r t t o which a husband's r.e s.o . u n~ c e nc nc ee d~ t h os e of h i e wife has l i t t l e o r no r = l a t i o n t o v i o l e n c e bp e i t h e r s p o u s e . R o r e v e r , t h e s o r e t h e ghfplp r r-s-o o r c s s sXceFd t h o s e c f h e r h u s b a n d . t h e r o r e l i k e l y Che h n- s b a r d 1s to h a v e u s e d o h v s i c a l f o r c e d u r i n o t h e r s f e r e n ' year. These f i n d i n g s s u g g s r t h a t t h e w i f e ' s poss?ssion o f SUpEr1OT r e s o u r c e s c a n u n d s r m i n e t h e a b i l i t y of the hasband's resources t o v a l i d a t e superior poif~r, t h u s l ~ a d i n g to t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n of 2 r e s o u r c e i n which w i v e s c e n r a r e l y b e s ~ p e ~ l tc or t h e l r h u s b a n d s : physical ViolencJ. ~~~~~~~

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4 . Finally, t h e s p e c i f i c hypothesss derivea frne the u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e t h e o r y p r e d i c t e d a t e n d e n c y f o r male p o w e r t o b e a s s a c i a t e d w i t h v i o l e n c e o n l p when t h * h u s b a c d l a c k s validating resources. R? found t h i s h y p o t h e s i s t r u e , b u t o n l y t o r working c l a s s husbands. Po: husbanls higt i n TFSDU~CES. a s p r ~ d i c t ~ d t, h e r e was n o c o r r e l a t i o n b ? t v e e n power a n d u s e o f v i o l e n c e . But f o r t h o s e v o r k i c g c l a s s husbands low i n r e s o u r c e s . t h e grea'er ?he h u s b a n d ' s p3uer. t h e more l i t e n h e u s p a p h y s i c a l f o r c e o n h i s s p o u s e i c s i t u a t i o n s o i conflic?.

5. I n a l m o s t a l l t h e a n a l y s e s r s p o r t - l i n t h i s p a p e z . e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e m o s t d i r e c t test o f t h e u l t i m a t e :ISOUTC~ f h e o r y summarized i n t h e p r e c e d i r g p s r a g r a p h . 'he c o r r e l a t i o l s were s t r o n g e r i n working c l a s s f a m i l i z s , o r sometimes p r e s e n t o n l y i n vorking c l a s s f a m i l i e s .

ard

what c o u l d a c c o u n t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e r e s c u r c e t h e o r y se?as t o a p p l y o n l y w i t h i n w o r k i n g c l a s s The f i r s ? i s f a m i l i e s ? TWO p o ~ s i b i l i t i e sccme io mind. b a s e d o n s o c i a l c l a s s d i f f e r e n c ~ si n mals a u t h o r i t y r o r a s a n d can be c a l l 9 6 t h e " m i d d l e c l a s s e q u a l i t a r i a n norms" explanation. The s f c o r d i s b a s e d o n c l a s s d i E f o r e n z e s i n class t y p e s of v i o l e n c e a n d c a n b e c a l l e d t h e " u o r k i n g instzumental violence" explanation.

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B r d d l e C l a s s ----? o v e r ----Aores. T h i s e x p l a n a r i o c lssumfs t h a t w l t h l r t h e middle c l a s s a s i g n i f i c a n t dsgree of s u p p o r t no l o n g e r e x i s t s t o r l o r m s t h a t g i v e s u p e r i o r a u t h o r i t y to husbacds. If t h i s is c o r r e c t , t h e n few m i d d l e c l a s s husbands w i l l a+tempt t o claim t h e triditional Bale authority. T h e r e f o r e , p h y s i c a l f a r c e i s not n e e d e a t9 b a c k

u p ac a s c r i b e d p o s i i l a l o f a u t h o r i t y i f t h e h u s b a n d l a c k s orher resources to validate h i s ascribed authortty. U ~ f o r t u n a t ~ lvs ~ . find t h i s explanation d i f f i c u l t t o iccept. b e c a n s e o u r p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n o f f a ~ i l i e s ,t n g e t h ? r w i t h much o t h e r e v i d e n c e ( B a h r , Bowerman, a n d G e c a s , 1 9 7 4 ; B l o o d and Yolfe, 1960; Kolb and S t r a u s , 1979; Scanzoni. 1970; Skolnick and Skolnick. 197Y: Chapter 6) s u g g e s t s t h a t despite Considerable l i p service t o sexual equality, the a c t u a l s t r u c t u r e of m i d d l e c l a s s f a m i l i e s r e m a i n s b a s i c a l l y male-dominant. R o r k i n q c l a s s I ~ s t r u a c g t a lx z ~ & g c = . T h i s e x p l a n i t i o n begins f r o m t h e a s s u m p f i o n t h a t what we h a v e c a l l e d n i n s t r u m e n t a l T i o l e r . c c * l ( S S P C h a p t e r 1. f o o t n o t e 2 ) i s more a c c e p t a b l e w i t h i n t h e working c l a s s , v h n r e t h e r e i s a c c n t i n u r n g t r a d l t i c n a l s a p h a s i s o n t h e 'macho17 o r 'he-man." By c o r t r a s t , t h e r e j e c t i o n o r w e a k n e s s o f s u c h n o r m s m a v a l u e s i n t h e m i d d l c c l a s s may l e a d m i d d l e c l a s s h u s b a n d s t o r e s t r i c t t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l u s e of v i o l e n c e t o a s i g n i f i c a n t degree. T h i s d o e s r o t mean t h a t p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e b e t w e e n There is, husband and w i f e i s a b s e n t i n t h e middle c l a s s . i n f a c t . 3 g r o w i n g body o f s v i d e r c s t h a t c o c j u g l l v i o l e n c e i s p a r t or t h e r e a l i t y o f A m e r i c a n s l d d l s c l a s s f a m i l y StrOCture. a l t h o u g h less f r e q u e n t t h a n i n t h e w o r k i n g Class.*ll But t h e Px3+ure o f t b . i s v i o l e n c e may b s d i f f e r s c t . I t n a y b e l a r g = l y w h a t we h a r e c c l l p d " e x p r e s s i s 2 v i ; l & n c e . " I n tact, t h e c u r r e n t popularity of "creative aggression," " c a t h a r s i s , " and t h e i d e a t h a t i t is h ? i l t h y f o r t h 3 i n d ~ o l d u a l a n d good f o r t h e m a r r i a g e t o " l e t i t a l l h a n g o u t . ' t e n d s t o legitimize e x p r e s s i v e v i o l e n c e a s s o m e t h i n g t h a t must b e go' o u t o f o n e ' s n y s + e n ( S + r a u s . 1 9 7 4 s ) . I f t h e foregoing i s c o r r e c t , ?her merit31 r i o l e n c e i n the a i d d l e c l a s s vould be p r i m a r i l y e x p r e s s i v e . u h r r s a s n a r i r a l vlOlQnce i n t h e wozkirg class would be primarily sirce this sxplanation of instrumental. Therefore. instrumental violence is t h e focus of the ultimate resource t h e o r y , It t o l l o ~ st h a t t h i s t h e o r y s h o u l d a p p l y o z l y w i t h i n t h e a0rk:P.g class. b e c a u s e f h a t is t h e ~ 1 2 ~i 5 w h i c h I n s t r u m e n t a l v i o l e n c e is presumed t o be t h e predominaat t y p e of v i o l e n c e . Unrortunatelp, t h i s second e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e f i r d l r g t h a t t h e ultimate resource theory a p p l i e s only i o t h e w o r k i n g class i s a l s o d i f f i c u l t t o a c c e p t b e c a u s e o u r personal impression is t h a t u h i l e t h e r e aa? bs l e s s instrumental violence ir middle c l a s s families, it i s f a r t r m Completely absent. Eoueorr, although n s i t h e r miadle C l a s s E q u a l i t a r i a n norms n o r working c l a s s i n a t r u w e n t a l v L o 1 e ~ c e by t h e m s e l v e s 50Em s u f f i c ~ z n t t o s x p l a i n t h s suppoft of t h e ultimate rfsoarce theory only f o r w?rkmg c l a s s t a m i l i e s , t h e c o m b i n e d ~ f f e c t so f c l a s s d i f f = r s r c e i n power n o r m s a n d i n r o r m s c o r . c e r n i n g i n s t r u m e n t a l v i o l e n c e n a y be s o f f i c i e r t . S p e c i f i c a l l y , b e c a u s e of t h e w e a k e n i n g

Ch.12.

R ~ S O U ~ C P S a n d Power

P3ge 205

c f male-dominar.ce n o r m s i n t h e m i d d l e c l a s s , a c h a l l e n g e t o 2 h u s b a n d ' s s u p e r i o r a u t h o r i t y may b e less o f a t h r e a t t o t h e i d e n t i t y and m a s c u l i n i t y of middle c l a s s husbands t h a n o f t h e working c l a s s husbands. B i d d l e c l a s s h u s b i r d s may b e a b l e t o a d a p t t o what t h e y f o r m e r l y p a i d l i p s s r v i c ? , and still r e t a i n t h e i r self-esteem. I f t h i s is the case. husbands i c t h e middle c l a s s have l e s s need t o d ? f a c & an + s c r i b e d p o s i t i o n of au-hority. In addition, t 3 ths exterr r?vsre t h a t i n s t r u a s n t a l v i o l w c s is s u b j e c t t o more l i m i t a t i o n s i n t h e m i d d l e c l a s s , it v i l l b e a h r g h e r " c o s t w r e s o u r c e b e c a u s e o f mcr4 x e g a t i v e s i d e e f f e c t s . Thsz~fore, 'h2 l E s S e r n e e d t o Use t h i s u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e c a n b i n p a w i t h t h e g r e a t s = c o s t o f u s i n g v i o l e n c e nay a c c o u n t f s r t h e tizding t h a t t h e ulfiaate resourcs theory ipplie3 orly w i t h i n t h s working c l a s s sample.

*we a r c i r d e b t e d t o J o h c 8. S c a n z o n i f o r comments c r i t l c i s m t h l t a i d e d i n t h e r e v i s i o n of t h i s p l p e r .

and

1. " R e s o u r c e t h e o r y w i s a specific instaccs of "exchange theory" (Fahr, 1974; Resr, 1963). I n excharge t h e rfasorrng just p r e s e n t e d 1s t h t t a c ?henry terms, i r d l v i d u a l w l l l a t t e n p t t o a b t e i n a d s s i r e d outcoms o r r e n a r d a t mlninum c o s t . Thus, i f one spouse d e s i r e s comp1:ance t r o n t h e o t h e r i n a p a r t i c u l a r eackange s e q u a c c l , t h e l e s s c o s t l y t h e u s e of t h e p a r t i c u l a z r e s o u r c s s o r v i n g a s a b a s l s f o r h i s power, t h e mo:e l i k e l y it i s t o be iPvoked, d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r s c ~ l y . Eovevsr, In t h s abscccE c f "minimum c o s t " ~ ~ S O U Z C ~ S i, t i s L R C B S E B Z Y + O I n v o k e more c o s t l y rBsourceS t o achieve a goal. T h s u s e o f v i o l e n c ? (as i l l e g i ? i n a t e r s s o u r c e ] t c r c l s g a n o t h e r t o comply v i t h o r e ' s r e q u e s t s i s p r o b a b l y much more c o s t l y t o +n i r . d i v i d u a l t h a n t h e USE o f mare l e g l t i m a t s r e s o u r c e s s u c h e s o c c u p a t l o r a l sta+us, prestige, educatioral attainmexts, personal attributes, etc., v h i c h e n r l c e t h e o t h e r t o c o l p l y woes VOluDtanily. 2. F o r e a s e o r c c m a u c r c a t i o r . f r o m t h i s p o i n t on, when t h e t e r m "'resources" i s used i t s h o u l d be t a k s n a s w a n i n g "valued m a t e r r a l p o s s e s s i o n s and p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s othe -r t h-a n- p h y s l c a l s f r e r g t h , " t h a t is, r e s o u r c e s o t h f r t h a n -+ h e a c t u a l o r p o t e c t i a l use o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e .

3. S l m i l a r i d e a s ~ + V E b e e n e x p r e s s e d many t i m e 5 b e f o r e and keep reemerging. For example, i n P a r s o n s ' 1947 s s s a y on " C e r t a i n e r i m a r y S o u r C P s a n d P a t t e r n s of R g g r e s s i o n i c t h e S o c 1 3 1 S t r u c t u r e o r t h e R e s t e r n w o r l d , " i n P o l l o n a y ' s eeYg= a n d I n r o c e r c e ( 1 9 7 2 1 , ir r e s e a r c h o n " l o c u s af c a r t r a l " --Rjelle, 1 9 7 3 ) , a n & i n van den s e r g h e (Goodstad? and (1974:778-787). analysis not only a s s e r t s t h e P2rsons'

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P a 3 e 206

basic proposition t h a t aggressive a c t s a r s carri?d out "...mare out of weakness and handicsp thar out of. ..strength," but a l s o mentions several of t h a f s c t o r s i n c l u d e d i n t h e measure o f i n d i v i d u a l r e s o u r c s s u s e l f o r this study. Sp2cificz11y. he d i s c u s s ~ s t h e u s s of a g g r e s s i o n as a node o f response t o a n x i e t y , arguir.9 t h a t t h e s e c u r e and nonanxious p e r s o r i s l e s s l i k e l y t o a g g r l s s . He 8150 a s s e r t s t h a t i n a s o c i e t y v a l u i n g i n d i v i d u a l a c h i e v e m e n t , * a l l u r e t o + c h i e v e i s a po'ent s o u r c e of f r u s t r a t l o c and hence a g g r s s s i c n . 9. T h e i t e m s i n d s x i r g v i 3 l e r c e i n t h e v e r s r o r o f t h e CTS u s e d v r t h t h i s s a m p l e a r e : I. T h r e v s o a ~ t h i n g( b u t c o t a t t h e o t h e r ) o r s m a s h e d s o m e t h i n g , J. T h r e a t e n e d t s h i t o r K. T h r e v s o m e t h i n g a t t h e o t h o r , L. throw something. Pushed, g r a b b e d , o r shoved, 8 . H i t o r t r i e d t o h l t t h e o t h e r p e r s o n , b u t rot w i t h a n y t h i n g . N. H i t or tried t3 hit t h e o t h e r w i t h s c a e t h i r g hard. The f o l l o w i n g rDsponse c a t e g o r i e s a n d s c o r e w e i g h t s a r s u s e d f o r ill i f s s s : N e v e r = 0, Once t h a t y e a r = 1. Two o r t h r e e t i a s s = 2, Often, b u t l e s s t h a n o c c e a month = 3. About o n c e a month = 9, Mor? t h a n o n c e a mocth = 5. The V i o l e n c e I n d e x c o n s i s t s o f t h e sun o f t h e s e r e s p o n s e c a t e g o r y w e i g h t s . T h i s l n d e x h a s a r a c g e o f 0 t o 25. However, t o a v o i d g i v i n g E x c e s s i v e w i g h t t o a r e v o u t l y i n g c a s e s w i t h exzremPly h i g h l e v e l s o f v i o l e n c e , t h s T ~ Y E C O f 9 S w e r e rmc01+d i n t 3 a modification o f t h e " g g r ( * s c o r e n l r m z l i z i n g ~ D C ~ . P : ~ U ?v i t h a r a n g e o f 0 t o 8 ( s e e S t r a u s . 1 9 7 4 a : f o o t c o t ~ 6). 5. B e c a u s e oi t i n e L i m i t a t i o n s 13 *.!is q u a s t i o n ~ a i r e , o n l y s i x i t e m s were used, r a t h e r t h a n t h e e i g h t u s l d by B l o o d a n d Wolf€: what c a r t o ge+? How f a n i . 1 9 i r r c n s i s s p e n t i n g e n e r a l ? R h e r c t c g c on a r a c a t i o r ? Which h o u s e o r a p a r t m e n t t o t a k e ? w h e t h e r m o t h e r s h o u l d work o r q u i r working? T h i L g s c o n c e r r i n g t h e c h i l d r e n ' s a c t i v i t i e s ? The r e s p o n s e c a t e g o r i e s u s e d were: m o t h e r a l w a y s = 1, n o t h e r mar? than f a t h e r = 2. F a t h e r and mcther e x e c t l y t h e s a n s = 3, F a t h e r more t h a n m o t h e r = 9 . F a t h e r a l v s y s = 5.

6. T h e s e f o u r i r d e x e s ( i - e . , B b s o l u t e a n d R s l a t i v s f o r h u s b a n d s and f o r w i r e s ) were a r r i v e d a t on t h e b a s i s s f a n e m p i r i c a l s e a r c h i c g procedure. S p e c i f i c a l l y , we first Searchzd t h e questionnaire t o i d e n t i f y everything t h a t s e e m e d a s t h o u g h i t would f i t t h e i d e a of an l n t r i c s i c o r e x t r i n s i c resource. S i x t e e n s u c h i t l n s o r s c a r e s were identified. W e t h e n c a r r i e d o u t an "sxternal c r i t e r i o n item analysis" (Straus. 1964:354) t o f i n d t h c s e i t e m s t h a t Were i n f a c t c o r r e l a t s d v i t h our p a v e r oeasure. Each s f ths e i g h t i t e m s makrng up t h c s e i n d e x e s was s e l e c t ? d b e c a u s e i t was f o u n d t o be c o r r e l a t e d v i t h power f o r t h e h u s b a n d 3r t h e vlfe, o r both. The i t e n s were s t a r d a r d i z e d t o a rang5 o f 0 t o 100. Each r e s p o n d e n t ' s s c o r e on a g i v e n i n d e x t h e r c o n s i s t s o f t h e mean o f t h e e i g h t s t a n d a r d i z e d i t e m s a n d c a n t h e r e f o r e r a n g e f r o m 0 t o 100.

ch.12.

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Psqe 207

a n o t h e r way of t h i n k i n g e b a u t t h e s e s c o r ~ sr s c h a t e a c h is e x p r e s s e d a s p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e maxiaum p a s s i b l ~s c o r e . Thns. a r e s p o r d e n t w i t h a n A b s o l u t e R e s o u r c e i n d e x o f 28 h a s a n a r a r a g e of 28 p E r c e n t of 'he maximum p o s s i b l e p o i n t s f o r the s i g h t resources. B = e s p o n d c r t v i t h a s c 3 r e 3 f 28 oc t h e R ~ l a t L V e R e s o u r c e s i n d e x h a s 28 p e r c e n t 3 f t h e raw s c o r s o b t a i n e d by t h e r e s p o n d e n t whose r e s o u r c e s e x c s e 5 e d t h a t o f h i s o r h e r s p o u s e b y t h e g r e a t e s t amouct. F i n a l l y , it is r n p a r t a n t t o n c t s t h a t because of t h e w ~ y i n v h l c h t h e s e i n d e x e s were a r r i v e d a t , t h e y a r e s i m p l y a way o f s u m m a r i z i n g i n t o o n e c o n v e n i e n t m e a s u r e w h a t would o t h e r w i s e r e q u i r e f l g h t c o r r e l a t i o n s o r e i g h t t a b l e rows. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e s e i n d e x - s c a c n c t be used t o " t e s t ' the resource theory hecause they include only i t e n s z l r s a d y knOwP t o b e a s s u c i a t e d v i t h p c v e r . 7. F o r PUIPOSES o f t h i s s t u d y we d l v i d e d + h e s a m p l e r n t o O c c u p a t i o n a l c l a s s g r o u p s based on t h e h u s b a n d ' s occupation. If t h e h u s b a n d was e r g a g e d i n m a c u a l v o r k , ve c l a s s i f i e d t h e family a s vorking class. I f t h e h u s b 3 n d was ergaged i n nonnanual vork, t h e f a m i l y was c l a s s i f i e d a s middle c l a s s .

