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Cambridge Suulies iu Medirvai Ufe aud nwughr FOllrlh Series Ge"tr~1
Edi(M:
IIO SAMOND MC K ITTERICK
PNY" o< of Med;evall Jj,(O,Y. U.i", ..il~
of Cambridj,'<, ""dFt/Iow of Sidllty S"",x Ccll'Xt
Advisory Edito,,; C II R1STl NE CARPENTER
I'roj ...., oj Mrdiewl English H;".ry, Uni.... "il~
of C" ..bn'.1g<
jONATIIAN SII EPARD
The se ri es Cambridge Srudies i" Med,I'm/ Life mill 'I7""'S/1I WaS inaugurated by G. G. Coulton in 1921; Professor Rosamond McKitte ri ck now acts as Gcnnal Editor of the Fourth Snic:o;, with Professor Christinc Carpenter and Dr Jonalhan Shcparrl as Advisory Editors. The seri es brinf,"S tOf,'Cther outstanding work by medieval schola rs ove r a w ide range of human endeavour extending from polirical economy to the history of ideas. A list of tides in the series can be found at: wwwcambridge.org/medi evaUifealldlhought
THE ROME OF POPE PASCHAL I Papal power, urban renovation, church rebuilding and relic translation, 8 I 7-824
C AltOLINE
J.
GOO D SON
'" CAMBRIDGE .:
UN IVERSITY PR.ESS
rv p" ESS e:unbridge_ New York, Melbourne, M. dtid, Co.pe Town, Sing'_p''''', 530 P. ulo. Delhi, Dub,i, Tokyo CAMU. , DCE
UNIH ~ SI
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1',..,... New YOTI:
www,com bridg<-.org Infom,.tion on ,hi, otle: w"w.umbridge_o'j!/9780PI768 19 1
ov C.rotine J. Goodson ~ol 0 lbi. publiGloon i. in copyright. Subj<'
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For my friends
CON T E N T S
USI
of iIImlralio/lS
page Vlll
A cb /Owledge IlIeUI s
ml lerlllS a/ld measUTemCIIIS AbbTev;a/;oll5
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used
I
PASCHAL I AND TilE IIlSTORY 01' ROME
2
BUILDING IN ROME
3
CONSTRUC TI NG THE PAPAL CITY
4
llEYOND THE I!ASILICA
5 6
BUILDING THE 1I0ME OF THE SAINTS TRANSI:ORMATIONS
"
Xlll
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, 44
8, ,60 '97
'57
Tables
'79
Bibliograp/ry
lJ4
IlIdex
374
I L L US T RA T I O N S
All photographs and illustrations are by the author, unJess indicated. r
2 3 4 5
6 7
8 9 10
1I
12
Map of Rome in the early Middle Ages, including known locations of major churches discussed and the Eillsiedelll Itineraries. Map of sites discussed. S. Cecilia in Trastevere, interior. S. Prasscde, interior. S. Maria in D omnica, interior. (Photo: Archivio Fotografico, Soprintendenza Speciale per il Polo Museale R omano, no. 214306.) Triclinium of Leo Ill , reconstructed apsc mosaic, c. 800 reconstructed in the eighteenth century. Isometric drawing of the Lateran palace in the nintl] century, including the two Iriclillia of Leo Il l, c. 800. (Drawing by M. Luchterhandt, reproduced with kind permission.) Map of Forum R omanum and Imperial Fora in the early Middle Ages. House on the Forum of Nerva (Forum Transitorium), c. 850. R econstrution drawing of the house on the Forum of Nerva and the area around it in the second half of the ninth century. (D rawing by Inklink, reproduced wid] kind permission of t he Comunc di R oma.) Plan of the early medieval rurris at Largo Argentina. (Drawing by R . Santangeli Valenzani, reproduced with kind permission.) Silk made in Co nstantinople and used in the reliquary of Paschal I, now located in the Museo Sacro, Musei Vaticani, inv. no. 6123 I, reproduced with kind pernllsslon. V111
page xx
XXI
J 4 5
50
57 58
59
74
l/Ius lralions
,]
" '5 ,6 '7
,8
'9 '0
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Plan ofS. Prassede in the ninth century. Plans of early medieval churches from Richard Krautheimer, 'The Carolingian R evival' . Plans from other early medieval churches in R ome, after R oben Coates-Stephens, Richard Krau thcimer. Plan of the Cappella dcl l3agno, S. Cecilia in Trastevere. Plan ofS. Vincenzo Maggiore, S. Vincenzo al Volturno in the early ninth century. Plan after F. Marazzi. Two different capitals from the nave colon nade ofS. Maria in Domn ica, onc with carving of the second centu ry (Archivio Soprintendenza Speciale per il Patrimonio Storico, Artistico ed Etnoantropologico e per il Polo Museale della citta di R oma, n. 220946, re produced by kind permission) and onc with carving of the ninth century (Arc hivio Soprintendcnza Speciale per il Patrimonio Storico, Anistico ed Etnoantropologico e per il Polo Musealc ddla citea di R oma, n. 220965, re produced by kind permission.) Plan of S. Maria Maggiore, c. 830. Plan after S. de l3laauw. Plan ofSt Peter's. c. 830. R econstruction of the plllld ofS. Prasscde. R econstruction of the plll/d of S. Cecilia. R econstruction of the plUld ofS. M aria in Domnica. Plan ofS. Mafia in Donmica, c. 830, including a recOnstruction of the curtains and textiles donated to the churc h by Pope Paschal. R econstruction of the ninth-ccntury chancd barrier at S. Maria Maggiore. (Drawing by J. Emcrick after S. Corbett, reproduced by kind permission.) Ap,e mosaic ofS. Prassede. Apse mosaic ofS. Cecilia in Trasteverc. Apse mosaic o(S. Maria in Domn ica. (Photo: Archivio Soprintendenza Speciale per il Patrimonio Storico, Anistico cd EtnoantrOpologico e per il Polo Museale ddla citd di R oma. n. [61254, reprod uced by kind permission.) Axonometric reconstruction ofS. Prassede, c 8]0. Mosaics of the right Triumphal arch, S. Prasscdc. (Photo: Deutsches Archaologischen Instituts - R om. neg. no. 90- 2, reproduced by kind permission.)
8, 88 89 99 "4 "0
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'55
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40 4' 4' 43
44
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46
Entrance to the S. Zeno chapel, S. Prassede. Pavement oflhe S. Zeno chapel, S. Prassede. Sode bases from S. Z eno chapel, S. Prassede. The Inscription oflhe Saims from S. Prasscde, c. 820, 224 cm. x 89 cm. (Photo: Soprintendenza speciale per il Polo Museale Romano, neg. no. 69820, reproduced by kind permission.) Northern niche of the S. Zeno chapel, S. Prassede. Plan ofS. Cecilia in TrasH:vere. c. 830. Wall decoration of painted velll, lower corridor adjoinin g baptistery, S. Cecilia. Inscription from S. Maria in Domnica, 195 cm. x 85 cm. x 4 cm. (Photo: Archivio Soprintendenza Speciale per il Patrimonio Storico, Artistico cd Etnoantropologico e per il Polo Museale della citca di R oma . n. 161120. reproduced by kind permission.) Inscription from S. Angclo in Pescheria, 755 or 770. (Photo: Istituto centrale per il catalogo c la documentJzione, neg. F [9776, reproduced by kind permission.) Inscriptions from S. Silvesrro, 755-65. Map of Paschal's relic translations. Schematic reconstruction of the paintings on the walls of transept, S. Prassede, c. 820. Hand-coloured photograph of the paintinb'S as they were preserved in the late nineteenth century (c. Tabanelli). (Photo: Pontificio istituto di archeologia cristiana, cat. no. 323, reproduced by kind permission.) Axonomerric reconstruction of the presbytery of S. Cecilia in Trastevere. Votive inscription, currently in the crypt ofS. Cecilia in Trastevcre. (photo: Istituto ccntra1c per il catalogo e la doculllentazionc, neg. E 1048 I I, reproduced by kind permission.) R econstructed plan of the abbt-)' church of Kornelimi.inster (plan of archaeological and reconstructed walls. C. McClendon , reproduced by kind permission.)
,"
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,"
AC KN O WLEDG E M EN TS
I am grateful to many people for their help in this project. R esearch for this book has been supported by my parents, the Wittkower Fund (Columbia University), the Philanthropic Educational Organisation, the Samuel L. Kress Foundation, the American Academy in R ome, and the Skaggs Fellowship (Medieval Institute, Notre Dame). Paula Gabbard and Kitty Chibnik at Avery Library and Chris Huemer at the American Academy Library arc exemplary and dedicated librarians, and I have benefited from those libraries, as well as the Ecole FralH;aise de Rome, the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana and the Bibliotheca Hertziana, Rome. M y researc h \vas facilitated by the access to buildings offered by Monsignor Guerino Di Tora and Suor Letizia at S. Ceci[ia, and Dom Giuscppe Casetta at S. Prassede, for which I am very grateful. T he Holy See and Vatican Libraries and the Pontificio istituto di archeologia cristiana generously granted access to a numbe r of libraries. archives and the church of S. Stefano degli Abissini. While writing the Ph.D. dissertation which gave rise to this book, my advisors at Columbia University, Stephen M urray and R.ichard Brilliant, along with Carmela Franklin, Tally Kampen, Holger Kidn, Dale Kinney and Adam Kosto, supported my research and aided its progress. In New York, Jennifer Ahlfeldt, Maura Noone, Sasha Swetschinski, N els Ylitalo, Susan Vlitalo and especially Liz Marlowe read the thesis and saved me from many errors and helped me to refine many points. M arshall Hopkins helped me through the worst of it, and some of the best parts too. In Rome, Franco Aistolfi, Fabio Barry, Caroline Bruzelius, Dorigen Caldwcll, Kath[eetl Christian, Enrico Circlli . R obert Coates-Stephens, Jeffrey Collins, Alia Englen, Daniela Esposiro, Emica C iannichedda, Lucy Crig, Ali Air Kaci, Tobias Kampf, Danielc Manacorda, Federico Marazzi, Steven Ostrow, Luciano l'ugliese, R iccaroo Santangcli Valcnzani, Kristina SesS
A (kllow/rdsemell IS
with moral support. At the Medieval Institute, Notre Dame, I benefited greatly from generous exchanges of ideas with Sabine MacCormack, Tom Noble, Janneke R aaijmakers. as well as Scon Bruce, Paul Cobb and Anne Lester. In Britain , I would like to thank Tom Brown, Leslie Brubaker, Marios Costambeys, Julia Smith and Josephine Quinn for their generous critiques and assistance. T his book and my thinking about early medieval power in R ome have been reshaped and enriched by my colleagues and students at Birkbeck College and the wonderful University of London Earlier M edieval Seminar at the I n~titute of Historical R esearch. The ideas here have been presented and critiqued in a number of places including University of Michigan, University of D c1a\vare. Northwestern, Birkbcck College, the IHR, Leicester, Oxford, Rome and lastly in Sag Harbor and Quogue. H ugh Kennedy believed it \vas a good book, for which I thank him. I am enormously indebted to Lisa Fentress for invaluable encouragement. suPPOrt, criticisms, corrections and many many meals at her table discussing antiquity and the early Middle Ages and to Chris Wickham, who read and reread this work in various forms, \vandered R ome with me, and whose comments and provocations have made it much better. Rosamond McKinerick gave the manuscript her characteristic thoughtful attention and greatly improved the final project; she has been a consummate editor. All errors, of course, remain my own. My research would not have been possible without the support and encouragement of my family, the Beckers, the Hopkins family, the Fentresses and most importantly. my friends. My family and friends have generously supported my work and me and through my work I have made new friends and extended my family. To my friends [ dedicate this book, with love and gratitude.
XII
A NO TE ON TERM S AND MEA S UREMEN T S US E D
NAMES
[ have used modern place names, or medieval names if the places no longer exist. When referring to the person - legendary or otherwise - of a saim, 1 have used the word 'saim' and a Latin or English version of the name, as in 'Saint Praxedis'. Buildings dedicated to saints and known by the saint's name are referred to with the word 'saint' abbreviated, as in S. Prassede or St- Denis. Churches in Rome are referred to by their current Italian name, except when there is a more commonly u>ed English parallel, as is the case with S. Pietro, St Peter's. The original Latin dedication of the churches and other names where relevant arc specified in the Concordance, below. T he majority of these Latin names come from the list of ecclesiastical institutions in the Life of Leo J 11, in the Liber POl1tiji(alis (LP 98: 6!)-8[). When an institution was not mentioned there, [ have followed Christian H uelsen, Le C/!iese tit Roma lie! Medio EI'O (Florence, [927), and listed the name used in the ninth century, or failing that the earliest mentioll. ROMAN CHURCHES DISCUSSED AND CONCORDA NCE 01' TIIEII{ NAMES
A10dem /lame Lateran basilica S. Abbacyri in xenodo(/!irl1u a Valeris S. Adriano S. Agara in suburra, S. Agata dei Coti
Medicl'ail1ame ecdesia Sa/l'Otoris domini l10stri qlwe appdlawr CorlSlallfirlialla S. A bba(yri in xeuod{)(/!illm a Va/eris Sarwi Hadriaui illlribusJoris (in [lia SlUm); Cllria Sel/atm mo,ulSlerio sallctae Agathe martyris super Subom
Klll
A 1I00f
s.
011
rfrlllS alld lIIeasurelllfllts used
s. Ana<;tasia s. Anastasio (Tre Fontane);
IIlOllasterill1ll smmae Aglletis qlli pmlilllr foris poria NlIIllclllal/a (illl/us beaMe Allastasiae Smleti Al/asMsi ad aqllalll sa/vialll
Aqua Salvia S. Angelo in Pcschcria S. Arcangclo (ad
diawl/ia salleti Adrialli //Iartyri, Sal/Cli Abbacyri et arc/tal/geli ad a/gallllllll
AgllCse fuori lc mura
Elepilaulllm?) S. Basilio S. Bibiana
S. Ccei!ia S. Ciriaco S. Clemente
S. C o simato S. Crisogono
S. Erasmo S. Euscbio S. Giorgio in Velabro S. Giovanni a Porta Latina
S. Isidoro S. Lorenzo S. Lorcnzo fuori le 11111ra S. Lorenzo in Lucina S. Lorenzo ill Pol/acJl/is
S. Lucia in Sclcis S. Marco
S. Maria ad Marlyres S. Maria An t iqua S. Maria in Aquiro
SmlCli &silii /lJollasteriu/IJ sauClae Vivimlae tilll/us bralar Crdliae tilll/IIS sallcli Cyriaci (iw/us beati C/ememi martyris atque pom!/icJs Sal/eti Cosl/we et Dalllimli ill mica allrca tiw/us beati Grisogolli martyri!; 1II00wsteriwIl sal/ai Gl}'sogolli mOllasterilll1l smwi Erasllli qw· pOlliwr ill Coelio I/Iomem tilll/us Smwi ElIse/Jii diawllia smuti GrOlgi Sal/Cli lollallllis (Evallgdistae) mile portam /a/i,uJ/Il mOllasterium smwi Isidon· OralOriu/II sal/Cli LAurclllii SlIp Ta C/emellfem aciesia beali Lallrelllii lIIartyris qllOe polliwr foris /Ill/mm tilll/IIS beati LAurem; lIIa rtyris qui appellatrH Lucilla l/lollasteriulI/ beat! U/llrellfii manyris qlli appellafllr Pal/adlli diacorria sa/mae Ludae qllac appel/atrlr Orphea tilll/IIS brati A·lllrd maTlyris alque pOllt!/ids, qui appe/lalllf ill Via Lata eu/esia bmlae Dei gmctricis qlllle appellawr od Mar/yrcs, Pallfilcol/ diawl/ia Dei gClletrids qJjae appellalllr Amiqllll diaCOllia sau(ftle Mtlriae ill Ciro XIV
A
11011: 011
S. Maria in Capclia S. Maria in Cosmcdin S. Maria in Domnica S. Maria in G rottafcrrata S. M ar ia N ova, S. Francesca R omana S. Maria in Trastcvcre
S. Mafia Maggiore S. Martino ai Monei S. Miehcle (at the Lateran) S. Paolo fuori le mu ra . Sr Paul's S. Pellegrino a Naumachia S. S. S. S. S. S. S. S.
Pietro, St Peter's Prasscde Prisca Saba Sabina Silvestro Sisto Vecchio Stcfano dcgli Abissini, S. Srefano maggio re S. Stefano del Caeca S. Stef.1no R otondo S. Stcfano sulla Via Latim S. Stefano Vagauda S. SUSJnna S. Tommaso ill Formis SS. Apostoli
lI:rms alld mcaSJIremellts used
SallClae Maria i,/ Capel/a diacollia Dd gCllclrids qllac appellalllr Cosmidill diacollia sallClae Dei get/elrids qllac appe/law r Domiuica mDrWSlcrium Cryplae Fe"alae SallClac Mariae /lOl'ae eec/esiagmeln'ds Dei ill lillllo Calislii ecclesia Dei gmelrids, quae mol(' lIetenun mme usque Calisli rralls Tiberill1 did /!asilica sallctae Dei gClletrids ad Praesl'1!em diacol/ia Sal/ClOnllll Silvestn' el Marlilli quae pOl/itllr i,lxta O rphea oralorium sallcli al/geli eec/esia oca/i Pallli aposloli oralorium sallcti Pel('gril/i qUi pOllitur ill hospitale domillico ad Nallmachia ealesia beari Pem' aposloli ccc/esia oca/ae Praxedis tim/us ocatissimomm Aquile ct Priscc mOIla5ten'um sal/Cli Sabe lilll /US beatae Savirlilc martyri IIIO'Ia5reriUm s(ll/Cli Si/!JfSlri m/esia beari Xisli lI1artyris atqlle pOlllijids II1Drlasterill1l1 primi martyris Step/wlli qlli pouitur ad beatu!II Petmm apostolun! Sal/cli Step/wlli de pi/Jea eec/esia bealissimi Step/Will' primi mar/yn's quae palliw f ill Caelio motile Smmi Stifalli SallCli Stifalli wgallda tiw /us bea/ae S usmmae sal/Cli 71lollwe de fonnis basilica Apostolorum quae pal/imf ill Via ,-""
SS. Cosma e Damiano SS. Giovanni c Paolo
diacOllia sml(/omm Cosme et Damialli tiw/us Palllac/II'
A 1I00f
011
rfrlllS alld lIIeasurelllfllts used
SS. Marce\lino e Pietro (via Merulam) SS. N ereo ed Achilleo SS. Processus e Martinianus SS. Quattro Coronati SS. Quirico e Giulitta SS. Sergio and Bacco (near the Lateran) SS. Sergio e Bacco SS. Xistus et Fabianus
Sallaorum perms maneliil/us diawl/ia sallClomm Nerei el Acl!illei Oralorillm ocalissimonmr marlymm Processi el Mar/il/iani &maorum Quatr/of Corol/atonmr ccclesia sal/Cli Qllirid et Giuliltae diawl/ia stJIlClornm Sqgii el &cchi Sall(/orum Sergii el &cchi pOSI fo rmam aquaeductus oralOrillm bl'atissimomm marlymm Xisli et Fabiani DATES
Dates are all AD, unless otherwise noted. When referring to popes, abbots, kings or emperors, the dates following the name will be regnal years, as opposed to birth and death dates, unless Olherwise specified. 'Pf.UTfil'
T he vocabulary of liturgical furni ture is fraught with inconsistencies. In the following work, 1 shall use 'chancel barriers' and pllllei (sing: pllllellS) to refer to the panels of marble that form low walls around part of the nave, clements often erroneously referred to as the scllo/a camormll. a term peculiar to the Lateran, where the actual school of singers perforrned. j
MEASUREMENTS
Linear measurements have been converted to metric using the following formula: I palmo = 12 Oll(e = 22.3422 cm. Z Weights have been converted from early medieval libbre by the following conversion: I libbra = 12 ollde = J27.45 grams.) EJline Dc ncn"ilicU<. 'The <en,.,otiun\ . nd m.. ,runcurn in the ". rl)· Roman Church'. RAC ~7 ('~~I). 6<,1-85. , Enri£"'~i. iJalian. di ",'..:;•. /tI, .... rJ • .,i (Rome. '938). Ap. 1. 84 " 1 1'::1010 Delogu. 'Om e ,rgenlO in Rom.. tn il VII eel il IX ,""010'. Cui,",. < ""n'I,~li~ ""aj"""•. Sluili Slorici 184""'7 (Rom •. 19118). I. l7J. n. I.
,,,,,<1,,
XVI
A I3I3RE V I ATI ONS
AM ARF
A rdH~ologiil Medievale. Allllo/es reglli FrallconlllJ illdc ab a. 74' IIsqlle ad il. 829 q1li diCUI1/ur mllla/es UJIJrissclIses I/Iaiores cl Eillirmdi, cd. F. KUTlC, MG H SRC SRL VI (H anover,
ASR ASRSP ASV BAV BAR BHL BHLIIS
J 895).
Archivio dello StatO, Rom3. Arrllivio della R. Soar/il rolllmw drila Storia Pafria . Archivio Segrcto Vaticano. Bibliotheca Aposw lica Vaticana.
British Archaeological R eports. Bibliothecil hagiographica lalilla <1l11iquae el mediae aefalrs, cd. Society of Bollandists, I-Icnri Fros (Brussels, [898- 190!). BibliolilaQ /ragiographica iillilla illlliqJ/ac el mediae ae/atis, 11(1)11111 supplemellfllnl, cd. Society of Bollandists, H enri Fros (B russels, 1986).
ClL DACL
Corpus Inscriptio/mm LA/iuamm (Berlin, 1863), 16 vols. Diaiolllwire d'arcileo/ogie clrreli(7lllc et de IilHrgie (Paris, 1907- 53),15 vols.
DE
Depositio Episcoponlm, in COIlice topograjico del/a atta di Roma. cd. R obcrto Valcntini and Giusc ppc Zucchcni, Fonti per la storia d' ltalia 81A, 88, 90 and 91 (R ome, J942), 11 , [- [6.
DLSM
Dc Loris Sallctis Martyrum, in Codicc ropograjico della dt/d di Roma, cd. R obcrto Valcntini and Giuscppe Zucchctti, Fond per la storia d' ltalia 8[A, 88, 90 and 91 (R ome, J942), 11 ,10[ - 31.
DM
Deposi/io Martyrum. in Cot/ice lopograjico del/a cilia di Roma, cd. R oberto Valcntini and Giuseppe Zucchctti, Fonti per la storia d' ltalia 8[A, 88. 90 and 9[ (Romc, 1942), 11 , 1- 11 , 17- 28.
(CUR
IImripliom:s Christimlac urbis Ramal' Srplimo Saeculo A/ltiquores, cd. Giovanni Battista de Rossi (Rome. 1857--61).2 vols. XVIl
AbbrfIJiariolls ICURIIS
Jam~
JWCI
LP
LTUR LTURS
MAAR MEC
MEFRM
IlIScriptiolles C/lristiallae lubis Romae Septimo Saemlo A lltiquores, n.s., cd. Amonio Ferrua and Angclo Silvagni (R ome, [922- ),6 vols. Regesta pOlllificum romallomlll ab collllila ecdesia ad ammllJ poSt Chriswm lIawm MCXC VIIl, ed Phillip Jaffc, 2nd edn corrected and supplemented by Samuel Locwenfeld, Ferdinand Kaltcnbrunncr and Paul Ewald (Graz, !956; orig. pub. Lc ipzig, 1885- 8), 2 vols. JouNlal oJ tire H-irrolllg mill Courlauld Instillltes. Duchesnc, Louis-M aric. Le Li/Jer Pom(fica/is: texte, illlroduaiofl e/ collfmelllaire (Paris. [886--92). Format for citations from thc LP arc as follows : number ofthc biography: chapter number according to Duchesne and TIle Lives tj"tlre Eiglulr -Cemury Popes, trans. R aymond Davis, Translated Texts for HistOrians [3 (Liverpool, [992) and TIle Uves oJ the Nim/l-Cemury Popes, trans. Raymond Davis, T ranslated Texts for H istOrians 20 (Liverpool, 1995). Lexicofl /opographicum umis romae. cd. Mal),raTCra Steinby (R ome, [996-2002), 5 vols. Lexicofl Topograp/rimm Urbis Romae. Suburoium, cd. Vincenzo Fioechi N icolai, Maria Grazia Granino and Zaccaria Mari (Ro me, 2oo[). Memoirs oJt/le A mericall Academy, Rome. MOIIJIIllellta epigraplrica clrristimld saen~lo XIII amiquiora quae ill ftaliae }iflibus ad/wc exs/am. cd. An!:,'do Silvagni (Rome, [938-,43) . , Melanges de l'EeoleJra /ljaise de Rome, MOYl'lr A.gc. MGH
AA Cap.
COl/C.
DDO
Epis/olae
jUollilmCllfa Gemralliae His/orica. Alwores Amiquissimi (Berlin, 1877- 1919). 15 vols. Lrglllll Sec/io 11. CapilUiaria Regllm FranconrllJ, ed. A . Bore/ius alld V. Krause (Hanove r, 188 3- 97). Legum Seaio Ill, COI/ci/ia fl , cd. A. Werminghoff (Hanover, 1906- 8), flf. ed. W. Hartman (Hanover, 1984). Die Urku lldell tier deu/sc!rell K611ige IIl1d Kaiser (Dip/olllata rrgulII et imprratorum eerlllalliae). COllradi I. Heil/rid I. e/ OUom's I. Dip/olllata. Epis/o/ae (Hanover, 1892- 1939). xvU!
A bbrevialio/ls Epistolae se/atae Formulae
AH·I
NEUR
ONS PBSR PC I'L
PLRE
RA C R fN A S A
EpislO/ae se/alae (Berlin, [9r6-52). Formu/ae merolvi'lgid er karolilli aevi, cd. K. Z eumer (Hanover. (881). Leges (in fo lio), 5 vols. Ug~ Poetae Poewe lati'li ae!'i (arolini. ed. E. DU1l11ll1cr, L. Traubc, P. von W intcrfcld and K. Strcckcr (Hanover, 1881"""'99),4 vols. Scrip/orcs ffn/ m MerovillgicawUI (Hann, SRM 1884). Scriptorcs (in folio) (Hanover, SRC 1826-1924), 30 vols. SRC SRL Scriplores Rerum Gc mlallicaw m ill usum scilolarum sepamlim editi (Hanover. 1871 - [987),63 vo ls. SS RL Scn'plOrcs ffnUII fAlIgobardican/m el Italicanml SaC{. VI· IX, cd G. Waitz (Hanover, 1878). Martyrologium Hif'rollymitmum, cd. GiOv.Jnni Battista De R ossi and Louis Marie D uchesne (Brussels. (894). Notitia Ecdesiarn m Urbis Romae, in Codice topogmjiw della dud di Roma, cd . R obcrto Va1cntini and Gi uscppc Zucchetti, Fonti per la storia d' ltalia 81 A, 88, 90 and 91 (R omc, 1942), 11 ,67"""'99. Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek. Papt:rs of tile Brilish School at Rome. J. P. M igne, Palr%giae CUfHl S comp/ems, Series Creca (pa ris, [844- [903). 161 vols. j acqucs Paul Migne. Patrologiae Cl/rsus cO!IJpletzls, Series LAtilla (Paris, 1857-87), 22 1 vok A. H . M. j oncs, John R . Manindale and John Morris, TIle Prosopogmphy of the Later Romall Empire, vol. I AD 260-395 (Cambridge, 1971);johl1 R . Martil1dalc, TIle Prosopogmphy oftllf LAter Roman Empire, vo!. II AD 395- 527 (Cambridge, 1980); ne Prosopogmphy of tile Later Romml Empire. vo!. III A D 527-641 (Cambridge. 1992). Papi ri di MOllza, in Codice topogmjiw dei/a rilld di Roma, cd. R obcrto Va1cntini and G iuseppe Zucchetti. Fonti per la storia d 'ltalia 8[A, 88, 90 and 91 (R ome, 1942). 11, 30-47· Rivis/a di archeologi4 (ristiana. Rivista dell' Istitzlto ,wzimJale d'archeologia e stoTia de/I' ane.
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I. Map of Rome in the early Middl e Ages. including known locations of major churches discussed and the Einsiedeln Itineraries. The names of Pope Paschal's ch urch es arc in c3pi tallcttcrs.
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Chapler 1
PA SC HAL I AND T H E HI ST O RY O F ROME
Late onc night in 82 T Pope Paschal attended a vigil in St Peter's church. St Pcter's was not the cathedral of ROllle, indeed the saint's basilica was located far across the city from Paschal's episcopal palace at the Lateran. Yet the church of St Peter's had long held a special position in the hearts and minds of Christendom and especially R omans, as it was believed to have been built over the body of Saint Peter. the Apostle to whom Christ had given the charge of building the Church . I Paschal celebrated the saint by singing the matutilw!cr, late night prayers, in from of the body of Saint Peter, which lay beneath the altar. T here, in hOnt of the relics, Paschal fell asleep. In his dream a young woman, who identified herself as Saint Cecilia, visited him. Cecilia, a R oman martyr who was very popular in the early Middle Ages, discussed with the pope the location of her own holy relics. She thanked the pope for having previously sought her >acred body, which he had not been able to locate. Blame was cast on the Lombards, who had held the city under siege some decades previously in 756. Cecilia gave him directions to find her in the catacombs outside the city. Upon waking, he followed the saint's instructions and went to the Praetextatus catacombs along the via Appia, where he fo und Cecilia's hol y body along with linens covered with her blood - blood from the wounds of a soldier's blows to her neck that had left her linger ing for three days before she finall y succumbed to earthly death. With his own hands, the pope brought the precious body back inside the city walls and placed it under the main altar of the basilica dedicated to her in Trastevere. ~ He also collected the bodies of her compan ions in martyrdom and her confessor. Paschal established a monastery at the church of S. C ecilia, in
, M,Mew ,6 : 1J-~o. MOfk ~:l7-JO . • nd Luke 9: 18-~ ,. On (he ;mport Nif1lh.C"d ,,'"f p()fK<, Tr>n.La
,
ne Rome of Pope Paschal I part to ensure that the lI1alUlillllies and other offices would be celebrated over her relics, Just as he had celebrated at St Peter's. This episode, reported in Paschal's biography in the Liber POlllifjClllis, presentS densely packed justification for Paschal's arc hitectural programme and its claims for authority. T he narrative draws upon the precedent established by Peter's body in St Peter's basilica to locate the eventual translation of Cc c ilia's body to a basilica within a long-standing pattern of veneration. T he spiritual rewards for venerating the bodies of the saints within papal churches with the proper, orthodox prayers and chants are made dear: Paschal is re\varded with a vision of the saint. Wrongdoings of the Lombards are intimated . affirming the essential role of orthodoxy and protecting the Papal State. Specificities of Cecilia's corpse and the signs of martyrdom are rendered in sharp detail, and this is interesting for two reasons. First it serves to authenticate the relics; the faithful can be assured that they are Cecilia's relics that were moved because the papal narrative uses specific references to the narrative of the Passioll circulating in Rome at thc tirne. J Secondly, these details from the narrative of the HlSSioll entered the papal vocabulary of veneration - what had been popular and unregulated is now subsumed into papal orthodoJo,:y.4 Paschal's relocation of the bodies of Saint C ecilia and her companions was one of the first translations of relics to endow an urban church , or lillliHS, in Rom e. St Peter's on the Vatican H ill outside the city, o f course, had housed the body of the Apostle for centuries. It and nearly all other saints' bodies in R ome lay in the catacombs, outside the city, and in churches built for the veneration of saints outside the \valls. Few bodies of saints were venerated inside the city walls; those that were had mostly been imported to Rome from Byzantium or Dalmatia. On only two or three previous occasions had Roman saints' bodies been brought to urban churches, which \vere dedicated to the celebration of papal liturgy and the sacraments of the Christian cOllllllunity. S [n translating these bodies into this church. Paschal imbued the urban church with the holiness of the saints' bodies. and created a new kind of celebration and devotion in the city. The nearly unprecedented relocation of a holy body into the city gave the church a new fun ction and purpose. Despite the newness of his actions, and the enhanced devotiotlal aspects bestowed upon the , On the " "",liv. of th. I-\,,-,ioll. ",. H ippol)"e Del.h,y" £",4« 'UI k lfg . • See below. pp. 24?-12. l See below. pp. 108-r 8; urnline Goodson 'Building for bodies, T he .rchite
00_ E:.monn 6 C.rr.>g>in ,"d urnl Neum.n de Veg>"r (Aldershot. 2008). j T ~O,
Paschal I and rhe history (If Rome
3. S. Cecilia in Trastevcrc, interior.
rilUllIs of S. Ceeilia by the presence of saints' bodies, the architectural
frame of hi, church had a distinctly traditional tone: a long, tall brick basilica with three aisles and a single apse. His building project was novel in many respects, as we shall see, yet it also perpetuated a traditional arehitectun: of Roman (;hur(;h buildings as old as St Peter·s. Pope Paschal's buildings, and his reign, were bold and dynamic moments in the history of Rome and of the papacy. This study of the churches from the multiple viewpoints of their architectural frame, cult uses and functions in the papal administration demonstrates the importance of the built environment in early medieval power politics. It also suggests that the reign of Paschal I was a turning point for relations between the papacy and the C arolingians. T hrough his architectural programme as well as through other diplomatic and political channels, the papal court of Paschal a!1,'lled for greater autonomy and independence than his predecessors had achieved, and the resultant retaliation by the Carolingians brought the rise of the Papal State to a halt. In rcconstructing three basilicas in R ome (S. I'rassede, S. Maria in Domnica and s. Cecilia) and twO oratories at St Peter's (SS. Processus et Martinianus and ss. Xistus et Fabianus), Paschal created new roles for urban churches. In addition to operating as liw/i, local churches housing the papal liturgy throughout the city, t\vo of his churches were )
ne Rome of Pope Paschal I
4. S. Prasscdc. intaior. built to house corporeal relics of Roman saints. The churches were the places of papal authority, an authority constructed by ceremony, material splendour and spiritual presence. Paschal's building programme refl ects his particular concerns as a patron and supreme pontiff: it also reveals techniques of power display common to early medieval building in R Ollle and beyond. T his archi tectural programme is prestigious patronage; the patron is identified and proclaimed through image and contemporary texts, The buildings \\"Cre intended to be associated with the pope and the claims fo r authority that the buildings represent depend in part on visitors recognising his role in the project. In the case of Paschal's churches, his 4
Paschal I and rhe history (If Rome
5. S. Maria in Domnica, interio r.
image IS m each of the apse mosaics, as is his insignia in the decorations and his name in the mosaic inscriptions. At S. Prassede, twO contemporary marble inscriptions record his dedication of the building, one carved into a chapel door, and another at present affixed to a pier. 6 In addition to constructing these three buildings, Paschal renovated the patriarchal basilica of S. Maria Maggiorc and constructed two oratories at St Peter's, which, though now lost, were described in detail in his biography? He carefully attached his name to the buildings for which he was responsible. 6 It< origin. ) ]"", tion w;,hin th~ church i. un lmo""n. For the ins",ip,ion •. se<: below. pp. 161. 167. n8- Jo. In- H. , nd fig. J4 · , It h", occ",ion,lly h .... n ct.imM th., P=h.) """ involved in the construction of two other church ... though in orim .... "",e i, thi' correct. E:ldy modem soure.-. ...."d.ted ?sclW with reno,",,,ion. to the R om.n church of S. Stdmo del Gem. thougl> thi• ...arution .ro.e fro m confusion be<ween 1'.",h.1 ) for 1'>«:1W 11. who .ppe.red in Ihe .p<e m"",ic<. See Cl .. ,o Tud.,,-ti. 's. Stef.lIlo d el C.CCD in Urbe'. burr i""m 4 U (19') I), jS-lIl, esp. 63, .od 42.~ (I9')~), :ro>j-p. E.,c;,v>tion. in the '98'" " S. Comeli•. C. pnCOTU11l brought to light .n inscription n.",ling • "eruin •P'
K,,,,,,
5
ne Rome of Pope Paschal I News of Paschal's projects was proclaimed in several media, not only the fabric of the buildings but also in the contemporary chronicle of the papacy, the Liber POllfijicalis (hereafter LP). His biographer's diligence in recording these restorations and donations and his corroboration of the evidence from the buildings themselves allows us to reconStrUCt the architectural programme: Paschal rebuilt only three buildings and sprinkled the city with smaller renovations and donations of liturgical furnishings. 8 His attitude towards building patronage \VJS unique among his contemporaries. Paschal rebuilt few buildings entirely instead of restoring man y partially, as his predecessors had done. H e dedicated his attention and resources to these grand projects. thereby creating showpieces of his interventions. 9 As we shall sce, some consistent design choices evidently guided the building of these churc hes, for example a tendency towards regularity in plan and decoration and grandiosity in size, quality of materials and craft greater than among his predecessors. I shall discuss the church- building and renovations as a coherent ca111paign on the part of a pope and his administration. T his campaign sought to comtruct and command autonomy and authority for the office and individual of the pope. The desire of the papacy. under Paschal's leadership, to present itself in this \VJy did not arise from the particular character traits of Paschal as an individual. I argue that this movement within the papacy grew o ut of the events of the previolls decades, both in the empire and in the papal state, and most specifically very contemporary politics. T he large-scale developments of the late eighth century, battles between Franks, Lo mbards and R omans for control of the Italian peninsula and supreme authority within Christendom, paved the way for popes such as Paschal to assert their authority. T he fITS! decades of the ninth celltury witnessed the death of the Frankish empero r Charlemagne and the accessio n of his son Louis. T he transition required a renegotiation of the respective roles of emperor and pope. T hese political developments and relations between Franks, R.omans. Byzantines. Lombards and WesteTll
• P»ch, 1don>ted IitUTgic, 1v""'tn",rlt, to the following chUTch,,", in R ome: So"- Coon ... m d D.mi, no on the vi . s.cro. SS. s.,rgio .nd B.cco (,, ~or 'he u tcron). S. Ncmgdo (ad S. Ciri.c", S. :.1ichele (3t d,e u t= n). S. St~f.no Mo f:g;o ..... nd ."'·~nl othe .. out.;de the city: So Menn .. on the vi> O ni""r.i<. s . S.1,~tor (R ieri) . S. Pietro (CentumcelL.e) .nd S. Mar;. (Vescovio) . • 00 medievol potrom. see Gu nter fundm.n". Millf/.b"Utl" A",hilrilu" ab BrJ",m'W,rr"'ll" (Berlin. 195 1); Commi""ui , prodll>:io", .rli,'ito·I""",ri~ ",,/I ·aI,o mtdiiKWJ "'ad"",.!.. ~- IO . pnl" '99', S"uin",,,,, di .!Udio 39 (SI"'I",,,. 199 ~): N l!'~' TI'!<"I,i.mikov. · pn,-",.. ""Iv;"ion prog,...mm", . nd their eff"", on ByZ>.nti ne churl,. n . •. 7.1 ('\I9J). eopeci.lly 5' -~: B. ll. Price. ·Th e effect of p. troo' ge on the imeUectu. li""oon of medie'-.] ende.von· in n .. &""h J~r 0 PoI"'" i" rh;, Midi/it 1Ig<"< o"d lht R"",ill""". "d. D.vid G. W ilkins . nd Re""'co Wi lkins. Medi",.. I.nd R en.i""nce Studieo 12 (Lewi'ton. r996). 5- 18.
El",,,,,"'''"'').
6
HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome Muslims will be set out in this first chapter_ Each of these groups strove to ,lSseTt its authority in the western Mediterranean and these negotiations of power arc visible to us today through the reco rds of theological, territorial and Juridic:.1 comroversies. T hese records comprise textual sources as wdl as ma terial sources: archaeology, urban development, art and architectuft'. Indeed the composition and the construction of these textual and material sources are both indirect and passive expressions of political or theological allegiance and direct and outwan.-l arguments of ambition and cultural reform. The particubr ap pearance and the diverse func tions of Rome's ecclesiastical buildings are important keys to understanding the architectural progr.llllllle as an expression of political aims, and in Chapter 2 I slla\1 explore the architectural context of the early medieval city and the institutioll> of the pap:.cy. T he incorporation of archaeological dau from recent excavations and the examination of non- ecclesiastical buildings sHch as the ruins of ancient monu ments. domestic architecture and utilitarian projects lih· w
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I Paschal's reign witnessed and examines their efficacy in terms of R.oman ,Hld imperi~1 relations with the papacy. Paschal used archi tecture as a means of e.xpressing his goals for the papacy. T hese churches played a central role in Paschal\; bid to establish his authority both within R.ome and bt·yond. a bid that had dramatic repercussions for the offict." of the pope. PASCHAL AND THE PAPACY
It was once commonplace for studies of tllt' early Middle Ages to speak of a practically lllonolithic papacy. unified in ainl and fornl over decades. 10 This tendency is historically valid in part: the papal cou rt often sought to legitimise its activity by projecting continuity and consistency. Tradition and papal precedent were often invoked in letter;. biographies and legisbtion . Some popes produced much writing over long reigns, seeming to reflect individual personali tit."s. such ~s Pope Hadria n I (772---95): but otllt."rs. lih· Paschal, ldi: link' of tllt."ir own voices ill the textu al record. Only five of Paschal's letters remain . lIThe images of I-Iadrian and Leo III (795-816) which emerge from ~ources produced during their reigns. especially their correspondence with Charlemagne. have perh aps ovcrly shaped the convcntional image of the early medieval papacy. This schol arly habit unfortunatdy neglects what arc often guitt." significant differences between papal reigns. T he real problem with this homogenisation is not so much that different individual chanCIer tnits are not recognised - it would be ve ry difficult to recognise them in any case and, I believe. the personalities left relatively little mark on the institution and its administf3tion in this period. T his is not to take ;lway from the role of individu~ls in shapi ng early medieval history. Sometimes m~jor political events occur red on a very personal small scale, such as the brief supposed marTlagc between Charlemagne and the daughter of Desiderius. I. For ",e.:llnpl", o f ,hi , t"diti o!!. ",. w"lt"r Ullnunn. n" C rowr), of AlI'~' G<> 1 ~'n,"'n ' in ,I" .\Iiddl, ..lX''' A .<wdy in 11" ,,,",ion of "mc.I,~ 'oy I'''''~'. Jnl .dn (Londo n. 1970): 1'",,,, lI"w.,]h·n . R,>m, i. V. ,k AI,,"" 1I1d ",Ill (Lolldon. 1\191): 1'..,1 H",h <,inglO n. M,di,, ·.1 R"m . . A I""".i, cfll" d,y ""d it< iif' (Londo!!. 1'i9 ~ ) . 1 1 J,fI< zH6 confirming f'O""",ioll> of t h< ,bb
,I.,
to heco,,,. Ihe ,.-.;hh"hop of V,em'~ .•"d J,m; 'H9 whe" he h,d h.:co"", , .... hbi.hop : J,m; '550 10 I.ouis th. Piou, cO"""''';''1> p'; .... ,: J"ffi, '55 I "o!>""n;!>g l'1"ivileg<. to .he chu,ch of R,vn. 17ZJ). '.1 »0); .ndJ,fI< '55) !, op of R .I1", .. ' "''''~I.J .. includ es th" .puriou, I",w •.•, w" lI. On J .. II< 'H6 (= R'~""" J, I',,," ,off'I';I.." d" C ..s<>d" d. Il,bhot= dd], Soc.,,,,;' ROlmn, d i St o,i, P",i> (Rome. 1879-191 ~ ). n. ~~S (11. 1116--'1». 'cc «colld)". Ivhri o; Co",mb.c)",. I'",,~, ,,"d I'"' ~'"".'" i. M,Jj ,,,,1 It.lr: Lx,I,,,,,,,y, Ildli," I",/irics Md ,,,, ..lbbq .1 F_ifd. {. 7~fI-9 " " (C 'mb , id~<. 2007). JJ~.
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HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome king of the Lombards, whidl raised the ire of Pope Stephen III in a fam ously angry letter. ' l Rather, it is my intention to situate the actions of Pope Paschal and his papal comt within thc largcr circles of inilucncc and antagonism of thc early ninth cCntury. I also aim to demonstrate the ways ill which clost, examination of this papal reign helps to shed light on t he strategies of power that o ther derics and kings may have employed . Paschal \vas apparently of R oma n origin, thongh nothing is known of his 6mily.'J I-lis biographer states that Paschal had servcd as subdcacon, priest and as the abbot of the mom.stery of S. Stefano degli Abissini at t he Vatican under Leo Il l. T his onriCU/llm l'i/,II.' indicates a long clerical and monastic career prior to his reign. Early modern antiqu:lrians often reported that prior to becoming pope. Paschal had beell given t he cardinalatc ofS. Prasscdc by Lco 111 , a plausible though unsubstantiatcd tradition. " T he suggestion that Paschal was affiliated with S. Pra,sede prior to his papacy probably arose from a desire to explain the attention that the pope so lavishly and prominently paid to that church later in his career. Although {hl' chief priests of titu lar churches wen..' called cardinals by the mid- eighth century, there arc very few instances of this usage indeed.l ~ Pa>chal took the papal tbrone one day after the sudden death of Step hen IV (24 January 8[7) and his n..·ign bstI'd just over sevetl years. ,6 D uring these years, in addition to launching his architectural programme, Paschal acted to confirm the agreements made betwccn his predecessors a nd Charlemagne and Louis the Pious concerning lands of the See of Saint Peter and papal jurisdiction in that territory and in R ome. He promoted the diifuslOtl ofChnstianity in northern territo ries J\lcKitt«icx. Ch.rl''''"g"'' n,,/,rn,",,"" of" 10",,,,,,." ,ig" ifi",,, o. of.h. text. "'. w.I[", Pohl. 'Ali."ig"''' l<xor: 1I."",mJU~e " .u ei"e,,, V",\>o... u,,..'"iS''' Heir.. 'e" i" d", K,,..,li"ge«d,· i" Di, Ri.,t .1> ".,1<,,,<1,,, A'J,""'''"'' od . A . ['«iach (M unieh. >007). 1.\'1-118 , .""io", Rom""", 'x p"'''' &0",>,,,, ' (of R o""" "';gi". ,",, ' or 1:10\1 0'" ,,) Lt' 100: I , Tb~ Lib", C,,,-,,,,,,,, p,.",n"" diff",,,n' [,n"l)" n",,,e (ot 'he pOP'" ',.< pdl" Md"""'.' nobl" (,mil)" which produced othOT pop,... but " "Y bo , llli",h. I',,,,h,)", pwleo, St 10,;",,; f,,,, ;ly; u Lib" en"''''''' a, Uvlis< n',"""'. ,,:I. 1',,,1 r-.bre ,nd Lo,,;, 1>],,;< ))" «' Suph,n Kuttn .. r, 'C,rdimli" Th .. hi>t ory of.1 c.1nonic,] ~on~q"·. ·/;.ai,io J (19~.\). ' 46- 5' , [),vi •. Li,~' !'i,"th-C, "",,!, I'Of'<" j. n, 1. D,,;, provid"" do", ""llllury oftho ~'ou" of 1-'... oh,l, reign reponed in both the LP."d .xt<", ..1 sou",",.
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I and strove to defend orthodoll:Y with respect to the return to iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire, as we shall explore below,
LlBEk I'ONTIFICItUS ANI) OTl I I, R
T~XTS
The LP is the primary textual source for Paschal's reign , indeed for information about most early medieval popes. For the period in question, the biographies in the LP are considered to be contemporary records. composed in the Lateran 1/C5tllriHIII by individuals close to the evellts at hand, presumably working from chancery materiaL'7 T he texts' com pilers stressed divinely inspired actions of beneficence, adjudication and punishment and. sometimes, the political affai rs of the papacy, giving a not-entirely complete institutional history of the head of the Church . '~ Unfortunately, the LP gives precious little information abou t goingS-Oil in R o me beyond the papal administration at the Lateran. Few contemporary events were included even when there was little risk of portraying the papacy in an unthttering light . T he LP often provides very detailed information about papal expenditures, including building Cllllpaigns and gifts to instit utions in the city, though few expenses or donations other than papal (or occasionally royal) donations were recorded. Other kinds of ,omces that arc often useful for analy,ing politics and culture in early medieval cities arc absent fo r this period in R ome.'1I \Ve have very few property d ocument~ from Rome prior to the midninth century and very limited legislative and juridical sources: this is a marked difference from other cities such as N aples or Ravenna .'o " 1/",/...~, " Ib,d., xii; ><,' .1"" , h~ '''''" AI,o Ihu~,. n", mlJ J" 5,,,1, R"m,m E",,",,,;,,,I./,,,: P./);lJrifiu"ltm jm Spi'S,,101,_, L>h" PMJI!ji,./i, """ G~r 01,,,, Drill," b;, ~u u ,' ""'" On-",". 1',lili, q (Wi~ III"i""o Arth,eolog ico 10 (Grolligell.
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1~7j)
""m,,,,,
'. E _g" propert y d ocument>. mon ..,ic chronicl", Of pe.-.on..1 co rre .pondenc~. O n 'he for Rome, >c. T hom.. , f' Noble. ' l"r>dox", .nd po"ibiliti", in ,h~ for Rom,n !.,l "'kdi'err.",r. n >8 (L.iden. '000) , 564. S~. I'.u l Anh"" -N'pl.>: A co.. of urn." .urv iv:ll in 'he early Middl. '''g~'' in MLI'kM 10)
X.
"""IT'"
<1
( 1991),759-84; A'''pl,_, : l'I"ff' ),:,,"' •• """. ,,, "'y-''"''' A. 0"-1",,,1,,..,.;,./ r<"I""'v" Ardl>~oIQgic.1 "'ollogr>ph. from ,h. I)S R '. (Ro" , •. ;:,,,,.) on N'pl~ •. ,,,d Tho"" . S_ !I",,,,n. (,,,,,,/,,,,,,, •• 01 OJji(m: '",I"n«1 .d"".'JI'.".n "nd .riJlN1O'" ",WIT;" HF,,.,in, /'"'y. AI) ~~~ - 8". (London. 1984); 'Lou;; 'he I'io u•• lId 'h < p"I',cy; A R,,"elln, p"" I'«'i,-<' ill Cll"rI"".,~n'; fi,;,: N,w 1"' ''I,..tli ,~' M ",(~. 4 LJ<.is (~q-84") . • d _ Pete' God""n ,nd Roge' Collim (Oxfom. '990).
,h,
,I" p;",,,
'0
HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome Rom~n cllTonicles do not survive from the period. if they were even written, and those that were initi,lTed in the twelfth century derive almost exclusively from the accounts of the LP and so provide little new insight. Tht." major form of diploma tic communication OCtwCt."n early mediCV
"
'97)0~ On k,v< of.U ' he ",.il,bI< d.t>, ind " ding documen t> in the R<:\",",' S..bI~",,,,. P>"'&'" from the LP. • " d the ]~"." ,~corded in the elevemh ,enw,y by Ca,din"] De".Je,u. b' ," "/h, N
199 5). j6J-&;
" Ch.ltle""g!\e f"\\o~,I)' left. I..rge ,,,,,k in ,he 'ex, u, 1 ,""eom, though ,hi, ,n.y "0' h.ve reH.",OO hi, pcoo".li, y; J'''''' L . 1'<],0". ' Th , vo;cc of Ch,,]c""gll" ill &liif and C"I"", .n 11.. Middl, A"", ; Sr"di" 1'",,",
'00 1). 76--8R MGH Epj""r., IV.
2S7~9_
"
Ti,e R ome of Pope Pasellal I vie\ved Charlemagne's position in 799 to be among the most important e~rly medieval rulers. T he complex wnngling for authority among the members of this highest echelon and general confusion abom who had amhority in which arcas is rcfkcted in thcse letters. For t'xampk.. Charlemagne wrote to Pope H adrian asking how the pope could condone the market ofChristian slaves at Civitavecchia . Hadrian responded in 776 that it had been the Greeks (Byzantines of the exardlate, pedlars, or Sicilims) selling Lomb~rds, an arrangement which did not reall y relate to the pope or his jurisdiction, Iw argued. Bm then I-Iadrian burned the Greek ships and imprisoned the slavers anyway. perhaps seizing an opportunity to exercise authority in the eyes of the Frankish king, if not the Italian coast.'· Emreror M ichael 11 wrote 10 Emperor Louis tile Pious for help in stopping Pope Paschal from providing refuge to monk., tl.eeing Byzantium ! 5 Boundaries of amhority and jurisdiction were in a state of tl.ux in the very late eighth and early nimh cemuries. Annals from the Frankish court shed some further light on activities in Rome in these decades. naturally highlighting Frankish interest and sometimes re porting things excluded from papal sources. A patchwork of accounts, referred to eollectively as the Amwles Rtgni FralJ(onllII (Roya/ Frankish A II/III/s) . is a record of Frankish kings and princes composed using inte rnal court records, with entries running from 74 ' 829 . ,I, These describe the Frankish court's growing involvement with the events in Italy and the papacy.'7 Other chronicles from important monastic or episcopal centre" such as the A /lllales FII/denses. recorded events in Frankish territories including the ac tivities of the papacy.'~ Contemporary biographies of the f'rankish emperors Charlemagne and Louis also provide inform,ltion about the papacy, even if the popes ~nd R o mans rarely play more than minor roles in the narratives.'9 " MGH Epi'MI. , Ill. j84-j. " MGH CO",. 11 . 1. 47j-1lo ,. 11 """1,, rrtn; h"",omm i.d<"" •. NJ "'q,,<.d •. S19 4"; dit>m"" """"I,, L.",ri"<.,,, m.i"", " Ei.h.m;. ed. E KUr"le. MCH SRC SRL VI (H,,,,,,·er. IA ~j). publi,h<:J ill ETI~i,b., C""rl"""~" <: If"",I.,,,! ;"""w. ed . ,,,d tr.. ", . P. D. King (bnc,>ler. 1987) .. nd C"rolingi"" C"","id,,: Roy"i F,""ki,h 11"""1> ""d Nil".,m ·) Hi""n·'~. ,r.. n,. ~"d ed. Ikrn.rd W.I«r S
>,
(AIIT' A,hor. 1970).
."cl
O~ the A"".,I, ,,,d ,he;, "''''''g
,I.,
l<>Oj)' Ch.rI"".S'''. '7-H
Eo.,""" H;,
" 11 """I" .fihc. E.K. Einh ...l. h'" k.,,,,/i. 6
HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome What the sources external to R o man circles make clear is that during the early ninth century the cit y of R ome was in a tulllult. Neither the papacy nor the nobles of the city ever held control for ve ry long. The origins of the conil.icl<; between b y noble, and clerics stem from t he m id-eighth century. whl'n Pope Paul I died in 767, l'nding a period of relative peace under Paul and his bro ther Stephen [[ (752-7), both nobles of the city_ As Panl was dying, the city was invaded by Toro, dux of Nepi, and his brothers and men from the countr yside north of R ome. Toto's brother was ordailled :lIld acclaimed Pope Constantine by at least part of the popu lace in 767 Jo and the papal elections of the following dec~ de were a series of battles between sec ula r :1I1d ecclesiastical groups, entangled obliquely in larger Italian and Frankish politics.l' Only in 778 with the election of J-Iadrian, who came from a Iloble family, was a modicum of balance achieved .J > T his came not only through his 6milial connections but al>o thro ugh his firm diplomatic hand. Jl The con fl icts bet\veen differem power groups continued. however. As will bt, discussed, both his SUCCl'ssors Pope Ll'o III and Pope Paschal I faced enemies alllong the nobility of R ome. Leo II[ was the target of a brutal attac k led by a gTOu p of aristocratic Romans and t he t:lCtio us battling in Rome appears to have comim1l'd thro ugh t he subsequent brief reign of Step hen IV and under Paschal himsclf. l4 This situation in R ome, however difficult to underst:md from the available material, was the stage onto which Pasch al. Emperor M ichacl 11 and Emperor Lou is the Pious \valked. Each tried to use the instability of R ome to his advantage, and the strategies employed by Paschal, who is the focus of this present work, were reactions to the actions of previous popes.
(l'e,e,.bo.ough , 0 " ", '119 8): "'>1.0"0''''''. 11;,,, HI,,,I", ""; 1'"1",,,,.ri•. MGH SRC SRC ed. Ern" Ilen C,b, ni» (S),,,ou,,, T"""p. ' 7<J-5jj. publ;,h"d it> Engl i,,), " Son 4 Ch."I'""g"'. NY. '%') ' ThcK"n . Gm~ HI"d".",' l"'I'''''''~ri'. MGH SRG SRL LXIV. cd. Er"" Tte <ex" ."d problem, ,.",c;.""d wi,h ,h" m, ••,. Mc K ~'",i< k . Ch"rl,,"-,:~.'. 7-2>. LPY4 : '-4 . f-or (I,><,,,.io,,. >e< l),v;'1 Millcl< gro ,,,,d of 'h e p'p,1 '<1"''';'''' fro", By"",i"", .ml .Ili,,,o< wi,h ,h~ Fnnk". AI"I",·.. , Swdi« j6 ('97~) . 79-'JJ' Thonu . F X. Noble. n" R'I",hlic 4 5, I'",,: Ih, bi"h of 'h, I'J/",I S"". 61.-8'5 (Phibddphi,. ,.)84). " '- , 9. ,. Fot 'y"ol"" ofR om,,, 1)<)li" " 01 d, . 'hird qu ..,.t« 01 ,h~ eigh.h C~"h")'. ,.~ Co"""h-70-, l","gi"g ' o ligh' 10".1 ",d tegio",lpQli"" ""d , 88--->;l4 10< ,h" I..'g'" J>l
'r.n> . ...
,0
",-,8.
I-'.""e
,
'3
Ti,e R ome of Pope P"sell,,1 I THE GOVERNANCE OF ROME IN THE DECADES BEFORE PASCHAL'S REIGN
In what follows I shall argue that Pope Paschal used church- building to express the authority of the papacy as an independent state. It is thus imporClnt to sketch a picture of the corporation which governed the city and hinterland, which came to be the papal state, in the yeap; leading up to Paschal's reign. R ome was filled with clerics and ecclesiastical bureaucrats whose roles comprised jointly the servicing oflhe some 130 churches and ecclesiastical institutions in the city and the man,lgelllent of the papal court as a political institution . T he papal churches of Rome were vehicles of the expression of papal authority, through which the papal agents administered papal policy and performed particular liturgical celcbntions. including the famous stationalliturgy through the streets of R ome. I n the sevcnth and eighth ccnturies, thc numbcr of offices in the papal co urt grew in cOluunction with the expansion of ecdesi:lstical institu tions and tilt' papacy's assump tion of the maintenance and governance of Rome. H T hese offices included the administration of the city's churches. the management of the papal household and diploma tic rclations. The region of R ome was served by the suburbicarian bishops, from dioce~es in the hinterlands (Ostia, Porll/.<, Albano, Pale,trim, Silv:l Candida, Gab!! and Velletri) . who officiated in their regions and in the Lateran basilica . T he city was divided into ecclesiastical regions led by seven deacons, and fourteen subdeacollS and seven regionary deJellSore.<, who co-ordinated tribunals :111d ecclesiastical sentences, assisted in this office. O{fjce~ were further divided in each region between the twenty-five t!tuli (the neighbourhood churches administered by the papacy), which were led by ti tular priests or cardimls, the dillwllirJ<> Pietri. Ro,." Chri"i"." . R .... I"'.h ..' "" I'~i" d, Rom" '0. "~.m'"'i". , ' " "di/iq''', "m iJi,I.~. d. A/il/"d• .; S,x/, III Un-uo). mhho'h;'q"~ d", £e<>1"" f",,,,,,,,,e. d'Alh""", '" d" RO"" "4 (R"m~. '~7<1), 2 " 01 •. For 'he I.". pe.iod . • ee Vi' zoo,). 49J--6J~' Pie,re T""bel1 . '5crini"m et P,I.,iom : L> for m... io" de I. Bore.men,i. Rom..lIlo_po",i fie .. le ,.,,, Vl lle_IXe .i"d~" i" Ro",. ntll' .1Jr"m,dj""",. Se";" ... " , di >l ud;o ~8 (51"" "'0. '00 ') . j7-' ' 7. Noble. Th. R'P"./j, ojSI P,,,,. 1 '~-jj provkb d
.,/1"
'4
HI.I(/wl i (lfId the history of Rome the p~p~1 ~dministr~tion. There were also a tlllmber of churches which were considered major basilicas, now often referred to as 'patri'lrchal' in association with the five patriarchal sees: St Peter's, St Paul's, S. Lorenzo fuori le mura, S. Maria Maggiore and the Llteran basilica, and these were officiated in by the pope himsdf or dt'sigm ted priests or bishops and administered by canons, monks or priests (or a combination of them all). The papal household, the P
'5
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I worshipY These resulted in a calembr of liturgical celebrations in changing locatio ns throughout the city. As Christian \vorship became a visible patt of city life and government in the fifth and sixth cent my. the movement between differellt locatiom in the stational system became more daborate with clerical processions and popular participation. At certain times of the year. these processions took on a penitential role as well as magnificent splendour. By the eighth and ninth centuries, these services were intended to include the 1l\aJority of the city'> population, who joined in ranks according to ecclesiastical region or status. The instructions for staging these events give an impression of how many people accompanied the pope and what a large and carefully co-ordinated bureaucracy he headed. N N arrative accounts refer to the objects brought in processions as well. Fo r example, ill 752 Stephen ][ led a procession and litany to S. Maria Maggiore carrying on his shoulders a holy image of Christ. The pope and rhe populace processed barefoor with ashes on their head in peni tence; this may havl' bel']J an unusual procession. not part of the stational circuit perhaps. but the LP records it as a procession in the ' usual way'.~o In the Ilinth century, a cerhin gold cross with purple gellls, given by Charlemagne to the Lateran basilica. was carried befon' the pope in the litanies . ~' Papal processions must have been spectacular performances and participation in them - even merely observing the spectacle - was probably a frequent and meaningful parr of R oma n urban life. T he .tational liturgy provided a very public fKe to Ihe administration of the R.oman Chureh . Tom Noble has shown the importance of stational liturgies in the cn:.·ation of R o me's topography of pO\verY Martin Claussen, in his recent study of the Carolingianliturgical reforms, demonstrated the ways in which stationallirurgie. effectively transfo rmed the city into a s;!Cred and numinous area like a church, and ultimately a
J' T h;, 1Ccoun' of 'he dewlopmelll of ' he •."ion,l liturgy in Rom. co"' .... f,om John thldovin.
no, U,/>o. elt.",,,,, cf Cl";",,,.
Wo"hip: 11" ori.",,", ,/,,,,iollmm'. aM m,.,"i~~ cf ""',0""11,,,,(1.')'. ch"",.", ",.1"", ., uS (Rome. ' 987). ' 4]--66: ><e ,I", Tholl", F X . Nobl •. ·Topo ~· ~'phy. c
'<>O').4j--<;l'·
.. Th. QrJ;a" "mt.a; "",,,rJ 'he hie,.,rch'c>1 ON'" of 'he individu.1< i" p,""c ...ioll .. " d g"'.' • ><",1><' "f'ho g"Il<1"", "f'll<" ('''',ion.1 li'urgy. below pp. 'H-j LP,,+, 11 . • r LP 9 8: ~S . The cro» w,. >Pl"'"""I)' "ol.n duri ng l-'•• ch,l, ,eign >nd then "'pt.ced 1>,' Leo IV. LP ,os : ,6; d . LP ' 05 ' .8
,0
., Nobk 'Topogr'l'hy'
,6
HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome reflection of the city of God .4 ) Claussen argues that everything within this sanctified space was potentially charged with significance. In the case of Rome, [ argue, renovations to churches that were stations on the calendar and along proces:;ional routes \v(mld have been very nOticeable to the population. As we shall see, liturgical transformations and church- building were important means of political expressIon for t he papacy. T he papal performance of stational liturgy with the hiera rchy of bureaucrats of the papacy served another important function within the society of early medieval I.t..ome. As in many early medieval court societies, the rituals of the court were the means to conllllunicate v-~lues . norms and protocol, to successors. The papal court combined ecclesiastical administration and courtly and diplomatic administration and thereby e-xlJlo ited the pO\\"Cr of religio us authority :Illd practice fo r political expression, not only by the pope but also by ot her officials. By including members of the court. from the highest echelons to acolytes and other lowt'r Tanks. and the populace of RonK" tht· stational liturgy reiterated the organisation and mechanisms of papal administration . the place, of power in R ome (the churches and the places of assembly they became during the liturgy) .44 The pyramidal structure of the papal administT;uion of the city allowed for recruitment from both the populace and the nobility, and many bureaucrats were trained in the system from youth . Pope Leo II [. Paschal's penultimate predecessor, had risen through the clerical ranks; he did not. apparently, come from a noble Rom:m ba.::kground . I-le had been groomed for the office by his predecessor Pope ]-b drian . who came from a Roman aristocratic family with many members in the papal court: his uncle had been pr;micer;us under Stephen 11, and I-h drian had been named notary thell subdeacon then deacon before taking the pmpk.H Leo from a very young age had been raised ';/1 l'I'sfiar;o pafr;archii' and then was named subdeacon , titular priest and ,'cs/;(/r;/ls.46 Leo's election in 79 5 was the result of co- operation between the social and religious elites of the city. or so his biogT;lphcr proudly claimcd.<7 Yet this collaboration " M.rtin C um>Wi'g""g "f M ,~ ".d ,11, R'X',/. c".o."o~". in ,I" ,(!h," Cf.""y (C.mbr i dg~. lOO. ). .1.8) . " Fo, , ;",i!.>r )""<~"",, .H 1" ")" in ' he C"",);"gun -Jon<>. R . M" k< . nd 11 . Millni< (York. ,ooo). I ~'O aud M "'how ,,,,,<> . ... " pua di,,"ipli,,< ": Ati« o<""i< )""",h ."d ea",'i ngi,,, CO "",' in Cour' 0,1/"" i" ,I" E.rlr Mi JJI, Ax<, . ~d . C >lh",ine C ubiti (Tumhout. oooJ). ,9-76 . O n educ>t ion " the P"I" ) cou". ""e Noble. n" Rfl,,,bli( of SI h ,,,. 22~" . " LP 9, : '-4. •• LP 9~ ; 1.2. 9; N ob)~. 170 , R'I",j,Ii(cfS, ",,,,, 11R. 19H. " LP 98: '- ... nd d i",,, ~'i"n, ""~ Nobl~. 170, j{' I",/'Ii, cf S, h it,. 19')-'''''
or
iv,
'7
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I did not last long _[n 799, whilst on procession th rough R ome during the major lit~nies, Leo was attacked by ,1 mob, a scene recounted in lurid del~il in Ihe LP!s T he prilll~ry actors in the ~ttack were, apparently, men of noble origins: two held high appointment, in the church and o ne \\~IS a military k'ader from Nepi, whence Duke Toto, his brotht'r th t' amipope C onstamine and Pope H ad rian came_49 Thl' liturgical procession was passing through ~n old venerable neighbourhood in R ome, near the via Lata, when the attack happened .!O T he mOlives of the mob, at least as Leo himsclfand Akuin reported it, were 10 depose the pope and thereby to clear the path for a nc\v candicbte of their affiliationY This was not, however, the result. T he pope was not killed but wounded and was held captive in the monasteries of S. Silvcstro, a monastery built by a pope in his noble f:unily's home only forty years before, and S. Erasmo Y !-l e escaped in the night wilh the aid of a Lateran a,Si,lallt md W'd, deposited in the ,afe hands of Frankish missi. Under their protection , he t ravelled to Charlel1l,lgne's hOllsehold , wh ich Wd, located that summer at Paderborn , and returned to R ome surrounded by a Frankish t'tltouragt' to reassert his titlc.H T he attack on Leo is a link in the long chain of papal - R o m
J,
ALLIAN CE
In the year 800, the Franks took a stance against the Roman nobility, who threatened Leo, in f:lVour of the pope for reasons that lllay have had to do with Charlemagne's own claims of authority.!' T his is not the place for a lengthy discussion of the (orOllation of Charlemagne as empt'ror, which has bt'en the subject ofmllch scholarly t'xamination. H " LP98: " - 'S , tlRF ~1H1 0 79'J ( 1<>7): 7'J9
(J7-~.