R s a d e r s s h o u l d h e evare o f t h e f o l l o v i n g t w o c r i t i c i s m s (1) Some would fir.d i t p r e f s r a b l e t o u s e of t h l s procedure. t h e concepts of "blue collar" versos "uhite collar*, bscause o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r what c o c s t i t e * ? s a s n c i l l c l a s s a n d the basis f o r assignmert t o classes. (2) Besing t h e classification o f t h e cpmelg OP a c h a r a c t e r s t i c o f t h e husband h a s a b u l l t - i n s e x u a l b i a s ( S t e i n w e t z and S t r a u s , 1973). Our u s e o f t h i s p z c c e d 3 n 4 l e f l e c t s ??.a lov ?ad p e r c e n t a g e o r v i v e s who v e r e e m p l o y e d c u t r i d e t h ? homo. we tried to use bcth occupetiocs, t h e number o f u n ~ l a s ~ z f ~ a cbalsee s would h a v e r e s n l t e d i" a n e x c e s s i v e 1055 of C a s e s * r o o t h s a r a l y s i s . 8. The p r o d u c t moment c o r r e l e t i o n s g i v e n i n Figure 2 u n d ~ r s t z t s t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e s e d a t a a r a c o c s i s t e n t v l t h t h e resource theory. i s 2 check t o s e e i f curvilinear patterns vere prssert ( w h i c h of c c u r s E v c u l l s h 2 v up a s c o r r e l a t i o n s r e a r z e r o ) , we p l o t t e d t h e mean p o v e r s c c r ? f o r The r e s u l t i n g g r 3 p h s r e a c h d e c i l e c f t h e reSOUrce S C O r E S . v l t h t h e e x c e p t i o n s t o ha n l t e d l a t e r , d i d n o t i n d i c a t e curvlllnear relationships. However, they did suggest a c l o s e r a s s o c l a t l o n o f r e S o u r c E s w i t h v i 3 1 e n c ~t h l f 1s shown by t h e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s . We t h i n k t h a t c o r r e l a t i o n s E r e low b e c a u s e o f t h e l a r g e v a r i a n c e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e means we plotted. Ir a d d i t i o n . occasional nonlinear r e l i t i o n s a r s seer. F o r e x a m p l e . t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s of the husbacd's power v i t h t h e w i f e ' s r e l a t i v e resourcss is Only -0.09 f o r t h e mldale c l a s s sample. w h i l e t h i s is i n t h e d i r e c t i o r t h e r e s o u r c e t h e o r y p r e a i c t s , i t i s a l s s no: Statistically significant and very low coefficient. Houcver, t h e plof o r t h i s r s l a t i o n s h i p shows a g r a a u a i

Ch.12.

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? a g e 208

d ~ c r e a S 9i n h u s b a r d ' s p o u e r a s t h e w i f e ' s r e s o u r z e s i n c r e a s e r e l a t i v e t o h i s , u n t i l t h e n i n t h aec:le, a t which p o i n t Thus, the t h e r e i s a p r e c i p i t o u s d r o p i n h u s b a n d ' s power. lox c o r r ~ l a t i o r . r e p o r t e d i n F i g u r e 2 i s due t o t h i s t h r e s h o l d e f f e c t , a c d a l s o v a r i a n c e a r o u n d t h e t e n means. T h e o n l y o t h e r n o n l i n e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p we w e r e s b l e t o d i s c e r n i s t h a t b e t ~ p~o w n sr 2nd t h e h u s b a n d ' s vi3lsnce w i t h i n t h e m i d d l e c l a s s sample. B u s b a n d ' s v i a l ~ c c cwas found t o he g r e a t e s t ir w i f e dominant f a n i l i s s , hut a l s o t e n d s t o b e h i g h i n e x t r e m e l y husband dominant f a m i l i e s . S o . i t Seems 5 s t h m g h m i d d l e c l a s s h u s b a r d s r e s o r t t o p h y s l c a l f o r c e b a t h when t h e i r a s c r i b e d s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n h a s b e e n t a k e n away, 2r.d a l s o when t h e y h a v e 3 power p o s i t i o n t h a t g o e s beyord mere S u p e r i o r i t y t o o n e i r which t h e n w i v s s h a v e + l m o s t no d e c i s i o n pouer. See Straus, 1973, F i g u r e 2, f o r a p l o r o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d f u r t h e r discussion. 9. I t is i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t r h e s u p e r i o r reSOUrCFS o f huSbaPdS w e r e n 3 t a c h i e v e d i n o p e n c o m p ~ c i t i a n . b e c a u s e o f t h e i c ~ . u m e r a b l ei m p e d i m e n t s t o a c h i e v e m e c t f o r Yomen i n n o s t s o c i e t i e s . T h e r e f o r e , Even i f o n s a c c e p t s s u p e r l o r r e s o u r c e s a s p r o v i d i n g a moral j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r s u p e r i o r power. t h e serist s t r u c t u r i n g o f o p p o r t u r i t y F r ~ t h e s o c l e t y r e n d e r s s u c h an e t h l c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o ~ i n r s X d . 10. T h o s e b ~ l o vt h e m e d i a n o n e a c h r e s o u r c e i x d s x v e r e c l a s s i f i e d a s low a n d t h o s e a b o v e , a s h i g h i n r e s o u r c e s . Working c l a s s a r d m i d d l e c l a s s f a n i l i s s V e r a c l a s s i f i e d separately t o reflect t h e large class difference in these r e s o n r c e s , a n d o n t h e a s s o n g t i o n + h a t b e i r g " h i g h " 2 r "low" i n r e s o u r c e s i s r o l a t i v o t o t h e a v e r a g e l ? v e l 3f res3u:cns i n t h e s e c t o r of s o c i e t y i n v h i c h one p a r t i c i p a i a s . 11. A g r a p h i c illustration v a s r e c e n t l y p r o v i d e d is t h e Bergman fllm, P'gn a &rrL+qq. Numerous i l l u s t r a t i o n s , together with s t e t l s t i c a l data, a r e i n c s l l e s (1979). I n t h e p r s s s n t s a m p l e , t h e mean v i o l e n c e s c a r e i s 0.90 t o r w o r k l n g c l a s s a n d 0.33 f o r m i d d l e c l a s s h u s b e n d s , 3 r d 0.65 f o r w o r k i n g c l a s s a n d 0 . 3 9 f o r m i d d l e c l a s s w i v e s . E x p r e s s e d a s a p e r c e n t a g e v h c u s e d n i o l e n c s i n rhs r e f e r e n t y s a r . t h e f z g u r e s a r e 20.5 p e r c e p t f o r w o r k i n g c l e s s +Ed 9.6 p e r c e n t f o r middle c l a s s couples.

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The i d e a s , r e s e a r c h n e t h o d s , and rssearch r e s u l t s i n t h i s book c o u l d be s u m m a r i z e d i n 2 number o f ways. P o i e x a m p l e , we c o u l d p o i c t o u t and f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t e c e r t a i n themes which r u c through almost a l l t h e chapters, such a s t h e c u l t u r a l norms l e g i t i m i z i n g v i o l e n c e , or th? c o n f l i c t s i n h e r e n t I n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o r of t h a 01 t h e 1019 of p h y s t c ~ lv i o l 3 n c e i n famlly. " a i n t a l n l n g male dominance. T h e method t i r a l l y c h o s e n t s h i g h l i g h t an6 Some i f t h e main t h e m e s i s t o a s k what t h e p r a c t i c a l implications a r e of t h e t h e o r i ? ~ a n d f a c t s c a r , t e i n e d i n t h i s book. Consequently. the t i n a l chapter identifies s i x charecteristics of Bmsriczn s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e t h a t , t o g e t h s r . b r i r g a b o u t t h e h i g h l c v e l of h u s b 3 n d - " i f = violepce. F o r e a c h o f t h e s e f a c t o r s L h s r e is d i s c u s s i o n o f what c a n be dons t o c h a n g s t h i n g s In t o r e d u c e * h e l e v e l of r a r F t a l v i c l r n s e . a l l . 2 1 d i f f e r e n t " p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i s r s " wpre deduced. C o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e ? x r s t s t h s t som? o f t h e s e ? o L ? c i a s would r e d u c e viol%?.c?: the o t h e r p o l i c l ~ s i r e p r o p o s e d on t h e s t r e n g t h o f reasonable speculaLloc. F o r t u n a t e l y fs: those s e e k i n g t o r s d u c a t h e l e v e l of m a r i t a l v i o l e n c l , t h e q u e s t i o n o f v h e t h e r p r o o f c a n be g i v e n t h a t t h e p o l i c i e s w i l l a c t u a l l y achxeve a r e a u c t i o n is a l m o s t b e s i d e t h e p o i n t ; s o s t o f t h e 21 policy recommerdetions ars steps that arr s o c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e i n t h e i r orr r i g h t . Psr example, we d o n o t know how much a l o u ? r l e v e l o f economic i n s e c u r i t y and un?nploy@ent w i l l r e d u c e a s s a u l t s b y h u s b a n d s on t h e i r w i v e s . But s i n c e f u l l aeploymen: a n d a b a s i c a l n i m u n i n c o n e i s a s o c i a l good. we "111 h a s * g a i n e d e v e r i f movement t o w a r d t h a t s o c i a l good h a s n J E f f e c t o n t h e l e v e l of m a r i t a l v i o l e n c e . summarize

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Chapter 13

A Sociological Perspective on the Prevention of Wife-Beating Murray A. Straus

Our i d e a s a b o u t t h e c a u s e s o f w i f e - b e a t i n g obviously i n f l u e n c e t h e s t e p s v e t a k e t o p r e v e c t it. I f w i f e - b ' s t e r s a r e t h o u g h t t o b e m e n t a l l y ill. t h s n p s y c h o t h e r a p y i s c l e a r l y needed. If h u s b a n d s h i t t h e i r w i v e s b e c a u s e m o d e r r s o c i e t y p u t s e x c e s s i v e a t r a i r s on t h e n u c l e a r f%mrly, t h e n some r e o r g a z i z a t i o n i s n e e d e d o f t h e r o l e s i n t h s f a m i l y a n d t h e family's r e l a t i o n t o t h e society. 1 ' . is i m p o r t s n t t o recogn:ze t h a t t h i s c h a p t e r is co?c?rnea only vith t h e s o c i a l c a u s e s of husbard-vlfe violencs, and o n l y v i t h chznges i n s o c i e ? y 'hat might prevent m a r i t a l r i o l e r c c . With t h i s i n mind, t h e c h a p t e r w i l l s u m m a r i z e some o f i s produced by t h e v e r y t h e ways i n w h i c h v i f e - b e a t i n g n a t u r e o f o u r s o c i s t y a n d i t s f a m i l y s y s t e m , a n d a t t h o same t i m e a t t e m p t t o f o r a u l a t a p o l i c i e s aimed a t r e d u c i n g t h o l e v e l O t husband-wife v i o l e n c e . Some r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s b e l o w a d v o c a t e g e n e r a l s o c i a l c h a r g e 5 r a t h e r t h a n t h o more s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s of " F i e i l y P o l i c y A n a l y s i s . ' a s d s f i n e d b y W i l s o n a n d BcDOnala (1977). I n most c a s e s , however. t h e s u g g e s t i o c s l i s t e d below a r e c l e a r l y D a r i p u l a b l e by l a w o r p r a c t i c e i n t h e p u b l i c r e a l m , O r by t h e p o l i c i e s a c d d e c i s i o n s af b u s i n s s s a n d o t h e r p r i v a t e orgar.xzations. CULTURAL NORBS PERBITTING WIPE-BEITING E fundamental zspect of Eaerican s a c i a l s t r u c t u r e t h a t must be u n d e r s t o o d and c o r f r o n i e d i s t h e e x i s t p r c e o f t h e c u l t u r a l norm t h a t , a s r o t s d i n C h a p c e r 3 a n d e l s e w h e r e . Bakes t h e m a r r i a g e l i c e n s e a l s o a h i t t i n g l i c e c s e . But C ~ c o c c e p t o f m a r r i a g e l i c e n s e a s h i t t i n g l i c e n s e is c o n t a i n e d r o t oniy i n t h e folk culture. Nore i m p o r t a n t , e s n o t e d i n C h a p t e r 3 a n d 6. i t r e m a i r s embedded i n t h e l e g a l s y s t e m

P

d e s p l t e many r e f o r m s t a v c r i n g uomen. A great deal of other evidezce supports tha existPncs I v i l l have t o assume r h a t of t h e ' h i t t l n g l i c e n s e * norm. t h e i 7 : t o r m a t i o n p r ~ s ~ n t si nd C h a p t e r 3 m d 6 makes t h c c a s e plauslbie. What t h e n a r e tb.e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r p r e v + o t i o n ? T h e r e seem t o be e t l e a s t t w o p a r a l l e l " p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s " (PIS).

P I 1. Bake t h e p u b l i c u n p e r c e i v e d norm.

aware

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T h i s p o l i c y implication h a s a p a r a d o x i c a l q u a l l t y , but it i s proposed on t h e + s s u e p t i o n t h a t a w a r e n e s s c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e demise o f t h e " h i t t i n g l i c a x s c n9re." b e c a u s e S U C ~ 3 norm i s c o n t r a r y t o o t h e r norms a n d v a l u e s about t h e faxiiy. It w i l l pave t h 9 uay t o v a r a + sscond p o l i c y i m p l l c a t i o n , o f s p e c i f i c b e n p f i t t o h u s b a r d s and wives, but Especially t o t h e l a t t e r . P I 2. R e d e f i n e t h e o a r i t a l r e l a t i o l s h i p a s one i n w h i c h a r y u s e of p h y s i c a l f c r c e i s a s u n a c c e p t a b l e a s it is b e t w e e n o r e s e l f and t h o s e w i t h whom o n e w o r k s , b o w l s , o r p l a y ? tennis. The s p e c l f i c p o l i c y c h a r g e s l m p l i e d by P I 2 are i l l n s r r a t e d i n t h e c o n s f r t d e c r e e r e c e n t l y s i q n n d by * b e N-w York C i t y P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t (New York Times. 27 J u r s 1978:l). T h i s d c c r e e c b l f g a t e s t h e P o i i c a DapartInsrt t o a r r e s t men who c o m m l t f e l o n i ~ u sa s s a u l t s c r o t h e r f 3 l $ n i e s a g a i n s t t h e i r w i r e s when t h e r e i s r e a s c r a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h e husband committed t h e czime. I n aaditiar, the agreement p r o v i d e s t h a t t h e p o l i c e n 3 t i f y ?ha w i f e s f h e r r i g h t s . i n c l u d i n g t h e r i g h t t o make a c z t i z e n ' s a r r e s t w i t h t h e a i d of t h e p o l i c e . The p o l i c e a l s o w i l l be r f q U i r E d t o remain a t t h e s c e n e of t h e crime t e m p o r a r i l y t o p r o t e c t the y i f e O r t o a s s i s t her i n o b t a i n i n g medical a s s i s t a x c e i f she r e q u e s t s i t . If t h e h u s b a n d h c s l e f t t h e s c e n e , t h e p o l i c ? m u s t t r y t o l o c a t e him a n t h e y would a n p o t h e r s u s p e c t . B more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f c h a n g e s i n t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m v i l l b e f o u n d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o c o f P I 19. POT t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i f e . t h i s means m a k i n g c l e a r t o h e r h u s b a n d t h a t p h y s i c a l f o r c e s i m p l y v i l l n o t bz t o l e r a t e d . I n an unklovn, b u t p e r h a p s o a t i n s i g n i f l c a r t p r o p o r t i o r of c s s e s . t h i s a1028 c o n l d s e r v e t o a l t e r t h e s i t u a t i o n bscause t h e "h!ttino 1 i c s P s e ~ fe s ~ e c t o f m a r r i a o e i s s o nuch a r n ~ p e r c e i l r e d "taken-for-granted" norm, i n d i s 50 c c n t r s r y t o O t h e r w i d e l y acknowledged and v a l u e d norms c o n c e r n i n g t h e marr;age r e l a t i o n s h i p . 2

&~~~

By t h ~ m s ~ l v e ss ,u c h i c d i v i d u a l a t t e m p t s 2t r e d c f i c i c g t h e marital relaticnship t o render violence i l l e g i t i m a t e a r e unllkely r o be sufficient. I n t h e f i r s t place, normative

Ch. 13. W i f e - E e a t i n g

P a g e 213

r u l e s a r e o n l y o n e s t r u c t n r a l d e t e r m i n a n t o f h a h a v i s r , afid o f t e n a minor a e t s r m i n a n t . I n t h e second p l a c e , such r u l e s d o n o t a r i s e from t h i n a i r . Rether, t h e y r e f l s c t , ana t e n d t o be i n t e g r a t e d with, a network o f o t h e r c u l t u r s l a l r e p n t s . P e r h a p s e v e r more, t h e y r s f l e c t t h a r e e l i t i e s of d s i l y I t r u l y useful approach t o t h e llvlng. Cofsequently. p r o b l e m o f w i f e - b e a t i n g m u s t e d d r e s s t h e s e more f a n a a m ~ n t a l causes. T h e s e e l e m ~ a~r et ~s o c l o s e l y i n t e r w o v e n t h a t i t is n ~ a r l ya s d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c u s s t h e m s e p a r a t e l y a s i t w i l l h e t o chafgs then. Eonever. t h e y can a t l s a s t be groupFd i r t c somewhat n e a n i n g t u l p a t t e r n s . WIFE-BEATING 1.5 R FEFLECTION OF SOCIETeL VIOLENCE

T h e s s e x a m p l e s of goserfnsntal violence provide p o w ~ r f u l m o d ~ l s f o r t h e b e h a v i o r of i c d i v i d u a l c i r i z e n s . T h s y form er i m p o r t a n t p e r t of a mors g e r a r a l norszt:vp sys?am t h a t h l l d s t h a t u i o l € r c = c a n a n d s h o u l d h e u s e 3 t o a t t a i ~S o c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e e n d s ( B l u m s c ? h a l c: $1.. 1 9 7 2 , 1975). Of C O U T S E , it i s s x t r ~ m E l yd i f f i c u l t t o p r o v a t h a t g o ~ a r n m e n t a lv i o l e r c e p r o v i d e s a r o l e model f o r i c d i v i a u a l ~ i c l e f c s , but one t y p s of e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t i n g t h i s c o n c l u s i o n is exEmplified i n C h a p t e r 4 and i n Archsr and G a r t c e r (1976). s u g g i n s and S t r a u s ' s t u d y ( s e e Chapter 4) locked a t a sample of E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e c h i l d r e n ' s b o l k s c o v e r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1 8 5 0 t o 1970. The o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e v % s t 3 s e e if t h e ~ E P B o~f i n w r p e r s o n a l v i o l e n c e d e p i c t e d i n t h e s e books s h o v e d a n upward o r d o u c w a r d t r e n d o v e r t h i s 1 2 0 - y e a r periJd. T h e r e s n l t s showed n o t r e n a o f t h i s t y p e . e3vever. e v e n :bough t h e r e w e r e c c "war s t o r i e s ' i n t h e s a n p l r o f hooks, d u r i f g 2 r d i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o u i n g szch msjor v a r t h e f 1 E g ~ F n c y of L c t ~ r p e x s o r a l v i o l e n c e r o s e dramatically. Similarly, a r c h e r and S a r t n e r (1976) found a p 3 s t w a r i n c r e a s e i r homiclda r a t e s f o r a l a r g e sample of c a t i o n s . They c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e i n m u r d e r r a t e s was d u e t o a c a r r y over of t h e xer-time authorized o r sasctioned

Ch. 13. R i f e - B e a t i n g

killing.

Page 214

Therefore:

P I 3. Reduce t o t h e maximum e x t e n t p o s s i b l e t h e u s e of p h y s i c a l f o r c e a s an i n s t r u m e n t of government.

tlegra V i o l e n c e . v i o l e n c e 11 t h e mass media b o t h r e f l e c t s t h e e x i s t i n g hioh l e v e l of a g g r e s s i o n and r i s l e n c e i f American s o c i e t y a n d h e l p s p e r p e t u a t e t h a t p a t t e r n . The t y p i c a l c i t i z e n w a t c h e s " p r i m e time' TV i n which more t h a n h a l f o f a l l c h a r a c t e r s a r e i c v o l v e d i n some v i o l e n c r , and The a o o u n i o n e of t e n i n k i l l i n g ( G e r b i l s r a n d G r o s s . 1 9 7 6 ) . o f g r a t o i t o u s v i o l e n c e i n c u r r e n t motion p i c t u r s s i s a l s c e x t r e m e l y high. The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s e f a c t s h a s b e e r e x p l o r e d by i n t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h , i n c l o d i n g a number o f e x c e l l e n t l o n g i t u d i n a l a c d e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u a t s s , d u r i n g 'he p a s t 10 y e a r s . T h e s e s t u d i e s have l e d a l m o s t a l l s c i e n t i f i c r e v i e w e r s o f t h e accumulated evidence t o cocclude t h a t v i o l e r c e i n t h e media i s p a r t o f i s o c i e t a l p a t t e r c t h a t k e e p s America a h i g h - v i o l e r c e s o c i e t y (Surgron Geceral. 1972).