A ~Haltl la,,,,"sha,,'r"'fJ,
p)
GeM}; \'~r< >, MGH SR G I, '1)1) 0
•• Noble. n" R'public of 51 "'",. 200 . Rob." Co.,.,_S,eph. n,. ' Ho",i"g in eul)" m"'in.,l Rome. jO<>- 1000.' I'BSR 6.j ('996), '47. " S<". b.low. p. ,8: L~o m . '" 6, M GII El'i,IO'''' V. 63- 4: " lcui". 'I' '7<;1, MG H Epi_" o'., IV, '97. ,. On ,h .. hi"ory " f S. Silv<">tro, >« bdow, pp. ,08- , ) . " See mo" """" tly "'htth", U"ch« . ' K.rI der Grol1e ,,,,d \"1''' LeQ 111. Di< E1" W<mhorr (P,d OO'· 111'. R)"i.;"',, [li""~·.h,,b',mN66 ('002) . '-38 : ' .v. ' Leo Ill. Pop". S,i",' in N,w C a,!.",i, E"'yd0p'a;. (N ew York. 'Vi7), VIII. 47<.--8, . " S~e he["w, pp. l;n'l
,0
,8
HI.I(/wl / (lfId the history of Rome More important for the task at hand is to recognise the definition of roles of pope and emperor, spiritual and sccular. liturgical and administrative, that Leo and Charlemagne apparently affirmed in the ceremonies ofbte 800 and the part played by R ome - the idea, the place and the people in this expression. The roles had been defined over time, negotiated t hrough diplomacy, legislation and the performance of power since t he 770S if not earlier. This episode was both the consolidation of decades of mutual characterisation as well as the beginning of a new period of Franco-papal relations which would shape at least the first fifteen years of the ninth century, until Charlemagne's death in 8 [4 and Leo" death in 8[6. The events were reported differently by the different courts. R oman somces emphasisc locations. T his emphasis probably reflects both n;ITrative devices and the actual staging of the events of 799 and 800, It highlights the importance of historicised and SJcraliscd topography in early medieval displays of power. Leo's return to R ome in 799. flanked by Frankish agents, provided the author of thl' LP \vith an opportunity to remind the reader of the pope's apostolic lineage, Leo was welcomed to the city 'as if he were the Apostle himself'. j6 T hus the account stresses that Leo was the leader of the Church and also of the city of R o me. It reports that the populace of R omc, its clergy. womcn and the SC/tO/t'IC of foreigners there met the pope and his entourage at the Milvian Bridge. That location would have been me:mingful to an a udience who were f:uuiliar with the historical topography of R ome and held associations with control of the cityY This bridge was supposedly where in 3 r 2 the emperor Constamine had a vision instructing him to tight the usmpeT Maxentius in the name of Cod.'s Th is attention to topography
,0 LP 9~ ' T ~8. e r LP 9T J6. d~"ribing e h>rl<""~;,,~·• • " i,.,1 (mill Po vi';1I 78, . "he" he ,,,..,, "'~l like '.n ..", re h, or p."ie;'n· . " Cf. Lt' 9 ' : ,6 whore , h~ R om, ,,, . nd , h~ IIcighbo urillg Lomb,rd, mc' . , , h~ Milviall Brid ge , ,,d dei. "tle i" " . Hy",,,'i " e_led p[o,;n 7' 5 " The "H,>t lo ll""".,,, .,,,ei.n ' >. J. L. C TOro (Oxfonl. ' VS4). H' Eu",bim, H,,,",i" £«I"io"" •. Di, K,."J"n,ig. ,,,,, .). I. ' ~-F. )8. p"bli,hro in E;"gli,h "' uft 0/ e""",,nrin,. ~d . Ave ril C' m~m n , ,,d SrUl r< H,1l (Oxford . , ~W). 80--> .",d co mmen" , }' 206-, J 0 11i (..-d .). XII P".«rrid Lat,~, (Oxford . '96~ ). X II. IV, p"bli ,h« 1 ill Engli. h.., C E, V. Nixo" ,,,d ll.,.h.r. S.ylor Rodger>. I n 4 U ft , R Offl on E m!,,,",, : n" P''"<:<''I'dri La,,"i (lI~ r ld
mMr,"",
D",",."
Pr",,,
'9
The R ome of Pope P
6. Tr;c!jn;ulll of Leo II!, reconstructed apse
Ill OS-1 ie, c.
800 reconstructed ;1) the
"ightcl'nth c<,ntury,
and thc reificatiun uf R OIllc's past is a consistcnt fo cus of attcntion throughout the hte eighth and early ninth centuries, THE EP ISCOPA L PALACE
The Frankish bishops and abbots who lud come with Lco held a co undl in the Lateran Tricli,litlm, which had becn d ecorated very recently with mosaic inuges of Constamine and his pope, Sylvester (or Saint Peter), e
mo .. K>, ><~ mo" rec~"'l y M." fred Luchtn-hand. 'P:ip>tlicher P.I."b.." ""cl hijfi",h« Zlopil S, icK"""" " ,,,d M."h" , We.,\h off(M ,ill2. 1\>99), Ut. lO'rn : Cecili> D>v;'_Wey~r. 'Die Mo ... ih" Leo. Ill . ""cl die Anf,ngc d~r h roli" gi>chcn ~ emi""nc< in Rom ' , b'lKhrift fi" K""";?c" ..,;on'n John O,oOr1l ~ and Anu " ch Cbridge, E.,ly CI,n',ti"" ""d M,d;",,/ .1 "l;q";li", The Pa"", M u,""um of Ca.,iano ,1..1 Puzzo (London. '998), 11. no, 168, with rdevont bibl; ogr.phy, The m" ... ic, " tl derv-'~"t , ""jor ",,",,<>t;o n by Fr.nce><"" Ihrb<:rini ill '6l~-5. ,,'hid, ""d~ ,,>< of 'nl;q,,""" dr''''illg> and d<>crip'ion, of Triclinium . The Tr,clinium w" ,hen de"ro)".d in mid _"i~ht oen'h <~"tury , Tld "'<0">1,,,,,,<:<1 " "door Pup< B~n <:< ,Iu, ;, \'"ibk ",.1')' "e" [h ~ 5",1, S.", .. . Ins<> H<,;,,; , Nkoli> AI~""1\1\L On
,h<>~
,h.
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HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome Peter himself bestowing on Charlemagne a military standard and on Leo the pi/Ilium of episcopal authority. Examination of the buildings in association with the political events surrounding them makes dear that the location, architectunl form and its decoration were critical to the buildi ng's function of setti ng a tone of separ.ne and complementary roles and jurisdictions for Leo and Charlemagne for the council">o These mosaics are conventionally interpreted as representa tions of the Donation ofCollStantine (COIISli/IWIIII COilS/lW/I ,ll), a document purporting to be an agreement between the fourth - cemury bishop Sylvester and t he emperor Constamine.6 , It stated that Con,tamine had gram ed Pope Sylvester and his successors not o nl y the land of the Lateran Palace, as well as imperial honours and regalia. but also temporal control of R ome. Italy and basically the whole of the western empire. Until very recently, there was a consemus amo ng scholars that the document \Vd, composed in the late eighth centu ry in papal circles in Rome. 6 1 Johannes Fried has recently argued on the basis of the manusc ript tTlwC!io n of '11 < Tridilli um. ,« Ll' 9 8: ' 0: Luch' erhm d, . ' P'p>l lic her P. I. " b.u ·: Jj,u~r . D", Ui /J Jh/". , d,/I'Qmd'fff< • .1 ,«~Jo V JJ/, Setl im,u> cli >tudio ~o (Srol. '<)7}). I. ' 57--9 '. r'Or ' h< «",,"cu, ioll ,I,,, hi>loci<.1 ill, erpr<",ioll . ><"". Ri f S, P"". 'J.\-'7 ' C o",mhey •. Po,"" " nd P.If"ff~("'. Joll-lO: H.rtm" " ". H.dn,," I (77~79 ')' ,Az->jj , Job" ",,,, Fri . d. Don'''Dn
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I these lllos,lics as the projenion of a new idea of Constamine as an ideal Christian ruler ,lIld thus as ~ model for F r,lIlks.~· I would suggest that looking at the Tridinium together with its architecture, the activities of 799-800 and the R oman monuments in which they took place inclicates that they wen: part of a programmt." of ddining sc'par;l[e rolt."s for the rulers which the papacy sought to achieve in these years. R.ather thau merely illustrating a text , the Triclinium alld its decoration argue forcefully the authority oft h ~t pope to riV:l1 all emperors. T he :trchitecture of the TricliniuJlI in which foreign and local bishops Illet projened the uew role of the papacy. While thefe is little kuowll about other secubr buildings - this \V:lS~ banqueting hall :lnd presentation space, uo t a church - in the city at th is time, this rridinium, along with the odler hall constructed by Pope Leo, show the pope building a court on the >cale and in the language of the major power figures in the early medieval world . Leo's building project was carried o ut at the same time as Ch,lrlcmagne's own p~lace building at Aachen. 6j The hall W"dS rectangular in fo rm, with a single apse at the southern t."lld and a pair of symmetri cal apses on the long sides. Visitors entered the hall by a ttight of stair> that led to a narthex with small apses on either side wall. Between the vestibule and the hall stood a pair of columns framing the entrauce into the main hall. with its lateral apses. At the Later,ln , Leo III also constructed another (riclillil/JII with eleven apses around a longitudinal hall. which we shall refer to as the Aula. to avoid confusion with the other building, commonly known as the Triciiniulll of Leo 11 1.66 The :m;hitecture of these two buildings as wdl as their ado rnment in coloured marble and mosaic images spoke the language of ancient imperial presentation halls. 6 7 In the late eighth century, these structures would have been very easily associa ted with the polylobed "1I/,le of the imperial p:lbce at Constantinoplco3 by cosmopolitan visitors like travelled bishops, abbots and missi of the different courts. • , H,n. Belting. 'Die beiden P,b",n]en Leo. 11 J. im L, te r:>n und die En' ''eh ung m m l umt'. hiih,niru)./",)ich, S",J;, • ., (t<)78) . H-S" ·p'p.1 .rti"ie eom mi"iom,. dc_ (,"i'io," of the <\,ediev,J Church in Rome' i" /;'~'''~ 'h, F,,,"") C;'r' FIJI"";" a.' hi""'rfi<m, ,/" "'""'fl","i. SM' Um",,,ily. ed . Hel l,nu, H.,);er ""d Su ...." Seo!! Mu",hower (Uni"""i')" 1'.. , •.
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U w~ Lobb~dc)', ·C . w ling;"n ruy,] p.be,", ; The .... t,· of .=",·h frum "''' ;rehitectu..,1 h i"o<",,', viewpoi"t' in C""" C,,/,ur< i. 'h, F.,/y ,I/"W, :1.1""'. "d. C .. therine Cubia ( rurnhout, ;003). [lO ."d (on t he po"ib ilit}· ' h" Ch"kmagl1 <> A"b ""', moddlod on Leo', b1<.JU ... ,,1.). l JS.
'"' LP ~H ; N. 91 . • , M.n(ted Lu eh te.h..nd. 'F.. mntm Petr i' in 799: Kum' ,,"d K,,/w, d" Kd",H••~"z' 'Pip>dieh .. P,b"b.m' .. \t'Qtfj(Jng M i;[lrH · On ;"'I'<~ "'",o"io C,rik 'L .. I'",,,,,ml<:. del pU,"'e ' SP''''
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I A steady flow of such visitors passed between the Frankish. R oman ,Hld Byzantine courts. The following should give a suggestion of the fi-equency of missions th:lt might have passed ideas about architectme and the representation of power benveen the major court centres in the decades before 800 . In the 720S Willibald, bishop of Eichst~tt . travelled between Rome and Con5taminople, and various other places.""" In 74-3. a IlIiHIH of Pope Zacharias n-,lVelled to the court of Emperor Constantine V (7I8tS) and back to R ome.7° In 752 and 753 John the Silentiary trwelled between COllStalltinople and R ome twice, with legates fro m both papal and imperial courtS." In 763 Paul I and Pippin II I sent a mission to Constantinople. T hey returned with Byzantine officials in 767 to Gentilly where a synod was held. and another m ission was sent to Constantinople. lohannis, sllbdeacon and abbot. Pampillls, rcgionary defclISor, md Fbginus, Pippin's chaplain, were sent to Rome. and Petms the notary, lohannes m
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~ J;"l>n>~ D~i <~,i ", oni ,)l ; J i <<>,,~ . in Uo""" 'I"'Cio ",II'Allo M,d"""" Sen;"" " . di ""dio ~o (Spolrlo, WO)). 602-H· H "seberc. Vi,. IViWb.Jdi, e d . 0. Ho lder-Eu~r, H C H SRC XV I (H , n over. ,887) . 80--1/7 LP 9j " O. " LP 9~ , 8---<;l " MCHEpi""'MIIL'1' 28. J6.37 Rdc,cnc,., , nd d iK" .. ion in Mic had I1.\cC o''''ick. Ori.~" , .if ,/" Eun1".n E,onm" r ' Co", ""mi,.lie", ""J "'"'""... A I> )"<>-90" (C.",bri '002). A79 . nrl n . SS GiQ"' '''' ; l)<),"~,, ;~<) M",,;, S""''''''~, Go",i/;"",,,, No..."" ,1'''I>li1-1''''. ",11",;" ( V", ,;<~. 17(6) . 12. 986 ,nd di>cu";Qn in McCo , ,,,;ck, Or("';n) . 881 . M,n,;. S"""n<m GondJjon,m . IZ. 1<)7~-8 . ,. ),IR ' H R, LP~ 7. 88. G,!lo ,.""o""n I""n<m I'om,nrll",jjj ,,,,.,,bij• .:cl. E Loh;a . "d J. l,po"~ (RQ,, . 1 (8, ) .~ RF (A~""I,, Einl...'!i q"i diw"",,) ".no 787 (7 J)
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HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome Leo 111. ' 9 In 787, the Roman legates Petrus and Petrus returned from the Second Council of Nicea. 8o In 798 , Michael. former governor of Phrygia and T heophylus, presbyter, arrived at Aachen with a letter from lrene, and returned to Constantill ople . ~ 1 These are merely some of the attested embassies between o ne court and ano ther. St'VCral otht'r possible means of exchangt-' have been drawn together by Michael McCormick ill his record of travellers and commerce. 82 Ros M,rtin (S,l>b,,,g. ,y 16). ~ ( ~-IO). For , h ~ 0 bi, 8o ~ , zwrly p,p. 1 p.l.cC>. includin g Pop<' Z, chari. " r roj « ... <11<' P,blin<. >« John O >1>orn<. ' P,!"'I COn" cult ur< d,,, ill g Ih< ponlific .. < of Z,ch>ri" (.\0 74'---'7,1>)' ill C,,,m C" II'''' in Ih, E..lr Middl, A,\,<' . .,d , C"hooJ ). "J - H
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of (if not superior to) the Byzantine emperor in his Constantinopolitan palace_M In these buildings Pope Leo convened a meeting in late N ovember 799 with a number ofhigh-r:mki ng Franki,h deries: Arc hbishops l-liIdebald of Cologne, Arno of Salzburg; Bishops Cunipert, Bernard of Worms perhaps. Atto of Freising,Jesse of Amiens: a bishop- dec t Erllaic; and Counts l-leimgoth, Rotgar. and Germar.R7 Later the next year. in November 800, Charlemagne himself arrived in R ome. Like Pope Leo before him, Charlemagne was greeted with honours :md acclaim by pilgrims and the people of R ome along the road to the basilica ofSt Peter. M T he Ro},,,1 Frankish Amw/s report that Charlemagne's purpose in Rome was to investigate the charges of the pope. and those against him.l\y Leo had been accused of perjury and adultery; however no onc came forward to sub,rantiate the charges. T he crimes are alluded to in the AIl/IlI/s, and also by Leo JlI in his eventual oath. but to my knowledge they are named only by Akuin . in a letter of August 799 to Arno, Archbishop of Salzburg, describing the plot. Akuin advised Arno, who accompanied Leo I11 back to Rome, in a N ovember 799 letter, that no onc can judge the culpability of the pope and thi, was a point also nude to the assembled bishops in R ome in N ovember 800_"" In St PNer's basilin, in front of the king and bishops, Leo took a public oath purging himself of any wrongdoing said to have led to the attack on him the previous year. 91 DECEMBER
800
On Christmas Day. Charlemagne went to St Peter's for massY' Normally in this period the papal masses of Christmas, both the Vigil of Christnl;\S Eve and the nocturnal mass of Nil/ale domini took place at S. Maria M :lggiore ; the second mass took pbce at the titubr chuTch ofs. Anastasia, and the third mass took place at St Peter's.93 Paolo Delogu has suggested that Charlemagne's presence in St Peter's suggests a deviation from the .. L"d"",il"nJ •. 'F.",,,lI,, P«ri', ' PJp"lich", 1';01."1,.,, " Ll' 98: 00. On ,he", individ u.b. >cc Louis-M"i" Duch","c. L< Lib" Po.,iji,-.I;,; I<xl<. ,",~,d,,,,;o" "'<'mm."'.;", (I'"i•. 1886- 9'1. I. 36-'7 .nd Oil Hildcb.ld in p.nic"h,. >cc Phili ppe Dep,-"ux. Prv'0P"'('"I,J,i. d, 1'''''0",,".'1' d. I..,,,;, I. p;,,,_ ,, ('~ 1-84 ') (Sil9 "" i" ge " , 1'197). l46-'7 . .. LP 98 : , I:
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HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome normal liturgical pattern. intended to set the stage for the imperial acclamation in ,) public and symbolically i mport~ nt location .Y' T he events of Ch~rlemagne's arr ivAl. Leo's self-absolution . the trial of his pcrsecutors and the eventual coronation all tOok place at St Peter'> basilica . Likewise, the oaths sworn in 774 between Hadrian and Charlemagne had taken place over the relics of Peter, 111 the basilica. and t hey were indeed deposited there in perpetuity,9S This may be because it was the most important church in R ome. but it may also have been chosen because it was the 10/JIs of Frankish presence in Rome. after the creation of a c hapel in honour of Saint Petronilla, by Paul!."'; It \\1;lS. accordi ng to Einhanl. Charlemagne's most cherished church . and indeed Charlemagne lavished gifts upon it, both at his coronation and at o ther moments in his reign.Y7 Leo 111 and his predecessors thernselves had invested a grcat deal of silver. gold. precious ft bric and other decorations in the basilica as \'vdl. With rising general inten.·st in pilgrimage, St Peter's \ \1;lS in these years becoming the most prominent ch urch in R o me. the site of major liturgical cek'b ra tions and the greatest public attention amo ng all of the churches of R ome . W ithin the power topograp hy of e:nly medieval R ome, St Peter's wa), in this way, a pendant to the Lateran. If the major ecclesiastical activities happened at the Lateran . t he place for ho no urable public dOll;ltions visible to pilgrims and R omans alike was St Peter's. It \ \1;lS also t he most visible place fo r coronatio ns, oaths and public presenta tions. Kneeling before the w,ifessio of Saint Peter, Charlemagne was crowned emperor by Leo 11 1.98 Frankish sources tend to downplay Charlemagne's instigation of the evem; however. it must have been prepared and staged beforehand:"" He was acclaimed by the people of Rome, then he
". P,olo Ddog". "v. ' L~olle Ill. """0,' E,O(iti''P''Ji, J,i papi (Ro"". '(00). 1.699 . •" LP 97 : 40. H . On the to",b of Peter ... , 'nu",inou, o"en' for the.., o>t thi' point in Ch"lenugne, reign. ,ee J,ndy ,on"o:<,ed wi,h v,pl'in. below, pp. 2 <4 - t j' R"dolf Schiclfer, 'Clurl""id 11 . lJJ!IIOP',~ , T h. M"'in.,l Meditcrr.ln<>n ,8. ~d. jul;, "·1. H. Sn,ith (Hrill. '0(0) , ,88-1/: McKi".,ick, Hi"",y ."d ,\1,,",,0'. '46-8_ . , Ei" h"d. VI,. k.",/j "';g";, n, JJ . 0" the gitt.. "". Ddxmh 1<.hu,kopfl)diy""';,. 'Ch"!<""g"" 'ilHr .. bb : Th. id"'logy of ,n ;m!"'r;.1 ",piuI', Early ,I /.di«,. i E"r"l" t l . l (July lOO). t 59-'77 ,,,cl N ..l Chr;..... ·Ch..,I.""'b~'< ."d the Rl«. 200.1). '70_ 0' LP 98: 26: ef II RF ""'10 80, (, Ll) '" 0" 'he comn>li"". >ec 'he r~.en' cli,,,,,,io,, i" rz" d"lfS.hidfcr. 'N~e, VOll Jet K,iserl:roll""g K"b j wh ich provid", r~f~",,,c~, to older lit er.. t"r< : Rog~r Coli;"" 'Ch .. rl~m' g"~·' imp~_ ri.1 'oro"",iOll oroJ 05). _1 .-'10: M
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I presented the pope with gifts of gold and silver liturgical implements. 'oo Then, following the sequence of the LP ,lIld the R Qyal Fr,lllki,./! AIIIWls, thc newly crowned emperor Charlemagne and Pope Leo examined the leaders of the mo b that had attacked the pope, passed judgetnem and sent them into exik, 'in till" districts of Francia ', '0 ' Whatever tht, impo rtance for the Franks, the ,how of Frankish power and support for the papacy in 800 too k the wind Ollt of the sails of the rebellious R oman nobles, Leo uncovered anothcr conspiracy ag:linst his person in 815, however, after Charlemagne had died. R oman no bles might have thought that without Charle magne in the picture, there might finally be a chance to overthrow Leo's con trol. T his time, however, Leo executed the leaders of the rebellion - the exile in Francia to which other conspirators had bcen sent was insufficicnt, Louis the Pious received news of these events and >cm I!IlS5i to investigate and men to bring civil order; Leo abo sent oflicial representati ves to the Frankish CO llrt, bllt the revolt had been put down more or less. by the pope. 'oo T he election of Leo [[['s successor and Paschal's direct predecessor Stephen IV (816-[7), might be seen as an attempt to bring togethe r the rival faction.,: he was of noble origins but notwithstanding this fact had moved up the clerical hierarchy through appointme nts by Leo III himsclf.'Oj Scephen showed himself to be interested in the aft:lirs of Rome's nobility: amo ng his first actions \\!;lS a trip to the court ofLotlis to discuss his election and to gain release of the exiles who had plotted against Leo,'04 On this trip, Stephen anointed and consecrated Lou is, in addition to crowning him with a gold and je\velled crown brought from R ome. Ermold Nigel1us (fI , 824-.18) wrote a poem in praise of the life and deeds of Lo uis the Pious, claiming that the crown placed on Louis had once belonged to Const3ntine. 'O.l \V hile the existence of ''''' The gilt' i"dude.:! • ,ilwr ... ble. liturgic.! Ye"",I, of ,iI"~r .nd gold. cm,,,,, ,,,d other decor.lt ion, for 'he ,,,,jor b,,,licas of 1Z 0",e. S, Pe«r'" St p,,,r., s, M,ril M'AAior< . lId 111< L"e"'": LP \19' 24-\ , 0" .i",ibr girl> lI"d<., C h"k"'o;::rl<-' de .. h, ,eo ])~~Y~lIlIi>, 'Ch>rl ,i["er ubi"" •in ,,'ili, p""i ...., Fr"",i,,', Lt' 98 : 26: cf. Lt' 98: 10, wha .. th")" h,d . Irc,dy be .. " d<>p.rchcd to F..,,,ci, h,,{o,.. Ch,"[e""g<'e', ."iv,l: A R F.""" 80' (, ' 4) ,., N"w, of 11", ""conrl .'''ck ;, • ."."'" (mm 'h" LP, bUl ' PP"'" "' o\uollemU, Fw,ki,h illcluding ">tronomcr, 'Vi" Hlooowici [mp .. "'tori,', Zj ()60-60): A RI' 'I1no 8, j ('4), ' O} • • • , 'Stcphcn [V (V ), Pope'. ill N,," C~rholic E"qd~l", di. (Now York. ''!67). X III. .1 ' 8..... : >, • • 'Ste(,,,o [V', '" Eotid'1"Ji. Jfi P"I'; (Rome. ;:(00) . [, 70~- ~. TOIII Nohle ,u);ge>t, t!ut Steph~n might be "'g, rJed ... ',eco"dh"ion c. "did.,,,. f>: Noble. 11" /{'I",b/it of 51 1'".... 0; . ,"< A R/i '""0 R, 6 ('44); ""r<'"'Olllct, HI"J.,,,oi(i ,,,,I",..lon',.,6 (J66---bR) : Th'1;, II. Om HI,,· JOlvid IlIlp<,",,,ri,. ,6 (to)o6): LP 99: ;:: Noble. 11" R<JHl bli( of Sr P"". ;:00 . ,., [rlllo[du, Nigdlu.. In hono""J HIIIJo,;o ,hri,';.";" imj ,"".,,', ~",'"'Jt; . publi ilied,. ""m" "" Lolli, Ir pj(UX" £1")'" all ",i pry);", e.:!. ",,[ "".... EJII' Qud F".I, L~. d."iq" "" d~ r hi>toi", de Ft>lIce ... ",oY"" og<' '4 (l>:>.r;" '9l » , 11 '076---"J (R4) ; ef. Theg>lI, c.~,. HI"J",,;
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HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome such an object is unlikely, th is show~ that the themes of the Donation of Constantiue and the mOS6-1 bUI ",,"or,bl "' I"vi"~ be.n , ,,,,,, [i"h,rrl..... "",1<:>.. M G H SRG I. ' ''",0 8' 7 (~U J -4) .
'oo Th ....,. W<e below. 1'1'. >700- 1. "" MG fI Eri".I., Ill. 68-<,1 M C fI 1J:oi<' I. , ~8-2(X" tor, )ZW II' It,li,<' ill Ch.rl,," ag",,~ H,i,: N""I''''("': ,nd 011 hi, ti,]", "'. Herwig Woltr:ml. 1""",I ..i" 11. u uimuh, H"","",;,,' ;m .,u.u. "nd ;>,""1<. j .hrl",nd", . M il1" il" llgl:hkl",(of>d w lIg. E.",null g>b.\ud '4 (Viell "" '9 7J ). ' 9"""' 7~
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I nephew Bermrd, who had been named king of Italy by Charlemagne, remained in post ~s rlller, though snbordin ate to Lothar his cousin, Bernard rebelled, and his dissention exposed rifts in the tissue of Louis' rule. '" Bernard's blockade of the passes into Italy was suppressed by Lo uis, Those who had shown him support , many of whom, like T heodulf. had been pillars of Charlemagne 's court, were imprisoned, deposed or condemned, ") Bernard was blinded ~s a punishment and died. This left young Lothar as ruler ofltaly, and Louis' attentions focused on matters in the north, less concentrated on R ome and the papal state.
PIICTUM LUDO VI CItlNUM
In 817, upon his election to the pap:.l throne, Paschal asked Lo uis that the pact made between his predecessor Stephen and the emperor be confirmed, " · T his confirmation w~s the starting point for P ~schal's administration and governance, T he H,CIIW, Llldoliicialll llll established the pope's possession of properties and rights to taxes from those properties in Italy, including formerly Lombard territories, former Byz:.lltine Exarchate territory and various islands should they come into Frankish control ,'" In addition to these declarations of possession. the HWllm included affirmation of the pope's Jurisdiction:ll authority over refugees and criminals from the papal state, and the freedom of papal elections, to be conducted without Frankish interference, T he agreement est:.blished the pope's clear amhority over the papal state, with the proviso of imperial intervention if called upon, One clallse stipulates that upon the death of a pope, the clerics and people of Rome bury the dead pope and consecrate the successor, ~fter which the emperor is to be notified of the election, T he language of the documellt stresses the Roman elements in the papal election, including the Roman clerics and the po pulace (and, perhaps. the correlative un importance of the Fnlllks) in the evem, T hese rights and the independence of the papacy from external control provided the papacy with quasi -autono mous governance and statehood. \Ve mmt be wary of drawing too firm conclusions from the PIIC/ IIIII, for no contemporary text of the agreement exi,ts. The earliest texts purpo rting to be the HlCwm date from the canon law collections of the ' " 11 Rt', .nn o S 17 ( 147) , Se,' J i>< u»ion in l{o»monJ ~ I, Kitteri, l , 111, honki, I, J(in~.J""" ,,"d,, 11>, C.",li~gion' (LonJ on , 'Y~J), ' j4--{., '" A R E muo 8'7-S ('47-8); "" "'nOIl, mm" MGH COl' ' , J)2-S, " > 1{.)'lIlolld D." i>, n, Li,.." (L iverpool, "/9 », 'J.-J ,
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HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome eleventh century, compiled at a time when the relationship between imperial power ,md papal power was rather different /Tom the ninth ccntury,,16 Nonetheless, wc can be fairly certain that some agreement had been drawn up between Stephen and Louis and this was confirmed by Louis and signed by PaschaL The agreement probably follo\ved gro.\'SO modo earlier papal agreements with Carolingian rulers and the independence of the papacy in its own affairs and , generally, ill the aft:lirs of its territories, 117 T he motivations of the original P,lC/UIH, in whatever form it too k, were surely to st:tbilise Stephen's control of the papacy after the difficulties encountered by Leo in the last year of his reign and shore up the imperial authority of Louis after the death of Charlenlagne :md Bernard's rebellion, The coronation of the emperor and empress by Pope Stephen IV achieved these results in 816 , and the subsequent coronation of Lothar ill 823 might have been targeted to do the ,:tme, In R ome on Easter Day, 5 April 823, Paschal bestowed upon Lothar t he c rown of the kingdom on taly and the titles of Emperor and AugtJstus, 11 8 Lot har had been visiting Italy as an agent of his father, as he had been charged by Louis to concern himself with the affairs of Italy. I I~ Paschal's act of coronation reinforced the importance of papal coronation of Frankish rulers, asserting the amhority of Peter in the workings of the empin.'_ Leo II I had crowned Charlemagne at R ome, Stephen IV had crowned Louis the Pious at R eims wit h a crown perhaps brought from R ome, and Paschal's choice to crown Lothar at R ome might be seen as testimony to his interest ill stressing the authority of R ome and the papacy in making kings and emperors_ Whilst Lothar was in R ome in April of82." Ingoald, the abbot of Far fa , complained to the emperor of abuses by the R oman Church, specifically seized monastic property. "" Farfa had been granted immunity in 775 by Charlemagne and a series of OTher privileges in the following years, free ing the abbey from local due, and taxes, and placing it subject directly to the papacy. Early in PaschJl's reign Ingoald had compbined to the pope abollt his predecessor, Sterhen IV, and that pope's insistence upon Farfa's paying tributes and pensions to the papacy. Paschal had confirmed the ,,' r"Q' th< >o ure<> , ... < ,\j C Il C"I' I. 35" !I . Hahn. -Da, H l" d ovic ia n ul11', Arch,v.f'" Dir lo"wik ZI (IY7SI. )0. So< d M ,u.. io n ill Co,umbol'" "od 11a."",.'!'". J 18-.2, " , Wh .. t th Q.e [e",tNI", WeCe ..." d wheth ec th~ y w"'~ conc~ ded by L"ui . .. t [h" t i l11~ ",,,, .. in. ""cle". os Co,..,n b")'. d~m o n"l"l t"', g"","",I:'. J2~-j 1.1 Ast ronomer. 11" Hledo",;,; I",p<,",o.il. J6 (~ I ~I . " . A RF.nno 8 2) ( U"'I 1.0 1/ 'Lib" F/o,;,y" dl Crr-'1" '-;. d" Ca,,"", ~d . M";,, T~ M'AAi lk i ("'- owe, ly841, 17-'1. p'rri" lI y reprop. l .we, , e~ G, V. 1:l W""', 'ClI.,lelll"gll <" i"vol\'","ellt ill ,ell .... l "lid ",,,diem 1" ly', E. rly M di,,,,,1 EW"'I" 8_l (1 9991, H' - 50_
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I inalienability of the monastery's property in 817, but was nonetheless ,lCcused by Ingoald, six years later, of seizing property and demanding tribute,'2I T he result of the trial in 813 was that Lothar demanded that the properties be returned alld TCconfirmed the il1ll1lllllitie, of the abbey, negating the p ~PKY'S claims to the resources of the monastery and its holdings.,n J uly 82J , Louis the Pious was informed that two Lateran officials had been blinded and decapitated. T he Roy,,1 Fr,mkish A nnals tcll that two official, were sent to Rome to investigate, but before they had departed Francia, Paschal's envoys arrived there, pleading for the exoneration of thc pope. Louis sent represematives to R on1e, and in their presence, Paschal and a host of bishops and priests denied any wrongdoing, Paschal sent officials back with Louis' envoys to attest to a public purging of guilt, which eflectively ended the affair. Upon their return to R ome the conflict was effectively ended by Paschal's ill health and sudde n deat h. '") Mention of these events does not appear in the pope's official biography, and little more can be s.lid about wha t might have happened given the meagre data, though I shall try to do so below, pp. 270-[. T he situation points 10 tense condition> on many front, and char.Kterises a papal administration asserting its auto nomy, perhaps with particular consider;\tion of the local perceptions of this authority. Romans apparently no ticed Paschal's attempts to asse rt the authority of the papacy, against the lay aristocracy and against the Frankish rulers. One of the Frankish reporters records a revolt upon Paschal's de:lth. during which the populKc of R ome blocked his burial at St Peter's until the election of his successor. ,:q It is unclear from these sources wl1ether the turbulence referred to should be understood as a contingent of the Roman populace refusing to allow the burial of a despised pontiff (a contingent that found support from T hegan) or instead as the Frankish author's first encounter wi th t he looting and pillaging that traditionally accompanied ~ papal dea th. Frankish sources provide the majority of the '" J.tR >.\46 (= R 'X'".<'o dl 1"10. n. " 5 ([ I. ,86-7» . ... [>,>ch.1 h.d 'I};Uc-d th., 'he ,~. w" for t h< j", R"",.n, "'/,,;.. lCco.ding '0 'he report p,=" ... d i " ,h. RW',,,, ,/1 F.j.. n . • B. (I[. >]]-8): ef Lou;,; 'old Lo,h.1 " j>1"i,il"l!"' of 819-JO, R',I""" Ji Fdj. 11. _71 (ll, ll ~-j). M.mo. CO"",II,he}". di.cuo> .. ,h .. e eOllf"on, t1 QII, .lId th~ rd." iomhip bctwe<1I th < ,b~' . lId 'he l"'PKy in 1'0",.' /"'~'"',,,,", )07- 40 . '" A"roll o ona. Hi"d"wln· J7 (4,6->0); T h
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HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome evidence abo ut the interregnum and eleaion, perhaps further indication of rising Fr;mkish presence in the affairs of the papal state, Paschal was succeeded by Eugcne II (824- 7), supported, at least according to the LP, by the R oman nobles and the Franks. "5 The ROY!l1 Fr!lukish A rlll,'/.' describe the c1eaion as contested and mention t hat thl're W. ' " The Frankish comt apparently sought to adjust the relationship so upervision of papal affairs, a Illove which appears to have been aimed at curbing papal autonomy. 'l~ The Carrs/iw/ia placed papal e1eaion and administration under the supervision and control of the emperor, and insistl'd on the presence at Rome of a permanent Frankish repreSl'lltativc. Lothar was sent to supervise R.ome early in E ugene's reign, exerting a decidedly difi,nent kind of presence for Franki,h political author ity t han that which had come before. 129 Tom N oble has interpreted t he Cam/illl/io as an extension of the papal- FT;\nkish relationship outlined in the HrClWU of 817.' )0 Noble argues that the COlIslillllio is the culmination of movements already underway, prompted by the 'turbulence and unsavory behavior' at R ome. ')' As will be discussed below, other changes can be used as evidence for this changed I"t'lationship such as the different nature of the building programllles of the subsequent popes and the fact that relics \vcre allowed to circulate north in quantities that were unk nown previously. [ argue, following M~rios Costambeys, th~t the COHSlilw io marks a departure. '.1 z T he pos,ible motives and explanations
.. , LP ,01: [. ,.., A RF.1n n0 8~~ ( [J » '" T he v;,. ofnmbili, It·"I .... , written in 8)6 by P.",lu>i", Ibdbc"", , b out h i, .dvi>or W.]., roy.l > w.y ' hrough hi", [h"", ' hi ng> w hich h.. d Pe.II p."·.,,ed for .. lo" g , i",o by IIr,,, ' "0);10«, c ould Ix- co rroct ed. wo could m UTll i' o ' h e propn ""'yl.) P'>ch»iu> R .dh. " u•. EIIi"!,hi",,, v;'" 1 1 ~1",. H C H SR C 11. H 4. n' I ' ''pi,"l.ri i,.lid. Slo,i. , J"m. ddl. d","i".~'o", i" 1,.1i •.•d. C I.. udio A."" , nd Pi, Ca"" .~,';aN Chru~id", "7' I),vis. /.j "" 0/ ,I" "" "'h·C,~". 'I' P,'I'''' ;r-~ .
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Tire Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I for this change, and its implications for the papacy will be disenssed more fully in Chapter 6, below.
Byz of the Frank:; and their agents, but also by the problems of the Byzantines and the Lo mbams and the political wnngling fo r the territories of the Italian pe ninsub . In the pO\\iCr shift, between the distant Byzantine emperor, the local Byzantine e.xarchate, the Lo mbard kings and dukes, ,md the popes, the two-pronged app roach of religious authority and territorial control gained the papac y new-follnd political leverage. Until the 740, the Lombard;; paid >cant attention to the popes md gave their nascent papal state wide berth. ' Jl The Lombards were more interested in the territo ries of the Byzantine exarchate along the Adriatic coast. str;ltegically critical for communication between their duchies and ki ngdoms (sce Figure l , p. xxi) . In the 74-OS, the papacy and the Byzantine exarchate viewed themselve, inextricably bo und together as the remaining Sllccessors to t he Roman Empire. and thus the papacy intervened on behalf of the ex~rchate. ' H When religious pressures in the name of the See of Saint Pcter failed to expel the Lombards from these territories, Stephen J1 sought the assistance of the Frankish king Pippin, perhaps with the ag reement of the Byzantine emperor, thus beginning the long and complex dance between the papacy and the Franks' jl The Lombam attempts to gain control of the papal state and the city of R ome (in 754) were thwarted by Franks and then finall y systematically quashed in 77 3. Charlemagne's attack on Pavia was decisive, though numerous
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HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome 6ctors might h~ve contributed to the we~kening of the Lo mb~rds . I J6 As victor. Charlemagne took the title King of the Lombards, bestowed it upon his son Pippin in 781, t hough maintained cOlllrol of the lands in his own hands. This despite the long-standing papal claim to the bnds, claims which wt're reasserted in 78 I , in 816 in t he PIle/1I1II LudolJicu e the rep:ttriation of these lands. 1n t he second quarter of the eighth centllry, the Byzantine government rcorg~nised t he ruling of hnds in Italy and increast'd the t~xes on lands ownt'd by the R oman ChllTch . a step tha t appears to have provoked the popes to reorganise their own terri tories and farllls rather than to pay up.')? T he disjulldioll between ROlllans and Byz:tntine, however, w:ts no t merely abo ut land; it was also aoom the fundamental question of who has slIpremt' autho ri ty in matters of the Christian religion. I J8 Just prior to tht' change in Byzantine tt·rritory. in 730. the first stirrings of the iconoclastic movement began. abolishing most re ligious images. lest their veneration become idolatrou s.' N T he pope), starting wi th Gregory 11 (715- 3 I) emphatically rejected thistheology. fint in a Synod oh3 I. The Byzantine position was reaffirmed in 754 at ,I COllncil which papal legates did not attend. and the ami- idolatry policy cominlled umil the 780s.'40 T he papal rejection of the ideology was sustained and lTlay have shaped papal political policy not only on issues of doctrine but also in their 5ep~r~ ti on from the Byzamines as protectors _'" T hese same year<; wime,sed ''" Th~", oth~, ~xpt" utio"> ", dulle th~ loos< ,""ci,1 "'1;>";"';0" of th e Lo,,,b • .-m. cul",,., 1 ly· . 30'--2 . S.,< .1", 'h < ,.c"'l11m'. Co"ambcl". l'owtr ""d pd''''"d.,.... • 88-)0"7 '" M idud McCormkk, 'lIy"n' iu,,, ,nd 'he W"". 7<><>---<JOO' III 11" l\'tlv C","hriJ~... ~l,d;",,' H I"ory, vol. 11. {. ;"0--<. "" •. \1,). 36j _ Prt economic ,ncl politiC'.1 moti""i ng hcto r> . • ee •.,. ' ''onod"",' ill n .. 04o~1 Di(fO"",y of Br"""'i,,,•. «I. Ak.'<-'lI(\« K",hrLn (Oxford. '99')' T!. 97)-; : the p>p~"" coll«,e.!;" R' ;"e' He, ,, d, (ed.). 0., F,""kji,,'" 1'."",,11 "0" 79~ (Mm" , ")<J7) ; tJF"",I"," '" '11< I,,'"ox/." Er" (,. 66_8jo): A hi,,"ry. cd . L<>Ii~ Urub, kcr , nd Joh n H,ldon
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I papal moves to shore up their territor y but also in their taking control ofinfrastrllCtllr;ll elements such as da ting protocols. Documents began to be dated by papal reign in the 780s and the papacy began to mim coins in Rome in the same years. '.,> T he papacy distanced itsdf from the Byzanti nt' imperial admin istration by disputing territo rial conttol and on some m atters of theology. though both sides maintained active diplom acy. ' ~ J T he papal court w:!s suffused with Greek heritage, in language, liturgy ;md somc artistic traditions. E~rly eighth- century Anglo-Saxo n visitors to the p~pal court were unable to understand their hosts who spoke to each other in GrceL '44 Jean - Marie Sansterre has established tha t between the sixth and ninth centuries the papal c hancery and some monastic scriptoria maintai ned scribes with some functional Greek, Jnd these people composed and translated and composed saim s' lives, theological te xts, leners in Greek, with more or less ,uccess. 14j From the middle of the eighth century there was a Jlopubtion, mostly clerical or monastic. of immigr'Hlts or descen de nts of immigrants who spoke Greek. wrote g raffiti and composed inscriptions in Greek. venerated Oriental saints. celebrated Byzan tine liturgy or Q(herwi,e identified themselve, as 'Greek'. '<6 Some of these d erics or monks provided linguistic and cultllral interpreters and legates on diplomatic missions to Constantinople. For example, whc n the patri arc h of Jerusalem , Theodore, sent a letter to Paul [ outlining his and two other patriarchs' support of image vencra tion, it \ V"dS translated in R ome under the antipope COllStantine [[ (767-8) and then ,em to Pippin in Latin. 047 To give one example of many. Hadrian sent all embassy of two priests to Constantinople, o ne of who m , Pctrus, abbot and priest of S. Saba, a monastery long identified as Greek. \Y;lS probably a Greek spe;lker and perhaps already f:lm iliar with thc Oyzantine capital ~nd its politics. '4R T hese ccclc,i:lstical ambassadors were c\1 1tu ral interpreters between R ome and C om;taminople. but also acted as
,., 0 .. o,h~r 1Il",~".i m, .. if~>!"iulI' u( ,h < .""O"UIll1" of'h~ I>-'p,1 'U,~ "'~ 1>01"",. PI'· 60-7. 27'-J . '" N"bk 110. R'lmbi'( ~r P"". 57-«0: McC"''''k k. ·By.,,,,iu,,, "" d 'h< ",~,,' . '" EM;". S«p h." ,u•. 1'7,. II'7ynJi. od. W I."";"''' . .IIGH SR.I/. VI. .I J (>H) '" J~."-M";< S.n"ar<. L<, m,"." Km.' i,.,",,,' Ro"" """'" ;P<'~"" "F"""·.' d,' I. cl>"" d"" ktS<"l>. '98J). 6~-<,I. 0" tr."J"ion ~""(l"."~ Tho",,. F. x . N()hl~. ·Th~ d~di""'g knowl""lg~ ofGr«k in ~i~'h ,,,d nin th c~nt~r )" R OIll~·. BF,.. ,ini"hr L,i",hr;!i 78 (,,,Rj). 5<'>-6, . " . On ;"'''';I',;on' .od g"fflt i. >e' G " ",idlllu C,..,110. '1.. 'ipoiogi> d~ll, CI,I",,., nd ,id,,,,, ddk
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HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome representatives of the papacy: ]-ladrian sent other monks from S. Saba on embassies to Desiderius and to Charlemagne.'·v Despite the popes' political separation from the Byzantine Church. the iconoclastic movement was not irrelevant to politics in R ome. [n 787. Empress [rt·ne. Constantine VI and the Patriarch Tarasios officially condemned iconoclasm as a state doctrine at the Second Co uncil of N icea.' jO Then, in 8 J 5. the second iconoclastic co uncil revoked the decision of 787 and reaffirmed the council of 754, banning images and banishing ico nodule monks to e...,;ile. Some of these mo nks came to Rome; Paschal received a letter from the iconodule leader Theodore of Studios which describes R onle as a 'city of refuge' for iconophiles, '5' :Hld Emperor Michael 11 complained about Pasdlalletting so many refugee icollodule Greeks into R ome.'j> Paschal himself perhaps around the year 818 wrote a letter to Emperor Leo V (the Armenian) concerning t he t heology of iconoclasm, and proclaiming the doctriml orthodo.xy of image veneration. ' jJ Tht· lasting results of this controvt'rsy lay in the development of a complex theology of the nature of the holy and the nature of illl:1ges ill Byzantine culture and the firmly established role of Byzantine emperors in the theological workings of the empire. t 54 For t he papacy, t he lasting imp,lct of the iconoclastic controversy was the establishment of a claim of authority over all the Church .'11 \Vhile the Roman Church has periodically asserted supremacy over other bodies in the Church. the cOlllroversy Ofl COllocbslll and the political separation of Byzantinc [Clly and the Papal State consolidated the papacy's doctrinal orthodoxy and thus snpremacy. Interesti ngly, while the Byzanti ne and Frankish secular rulers attempted to legislate to restrict Church policy (on which see ", LP97= or : .IIGH Ep j""f., Ill.
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I more below, pp. 189,265-7) . the popes. as theocrats, cultivated a rather open and diverse ecclesiastic]1 culture, with room for many divergent practices such as Greek liturgy and language, as long as they did not dullenge papal views of onhodoxy on key issues. At the beginning of the ninth century, as we shall st'e below in Chapter S, key political issues were image veneration and saints' relics.
M U SLIMS
In 740 and agai n in 753 , Muslim expeditions from North Africa and Spain set o ut for Sicily, with the appare nt aim to conquer the territory. , 5<\ Though they were more successful than they had been in previous decades, they failed to take :my signific:tnt p:trt of the ishnd. The BeTher revolts of 74 I in the Maghrib forced the wi thdrawal of troops and ongoing tumult kept the Muslim military occupied there. T his gave the Dyza ntine navy time to gather :l defence. ' 57 A large fleet of Byzantine ships protected Sicily and the southern coast ofltaly until the early ninth century, and even launched counter- attach along the northern coast of Afric:t . The Aghlabids agreed to a peace treaty with the Byzantine governor Constantine. though Umayyads from al- Andalus and Idrisids of the far west of the Maghrib continued raiding up the western coast and the islands of Corsica, Ischia and Sardinia. The threat of Arab invaders m\1st have beell felt very strongly in Italy during tho,e yean, as Leo 1II's letters indicate. 'jA In the decades of the end of the eighth century and the beginning of the ninth century, the relationship bet\veen southern Ital ian polities and the Byzantine Empire dlanged dramatically. such that in 8n N aples refused to send ships to aid the Byzantine Aeet in the protection ofSicily. 'l" Aghlabid troops attacked Sicily in 8[9-.20, took prisoners. and withdrew. In 827. Asad bin al- Purat led some 10.000 men to conquer Mazara del Valle on the western coast of Sicily, and they did not retreat. With the assistance of Andalusi troops they held Palermo under siege and '5· Hugh Ketlnedy. 'The M".Jim, in Europe' in n,. !'{.w C.'nbri~.,. M.dim,! Hi"",~. '"01 . [I. (, 7N>--(. ~"". 4«-7" A,i, Ahm,d. A Hi""rt o/!".", ic S;(;/y, ['['!IIk S"rv. _ '" Th"ugh ,h V1 ",,,._;,, Mkh.l. A,n ..". Hibiior...-•• ,.b" ·,im!. (Tmin .nd Rome. , 88, - », L 3H- j07 , " , E.pC'C;'U)' M GN Epj".I., V. 'I' 6 (<.16-7) dot
HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome took it in 83 J. The challenges posed by Muslim threats were widely recognised in Italy, as the city of N aples sou gin the assistance of Muslim military against the LOlllbards ofBenevento in 836/7, and in tmn assisted the Sicilian Muslims in the C;Jpture of Messina from the Byzantine> in 842.' (,0 In 846 the Muslims attKkcd R ome and looted St Peter's. '61 The gold and silver that so many popes and kings had deposited in the basilica over centuries was carted ofT co Palermo and o ther Muslim strongholds. T he presence of these marauding bands of'Saracens in Italy during the early ninth century surely subjected the relations between Lomb:mls and Byzantines to greater pressure and might wdl have forced the popes to work evcn harder to assert tlleir own authority. , M The LOlllbards, Byzantines and Muslims were both military threats to the wellbeing of the papal state, and ideological/theological threats to the o rthodoxy and ecumenical ~uprelllacy of the R o man Church. In attempting to diminate the military tlm..·at, till' popes often cook recourse to the theological; a case in point is papal rhetoric against the Lombards. Uy t he end of t he st·vcnth century the Lombards in Italy had becomt· orthodox Christians. Their paganism had. Illore or less, been left behind and the strain> of heretical Arianism, a 110n- Trinitarian belief about the nature of Christ, to which some earlv authors linked Lombards. had either never existed or were eliminat~d. ,6J Yet accusing Lo mbards of heresy was still politically damaging. When in political contlict with the Lombards, the papal cJl:lncery drew upon centuries of orthodox invective against Lombard heresies, such as Pope Gregory's Di,dogHeso. , 6 4 Even in the eighth cemury, when l ombard dukes were, to .111 intents and pmposes. orthodox, pap~l letters beseeching ~id against the territorial threa ts to the LOlllbards emphasise their doctrinal wrongdoings as well. , 6 j The popes or the late eighth and ninth centuries used doctrin al supremacy as a me,HlS to eliminate more temponl threats in the state. Paschal had many means of expressing the authority of the papacy: land acqu isition, even abusing monastic privileges such as those ofFarra; ,00 Ibn .I- A,hi, . K.mol fi 01- ·l;"i~". 'r..",. in An"'i. /1'&Ii,,'''• • ",b" "",I •. J7~ . 00 , L P '04; H . ," fu, . brkf .y n"r>i, "f in ,..,« poIi. ic, in ••",' h~n' Tt>I)·. "'" Wick h"", . E.. ..Iy
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'" Thi> i, cl o.. in Je,u ip1ion, of ,h~ Lo",b ...J, " nif." . 'ml~''' . "",/i, ctc. in ,bo I", ,,·,, , nJ bi"K"rh i~, of P,ul I , ll d 1'.. ",h,1. I'L LXXX IX . coh . "
39
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I theological or doctrinal supremacy; and military manoeuvres. Also effective \v:lS the construction of a series of churches and cult centrcs in the city of Rome. T he chapters which follow will explore the urban landscape for the so6al politics of early medieval R ome and the building campaign of Fope Paschal as papal evergerism intt'nded to express political autonomy, rooted as it was in this case in the exigencies of rhe politics of the second and third decades of the nimh cent ury. Scholarly attcntion has already focused on the development of papal authority at the end of the eighth century. ,,\6 T he quest for autonomy has often been described as a relatively straightforward momentum building on a homogeneous ever- intensifying goal. T his monlentum was, as we have seen, engendered by rhe changing rela tions between Fr:mks, Lombards, Byzantines and Arabs, all of whom we re jostling against o r co-oper:tting with each other for control of different territories md political arenas wi thin the early mediev:ll ltalian peninsula. 1~7 All of rllt'S<' complex aspects of early medieval culture e:.:erted their influence on the politics of this period. The influences came in the form of gent'ral directions of cultural development, specific actions on the part of individuals and reaction> by leaders and groups. Even whilc cultivating the complex allegia nce with the Franks, thc popcs of thc decades bcfore and aftcr 800 sought to achieve autonomy, and each individual pope strovc for this in ditTen:nt \v:lys. T hc combination of all of thcse forces simultaneously converging on Pope Paschal at this moment has not hcretofo rc becn recognised as a critical factor in the architect ure of the period. Instcad, most attemion has been focused on the relationship between the popes and the Franks, and the so- called R enaissance of ancient culture that evolved out of this Romano- Frankish union. I will argue in the pages that follow that such an intcrpretation of deliberate classicism is far too limiting ;l paradigm for undcrstanding the nch and communicativc language of fo rms, materials and religious practice that characterises Pope Paschal's archi tectural programme. It was instead a reform of the city of R ome, reasserting it as the model pllf cXCel/CWf .
, .. r"{)r . ,ynop'is .nd nitiqo~ of th< bibliog ... phy. ><"< Thom" ~ X. Nobk 'M orbKlil)" ,nd viu lit\" in the history ot I h ~ ~"Iy ",<Xli"". 1 P'p.c}"·, C. ,holi. JIj"~ri(. 1 Rm,," 81 (199j), jOj- 40; M"io. Cm!>'''!)''ys, ' R.vi.w ."icle: I'ToP<'f[Y. ;.J oolog)" ,,,d Ih. [e,dto, i. ll'0wer or'h~ 1"1"")" ", [h. o"ly Middle Age>, I'..rlr M,dim,II'."'"I" 9.) (.000), 367- g6; .Ild the rr«nt cOll"ibutioll of Ih ucr, v." H,Id d" SI,d, R,'m. ,. , The!"<" .re lb'Il)" ",,, die> of . C~",I,",,~ .~.1 l> Roec. (<Xl.). Ildly;~ '"' EO.,lr MiJdl, Ag"'_
Offi"'"
40
HI.I(/wl I (lfId Ihe hislory of Rome CAROLlNG[AN IDEAS
On the political landscape described above, numerous figures were intent on crafting empire), though Charlemagne's efforts have received the overwhelming majority of attention . The campaigns of Charlemagne included the restructuring of many aspects of early medieval life, from administration to manuscript production and liturgical celebration, as well as architecture.'M These trends have been described as part of the so-called Carolingian R enais>;..1.nce, a surge in cultura l production that reflccts an almost omnivorous interest in humanistic disciplincs as well as a drive towards defining prototypes, often using ancient models. ,""" R ecent scholarship has moved away from the notion of'R.enaissance' to explain the dunges brought about under Charlemagne as 'colTcctio' , or the correction and improvement of cultunl prKtice, which included spelling, pro!lIltlciation, musical harmony, eccle'iiastical organisation, monastic rules, metalworking and arch itectural form s.>7o Among the aims of Charlemagne personally was the the harmonisation of Christian observance, >uch that the monasteries and churches throughout the empire were to celebrate the liturgy Kcord ing to centnlly autho rised and approved texts. T he model. chosen by first Pippin and 'iubseguclltly Charlemagne \ve re what wert' regarded as, or at least claimed to be, R oman. '7' Artistic and intellectual activity in the Carolingian period was often a creative mi-xtui"C of emulation of the antique inheritance and innovation. ,,' See, for e".H"pic. C"mUn"oian C"h,,«: b,,,,I,,,ion ""d in"",,",,"", cd. Ro,"",,,ond McK itterid (C,,,,br idge, "19 ~), e.pecial,,· ' Introduction: T he Carolingian Ren,i""nc<. by Gib Urownc R"Ol,"o"d McKittcrkk. ' R o)""1 p.. tnm>ge <>f <"1,,,,,, i" the F,...,k i,h k; "gd o,m " "de, the C.rolin~i''''' : Mot;",,,, .nd comcq"enc<>' i" 1lt, I'",nki,h "'".~' ""d COlI",,, in ,10< E.rl)· Middl, 11..... , (A>h g'''', 'Wj). VII. ,"" McK i"e,ick, 'Ropl p><",ouge of <"le" ,.; ,,,d \Il). 70,;--,7 "" For older vi",,~ .• ee I proM,mj Jdl~ dv, I," ,",,,U".,';" . Setti",,,,. di ""dio [ (Spol",o. 1954): Wolfg-.mg il,."u"t"lo (cd.) . K",I J" G,,,,, (Du .. ddorf, '96,) . For,,, ex''''pl. of, currem expbn,tion .«. for e),",,,,ple, \{ o"",,,ond M cK ;',d rdeunc"" ", 0" th e litu'g;c .. [ ",fN" " ofCh,r1e",.w,., ." '< C)" W< Vc.gd, 'I.; ,.;fo,.",e [""'1;iqu< ...,,,, Ch .. rl ..... ""y,e" ;" K",I d" G..,,,, IA"",,,,,& ""d "",,"'d,,", w[ . IT. 0", Qi"(\,, lA,,", ed. I:lem,tt! ili.chotf (Du»cklorf. '')6,). '17- 1'; Domld ilullough, ·Tat>. dunt .•"d t h ~ dupel o f Lo" i, tcc, ''19,), '4 ' -'7>; Vitro • • Hen. n" Ro>",1 PJ"""",\" of U'''","'Y in F","ki,b (".. ,,/,~ Ib, /)t.,b <>je),""" ,b, IMd (l.ondon, '000)' CI,,,,,ooo, "Ib< 1I.j,b. F,,"ki,l, Ch,,,,Io; McK~t\18), RO>.llll Oncl McKittcr;cl. 'Reviocw ,,,ick G~,"n"" ,,"J ,,,, C,,,,U",\oi.,,,'. E."r .II,,,j, H,w,y ,~ (>000). 07'1---<;0.
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I T he historiography of the Carolingian Renaissance or corrcctio is longrunning and dense. Originally the theory described the wholesale adoption of ancielH models of behaviour and specifically artistic production , bOth mate rial and literary. More recemly, the interpretation of the phenomenon has bet'n modified and rendered more subtle. wlwre schobrs have paid mort' attention to diverse models and their application at specifi c moments in time and in particular places: the trends were )"Irely as universal as was once thought. '71 It has become increasingly important ill the study of this period to identify the specific agents :lnd :lrems of change. such that we can now say that ust's of tilt' past in the late eighth and early ni nth centuries varied greatly from context to conte)(t. '7J H istories of medieval Rome have tended to end a so-calk·d era of decline in the seventh and eighth century with a period of renewed vigo ur brought about by the intenctioll> between the pap:lCY md Carolingians.'H The Frankish royal house had been legitimated by the papacy in 7 S4 and rose to control much o f what is now western Europe. The COllrt cloaked itself in tht, trappings of ancient R ome, rt'forming everything from penmanship to architectural plans in a decidedly classical tone. T hrough Carolingian co-operation with the papacy, the traditional narrative goes. this wave of renewal touched Rome as wdl. ,lIld the city e ,~oyed a large-scale renaissance in the late eighth and early nimh century. '7> T his attitude characterises even SOllle of the very recent thinking on the subject : ' R o me was a\vakened with Charlemagne's visit at Easter 774." 76 ", M'Jor cont of 1ho C . roli ng;'n R~n.i,."m c~· in j{,""i""",, ""d R ;n"v~l;n Ch"',,;"" Hi""'Y. ~d. De", k Ih k~r. Stud, .. 11 ' C.hurch H,>tory ' 4 (Oxfon:l. ' 977) . j'~: John Co ntren'. 'Th~ C. roling;'n R .. u'",.l nc e in R'M;"'""':<' "'fi'" ,/" Rm";,,"nc,' Cul,,, ,,,1 .... ;,"'1, 41." "",;~"ily aNd Ih, Middl, <\<:<'. of j llH " il, e],,(I< 'h~ <""Y' pubh.h t",,,·, ;eri.. T,.,,, "£o,", .. t,,,,, of 'h~ )l. ",,,, u World. in cl uding. for ' n mpk . M.yh d, Jong ,nd f-r:l1lZ Th , uw. «d..). 1"P'W"plo,,, 0( / In.... r ;n Ill, E arly Middl, A ......, ( L ~ido n . zoo,) . Ch,i, Wic);J",m .nd j ng~ H"m, n (<Xl •.). "/It, Uong /c":n, Th (em.). Ri", ./, 0( P",v" (t..id,,,. zooo) .
R om, '" rh, Da,k .-1...... ,. '46; Richord Hod!;,,, .ncl J).wid Wh i «hou,~. M"""",,,,.d. " "I ,11, 0rI~>i", 0( E,m'I'" A,,/,",.,J,wy ".d pj","", ,h,,;, (Lo" clo" . 198) . 7J : He. with , focus on r"" b.h wl" ,,~ . , e~ McKit1o ,nd &60 h,w >lfO"gl}' molded both the nup of Rom e .nd her ,n"ge in c O Il1~ml'or.. )' tho ugh t. Buildi ng> .. 1I ove r t h~ city r~~ ect her new ,'iulity , nd h~r new pl.c~ in 11, < poli,ic>1 pict u", of hrop <: Kw ,II,~j ",e'. Rc"",, Projil, <1 "~·tr. ' Qo) " . )l. id"n:I H odge•. Tmv"' Qnd "/i.d, i" ,,,, 11"", <1 C/o",".,.,~~"' (Lolldon. ,<>ooj. , 6
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HI.I(/wl I (lfId the history of Rome This present work takes a very different stance. It resitllates the rise to autonomy of papacy and the See ofS,lim Peter as ,1 movement growing from the political events of the 73 0S alld gaining momentum in the 750S, aided by changing trade networks and capitalising 011 R ome's resources. The changing shape of the city of R ome, of Meditl'rranl'an trade and of military aggression. in the same period allo\ved the city and the papal state to pby increasingly independem and important roles. The individ ual characters of the popes - and their social leverage - contributed to the differem tactics employed by, for eX:lillple, H adri:lll I :llld P:lschaL The examimtion of the series of churches created by Paschal I, thus, sheds light on a key mo ment in the development of architcctllre, cult, statebuilding, Franco-papal politics and mediev:ll mbanism. And. as [ 5[lall argue in Chapter 6, this moment was to have ;1 lasting effect Oil the relations between Fnnks :llld Ro mam, and between R o mans and the city of Rome itself.
4J
Cllt/pler 2 B UI LDING IN ItOME
The conventional depiction of Ronle il) the euly Middle Ages is as a city in ruins. In the nineteemh cemury, Ferdinand Gregorovius described R ome in the mid-seventh cemury, in its declined state, in ways that both retled ed his indebtedness to earlier autho rs such as Edward Gibbon md projected the view of R ome that conditioned so many studies in mo re recem decades: The lmpaial Pa lace alth ough still in part inha bited. Wa~ its~lf:t ruin; the Forum of Peace and all the othe r Forums were ruinous and deserted: the column of Trajan . li ke that of Marcus Aurdius. stood in m~nti( ~ilen<'e amid tottering te mples a"d nnpcy libraries. wh ill- hen." and chere che black~ned mO",nllel]{ of a Gree k or Roman genius struggled 3gai nst ohlivion. '
T his vit·w of R ome was shaped by Gibbon , writing about a hundred years earlier. He had painted an even bleaker picwre of the nadir at the end of the ,ixth century: 'the lofty tree, under whose \hade the Natio ns of the earth lud reposed, was deprived of its !caves and branches and the sapless trunk was left to wither Oil the ground'.' These descriptions of the city in decline ultima tely draw upon the metapho rs used by Pope Grego ry in his sixth homily o n Ezekiel. where R ome is the bald eagle whic h has lost its feathers , the city whic h has lost its people. captive to the Lo mbards.l Following Gregory's :;ixth- century rhetoric of lost glory, Gregorovius wrote as an Enlightenment t hi nke r concerned with technological progress and decline: Ancient R o me had falle n. taking with it its noble philosophies and technical m:lstery :lS well as its roads, aqueducts and f'""li n.." d Greg<>"" i" •. /-I"lo'Y4,h, Cily_/R""" i. 11" .\I;MI, Ag"" "",". M,." GU>I.,"u, H,nu],o" (reprim New Yo,'. ,~67' orig. pu b. in Engl;"b '~ T 1, in Gern"n in ,R7'). 11. '5]-8 . On ,h e hi>!",}" of ,h~ id<> of ,h~ ·D.,l "ge;' iD g~IId", MOllll"'~n. ' P<1r>n:h " cOllcq>liun of ' he ""D" . "g"'.... SpM,I,,", '7 (1~42). ;~6-4'-. Edw.rd Gibbon, Tl" Hi",,'Y nd F.II o/Ih, Ro",>n £"'pi'" 2nd edn. ed . J 13. UUT)" (London. ")01: orig. pub. '776-88). V, j ' Gregori,,, [ P'P'. Ho",;/i.m", ;" £::«,,;,1,", p",pI",.~" Liber I!. HUlI1il i, VI. lJ-~4. PL LXXV I. coL ,0 ', er. 'h~ lell"' ofJ.mlne. below. n. 86.