The m e s s a g e o f t h e mass a e d i a is c l e a r l y t h a t p h y s i c a l f o r c e c a n a n d s h o u l d b e usod t o s e c u r e s c c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e eras, n o t j u s t i n t h e " v i l d west." b u t i n a l l c s i a l l a s p e c t s of contemporary l i f e . l l t h o u g h it i s r a r e t o r t h e media t o th? more d e p i c t h u s b a n d s u s i n g p h y s i c a l f o r c e on w i v e s , general m e s s a g e is e a s i l y ? r a n s f e r r e d t o ? t e marit31 relationship. A t p r e s a n + , I know o f r3 d i r e c t s r i d s n c e %tat t h e h i g h v a l u s i n p l i c i C l y p l a c e d 02 b o t h i n s t r u m e n l s l and e x p r e s s i w v i o l e n c e i n t h e mass media i s t r a c s f e r r e d t s t h e marital relationship: however, t h i s t r a n s f e r r a l seams s o l i k e l y i n view a t t h e e x t E n s i r e e v i d e n c e o f t h e phPnomenon t h a t p s y c h o l o g i s t s c a l l ' * t r a n s f e r of t r a i n i n g ' t h i ' *he f c l l o u i n g p o l l c y i m p l i c a t i o n seems w a r z a c t e a : L i m i t v i o l e c c e i n t h e mass media a s much a s is c o n s i s t e c t w i t h p r e s e r v i c g f r e ? d c n of e x p r e s s i o P and a r t i s t i c i n t e g r i t y .

P I 4.

Essentially, P I 4 c a l l s f o r reaucicg the e x t e r t t o which t e l e v i s i o n and f l c t i a n and n o n f i c t i o n works " e x p l o i t " v ~ o l < n c e , t h a t i s , u s e v i o l e n c e t o c a p t u r e a s l a r g e art +ndienCe as p o s s i b l e . Domes+c Dissgpmam+. I t i s by now commonly a c c e p t e d t h a t Bmerica i s a v i o l a r t s o c i e t y . Eut t h i s e c c e p t a n c e d o e s C C a ~ u t o m a t i c a l l y e x t e n d to t h e r e a l i z a t i o n that, for the t y p i c a l c i t i z e n . t h e problem is n o t v i o l e n c e i n t h e s t r e e t s , b n t v i o l e n c e i n *he home. The l a r g e s t s i n g l e c a t e g c r y of murderer-victim r s l a t i o n s h i p i s t h a t o f members o f t h e same family. T h e r e a r e complex r e a s o r s f o r t h i s f a c t ( G e l l e s and straos, 19781: however, f o r t h e moment Iv o a l d l i k e t o FOCUSon t h e " g u n - t o t i n g " a s p e c t o f h a s r i c a n v i o l e n c s . one r e a s o n t h a t d o m P s t i c m u r d e r s a r e s o c o a e o n i s t h a t more t h a r

Ch.13.

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h a l f o t a 1 1 A m e r i c a n h o u s e h o l d s c o l t a x a g u n , m o s t of w h i c h a r e " h a n d g u n s % $r a t h e r + h a n " s p o r t i n g g u n s . " The f o l l o w i n g p r o p o s a l i s add:assaa t o + h i s sbtuation: E n z c t s t r l r g e n t gun c o n t r o l l ; g i a l a t i o ? , p a r t i c u l a r l y r e s t r i c t i c g hacd guns, h u t a l s c r e q u i r i r g t h a r a l l g u n s h e k e p t 13cked acd unloaded.

P I 5.

P I 5 h a s h s e n ep'ly t e r m e d " d o m e s t i c a i s a r m a m p r t " by Reatai Etzlori. T h i s p o l i c y c o u l d g o a l 2 n g way t o w a r d r e d u c i n g t h e most e x t r e m e a s p e c t of d o m e s t i c v i o l - n c e : Of c o u r s e , domestFc disarmament w i l l 3 a t r s d u c e aurder. v i o l e r c e ES , :s s i r c e o r e c a n s t i l l p u n c h , k i c k , c h o k e , o r kmfe. B u t a n a t t a c k w i t h t gun is much m3r? l i k s l y t o b e f a t a l t h a n a r e o t h e r modes of a t t a c k .

".

.HE FRETLP PS T W I N I N G GROUND FOR VIOLENCB

What h a s b e f c s a i d 50 f e r ~ n p h a s r z E s t h e e x t a n t t o w h i c h r i o l e r c e ir t h b f a n l y r e f l e c t s t h e l e v a 1 o f v i = l e r c e i!! t h e s o c i e t y . But t h e c t h e r s i d e o f t h c c o i n i s a t l e a s t equally important; t h e l e v e l of violence i n a l l aspects of t h e socis'y, i n c l u d i n g t h e f a m i l y i t s e l f , r e f l e c t 3 what i s l e a r n e d a n d g r r e r a l l z e d frQm v h a t h a p p e n s ?;. t t e ? z % i l y . beginring w i t h icfancy.

-P f i s i s & P U T i S h n e x . The i m p l i c i t m o d e l s f o r h f h a v i o z p r o v i d e d b y a c t i o n s of t h e g a v f r n m s r t ar.d d a p i c - e d i c t h e mass 6 e d 1 a f o r m t w o l e g s o f t h e s t o o l s u p p o r t i n g R ~ e r i c a I ! viclerce. The t h i r d l e g i s t h e f a m i l y i t s e l f . In fact, the f a m i l y may p l a y t h e m o s t c r u c i a l r o l e , b = c a u s e t h e f a m i l y i s the ssttirg i n v h l c h most p e o p l e f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e p h y s i c a l OiOlencD, a n d h e c a u s e t h a t . v i o l e n c e i s e x p s r i ? n c e d ir a s t r o n g e m o t i o n a l contexc. S p e c i f i c a l l y , a t l e a s t 90 p s r c e n t o f p a r e n t s USP p h y s i c a l p u n i s h m e n t i n t h e i r c h r l a r s r ' ? e a r l y years. Noreover, f a r t h o u * h a l f of a l l c h i l d r e n . t h i s c o n t i n u e s t h r o u g h t h e end o f h i g h s c h o o l - - e s s e n t i a l l y until t h s c h i l d l e a v e s hone (Bachman. 1967: S t e i c m e t z . 1974: s t r e u s , 1971). The i m p o r t a n c e o f p h y s i c a l p u n i s h m e n t ic t r a 5 n i r . g t h e next generation o f v i o l e n t c i t i z e n s was d s s c r i h s d i n C h a p t s r 2. I2 t h e f o r t h c ~ m i n gbcok g i v i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f O U T c a t l o n a l s u r v e y of v i o l e n c e l c f a m i l i e s ( S t r a u s . G ~ l l c s . a ~ sd+ . e i n a e t z .. 19791.. 0r.e c h a ~ t e r sives d e t e i l e a s o i d e n c ? s u p p o r t i ~ g t h i s relationship. We f o u n d * h a t t h = mare t h e m3r% ~ i 3 l ~ ~ t p h y s i c a l punishment a c h i l d experienced, his/her marriage years l a t e r . T h i s correlation is present f o r " o r d i n a r y ' p h y s i c a l p u n i s l m e n t , b u t it i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g when p h y s i c a l p u r i s h m e n t i s u s e d h a a v i l y . Physical punishment, t h e n , l a g s t h e groundwork f o r t h s D a r n a t i r e lsgitieacy of intrafzaily violence ara provi3es a

.

Ch. 13.

Wife-Bsatirg

P S g c 216

roiP-rnodel--ir~d8~d a s p e c z f i c "scrip?" (Gagno3 a r d Simon, 1973: Buggins and Straus, Chaptsz 4)--for bath tho p e r p e t r a t o r s a s :& q&=:i~s o f s u c h a c t i o c s . Gelles (1376). f o r Fxampls, found tha' One O f t h e t h r = = main t a c t o z s l i n k e d Lo a u r f e ' s t o l e r a ? i n g a b u s e f r o m h e r h u s b a c d i n t h e e x i e r t t o which h e r p a r e n t s h i t h e r a s a c h i l d ( s e e a l s o Lefkoxitz pi.. 1976). an impartsct policy I m p l ~ c z t l o n o f t h e f e c t s j u s t p r ~ s f r r e ds h o u l d be: PI 6. Gradually sliminaie physical 2s a mode o f c h i l d r e a r i r g .

punishmert

I h a v e u s e d + h s +erm * ~ g r a d u a l l y Wi n f a r m u l a t l n g t h i s p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o r e v e n t h o u g h my own v 3 l u e s f s v s r ? m m = d i a t s cessation of physical punishment. nsny prsctical drfficul?les s f a n d i n t h e way o f l o m e d i e t s c s s s a t i o n , diftrcultles that, i f disregarded, cculd have ssricus Consequences. Specificelly, ve c s u l d n o t exp-c? to e l i n r r a t e p h y s i c a l p u n i s h m e n t u n t i l p a T 3 n t S 530 b e p z ~ v i d e d a l ? e r n a t i ~ e t e c h ~ i q u e s f o r c a r i r o l l i n g t h e b e h a v i 2 r of c h i l d r e n , t o p r o t ~ c t h s m f r o m d t n g q r a n d Zo t e a c h t h e pract:c21 s k r l l s a r d s t h t c a l v a l u e s f o r which s o c i e t y h o l d s parents r?sponsibls. That a feu parPn*s n + r l g ? t o b z i c g up c h i l d r e n w i t h o u t p h y s i c e l p u n i s h a s r * d o e s ro: i m p l y t h a t most p a r e n t s c a n do s o . Such m e t h o a s must b s v a l i d a t + d b e f c r e VB r i s k u n d s r m i r i r g t h e v i t a l t s s k s s f s 3 c i a l i z a t i o n sora sffsct~re c a r r i e d o u t by p a r e n t s . Forturatrly, t e c h a z q u e s a r e b e g i r n i n g ts e m e r g e (see r = f e r = n c e s f o l l c w i n g PI 8).

slQ&go xi&ggc_q. E l a o s t a s u c i v e r s a l ss p h y s i c a l punishment is p h y s i c a l f i g h t i r g betvasn c h i l d r e n i r t h e family. P e r h z p s s u c h f i g h t i n g is i c e v i t a b l ? i n e a r l y childhood. B u t i t i s r o t l n e r i t a b l e t h a t i i t a c k s or e a c h O t h e r b y b r o t h e r s a s d s i s t e r s b e r e g a r d e d a s much less repreh??!Sible t h a c a t t a c k s o r o r by u c r e l a t e d c h i l d r e n . T h i s d i f f ? r e r c e zr. 'he w a y i d e n ' i c a l a c t s o f v i o l e n c e a r e evaluated and handled syabolizes and r u i n f c r c ? ~ t h e l e g l f i m a c y o f r i o l e n c ~betweer f z m i l y eemb?.rs. 4 s a r s s u l t , V ~ O ~ P P C ?toward s i h l i n g s coc+5rues lang a f t ? r vi9lance toward peers has disappeared. For s x a m p l e , a m s n g .he s a m p l e s t u d i e d by S t r a u s (197Ua). a l m o s t t u o - t h i r d s h s d hi: o r b e e n h i t b y a b r o t h s r o r s i s t e r d u r i n g 'he y e a r t h e y H e r ? s k g L g g ~ 1h high school, c a n p a r e d w i t h t h - o n e - t h i r a who r ? p > r t ; d h i t t r ~ go r b e i n g h ~ bt y s o m e m e outs id^ t h e f a m i l y . Thus, r i g h t t h r o u g h h i g h s c h o o l , many y o u c g p e o p l e ? x p e r i ? n c 9 a 5EC3nd a s p e c t of i r t r z f a m i l y v i o l e r c s t h a t i m p l i e s t h a t n o t h r n g 15 i e r r t b l y w r o n g a b o u t t h e u s e o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e bstween f a m i l y a s n b s r s . T o t h e sx'ent t h a t t h i s occurs, then: Fncaurage p i r e p t s t o c o n t r o l a c t s of p h y s i c a l f o r c e between t h e i r c h i l d r e n a n d t o a v o i d e r p l i c i t l g ?r i m p l i c i t l y d e f r n i n g s u c h 2 C t S 26 p ? ~ . 1 S 5 i b l e .

P I 7.

RS i n t h e cans

physical pulishaent, ispl?m=ctirg o f c e a s 5 n g Fo d o s o m e t h i n g . One the social~gical of t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s highlighted by pers:ective 1s t h a t E l e m e n t s o f t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a r e i n t ~ r w c ~ e na.n d r h ~ r e f o r eo n e o f them C a n n o t h i t r i a i E a i n "What is * h e r ? a b o u t i S 0 1 + T i O ~ . I n t h l s case, we m u s t a s k : t h e s:tua:ior. of c h i l d r e n i n a f a m i l y t h e t g E r e r a t e s such a h l g h l e v e l of ~ i o l e n c s ?z ~n d "Row c a n c h l l d r e r r e s o l v e t h e i r di5agree89nts withcut physical fights?'l O r t i l c h i l d r e n are s g u l p p e d v i t h t h e s k l l l s t a do t h a t , i t. i s . a s u r r e a l i s t i c f o r p a r e ~ t st o i m p l c r e " d c c q t t i g h t " 3s ;r IS f o r Eaa:ly life educztors to implore parents rot t o spank. Co~s~guently: PI 7

or

i s n o t w e r s l y a mat'er

P r o v i d e paref:s ald children with t o c h r l q u e s o t h e r t h e n f o r c e and c a e r c i a r Ear c c p l c g with and r e s o l v i n g t h e i n e v i t l b l e conflicts o f f e s i l y l i f e .

P I 8.

PT 8, one n a n y o b s r a c l f s b a r t h e way f c r i a p 1 a n s n : i n g t h e m o s t i n p o r t i c + . o o : which i s E i s c u a s e d i n s & c t i o r E o f t h i s chapter--the f e i l u r e to r e c o g n i z e t h e i c c v i t a b i l i ' y of i c t r a f a e i l y c e n f l i c t , a n d h e n c e t o t a k e sfeps f a r c o p i c g w:th c o n f l i c t n9nv:olantly. E u t e v e n LE t h a t v e r s r o t a zactor, what t e c h r i q u e s a r e a v a i l a b l e ? R l t h o u g h s t i l l i m a t t e r o f r e s e a r c h +Ed c o r t r c v - r s y , p r o m i s i n ? mc2t.sls f c r resolving parent-child ard sibllng-sibli'g corflic: havr bee!! developed over t h e l a s t f e u years (8lechman f : la., 1 9 7 6 2 , b: O ' D e l l , 1 9 7 4 ; P a t t e r s o r p i 31.. 1 9 7 5 ) .

of

"~~3+c-SensozjIII D e p i i v a t i o ~ . Barry Aarlov orcD e p ~ t o m i z e d t h e r e s u l l s o f h i s c l a s s i c ~ x p e r i m e r ?x~i t h monkeys r s a r e d xr. iso1at:cn by s a y i n g t h a t m o c k e y s d a p r i v e d o t warn s a c ~ a l c o n t a c t i n i n f a n c y z * . . . ~ o u l d r e t h e r f i g h t t h a n love.' The s a n e i d e a h a s s u r f a c e d i c a rumbar o f different ways 11 t h e h 5 s t o r y of s o c i a l science: for e x a m p l e . l n t h e work O D - h e a u t h a r i t s r i a n p ? r s o n e l i C y o f F d o r z o gr a&. (1950). Par' o f what E d o r c o ' s "P % = a l e n T rneasnres i s t h e p r o p e n s i t y t o u s e p h y s i c a l n i c l s n c 4 for s o c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e ends. P e o p l e who g e t h i g h ''F % c + l e n S C O T ~ S , f 3 r f X a m p l t , f e z d t o f a ~ o rt h e d ? a t h p s n a l t y 2hd to feel that s e x c r i m i l a l s s h o u l d bs b a t h i m p r i s o c S d a n d ..publicly w h i p p e d , o r worse.8r l d o r n o $$ 81. found t h e t + ~ C S I sane psopl3 a l s o received r a l a t i v e l y isss lave ard a f f e c t i o n f r o m t h e i r p a r e n t s t h a n d i d t h o s e l c v cr t h e "P scale."

".

B l s t r e c ~ n t l y , Prsscott (1975) has pcinta8 to n e u r o p h y s i o l o g i c a l and crnss-cul'ural zvider:~? shoving t h a t t h e more a persor is deprived cf a'soeatcJlr.scry gratification," s u c h a s i r t i m e t s p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t , l o v e , a n d affectioc, t h e g r e a t e r t h e l e v e l of aggression, Fnclu3icg physical aggressior. F o r Example, a tabulation 3 f 2 + + a f o r 99 s o c l e t i e s r e v ~ a l e dt h s t t h i s o c i e t i e s t h a t d o n o 2 p l o v l a e much p h y s i c a l a f f e c t l o r t o c h s i r c h i l d r e n a l s o t e n d t3 show

Ch.13.

uife-Beating

Page

a h i g h l e v e l o f v i o l e n c e between a d u l t s . Sircs 3 lcvina affectionate ctlldhood tecds t o i n o c u l a t ~ persocs i t s ~ e n l ~i k e l y t h a t t s o c i e t i e s a g a i n s t violenc4, background would be particularly efflcicious agai violence i n +he t a n i l y . The p c l i c y i m p l i c a t l a n t h a t f a l l o w s from t h i s f i n d n o t t h a t p a r e n t s "should be" warm a n d a f f s c t i o n b e c a u s e by n o v t h a t h a s PEcoae p a r t o f t h e s t a n d a r d Ameri c h i l d - r e e r i l g i d e o l c g y ( a s c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e " s c h o o l of h knccks" and t h e "don't s p o i l t h e child" ca?c-ptian, Ratt.er. t h e policy iepllcatior rscoqnires that, d 6 6 p i t ~ i d e o l o g y o f wermth a r d a f f e c t i o c , m i l l i o n s of c h i l d r p n i r f a c t d e p r l o c a o f j u s t t h a t ( i d o r n o t 31.. 1 9 5 0 ; P e e 1963; Levis. 1971). Consequently: 15

P I 9. sponsor research t o determine t h s s o c i a l and p s y c h c l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s t h a t c a u s e s o m l

p a r e n t s o: b e c o l d a n d d i s t a n t r s t h a r t h x n warm a n d l a v i r g . and t r a n s l a t e t h e r F s u l t s i n t o programs t o a s s i s t s u c h p a r e n t s . T E E I N E V I T A B I L I T Y OF CONFLICT I N FABILIZS

Contlic:, i r t h e s e r s e of d i f f e r e r c ? s i r = b j = c t i v ~ "interests* Detvssp p e r s o n s and between g r o u p s . is l e e r i t a b l e p a r t c f a l l human a s s o c i a t i o n ( C o s e r , 19: D i h r E ~ d o ~ f . 7959: Simmel. 79081. Some srcuos t e n d z n

g r o u p s , :be l e v e l of c o n f l i c t i s particularly hi< C h a p t e r 1 d e s c r i b e s same o f t h e c h a r a c t s r i s t i c s o f : f a m i l y t h a t g i v e r i s e t o its r y p i c s l l y high 1evc.l contllct.

T h e s e 5 1 e l E T c h a r a c t ~ ~ i ~ t of i c st h e f a m i l y a r e by means a c c n p l e t ~ list o f f a c t o r s t h a t produce c o n f l i < R o ~ e v e r , t h e y should be s u f f i c i ~ n t t o i n d r c a t s t h a t : f a m i l y i s t y p ~ c a l l yt h e l o c u s o f a h i g h l s v e l o f c o n f l i c t t h 9 5 a . s t i m e :hat i t : s t h e l o c u s a f a h i g h Lsv;l i c t s r p e r s o n a l support 3rd love. noderr s o c i e t y dces 1 provide adequate eechanlsms f o r convi3Lent r e s o l u t i o n F i r s t , t h e f i m i l y T s p z i v a c y and s o p a r a t 5 these conflicts. from c l o s e t i e s w i t h n e i g h b o r s and r e l a t i v e s c u t s i t r f r o m t h e a s s z s t a c c = i n solving c o n f l i c f s t h s t s u c h g i n 5 SBCO? c a n p ~ o v l d e . T h e r ? IS PO o n e t o t u r r . to f o r h51p. t h i s s a m e p r i v a c y a n d isola+.ian f r c s k i n a n d c e i q h b o r s s s r t h a t f e u o r c c a g e n t s of s 3 c i a l c o n t r o l e x i s t t o b l 3 c k i u s e of p h y s i c a l f o r c e . consequertlp:

Ch.13.

u~te-Beat:vg

P a g e 219

F e d a c e t h e i a p e c t of g o v e r n m e n t p r o g r a r s and r e g u l a t i o l s t h a t , d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r s c t l y , e n c o n r a g e g e o g r a p h i c mnhili'y o r r e d u c a t i e s t o t h e extended family.

P I 10.