Bw'ldi"S ill R ome marine trade , ~ The poor souls left in t he former C,PU[ Mill/dJ, a fr;tctio n of the population of antiquity, were living withont fresh water or imported olive oil. There had been a serious decrease in population and a steady decline in the maimenance of the ancient buildings. R o me's glories were gradually covered with mud, garbage and animal dung, only to be despoiled by people scavenging for building materials, which they used haphazardly in ramshackle hilts or diminutive churches, On the onc hand, Gregorovius's picture of decline into decrepitude is acCIlfJte : R ome of the e:lrly Middle Ages was very different from th:lt of the second century. The streets we re muddier, the new churches and houses built in Rome \vere smaner in scale and the cOlllmercial products more local th an in the heyday of the R o man Empire, ~ On the o ther hand, probing the material culture of early medieval R Ollle through current archaeological techniques, in the light of new research on the f:lbric of other medieval cities in the Mediterranean, generates a rather difTen.·m view of early medieval R ome ,6 What was once thought to be a moment of revival in a bleak dowmvard spiral now appears as a dynamic moment of self- referential and powerful reorganisation, Moder n urban archaeology is generating new data about pruvisioning, trade and economic structure, as well as abollt the organis,1tion of cities and thei r inhabitants, Few areas of the city survived the waves of un,tratigraphic digging in the J 8805 and the J 9}05. Archaeologists of those periods and even some more recent practi tioners \vere generally uninterested in recording phases afte r the high empire, Currem excavations have sought to remedy this lacuna in our knowledge of the medieval city_ R egrettably, even some archaeology ostensibly targeted at medieval sites has focused exclusively 011 churches r;tther than the other buildings in the c ity, or even adjacent to churc hes the msel ves. Thus so-called C hristi an Archaeology tends to focus on the form of the church itself rather than H. w. G. Libt">Chuctz. 'The u>c. and ,bu.." of the concept of ··decline·' iu ht.., Rou ... n history. 0. W... C, ibl>on 1>oli"e.lI), mw , ,",,e[" in R",", R",."I.;" '-"'"·A,,,iq'" U>b."i,,,,. « I. Luk" L.va" , J"",""I 4 R,'m." A,,1,", ,"I~'r S"ppi. m "ut1'), S",i.. 4' (1'o"""Qtl!h, ,<>0,), 'J J--? , ~o~ below ",d R obo" Coatc>-StP' )\.1>ri. St the elt;", of the i Medite,r,,,e,n ",clud", Neil C h,i"i•• "d S" " on Lo>nd 1d,.1 of'h' T~,". Il<"'~ ," LA,.- A""q"ity ,,"d ph. E"~r MiJdl, AA'"' (L eidcn , tW9). "-"dreo "ulIeu'i plO' th< ""'''lIin"iou of Rom" iu hi stor iogr>phic cOllt e"t [In'> in 'Co"'i",, i,), .",1 d' ''''''lt ;u"it)' of ~ of I,,-,""er: The P, btin" Hill from the [,tih.o the t~nt h c~ntur)'· in E.~f M.dim'! Ro,", ""d "~If Ch,i,"·an lib" E"'1' ;" Ho"",,, rfD<>"oIJ A. &.110.\<;/•. ed,J,,]i, M . H , Smi,h, The Medi,",'.1 Medi'
, J.
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45
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I on the church within a topographic and functional context tha t included subsidi'lry structures. rO'lds. paths and refuse areas.7 Only relativcly recently have excavations in R ome set out to answe r questions about the rest of the city. These have shown R ome to be a city fillt"d not only with churches and t11t"ir associated t"cclt"siastical c:ompkxes, but also with cemeteries. areas of production and processing of goods and foods and a range offllnctional and domestic architecture. s T he ma terial culture of some medicval R omans can now be reconstructed, including their house, and their streets. This kind of excavation, conducted over large areas ratlll'r than in limited trenches and examining transitions over the IOllgUf dUTk. has shed new light o n the life of the city. One of the most important laboratories in Europe for this new ap proach w.lS the excavation of the Crypta Dalbi in R ome during the [980s.l' That excavation produced a rich record of post-chssiGl.lmaterial culture, tracing the life of an ancient theam.' structure through its subsequent partial ,lbandonment and its reuse as an area of churches, houses and workshops. The evidence from t his and several subSt'quent and ongoing excavJtions in R ome demonstrates the longevity of the monumental public areas of the ancient city into the Middle Ages. It allows a better understanding of the workings of the city and the buildings within it and giVt"s us a clearer view of the role of Paschal's building programme and its impKt on the city. LATE ANTIQUE CONST\lUCTlON, FOUilTH TO SEVENTH CENTU\l [ES
The outline of R ome was and ,till i, defined by the city walls built by the emperor Aurelian in 270-71 (see Figure [ , p. xx). During the For , p",,,,nt:ltion of meeli"",1 "ch..~olog,· ,. , critie,[ re'po",e to Christ;"n "ch,~olog}'. see R ic<, rdo F"'nco~i. ·Ar<:h.~ology . nd Iho cb,. ",,'gg1~ i" Iho f, .... ",ill~""i"", "',' in 110, B"," 0/£" '"1": A"".,ol'"!r and 5oo'.{ LHwl"I"",m i" ,10, FiN ,\I,lIm"j"m AD. cd. Khu. lbndsborg ..... n.lecu Rom.m. [nstituti D'" i~i S"ppl~,,\e"t"'" ,6. (Ko,"e. 1 9~9). t7HR ; ' Th< ,i,ldl~ ofSt P<,.. d,j 'utn'; ". ,; .",",.I".fi'; (..... t,; dd Se,,, i,,,,i,, R om. l- ] ap,il~ t')<)2). C"d. 1'.010 ])d~u , nd Lid;.. P.roli . Bibliotcc. di Arch col~;" MeelicHk to (RoT<'nco. '99 ] ). ] s.· Fo,. ' u, ..... y of nl"d'....,[ >fch.e"logy i" [u1)' . " d i" h;"oriog'''ph),. •ee S.uro Geli eh i. '",~>J"ri""' 4/1'".,10,.1'11'" ff"J;"",/, (R ome. '997): C,i"i,,, L:. Roe .... 'Uno .pecu!i.mo ",." ... to. E",rJi c f.lIimcuto ddl'.rch ",[ogi. mC"dicv.[c iu[;" " ••11> fin~ doll'O"t>ccnto·. ,1,\1 ,,, (t99)). "\--IJ: H . • Archeolo~i' e .0(4). 't-}~ Luei, S.gui .nd Lidu P,,,,1i (~ds.). L 'E"J", J,II~ C'17"" &Ib; ",I .\I,d;",", (XI-X 11...... rcheolog;.. '''~''''" 0 Rom. : il p",!;""" ddl> CrI!''> Ih[bi j. Hib[jol~" di Ard,.olog;' M"di~'.I < 6 (FIoren«. '990); Rom. Joll'.",;,h"';.1 m,d;",,,,,. wilh "'1< .... '" bibhugrophy citeel 'h~",i"
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Bw'ldi"S ill R ome height of the Empire. the city never consisted o f wall- to-wall blocks of bllildings. but rather ,I monument~l centre ~ t the Forum and Capito line , the Campus Martius with major public buildings and then zolles of production, commerce and residences of various ty pes. as well as green art.'as of parks, villas and military ca mps extending out towards the walls. ' 0 The city was divided into regions, fourteen ,ll1ce the time o f August us (27 HC- 14 An) and urban amenities such as public baths and fountains were distributcd throughout the city. In thc residcntial zones filled with illw/ ofTroj,,, . <.. lied ill the lata M ~lJle AS'" th~ "il Uibe",i c, - moot l; kdI ' r"rl,, however. th e upper >to,")" of the .hop. were octu,lly p.rt ofth" nurh", n ot r~.id"" c,,, Willi,,,, G "TIl~~ Sil",ig~lI. Th, Qfjin'" ... <1 ,/" U,/,"" Prif"''''' d"';"g ,h_ R"~' .n Eml~". Pop ,,,d MonOt;l'lph' "fth~ AII'~"c,,, Ac. ,k",y ill R"",< 17 (Ro",~, (917). 6.
10
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47
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I of this system began to break down, however, in the late fifth century ,Hld very few attestatio ns of the office or its holder exist from the sixth century,! ) I n the centre of town, Ilear the base of the C apiroline H ill, the transformatio n of the Porticus Minucia Frumentaria, \vhich had been wht're the bread dole \VJS dispensed, demonstrates these dunges in the city on administrative and materialleve1s, The distribution of gr,\in to the po pubce of R o me c hanged from in the third century from a dole dispensed ill the Po rticus to a ,ystem overseen by a different ofFice, The primary function of the Porticus ceased, but the four I(epublican temples and the nearby Temple of the via delle Botteghe Oscure remained, T he official up keep of temples ended over the fo urth and fifth centuries. however, The T lleodosian Code, a fifth - ce ntury compilation of R oman laws, stipulated the pre~ervatio n of ancient building, that were among other things public and decorative : (IS) , , ,Just as We fo rbid sacrifices, so it is Om will that the ornamentS o f public wo rks shall be prese rved, If an y perso n sho uld attempt to dest roy such works, he shall n Ot have th~ right to Hatter himself as relying On any auth ority, if perchance lle' should produc~ any rescript Or any law as his defe ns~, (1 8) , .. N o ",an by the ben~fl1 of Our sanctions ,hall aHe'mpt to destroy temple" which are e"'pty of illicit things. For we decree that the conditio n o f the " buildings shall remai n un impa ired,
The)\' two passages were dated to the end of the fourth century and subsequently included in the Theodosian Code, as well a, the Ju~tinianic Code, At R.ome, excavation suggests that these legal codes were defending a corner, legislating for the preservation of buildings which were already in the process of degredation, Por example, excavatio n of the Temple of the via delle Bo tteghe O scure (delle Ninfe?), near the Purlicu> Millllcia , shows that it was despoiled of its marbles ill the second quarter of the fifth century. ' j This area in the centre of the ancient city was used as a tempo rary site for g:\mcs and a small worksho p and then, " T he 1;'[ of""",,, p",fect> ofRo"" is fuTl of );lP' it, the " ", . ofl""' ''' '''' (C /L VI. 840')' th"ugh ;t i, """hie th .. the fum,.., I'"p. Gr94), J6?-i S, For,n ;,,' rod,,« ion 10 L11C Rom,n t,w, ><:< D~tl < fLieb>, ' Ch , ~ Ro,mn Low' in ]~ , Cam"riJ!!" A.(i,", Hi,<Mry, '-01. XIV: u /t A.';q""'r' E., pi" Md ""-"" "". ,m P rOO", .d. A,-."t C.meron , U.~~n W,rd _l'erk,m .nd ~li d" e t W h,,!»' (Combridge, 20(0), 2J S-j8 D. niligrafi" 'opogro.f" ~ "or;:" , O",.k., Vl.l (n«<",i>97), 1 7 ~,
Bw'ldi"S ill R ome gradually, in the fifth century, the colonnaded porticoes fell into disrepair. T he p,lYed area was restored in part and the ruins of the portico were covered over by a new road, no longer paved bu t made of beaten earth and cobbles.'6 This kind of gradual decli ne, most precipitous in t he early fifth century (attribmabk in part to the 408 earthquake, A\aric's sack in 4 [0 and a fl ood in 4 [ [ ' 7), combined with episodic and partial restora tio ns. conversions and changes of function, chal""Kterises the bte antique life of many of the buildings of R.o me. I R Interestingly, thi, kind of urban decay coincided with restor:J.tion of ancient buildings in symbolically significant places like the Forum, despite the diminishing of their ancient purpose. The Basilica Aemili:l is an example of such a restor.nion , destroyed by fire in the fifth century and then restored. T he basilica , o riginally constructed in the second century BC , had been rebuilt in the period of Augustus md then again shortly thereafter, but was severely damaged in a fifth -century fire, perhaps attributable to the Visigothic attack (41 0) or Vandal attack of the city (4SS). 'Y It by at the heart of tht' Forum, bt,twecn the Senate house and the Tt'mple of Antoninus Pius and f'austina , where the Argiletum , the main road that led down from the bustling SuburJ (the E,quiline Hill) ran into the open paved area that m arked the centre of the f'orum. After the fin', when the f:l~ade of the basilica collapsed or was levelled, the sides facing t ht' Argiletlltll and the Forum were rebuilt. Thc Argilerum fa'fade was replaced with a brick wall with niches and the Foru m (wade was recon,tructed with a set of columns taken from another building, not o riginal to the basilica . The building partially preserved its administrative functi on in associa tio n with the Senate, while the shops along the Forum- fro nt were still working in the sixth century when they were outfitted with lll,lrble pave me nts. Behind this fa~ade and partial occupation , however, lay piles of debris; the interior of the building was no longer used. The reconstruction of the fa~ade of the Basilica Acmilia showo; the continued importancc of preserving the ap pearance of a monumental f'orulll into the sixth centur y with its ancient buildings lining the paved " l)"'ide M .lo"CO..ru ",d E"ric" Z .. " ;,,i. 'Th~ li", mil!e,,,,;,,,n fill in R o m e: F",,,, t he 1'or!icu. Min uci> to the Vi> dolt.: Ilott<j;h < Q.con:· in "J/" Hi,," of C,m1><; A r<1o",.Ioy( "nd ,.xi.{ dm""pm<"' in ,h<ji,,1 rn illmm"," AI>, ed. KL:w. [bndoborll. An.le,u RQ""'" [n" it ",; D.ni,i Suppl "re dl> ...,f."'''g ,h."" ,nd o,her di..."",, 'h>t befell Rom •. "". Gimepp" Lugli, /'o"if< "d lopo,X'"/.Joi.,,. ,,,,,,is ","is "",,"r /><"in,"I" (Ro",~. ' 9j;). 6710. «>wr,,,,bl~ ,i"", ion >1 'he P,b';"e. ""~ A" d, <_ Aug~II'i. /I ""1.1 ..", n,[ ""di".. ,... A "h<,Io')Ii. ,,~~,.)i Illlllettillo Jdb co",,,,i,,ion. ,fCheologie> <"omu",l" di Ro",.. SlIppl.",.,"i 4 (Ro ",,,.
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Bw'ldi"S ill Rome area between the first -century Rostra, the late antique Rostra and the Curia Sen,ltlls even ,lfter the main function s of these buildings ,lS administrative centres were lost.'o T his kind o f preservation of monuments and even sporadic new construction on the Forum, continued i!1to the seventh century. [n 608, an honorary column in tilt." eentrt' of tile Forum was restored, a victory monument to accompany the row of earlier columns still standing along the western edge of the Forum.' The column mo nument probably dates from the fourth century, the seventh- century ad ditions be ing limited to the new statue :1.I1d the inscriptio n identifying t he figu~ as Emperor Phocas (602- 10) . The position of t he Column of Phocas and its concrete and marble plinth, deliberately aligned with the paSs,l ge bet\veen the Forum of N erva and the Forum Romanum , s\lggests again that while the interior of the nearby buildings might have been decrepit, the >t~et5 and their fa.:;ades continued to unpo>e upon later urban interventions. The Fo rum - f:1Cing wall and pavement of the Fo rum R omanum were also preserved through the early Middk, Ages, as were those of the Fora of Nerva and Augustus. " T he strllctllres were restored piecemeal , while they may have grown accretion> of wo oden structures, as the small holes cut into their surfaces seem to indicate, but t he main lines of t he Forum were deliberately maimained into the mid- to Lue ninth century.'] Indeed, the centre of the Forum Romanum \v:lS still the centre of the city. Of the ten itineraries of the Einsiedeln pilgrim , composed in the mid-eighth century, three passed through the Forum Romanum :lInong the sites of the city'· (see Figure J, p. xx) . In the sixth and seventh century, ancient buildings aro und the Forum Romanum and on the Forum of N er va were converted into churches through relatively minor modifi cations to the interior structures. [n some cases, like the church o f SS. C osma e Damiano, these forced a reorganisation of Secon&lry pathways between the ForA, but for the m05t part the original thoroughftres o f the 1
.0 r-or fu rth er di> tr> u. forn ... ti on. in the fo urt h . nd fi fth ceutur ic>. >« G",);" , K.I>.<, 'S.cred i""gefUrlx", .'l"~" I,u,);". i"".. ll>lio'" ",d ,i[ u, I. ,n tlo .
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I via Sacra and the Argilewm remained the major traffic routes that they h ad been in Lite anti'luity.'S At least until the scvemh century, the f orum continued to be a significant public space o f the tnditional R oman kind, in its designation as ~ place for the c'rection of statues and columns. Inscriptions attest to the restoration ~nd setting up of ,tatues in the Fo rum through the fifth cenwry.'(, I3ryan Ward- Perkins has sh own the extent to which early medieval elites of central and northern Italy founded and restored churdles in their roles :IS civic patrons.'7 In R ome, elite evergetislll shifted from public ornamentation and ~stora ti on of public buildings to foundation and restoratio n of churches in the sixth and seventh centuries. The m tu re ofnew building o n the Fora ch anged as did the ro le of public spaces in the city. T he new churches Oil the Forum R Olllalllllll tended to take over public buildings. rather t h~n clllt buildings. though tho,e ill time would be converted, too. One lllotivation for the pTt'"SCrvation of public tllonu lllC·nts by thc'ir conversion to churches may have been a law of 389 in the T heodosian Code, which specified that public monllments should not h~ve private buildings: papal churches we re late ~lltique public monuments after a f:lshion . '~ The first known church e,{ablished on the ForUlll R OlllanUlll is SS. CO~llla e D amiano. created by reconfiguring the buildings ofa hall on the foru1ll o( Peace and the rotunda ofdle socalled Tem ple of R 01llulus into an apsed basilica with round vestibule.''' Pope Felix IV (526- 30) was responsible for the conver,ion of the buildings. according to the LP and the apse inscription of the church .lCl The apse inscriptio n names the patro n and explains the conversion to the church : The hall of God radiates hrilJianrly in shining minerals, the preci"'" lig ht of the faith in it glows eVen mor<·. T he <"Jical martyn;. This pbc{> J eriws honour from holiness. Lord Fdix offers this worthy gift to God. SO that he might live in the SlUllIllit o fheavenJI
., I>lcnc-ghini .nd S.ntangdi V.lmz.ni. Re",". ' .17-88 . .. K.]". 'S,crro in"'gdUrh>n .p.cc" ~4-j. '7 Bry." W,rd- Perki n,. 1'",", Cl."",,) A""q"i'r 10 Ih, ,\/iJdI, A,~" U'/'," p"&I,, b"UJing m """h,," ."J """,,II.Jr. ~I!J"""'~>" (O~fotd, 19R4) . jl-ll4 and Ap]"'nd ;~ , (,)6-ofl) . See ,]", 1)",g;010 . .. d Cdithi. L> ril/';. Ij9-60. ,. ·17,,,,J",i.~ Cod, 1j . I.Zj; AkhcrI" <">, ' Spolia ;n Rom,,, <;';C'>'. 17~ . t • • •v. ·SS. Co'm>,
A VL-I DEI CL-IRIS RADHT SPEC/05.1 ,I/ETALLlS IN QUA PLVS FIDEI LVX PRE· TlOS A MICAT MARTYRIBUS MEDICIS POPVLO SPES CERT.~ S.~LITIS VENIT ET EX 5.1CRO CREI 'IT HONORE LOC I'S OPTVLlT HOC DOMINO FELt, A.>"'TISTlTE nlGNVA/ ~ WNVS V I"" AE THERIA V/I-IlT IN ARCE POLl
Bw'ldi"S ill Rome T he hall \v;JS fitted with nt'w windows and a glass mosaic in the eastern apsed end , depicting a Risen Christ flanked by Peter, Pau l and the medical saints to whom the church is dedicated, Saims Cosmas and D amian , The apse mosaic also includes an image of the papal patron, Pope Felix IV and marks the first example of what would become a common typt' of ap,e mosaic with apocalyptic scenes of the Risen Christ and the saints, in which the patron of the church stands as witness and as participant.!' T his church, with its apse mosaic, is a new expression of civic llIunifict'llce, in this case funded by the elite patron of the pope, Grcgor Kalas has argut'd, using tilt' t'videnct' of SS. Cosma e Damiano and other church foundations, that the Forum ROllunum lost its role as the site of processions to honOIlT rulers and became the site of civic rituals, led by the popes and higll- ranking clerics, characterised by supplication and penitence.JJ Major churches such as SS. Cosma t' Damiano were tht' nt'w monuments in the city, They were ensconced very deliberately in the existing urban frame\vork and, in the case of tht, Forum Rom anum, literally inside ancient buildings, T his pnctice of mOllumemalising zones of the the city with important churches within anciellt buildings and in ancient public ,pact's is different from the trend of church-building in R ome earlier in the fourth and fifth centuries and different from the tl'.lnsition witnessed in other Italian citit's in the samc period. Earlier churches in Romc were most often built in open areas, 011 hilltops with little ancient building, or outside the walls. H In other cities in the sixth and sevell1h ct'nturit's, churches were built 111 suburbs or in ft'organist'd residential neighbourhoods within the city.H In R ome, the change towards building in ancient nodes seems to have been the d eliberAte policy of the
(i,n"""",'
" Chr i,,, l:klti"g- I hlll , D'r 1'rI"""",",, ,I" III'<"-","I,,,i """ ~ . ).h>h".drrt bi, ~'" M"ir d" ~,)al,~","d,."" For")",,,!>en ."r K"",' g<>ch i,h« ,,,,d d"i>
" 'Sacred im,gclUrb:m 'pace', ~<;>O-ll9 , " On church-building .. Rom< "p to the .eventh «ntur)', "'< below, and m",t r«enti), f'>tdaico Guidob.>ldi, 'Thpogrof" e«bi,"i"" di Rot" , (IV-VII ,",010)' ,n R",,,. ,'all'.~I;," il;; ,I ""di,,,,,,, ' d"hrolo.,... < .,,",io ",I M,,,," n"~i.""I< rom""-5 l; Louis R",lm. n~ . L'impl.nt>t ion monummul< ('hr~ti~nn e d. ", k P'Y"'g~· ",b" ine de Rom" de l OO" 85Q' in A"" ,I" Xl, (~",~';' ;" '''ndl;~".I, d'.trM,)I"I."' ,/0';,;, •• , (Ll"'", V;,""" G",""bI<, Gm,,,, 000) ,nJ D.niel Cm"r, IV.";,,;n!:, B.:,\';',\' '\/,,"IN ' Sl'i,;,,,.1 0,,,I,Qn1r .~d 11" I,"",,,,'i,," 4 n,."",,i,:;,," i" I"" "nI'q"i'r (l:Ioorkeky, '00'), ,6,-<), " For cu",p;,r,.,i,'< pi"""" Qf["U,,, .iti", wi,b rd<e Chri, WicU".m , F",,,, i",~ lh, E..11 Middl, 11-",1: E","p< "nd Ih, M,dil"'""'"" , 40o-&>O (Oxford , 2ooj), 6j z---<'i, Chriswphe Godd'rd .nd M."i",,-, Ghili,rdi (<<1>.), u, ,:;,;, J, 1'/oJ/i. ,",do_.,, 'iq"' " ,",h""'.,,, /c""",,,'" "",i/oi , ",I"", ,, ""~,"o~, e"ue,';"" d. rEcole f",,,,.i,. de Rome J<'>9 (R ome, '<>(7).
53
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I clerical elites, whose municipal patronage could thus be expressly tied to th~t of their predecessors. J6
DOMESTIC !..IICHITECTUIIE FIIOM THE fifTH TO THE NINTH CENTUIIIES
New residential construction continucd throughout the seventh century. on a reduced scale and this mostly consisting of renovations to existing structures. Few medieval single- f:lmily dOJlII/.' arc attested arch~eo logically; many are known only through textual sources describing their constrl1ction or re{]uesting property rights to expand existing strl1ctures.J7 Archaeological evidcuce points to the rctnction of occupied areas of large dOJllIIs . Even in some of the noblest late residences of R.ome, sixthcemury inhabitants r:trely made use of the entirety of older structures and retreated to zones within houses that had once been fully occupied, leaving the rest to decay o r fill with rubbish. jS Sections of ancient houses were unused whilc neighbouring structures were restored. Likewise. sections of the city fcll into disllse while others were main uined. Current research shows that the urban occupation of R.ome within the walls had survived beyond late antiquity in pockets of density. On the question of the population of R ome in the early Middle Ages, there have becn estimates from as low as 5.000. an implausible cxtrt'lllt',lI' to 35,000. an ostensibly educated guess by Ric hard Krautheimer!O Most recen tl y, Chris Wickham 'gues~timated' a figure of 25 ,000, which seelm about right Y It was long believed that the population gradually constricted around the ancient mOlllllllental area of the Campus Martius. Krautheimer had suggested t ha t the so-called lIhilgkally or t.x'u.lIy. j " I.,bdb
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Bw'ldi"S ill Rome by till' city w~lk·J From wh~t can be determined through exc~vations and analysis of sources for the location of houses, green areas and cemeteries, the city's population spread out. gathering in dusters like spots on a leopard H The medieval city of R ome has recemly been charanerised as 'a set of what could be called urban villages, maybe as many as a dozt'n, hdd togt,ther by a common politics and, probably, a continuing ritl1~1 of processions across the old classical centre'. ') This picture of disaggregation is too extreme, I think, for the pcriod from the mid- eighth to the mid-ninth century. T he monumental centre indeed remained monumental until the mid- ninth century. as discussed bdow. The evidence for occupation of the city. including church foundations and textual :1I1d archaeological evidence for residences, can be plotted in nearly all areas arou nd the monumental ccmre of the rorul11, the Palatine, up the via Lata, the ClillllJ SlIlmr,wllS, on the Avemine and on the northern end of the Cdio. Then.' is demonstrable continuity of some major roads which drew the spots together one to another, which can be traced by itineT;lries, such as the EillsidlclIsis Itineraries and regular liturgical processions which joined up the churches in the city and by extension, joined the neighbourhoods of those churches.,6 The major streets in the city were ~ combination of new medieY;J1 roads and ancient thorough fares: indeed some of the major ancient streets are still in use todayY Some bte antique cities in Italy preserved their ROImn street pattern through the early M iddle Ages. with minor modifications on the interior of the city blocks: Verona is an often-cited example of this phenomenon. ·~ This also cha r~nerises some zones of R ome . Other parts of Rome under.vem a significant alteT;ltion of the ancient urban f:lbric, with new medieval roads cutting through the ancient city and creating paths to new mcdieval monllments, sllch as thc roads to St Peter's and " D,,,iele I.hmcon:b. Federico M."",,,i ."d Enr i":ll~ " (FloT<"e<. '9'H) . 6)s-H: Meneghin i ..... d S,,,t>"gdi V.I~"l>l, i. Ro"". z, J-' ) " Cu''''''' 11,1;", h..""u,"" ",f.", to .h;, m i),,, fo,,,,,';,,,,,, 'c;' ,,- >tl ;,o le' Of 'cu»ioll of 'he ""ioll.1 li'urKY of Rome. ,eo below, pp. ')4- 5. " For cx."l1plo. 'he vi, dol CUIM' ;" 1ho ' ''ci~II' " i, Lot> .mcl 'h o ";;' ;n S;' "f.he ,j
=,,,,,,r;,,,,,I<".
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55
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I the Lateran basilica. including the major road later known as the via Pap'llis.o Ui, nchi . 'Ru", ,, "' ''' ",or< fortifi""c ",OOio"".,li in " pp,mu .U·"" ic. vi.bili'" di .cc~.,.o . 1l·E;q " ilino, 0 '0'" ><>p'--'vvi"~ " " lId ",00«1,0 " ill, pp" " o rico- '0P"K, . fi. " Ro b~ rt C o.. c ... Strl}' mOOi"", 1 Romc. 500- ' """ ' . !'BSR 64 ('9',>6). ' )9- j9: er. p"",lId ,""";0"' ;" N .pb ;" ,h. '"'<1h ,~ d "'" .... 'h c~"t" r; .. ' /', ul "'" hoc. 'N "I'Ieo, A 0. '" of urb:... m rv;,..,l in ' ho ~.,l y Middlo Ag~". ,I/U'RM '03 (199 , ).;68 ,nd in R , w"n •. M ichd.ngdo C.~i "'o d~ A • ....-<do. 'L < c. ", d<>cri«. d. Coo<x T",di,ion"m Eccl<>i>c R "·~nn .. i". R,"J,,""n' J"i';II A".J'Wj4 ."r.~i,'".I. J.; I~' .... i. d"'If J i yi,,,~, ",,,,.i;, " . rilk, 'fii,~,"""k'. 8 " ' .. 17 (' 97')' ' 59 - 81. I'. ob Gal""i. m ot..,-i, /C < fu n.ioni n~gli imOOi, mcn, i "rhoni ~ r"",li ddl . l'",," poli' in Ri,m/r" ,,,,di ",I 'lir<".ri,mr c,d,,'" R. ",""",i, ' (CQ;/j" B,,''''''J. S, ,,di ",ur ici '48 .... (Rom •. ,~ S j) ,. Menegh ini . " d s,,"""geli V.l. ",. n i. R O.Id. 4 j---
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9, House on the Forum orNerva (Forum Transitorium), c. 850.
the much- restored and transformed ~tlcient basilica,ll It sits flush with the walls of the basilica itself, Tt.·assertin g the architectural frame of the Forum Romanum . T Ile lower storey is reused opus qll, 'Hou.ing', ~5O-', "
Riccm:!o S,ntmgeli V.ienZlni. 'Str.ac. co>< e oft; neU'.I, olll,'id~n'''l buildill g in <,rl y Illcdit"V,lllolll~' in corly ,\I,di",,1 11.".", "oJ ,it, Con'"i,," m·", E""y, in /,"""~, of f)oMld A . Ri,lIo,\,>lJ. od. Jull> ,lA. H . S",i,h, T he Mediev,l Medi'~rra"e'1l ,8 (Lei
" On ' he homing typ~ '" !l..om~ ,,,d ' he '<~'u,1 """cC'> ,h .. describe i,. >c< !I...;cc,ruo S,n"ngci; V" len»ll;. '''b i,,," , Ro,,", "dr ,ito 1lmlio
57
The Rome of Pope Bm/IIII I
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drawing ofth~ hou,~ On tht· Forum of N~rva and nround it in the second half of the ninth cen tury.
th~
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the newly identified archaeological evidence shows that the dOI!lIJ$ was a rectangular- plan, t\vo- storey hOllSC, free- standing and surrounded by garden or street. To judge from the prestigious locatiom of the examples knowll , the high quality of the materials used in their construction and textual sources. it was a type of elite residence. These houses were built afier the major interventions to the Fora, in the ninth and H.·nth centuries. Yct they bear many simibrities to the monulllental architecture of the S:lllle period and allow us to recognise some of the valued characteristics of prestigious building in Rome. The roof of this noble house might have been covered widl tiles or perhaps lead: both \wre typical of Roman housing. An eighth- or nimhcentury Arab traveller to R ome remarked UpOIl the way in which the green roofs of Romc looked to him like the sea, to which his escort responded that they were covered with lead .j~ Property documems from contemporary Naples and bter medieval Rome describe houses with roofs of wood, terracotta tiles and sheets of lead and soml'times all three. 57 ,. Yaq,,' ibn 'Abd,lbh ,1- H.m>wi. 1.868, tr.,,". Jfrm Sh.hid ;n M;oh,<1 M,CoTl,,;,'l . n" (fli.~", of 'h, EuwpNn Ec"" ,""y: Cm""","ic"',"", ,>od C"""'''''"' M) )"0'--900 (C.mbridge. '0(2). 62'-3. Anbic ,odition ;"J"o"'~~~r"pIo'""h,, lVon,,j,,,,,h. ed . F W;;>tenfd.:l. (Leipzig. (867) . " M,d,d."gd" C'g"rtu d~ Az",·~du. 'A,!"',,; """",,,i
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,,_ Plan of the euly medieval {Un;. at Largo Argentina _ The 'IOlid line<; are ,,~']Is built of 1"[1 blocks.