T h x p c l i c y w i l l b e E v e n more d i f f i c u l t $3 i m p l s m e n t t h a n a + n y of t h e o f h c r s s u g g e s t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r , t o t a n u n b s x of r 5 2 5 0 ~ ~ F . i r s t . t h e ar* acd sciencs o f "fzmily i m p a c t a n a l y s i s m is o n l y now b s g l n n i n g t o h s e x p l n r s d ( 8 i n n c s o t a F a m i l y S*uay c s n t e r , 1 9 7 6 ) . R s i a e f r o m a few o b v i o u s p r o g r a m s ( s u c h a s t h o s e p o l i c i e s t h a t g i u = more e n c o u r 3 g e m e ~ t t o b u i l d i r g rev neighborholds than ro p r e s e r v i n g ?he q u a l i t y of e x i s t i c g n e i q h h o r h o o d s ) , s i m p l y identityl:y t h e r e l 5 v a n t programs and g o v e r n s e n t r e g u l a t i o n s w i l l be a slow, u n c e r t a i n p r o c e s s . Second, t h o s e p r 3 g r z c i t h a t a r e i d e ~ t l f i f aw i l l u s u a l l y b e s s r v i r g sons i m p o r t ? . t h e p o l i c y vould be n o t ~ e r r l y purpose. Corsequently, l a t t e r o f e n d i n g s o ~ e f h l n g , b u t e v e n more a m a t t s r ~ f i r d l l g a l t e r n a t i v e s t h a t do n o t pncooraga m o b i l i t y a n d * b ' r e d o c t i o n of e a t s n d s d family t i e s . Finally, t h e a i d an? s u p p o r t t h a t i n t i a a t e c o m m n n i t i e s aaa k i r p r o v i d s a r e no? a n Onmixed b l e s s i c g : t h e y c 2 r b e s t i f 1 i c . g s t t h s Sam- t i a p t h a t they are helpful.

-

3ur c c c i l l i n g n r s s t o We h a r e a l r e a d y s u g q ~ s ' e d :'a? r e c o g x i z e t h e h i g h l e v e l nf c o s f l l c : i n f a m i l i e s i s i r s p l f a s o u r c e of ~ i o l ~ c c e .9 5 long a s c c n f l l c t w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y i s s i e v e d a s urorq, abnormal, o r i l l e g i t i m a t e , people w i l l b e r e l u c t a r t tc l e a r n t e c h n i q u e s f o r e n g a g i n g i r c o n f l i c t nonviole~tlp. P B C O ~ ~ ~ Zi h EP ine~ltabillty and i e q i t i a z c y of c o n f l i c t w i t h i n :ha family rn-her than corsider conflic' an a b n ~ r a a l dfvlat:cn.

P I 11.

Once t h e inevitability e n d l e g i t i m a c y o f c o n f l i c t within f a m i l i e s i s recognized, t h 9 way i s o p e n f o r t h e media. m a r r l e g e c o u n s e l o r s , c h u r c h e s , a n d hnna. service agencies to h e l p f a m i l i e s r i n d c o c s t r u c t i v e ways o f r e s o l v i r g c o n f l i c r ~ . Many of t h e m e t h o d s c i t e d i n t h e r e f s r s ~ c ef ~o l l o w i r g P I 8 , a n d t h o s e d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i 3 n s A a l d I, a r e d a s i g r e d t o do j u s t t h a t . e n i m p o r t a n t aspec-f t h e s e methods is t h a t thEy a r e i f i t s n e e d f o r normal f a r i l i e s ; t h e y make no a s s u m p * i o n s 2bout psychop8thclngy. I r s t e a d , t h e s e n e i h o d s assume :hat t h e t a s i l y m m b e r s need t c l e a r n more e f f i c i e n t v s y s o f s o l v i n g i r t e r p e r s c r a l problems i n d proca?d t o t s a c b t h o s e t e c n n i q u e s by r o v e l , n o n a o r a l l s t i c b e h a v i o r a l mlthods. They f o c u s on t e a c h i n g p e o p l e &p= t o s o l v e p r o b l e m s . n o t o n !&t t h e s o l o t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m is.

Although t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y of m a y i t a l c o a f l i c t s t a u l d rscoqnizfd, it i s a l s o i n p o r t a c t t o a v 3 F d t h e t r a p r e p r e s e n t ? d by o r e u i n g o f ?he ' e n c o u n t e r grcup' aoo€Bert, w h i c h h a s i:s p a r a l l e l a n o l g a n u m b e r ? f m a r r i a g e c o u r s ~ l o r s a n 3 w r i t e r s o f m a r i t a l a d v i c o books, s u c h a s Each a n d v y a s n ' s ihp I p s p t f : ==rap ('1968). Each a n d Wvlr-n u r g e t h e i r r e a d e r s t o drop +*outaod~~ d o t i o n s of etiquett?" ard v e r t i l a t e t h e i r Enger. D u r i c g o c e g r o u p s s s s i o n , o n e 3f t h e a u t h o z s u r g e d t h e xnm=n p a r t i c i p a n t s , " D o n ' t b e a f r a i d t o b e a r s a l shrsu, z r e a l bitch! G e t r i d cf y c u r p e n t u p h o s r i l i t i e s ! T e l l *hem whore y o u ' r e r e a l l y i t ! L e t i t b e t o t a l , v i c i o u s , e x a g g e r a t e d , hyperbol?!" (8ouard. 1970:54). b=

l l t h o u g h E a c h a r d n y d e n 3 s book c o r t a i c s 3 s s e r t i 3 r s t o t h e c o c t r a r y . t h e o v e r a l l a e s s a g s o f t h e b o c k , a s I re36 i t , urgES w i v e s t o d o j u s t w h a t t h e q u o t a t i o n s u g g s s t s . This a d v i c e i s based cn a " c a t h a r s i s , " o r " v s n t i l i t i o n ' t h e c r y of agqrsssinn cortrol. That t h e a r r bnyins with t h e assumptior t h a t a l l of u s hava i n c u r n a t n r 4 a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r t f n d e ~ c y toward aggression that s o n e h ~ v must find expression. I f we a t t s n p t t o r e p r e s s + P i s d p e p h i o l o g i c a l l p based m o t i v a t i o r , o u r i n n a t e a g g r e s s i o n w i l l only c a u s e an 9 x p l o s i o n a t some l a t e r t i m s . 3it---ur?+=iy 21.?E?

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.:uc? '!VICP, " C7:C1-:!1C

r:o?r + o n n r n s -t= T U C ~O I :-E $ C Y C 7 t . e : = Y - Y S O : . t h a t o p p o r t u r i t i r s t o o h s e r r e a g g r e s s i o n o r t o be a g g z , s s i v s t e n a t o p r o d u c e grea,f:z s u h s e q u n r . t l e v e l s o f a g g r e s s i o n a n d viclence (serkovifz. 1 9 7 3 : E a K a r s o n , 1970; S t e i n l s t z and Strans. 1974; S t r a u s , 197U). I n genersl, aggression a g a i n s t a n o t h e r ( e i t h e r v e r b a l l y o r p h y s i c a l l y ) t e n d s I o (a) p r o d u c e c o u r t e r a g g r s s s i o r . (b) I m p s a s s g e t t i n g t c t h e r e a l problem, and (c) 2 f it d o e s s u c c f a d i n soue1chir.g t h e c t h r r pefson, r e i P f o r c e s -he u s e if a g g r e s s i o n a s a mode o f :nteractlon. &

T h e r e is. h a v s v e r , a k s r n e l o f t r u t h u n d e r l y i n a 'hs it a 1 1 hang o u t " and " v e n t i l a t i o n " approacbPs t o 'let marriage. T h e difference m u s t b? percsived between assertion ( s ~ a n d i n g up f o r c n e ' s i n t s r 2 s t s ) a n d a g g r ? s s i o n ( a c t s c a r r i s d o u t w i t h t h e i c t e z f i a n of h u r t i n g t t e o t h e r ] . A ~ s e r l i ~ e n E . 5 5i s e s s e n t i a l : b u t o n e c a c De a s s e r t i v e v l t h o u t b e i l g a g g r e s s i ~ (~a l t h o u g h a l w a y s w i t h t h e r i s k c f aggression being imputed). F o r example, t h e c r i t i c a l f i r s t s t e p 5 o f ' g s t t i ~ g h e l p , ' " c a n c e l i n g t h e h i t t i n g license," aca "makiT~g c l e a r t h a t a n e i s p r e p a r e d t o 1 2 a V e , ' i r e a l l highly 25SFTti~2, hat nocaggressive zc's. Sscond. 2 5 ~ 5 r t i v e r ~ e s sis r e c ~ s s a r y if t h e r e i s t l b e 2 n y h ~ p eo f r e s o l ~ ~ nt hg e c o ~ t l i c t~ v e rw h i c h t h e v i 3 l s n ~ o~ c c u r s . If c02tl:ct a r i s e s o v e r t h e c h i l d r e n . ssx, noney, o r r u n n i n g t h e household, t h e n t h e s e i s s u e s must 50 faced.

Ch.13.

Wrfe-Beating

P z g e 221

Procedures f o r r a t r o n a l c o n f l i c t r e s c l u t i c f , ofter c o m b l n e d w l t h s y s t e m s t c r r e v a r d l l g occurrences o f d e s i r e d b e h a ~ i O T , a r e c e x t r e l concerns c f t h o r e c e n t *'marriage encounter' movement (Koch ar.d Kcch. 1976: n a c e 2r.d E a c e , 1 9 7 4 ) a n d o f behavioral^ t h ~ r a p i s t sllke PlFChnan st zL, ( 1 9 7 6 2 , b ) . P a t t e r s o n ( 1 9 7 5 ) . a n d a nulnbfr of 0 - h e r s who a r e r ~ p r e s 2 n t ~i dc t h e c h a p t e r s o t a n i m p o r t a n t new b ~ o k o r 'TTpazi E l a x r a n s h i p s ( O l s o r . 1 9 7 6 ; s e e a l s o Jacnbscr and n a r t i r , 1976). Ore can s a y t h a t a p r i r c i p a l g o a l af + h e s e a p p r o a c h e s t o " t r e a c l n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s " i s t h s i n p r o v e m i r t of i ~ t e r p e r s o ~ as kl i l l s , i n c l n d i r g a s s ~ r t l v e n e s s , so t h l r t h e l e g i t i m a t e i L t s r F s * s 3f 111 p a r t i c s c a n be f u r t h e r e d . This k i n d o t t h e r a p y s a y a l s o have t h e z d v a n t s g e of b e i n g l e s s t h r e a t e c l n g a n d more a t t z a c t i v e t o h u s b a n d s . I f they rccora w i t h p r e v ~ l l l n g m a s c u l i n s r o l e models, een are mare r e l ~ l c t a n tt h a ~U O m e r t o h e s h o v s r t h e i r c h i l a h o o l o r p r s s e n t e m o r l c n s 2 ~ t6h e i r p s y ~ h o l o g i ~ as tl a t u s , a s r e q u i r e d i c t h e t r a d l t i o n i l 'insight" therapy. They p r e " 2 r t c 2ns%ils a l d p2rsoxil5ty. and a c t i o n s 2 n d r e s u l t s D O Z E t h a n histo:? t h e s e a r e precisely t h e f o c i of t h e l e v marriage elcountor, o a r r l a g e snrichrner.?, a n d m a r r i a g e c o u n s e l t o g a p p r o a c h s s .

P e r h a p s ; h e m o s t p e r v a s i v e s e t of factors bringicg about wife-beaticg a r e those cocnpcted w i t h the s = x i s t In fact. t o a s t r u c t u r e of t h s family acd society. considerable exrent. *he cultural norms a r d v a l u r s permrtting and sometimss encouraging 'usbard-CJ-wife v 1 0 1 e r c e r e t l ~ c tt h e hierarchical a n d m a l e - d o m i n a r t + y p = o f SCCiEty r h z t c h a r a c t e ~ i ~ et hs e w e s t e r n w o r l d . The i l g h t '0 u s e f o r c e e x i s t s , a s Goode ( 1 9 7 1 ) co?.cludes, t o p1ovi3~ the u l t i m a t e s u p p o r t f c r t h e e x i s r i r g povez s t r u c t u r e 2f t h e tamily. i n c a s e t h o s o low i r t h e h i e r a r c h y r s f u s s t o a c c e p t * h e i r p l a c e 2nd r o l e s . Nine c t t h e s p e c i f i c u s y s i 2 which t h e male-domitant s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s o c i e t y and of t h s f a m i l y c r e a t e 3 r d mi:nta:n a h i g h l e v e l of m a r i t a l v i o l s c c t were d e s c r i b e d i r C h a p t E r 6.

Since

many mer musr f a l l b a c k o r t h e "ultimate of p h y s i c a l t l r c e t o a a i r i a i c t h e i r a u t h o r i t y ( s e e C h a p t s r s 1 0 a n d 1 2 a n d Goode, 1971). i t f c l l 3 w s t h a t a p c l i c y t h r t r e d u c e d t h i s p e e d would be h e l p f u l : ~DSOU~CE'

?I 12. ElimiCaiE t h e husband a s "hela o f :ha f a m i l y f s f r o m i t s c o n t i n u i c g p r e s e n c e il t h a ir reltgiol, in admicistrativ~ lav, prccPdare, a n d 3 5 a t a k e 3 - f o r - g r z n t e d aSpECt of family l i f e .

Ch. 13. H l f s - B e a t i n g

Peg= 222

A l t h 3 u g h p r o g r e s s i s b e i n g made i n r e s p e c t t 5 t h e achievement of husband-wife equelity, the idea t h i t the h u s b a n d 1s h e a d o t t h e f a m i l y r e m a i n s f i r m l y r o o t c d i n American c u l t u r e ( s e e t h e s u r v e y : s p o r t e d i r . Pxza_$p. 1971; a l s o ROlb a n d S t r a u s . 197u a n d t h e c o n c l u s i o n t o C h a p f p r 6 ) . I n United S t a t e d governsen? s t a l i s t i c s , t h e o n l y time a VomaP c a n h e c l a s s i f i e d a s t h e h e a d o f a h o u s e h o l d i s when No p r a v i s t o n i s made f o r no h u s b a n d i s p h y s i c a l l y p r e s e n t . l i s f i r g j o i r ~ th e a d o f h o u s e h o l d . Only t h r o u g h t h c a c t i v a p u r s u i t of t h e g o a l s of t h e f n a i r i s t n l v e a e n t is s i g n i t i c a o r change l l k e l y . n o r e o v e r , t h e importance of t h e f e m i n i s t movemePt g o e s w e l l beyond h u s b a n d - v r f e e q u a l i t y , a r d i t w i l l b e i m p o s s i b l e + o e l i m i n a t e s e x i s m :n t h e f a n i l y u r t i l i t i s a l s o eliminated ir t h e society at large. Although t h e e l i n i n a t i o r of sexism i n t h e family i s a h i s t o r i c a l Charge a t v a s t magnitude, a s p e c t s of sexism a r e U l t h l n t h ? i m m e d i a t ~c o n t r o l o t I n d i v i d u a l s . Por example, b o t h tor h e r O W p r o t e c t i o n ar.d a s a contribution t o t h e o v e r a l l p o l i c y o b j e c t i v e , n o voaan s h ~ n l d E n t s r m a r r i a g e w i t h o u t i t b e i n g f i r m l y a n d pxg&lyit&p u n d e r s z o c d t h a f t h e h u s b a n d i s ~ o tt h e h e z d o f t h s f a m i l y . U n l ~ s s stated O t h s r ~ ~ s e .t h e i r p l i c l t m a r r i a g e c o n t r a c t i n c l u d e s t h e " s t a n d a r d w c l a u s e a b o u t male l e a d e r s h i p . Chirgtng f t i s but gives c o r t r a c t a f t e r m a r r l a g e i s roT c ~ ~ 6l iyf f ; c u l t . r l s e t o f e f l i r g s c: h a v i n g b e e n m i s l e d o r c h s a t e d . A l t h g u g h o b j e c t i o n s n a y h e made t o i n t r 3 d u c i n g t h e s e i d e a s i r j u n i c r a n d s e n l o r h i g h s c h o o l c l a s s e s on t h e f a m i l y ( a s l c d i c a t e d by r e c e n t c o n g r e s s i o n a l p r e s s u r e on t h e n a t i o c a l SclEnce FouLdatiox t h a t r s s o l t e d i n en3ing s u p p o r t f c r curriculum p r o j e c t s i c rr?hropology and P s y c h l l o g y ) , nary local school districts w i l l f i n d s u c h c o n t e n t appropriata. Ir a d d l t l a n , t h e f e m i n i s t movement can C o n t i r u e t o c h a l l + a g e t h e i m p l i c i t s u p p o r t cf male dominant f a a l l y r e l a t i o n s i r E a g a z i n e s f o r y o u n g vonpn s u c b 2 5 sexQT,zser.. 9~&&, a n d GagogK. Ecotomic C o n s t r a i n t s and D l s c r i m l c a t i o n L+ck o f . ? C O ~ O E ? ~ C ~ l ? s r r a t i r s 8 t o d e p s c d e n c e 02 the h u s b a n d is a n c t h e r ore o f t h e t h r e e a a i n f a c t o r s t h i t 6 e l l e s (1976) f o u n d a s s o c i e t e d v i t h b e a t e n wives' remaining v i t h t h e l r h o s b ~ ~ d s . Thus. t o r womsn t o b e i n s p 0 s : t i o n ir w h i c h t h e y c a n r e f u s e t o t o l e r a t a physical c o s r c i c n by t h e i r husbands, c c c ~ p a t i o n a la r d e c o n o m i c e q u a l i t y a r e a b s o l u t e l y essent121. Consequently, one of t h e s o s t f u c d s a e n t a l p o l i c y l m p l l c a t i 3 n s is:

ElimiPatE t h e pervasive systsm of sex-typed occupations i n which "womsn's 9cCUpatioT.S" t9r.d t c be p o o r l y p a i d . a n d t h e e q u a l l y p s r v a s l v e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e pay o t Een a n d womer i n t h e same o c c u p a t i o n .

P I 13.

~ u r d e r .o~f C h i l d C a r s S ~ x n a l l y b a s e d d i v i s i o ~ of labor t h a h a s i q n s occupational child-r~aring rssporsibilty t o th? w i f e , discrlminatlon. lzck c t child-care f z c i l i t i ~ s , icadequate c h i l d s u p p o r t from e i t h e r t h e g c v e r n a e n t o r t h e f a t h e r - a l l c o e r c e women t o r e m a i n m a r r i e d e v e n when t h e v i c t i m s of vi0ltPCE. R b u s b a r d a o e s n o t need t o f e a r t h a t i f he b e a t s w i t s a r a t h ? u i f - l e z v ~ s ,h s w i l l b e r s s p o r s i b l e f o r h:s b o t h t h t c a r e o t t h e c h i l d a r d t h e need t o e a r n s u f f i c i e n t ir,came. so, 2 h u s h a i d c a r h i t ( a c d o t h ? r v i s e o p p r e s s ) h i s wlf4 w i t h r e l a t i v e impnnity. Re c a n be r e a s 3 n a b l y c o n f i d s n + t h 2 i i f s h e d o e s l e a v e , he w i l l n o t hav4 t h e c h i l d r e n u c l e s s he i n s i s t s on i t ; c o u r t s a r e r e l u c t a c t t o award c h i l d r i n t o fathers i n ary circuastancss. No shame i s i c v o l v e d f o r a r a t h e r who c l z i m s t h a t t h e c h i l d w i l l be b e s t o f f w i t h t h e mc?her, b u t f o r a m o t h e z t o s a y + h e c h i l a i s h e ? - c r c f f w i t h t h e f a t h e r is c o t o n l y s h a n e f u l , h u t :n many c % s ? s v i l l cause +he chi= t o be i n s t i t u t i o c a l i z s d or placed i n a f ~ s t s r home. Child c a r e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s c n l y o n e of many e x a m p l e s o f S E X - t y p e d r ~ l o s t h a t h i n d wossn t o v i o l e n t marriages. Sherefo?f: P I 14. Reduce nr e l l m i c a r e the sex-tppel pattern of f a s l l y r o l e r i s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . E s i n t h e c a r e of sexual stersctyping i r the paid labor force, l n t e r e s t a r d a b i l i t y r a t h s r t h a n s e x need t o be t h e p r i m a r y c r l * e r i a f o r who d o e s what. aoreover, this is a p o l i c y zmplica?ion 'hat, l i k e t h a t i n respect t 3 paid employment, i s d s s i r a b l e r e g a r d l e s s of i t s E f f e c t on wife-beating. J u s t a s many ( b u t n o t a l l ) woman w i l l f i n d g r e a t e r t u l f i l l m e ~ tt h r o u g h e g u z l participation i c t h e p a i d 1 2 b O r t o r c e , many ( h u t a g a i c n o t a l l ) non v i l l f i n d g r s a t e r f u l f i l l m e n t t h a n t h e y cow e a p s r i e n c e i n e q u a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n It t h e h c o s e h o l a l a b o r f o r c e . T h a t p o s s i b i l i t y i s now d e n i e d t o me2 b e c a u s e o f t h e shame a c t a c h e d t o men's s h o v i n g m a j o r i r t e r e s t i r h o u s e h o l a work a d c h i l d c a r s . P I 1 4 i s a long-range t y p e c f s o c i a l c h 3 1 9 ~ . 20d we n e e d n o t w a i t f o r it L O c n a e a b o u t . I n t h e meantime. o t h e r in a riolsnt s t e p s s a y b e t a k e r t o a i d vomex :rapped m a r r i a g e b y t h e necessity c f a s s u n x n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c h i l d c a r e i f t h e mar:lage b r e a k s up:

E s t s b l i s h o r s u b s i d i z e a comprehensive ard h l g h q u a l i i y s y s t e m 3 f d a y - c a r e c e n t e r s £Or p r ~ S C h 0 O lc h i l d r e n .

P I 15.

E g a i l . t h l s p o l i c y i s l o n g o v s z d u e i n i t s own r i g h t . cat j u s t f o r i t s p o t e n t i a l i r p r e v e n t i n g wife-beating. Such t a ~ i i i t i Ea ~r e n e e d e d by m i l l i o n s o f vomec who e r j o y f u l l y s s t l s t a c t o r y marriages.

T h e t h E E e B S p S C t s Of th9 sfXiST soclety are listed below; thei: w i f e - b o a t i n g Wers d e s c r i b e d i c C h a p t e r 6 r e p e a t e d here.

StrUC?UTe Of the imFlicatiocs f o r and need a j t be

myth o f t h e S i x g l e P a r e n t B o u s o h o l d P r e e m i n e n c e o r Wlfe B o l e f o r Wonen

T h e s e a s p e c t s a n d t h e n a r y o t h e r ways i n w h i c h women a r e d i s a d v a n t a g e d ( a n d t t e r e f o r e l e s s a b l e t o 2nd a v i 3 l e n t m a r r i a g e ) s u g g e s t t h e t f u r . d a r n e l t e l c h a r g e s s h c u l d be made. P I 16, 1 7 , a n d 18 a r e x o t p o l i c y a n a l y s e s i n t h e s p e c i f i c s e n s e u s e d by Wilsor. a n d t3cDorald (1972:l-2). but are g u i d e l i n e s t o r needcd c h z c g e s i n p u b l i c l a w s and p r i v a t e practlcss. T h e m c s t i a p o r t a c t p o l l c y i m p l i c a t i o n of all t h o s e put f o r t h ir. t h i s chapter i s th3t: P I 16. P u l l s e x u a l e q u a l i t y is prevention of wife-beating.

essfrtial

fcr

A t + h l s p o i ~ t we must make c l e a r an important l i a i t i t l o n t o much c f w h a t h a s be?n s a i d . Sexual e q u a l i t y i r ; t s s l f i s a l m o s r c e e t a i n l y gnf g o i n g t o er.8 c m f l i c t a n d v i o l ~ n c e between h u s b a r d r and wives. Equality v i l l reducs o r e l i m i n a t e = * + a i r , k l n a s of c a r f l i c t , but, a t t h e same I s s u e s t h a t a r e r a t now t i m e . i t w i l l c r f a t a new c o n f l i c t s . t.h e s- u b i J C t o f d l s a m e e m e r t i~ m i l l i o n 5 o f f a m i l i e s - - s u c h a s who w i i l work t o r w a g e s a n d who v i l l v o r k i n t h e h c a s ? , o r more s a e c i f i c i s s u e s . s u c h a s who v i l l do t h e launarv--can n o l o n g e r b e d e t e r m i n e d by r e f e r r i n g t o t h e t r a d i ~ i o n a l pattern o t tamily roles. R a t h c r , t h e s e i s s u s s becOmE o p e n I t i s by g u " s t i c n ~ . O V 4 r which s e v e r e c o n f l i c t can a r i s e . n o means i n c o r . c e i v a b l c t h a t nsif&x p a r t n e r w i l l Wact t o b e I n t h e p a i d l a b o r f o r c e , o r t h a t npzf,hg; v i l l want t o d~ th. laundry. Consequectly, a rsduction i n t h e l e v e l of v l 3 l e r c e also requires tha? couples have i n t e r p i r s o n a l and c o n t l i c t - m a ~ e g e n e r t s k i l l s needed t o cope w i t h , a r d r e a l i z e the befiefits of, a l e s s r l g i d family systea. Millions of p-ople l a c k t h e s e s k x l l s : almost a l l of u s can rnprove then. ~~

~

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2~~

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I n addition. I? w o u l d b e s h c r t s i g h t e d . e v s n d s r g = r o u s , t o o v ~ r l o o k t h c~o s ; s o f f r e e d o m a r d f l e r i b i l i z y . Pr~edom a r d f l ~ ~ i b l l ilr .? f~a e i l y p z t t e r r s a n d s e x r o l e s remove s o n s of t h e f o u n d a t i o r s o f s t a b i l i t y and s e c u r i t y i n l i f e . Not e V a r y c C e f l n d s r h e b e r e f i t s w o r t h t h e s e :os?s. Prich Promm's (1941) c l a s s i c book g s c g ~ l fre! E~e:ppg was c o ~ c e r n e dw i t h f a r more t h a n - h e r e a s o n s t h i ? f a s c i s m h a d such w i d e s u p p o r t . A t + h e O t h e r end o f t h s continuum. t h e

Ch. 13.

W~te-Beating

?age 225

m l l l i o r s o f women c p p c s e d t o t h e E q u a l R i g h t s emccdmpct a n d t h e t e r n m i s t novenen: r e f l e c t t h e a n x i s t y t h a t mazy u c ~ s c f e e l over t h e p o s s i b l e l o s s of f a m i l i a r and s t a b l e gui3es t o lits. Tbsrotare: P I 17.

36

roles, SFCUII~Y

t h e E O C ~ C < Y s l i m i n a t e s f i x e d s=x a l t e r t a t i v s s c u r c e s i f s t a b i l i t y an3 i n s e l t - d e f i c i t i c n w i l l be need4a.

P a r t at t h e s e r e e d e d

social

occupational i d s c t i f i c a t i o ? . t h a t ,

a n c h o r s w i l l coa? from i n ? h e p a s t , 513.5 a i f f i c n l t

o r i m p o s s i b l e f o r vomkn. Tts d i f f i c u l t y was c o t o n l y b e c a u s s 5 0 t e ~wCmFn W E T = i r s o c i a l l y v a l u e d 3 c c u p i t i o n a l x c l e s , b u t a l s o ~ ~ C Z U S fPo r a t o be h i g h l y i d m L i f i e d with an o c c u p a t i o n r e i s e d doob's about her f a m i l i a l c o m m i t m e n t , h e r l o v e f o r h e r h u a b ~ n d %ad c h i l d r e l , a?d h e r femininity. iiouevcr, o c c u p a t i o n as 3 s s u r c e 3 5 idec?:ty and s s l t - e s t e s u ! h a s i t s limits. V a s t n u m b e r s o f o c c u p a t i o n s a r e U n l i k e l y t c b e v a l u e d a s a msans o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a p 3 r s a f a 1 1 d e a . t i t y - - e i t h e r by men o r by vomen. Forturately, oth=r r o l e s a n d i d e n t i t i e s c+n g i v e l i f s n s e d e d s t r u c t n r e a n d s o c i a l integratiov--particularly r o l o r i n r e l s t i o c *n 'he community. s p e c i a l p n r p o s ~g r c u p s , a r d t h = l e r g e r k i n g r o u p . T h e 5 9 w i l l bE d i S c n s 5 E d i ~ t E ; . SU? b ~ f 3 r 6d o i n g t h a r , two f i n a l a s p e c t s o f s e x r o l e s - f e d t o be c o n s i d f r e d .

compulsive m a ~ c ~ 1 i C : t y " was d ? s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 6 . .? c o m p l s m e n t a r y " c o m p u l s i v e f e m i r i r i t y ' f a c t o r 3153 e x i s t s . a s r ? f l e c t e a i n B a r a b e l n o r g a r ' s Tpfal 8 9 " ~ ~ . t h e l s r g e s f s ~ l l l n g work o f n o n - t i c t i o n i r 1973. I5rgan l a y s g r e a t s t r e s s o n u s i n g f s r n i n i n i t y t o c a c t r o l men. Bowever, the c o n c ~ p t i o n of women a s s u b o r d i n a t e acd c h i l d l i k ? t h a t u n d e r l i e s h e r view of f e m i n i n i t y and h e r t a c t i c s f o r m a n i p u l a t i n g mar a l s o t r a c h ( p e r h a p s e v e n n o r 9 p c v s r f u l l y ) t h e c a t u r a l i a f c r i c r i t y o f uomen. T b e book h s l p s t o maintarn t h e negative self-image t h a t , despite t h s wiles t a u g h t by n o r g a n , u n d e r c u t s :he a b i l i t ? o f vsnsn t o b- i r u l y equal.

nagatlve Sslf-Image Siccs compulsive m+sculinity a?d its assaclz-ed riolerco and c o a p u l s i v e f e m i n i n i t y acd i t s a s s 3 c i a t e d n e g a r z v e s e l f - i m i g e a r e p a t t e r c s qT3H11g Dot ot th9 d l f r e r e n i e x p e r i f n c e ~c f mef a n d women f r o m s a z l y c h i l d h c o d o n , p e r t i c u l a r l y in t h e way b o y s a n d g i r l s a r s s o c i a l i z e d f o r t h e i r ~ e s p e c t i v ss e x r o l e s , it f o 1 1 0 w s t h a t :

C h . 13.

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Male O:len+.ation

P a q ~226

o f t h e C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e syszem

malr violence agairst wives Not o n l y i s much at'ributable ? o t h e s e x l e t o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y , h u t t h e male-criented o r g a r i z a t i o r . o f The c r i l i n a l j u s t i c s system v 1 r t 3 e l l y q u a z a c t e e s t h a t f s v women w i l l b e a b l e t o s e c u r e l e g a l r e l i e f (Fields. 1978).

B u t e v e n i f a woman g a r s t o F a m i l y C o u r t , unless she h a s u n u s u a l u n d ~ r s t a n d i c g cf a x d a b i l l i y L3 m e n i p u l a t e + h o System, t h e r e i s o f t e n a three-weak d e l a y b e f o r e h e r r = ? u 9 s t f o r 3 " p e a c e b o r d " o r ec Oforder of p z o t e c t i o n " c o m a s b s f o r e t h e judge. S u c h o r d e r s i r e t h e r e f o r 9 of 1 0 g r e 3 t e r h e l p i r s e c n r i n g i m e e d i a t e p r a t e c t i o r f r o m a l a t h ~ rz s s a 2 l t t h 3 n t h e men ~ i t h o u t these p o l i c e o f f i c e r s d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p L e r 3. delays, many voaan carcc+ s t t f n r i c o u r t b e c z u s a o f - h a l a c k o f c h i l d - c a r p a r r a n g e n s r c s d n r i i g t b ~ el o n g h ? u r s of v a i t i r ~ g f o r a c a s a t o corns up, f r e q u e n t l y r e p e a t e d when t h e c a s e i s rescheduled. C h a p t e r s 3 a r d 6 d e t a i l mary i m p e d i e s n t s t a s e c u r i n g l e g a l p r o * e c t i c n a g i i r s t e s s a u l t by a h u s b a n d , i n c l u a i n g ( a ) l e g a l d e l a y s , especially i n o h t a i n i c g a " p e a c e bond" or an "ard?r of protec?ion"; (b) i m i n u r i i y f r o m s u i t by o n e ' s (c) t h s r e q u i r s n e n t t h a t , d e s p i t e a b u r d i n t p h y s i c a l spouse; e ~ i d e n c ~ t, h e p o l i c e c t t i c e r m u s t w i t n e s s t h e a t C a c k b e f o r e ar, a r r e s t c a n b e made: (0) t h e frequent f a i l u r e of police t o a r r e s t e r e 2 W ~ E P t h s y do w i t n e s s a n a s s s u l t : (E) t h s " c o a l i n q o u t " by p o l i c e , prosscn:ing a5torneys. and l o d g e s of w i v e s who a t t e m p t t o b r i n g c o m p l a i n t s : end [ f ) t h s r e f u s a l t o maka a n a w a r d b ~ p u b l i c c o n p e ~ s a t i o n r e v i e w b o a r d s (Even i r cases o f p s r m a n p r t disability) if t h e i r j o r r "3.5 i n f l i c t e d by t h e h n s b a r d . A l l of these f z c t 3 r s indicate t h e nEed f o r t h n f o l l o w i n g p o l i c y : P I 19.

El:mixaLe from t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c s system the implicit tcleration of vife-beating shcvn i n sia'utary a n 6 common law; a-i'udes of t b e p o l i c e . p f l s e ~ u t o r ~ , and i u d o e s : a n d cumbersome a n d i n s f f e c ? i v ?

Same movement i n t h e d i r c c t i o r o f P I 1 9 i s n c v t a k i n q b u t i r 1s f a r f r o r a g e n e r a l t r e n a . B chargs Lr t h e 1 S g a l s y s t e m z e q u i r e s a p r i o r i t y a c t i v i t y by v s l l o z g + n l z e a f e m i n i s t g:oups. 8 s i n t h e "Now w i f e A s s a u l t P r 2 g r a m n i c Enn B.rb31, f i i c h i g a n ( F O L j i k , 1 9 7 6 ; Resnik, 1976) or in the c c c a s l o t a l e n l i g h t e r e 6 p o l i c ~d e p a r t a c n t t h a t r s c c g n i z e s t h e plats.

Ch.13.

Wife-Beating

P s g e 227

n e e d t o r r c r i e n t i t s mode of copicg d l s t u r b a r c e ' c a l l s ( B a r d ~2 81.. 1 9 7 5 ) .

viih

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ECONONIC PROSTRBTION B N D V I O L E A C E

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t r o m e a r l y c h i l d h o o d on. p e o p l e l e a r n '3 TESPOP~ to trustrat:on a i d 5 t r e s s by a g g r e s s i o n . T h i s r?Spons? i s not inevitable b i o l o g i c a l l y since ID a few s o c i e t i e s p e o p l e l e a r n t o . a c d t y p i c a l l y do. r e s p o r d t o f r u s t r a t i o r in o t h e r ways. N=v?rthel-sa.

a g g r e s s i v e r e s p o n s e 2s t y p i c a l o f t h i s r o c l s t y and i s 1 r k e I y t o r e a a i r s o ir t h e f o r e s e e a b l e futo:?. For + h i s reason, a n d because a policy dLrec:ed to rsducing frus:ratlon would be d e s i r i b l e i n i r s own r i g h t , we s h o u l a gLvs h i g h p z i a r r t y t o e n a b l e a s m a y p s r s o n s a s p o s s i b l ~ t o a v o l d s l C u a t l o n s c f o x t r e m s f r u s t r a t i o n cE i m p o r t a n t l l f s goals. T h i s p r o p o s a l is b y 30 m f a r s t h a s a m s a s a % t e m F t i r g t o crea&.o e l i f e vithou? frustration. Such a l i f e , even i f i t were possible, would be e m p t y , a n d w3uld probably be a s o u r c e of v i o l e n c e i n r t s e l f (see t h e discussion 5f t h e T l n c k s o r X O r a n g e w t h e o r y of v i o l e r c e i n G e l l e s a n d s t r a u s . 1 9 7 8 ) . A o u e v e r . a m a j o r b l o c k a g e ot a c r i t i c a l l i f e g a a l i s q u i t e a n o t h e r th1r.g. a + n y c r i t i c a l l i t e g c a l s a r e ( o r p e r h a p s s h o u l d be) beyond t h e r e a l m o r s o c i a l p o l i c y t o f a c i l i t a t e . But a g o a l o n w h i c h t h c r e i s h i g h c o c s e n s u s , 35 w e l l a s a h i g h possibility o f a ~ h i ~ ~ ic hr agn g e , i s t h e provisior of a m e a n i n g t o 1 s c c u p a t i o r a l r c l e a n d a n a d e q u a t e l o v e 1 of i r c o m o for a l l faailies. i n r n d u s r r i s l s o c i e t i e s , t h o h u s b a c d ' s p o s i t i c r of l e ~ d e r s h i p d e p s n d s c n t h o p r e s t i g e a n d e a r n i n g power 3 f h i s Occupetion. Consequcn+ly, it t h e husband is unaeplcyed o r d o e s c o t e a r n 2n a m o u r t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h o t h e r men i n r h e f a n l y v s n f t v o z k of a s s o c i a t e s , h i s l e a d s r s h i p p o s i t i s n i s n ~ d e r m i n ~ d . D a t a from a s r u d y by O'Brierr ( 1 9 7 1 ) s h o v '.hat, when t h i s h a p p e n s . h u s b a r d s t e c d -0 t r y t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n through t h e use of physical forc-. Dat3 f r o m my s t u d y of t h e p a r e r t s o f u n i v e r s i z y s t u d e o t s s h o v t h a t ihs p e r c e n t a g e o f h u s b a n d s r h o s t r u c k t h a i r w i s e s i n t h e l a s t y e a r r a r g e s from a law o f 9 and 7 p e r c e n t f o r 'hose w h o s e U:VBS a r e a l m 0 5 t c o m p l e t e l y o r c o m p l e t e l y sa:isf:ed w i t h t h e L r f a m i l y i n c o m e , op t o 1 6 a n d 1 8 p e r c e n t f o r those whose x i v e s a r e s l x g h t l y s a t i s f i e d o r n l t a t 311 s a t i s f i e d . T h e r e i s 2150 e ~ i d e l c et h a t a s s e u l t s on w i v e s g o up w i t h onemploymen: (Parade. 1971:13: Straus, Gelles, and Steinnetz, 1979).

I n d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e x i s t o r g a n i z a t i a n of t h e f a a i l y a s a c a u s e o f u i f e - b e a t l n g , we p o i x t e d o n t t h a t if h u s b s r d s n o l o n g e r had t h e b u r d e n o f b e i n g t h e " h e a d o f t h ? f a m i l y " a n d t h e a 3 i n "breadwinner," t h e y v o u l d no' ~ e t o~ r eds o r t t o ~ i c l e n c et o m a i n t a i r t h a t p o s i t i o n i n s i t u a t i o n s where t h e w:fe is mare cornpeter;, e a r r s more, or h a s a Nore prest:gious occupation. The same r e a s o n i n g i p p l i e s , p i r h a p s even nor6 strongly, v h e r t h e h u s b a n d i s unamployed. C l e a ~ l y , t h e n o s t furdam?ntal change needed is male l i b e r a t i o n t r o m t h e b c n d s of f r a d i t i o c e l s e x r o l e s . Pt t h e sam5 time, v e c a n p u r s u e e p o l i c y t h a t , a s i d e from i t s int:~?.sic worth. 15 l i k e l y t o T E ~ U C Sw i f e - b e a t i r g . It is s t a r k i n i t s s i m p l i c i % y a n d p o w e r f u l i n i t s €ffE:t on human welfare:

P u l l e m p l o y m e n t f o r a l l s e r a n d women i n t h e l + b o r f o r c e a t wage l e v e l s c o n s i s t s n r w:th t h e s t a n d a r d s of t t e s o c i e t y , and s g u a r a n t e e d i n c o r n s f o r t h o s e o?.ab19 t o work.