Lead was also used to roof churches, as we can see frOI)l the filct that Charlemagne and Ihe abbol of SI-M;\rtin of Tours agreed to send Pope I-Iadrian J (772-95) lead o r tin for the roof. of the churches of R.ollle . j~ A dOllUIS .'olimnll has been identified at Largo Arge ntina. though it was destroyed in the early rwentieth- century excavatio ns and was poorly documented at the time. 5~ As we have seen. the area of the Porticus M inucia adjacent had gradually changed in fun ction over the course of the fifth century_ The series of four Repu blican tem ples situated to the west became by the ninth centu ry an elite urban residence, a ami.'. Unlike the houses on the Fo rum R omanum and the Fomm o f Ne rva, which sat squarely within the street system inherited from the ancie nt city, the house at Largo Argent ina was walled off from the resl of Ihe city, reusing standing vvalls from the PorticlIS and new walls of reused mate rials. Tht- house itsdf set-ms to havt- bt-t-n a rectangular structure of u>c.,wdflh-cenlUry docun,,"n" cII<xl In P,am hxldc. --r. b" !." um s . fo.1>rue Nov.c'. ASKSI' ,~ ('\)0')' no, . l ' ,nd J9- 0 " N'pb. "'. V, ul Arthur ,,,d D .. vi.d W hit"ho",". -APPUllII ,,,11 .. produ"on~ i.t,,';z.i .. ,,~II ' h,lu c~n l ro_m"f i.d'Ol,..I . tr.. II VI" XII ,",colo' . AM '0 ('y8J). 1'5-)7 A II'c" " u", bcr of non her" ",o" ,,,cr;<> ,,,<1 cburch"" h,d bJ roob III ' he eighth ccn',,'}, owing perlt,p> to tlte '"')" actl"~ C,roli" gl'" ",illlllg b"" lIe", M,Cor",;cl. (fli~"', 700. " .IIGH Ill. 6'0: d,scu!o>,on III McCo,mld:. Or{~m . 70'. " The dl"'o,'~'Y h,. only come through c.. ,.,ful recOmidel"l tloll of the "XC'V"'OII 1I0t", b)' RlcC'.. rdo S,",."gdi V, le" .,,,i. See $;tll!;"'gd; V.le" ralli . 'Abi!;.",. R Oil ",', Mell <j,;h;lI ; ,,,d S""."gd; V.I",,,,,, i, Rom •• 4' -~
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'9
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I reused tufa blocks and bricks with two marble columns posted before the door. There were other simple rectangubr structllres in the area . perhaps stables or service buildings and a church was installed in the cd/d of one of the ancient temples.6<> T his walled compound of house and church has been identified as a amis, a term which appears in the limited textual sources describing early medieval Roman houses once in the ninth century. more frequently in the tenth and later centuries, but always in reference to prestigious residences of high- ranking individuals. 6 1 T he use of colulll]\.> at the entr:lilce to the house :Ind the location of the residence in an ancient sanctuary, aloug the main route to St Peter's from the Lateral) Basilica that canle to be known as the via P:lpalis. fall in line with the char.lcteristics of other elite residences in Rome. 6 > I n the development of this new type of residence in R.ome, traditional :Irchitcctural values, such as the importance placed on cut ,tone and locat ion within the ciy, imbued the rlOllllI5 sol'lr1 ,,1>1, .nd « ch ni ch "'K"·ri>< ic of ' h<- ~>r] y Middle "11'" (r<"u,ro ,ut'" blucb . nd re,, ><"d brick, wit h ,hie\; ;rre!';u],r m <>n>r b«!;)" discu"",] below. 0, MC" ni. ·"'bi, .... , Rom .... 47. Thi,m ..y be. problem of the evidence: 'he exCl"' _ tion> we,.,1I t.>rg",ed.t . ncient public .. On R um'<11 m",,,,;.I , .11d t"dm,'!,'"" ' '''' J".,,-i';<'tr< Ao1I.",ho" y M"h<w., (Lo"rlon. ' 999) ·
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60
Bw'ldi"S ill R ome recycled from earlier stru(tmes. 6s This reused building material, spolill. included reused columus. entablatures and capitals as well as more 1111111 danc materials such as bricks and tiles prised o ut of ancient concrete. Thi, shift in construction techniq ues can, on the one hand, be attributed to the relative unavailability of new materials. Acquisition of building tllatenals was interrupted or renden'd difficult at numerous phases of production . including stone quarrying, carving, brick- and tile-makin g, wood cutting, pozzolillw extraction and lime processing for mo rtar. To take one eX:'ilIple, the dissolution of the brick Jiglinlle (brick and tile production estates) m arked a drama tic change from the late antique wo rld. where R oman urban elites invested their resources in the production of bricks. The stability oflandholding aro und R o me threatened by decades of marauding warbands of I-lUllS. R omans, Vandals, Ostrogoths. Gree ks and others. M:.jo r investments in the cou ntryside, such :lS TUr:.1 brick productio n cemres. were no longer attractive to wealthy R o mans. Concom itantly. restr icted construc tion in the city reduced the need for new bricks.66 Already in the first phases of the Aurdian walls, some of tht· bric ks were rcused from earlie r contexts and in the earl y fifth -century renovations of the walls the majority of the bricks are re used, with t he exception of a limited number of bricks stamped with the names of Emperors Honorius and Arcadius, who must have fi nanced their production. 6 7 It is worth briefly summarising the comparisons drawn between urbanism and architecture in Naples and R ome in the early Middle Ages. because Naples like R ome enjoyed a wealthy and well- preserved antique urban fabric. The built e nvi ro nment of Naples resembled that of R ome to a great degree. T he medieval city was shaped by its ancient city walls and hl.wlae and perhaps to a greater extent th,Hl Rome, the city preserved its ancie nt street system. R oman N :lplcs had inherited the o rthogon:ll grid of the Greek city. which lent its form to the medieval and indeed modern city.6S The late amique buildings were made of new bricks
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Thc litCr>'UTC ou 'pdi" is and , .. ri iu Rom.n ci'i",', Lucilh de Lochcll'l. 51",10.; ,m, f"'" S,dn!,)'. '1. .. cro"o)Qg'" ddl" f's1 i "~ ... rdo.",id,. ,n Mo/m'.I; , J,II·,JoI'~i. ".,1u>m"i"."" R,>m •• Cocch dli (Ro mo. zoo,). '41. S.'< ,I", P,ul Arth u, . nd D" 'id "
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n VI < X II
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6,
Ti,e R ome of Pope P"sell,,1 I
until till' fi fth century, as at Rome and then after that Neopolitans. like R omans, reused construction materials for houses and churches."" Vernacular architccture was built of stone and wood and perhaps of piu!, namely earth pre,sed into fO fln wor k like North MriCa!1 opus Aftic<e Ad, m . Rom.n 8J'iIJi".~. " Arthur. "'''1'1<1. ~ g. H o","". with g.m:lcm i" ' he back >re ,Iso ch">ctcri"ic o f Vcron... S,'c L. Rocc. , "'D.r. '\ ge." .. Vnon" ss-g. " .... "hut. "'al~tJ. ~R " Rob.rto M."eghint. ' Rke"ggio urb .."". 6 )2---<1: .... "gent i. 6,-8
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Bw'ldi"S ill R ome may have occurred after the Muslim attack o n St Peter's during till' reign of Pope Leo IV (847- 55) . when the pope built a series of defensive \...~ ll s around the Vatican complex which required a massive quantity of bricks and lime for 111()rtar.7 5
C IIAN C[NC PUIII.IC AN [) PR [ VATI' SPACES . [ NTRAMURAI. AN[) E X TRAMU l!AL ACTIV ITI ES
T he people who celebrated mass in newly built churches knew and used Illany of the public monuments and spaces of imperial R om e. The continuing existence of ancient m onuments. even in a decayed state. offers grounds for thinking that the R oman tendency to\\fards regularity in planning and :lrtful use of building mate ri:lls endured t hroughout the early Middle Ages. Indecd, it will become clear in our discussion of the architecture of Paschal I that these traditional aesthetic sensibilities were still at play in early medieval R.o me and had been palpable all along. However. formerly e"tn-urban activi ties such as burial and smallscale fanning graduall y moved into the city. T he Flavian amphitheatre (Colosseum) was repaired and continued to be used for public games until the sixt h centur y, thou gh from the fifth century onwards, the area adjacent to it served as a bu rial ground .7ri. S,dl, Aren. (Mihn . 20( 1) . 612- q " Robcno I\lo"mm.nco < p.c .. ggio utl""o" Ro"" V e VII "'CO[ o· i" I", S,,,,;O """Dmi,.. Ji Rom" ",I/".ir" M,dio,"" .11. IUe< Jti ""nt, ".," o"."",k".;o. . ijiblio,"<"> di "rchcolog.. M. 'Burial topog"'phy ond the pow,"r of th o ChUKh in fifih- and ,ixth-c Ve"diuelli (Mibn. 'OO~) . j 1 ~ -6R
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I in the late seventh centmy.79 While some areas of the Fora continued to be used in ways albeit different from before. o ther formerly public areas such as the Forum of Caesar beg:lIl to be abandoned in the seventh cemury, and by the mid- to late ninth century were converted into vim:yards and orchards of cherry. plum . walnut and fig trees.&> T he medieval transformation of the city of R ome also brought a change in the relationship between the city and its suburbs. The ancient city of Rome comprised the city within the walls as well as the activities outside it. This interdependence of life within and without the walls continued into the early Middle Ages. Understanding the historical distinction between R ome ill/er IlHlroS and CXlr,j IlJIlrOS win be important for assessing the radical nature of medieval urban constructions whidl subsume both kinds of functions. ~' T he third- century walls of the ancient city we re ringed by taverns, farms and workshop>, as well as by vast cemeteries and //ecropo/tis , often organised into f:lmily tombs. Al Early Christians were buried with the rest of the city's dead in these cemeteries, catacombs and III
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,. Ri«,td" S,,,,,,,);,,U V.I"ll"ni , 'I Fori I",p",i ,li "d M"d i""vo ' , Alill";I,,~'I'" d" ""h;;d,,,"Kh," I",';""~ Ro", ;"I" Ab"iI,,".~ ,08 (200') . 20-83: Meneghini .nd San tangeli V.I~n _ uni, Rm,,". Ll 7--<;l . .. Ri«>rd" S,,,,t.,,,);di V,Ie,, ',ni, ·,1 F~ro di C<>,,~' in Rom, ,1,lr,",;,hi,;'"1 ",,,Ho,,,,, 11. ,."",,",;d,i, ."",,,,,!i,,,,,li, ur.J Ve"diudl i (M,I, ,,. l()() ~), 601' M<" e);h;,,, md S.ntangdi Vaicn>ani. u8- .-" . 0 , r", »1 introduction to the ",!.,rh;,m,. >i. M .. ru Gr.Jzi> Gr.. "i"o .nd Z.cc"''' M,ri (Ro" ... 1001). I. '-I: leti." I'.. "i E"" i" i (ed.). Ch,;,ti."" Lx •. L> 'I"'~'" ni",""" "<11. R"",,, d,l pnm" ",jll,"",,, (Rumo. ;OOt), 11 . 1)7-{oS . " )o< ,nd collectiw Oden ,;,)': From Rom,n t:ml il}' to Ch,;,.,;.,u commun ity". An &11<1;" 8]_) (S"p<, >OOj). H 3-57 , .. ,",,,d,e Gr.b". M",yn",,,. R"Io",h" ,,,' t.- ~.I" a" .,./iq"" , i,. t"46) " Th< d,,.i< t<xr for rh .. ph
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Bw'ldi"S ill Rome and martyrs buried there. A lener of Jerome (. 400 giws some sense of this phenomenon. His hyperbolic tone reflects his fear of the neglect of Rome's cemre as Romans became interested in ex tramllTal shrines: 'the golden Capitoline falls to ruin, all Rome\; temples are covered with soot and spidt·rs' \vebs; the city has changed its seat and a flood of people hurries past the half- mined shrines to the to mbs of the martyrs' M In the fifth and sixth centuries the cemeteries were used as new burial places focused around the cult sites. Certain early shrines took the form ofhrge 6rcus- fonl1 or (:Tucifonll basilicas, where new families ofChristians were buried and feasts of the saints were cdebrated. ~7 By the fifih century. nlost of these basilicas had acquired secondary oratories :llld monasteries. such as those at 5. Lorenzo fuori le mura. 5t Peter's and 5. Agnese fuori le ll\ur;\RR (sec rigure I . p. xx). In the sixth century, architectural projects o ut,ide the walls tended to focus greater attention on the locations of the bo dies of the saims. ra ther than on large buildings where the whole co mlllunity of Christians could llleet.8<,o The basilicas. shrines and oratories were maintained by papal donations (and perhaps private donations, too) and spiritually kept up by monks and nullS: each of the nearly twemy ba,ilios and shrines that were comtru cted by the year 500 at saints' tombs outside the city walls included a monastery or convent."'" The 5J1lmrviJlIII was not merely a city of the dead outside the city of the living, but a growing cOllllllunity centred on worship. Communities of ecclesiastics lived outside the walls and onc can envisage parasitic economie s growing around shrines including hostel" taverns and >Ollvenir stands. though the specifics of their existence afe often lost. In addition to this new kind of extra- urban attraction. the suburban areas of Rome continued to be uscd as small farms and rural properties and the large ancient residences and villas wcre- in some cases srill
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I occupiedyl The documents for property ownership in early medieval Rome are vcry limited compared to other cities in the period, Nonetheless, the ~egister ofS. Eraslllo, a monastery on the Cclian Hill subsullled ill the early tenth celltury into the monaStery of Subiaco and its ~ eg isters. records urban monastic ownership and rental of land outside the walls _ By the ninth cemury, the actual owners of many extramural farms and residences were city churches that received income from the rents and products of these bnds.9 > T hese economic relationships increased the web of connections between the areas outside :lIld inside the \v:tlls, yet also acted to enforce the separation of urban and suburban ~ome.
PAPAL CONSTRUCTION . EIGHTH AND NINTH CENTURIES
~ome witnessed highly intensified building from the third quarter of the eighth century to the early ninth century, beginning at the same time as the demise ofdlt' Lombard monarchy in Italy in 775 and ending around the time of the sack of St Peter's by Muslim raiders during the reign of Leo IV. Unfortunately, few detailed records exist for this booming construction industry, beyond the LP.Y ) Urb;\Il churches were the major focus of attention: Tom Noble calculates that for the period between 715 and 89 [, 94 per cem of the building projects in ~otl1e had ecclesia5tical patronage. and 66 per cent of all projects were urban. 9 4 T he papacy had all but taken over construction ill the city of R ome, as well as the administration of the new buildings. Popes constructed and cared for ~ome. its poor, and its visitors, in pbce of a secular authority. At Naples in the same period bishops funded the re,torations of many churches (though not all) and supported the di
" F.:derico I>hro,,;. 'L';,,~ti'III""tQ lId ,,,h,,,b;o di fl- Olll" fr. IX e VIII '"<010'. &Ikllipo J,II"I"i~"" SI","" lrdli• .., I'" it .\I,di" E"" 94 (1988) , 2 5'-) I j: Thorn" F. X . Noble. ' P",doxe, ,,,d po""ibil;.;",;,, 'h~ ",,, r,,", for fI-~m"1l >oeie'y ill ,h~ e.rly M;ddk Ag",,' ill E.,lr ,lhdi,,,,1 Rom, and ,/" CI.,;,ti"" II~,,, F.".)~;. ho","" n,IJ A _ Rull.,~\v., e M. H_ Sm;lh. The Medi",,,1 M
"' For ~x,""pl<> prior to the ye" 1000,.<e' ill p,>rtkul.r J o,,,"'.'" "ulllh"" ,6 . >7. '9. J I, }9, j j . 8). Not< .1", trn' dowl11 <1lt> 87-9 to rc,idcnti.l.ncl r",ninK prop "'nt
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Nohl~. ·V",-"OO",:,.-. 60 . Noble ;"<1,,,1<> Ihe CO,'e'" Ih" th~ ,,',~ oflhe ',,,,,,br' pruj~c" (w,lI, ,nd .qu ed", ,,) ""'. enormous, ,nd were ' he project> to be qu.ntif"bk ' he '""le would tip >01l,ewh" (',,,h,,, .ow,,,1 .he ,,,,,,br' For ·\"b, ,, '. Nobl< ill .."d<:J ·w;.h;" 'he w,ll, b"t.bo ;ud uded S, V<<
Bw'ldi"S ill R ome n'ntres) of the city.9l Other cities like Ravenna enjoyed significantly more royal . imperial, ~n d secular patronage th~n R ome."" R o man popes acted as both powerful bishops and heads of the new state. The Church. under the nominal leadership of the pope, was the largest patron of the construction industry in t'a rly llledic"",l R Olllt'. From the 5I'vcmh cemury OI1\"",rds, the papacy was the driving fo rce in the constrnc tion, mainte nance and restontion of churches as well as in secular projects in the city. The ancient Aurelian walls of R ome needed a m;tior restoratio n by the e igh th centur y. T his was underta ken by Sissinnius (708-9),97 Grego ry III (731-4 1?~ and. on an apparently large scale, by Hadrian 1.9') Li ke the walls, the ancie nt aqued ucts needed repairs and Hadrian restored the Aqua Sabbatina, Jovia, Claudia and Vi rgo, [ 00 H e surely was not unique in his dedication to maintaining the city's water >up ply, md other popes presumably helped with the up keep. The L P also recoms the papal constructio ns of bridges, mills, po rticos along road" hostd s (.wllodochia) and baths. as well ,IS the demolition of collapsing buildings.'Q I Outsidt· the city walls, papal projects included tilt' creation of dOl/lm (lIltde, papal Lmns built on lands donated to the Church or on private property of the po pe. These were imended to provide food fo r the populatio n of R ome, dispensed from dil/eO/u'ae. Pro ducts from H adrian's dom/I-\' wlta Capflrwnw/ were actually dispensed from the portico bcnt',nh t ht' episcopal palace, a gesture demo nstra tive of papal autho rity in these matters. 'o, Papal attention was not exclusively limited to the Urlls: new towns (Lcopoli .. (Cencelle) and Grrgoriopoli:;) we re also in the countryside aro und R ome,''') Many attempts have been made to discover a source of money that might have paid for these buildings and other constr\1c tion projects in R o me. Peter Uewellyn suggested Avar plunder arrivi ng in R ome through Charlemagne ;l S the source of the economic sur plus.,o4 Paolo
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Art hur. IV.pI",.
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Appendix 2 (' 36--4 ')'
.00 LP 97: 59. 61. 6 ,1. R, ll. ob." Co.,e,<-S"phe,,\ 'The ",.11, a.,cl ' qued ,W .' "f ll. Oil ,. ;11 ,h. eltly M iddl. /lg",'. i,"""dl if Re""" $,,,J;,, SS (l9')R). [6(\---78, 0" coll>troct io n. fo r ~ccbi '''i ..1 ",i,un ee. ><~ Fr>n."". Rom.". S"'>oIl" .... p,opo.ito ddle >!,utture ... i"~"zi> li occbi"" ich" ~i x<"odoch i·. ASKSI' 0;' ( 1998). ~-H: Ri«. rJo s.."ta,,~e ),
V,le""", . ·Pelle);';"i, S<",,,,,,; < P.p' . Gli x<nodoch" , R"",. t .. il V < il IX «coIQ',
KINASA t9- ;0 (JrJ >e'.) (tW6-7). lOj - ,6. '01 LI'9~ : H. 0" JioN" ''', ><'< below. p p. ,,~o-4.
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r...J~r;.i.l c IIcl IX >ccolo' in LA ,,,,,i. J,II'Alro ,\I,d;",,,,, ;,.liono (V/-X "".10) "11.. I"" ddl·"rfl"ol~,:id . e-d . R icc.roo Fr,."covich, Ghisuine No,'~ (80""C<. '99t). z S '-77 . Li c",dl ),lI. 'Th~ POP"' 'lid d,~ <011 "i"";UII ;1I 111 c e;yltll <~1I1"r;,. E"SIi,h H'sron,.1 R'.; .... ,· '0 ' (t ~M). 66
.'" Pe,,,,,
67
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I D elo~;u suggested Saint Peter's pence and by extension pilgrimage commerce. 'Q.I I am incliued to believe that with the ecclesiastical draw of R ome, between pilgrims and clerical officials coming to R.ome 011 business and buying the prestigious goods .1\>;Iihble there, such as spices. iuceuse, silk and books, the papacy madt, money out of Rom t;""'s attractions. It appears that there was more \vealth in early medieval Rome iu the second half of the eighth aud early uinth century than before or after. '06 T here was more to sdi and the market of ecclcsiasticalluxmies \vas very :tctive, as discussed below. Popes of the early Middle Ages paid o ut of their own purses for some of the projects, but also availed themsclves of conscripted workers. During the restorHion of the city walls in 774 . Pope J-Iadrian 'devoted much money, both o n pay for those who built the wall and on their sustenance, also on limestone and various requirements, and spent up to 100 lb. gold'.'Q' H e later gave those who worked on the walls 'pay and food from papal stores' . 'o~ His biographer recorded that 'with his expert care [1-ladrianJ gathered all the cities of Tuscia and Campania, along with the people of Rome and its suburbs and all the church patrimonies, and apportioned it stretch by stretch to them all' .">9 Similarly, Leo IV med Arab captives in addition to hi> conscripted local labour as part of the building force for walling the area around the Vatican. " o As well as being a convenient source of labour. the usc of conscripted and captive labourers probably also constituted the potent political message of papal control of R oman and Italian territories. " j
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,., \'>.010 Dolo!;", ' Tho .. R eb;"h" (of R o"'~ ;" ;~.~ 'Oj'; A ".,.,,,,. of ",mm "'. ,h;, perood "o,np,red ") others. ".oIQ Dd"gu. '0<0. ''1>.'"'' i" R"",.. " . il VII <,colo' ill C,,)"'''' < ")"m ond D,vi,. "111< Li,,,, ':!. Ni" ,I,·C,n,,,'Y P'1~~. T ......<1."",1 T~"" for H;"ori"" 20 (Liverpool. '9\ll). '70 ; '", ;,,, 'po",olic ou t].,)" .md "",,,, rdry' ''''' LP 9~: 9~: cl. Nobl • . ' p, .... dow • . 6~-'1. LP ' o~: H . On the Leonine ",.n,. ,.0< SheiL. G ib",n .nd UrY:lIl W",l_Perki",. ' The mrvi"ing ,."";,,, or , lo. l.eoni "e W. II" . PRSR.7 ('979). J<>-J7' The ,,",v;, il1l> "''''.;' '' of the Leo";" . w.n. P,C< Tw o: Th~ p,,,ct, o·. I'BSR S' ('98). ' ' ' - )9. L~o III u,«l loe. 1 L.bo u",,, in R ove"",, wh ~n r<"no,,"ing S. i\pollin.'" in Cl.".. . ., reported in i\~,dlll' R "·<",,,,i,. Lih" IJQ"tifu.li, ......1" ,"< 101 ...."""'". «l. Dobo",h M. Ddi}">""i,. Corpm Ch,,,'i, ,,,,, u,, , Cont;"u"iQ Mcd,,,,,,I,, '\19 ([",,,hom. l oo6). ,68 ()87)· S.e T ho"'" S. Bmwn . 1""1""''''' . LOll;, 'h< piou, ,,,d "l<" p.p'"y; i\ R,veull> I"'''p<,''i .. o" ;n Ch"rI,,.,,,V.,; Il:n of ,!O, I'io,,, I~q-~~.,). cd. Potor God",;", .lId R og
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Bw'ldi"S ill R ome I-ladrian sent crowds of peo ple to restore St Peter's and St Paul's, and to carry o ut the dcmolitions near S. Maria in COSlllcdin.' " Increased numbers of workers came from the stabilised papal lands outside R.ome, some of the mOST fertile and rich areas in luly. By this period, the papal state controlled the largest contiguous te rr itory in tilt' Italian peninsula, and with it farms and little production centres which were settled from the seventh centllTy onwards.") It might be tha t all these labonrers from the areas around R.ome were precisely the surplus that allowed so much building and renovation :It the late eighth and e:lrly ninth centur y. Special care was paid to till' later maintenance of major early medieval foundations through the domtion ofla nds and properties to 1ll0naSte ries. "~ The monasteries then became proprietors of land o n \vhich they could produce food and other goods and they were entitled to rents on those pIU pertie~, Cl stable somce of income whether it was c:lsh or in kind. "j
TRADE
As we have charted the transi tion to the Middle Ages in the built enyironmem of the city, it will be useful to note the dun ges w the cOlIlmercial culture of Rome, as re presented by the records preserved of archaeological materials and textual descriptions of trade and traders. A survey of the trade and patterns of production of goods in R ome can be charACterised by :1 constr iction of trade to increasingly local or regional systems of proYisioning, a change already noted in the reduced availability of building materials such as bricks and tiles in the early Middle Ages. Notably, however, R o me in the Middle Agtos continued to be a centre of distribution of elite exotica, including spices, sbyes and silks. As a luxury entrepot, as well as pilgrimage and ecdesia,tical centre, earl y medieval R.ome enjoyed a cosmopolitan traffic of people and prestigious goods. On the o ne hand, R ome - along with most other cities ill the west rt.'treated from a web of economic and commercial connectivity with LPn: 6 7. 7). " ) M ..,.,,,i, 'Le "C;"l.' ",uovo''' , F.:d.",o ~b""i . I 'P,,";m"";' S..,,", Ro",,,",,· Fal,,;.,' ",1 1....",0 /I ....X). < Io, Nuovi studi storici J7 ( R om ~, "Wa). '" Mamo Le",i , T" rm~ , . funzioni d"i ,,,,,j,,rim in ort"> rom.. ,,', ,l/liH?.I1
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I the rest ofthe Med iterr~nean. On the o ther h~nd ~ new elite commerce emerged in the city.' ,(, T he people of late antique R ome consullled grain, wine, oil and other good, th~t travelled from North Africa among other comers of the Meditt'r ra nt."an . In the late antiqut, period up until the Vandal invasions of North Africa in 43<>-9 this comme rce appears to h~vc been dependent upon the shi pping of taxes from Africa, specifically Cart hage to R ome, with gnin and some oil arriving as paymcnts and wine, fish saucc and other goods riding along for commercial distribution from R ome." 7 The greatest index fossil- that is, a cultural and chronological marker in the arc haeological record - of this comlllerce is ponery, the African Red Slip\vare and IImplwT,II? which came from N orth Africa to Rome in great quantities from the fi rst to the fifth centuries, and which accompanied other gOO(1:; that luvc not left ,0 strong a mark on the archaeological record. As the Vandal conquests interrupted the tax ,tructures of the late empi re, so too they reduced the traffic of goods from North Africa to R ome." s Wht're North Africa had been tht." point of origin of so much grain and oil. Sicily and southern Italy began to supply the foodstuns of the city of !"tome and central Italy. As population declined and the tax system collapsed, these imports naturally declined as welL Along with grain and oil, othe r ma terials tha t o nce came from furthe r ,lficld began to come fro m Sicily and southern Italy and they travelled in the same cargoes as the foodstuffS. An example of this kind of product is the lucerne - ceramic oil lamps for home" shops or churches - that began to appear in R o me in the early sixth century. "~ In place of the African Red Slip lamps that were common in late antique R.ome, the lucfTlH: (/ roS ' .:nui,ioll ,<~ McCoTlll ick. Oti.~", .nd Wickh.lII. I'r.ming. 7'C>-" . ' " Wickh:II", htl,,,,"S, i LC>- " . , ,' S"c, 'h" VC')" b,i cf 'j" lIop,i, ill W i c~h:III1, I" ","in.~. 7Z~-J ,lid Ill.,,' rcccntly Lui,. S,gui. ·Rom" i cell" i p"vileg'''i'' I.. lung.> du"'t> dell. "nil ." ,'ichit> . D,,; "cheolo~ici d.>.1 depO"'Q di VII >«010 IICIl"<>II'" ROil " "" taruoao,i<"o c ol'omooi<>",·o : 1< morri, i <<>lIto"i· ill It ' yp~ ,oA ,lid ,oil illl"'rticubr. F"" c"""o G.rr".• • "d D.vid Wi\l;.,,,,,. ' AppulI'i ."It.. p roJ " .i oll~ c 1""""0 tr:l VII ",I VIII ,<:eolo·, A.II ' 4 (,yS7). 1)"l-40, MOII; o. C~d, 'No'< ",n. c;reol,,;oll < ddle I"{"<me,, Rom" II drV111 ><<010 : I co",,,,,; dell> C rypt. Ihlbi·. AM '9 ('99 0). 749-<54 : 1'.01:. Fniellg.u i . ·L ucerne ".icili.llle" e imi':lZion i' ill Rc",.