P I 20.

h s l d ~f r o m i t s impac'

nr u i f s - b e a t i n g ,

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or t h e m o s t s e v e r e f r u s t r a t i o c s t h s L a,ps:soo

can exparLance I n e n r n d u s t r l a l s o c i e t y e n d i n b y p a s s r n g i s s u e s of power w i t h i n t h e family, f u l l employeent e x e r t s a powerful e f f e c t a n ssli-esteem. K a p l a n (1975) h a s shown t h a t t h e l n u ? r a n adolescent's s e l f - e s t e e m , t h e g r e a t e r t h e l i k e l i h o o d of h i s being violent; Kaplan's d a t a suggest t h a t bops 1 3 w i n self-esteem 5 9 e k t o aChlEVe r ~ c o g n i t i o nf r o m o t h e r s t h z o n g h rialeace. T h i s b s h a v l o r , s f c o u r s e , is t i e d t o the o q u a t i o n of mascu1:~ity with aggresslvensss. C o n s e q u a r t l y , when r e c o g r i t i o n through achievemect i r school. s p o r t s , 3r a n occupation is lickirg, s a l e s c a r a n d do d e m o n s t r a t e t h e i r "manhoodv t h r o u g h u i o l e r c s . Again, t h e more f u n d a e ~ n t a l p o l i c y a b j s c t l v s i s t o c h e n g e t h e d e f i n i t i o n cf n a s c u l i r i t y . B u t a s Long a s ; h a t d e f i n i t i o c c o n t i n u e s t o b e a p a r t o f o u r c u l r u r e , f u l l employmPnt c a n h e l p a v o i d i n v o k r n g t h i s a s p e c t o f " e a c h o o d " t h r o u g h p r o v i d i n g m e a n i n g f u l employment as a bas15 f O T SSlr-8Steel. B more r a d i c a l a p p r o z c h t o t h i s r e l a t i o c s h i p b s t v e e n economic f r u s t r a t i o n and v i f e - b e a t i n g f c c u s e s on what C r i t i c s of A m e r i c e n s c c i s t y s e e a s t h e i n h u e e n o c c u p a f i o n a l and economic system. Such c z i t r c s a r ? n o t opposed to f u l l enployment, b u t t h e y d o oppose t h e s c o r o s i c and s o c i a l sys.e.2 t h a t j u d g e s humai w o r t h b y ~ a r c i n g sa n d c o m p e t i t i v e c c c u p a t l o ~ a l a c h l e ~ ~ m e ~ t 8. 5 l o n g a s s u c h a systpm pTeV3.115, t h e b u l k o f t h e p o p u l a r i o n i s d e o i e d a!? a d s g u a t e l e v e l o f s e l t - e s t . s e m b e c a u s e o n l y + m i r o r i t y , by d e f i n i t i o n . c a n b e i t t h e t o p i n o c c u p a + i o r a l p r e s t i g e a n a incorn-. I? a d d i t l o r , t h e s t r i v i r g t o g e t t o t h e t o p p u s h e s t h e more humac v a l u s s '0 s u b c r d i n 3 r e p o s i t i o n . Ties JE frierdahip, k i n , a n d community. f o r e x a m p l e , a r e r e g u l a r l y sacrifices i n moving t o g e t a b e t t e r j c h o r a c c r p t i n g a p r o m o t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e f o l l o u l n g p o l i c y is p r o p o s e d :

ch. 1 3 . R i f e - B e a t i n g

Pag? 2 2 9

P I 21. Reduce t h e e x t e n t t o which s c c i ? t y evaluates pecpls o r the b a s i s of t h e i r t h i eccnonic achievemeres and redvcn o c c u p a t i o n + l and economic c o m p e t i t i o n 'hit t h i s ectails. The i m p l i c a t i c n of P I 2 1 is 33: t h e end t 3 a l l competition. C o a p e t i t i o r c a n b e p l s a s u r a b l e , if on? c a n rbno=e tha a a n d -i f t h e r e i s a rt=asacable --r e n a of ~- c -c a o p t i t i o n chalce of vinlirg. Bather, t h e p o l i c y s u g g s s t s t h e need t o e n d ;he f o r c e d a n d ( f o r m o s t o f t h e p a p o l s t i c n ) r o - w i n c o m p e t i t i o n t h a t now c h a r a c t e r i z e s o u r 3 c c u p + t i o n a l - s c 3 n o m i c

~~. ~

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SUnillRY A N D CORCLUSIONS P h y s i c a l v i o l e n c s b e t v e e r h u s h a n d a n d w i f e 1s a c9mnor b u t C D ~ a n i n e v i t a b l e p a r t o f human na'orp. O c l y i? r a r e i 1 5 5 a n c = s is i t ?.P OUZgrOYth of p~thn13gical BZlE a q g r e s s i u e i e s s , o r of f e n a l e masochism. Parhe=, t h e t y p i c a l p a t t e r n o f h u s h a n d - w i f e o i o l e n c e , a n d i t s e x t r e m e Fn t h e form of ' w i f e - b s a t i n g . " is l a r g e l y a r p f l e c t i o n 3f t h e n a t u r e of t h e s o c i s t y , i t s f a m i l y system, a r d i t s t y p l c g of s e x r o l e s znd male/fenalG p e r n o n a l i r y l r a i t s . C3r.segusrtly. t h e f o c u s o f t h i s c h a p + e r h a s b e e n r o d e d u c e from t h e s e s o c i a l f a c t o r s ? h e p o l i c i e s t h a t , i f a d o p t a a , would r e d u c e t h e l e v e l o f ~ l f ~ - b ~ a < i r . g . 11 a l l , 21 different policy i m p l i c a t i o n s were o u t l i r s d and a r s summarized i n T a b l e 1. T a b l e 1 . Summary o f P o l i c y i r n p 1 i c a : i o r s f o r Preusrtion Derived from l n a l y s i s o f S i r s o c i a l S t r u c t u r a l Causal Factors F a c t o r I. -----1. 2.

CULTUPRL BORflS PEPUIT A N D LSGITINIZS WIFE-BELTING

s a k e t h e p u b l i c a u a r e 9f t h i s l a r g e l y unperceived corn. Redef;ne t h 9 m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p a s o r 5 i n which use o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e i s a s u n a c c s p t a b l e a s i t i s b e t v s e r o n e s e l f a n d t h o s e w i t h whom o r e works, b9vls. o r plays tenria.

Factor

IE.

WIPE-BEBTIAG REFLECTS SOCIETlL VIOLSVCE

EEdaCe t o t h o naxlnum e x t e n t p l s s i h l s t h e u s e o f phys:cal f o r c s a s an i n s t r u m e n t of governPent. L i n l t v i o l e n c e i n t h e mass m e d i a t o i s much 3s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h p ~ e s ~ r v i f~r sge d o m o f o x p r e s s i a ? a n d artistic ixtegrity. Enact s t r i n g e n t gun c o n % r o l l e g i s l a t i o n , particolarly r ~ s t ~ ~ c t hi ann dg gons, b u t a l s o r e q u i r i n g t h a t a l l g u n s b e k e p t l o c k e d a r d unloadwd.

Ch. 1 3 . W i f e - B a a t l n g F a c t o r ZIJ. THE -----VIOLENCE I S 6.

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WHICR

IA

G r a d u a l l y s l i m i n a t e p h y s i c a l punishment e s a mcle of child rearing. EncCUZage p a r e n t s t o c o n t r o l a c t s o f p h y s F c a l f o r c e between thei: c h i l d r e r and t o avoid p x p l i c h t l y o r implic:tly d e t i n i n g such a c t s as p s r e i s s i b l e . Provide parents and children with tschniques other than t o r c n and c o e r c i o n f o r c o p i n g with a z d r e s o l v i n g t h e i n e v l t a h l ~c o n f l i c t s a f f a a i l p l i f s . Sponsor r s ~ e a r c b t a detsrmine th? sccial and p s y c h o l o g i c a l c ~ n d l t i o n st h a t c a u s e some p a r e c t s t o b e c o l d a n d d i s t a n t r a t h e r t h a n warm a 2 d l 3 v i n q . +I& t r a n s l a t e t h e r e s u l t s i n t o p r o g r a m s :o a s s r s c s u c h parents.

&r;er 21. 10.

PBCILY I S LEBRNED

p a g e 230

THE INEVITABILITY OF CONPLICT I F TE9 FRflILY

Reduce t h e impact of government proarams end regulations that, d i r e c t l y o r indirscLly, anc3crige geographic mobility o r reduce t i e s t o t h e extended Family. ReCOgniZE t h e l r . e v i t a b i l i t y of c o n f l i c t within t h e f a m i l y r a t h e r 'heo c o r s i d e r c m f l i c t a r abccrmal deviation.

F a c t o r 1. SEXUALLY STSREOTYPFD PRnILY P N D T R E SOCIETY.

POLES

RND

SEIISil

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I l i a i P E t e t h e h u s b a n d a s 'head o f t h e f a m i l y " f r o e its co"tinUFPq p r e s e n c e i~ t h e l a w . i n religioc. in a d m i n i s t r a t r v e p r o c e d u r e , and a s a 'sksl-for-greofed a s p e c t of f a m i l y l i f s . E l i m i n a t e t h e p e r v a s i v e system of sex-typad o c c u p a t i o n s i n w h l c h "women's o c c u p a t i o n s " 'end t o b e p o o r l y p a i d . a n d t h e e q u a l l y pETV351Pf d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e p a y o f men a n d woeen i n t h e same o c c u p a t i o n . Reduce o r e l i m i n a t e t h e sex-typed p a t t e r n of f a m i l y role r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . Esfab1:sh o r s u b s i d i z e a comprebensivs end h i g h q u a l i t y system of day-care c e - t e r s f o r p r a s c h o o l childr?n. ~ u l sl e x u a l e q u a l i t y i s e s s e n t i a l f o r p r e v e n t i o n o f u~te-beatirg. A S t h e S O C ~ E~ ~l i ~m i ~ a t ef lsx 7 d s e x - r o l e s . ~ltern3riv~ s o u r c e s of s t a b i l i t y a n d s e c u r i t y i n s s l f - d e f i c i t i o n "ill b e n e e d e d . Parent-chLld i n t e r a c t i o n , p a r c n t a l e x p e c t a t i o n s , an6 a l l o t h f r a s p e c t s of s o c i a l i z a t i o n s h o u l d n o t b e diffe:ent:ared accordilg t o t h e SEX of t h e chilS. E l i m i n a t e f r o e t h a c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e system t h e i m p l i c i t t o l e r a t i o n o f w i f e - b e a + i n g shown i n s t a t u t o r y a n d common l a w ; t h e a t t i t u d e s of t h e p o l i c e , prosecut.ors, and judges; 2nd c u m b e r s c n e a n d i n ~ f f e c t i s ep r o c 4 d u r e . s t h a + make e v e n t h e a v a i l a b l e l e g a l r e m e d i e s a n d

protection ineffective. PPCDR --20-

21.

!I.

PRDSTRATIORS BUILT I N T O TEE ECONDBIC S Y S I P E

F e l l e m p l o y m e n t f o r a l l men a n d women i n t h s l s b o r rorce a + wage l e v e l s c o n s i s t e n t v i z h t h e s t a n d a r d s o f t h e s o c i e t y , and a g u a r a c t e e d income f o r t h o s ~ u n a h l e t c work. Beduce t h e e x t e n t t o which s o c i e t y e v a l u e t e s p e o p l e on t h e h a s i s o f t h e i r e c o n o m i c a c h i e v e m i n t s , ana r e d u c s t h e Occupational acd eccnosic coapetiti3n th%t t h i s entails.

E l t h o u g h t h e p r i m a r y f o c u s c f t h e c h i p t e r uss on p c l i c l e s t h a t w i l l Eexez w i f e - b e e t i n g , *.he d e s p e r a t e i m s a d l a t e s z t u a t i c n o f m i l l i o n s of w i v e s must a l s o b e addressed. C o n s e q u e C t l y , t h e l a s t i h i r d nf t b * l o r o a r p c y r frcm which t h i s c h a ? t e r was e x c ? r p t = d (straus, 1977) i s devoted t o s t e p s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l wives mszried t o an a s s a u l t i v e husband can t a k e , a n d t o a c t i o n s f s a i F i s t and community g r o u p s , police. e n d human s e r v i c e a g e a c l ? ~c a n t a k e . t o c o p s v i x h tte i m m e d i a t e p r o b l e m . Changing a p h e r o n e n e r a s d e e p l y %bedded i n t h e s a c i a l system a s wife-beating is a v a s t undertaking. S s many a c t i m s a r e n e e d e d t h a t o n e a l m o s t d o e s c o t know v h c r e to start. Ir f a c t , a r e a l i s t i c z p p r o a c h r e c o g n i z e s t h a t t h e r e is no one p l a c e t o s t a r t . Rather, a broad p u b l i z awareness a ~ dc o m n i t m ~ n t t o c h a n g e is n e c e s s a r y . s o t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s and g r o u p s i n a l l s p h e r e s o f l i f e can a t t e n d t c changes i n each af t h e s e spheres. For example, change i n t h e l e g a l and l a w e ~ f o r ~ e m e ns yt s t e m w i l l c o t i n i t s e l f e n d v i f e - b s a ' i r g . Rut, :he p o l i c e , l a w y e r s , j u d g e s , a n d l e g i s l a t o r s c a n a c t t o r e m o v ~some o t t h e a a l y b a r r l e r s t h a t now p r s v e n t vaasn from ~ C c ~ i v i n gl e g a l p r o t e c t i o n f r o m b e a t i n g s . T h u s , i n most stat"^, u ~ l e s st h e a s s a i l a n t USES a weapon, the police c i n r a t make a n a r r e s t , e v e n i f t h e r i f e i s o b v i o u s l y i n j u r e d and t h e husband makes n c a t t e m p t t o d e c y h e r c h a r g e s . (She cal, h o w e v e r , make a " c i t i z e P q s a r r e s t " a n d i c s i s t t h a t t h e p o l i c e h e l p h e r - - p r o v i d e d s h e h a s s u f f i c i s r ? p r e s e r c e of mind, s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e . a r d d e t e r m i n a t i m . acd some p l s c e t o h i d e when t h e h u s b a n d i s z e l e a s e d f r n n j a i l a n h o u r o r t w o later!.) T h e l a w r e g u l a t i n g t h e e v i d e n c e n e e d e d t c mske a n can be changed, just as lavs a r x e s t f 3 r wife-beating r e g a r d i n g t h s e v i d e n c e needed f o r a r a p e c o n r i c t i o n havn r e c e n t l y changed. Sirnilerly, putting a husbald i n j a i l deprives t h e w i f e of h e r a e a c s of s u p p o r t : t h i s E3ct i s o f t e n p o i n t e d o u t t o women a n d i s o n e r e a s o n s3 f e w S r o P r e l y b e a t s n w i v e s p r e s s Chargss. BOW EVE^, i C SO.€ states, 3 p r i . 5 3 ~ 8 1c a n be r e l e a s e d f o r e m p l o y m e n t d u r i n g w o r k i n g h o u r s , a n d s o c h l a v s c o u l d be e n a c t e d i n o t h e r s t a t e s if t h e s o c i s t y were t z u l y determined t o e n d v i f e - b s 2 t i n g .

Ch.13.

Wife-Beating

P39e 232

This f i r a l c h a p t e r h a s attempted t o t r a c e c u t t h e p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s o f o n 1 knowledge o f o n e a s p e c t o f f a m i l y Violence: ulfe-beating.. T h e r e i s good r i a s J n f o r t h e emphasis an vife-beating. Womer a r e u n d e r g r e a t e r r i s k t h a n men o f s e r i o u s i n j u r y from p h y s i c a l a t t a c k , and t h e y h a r e few alternatives f o r p u t t i n g up w i t h b e a t i n g s by t h e i r husbands. I n t h i s a r d i r p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s we p n i n t e d o u t a v a r i e t y of s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c c o c s t r a i n t s t h a t l o c k vomer In short, i n t o m a r r i a g e t o a s u c h g r e a t n r e x t e n t t h a n men. a s s l t e a i n C h a p t e r 2, women a r e v i c t i m i z e 3 by v i o l e c c e i n and t h e f a m i l y t o a much g r e a t e r E x t s n t t h a n a r e h u s b a n d s , s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e t h f~o c u s o f t h e most i n m e d i a t e r s e e d i a l

embedded i n t h e v e r y s t r u c t u r e o f s0c:ety acd t h e f a m i l y system i t s e l f . The s o l u t i o n t o w i f e - b s a t i n g , like other f o r m s o f i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e , l i e s i n t h e complex i n t e r p l a y o f c u l t u r a l and e o c l a l o r g + r i z a t i o r a l f s c t c r s s u r r x n 3 i n g famlly l i f e .

NOTES * R e v i s e d v e r s i o n of p a r t o f " A S o c i o l o g i c a l P e r s p a c t i v e and T r e a t m e n t o f U i t e - E e a t i n g . ' R e p r i n t e d w i t h p e r n i s s i c n from B s r i a Roy, (€d.) B a t t e r e d women. New Fork: Van Nostrand-Reinhold, 1977. T h i s p a p e r was f i r s t p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 1977 a n n u a l m e e t i n g o f t h e American Psychiatric Association. I am g r a t e f u l +o n a r i a Roy a n d t l P r o f e s s o r s R i c h s r d J. Gel195 a n d Boward n. S h a p i r o , and J e a n Giles-Sims for comm2ntS a n d criticisms of t h e f i r s t d r a f t .

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~ppleton-ce~tury-crofts. ARCBER. DINE a n d BOSENASY GBRTNER 1976 " V i o l e n ? acts and v i o l e n f 'imss: A contemporativ9 approach +o p a s t v a r rates.' American S o c i o 1 3 g i c a l S E V ~ P W 41 h0aicid-e (Decsnbsr) ~937-963. P R D R E Y , ROBERT 1 9 6 6 The T e r r i f o r i a l I a p e r a t i v e . Nsv York: Atheceum P u b l i s h e r s . EACH. GEORGE R. a n d PETEF WYDZN 1 9 6 8 The I n t i n a + e Fr~eRy. New York: Borrow. Pp.17-33. Blso r e p r i c t s a in S t e i n n e t z a n d s t r a u s . 197U. 1 9 6 7 Youth i r T r a n s i t i o n . Ann A r b o r , PBCEflRN. JERELD G. michigan: I n s t i t u t e f o r S o c i e l Rssearch. U n i v e r s i t y of nichigan. BEER. STEPNEN 3. 1974 o p F f f e c t son pOvar and t i i V i s i o L Of 7 i c L o i s V. Eoffaan and l a b o r i n t h e f a m i l y . " Chap. P. Ivac Nye ( e d s . ) . The Employed n o t h e r il E s s r i c a (seccrd Edition). Chicago: Rand n c b a l l y . EAHR. STEPAEN J . , CBAFLES 3. EOREBBLb, a n d YIKTOB GECAS 1974 wAdalescant perceptions of c o n j u g a l power.' social F o r c e s 52 ( n a r c h ) :357-367. ar. d CEBRLSS 1 . PEEK 1971 "The BRLSWICK, JZCK 0. E t r E g e d y of R m e r i c a ~ s 3 c i e t y . " The i n e x p r e s s i v ~ male: Family C o o r d i r a t o r (0ctaber):363-368. Elso r c p r i a t e d i n R r l s n e a n d 3ero.s S k a l r i c k (eds.) , I c t i a a c y , F a m i l y , and Society. Boston: L i t t l e , Brown a n d Co., 197'4, PP. 237-244. E A N D U B A , ALBERT 1 9 7 3 E g g r e s s i o n : E Soclal Learning Analysis. New J e r s e y : Prentice-Hall a n d F. B. WlLTERS 1 9 5 9 A d n l s s c = n t A g g r = s s l o n . BANDURA A. New Y ~ r k : R o n a l d P r e s s . BANDURA, ALBERT 2Td P. 9. WELTETS 1 9 6 3 S o c i a l L e a r n i n g and E o l l , Rlnsharf an8 P e r s o n a l i t y D€velooment. N e w Yark: Winston. BAaD, nORTON 1969 " F a m i l y i n t e r v e n t i o n p o l i c a t e e m s i s + cOmm~City l e n t a l h e a l t h resource." The J o u r n a l o f Scicr.cr 60 C r i m i n ~ l Law, Criminology and P o l i c s (21 :247-250.

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al.

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Indexes

Author Index

Abbort. S., 186" Adorno, T. W.,217, 218 Aldous, J., 1 7 8 Allen, C. hl., 16,19,77,87,137,156,171, 188 Altrochi, 1.. 141 Aniiiews, F. zW., 237 Antell, M., 4 7 Applry, ,\I. H., 9 6 Archer. D., 57. 213 Ardrey, R., 111 Bach, G. R., 20, 1 1 2 , 174n, 1 8 5 , 186-87% 220 Bachman. J. G., 215 B a h ~S. J., 186n. 191. 204,205 Balswick, J . O., 180

Bard, M., 50n, 226-27 Baii, P. B., 8 8 Bawwitz, H., 95 Bcll. N. W.. 1 9 2 Beilak, L.. 4 7 Bern, D. J., 38 Bern. S. L., 38 Benedici, R., 41

Berger, P., 9 Berger, A. A., 1 8 2 Brrkowitz. L.. 220 B e i n s ~ r i n .P. S.. 77, 78 Berry, W. A., 247 Bertelheim, R., 52, 60, 66n, 106. 112 Bickman, L., 48 Blau, P.. 4, 174". 193 Blechman. 6:. A,, 217. 221 Blood, K. 0..9, 129, 166, 177, 178, 179, 183, 186". 189, 192, 193, 204. 206 Blumberg, M.. 103 Blurnenthal. M., 213 Bohannan, P.. 40 Boigorta, E. F., 237 Boti, F.. 1 2 8 Bowerman.C. E., 186n, 191. 204. 235 B o w e r . N., 4 8 Brim. 0 . G . Jr., 174" Brown, B. W., 19. 21, 77, 171, 172, 181, 182.188 Brown, K. C., 145 Brownmiller, S.. 93 Buckley, W.. 174n Bulcioft, K.,32, 49, 191-92 Burgers, A . W., 8 8 Buric, 0 , 186"

Author Index Burke. R. J., 178 Burr, W.R.,181 Buss,A. H., 138 Calonico, j . M.. 191 Calverr, R., 13 Cameron. P.,145 Camphell, J. S., 103-4 Carillo-Beron. C., 72,73,7 4 Carroll, J., 14,137 Cenieis, R., 186n Chadiha. L.B., 237 Cohcn, P. S., 65n Cole, G. A , , 237 Conger, R.E.. 247 Cooper. D., 139 Cooie. A., 45 Coaer, L. A,, 8, 20. 79, 116-19 passim, 122-27passim, 129,130-31,133,137,

183,218 Cotrrell, L. S.. 181 Cromwcll, R. E.. 192 Croog, S . H., 104 Cuhei, J . F., 9,21,127,128 Cuifis, I. A , , 40 Dahrendorf, R., 20, 170,218 Dashefsky, A , , 77,78 Davis. A.I.. 88 Davis, K. E.. 138.147-48.151 Drasy, L.C.. 253 Deniin, N. K.. 139-40 Diuon. W.J., 62 Dohienwend, R. P., 95 Dolizrd, J. C . , 111,112 Durkhrim, E., 57 Edelheitz, H.,46 Emhree, j . F.. 41 Epsiein, S . , 141 Eiikson, I<.. 57 Erlangei, H. W.,81n Eron, L. D., 244 Errioni, A , 21 5 Fairchild. R.. 237 Fairingcon, K.,7-8.111. 116 Fennell, N.. 71 Fernandez-Marina. R.. 72,73,7 4

Feiracuti, F., 8,107. 137 Ferreira, A.J.. 11,48 Feshbach. S.. 52,112 Field. li. F.. 4546 Field, M ,PI., 4546 Fields, M. D.. 226 Foss, J . E.. 16,17,20,21,22n,116,143 Fotjik, K. M., 226 Fox,G. L,,189 Francke, L. B.. 92 French,J.R.P.,74,186,192-93 Prenkel-Brunswik. D. J., 235 Freud, S.. 52 Fromm, E , 224 Fursrenburg, F. F. Jr., 53 Gagnon, J. H., 35,38,53,216 Gaitnei, R., 57,213,235 Gecas, V.,62,186". 191,204,235 Geis. E., 46 Geiies, K. 1.. 3, 7,8. 13, 14,15,22n,25,

31,33,36n,40,43.45,55,61,63,66n, 88,90,103,107-8, 110. 112,113.116, 153-54.173. 208,214. 215,216,222. 227 Gerhner. G., 214 Gianopulos. A..180 Gii, D.G., 103,107,109,189 Glazer-Malbin, N.,180 Goldfarh, 180 Goode, W. J.. 9. 13, 17,87,90.105,106, 137,171,183,189,213,221 Goodsiadr, B., 205 Gordon. W. 11.. 77,78 Graham, 1.4. D.. 52,53,57 Grehlei, L.,81" Green, A.W., 183 Grinker. K. K..95 Gross, I.., 214 G u i i , ' r . R.. 52,53,57 Gurmacher, M., 14 Guzman. R.C.. 241 Halsdord, M. 1.. 236 Hamblin, R. L..179 Hanson, L. R..150 Harlow, H., 217 Haroff. P., 9,21,127,128 Hawkea, G. R.. 74,76

Author Index Mundy, D , 243 Murphey, H. S., 253 Niebuhr, R.. 11 Nye. F. I., 180, 235 O'Brien, I. E., 9, 19, 109, 137, 227 O'Dell, S., 217 Olson, D. H. L., 192, 221. 236 Oppong, C., 186" Owens, D.M., 14, 35, 76, 93 Palmer, S., 52, 55, 99, 113 Parade M a p i n e , 227 Parkin, P., 54 Parnas, R. I., 43, 45 Parsons, T., 70, 87-88, 180, 205-6 Parterson. G. R., 217, 221 Peek, C. W., 180. 235 Penilosa. P.. 72. 73 Pineo. A. C.. 9 Pines, A., 92, 1 7 8 Plarr, M., 9 Pogrebin, L. C.. 4 7 Pollock, C. B., 107 Prescotr, J. W., 217 Purney, S. W., 186" Rabunsky, C., 1 9 2 Radloff, R.. 243 Rahe. R. H., 96 Ramirez, M., 72, 73 Rsusch. H. L.. 174" Raven, B , H., 74, 18611 189, 192-93 Reid, J. B., 247 Reinhold. R., 9 2 Reiss, A. J. Jr., 149 Reinik, M., 226 Richmond, M. L., 186" Robercs, S. V., 6 2 Rodman, 14.. 87, 171, 189-90 R o d r i p e & A , 186" Rogers, M. F.. 171, 189 Rosrnihal. A. M., 4 8 ROSS,D., 180 Ross. S.. 180 Roy, M., 232" Rueger. R.. 182 Ryan, B. F., 41

Ryder. R. G.. 4 8 Safilios-Rothrchild, C.. 174". 178, 179. 186". 192 Sanford, N., 235 Scanzoni, J . H., 119, 120, 174% 186% 190, 204 Schoinagel. C. Y., 236 Schulz. D., 63 Schwarrr, C. G., 253 Scofch. N. A., 95 Scott, ,M. B.. 140 Scott, R. A.. 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101-2, 108,111 Seidcnbrrg, R., 99 Selye, H..9 5 Shapiio, H., 77, 78 Shaver, K. G., 138 Shearer. L.. 4 2 Shils, E. A , , 70 Shorr. 1.. 57 Shosrrom, E. L., 20 Simme1.G.. 9, 17, 21, 118, 170, 218 Simon, W., 35, 38, 53, 216 Singer, R. D., 52 Sipcs, R. G., 52 Skinner, B. F.. 125 Skolnick, A , , 9, 116, 127, 204, 235 Skolnick, J. 1-1.. 204, 235 Smith, R., 251 Spiegel. J. P.. 9 5 Spiey, J., 17, 20, 21, 116, 119, 128, 143, 145, 157-58, 170, 174". 175". 183 Srapp, J., 92, 1 7 8 Siaik, R , 13. 40. 47 Steele. B. F.. 107 Srrinmerz, S. K., 3, 8, 11, 31, 34, 36n, 40, 41. 55. 63, 64, 66n, 93, 105, 106. 107, 111.112.116.124,207.215,220,227 Siraus, M. A., 3, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18. 19. 20, 22n, 25, 31. 32, 33, 34, 35, 36". 40, 41. 43, 48.49. 50". 52, 53, 55, 61, 63, 64. 6611, 76, 77, 87, 91, 93, 105-8, passim, 110-13pasrim. 116,124, 131,134n,135n.137,153-54,156,171, 177, 179. 186.87". 188. 189. 191-92, 204, 206,207, 208,213-16parsim, 220, 222,227,231 Sirodrbeck. V. L., 77, 78

Author Index Surgeon General's Scirntific Advisory' Cornmiriee o n Television and Social Behavior. 214 Swain, M. A , , 247 Tallman, I., 192 Tanay, C.. 1 4 'Taylor, M., 74. 76 Taylor, S. P., 141 Tedeschi, J. T., 137, 138, 145, 150 Thibaut, I. W.. 118, 1 3 8 Thomas, D. L., 191 Trenr. R. D.. 240 Tiurnbull, R., 96, 235 Truningei, E., 44, 45, 46, 89, 93 Turk, J. L.. 1 9 2 Turner, A. I., 236 Turner, R., 139-40. 141

Wellei, R . H., 18611 Welsh, R. S., 15 Wesfley. W. A,. 149 Whire, L. A,, 69 Whitehurst, R. N.,91, 109, 133, 177. 180, 182-83 Whiting. B. B.. 93 Williams. D. B.. 46 Williams, R. M., 5 Wiilmott, P., 190 Wilson. L. R.. 211, 224 Winter. W.D.. 4 8 Wolfe. D. M., 9. 129, 166, 177. 1 7 8 , 183, 186n. 1 8 9 , 1 9 2 . 193, 204, 206 Wdff, H. G.. 95. 97, 101 Wolfgang, M. E., 8, 32, 40, 69, 71, 107, 137,183 Wyden, P., 20, 112, 174% 185, 186-87% 220, 235

Underwood, B. J.. 1 2 5 Van den Brighe, P. L., 205

Walder, 1.. O., 244 Walster. E., 151 Walters, R. H.. 107. 111, 235 Weber, M., 6 0 Weir, T.. 178 178 Wcitzman. L. I.,

Yaffc, J., 77, 78 Yarrow, M. R., 152 Yinger. J. M., 71 Ylio, K. A , , 31 Young, M., 190. 236 Zccevic. A.. 186"

Zub, G .H., 79

Subject Index

Absolure Resource Index, 193 Absolute resources, 196. 198, 201 Acccpinnce: and rule violations, 143. in intimate rclurionrhips, 144 Achievement: and conflicr. 58, 125; and women, 89; orienration. 188: and aggression, 206": and manhood. 228; m d human worth. 228, 229, 231 Adolercenrr, as source of dara, 191 Adultery, 145 Adults: in children's books, 6 2 ; as aggressois, 63; as vicrims, 6 3 Affection: decline of in marriage, 9 ; and violence, 217, 218 Affecrive invrsrmenr, in iniimate groups, 118, 119. 120. 122, 134" Age differences, related to violence. 34 Aggression, 23, 111, 124, 130, 134n, 137, 153.54": wives subjecr of, 7 ; in family. 7, 41; in male delinquents, 1 5 ; learned. 1 0 ; against women, 88; female, 88; male, 88: as normal, 111: in conflicis, 125; resolution, 131; disguised, 137; imputation of, 151; crearive, 204: and weakness. 206n; results of, 220. paihological. 229 Aggressive drive rheaiies, 111

Aegrcssive person, cultural meaning of. .. 151 Aging, and family iifc cycle, 1 7 Alcohol, 141, 171 Anger: holding in, 1 4 ; venting of. 220 Antagonisric behavior, 123, 129-33 Anricipatory socialirarion. 181 Assertiveness 100, 111-12, 150, 220 Attiibuiion iheory. 138-39. 147-48. 150 Auihoritarian personality, 217 Authoriraiianism, 73. 76, 81". 149 Avoidance: t o prevent violence, 115: and contlicr, 122-25, 129, 144; definition of. 126; as behavioral outcome, 126-29 Balance of power: in family, 156, 193:and violence, 196. 200. 201, 202 Bartered-wife shelters, 91 Behavioral therapists, 221 Blue-collar families, 183 Boredom: and screw, 99: and violence, 113 Boys, and sexism. 181 Cniifornia Penal Code, 47 California "wife-beaiing" statute. 43-44 Canon Law, 71 Capital punishment, see Death pcnalry

Subject Index Catharsis as legirimizer o f violence, 112, 204, 220 Causal theories, in family violence research, 7 Child abuse, 8. 14. 103. 109. 216 Child care: and violence, 179;rcrponsihility for, 223; facilities. 223 Child rearing: norms in eihnic groups. 73: responsibility for. 88. 181; and physical punishment. 216,217.230; ideology of, 218; programsfor. 218 Child support, 223 Childhood experiences of violence. 93" Children: control of, 41; awareness of physical aggression, 49: as aggressors. 63; as nonvoiuniary family members, 119: andworking women, 162: responsibiiiry for. 168; sr source of data, 191 Childrcn's litcratuir: violence in, 11, 51-67 Claiming behavior, in iniimaie relationships, 149 Clockwork Oianee rheorv ofviolence. 113. 227 Companionship: decline of in marriage. 9 ; and equaliry. 183 Comparison Level, 118 Competition, and human worth, 229 Conflict: in faniily, 10, 49, 218-21;avoidance of, 20; suppression of, 20; and violence, 20, 116, 134; as inevitable, 20, 133, 218, 219,220, 230;ashealthy. 21; and intimacy, 21;in Jewish families, 79; resolution of, 115. 127; expressive, 123-26; realistic, 123: insrrumenral, 123-26. 129-33 Conflict approach, 170, 171, 173, 174n, 175n Conflicr of inrerest, 16, 94. 116. 117, 123, 124. 127, 129-30. 133, 157 Conflict Tacrics Scales, 25, 192 Coping: with conflict. 49; with s t i e s 101 through violence. 107 Criminal justice system: artituder toward family violence. 43.46-47, 211-12.231: f d u r r to act, 44, 45: male orientation of, 90. 226, 230 Cultural-consistency theory af violence, 69-73: and Menican-American families, 73-77; and Jewish-American f m d i e r . 77-79

Cultural norms: definition of, 5-6; and family behavior, 6 ; legitimizing violence, 7, 12, 35. 38. 41. 68, 84; and myth of nonviolence. 11; de fact", 35; de j w e , 35; and power, 178: and wifebeating, 229 Cultural valucr, in interpreting violence, 117

. . L

Culture: definition of, 5; and family life. 6 ; as a system, 69 Day-care cenrers, 223, 230 Death penalty,60-61, 213, 217 Decision making: in family. 110, 193; by woman. 159; and employment of wife, 179; sharingof. 183 Decision Power Index. 192, 193 Deference rules, 140 Demands: and stress. 98. 99, 101, 113; insoluble, 109 Dcmranor rules. 140 De~endency, in inrimsie relacionships, 119, 120 Divorce, 30, 89, 159, 185 Dominance, re? Female dominance, Male dominance Dominant-submissive relationship. 179 Drugs: cure for violence. 94; and rule violstions. 141 Economic difficulry, and violence, 64,22731 Economic resources, 193, 199 Education: and dominance. 182; as resource, 190 Employmmr. and self-esteem, 228. 231 Encounter groups, 220 Equal Righis Amendment, 9 1 , 2 2 5 Equditariunism: in marriage. 18. 19-20. 156, 172, 177, 181, 183; in ethnic groups, 74, 79; and violence, 86-87.90, 91, 183-85; and frusriation, 109; a d intimacy, 149, 172; and conflici, 176; occupational and economic, 179, 222, 224. 228. 230: and males. 181, 182; rejecrion of, 182; class differences in norms, 190-91 Frcope from Freedom, 224 Ethnic groups: values and norms of. 14, 69, 70, 73: violence in, 14, 71, 80

Subject Index Erhnogiaphies, of Americnnmarriages, 157 Exchangr model of marriage (Scanzoni),

Guns, and domestic violence, 25, 214-15, 229

170 ---

Exchange theory. 205" Expressive violcncc: ZZn, 108. 111-12, 113; in children's lirerutuie, 53; in fiction. 58; in middle class, 204: in mass media, 214 Exrended family: and nuclear family, 18: conflici in, 135"; srability of, 219. 225 Family: and aggression, 7; and stress, 8. 11. 33. 103, 104, 107; stiucrural features of, 8 , 85, 115, 136;supportin, 11, 18, 218; involuntary membership in, 17. 120: relationships sndconflict,49,115, 156:values,73;functionsof, 104;uiban. 110; as 'dehumanizing" agent. 139: politics, 139, 173, 174% 175n; private nature of, 152; and children. 1 6 2 4 3 ; and power, 201; as training ground for violence, 215-18 Family impact analysis. 219 Family life: complexity of. 10, 22; idealiraiion of, 11; characteristics of, 41 Faihei: dominance of. 68: relarions wirh chiidren. 73. 74, 75. See also Ilusbnnd Fcmalc aggressors, in children's books, 62 Female dominance. 157 Female-centcied family, 77 I'emininiry: compulsive. 225; and employmenr, 225 Feminisc movcmenr, see Women's movemrnf Fiction, and violence, 57-58, 63 Final Say Power Index, 193 Frustration: reduction of, 108, 227: and m e s s . 108. 109;andviolence. 109,112; causes of, 110-11 ; and aggression, 227 Frusrration-aggresrion theory, 111, 116 General m e s s model. 95, 105, 108, 111, 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 , 114 Goal attsinmenc, 109, 180, 181, 185, 189 Goal bloclage. in children's books, 5 9 4 0 Goal-direcred rule violaiions, 145 Goals: and violence, 105; in conflict, 125

Happiness, and marital stability. 9 Head of household: male as, 86, 156, 177, 179: rrsponsibilities of. 168: changes in. 221, 222, 228. 230 Hedonistic iclrvance. 151-52 High resource group, 200 Hitring license norm, 212. 220 Homicide, 8, 11, 1 4 1 5 , 40,45,48, 55, 213 liosriiity: and inrimate ielariunships, 9.16, 116, 118, 128; production of, 20, 129, 130;suppression of, 20, 116, 118, 11922, 126-27. 133; and conflicr of interest, 117. 118. 133; subjecrive, 117. 129: expression of. 124, 125; outcome of, 127: reduction of. 128; and expressive conflict, 130 Household rasks, 148: and violence, 179; distribution of, 223, 224 Housewife, 181: power in home, 167 Husband: and power, 8-9: and faiher role. 53; and violence, 200, 202, 203, 208" Husband bearing, 31-33 Identiry: in inrimace relationships, 140, 143. 149; rhreatmed, 144; and rule violsrions, 146; support of, 146: an rocia1 phenomenon, 154n; and srabiiiry. 225 Illegirimare strategy: in intimarr relationships, 128; in conflicrs of inrciesi. 131; in conflicr siiuations, 133 Income. and family violmce. 227. 231 individualism, 188: and achievement, 53: and violence. 87: protection of, 139; in U.S.. 199 Indusiriaiized nations, and violence. 52 Instrummtal behavior, 139 Instrumental conflict: in inrimsie groups. 122; defined, 123, 124-25; consequences of. 124: intent in, 125; in conflicrs of inrerest, 131; effeciiveness of, 131; and resolution, 131: as result of hosriliiy, 133; leading ro aggression, 134 lnstrumenral dependence, on family, 120 lnstiumenral inverrmmrs: and horriliiy,

Subject Index 119; in family, 120; in i n r i m a r e p u p s , 122 lnsrrumenral strategy, 125 Instrumental violmce, 2211, 107, 111-12: in children's liieruruir. 53, 64; in fiction. 58; and srress. 113; andclass, 203, 204. 205; in mass media, 214 Inreni, 143, 14748: of violmce, 136,137, 138. 141, 150, 153; of aggression. 141 Inrimacy, 110, 115, 117. 118: in family, 9, 10. 128, 136; and identity. 1 7 ~ 1 8 , 146-47; and authoriry, 73;and conflict. 116. 126. 183, 185, 218: and aggression. 129, 152 Intimate Enemy, The, 220 lniimaie groups: paradoxical struciuie of, 116, 122. 133: dissolurionof, 122.129: and expressive conflicr. 130; and conflicts of inteiesi, 133; and violence, 137.172 Intimate relationships: knowledge of intimazes, 129, 148; rules of, 1 3 9 4 0 , 149; maintenance of. 141; and rule violations, 144. 145. 146; and threat perception, 147; andatrriburion, 147.151; and equaiiiarianiun, 172, 183, 186 Invasion of privacy, 24 irony: of family violence, 10-11, 21-22, 85: and egalitarian family sysrcms. 87

Jewish-American families, violence in, 7779, 80 Juvenile delinquency, 15, 165 Law, see Criminal justice system Leadership norms, in American sociery, 198 Lcadrrahip role: of husband, 199, 227; and physical foicc. 227 Literature: and violence, 11, 214: reflecting cultural norms. 42; influencing sociery. 52, 53 Living iogerher, and violence. 31 Love: in family structure, l o , 11, 24, 34. 41. 218: and use of violence, 14, 24, 34, 42, 217, 218, 230:sndaurhoriraiivn personality, 217 '

Macho image, in working class, 204

,Male chauvinism, 165 Malc dominance, 92, 172, 173, 180, 188: and conflicr, 16; in tiansirion, 19;when male is threaiened, 19; and violence. 19, 36, 77, 86, 87. 161-62, 165, 166, 169, 186, 200, 202, 203, 221; and physical force, 30, 91, 189, 202: in Mexican-American fmiilies. 68, 74; rhrough insrirurional aiiangemcnrs, 86; in urban society, 171; and conflicr. 176, 177, 179-80; failuietoacraiii, 182: and equalirarianism, 185: social class, 190, 203, 204, 205; resisiance to, 201. See airn Women, suboidinaiion of Male power, and violence, 183, 200. 202 ~Mariiage: and happiness. 9 ; as long-term ,,relationship. 17; counseling, 43, 220, 221; srudies of. 47; and encounter movrmenr, 221; contract, 222 Marriage license, as hirring license, 13, 3950, 63. 211-12 Masculiniry, 32, 87-88, 156, 205,221, 228: compulsive, 930, 180, 182, 185, 225 Masochism. 229 Mass media and carhaisis rheory, 52; violence in, 52, 214, 215, 229; and sen roles, 181-82 Mcdiaror. See Third parry arbitraiion Mexicani\merican college scudenrs, surveyed, 74-75 Mexican-American familicr: male domiiinncs in, 68, 73: violence in, 73-77, 80. 81n Middle-class norms. andviolence. 190. 191, 196, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205 Miliraiy violence. 213 Money: as resource, 166. 172; and marital role, 169; and power, 169, 178; and male dominance, 182 Moniicys, and violence. 217 Moihei: iolc of and work, 163; idmtificacion wich, Z80 Motion pictures: and nonviolence myth of family, 1 1 ; and violence, 214 Murder. see Homicide Myih: of family nonviolence, 11, 41, 49. 63. 64, 65; of violence as socially worthy. 63; of single-parent household, 89

Subject Index Nonconscious ideology, 38 Nonrealistic conflict, 123 Nonviolence of family, see Myrh NOW Wife Assault Program, 226-27 Nuclear family: violence in, 13, 1 7 ; instability a€, 17; compared with extended family. 18; srrainson, 21 1 Occupational groups, classification of, 207% 208" Occupacional discrirninarion, 88, 222,223, 230 Occupaiional idenfificarion, 225, 231 Old, dominance by, 73 Oprimum stress level, 8. 99 Parent-child violence. 13, 47, 63 Parenrhoad: by-product of, 165-66; rcsponsr ro, 174" Passive aggression. 137 Passive-cangeniul marriage, 21. 127 Percepiion: and stress, 96: of aggression, 137: of violence, 141, 151 Personality involvement: and conflict of inceiest, 117; and hostiliiy. 118; in inc h a f e irlarionships, 118, 127, 129, 134n; and rcplacemenr of group members. 119; and expressive conflict, 130 Personaliry rraits: and poivet, 193; by sex, 229 Physical affection, 217-18 Physical punishment: ro conrrol children, 13; consequences o f , 34; role-modeling function of, 34, 40, 49, 215-16, 230; and husband-wife violence, 35; Irgirimiring violence, 35. 40; in Tepozilan, 70; in Mexican-American families. 73; andsrress 103:elirninarionof. 216,217 Physical srrmph: and husb:banilbraring, 32; and injury, 33; and m d r dominance, 182-83 Physical Violence lndrx. 25 Police, see Criminal jusiicr Power: struggles. 29. 160, 165, 166-67: division of, 87. 166. 201; claims on, 123. 176; in marriage, 177: souicrsof, 177. 178: and rrnploymenr of wife, 179; definition of. 186n;nnd resources and violence, 190-209

Pregnancy: and violence. 33, 172; and se, roles, 165, 170;response to, 165, 174" Piivacy: related to violence, 1 8 : in family 218 Pueiio-Rican families, power in, 74 Race: and artirudes of authorities. 43: anc violence in children's books, 61 Rnpr: wirhin marriage, 47; number in U.S., 55; and power, 88: reduction of, 93" Rarionsl problem solving. 77 Relationd complacence. in intimate relarionships. 149, 150 Relsiional rules: interpretarion of. 139: violarion of, 140-50:ininrimarcgroups, 140-54 Relative Power lndrx, 193, 194 Rrlarivc Resource Index, 1 9 3 Relativr resources: and power. 196; and violence. 198, 201 Release mechanism. 104. 111 Religious beliefs, and children. 163 Resolution: and srraregy choicc, 131; and conflicr. 219, 221 Resouice theory: and violence. 105, 106, 196; of power, 116. 178,189:tojusrify dominance, 166 Resources: and male suprrioriry. 87; and physical force, 87: and strms, 105, 114; and subjecrive hostility, 118; claims over. 123: of wife, 156. 179, 198, 201, 202; definirion of, 178. 205n; m d power and violence, 190-209; measures of, 193;of husband. 198 Response capabilities ro m e s s , 97.99, 100, 104-5, 106, 110, 113 Responsibility, and aurhority, 169 Retsliarion, 143, 144 Rcriicmenr, 17 Retiibucion. 143 Reward power, 192 Roles: scx-typed, 1 6 , 223, 224, 225, 228, 229. 230; and violence, 34. 221: in tiansiiion, 76-77, 181; in mairi%ge,87, 1 6 5 , 1 8 1 ; conflicrs in. 104: and responsibiliry, 168; clarity of, 180, 181, 182, 185; adoprion of, 181 Romantic love, 120 Rulc violations: accidenral, 1 4 0 4 1 : ai-

Subject Index riagc, 9; violencc used ro enforce. 59: contradictory, 123. Verbal aggression. 135n. 137. 187n. 220 Verbal conflicr. 185 Verbal expression. 79 Victimizntion: of children. 93n:ofwomen. 20, 33.41 Vioiencr, family: incidence of, 4 ; and . psy. chopathology, 4, 8, 1 3 , 152, 211; as socially learned and patreined bchsvior, 4, 11, 14, 38, 107, 215;prcvalenccof. 8; measurement of, 8, 25, 27, 191;underreporting of, 8 , 30, 32, 191: Irgiiimate, 13, 22% 25, 38, 39, 41, 53, 58, 106-7; parent-child, 13, 47. 63; ikgitimate, 14. 22". 53; iime factor, relared to, 15, 18; definirion of. 22n, 124; "deserved," 24; normal. 24. 30, 43, 173; imiracion of, 32; jusiification of, 35; arrests and, 44-45, 212: rolemodrls for, 49, 213, 230; and sporis, 52; fictional, and social control of deviance, 57-61; sibling, 63, 216, 217; imirarion of, 71; as last resort, 77: peiperuation of, 80, 81"; curing of, 94; prcdisposiiion to, 103; as response t o srrers, 105: alrrrnarives ro, 106. 115; social psychological analysis of, 114, 137. 151; as subtype of aggression, 130; atrribution of. 134". 136. 137, 138-39. 141-50; accidcnral, 137, 138; and rule violations. 144; and marital politics, 157-75; and resources and power, 190-209; governmcnrai, 213-14: and peers, 21617; avoidance of, 223; unrmployrnenr and, 227, 228 Violence. gcnrial, in US.. 55 Violence index, 49

Voluntary iclationshipn, 119, 170 War: and children's literamre, 57; and violence, 64, 213-14: sloiies, 66" Wife: role, 89; stlying home, 166; as victim, 171; as dominant, 171-72, 173; economic dependence of, 176, 222, 228; and power, 198-99; and violence, 200. 201-2. 208n: resources of, 200, 202 Wife, employment of, 92, 150, 156, 159, 172. 176. 178-79, 223. 224.225, 228, 230: and male dominance, 19. 179-80; consequences o f , 176. 177; and violence, 179, 180; and resources, 185 Wife-bearing: as accrpiabie, 23, 24, 71; definition of, 24; index of, 25, 27: extent of. 27-31; causes of. 33-36; prevention of, 35, 212-13, 231. 232; and sexual inequaliry, 86; as reflection of societal violence, 213-15; sex role and sexism, 221; toleration of, 226; risks of, 232 Wirhdrawal, red Avoiiiancc Women: subordination of. 41. 165; as aggressors, 62; in violent acts, 66": in ,Mexican-American culrurc. 74; negnrive self-images of. 89; as children, 8990, 224, 225; righrs of, 92; and success, 92; and power, 199 Women's movement. 181, 222: and wifrbearing. 24; goal of reducing violence, 90-91; conrriburions of, 91; men's reactions to, 178; resistance ro. 225 Work-cthic, 66" Working class, 190-91, 194, 196. 200-5

passim Working wife, See Wife, rmploymenr of

About the Authors

CRAIG 8. ILLEN 1s Z P I n s t z n c t o z i n S o c i 3 L J g y a ? 1 0 x 2 AB t25 d o n e z e s e a r c h on f s a i l y State Uni7ersiCy. z P t e r v a c t i O n t e c h n i q o e s , p a z e n t a l d i s c i p l i n e 328 1 3 c a s o f and c h i l d r s n q s o c d e l i n g o f c a r t c o o Control i P children, among characters. C n r r e n t l y , h ? is s t u d y i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s measures o f c o n j o g a l power t o dere=m:ne i f i n d e x e s based 3n c o n ? e s t o d p a v e r are more s e n s i t i v s i n d i c a t o r s 3 f t h e m a z i t e l 9s p o w e r b a l a n c e t h a n i n d e x e s b a s e d on u n c o r t e s t e 3 p o v s r . 15 t h e au'hor o f " R o l e S p e c i a l i z a t i o l a n d L o c u s of C o n t r ~ l , " PrEsBnted a t t h e T h i r d Ancoal Pamilp R e s e l r c h C o r f e r e n c e , B r i g h a m Young U n i v e r s i t y . 1974.

SO~i0103Y a t BRUCE Y. BRORR i s h s s i s t 3 1 t PTO~SSSO? Of Xilkes College i n wilkes-Barre, Penrsylvacia. Ee h a s d o n e T E S O ~ T C ~o n h i s t o r i c a l a ? + l y s i s of the family, femily measuresent techniques. a n d discipline o f c h i l d r e c . 9e is C O Y & l i n g a s t n d y o f how f a m i l y l i f e h a s b e e n d e p i c t e d ir m a g i z i n c a d v e r t i s i n g s i c c e 1920, which e a p h a s i z s s b o t h historical a n d l i f e c y c l e c h a n g e s i n f a m i l y c o m p a n i o n s h i p +nd i r t i m a c y . B e i s t h e a u t h o r o f "Tha C i m n g i c g B o l e 3: Zhe na19 m a r r i a g e P a r t n e r a s D ~ p i c t e d i n t h s 2 0 t h c e z t o r y (New York s t a t e S o c i ~ l o g i c s lR s s o c i i t i o n , rarriage a+rualn 1973); "Edncation, Employment, and Prescriptiors for Marit21 D~c1sion-i3ekixg: 1900-1974" ( 8 m s r i c a o S o c i o l o g i c e l I t s Use i~ t h e n s s o c i a t i o n . 1977): "nagazioe Advertising: e x s t o r i c a l s t n d y of t h e Psmily" (Pennsylvaoia S o c i o l o g i c a l Society. 1979): "Wife-Enploysent an6 t h e E m e r g e n c e of Equa1l:arzan Earit21 Pole Prescr:pticns: 1900-1974" (zsgm& Of C o m ~ a r a t i v eF z m i l v S t c d l s , S p r i r q 1 9 7 8 ) ; and "Parent's Discxpline of Children i n Poblic Placesu ( E a _ ~ c o o r t i n a t a r , J u l y 1979)- H e i s co-author, w i t h Burray A . straos, o f SG:&V ngaggrsgn: TPchnQggs ( u n i v e r s i t y o f Minnesota r z r s s , 1 9 7 8 ) ; and v i t h Joseph A. Pznzanaro. of "Compulsory Pre-Karital Educatioo?" (Rilkss College Q u a r t e r l y , summer 1 9 7 9 ) .

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JOSEPH CARROLL i s a r P s s i s t a r t P r o f e s s o ; i n Sociclogy Pe a t Colby-Sawyer C o l l e g e i r N e w LorAon, A n v Aaapsb.irn. h a s d o n e r e s e a r c h on t h e i c t e r o s n e r a ~ i o n a l t r a n s m i s a ~ n n o f f a a i l y v i o l e n c e , and c l i a a + a l o g i c a l f a c t c r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h aggression. He i s now d o i n g a s t u d y o f causes of p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t r e s s a n d f a m i l y p r o b l e m s t h a t emphasizes t h e e f f e c t o f v a r y i n g d e g r e e s of i n t s g r a t i 5 n i n t o one.5 community. Ee i s t h e a u t h o r o f "The I n t e r g e n e r e t i o n a l Transmission c f Family Violence: The Long-term E f f e c t s of A g g r e s s i v e Behavior." 1977). and t h e " E f f e c t o f C l i m a t e on Homicide and Suicide: Euaidity, Reat, and Cold" (Annual meetlng o f t h e S o c i e t y f o r t h e Study of S o c i a l Problems, 1977).

K E I T H PBRRLNGTOB i s a memher o f t h e Department o f R i s research S o c i o l o g y a n d A n t h r o p o l o g y a t whitman C o l l e g e . i n t e r e s t s i n c l u d e t h e c a u s e s and consequenc?s o f s o c i a l Stress, l a b e l i n g and d e v i a n c e , and v i o l s n t behavior. Re i s t h e author o r co-author o f 'The S c h e d u l i n g of P e r s o n a l Crises: S e a s o n a l Changes i n t h e Pace o f S o c i a l I c t i v i t i e s and Aelp-seeking a t mental B e a l t h C l i n i c s w (presented s t t h e a n n u a l mPeting of t h e S o c i e t y f o r t h e Study of S o c i a l P r o b l e m s , New York C i t y . A u g u s t 1 9 7 6 ) . '?Family V i o l e l c e a n d Household Density: Does t h e Crowded Home B r e e d A g g r e s s i o n ? " (presented a t t h e acnual meeting of t h e Society f o r t h e S t u d y of S o c l a l Problems. Chicago, S e p r e n h e r 1 9 7 7 ) . and "In S e a r c h of t h e n i s s l n g C o n c e p t u a l Framevork i n Family Sociology: T h e S o c i a l C o n f l i c t Frameworkm ( p f e s e r t 3 d a t t h j a n n u a l m a e t i n g of t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l on P a e r l y R s l a t i o n s , San Diego, October 1977). He i s c u r r e n t l y d o i c g a macroscopic a n a l y s i s of v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e pace of s o c i a l l i f e and t h e i r e f f e c t s .

JOYCE E. POSS i s a n A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r i n S c c i o 1 3 g y a t Sangamon s t a t e S t a t e u n i v e r s i t y i n s p r i n g f i e l a , I l l i n s i s . S h e h a s done r e s e a r c h on s e x r o l e s +rd m e n c l l h e a l t h , the i m p a c t of women's S t u d i e s c o u r s e s on a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d women's roles, a n d community p e r c e p t i o n s of hospital Services. C u r r e n t l y s h e i s d o i n g a s t u d y o f t h e t y p e s of p o w e r a s s e r t i o n s u s e d by h u s b a n d s and wives, uhich e m p h a s i z e s r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s t r u c t u r a l and p r o c e s s u a l a s p e c t s o f power. S h e i s t h e a u t h o r of "Sex D i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e Use oi m e n t a l P e a l t h C l i n i c s : Real I l l n e s s o r P a t i e n t Behavior?" ( S o c i e t y f o r t h e Study o f S o c i a l Problems Ccnual and co-author o f "Review E s s a y : "=pop aeeting. 1974) ; C o r . s t r u c t I o n a n d t h e S g o i p g y gg t h e P a m i l x . by N e s l ? y R. o f t h e ' E i s s i n g ' C o n c e p t u a l Framework i n F a m i l y S o c i o l o g y : The S o c i a l C o n f l i c t Framework" A n n u a l m e e t i n g o f t h e

GERRLD T. EOTRLIRG is a n I n s t r u c t o r i n SOCiOlOgy a t t h e University of vcrnont. R i s research i n t e r e s t s include F a m i l y V i o l e n c e . U e n t a l H e a l t h and t h e F a m i l y . and Sex R o l e s and H e a l t h Behavior. Ee i s a member o f t h e e d i t o r i a l b o a r d

He i s t h e a u t h o r of " F a m i l y V u l n e r a b i l i t y t o S t i g m a a s a F a c t o r ir. Aelp-Seeking B e h a v i o r " ( S o c i e t y f o r t h e S t u a y o f s o c l a l Problems meetings 1975), " F a c i l i t a t i n g Tiol€nce: Why I n t i m a t e s A t t r i b u t e Rggressionn (presented a t t h e Rational C o u n c i l 02 F a m i l y R e l a t i o n s m e e t i n g s 1 9 7 5 ) . " S o c i a l C l a s s a n d V a l u e O r i e n t a t i o n i n t h e P h a s e Bovement o f F a e l l i e s T h r o u g h t h e R e n t a l R e a l t h System" ( S o c i e t y f o r t h e S t u d y o f social Problems meeting 1976). "Sex D i f f e r e n c e s i n ~ e l p - S e e k i n g B e h a v i o r " ( S o c i e t y f o r %he S t u a y o f s o c i a l problem^ m e e t i n g 1978, w i t h S a u n d r a A t w e l l a n d J o y c e 2. Poss) , and "'dolescent L i f e Changes a n d Illness: A c o m p a r i s o n o f T h r e e n o d e l s ' ( E a s t e r n S o c i ~ l o g i c a lS ~ c i a t y m e e t i n g s 1978. t o b e p u b l l s h e d hy t h e J o u r n a l of Youth Adolescence, 1978).

BARTAA D. B U G G I N S i s a n I n s t r u c t o r a t Union C o l l e g e i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t cf S o c i o l o g y . She r e c e n t l y s p e n t two y e a r s D e p a r t m e n t of S J c i o l o g y a t a s a Y i s i t i 3 q P r o f e s s o r i~ t h ~ the Universidade F e d e r a l d e Pernambuco. Brazil. The V i s i t l C g P r O t e S ~ o r s h i pwas f u n d e d by t h e F l e t c h e r S c h o o l o f Law and Diplomacy, Tufts Uriversity, and t h ? F o r d Foundation. The t i t l e o f h e r d i s s e r t a t i o n i s " P u n i s h a e n t w i t h o u t Crime: D e v i a c c r , S o c i a l Change a n d S o c i a l C o n t r o l i n Pernambuco, B r a z i l , 1860-1922." She i s t h e c o - a u t h o r ( w i t h S c o t t G. HcNall) of " G u e r i l l a Warfare: 4 Prsliminary s t u d y of P r e d i s p o s i n g a n d P r e c i p i t a t i n g F a c t c r s , " and o f a p a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 1977 E a s t e r n S o c i ~ l o g i c a ls o c i e t y m e e t i n g on "The R e l a t i o r s h i p b e t w e e n S o c i a l 3na P o l i t i c a l Conditions a n d H i s t o r i c 6 l T r e n d s i n D e v i a n t Behav:or in Recife, Brazil."

RALPH LaROSSB i s a n l s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r o f S o c i o l o g y a t Georgla S t a t e u n i v e r s i t y i n h t l a n t a . Re h a s d o n e r e s e % r c h on t h e p s y c h o - s o c i a l a s p e c t s of m a r r i a g e a n d f i r s t p r e g n a n c y

and i s c u r r e n t l y i n v c l v e d i n two p r o j e c t s : a participact o b s e r v a t i o n s t u d y o f t h e a g i n g p r o c e s s and i n i n - d e p r h i r ~ i e r v i e u s t u d v of t n o t z a n s i t i o n t o p a r e n t h o o d . He i s t h e

8URRP.Y A. STBAUS h a s b e e c P r o f e s s o r of S o c i o l o g y a t ?he Ee i s t h f a u L h o r o f U n l v s r s i t y o f Nsu R a m p s h i r e s i n c e 1968. violence. a b o u t 80 a r t i c l e s i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f t h e f a m i l y , s o u t h Asia. r u r a l s o c i o l o g y , and r e s e a r c h methods: and t h s f o 1 1 0 ~ l n 9 books: Socioloqical h n a l ~ s i s : An E~pirical ~ ~ ~ r a a T c hhr o- u g h ~ e p l i c e t i o c ( 1 9 6 8 ) ; Family 8eas"rement Techniques (1969. r e v i s e d e d i L i o r , 1977) ; F a m i l y Bnalyais: Readinqs a c d R e p l i c a t i c n s of S e l e c t e d S t u d i e s (1969): Famlly Problem S o l v i n q (1971): end V i o l e r c e i n t h e Family (1979). He was A s s i s t a n t E d i t c r o f S o c i o l o g i c a l L b n t r a c t s + n d f o u n d i n g e d i t o r of t h e j o u r n a l T e a c h i n g S o c i 3 l o g y . s t r a u s was p r e s i d e n t o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l on F a m i l y Relations, vica-presidert of t h e rasterr Sociolsgical Society, and member c f t h e C o u n c i l o f t h e E n e r i c a n Ee was r e c e n t l y R s s o c i a t i o z to= t t e F d o a ~ c e m e l to f S c i e r c e . g i v e n t h e E. V. B u r g e s s a w a r d f o r c u t s t a n d i r g c s c t r i b u t i o n s t o r e s e a r c h on t h e f a m i l y . T o g e t h s r with Bichara G e l l e s and S u z a n n e S t e i n m e t z , h e i s t h e a u t h o r o f 3 book 3 n PiPLgaCP LC *&g &AgrLc&QE j ~ i L y b a s e d o r d a t a f r o m :he ca+.ionslly r e p r e s e n t s t i s e s a m p l e of 2,143 f a m i l i e s a c s c r i b s a io t h e a r t i c l e i n t h l s issue.