",W",,"
70
Bw'ldi"S ill Rome in the seventh century. The map of this distribution repn.'$t'nts a continuity of ancient shipping routes with major port cities throughout the Mediterranean up to the seventh century.'20 On the Roman market, the lamp, replaced a product no longer available frOIll one market (e.g. Tunisian African Red Slip) which themselves bt·camt." highly ditTust."d products, eventually shipped to other market> along with Sicilian grain. The possibility of importing foodstuffs from Sicily more or less dried up after the Byzantine reconquest of the island and disappeared altogether after the Arab conquest of 827; the ceramic tr~de th~t was p~ired with it ceased.' " \Vhen the circle of R omc ·s relations contracted even further R omans ofthc eighth and ni nth century \lsed Roman or Italian IlIceme of a morc simple shape with brge openings (so-called" c!"bllll,' because of their resemblance to slippers).' " In the mid-eighth century, the combined evidence from ~ large number of excavated sites indica tes that R ome witnessed an overall increase in the production oflocal pottery. an activity previously less important becauSl.' of the t."asy trade with ceramic production centres ill North Africa .") Where a dinner table previously had been laid with a wide range of serving di>hes, in our period the sallle pots were carried from t he fire to the table and they tended to be small scewpots. R omans in the early Middle Ages cooked with bulbous closed forms more suited to ,{ewing the preserved meats and pulses that people ate in early medie"",] Rome than the frying paIlS and open casseroles of earlier periods. ' " The elites of the city had fine ceramic wares for their {able and by the late eighth century most of this. too, was produced locally_ The most common medieval R oman fine ware is called Forum ware. after the first major deposit of it discovered in the Schola Praeconiu1l1 011 the Forum Romanllm, thollgh it has since been identified in archaeological
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Rom"" A,,"",e/".('}" ' ).2 (,ooo), g,8-1 ~ . r-cdcrico M,... zi. ·n conHitt o fro L<"On< III Is.>.urico c ill"'P"o fTa il i < il 7Jj , < il " ddiniti,·o·· inizio dd mc-dio<"Vo , I-\.onu, un ipo'esi ill di1Cu"iol1o·. I'BSR ,') ('W') . ~S9-Sl. Sc~ ,lro ]<>n l)urli>t. D< I. "ji/, .""q'" J I. "r~."Ii"'. I.- I"ob/i"" dn ,~b""4""', ColleotiOll d~ I"Ecole r.,.,n.,.i>e de Rome ,)1; (Rom<. 'WO). j"'i,·g>ri. ·L u c~rn\· ovoiWli', I-l oer.,,,i e>" in L> SM';' "'''''''''',. d; Rom. ,,;// ·./10 M,d;""", /~" J,j "''''''; M. ,·; """'''/'':% . ..-d_ V,,,lo De]ogu .. " d Lidi .. V.1mli, Atti del S<mi",rio ROIII. ;-) .prik [\19'. Uiblio, ,,,.. di "'rchooloKi, Mc-d;",·,1< '0 (I·lo t
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I contexts all over the papal state and even further afield.'" Made from the eighth centllry onwards, it often took the form of pitchers, medium to large bowls and chafing dishes fo r warming and serving stews. T he forms and the glazing techniques of Forum ware derive ultimately frOIll Byzantine pottt'ry (tOsptOcially types such as Brown Glazed \\';lre and Petal ware) and interestingly also reflect a new influence, o ne of northern European pottery. Pitchers of very similar form to those in R ome were used in northern Europe including some Carolingian sites, at very similar dates. I ,6
EXOTIC TRADE
The main mechanism for the trallSport of so much cargo from North Africa to Rome, imperial ta .... scheIlles, ended with the VJJ1(bl conquest of North Africa. The arriV;JI of North African goods in Rome continued nonetheless, perhaps on a purely commercial level, rather than a tax scheme.'" Arab invasions of N orth Africa in the second half of the seventh century further interrupted commercial exchange between the ltalim peninsula and N orth Africa, as well as part~ of the eastern Mediterranean, though it would be incorrt'C{ to assume that all trade stopped. ,,8 [n fact, while Arab pirates and Arab-controlled ports m,lde the prospects of Mediterranean trade from Rome more diffi cult and dangerous than before a new range of products distributed by Arab traders or, as was often the case, by Venetian go-betweens emerged on the mar ket. These indude slaves bought and 50Id and intended for markets in North Africa, spices, textiles and eventually, in the tenth century, fine glazed pottery.'>v As we have seen in the case of Hadrian, po pes periodically imervened to scop the selling ofChri<;tian shves near R.ome, but it appears to have been an active tr:lde.' JO All Ar:lb merchant's description of his visit to R.ome makes special mention of different markets, including those of the veterinaries (or farriers) , moneychangers o
~e. Luci. S'gll' ,"d bd" P.roli (cd •. ), L·E,Ni,. ddl" e'rp'o Halbi.d Md,,,,,,,, (XI- X V), Arch ..... olog1, u,b ..", .. Ro", .. : 11 Pn>g<'''o d,,11> Cryp ... li'lbi j. H,bli o'"'''' d; "'''h<"OI<>g1' Modiov.. l" 6 (Aorcncc, '990). ' ~- I9 . ' ... tb,d. '" Wickh.m. Fr"ming. 7". ,,' On 'he I""""",'coc< o(""d< mu' ... bel,,"c.n K"",<, Syr.rru><" .od ConSl,,,,'inol'lc in'o ,h. nos. >ee McCof ", ick, 0riJ{i." jOj-4! . Fm older .hem;", on ,h< i",?"c' of .h< A ... h ;n...,,;on •. >« R;ch",j HodS'" ,nd D .. ,·Kj Wh"ehoo><. M"h.mm ,d. CI..,I,",o.~n' and 1/" Origin' E"'"I" (Lon,lon. ' ~~J)' and ' he ", ore reC~n' P~regriJlc Ho"l"" ,"d N ichob, Purrdl, nIt C"m'l',i'\ll s,": .1 "",Iy "f M,d'''''''"'". hi"",}, (London. 0000) : the contr ib". io", of l =by. H.ldon. W.I",sJ.,.,· . nd Wickh. m in CI"i. W,ckiu", >nd [ngo H,,,,on (eds.). TI" Ll'.~ E j.~"'h C"III,}, (L<~I
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Bw'ldi"S ill R ome and textiles. The merchant. al- \Valid ibn Muslim. was not arriving from North Africa, it should be pointed o ut. bllt ap pears to h,lVe approached R ome from the Adriatic. across the Apennines.' )' Like N orth Africa. the eastern MediterrAnean continued to be an an..·a of specialised produc tio n: fin t· ceramics, metalwork, marble carving, books and luxur y fabric s wen..' all produced in the east and impo rted to R ome for a few elite patlUns. mostly of the Church .')' The fact that ports of the Italian peninsula, such as R..wenna and Naples, were under Byzantine control until the mid-eighth cemllTY no do ubt facilitated these tr:tde routes.'ll Fllfther, the frequ e nt and persistent diplo matic communicatio n between R o me and C o nstantino ple and o ther major political :Hld theological centres would have required some assurance of s.l fe paSs.lge between the two centres, a condition no doubt profitable fo r commercial exch:tnge . The LP is fill ed with descri ptions of textiles. wools and silks. most of which must be understood to be products of the Byzantine empire, as no silk was produced in the early Middle Agt·s in western states, with the possible exception of Muslim Spain. ')" (Table I) f'u rther, many of them are described as 'Tyrian'. 'Alexandrian'. or sometimes 'Byzallline' . Though olle could argue that these were merely colour-words. no t designations of places of o ri gin, the evidence is clear that these were not R oman or western plUducts,' ),\ There are thousands of references to textiles dona ted to the churches of R ome; Pope ]-bdrian alone gave 1.343 such textiles, as recorded by the numbers giwn in the LP_')O They seem to haw been a rAnge of plain silks of different weights. silks shot with gold, woven into patterns with " , y'yu, ib" ' Abo:l>ll>h .I- H.""wi. ,,868. ''''''', Sh.hid in McCor micx. Or'..:'''-'. 6H-j . •" 0" (,bri, ond ", c,,1 impom,ion. ><"c v.olo DdoKU, 'L. ",ori" economic> di Rom. ndl'.lto m~d;o~vo, In,rodu zion~ ..1><m in.., io· in Ll Slori~ <£onOl"". Ji Rom~ ",II'.Ir" M,di",,,,, ,11" I"" ,I" ""nri ~"Io,ol~d_ .d. P, olo Delo!:u ,nd Lid;, I',roh. An i del Semin,rio Rom, l -j .pr;le '992. l:\ibli",«. di Arh:(!i"".ie '0 (R oren< ~. ' 99J). 2j: 'L'i"'I",,,,.i,,,,e ." Arl hu" ,'"al~''' ,8 . Me",h ... ,.. . 1>0 ,,,"vdlo;ol ion in ' he period, Se< th e 1'..,-""" Simmi o( 8)6. giving Italian. Byzan' ine ",d Lomb.,d mach, n" pami" ion to eto" 1>..."".-."" " bold. s••• nd ri,'. " Oil ,h.;, d~ ,I/C H V,f<' IV. 2 ,6-2,. tf'lll,i>«d in M,d"",,1 ,[hid, in ,I" M,d"mm,"" 1V."ld. N, Robort Lopez ",d I"'ing R,}'mond (N..",' yo,k, 'QS,I. zoo,). n~. 7 . O n Greek import' in R ome , nd on G=b in Romc. "" . 1", /l.-kCor mick. o.(ci"" ch . ' • .~-j , nd ch . 8 ." l ",li~ Ilr ub" ke, ,ndJohn H.ldon (ed._) . Br~.,,'iu," io 1/" ["m",I." " '4 (c. 6~II- .i,o): Th, , ~~'''~ ' '' .""o,,,,,d '"n",y (Alde"hor. '00'). ~'-j, '" O"c r<>,,,ble , x"ptio" i, , 'ingle mc",io" of Ne,poli"" d"d .. Sc, J"lm Oobo'ne. 'T,x,ib ,nd ,h.i, l"imeJ im;'.>lio",·_ PBSR 60 (' 99 ». j'7. DIDo",. poi"" ou, ,h" men,ion oftex,ile, of , hi, "''' i> ' he pr""ig~ g;fl> from Byz' n' in~ .m["'fOro POP"" in I"'rticubr Pope, Hormi",b, (I '4-. J). John [ (5. J---<» ."d J"h" 11 (jJJ-I) . • jO 8y.:: ...'ium in ,<~ T,bl< ,
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crosses or roses and \voven or embroidered with scenes, often Biblical in nature, or depicting saints. They were used to decorate churches, hung between the columllS of nave colonnades, or in the main entrances of the church and Slllaller silb were altar cloths and frontals and liturgical vestments. None of the Roman sourees mentions the lIse of these silks in non- ecclesiastical settings. Indeed, when silk \VJS given as gifts to secular potentates. such as the Frankish king Pippin, it \vas fashioned into litu rgical vestments, emphatically ecclesiastical splcndoll r. 'J7 These decorative silb will be discussed below with regard to the \VJys in which they transformed architeCTUrt' and designated churches and ecclesiastical areas as prestigious or sacral areaS.'J8 Appreciation of the magnitude of this market should also point to the presence of an ecc1esi,lstical elite in early medieval R ome. It has been suggested that Rome's textile market was so thriving that it drew buyers from as far as the Middle East. ' N Rome was long kn own in ecclesiastical circles as the source for luxury objects, such as silks as well as other liturgical exotica and o ther kinds offoreign merchandise. In the second half of the seventh century Abbot Benedict Biscop returned to Camerbury from Rome with 'fresh treasures' including boob, ho ly images and textiles.' 40 Church officials sent spices and incense ftom ' " I'up< 1'.",] I (757-<'>7) go'"< Ki"~ I'ippin gif" ind"dillg , ", ,,,h.mit.] do(·k. ]""rgi("] book. ,nd , ,i lk ""mu",. HGH Ep;" ,'I", Ill. >' 7. F~· " , See below. pp. '43-6. .,0 McCormick. Or,:~ins, 6' ~ , '"'" l:kd~. H;,'~';' •••• ,,,,,, '" V,n".';);' &,d., hi",,;. ,,,In;''''''4 <~n'" A "glon,..,. ",I C. Ph.m"'~r (Oxford. ,8<;fi). S9 (I. ]7).
74
Bw'ldi"S ill Rome Rome to Bo niface (d. 755), archbisho p ofMainz. '4' The [ue ofRome's commerce in the e,lrly Middle Ages is typic ~ l in some ways of other Italian cities: the coastal cities of Italy such as Rome, Naples. Otranto and R eggio Calabria continued to use some goods imported over long distJnces into the early Middle Ages. Rome is unique in that its material culture, mduding the products made. bought and sold in the city and its built environment. maintained a level of cosmopolitan prestige atypical of early medieval cities. Rome's was never merely a subsistence econo my. t4' T he papacy and the city's elites remained elite in the early Middle Ages and the commercial trade in luxury goods - specifically ecclesiastical wares - that they supported and, as we shall sec. architectllre reHect their high economic status. T Ile progressive regionalisation of cOllllllerce in central Italy, and in much of the M editerrmean world, brought abo ut further limitations in production and monetary systems. The few Byzantine coins that had circubted in R o me disa ppeared aro und the third quarter of the eighth century and coins minted by thl' papacy began to circulate. Their actual use is diffic ult to gauge, howe ve r, since there were so few pieces and they were ofsuch high value. '4) Based on very limited evidence, it abo appears t hat Arab dinars were sometimes used for vcry high value transaction" sHch as the gift of a hrge estate to the Sce of Saint Peter around 78 I . q . An Arab merc hant's description of R ome in the hte eighth or early ninth century mentions explicitly the market of the moneychangers.'4.I T he presence of such a market in Rome would not be surprising give n the number of fo rt'igners passing thro ugh the city_ 146
" , Uoni(,toTi, "7. '" On o o ,,,d M" k U],c kbufIl, ,1/(.i"",1 £""'1"'"" C.i"".'<'f " !ViII, ~ " "II'\!'" 4'h, ,ci", i" ,/" Fi,::,";i!i,m, AI.. " " ," , C.mb';,!,,,, (C.",b, illge, 1986) . "d wi,h >pe<,fic ",f<"'r\<~ ' 0 Rom •. "'~ AI""i. RO"dli, ' M o,,~ ... , )" i.da.tion in tho ligh t of ",con! .rch. tion 0[ ' 0 fow coin,): h lo»i' R o,·dli, 'So mc cOll>idcr>tiom 0" the coi" 'go of Lomb",1 ",J C.roliugion Ital}" 111 11" I"" t~ Eig/,'h C," ,u'y. ed . Ch r;. W ickh,m , nd l ng< H.II",,, (l" id,,". '000) . ' ~j-"'~ On !', ,,,h.r, d, nan', "" 0 Angdo Cig"' gl i. u ""m,t, dj 1"'1" d,,m,,, in ,"vol, ,in,,,icil, (h',mo, ' ~4~) ' Dom~lIieo Cosi",io Promi•. ,lion'" d,i R ,,",.. j ['
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I PlLGlllMS AND DIPLOMATS
In addition to its role as J major port and market city in the early Middle Ages, Rome also enjoyed reguhr and frequent communication with other important localities in the Mediterranean thro ugh diplomatic relations with the papal court and the floods of pilgrims who came to the city. T he city was a real coslllopolis with its markets and cult attractions. Within the city of Rome, colonies of foreigners TOo k up residence at the Schohe Saxorum, Francorum, Lo ngobardorum and FriSOrllm, which probably housed communities of pilgrims and travelling ecclesiastics. '·' In 63 I, Irish monks visiting R ome lodged at St Peter's wi th 'a Greek, a Hebrew, a Scythian and an Eg)'ptian'. ' 4~ Among the educated members of the community, some of these men might have acted as agents of their employers with the papacy. By the hte eighth and early ninth centllTies. sonic of the Fn nkish intcllectual elite, such as Arno of Salzburg, came to R ome with multiple aims in mind. Arno came to Rome both wi th official duties. as archbishop and head of an embassy frolll Charlemagne, and intellectual and devotional interests in the martyrs of R ome, their resting places and the city's topography. q~ The residents of the Scholae could also have been merchams. 'jO In some cases these might have been refugees, during the iconoclastic controversy man)' Byzantine exiles lived in Rome as refugees.' j I Visitors participated in the life of the city, not only in the major pilgrimage churches of t he Apostles Peter and Paul. but in other ceremonies ,IS well. A liturgical orde of the eighth century described the nlllltitlldcs of Roman clerics, mo nks, the populace and pilgrims gathered 0 11 the Forum R omanum at S. Adrimo, the former Curia SenHUS. preparing to join the Candlemas procession to S. Mafia Maggiore. ' 5l On at least one occasIon. delegates of the different rt'ligiom and cultural group, of R ome were sent to mect visi ti ng potentates: Pope l-Iadrian sent representatives ,., Ki«,,,lo S,,,,,ugd i V. leu .."i. ·I'e l k~r i ni . S~n>nd [);ibhi 6 Cro ini" (Toron to. 19 88) . 'I1-j . in Juli .. M . H . Smith. E .r"J'< "fl"
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Bw'ldi"S ill R ome of priests and d ifferent orders of monastic practice as envo~ to the LOlllbard king. Desiderius (757--74), in his attempts to claim back cities ofthc exarchate seized by the Lombards and members of the Scholae met Charlemagne and his Frankish emoura ge whell they came to R o me. ' j j The t'xpression o f this d iversity of religious practice and cultural differe!lce in these politicised meet ings at tests to R ome's political profile as a cosmopolis. The motor for many of these changes was the papacy itself. As was the case with bishops in other cities ill Italy, in the seventh and eighth centuries. the papacy assumed growing responsibility for administration . Perhaps as e;lrly as the mid-si:-::th cent\iry, the papacy had begun d istributing grain and meat to the poor. in an ecclesiastical version of the ,u/IW IW . ' H As Sicily became less reliable as a source of grain and as the papal f.1 rms in the countryside around R o me in creased in size and stability, the gra in tha t fed the city increasingly came from arou nd R o me. produced on the dOl/HIS m/Me or papal estates.' » Papal towns and rural fo u ndatio ns grew up in the cOllntr ysidt, and the city o f R o me w as consolidated as popes took over its maintenance. \Vhe reas previous restorations to infrastructural elements such a~ the cit), walls had been conducted in the name of emperor> ,uch as Theo dosills (392- 5) and J ustinian (527- 65) , it was the popes who began to restore the walls in the eighth centu ry.'>6 Popes carved out the R ep ublic ofSaim Peter, taking o n the role of de facto secuhr autho ri ty in its capital city in opposit io n to the Byzantine emperor, the Lombard kin gs and ultimately the Frankish ru le rs _'H Elsewhe re in Italy the Franks drew lip arT;l nge ments that maintained local
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" . On in g<~ J 'c~ u~. Lt">'o<~uo)", 'Ad min;"r.. ;on de Kom< d,' Diocon i<> du V 11 < ,u IXe ' i",k: /0tC 7 (19JO), ' I (ro)~ ; Ouo I:kTto~ "i, 'I'or t. "ori, ddlc di>co" ic """"nc' ;" .>':rirr' '''/'' J, "ori. m.d,,,,,·./,. O,,-,vio Ih",; (L;'.'O",o, '?'is), J 7 ' - 460: Ugo F"les;~di , U ; Sf".izi "";;I,",,i.1< "d/. Chi". (Kome. [995); K.;m"nd Hmuc., ' O;c """blll;>rger "kw o(,he ,,,bj"«. ><'< M,r,";,'n ' CO"CS-~'truzioni i1'om roi<>..,li ddl< mm. ,mdilnc e degli "qu<_ dotti' , MLI'RM I 1 1 (1<)9<) , '09"""15, '" 1'hol11 " I, X. Noble. "/11< R. '9 8~): /o.-1>,.,,,i. ' Tt cOIlHiuo fr> 1..·~ll1h ,nd <'i~'h c~n'u ri <" in I'.orly M,di,,,,,J R~,"< and ,11< Cl";,,,," IV,,/; L,,"y' i" "on''''<1-o.,",,1d A. 13<,1I",,~. ed,J " ~. M. H . S",;,h, T h~ Mcd;~.t Mcdi«rr,Hle.ll ,8 (L
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I authority in the name of the distant Frankish mler." g though in R ome that relationship had ,I particular significance because of the mUTU,llly publicised Franco- papal allegiance, as will be demonstrated . The city of R ome and its nuterial and monumental e nvironment served as the canY;1S for this exposition of new authority and latt'r enmity.
PAPA C Y AN D EMPIR E : NE GO TIATI O NS I N AR C HIT EC T U R E
As discussed in the previous chapter. R o me's adm inistrative man,lgemenr came to be the product of a rela tionship negotiated directly bef\veen the papacy and the emperor, first the Dyzantine empero r and then bter. after 800. the Frankish emperor. T hese negotiations took place in the j midical and diplomatic arena and in respect ohhe day- co-day upkcep of the city and its inhabitants as \vell as in mo re symbolic formulati o ns. including monumental progra mmes. In (,ct, the monumental architecture of Rome has lo ng been invo ked as an illustratio n of the papacy's new visio n of itself, thou gh it has never before been examined in the light of othe r building wo rks in R ome nor with attention to the means by which such architectural expressions might be understood by R omans or visitors to R o me. In fact papal architecture must be examined with regard fo r its significance bo th fo r the highest echelo n of political and theological diplomacy as well as for the rest of the Roman people. In planning their architectural projects, early medieval patrons such as Po pe Pas(hal too k special earl' to build in such a way t hat any visicor to Rome, from the most humble to the most noble, would recognise their care of the c itv. T here is no do ubt that, compared to the period up to the early fifth ( emury, the ll1:tterial (ultuTe of early mediev:tl R ome had become increasingly local and impoverished. The great exception to this diminished splendour is the preservation of a very high- quality luxury goods I,. So. from , Copitu Luy , ,,,,,c iated w it h C h "lem' gn e. u"dJ.ted : 'L{}I",,,u! "i.m " " ""i,",,, J,
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Bw'ldi"S ill R ome market enjoyed mostly by the clerical and monastic elite. The material expression of R ome 's greatness came to be the expression of the wealth . power and primac y of its chmch . T his elite was not a dosed COlTlI1111 nity but rather.1 tluid grou p. populated by vi,itors, both diplomatic and devo tional, to tht· city who carried a\\';1y with them thei r imprt'ssions of papal prt-'stige. In buildings such as the Triclinium of Leo 111 , a certai n kind of visitor might have seen those mosaics and recognised the archi tectural and visual links tha t the monument established between emperors, kings JIld popes. The majority of the population of R ome and its visitors, however. experienced papal prestige through their urban projects, partiwbrly the churches. As wc have seen, the nature of displays of civic munificence and elite evergetislll changed in the city during the early Middle Ages. T he public areas ,ueh as the Fo rum were maintained until the si.xth century with restora tions of ancient bu ildings and the continued erec tion of statues and monuments. The distinction between extTd - urban and int ra- urban activities, such as burial of the dead and agricultur.ll production , was maintained through the fifth and even into the sixt h ccntury, though the shrinking po pulation and increasingly local economy forced a reorgallisation ofdle ways of living in R ome. In the sixth century, an emerging clerical elite appropriated some of R ome's most prestigious spaces, like t he Forum R om anum , fo r the proclamation of thei r new kind of civil munificence, papal chu rch buildings. Papal archi tecture as an expression of a new hegemo ny and lavishly decorated chu rches came to be the fundame ntallocllS of the new social o rde r within the city_ In the ninth century. R o me's monumental centre was transformed aga in . as prestigious domestic architecture took over the fo rmerly public buildings and spaces. By the mid- ninth century, popes, including Paschal, had spent the previous dcc~des refu rbishing ~nci ent churches in the neighbo urhoods of R Qme. Far from being an expression of grandeur reserved for a limited few, these chu re h- building projects \veTC very public proclam~ tions, visible and intdligible to local R omans alld visitors of all social st~ndin g, united onc to another through a circuit of liturgical celebrations and cult attractions. 1 have laid o ut the traditions and transformations of R o me\; urban fabri c in th t" early Middle Ages. The city. unlike so Jllany contt"lllporary cities, preserved some of its ancient R oman fa bric by imbuing areas of the c ity and even ancie nt buildings with new significance, tied to the new ecclesiastical hegemony. T he commercial ac tivities of R ome similarly achieved a new kind of vibrance in conne(tion with church travellers and embassies and special liturgical products. The popes and the papal 79
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I court administered the city and aho orchestrated the preserv;ltion of the city's urban filbric. The built environment of the city and its material culture, including thc obJccts madc and traded there wcre both products of the impo rtance of the place ~s well ~s means by which that power \\~IS achieved. In tht, early ninth century, Pope Paschal rebuilt three churches, resCOrt'd another, and created three chapels in R.ome to consolidate not only his control over the city of Rome but also the power of R o me o n thc early medicval stagc.
80
Chapter 3
CONS TKUC TI NG TH E PA PA L CIT Y
Paschal's architectural progranlllle centred on three churches in the city of Rome, S. Ceeilia in Trastevere, S. Maria in Donmica and S. Prassede. each entirely rebuilt by him, and some prominent reconstruction of the ancient ba,ilicas of S. Maria Maggiore and St Peter. This chapter discusses Paschal's architectural programme as the manifestation of papal prestige using architecture, urban ism and liturgy. The churches were set into the urban fabric of the city as markers of papal presence by virtue of their conjunction with other monuments and residential areas within the city and their roles in the papal stational liturgy of R.ome. The churches and their attached monasteries were located at key points on the edges of thriving neighbourhoods, along major routes through t he city, or in prominent positions within important other churches, in the case of the two minor oratories at St Peter's. T hese new buildings in highly visible locations were grandiose in their scale and material splendour. Comparison of Paschal's churches with those erected by his predecessors sets them apart from other buildings in Rome and suggests that Paschal's aims were to create showpiece works of virtuoso building: large and regular in plan and elevation . T hey were filled with light from the big regubrly placed windows, light which reffected on the marbles, glass mosaics. gold and silver furniture and embroidered textiles in the interiors. Just as the language of architectural form and adornment continues centuries of papal building, so too the liturgy of the churches is a long- lived pattern of processions and celebrations. Paschal's churches were careful adaptations of traditional architecture and ceremony.
Paschal"s churches, in particular S. Cecilia and S. Prassede, arc landmarks in mediev.ll architectural history. T his is in part owing to their spectacular architecture md mosaics, :md also because one of the mo';t important scholars ofRollle 's architecture, R.ichard Kramheimer (t897- 1994) held
8,
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I them up as a medieval revival of the Rome's fourth - and fifth -centl1ry basilicas, prime examples of his thesis of C'lrolingian Revival. ' Considering how pervasive Krautheimer's interpretation of the architecture has beell, it is worth reviewing hi, thesis, addressing it, limitatiom and then analysing tilt.' buildings usi ug dittt'rent approaches. According to Krautheimer. t he basilicas erected by Paschal I in the first quarter of the uimh cemury were a little 'renascence' after centuries of the ' Dark Ages', during which period the very few buildings in R ome that were built had non-ba,ilkal phns, perhaps reflecting fo reign, non- Roman influence. He argued that the significance of medieval churches lies in the way in which they resen lb1e in phn and elevation the great basilicas of Christiau antiquity such as St Peter's and St Paul's. Krautheimer saw Paschal's churches as a great bre;lk in the pattern of church architecture in R o me, from an era of lion-basilican ,tructures to a resurrec tion of ancient architectural splendour, the Christian basilica. Further, K rautheimcr saw a poliricalmcssage in this revival : he suggested that Paschal was st'ekillg to cbim impt'rial gralldeur for himself by replicating the basilicas of great ancient emperors, especially Constantine's basilicas.' In discus.<;ing this theory and its implicatiom for early medieval Rome I shall avoid the current disc ussion about whether Constantim' or his son COllstans built St Peter's. For Kr;lUtheimer, St Peter's basilica was certainly Constantine's cr-cation. l As Glen Bowersock has pointed out, however. the overwhelming evidence for Constantine's involvement with St Peter's comes from hter sources, including the biography of Silvester in t he LP, which derails Constanrine's patronage of the building, and such a building project is perhaps more in keeping with the climate of the mid- fourth century, not before. 4 T hese issues lll ay cOlllplicate things for historians for the fourth century, but for historians of the eighth and ninth centuries, it is important to note that the LP informed the thinking of early medieval patrons and audiences about history: for early medieval audiences and patron 's, St Peter's and St Paul's wert' built by Constantine.'
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The argument for the 'Carolingian R.eviv;tl' was part of Krautheime r's larger theory about the iconogTeussion. J shall limit the comparison to S. Prassede, which featured prominently in both of Krautheimer's theo ries because of its formal similarity to St Petcr's basilica .s The aisles of S. Prassede tennin att'd ill the transept, a 10llg narrow space crossing tilt' nave. In its initial construction this zone formed a wide, tall sp:lCe. distinct from the body of chu rch . T he opeHness was broken only by a rise in the floor lewl at the presbytery and a flight of step, leading up to the high altar. 9 T r.ulsepts \wre unCOllllllon in early medieval R oma n ch urchcs. though there arc other examples that predate the onc in S. Prassede. T he most signifi cant building in Rome. indeed in Christendom . to have a transept was of course the great fourth -century basilica of St Peter. 10 Ricl",nl K"wtildmer. ' l ntroduc"on '0 .n "lconogr'pily of Medi«",,1 A"'h it<xbo", . R evi,'.1 ,,,d '~'Ii')" T he Coroli,,);i.n It ell.i~"""e in Ro",~ ,,,d ' he ,..,., ,,(5 , P.-.",<:<:1<· no A It; d,/ ,,,,,i,,.';o ;~ ""or< di Ha", p"" L ·O"".R'. h,;,,,,. di N""~gio. R.", • . ,00). od. Sit; S."d~ = Ana ad ."/,",o/"Kiom,, ."i,,," h'".rl.m pmintn". m S ( ~CIOj) . (6)"'\I2 1 h,,'c di"""""d , hi, i",,< in rel" ion to S. Codi. 'nd~, Mo,i. in Domn ie, elsewhcre. C,rohn< GO<:>dso", ·M",eri.! ""''''0')': It ebuild;"!> i"" ,6 .2 (1987). ' 2 t-2 '" On the "chitecture ofSt l'etd. in th~ Middle Age>. , ee Sible d" m"uw. Cu/r,,,,,
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To be SU I\', Kr~mheimer S,1W the tr~nsept ~t S. Prassecle ~s ~ very explicit reference to the tT;\nsept ~t St Peter's. 'The combination of an archi trave in the nave with a continuous transept' , Krautheimer rem inded us, 'is found only [at St Peter', ~ncl S. P r~ssedej:" The relationship w~s not limited to the transept however. Both St Pett'r's and S. I' rassede featured: a Aight of [25"1 steps as<:ending to the atrium, once enveloped by fom arcaded portico{'s; a pbin fa.,ade; the na"" carri"d by tr:lbcated colonnades. a narrow transept communicating with the na,"" through a triumphal arch: a single aI'S<:; underneath an annular crypt like that which around 590 had been inscrted into St. l'eter's. ' )
The colonnades of S. Prassede number precisely onc half the number of columns as in St Peter'> :ll1d the ~isles, 'single rather than double, are linked to the tr.ll1sept by colonnaded and trabeated twin openings' . The 'unique proportion of 1:5 corresponds exactly to that of the transept ofSt Peter's'. '· Any differences between the original and the copy arc explained by 'other putatively Constantinian models, sl1ch as S. Paolo fuori le mura [St Paul\j'.' j T he cOllStntction techniques - in.)(J£ir as t he foundations are solidly laid and tilt' bricks are laid in courses or double an:he. around the windows - likewise i. a 'comcious attempt to imitate the technique of the early cemurie, of Christian architecture in Rome'. '6 In this way, the ninth-century building ill it> var iou> part~ recalled t he fourth -century building and, thus, its associated cultura l and political atlllosphere. Au.;ording to this thinking, Paschal's new building was ~ ,tructurc of the magnificence of Constantine 's and thus Paschal himself desired to be viewed in imperial light. Krautheimer linked the deliberate te naiSs,lnce ill Rome to political events: ' It is evident that the architectural revival conforms to the political and ecclesiastical renotlalio movement which from the middle of the eighth century on had forllled t he backbone of the policy of the p~pal comt." 7 For Krau theill1l'r, this reUOlldlio in Rome was identical to the contemporary movcment among the Carolingians north of the Alps, which aimed to cre:lte a new empire modelled upon the political and artistic culture - literary, representational Ko"lllthe,,"ec. ·Th. C . ",h"g1.:'" rev;..... r. l('. "I.id.. :o " RlCh .. nl K"'Ulhd"'.r, R.lI"" Profile ,1. d,y. J 'rlJ~~ (1', ;"c.,o". '9 ~0), '»-4 " Kr:outhe;",.,. ' The C .. rul; ngi.:", ",,",,·.. r. '0. " K"uthei",., . R~,",: Po.jil, Of" G,y. "4 . K,.u,h.illl ...cgu"'; lh" bee,u,. the ",,-<,.II.d Don>!ion ofCo"'''nt;n~ ",,,,cd Elllp~,o, COIISt"",ill< a< 'h< 1'>"011 "fS, p,,,r,. ill ~" ly 11,«1;<", 1 R "",e it W:l<" d",ir> ble, ",odd to .",,,b.. ,, St Peter"" K,.m thei",er. ' The Corolill gi .. n reviv..r. J6 Indeed. the ].,,. Si/""tri in the LP do .. d.... il Co",... nt;n", cOllst," ction of the b .. ,ilie. of St 1', ,, 1. LP J. : ,t.
85
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I and architenural - of ancient R.ome, with particular attention to fOllrth,lnd fifth-century monuments, those of Christian antiquity. ,R \Vhen. in [967, Krautheimer returned to the subject ofS. Prassede in the course of his systematic publication of the early mediev.ll churches of Rome. his interpretation was largely the same as in 1942. S. I'rassede 'is a perfect example of the Carolingian revival in R o me . .. a movement which. begun under Hadrian [ and Leo [11. strove toward a renascence of Early Christian types and ideas in politics, liturgy and architccture."~ Challenges to Krautheimer's theories have been few; his is still used as a key tool for understanding till' arehitectme of the early M iddle Ages!O T he recent work of Judson Emerick on S. Prassede illustf:ltes the pervasiveness of this way of thinking in the field of medieval R oman architectural history. Emerick has suggested that in constructing a screen of column.> at S. Pnssede, Paschal attempted to bring this titular church in line with the papal basilica of St Peter, not just the basilica as it was constructed in the fourth century, but an up- do- date copy including a!! ml·dieval acc retions and rt'uO¥;l tions that subsequent popes and emperors had built at St Peter's.' ] I intend to demonstrate how this is too limited a tool for understanding building in early medie¥;ll R ome. CRITIQUES OF THE KRA U THEIMEll THESIS
Kraurheimer, and Emerick following him. have defined meaning in medieval architecture in very limited terms: iconography. [ argue that o ur understanding of r .lsch:l]'s architectural programllle can be expanded in three key \¥;lyS. First, as R. oocrt Coates-StephellS has already shown. the so-called Constantinian basilica was an architectural fortH current throughout the period bet\veen Constamine and Paschal. \Vhat is more. a visitor's impressions of these buildings were conditioned by the urba n context of the city of R ome. T he other buildings in medieval R ome's ,. K]":1.",h<;1II.'. 'Th~ C,rol;ng;'" r~y,v. l" . 'J '. Kr:>.U lh ";",.r" 01.. c"'1)"~ m. l58 . H" '07 ;merp""" ';o" o'S. I'r.o,,.,d,,;', ... h~, ....1 o',h" re"iv, [ ,h",i. ,. wcll . , , d;'p, ,..!;i,,!; d=ription of 'he limi" of Clt[y medi ..·v,[ comltuc,ion: ·co"'p.'r>ti,·dy ,,,"'" , i" ofth~ church: the r",I""'ion of ,;,b f",,,, fo ur '0 'wo: ..,,,,11 wi"rlow< with do"bl. "0"'''';'' . ,,,d f", .. lIy. [he "' .. ..,"'y wit h ""du l.;" jng <"01>< <-VI ;''''1'';''''1<. ,. Se< "",,, ,""centl}". <.10"1",, McCl.ndon. n" Origi"-' 4 ,I /,di, ,,,,' (N ew H,w". 2l>O.\J " ]ud>Otl J. Em.riel. ·Fuc".ing on ' he cd.hr.. n!: Th. eo[" m", di.puy i",Od. 5.:", ... P,..".de" in Alii dd C.II"1";" '"1,,",.,.;"".1< '/1 LibO. ). ' ...... ~8 ; ·A[,,, ... p.,>onified : Th. cult of , h.... in" "Old 'he ch"pd Syst.m in l'op. p,och.r. s . P",~,.d. (8'7-8'9)" ;" AKh.,"losr in .1""i'''', .... , S,,,difS i" h.nor <1 C,~1 L. Sln·k". ..d . J"'],o,, E",,,,kl ,,,d Deoo,.,h
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urban landscape, both ancient and more recent, informed viewers about the glories of antiquity and the paradigms of ancient and mediev:ll architecture, not JUSt Constantine's buildings. T he preserved and renov:ltcd public Structures in the Forum, for example, and other basiliclll churches, such as S. Sabina on the Aventint' or S. Agnese fuori It- mura \vere arguably as compelling representations of imperial power and ancient values as t he Constantinian basilicas were. Secondly, the topographic locations of the buildings wcrc key to Paschal's architcctural programme, by asscrting the churches' role in the stationalliturgy :ll1d their cO!lnedion with /0(<1 S around the presbyter), and tramlucelll screens between columns. Aho, the fi6'llrative decorations in the buildings on the other hand projected a narrative-based structure to the interiors, lining some of the walls with stories and venerable images. On tilt' o ther hand. they conveyed the sacred presence of the saints and the divine. First, the idea of the deliberate revivallllllst be disproved . Krautheimer's theo r y of a ' revival' of basilica- pian churches implies that there was a period of time, in the sixth to eighth centuries, during which basilican churches were not built. R obert Coates-Stephens systematically demonstrated that Krautheimer downphyed the traditional qualities of sixthto eighth -century ;lrchitecture." Kr.Hltheimer placed great emphasis on the T-shaped basilica plan, a basilica with a transept. H e argued that this type of building only rc-emerged with S. Prassede as part of the so-called Carolingian revival. Krautheimer ignored that those basilicas built in the seventh century, such as S. Giorgio in Velabro (682- 3) , which have been destroyed but whose form can be partially reconstructed, were often also basilicas.'] By the eighth cemury, basilican churches were created even when patrons wcre more-or- less refitting older buildings of difft.'rt.'nt shapcs. Por instancc when the church ofS. Susanna was rebuilt (. 792- 3,
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an ais1cd basilica with spolia colonnades was fitted into a late antique aula.'4 It should also be poimed out, as Coates-Stephens has do ne. that o ther churches with transepts existed at R ome, not only at S. Prassede and St Peter's. T he church of s. Eusebio, on the Esquiline, had a cominllolls transept in its early medieval phase, as recent studies have proven." ~ The monastery church of S. Stefano degli Abissini, located near the :Ipse of St Peter'" also had a transept, recognisable even in the church's presem significantly al tered state!6 The dating ofS. Stef.1no is troubled by the absence of medieval descriptions of its foundation, restoration and rebuilding, bllt it might date to e ither Leo [11 or Leo IV, which is to S-1.y either before Paschal's building of S. Prassede, or after it !7 \Vhether it came before or after. its form indicate, a currency of the T-shaped basilica form in R ome in the eighth and ninth centuries, and diffuses the significance of Krautheimer's 'revival' . Spacious and regularly proportioned basilicas, such as St Peter's, St Paul's, S. Giorgio, S. Euscbio, s. Susanna and S. Stefano degli Abissini, formed part of a trldition of " On 'he rehuilding of S. s .. hi", hl' !>ope Leo I ll. ",e K... u , heim~r" .1. . C,,'1"". ttt. IJj-j2 ., The m.mep' of'he pr....b)",,,ul ch urch ofS_ Emebio h" eeceml)" bee n ru,,,, ' 0 Pop< Z.. ch..ri" (74 1- p): Io"",dlo. ·L. ch i.,.. IIlcdi~.I<' . T h< biog.-.ph)' of Ih>l pope d<>cr ioo illl<"-<"';o", Ih~ b .. ,ilic" rooffdl in : LP9J; ~7 . '" On the church ,ee K... u,hei mer" .1., CO'lnu, IV_ 178---<,18 _ " K.. u,heimtio" UII Ihe b"i, of . piece ofli",rgiClI fi,r ni.hi"g Ih" bore 'he i" ""'I";Q" 'TE,I /Pfj .." ..j DO.llINfi] LEONlf' ] QVr."i! Kra",h eim ",,' "I.. CO'I"". TV. 196-9.
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89
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I buildings which had been in use in R Ollle consistently from the fourth century o nw'lrd. not a revival of a long--dead way of building. THE URBAN LANDSCAPE
In comextualising Paschal's :m;hitectural progT:\mme. It IS IIllportant to re-member that a significant portion of the monumental core of the ancient city of Rome was preserved after a fashion . T he material fabric of the city" ancient fom, ba,ilicas. temples and porticos. repaired md reorgan ised as it may have been, W;lS still the pn'dominant element w ithin the citysc;lpe. Major monument, stood in R o mc in Paschal's day to provide enduring exempla of ancient architecTUr.l1 splendour. eventually being dismantled to create the new buildings of the twelfth and later centuries. A:; we have ~eell, the Fora of Peace and of Cae~ar were despoiled of their lll;lrble columns ;lnd capit;lls in the middle of the eighth century. perhaps destined for use in the new porticos. churches and episcopal pa!acl's built in tht, latter half of the eighth century!3 The f'orum of Traja n was preserved to some degree: its white Luni marble pavement was cleaned and maintained, the tiuted columns of its porticoes stood with their massive Corint hian capitals until the middle of the ninth century! ? These buildings remained through the early Middle Ages as part of the fabric of the city. N ew monuments lllade use of the sanle principles of ancient architecture that had always been importam particularly with respect to fOrln and nuteriak This is very evident in Paschal"s architecturc. The attcntion to harmonious combination of materials in conventional ways, the respectwhen' possible - of homogeneity of column materials and sizes. or of capitals of the same order. these speak to the enduring qualities of R oman architecture that had not lost their importance by the ninth century. Il lSTORIC A t TOPOGRAPlIY
T he choice of site fo r the rebuilt churches \v:lS also significant for the articulation of Paschal's programme, for their n'lationship to the papal liturgy and to the cult of the saints. Each cllllrch restored by Paschal and each church into which he inscrted a chapel had already existed in some form for several decades if not sevenll centuries. Textual sOllrces attest to some of the institutions which were rebuilt by Paschal as early "
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90
COIISIn/cri ,lg Ihe papal dly
as the fifth century, and the patriardul basilicas of St Peter's and S. Maria Maggiore were ,lmong the city's most ancient churches. Each of Paschal's new churches sits atop the earlier church it replaces or very near to it. Paschal's projeet thus preserved the ecclesiastical topography of the city and Wl' shall see that this allowed his projl'cts high visibility, as they were all in busy parts of the city, H is new churches remained connected to the sacred archaeology of the sitl's. The LP and inscriptions describe how Paschal found each of the churches in ruins >0 he replaced them with the buildings that stmd today. The (let that S. Prassede had been restored by Pope H adrian merely a few years before suggests, however, that the material conditions of the church were not the primary lllotivation for the resrora tion. Jo The consistency of language in the inscription in the church and in Paschal's biography stressing the ruin:ttion of the churches :tnd the abando nment of the saints' cults atte!\t, to a larger rhetorical ,trategy of preservation and renewaL The apse of S. Cecilia reads: 'This hall , once in time past had been ruined, the generous prelate Paschal built to a beul'r condition';)' at S. Maria in Domnica the apse reads: 'T his house, once reduced to ruins, now gleams ... Paschal the virtuous happy bishop has founded this regal hall, to remain through the centuries.') ' The LP descrihes Paschal's building projects with the same language: S. Prassede was 'an improvement on what it had been' and 'built wonderfully renewed' . S. Mafia in Domnica was 'renewed enlarged and improved from what it had been before'; it was desired that S. C ecilia be 'completed to a better state than it had been' and the cathedra at S. Mafia Maggiore was 'better than it had been before' and the presbyrery was 'repaired, an improvement on what it had been'. JJ T he churches that Paschal sdected to rebuild and renovate aTe all located well within the medieval city)' (sce Figure], p. xx). H e built i·
LP 97: 78.
H AEC 1)0 .1/ 1'5 . O Ll,I/ QI'tIE FI'F.RAT CO,','FRAC TA S VB TEM PORE PRlseo CO,\'DIDn' u ,' MLiLl I'S I\1 SCHA LlS. f o, th< ontir< i",,,,ipti on, sc< bdow. n. ' 72. i ' IYJ'II D O.\l VS I'RID/CM 1-v/C' R.~·r CONI'RAC] /1 R I'INIS NlI;"C R I TIL~'r W C J"J/C'R . ET D EellS ECCE SVVS SPI£ND ET . P4 SCH A LlS PR.!E SVL H O,,"'EST I'S CO,\'DIDIT H ~ NC A VIA M. For ,he entire i",,,ipt;on . ..,e belQw, '" ' 74. " LP '00; 8 'in ,"
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9'
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I within the active neighbourhoods of Trastevere and the Subura and in one case, the C elian hill which was crowded with churches, monasteries and pilgrimage assistance centres. In brietly examining each case for the pre-existing church ~nd the neighbourhood in which Pasch~1 rebuilt a lillllu5. a pattern em .... rges for Paschal's attention to minor chu rch ....s in important neighbourhoods and his transfo rmation of these churches into major showpieces of papal architecture and new centres of urban cult.
S. PRASSHD£
When Paschal's biographer begins to discuss the pope's architectural programme in the LP, S. Prasscde is the first church project described .l l Given the tone and organisation of Pasch:li's biography, it is reasonable to assume that the projects are described in the order in which t hey were constructed and thus that S. Prasscde was the first of Paschal"s buildings to go Up J6 (see Figures 4- , p. 4- , and [3. p. 84). The new basilica was located ' not far from the earlier 11111111$ ' . presumably more or less on the 5.amc site.J7 Bnlllo Apollonj- Ghctti identificd thc fCmains of a \'Juit discovered in the atrium of the present church with the earlier liwllls and he identified part of the colonnade of the quadriportico of tile curfCnt atrium with the nave of the earlier Ilw/lIs. rims recon,tructing it as a basilica- plan building. parallel to the CIiJllIs SIIIJllr,ulIIs. There is no convincing evidence for t his; the structurc discovercd could easily have beell a R oman building pre-dating any ecclesiastical structure Oil the site.Ja Carlo Cecchelli suggested that the earlier church might have been located down at the bottom ofthe Oppian I-!ill near S. Clemenre. at the oratory of5. Pastore. perhaps recalling the presbyter Pastor. a character in the Vila Pr,'.wdis, though there arc more convincing cOllncctions bet\veen the Vir" and the an.:haeology of the earlier church, discussed below. Krautheimer was convinced that the church was ra ther some\vherc along the CH/IllS SUlnlT
" Ll'l oo; S- II . ... On Ih~ chronolOj\ic.[ .ccu .... cy of Ihi> biOj\"phy. "'~ Hn~... do",,'.,,'I ..... ·; LP 100: R. I' iJruno M>r i. Arollonj- Gh<,,;. 5,",. Le chi= di Rom. ill"""," 6<'> (Ron)". 1.,61) . 16. )1 ..... ·S. P"""di •. T itul u' L IU R. [V. 16>: K'.l U1heimer " ~I .. C"'1"'" Il l. 2 Jj--no A,m d[ini. u Ch;", di R ,,", . d,,1 Sa,,/, 11' "I XIX (Rome. 189 ' : '''''. "d". Rom". 194')' 1 ~ 18 ,., Co,!"", m. >58 .
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A lillllus s. p,,/>"cdi5 existed in R ome from as early as 4 89 ~0 and underwent restoratio ns p,lid for by Pope l-IadrianY The explanation for the tebuilding given by Pasdlal's biographer is that the ancient church of S. Prassede on the Esquilille wa, ill ruins.4. The significance of his choice to rebuild it lies in the s.l crcd history of the site, just as it would latt."r attract him to rebuild S. Cecilia. The intricate intersections of cult and archaeology will be discussed more fully in the follo\ving chapter, but in this discussion of the form of the buildings, it is important to recognise the medieval chmches' relatiomhips with what lay beneath them. Papal records describe the conversion of a private bath complex. the so-.called 13,1ths of Nov:Hus. to the lilll/II.' of S. Prassede by Pope Pius I (141-55).'; The section of the LP that makes this claim was composed in the sixth century, and owes much to the Vila Pr<1xedis. composed at the end of the fifth century. The Vild Pr.wlis tells the sto ry of Saint Praxedis and Saint Pudentiana, daughters of the Senator Pudens. who hosted the Apostle Paul in their senatorial home, and then wt."nt 011 to found churches ill their family's properties on the Esquiline with the assistance of Pope Pius.H According to the Villi PW/furi<1l1af. the senator's residence on the Vicu> Patricii was converted to a chmch and baptistery, which eventually became the lim/us Plldelllis or PlIIlelHll/llile, while the Villi Praxfdis reports th,lt the prit."st N ovatns. a son of Pudens. also left his pro perty to the church. Prassede asked Pope Pius that the baths of N ovatus be made into a church and baptistery. which eventually became the liw/I/S POICllli'"hlf. 4l Both of these churches sit Oil top of private architeCTllre of the impenal per iod. The church of S. Pudenzbna as it stands today was built in the late fourth century. incorporating the walls of a bath complcx.46 while S. Prassedc sits on top of a R oman inSlfid. The
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A fune,.. , y in""'iption of t!ut d ' le n",,,,, 'AR GYR IO S I'R ["'l il [it url TITfit" h l SI. ne!.>el IpI R "' X S [~ disr. IC U R",. V II. no. '999' . Note t h e correction of t h e rute Imm Gio\":lnni
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Old p on tif,c .. di V igilio· . lWlm;"" ,I, ""io",I,,,"" ,ri",,,." t( ]881.). 64-~ ' I',ie", of the ,;",IUI S I'"",cdi, 'igncd th< , of the ch urch co"ncil, of 4')') ' ~9~ .• nd 60,. Victor S,xor. ' h Chi"", di Rom . d>1 V ,I X .. coh . ", ,,,ini,,~,,. i o"~ ".",e.. l< ~ o'l9' ''i ', ,,,,o ~ , ,<" ito,i,l. i" Rom" ",11'.1/. norJ;"" ... Se"i"""", di stud io "S (SpoldO. ,()()'l. 6oS-;· ,. U'97 : 78 . .. LP too: 8. " L P t t: 4. " On 'he lIi/o P.,J,mi.n.~. ""< 8I1L ..., no. 6988 ....\)[: U(}nin", M o mbri,i",. SaMl,,"n',,", MU 11/ .. s,,","'n<m (Hiid",h. "". '9 7S : "'pr. of , ~' o ed ition): ,.. .... 5.",,0",," q"M~""' 'OI. orio, ,du./u, (A,, 'w~q, ,64 .1 -). ' 9 M,;i. FM di>cu>« Pet er Llewlor'. (;1",,,10 Hj"ory 4.\ (t<);61. "
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Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I Vitue might derive some of their specificity of place from knowledge of the archaeology ofboth sites. Despite this sacred histo ry and foundation by the saint, the old rilllllls ofS. Prassede may have been a rather modest church. The gifts bestowed upon it by Pope Leo Ill. who g.lve gifis of liturgical furnishings to all of the chmches in R.ome in a sort of hierarchical ordcr, \vere comparatively meagre.~?
s.
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Based on the same li~t of Leo [[ [\ donatiOn>, S. Cecilia in Trastevere was also a relatively minor titular c1mrch before its restoration. The earlier church was located at or near Paschal's rebuilt e1111rch in Trastevere and seems to have been founded as early as the fourth century. There is abundant indirect evidence for the presence of an early church dedicated to Saint Cecilia at or near the location of the present church. T he H!5sio s. GlC!ciliul', composed probably in t he late fifth cCntury. Tt'ports that the R oman Ill atron Cecilia . mortally wounded by R o man soldiers, made arrangements to donate her property to the church and for Pope Urban (222- 30) to establish her house as a church and baptistery. ,8 T he first mention of the institution is an inscription on ;1 stone, later used as paving of the medieval church. The imcriptiotl was the epitaph of Apollonia, a daugh ter of an office -holder from S. Ce-cilia. who die-d in the second half of the fourth century or the early fifth .N Priests fWIll a 0 filii/ liS l(s.)] C"eaHIII' were signatories at the Councils of 499 and 595 ,5 and the basilica of the tillllus itself is mentioned in the biogrAphy of Pope Vigilius (537- 55), who was arrested there w hilst celebrating mass on the Feast of Saint Cecilia (X Kalends of December. 22 N ovember) in the mid-sixth century. S1 ., On the h ier:>Tch inl org:m;",tion of the imtitut ion, iu Leo Il l", encyclopedic li;t of R o "" u . ;c< R "' moud D.vi •. n" Liv,.' 0( rh< b.","'h-C1.. t: T h. " '0;< reco ... ed itiol\ of the Ami" i, Hippo!)'« DeI.h,}". !';",J" ' ''' I. I~"aia rum.i": L., ,.i"" a< "",""mb ... <, a, Sub'idi.:l h,giographic. zJ (Ijrm.'>0. S<~.ho Antonio Uo,io. iii""n.ll<mi.oni, bM"' C.rnli .. "i,!.'i niJ. v"I,n""i, ·/Fb,"'ii. ,im; (Rome. ,600). [-.6: B"" ,,,u, )\,\o ,,, bhoim. 1978 : "'pr. of '9'0 «I;'ion). I. Jj> - 41. l'or di;cu»ion ofth~ Hmio. '.0 Ixolow. ,lid Gri'j< H,nm;u",. 'P,,,,h,l;, I. d ie hdig< Cidi •. Ein T r.ml" ion.bericht im Liber Pontif,al;,' Ooul/", ,,~d Fo,,(hu".~;n .,,, ;ldli,,,;uhM A ,d,;"", ""d Ribliorild,," 87 ('007) . 3<1-70 .? iCUR. no. 8, 6. d.ued by De Ro»i to J79-464 .. S.xer. ·L. C hie» di Rom.. ' ""'j-{i,607
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94
COIISIn/Cli l lg Ihe
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Multiple epigraphic references to the church attest to its age, The earliest is a somewhat uncie,lr iuscription discovered ~t the church . which may refer to the {iw/IIS of S. Cecilia. dating from the sixth cellt'ury..I' A later inscription commemorAtes a Byzantine official TheodoTus. laid to rt·S( by the arch-priest of the lifllllls Cilecili1 These inscriptions would suggest that the earlier lill1/l15, or at least its burial ground, was located very near to the location of Paschal's church. T he pilgrim of the Eillsid/cllsis Itineraries passed 's[an]c[t]'lC ceci/i"C' ;lfter the church of S. Crisogollo on his \v:ty through Tr:tstevere ill the hte eighth century, confirming that the previous church was located near to the present church . along an established route through the city.14 T he inclusion ofS. Cecilia among the monuments visited by the pilgrim need not illdiclte that the monument was particularly significant, but rather that his route to the T iber h blld would have pa:;sed directly past the church. An enigmatic epitaph of an abbess was found in still - unpublisht'd excavations in the piazza opposite the l·]J{r.\nce to the atrium. " It has ,. {. HIC REQ VIESCIT] IIv' PACE P{,,,]Bf., ...]IOHAMWS T[']T{"H] S{"",'",] C {a,,;I;.,'] {. , , REjG{ion,j SEJ'lUIE Qn VlXIT ANN[i>} I'L{", m'me, .. , j {, .. DEI'OSITVSj XL? KAL{'nsj /ANL/lRIAS IND{"Ho"' J TER{" •. ] (H", " ""', i" p~',~ .h~ pri<"john of.h~ T,.,,1u \ of5. Ceeili,. of,he.«"-'.",h "'gio" whQ li",, di 4" h,v/"I.';' ",,,iono 5 ( 1899). n. l~; IC UR",. I. 0\0 . ,,6. Sil\':l~" i dltoo i" Q .he . ixth c.",ury. " HIC REQI' IESCIT THEODORVS VC GRECVS I' IZAN I TEVS QV! 1' VIT 1'IDEUS ET CARl' S .~MIC V S MVLl'OHV M REI I /'VBLlCAE IVDICI/oII AMICIT/AE CJ!ST VS REIV/GNVS PI VS DOJ/VI SVI AE RENE PRAEPOSITVS QUEM ETIAM LOCJ!M CV.II_ P.~RAVIT.~ ~ ·f./vfol VIC / TORE ARCHIP("'lnf.",/RO TITf.li/ Sfon1C{11M' CEC/LlAE SOWUS VI VEPOSJ'I 'VS VIE / QL 'INl'liI VECI.IIA M/'""1 AL'GUSTlIJ'.'V/;(/',m"j SE/'nIB ET FILII'S Ell'S THEODORAC I QV/I BlXIT M{'""'I VII DEPOS/TVS IDVS OCTOBRIS IMPP DD NN PI/SS/.HlS A I-'GGf""'J/ HERACLI / O A,....'NO ,\'ONO re Ell'S· DEAl D/o,,"'jN[.j A NNO OCTADO A TQL 'E HERACLlO CONSI TANTINO NOIIO FlLlO IPS/vS ANNO SEPnMO INDICT SF.pnMA QIII V/X/TIANNOS PLU S AIIN VS L-":XV (H ere lit'S Th eodom., Gn'ek BY",lIl' ;ne, who wo •• f.ithful .nd de,," friend '0 nuny of .he offic;:'\< of 'h< "'I' " hl;c. ",,"00,.1\ ofiri.nd'h;l~ kind. dwou •. k""l'et of his ho"«. T h< ]>I.c~ ", d~«I h~ hough. ;to'" Victor. whil. h< w, • .<.ill . liv•. Atch_pti"", of ,h< 1;,,,lw, of s. C.c,I;,. for 6 ..,Iid; . He w •• dq,m;.ed t he '5.h of J\u g"'" > >-on Thl'Odof>cu> who li"«I 7 "'o",h ,
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95
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I been re~d as evidence for ~ fem~le convent ~t S. Cecilia in the sixth o r seventh centllry.l6 Marios Costambeys. however. m,lkes the point th at the locatio n of burials at churches must bc undcrstood within thc contcxt of changes in urban jurisdiction, propeny and liturgical practices. p R ead this \\';ly, t he abbess's epitaph attests to thc presence of a cemctery. llot necessarily a convent, ~s part of the earlier church co mplex. While we can be fairly cenain that Paschal's b,lsilica rcpl;Ked a church dcdicatcd to S. Cccilia ncar to thc prescnt locatio n, perhaps on the very same ,ite, we have very little info rmation abo ut what it looked like. This is not for lack of trying. I n t he bte nineteenth century, a tealll of archaeologists wo rking at the behest of the titubr cardinal of the church began to excava te the area below the church Y They hypothesised that the prcsent basilica repbced an earlier basilica- form churc h located slightly to the >o uth. l9 T hey gave little credence to the hagiographic so urces of the earliest tlfll/m which da te its fo undation to the third century. inste,ld hypothesising an earliest church dating from the first years of the Peact' of the Church in tht, fo urth century.GOThe archaeologists slIggt'stt'd that the riwllls prior to Paschal's S. Cec ilia had been renovated extensively by Pope Cregory I in the ble sixth or early sevellth century, largely on
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A NC CONI VR.i / TlO,'W, M PR ESI'I'A/SERI T A NA TE A/A AElEAT DE IVDA ET R E / PR!"),. ,i",,,",] A N A '\/A '\' SYRI A REAT (H e .. """';" I'e'c. A'l\e"d , who lived "'0" or 1<-" 40 I""'" The pl. c<. • c' m lll. wh ich ' he Abb= Gm i"", prep.red for hersd f. while m< " ... .<, iIl . live, ,.h . S""e "I' [0 "'c. I .w<" by ,h. F.. ,he', the SO", ",d the Holy 5I'i ';, . .. "d by ,h. ,,,,,,,,,ndotl; wy ofjudgeme'" 1« no on. p",.ume ,,, di>t u,!, ,h,. pi>co wh"", I "".. If''')'<)''e will ~e r dare i nfi-;n~c ,h;, o"h. m.y he h,Y< ,h~ .. " ,hem. ftolll Jud" , nd ' he repro of of An, ,,, ,,, ' he Sy, i,," ,) Or.. z;o M>tncch;, 'S< op"m d; un> , n,;<. i"" ;, ;o,, . P"'''''' '" ch; .", di ,. C.dli, ;n Ttl "~ve",' , 1\'",,,... b"ll",in" di "rch,,,'".~" cri"i.M ' 5 I''''''')' ' 4 '-2 , ugg."ed. d ..,e of th • •i~t h « ntm y: f<- «oli VI- VII' . A SR SP ,o~ ('98 ,). '7: Let ;z;" P. ni _Erllli,,;, 'Te>timon u" ,. ",:h ~ olog;< h < di mo,,.,, ..; , Ro" .. ",,11" ..1' 0 m ed i o ~ m' , ASRSP '04 ('9 8 ,), z ~ r~d>1~d it to t h~ . ~". nth c~n' ury. P' ni_Ermini promi",d > ')"1' ic p""e,,',';oTl of 'h~ >r"h>~olog;<~1 ",n"ill> . r.m nd th;, medi....-, ] h ~",<. ,hough Tl One ha. I><en fon hcomi ng: cf, Guy F<""i. E"riy R"man M ona.' ''';'', S,udi di >n,ichiti cr i" i" " l J (V.. 'ic,n C ity. '9$1). ~~. " I> rio, Co'tJ mb ~ •. 'Uurul ' opogr>phy . nd ' he pow<',, < in S, C""ili, in T",,,,,,,",,,', ,,'BAC 6 ( ' <)O<J) , L4J-w, 065---'7 °' H< '"1>1>''''' ,I", i, '"~"""red JS m x ,811', C,,,,,,-,,,,,,, , ·N"O"e,",op" rt . · (' 900), ,~ R-'i4
9'
COIISIn/cri /lg Ihe papal dl y
the basis of seventeenth-century texts which <:;rediced Gregory with the bllilding works for no dear reason. (>I D uring the excavations, two colu mns with capitals, fragments of a delicate entablature, alld one ProcOllnesian marble panel of a chancel barrier were recovt·red under some 3 m of earth under the Idi: aisle near t he altar of the present c hurch. 6 2 The chancel barrier suggests that there was indeed a church in the sixth century 011 or near this site. Its decoration is organised symmetricall y, with two vertical rectangular recesses, each carved with a round disk and Latin cross with Hanged ends. Plulei of this kind, found in sevcral ehllTehcs in R Ollle. are generally associated with the well -dated examples from S. Clenlente, inscribed with the insignia of John 11 (533-5).6) In the fill above the marble panels. no finds da ted to the eighth centur y or later were located. 64 ., 1I0.io ,dded the followi" g "ote i" the m>rgi" 01 hi. edition of the I~tt~, p"'port~d l)" fmm P, .... h,1 L I"' '/,"'>Ii."" 1'.'1'" /'1,,,,,,, Grw';'" ,/,-.;,,,, ,x'",i.. , & P<' ~W", i,", k",I''''' di",," & t .· (Which wi,h P'O'" ~ d<'lo,io" . S,iu, Pope G"'gory I. ",e'>' extr>o"Ji,,,,y '~,,· her. w,lI h"v~ ""M known . 'nd .hm ,, ~, , i", •• I",.~t)" lo>! by ,h~ ,uin. of ,ge. it being the c,'" thlt the t"cc> of .ntiqu ity exi"ing w~,~ going to piece>. the de",." ,"y of GM ",n<wing. in gre>le' ("onrli,ion w< h.rl it newl)' """-,,ed .• "d to ' h~ hon", of 'h~ """" pot«1I God ..."d hi",. , h. I:>od )' of th~ ,·i'gi" ...... ith he' hol)" brorl.gtOO" •. et c~",.... ) Iknio. Hi""ri. p""ionl/ . H . Thi> desc'iption de.rly conditionoo the ~xc>\.,'iom o{th e bte ninwch.; "el po"" d""e fu ,,..,...,t.,· (ve,)" n~" to ,f,. 'l'"t fo u"d). G,m·en .. le. 'Rken:he ,,,hi,~"o ,,i ch<, ~4~ . S~e ,1>0 N ew P.",,,egi.,,i , nd where it !\lb..... o Pron, i. 'Complmo ."h,·ol"llicu ",no l.:o b"ilic. di S. C~cil;" ill T""'O'·<,,,'. /3<,1/""",, Jtll. Co",,,,i,,;o., .",'"ol~<:iCd "",,,,".1, i" R"",. ~l ( 19H\r'}O) . 77' FeJ efi m (; uidob..ldl . Cb lldi .. 1I".. "ti . " d ... le.... " dr. (; uiSh. (; uidob .. ldi. ",dl! Cl"",",,: I. ,,,,I,,,,~ dd VI ",vi". s.:.n Cl eLl\ent~ Mi>cnY 4.' (Rome. tW~) . ')0 . " Simil" d,,,,<~1 b'rrier> Or< fo",,<1 " .he followi"g d w .-d, .... in ~x<.v,.iom. 0, re,,,<xl i" ],thing>' S. Stef,no Rotondo, S. M.ri:l in Co.mooin . the V>tic.n Grotto ••. S. J\-h,i. "'n<"'il"io", of ,l« comp,r.bl" I,,"d,. ,7'1-86 6, G;o" ...,k ·R k.",he ,<"Ch;t .. tonich~· . 6W : 'Or b~ .. ,,: se no, "')\"""'0 ff"lnl " ""h dd ",colo VI ,otto Ire m<1,i di tofr>. v"ol dire ch c " i ",no ,uti . bb",don>ti qu.ndo '" chic .. , ,,,ia fu in tcm u per co",uire b " "ov:>. ,d u" piu al.o livdlo. 1'0";""' 0 rit.""", che .lI d "oa",,; d,,1 VI -",(",,10 ;;'''0 " . t; »port,t ; "d oti l,,, .. t; , hmve. "' .. " 0" 1"""""' 0 ~. ~io"e,·"h\\e,'" '~l'porre ch. qu.1Ii iv, trov"i vi .i. " o >tat i .<pol,i in "poc, pi,', u nb . In 4"<11,, te,re inf"'i non .bb"mo ,i","lcTio,i. ch< p'" "on "-'r><"AAi,no nd p.vi nu·"to < ndk ",umW,"" del!. ch;~,-, ,ul""iore·. (R> of'h< «I ~I,ewh e",. but we <".nnot re .. "" "bl)" ,u PPO'" th>t tho .. found , h~,~ Wte I n ,hi, <,Tlh . iu f.r "'qu enc", of potter), >nd oth « ",>te,i,1 of ,h~ e>rly M iddle ."Se< w ,,,v,,rdy li", itet!
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w"
,I",
97
Ti,e Rome of Pope P"sell,,1 I Further study o f the excavations in the [9305 by Krautheimer rejec ted the idea of a sixth-century basilica and demonstr;lted that the nimhcentury church \V:lS constructed atop a series of ancient domestic structures conStructed between 50 BC and 50 AD, renoV:lted ill [75 - 200, again in the third Ct·ntury, and a subsequt·nt renovation in late antiquity, the full extent of which is still poorly understood. 6 j T he site ofS. Cecilia was recen tl y subject to re-examination in the course of excav.nions to the north of the current basilica, conducted by the Soprintendenza ai Beni Architettonici del Lazio beginning ill 1980.66 The current interpretation of the site identifies the remains below tilt' church as a dOlmls of the second century RC, constructed around a peristyle court. T his structure was incorporated in the second century into an imll/ll. At a subsequent date, a bath with a ulidtosit,) · of the baptistery discovert'd, though there is no way to confim this suggestion. They suggest that no trace of it lL1s been located because it was sited very much in the same place as Paschal's bter basilica , thus nearly entirely destroyed by the nimh- cemury buildings M It seem.. mo rc likely. ho\vcver, given the structures that do exist on the site, that the residential buildings were modified to accolllmodate the ecclesiastical needs ofche (iwlll,', much as the baptistery was created. T he twentieth -centllry excavators, like their nincteenth- ccntury predecessors, were seeking to find a basilica when there was none. T hese most recent excavations uncovered a marble-lined baptismal font constructed in an apsed hall approximately 3 III below the floo r level ., K"Ulh"j", ,,,,, _I.. C"'P'" 1. W- ' OJ . K"""hd",,,, ,,,od.,,,,, Ih" P';v"" blth w;,h th" ,,,,o,,d· <""wry i" t h,,'< b<~"cn t ""dy. .. lJibliot<(", N>zioll>l< Rom<. RO.\1i\ V 47.1. [), For 'he f«cn' <xc.v,,,iol1> .nd di>cu»io" of ~"lif;' M,,&II,,,i,. n,,,cci, Fr.udocchi. S, ,,d,, Ri<"i. ,ncl lJi." c. Mori. $,,10. 'Con.id"»i",,i '" '''I llU""O. mbi<" ,< "'''0'''\11< [, b"ilic.. ,Ii $. n" Ceci[i. in T .."ocv,,"'·. fj,.oIlmi~" d'.. ,,, 6 1.) - 4 (L "g1 io- l)i<embr< '~76) . " 7-' ~ ' ., rum"gi:mi ,nd Pronti. S. cum. i . T,"""~,,. 68--9. Kc.. u,h"im", .. " cl hi, t" .. m I,..d diflicult)" """mining th" b..th "ruetuf'" .. nd h..d hypoth"'''"d. d"" of ' h" ,,,cond century j udging from wlt.t It. ,"w "f the m ' >OlIT)" : Kr""'h~i,,,er ".1.. Co,I"" '1. loo. TJ . '!
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COIISIn/cri /lg Ihe papal dly
o [6 , I'h"
of th~
Cappdla dd Ihgno. S. Cecilia in Tr:mcvcrc, Scal" 1:[00.
of the ninth- century church.69 On the b~sis of its hex~gonal shape. the font has been d~ted by the excavators to the fourth or fifth century.7'" A w~terline running on the south -e~st side of the structure fed the fom ~nd it is inscribed with the name of the church: PET{i<"< Unon o M.ri. "rollonj-Ghetli. S, Cri,"~'""' L<
