The Oxford Conference : A Re-Evaluation of Education in Architecture

The Oxford Conference A re-evaluation of education in architecture

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THE 2ND OXFORD CONFERENCE 50 YEARS ON - RESETTING THE AGENDA FOR ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION

CONFERENCE CHAIR S. Roaf Professor of Architectural Engineering at Heriot Watt University, Edinburgh, UK

ORGANISED BY TIA: Teaching in Architecture and SBSE: The Society of Building Science Educators

SPONSORED

BY

Bennetts Associates Achitects and The UK Green Building Council

The Oxford Conference A re-evaluation of education in architecture Editors:

S. Roaf Professor of Architectural Engineering at Heriot Watt University

and

A. Bairstow Low Carbon Consultant, l-e-s-s

Editors: S. Roaf Professor of Architectural Engineering at Heriot Watt University A. Bairstow MSc PGCE, Low Carbon Consultant, low energy and solar solutions

Published by WIT Press Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst, Southampton, SO40 7AA, UK Tel: 44 (0) 238 029 3223; Fax: 44 (0) 238 029 2853 E-Mail: [email protected] http://www.witpress.com For USA, Canada and Mexico WIT Press 25 Bridge Street, Billerica, MA 01821, USA Tel: 978 667 5841; Fax: 978 667 7582 E-Mail: [email protected] http://www.witpress.com A Catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-84564-206-8 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2008929964 The texts of the papers in this volume were set individually by the authors or under their supervision. Only minor corrections to the text may have been carried out by the publisher. No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher, the Editors and Authors for any injury and/ or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. The Publisher does not necessarily endorse the ideas held, or views expressed by the Editors or Authors of the material contained in its publications. © WIT Press 2008 Printed in Great Britain by Cambridge Printing All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Publisher.

Introduction Good buildings matter. They are the family silver of a society and they are the tools with which we have always provided safe and civilized settlements throughout history. At best they offer dignity, quality of life and security. In a rapidly changing world of more extreme climates and the end of cheap fossil fuel energy, buildings will increasingly provide the means for communities to explore and reinforce more sustainable lifestyles. At the time of the 1958 Conference one common dream was to design buildings that would be able to provide a very high level of amenities with sophisticated machines and energy that was ‘too cheap to meter’. That dream is no longer relevant. In order to survive in comfort in the future it is the design of the buildings themselves that we have now to get right, not simply the mechanical life support systems that so many of them depend upon today. This alone is a huge opportunity for a new kind of architecture. We all see the future differently. Everything before today used to be ordinary and predictable, but from now on things will never be the same again. We will all have to change the way we do things to adapt to rapidly evolving circumstances. How apt then that the 2nd Oxford Conference should occur now, at this time when we need to intelligently work together to devise strategies to keep our societies ahead of the challenges that the 21st century seems so intent on throwing at us. The key word here is together. The 1958 Conference was organized by Sir Leslie Martin on behalf of the Education Committee of the RIBA and attended by 50 white men. The full text of the Report on the Conference can be seen in Appendix 1. The 2008 Conference is organized by Professor Susan Roaf and attended by over 500 people of both sexes and all creeds, colours and continents. It is organized by a range of groups, TIA, the European ‘Teachers in Architecture’ organization; SBSE, the American ‘Society of Building Science Educators’ and the long list of contributors listed in the acknowledgements page of this volume. However, in many ways the aspirations of both events are very similar. In 1958 the organizing committee had several objectives: 1) The Conference should draw together as much relevant factual information as possible

2)

3) 4)

The discussion should bring out as much informed opinion as possible from people interested in widely different aspects of Architectural Education The discussion should be frank If possible, some line of action should emerge

In 2008 these seem sensible premises on which to go forward. Whereas the 1958 Conference was exclusive with a remit stating: ‘In order to concentrate the discussion which was bound to be extensive it was felt that invitations to the Conference would have to be limited……….. a limited number of people could perhaps spend longer periods together’. Voices to be heard were selected from a known pool of opinions and ‘Invitations were… sent to people inside and outside the profession who were known to have views to express ….. an effective cross-section of opinion and interest.’ They decided that the range of subjects could certainly not be covered in any single session and it was held over a weekend at Magdalen College, Oxford, on April 11th to 13th 1958. It was inevitably an exclusive event representing the opinions of the 50 invited, who came largely from within the bounds of the architectural profession. The 2008 Conference was designed to be an inclusive event to which all were welcomed and are expected to contribute. The 1958 Conference was divided into three main sessions. These covered broadly: 1. The needs of the profession and the community and the desirable standards 2. The means of education, the routes of entry into the profession and the standards that are being and could be achieved 3. Developments of advanced training and research. The 2008 Conference concentrated on 11 subject areas in Forums, each organized by a single Forum Leader covering: 1. Buildings and the Environment 2. Sustaining Studio Education in a Climate of Change 3. Human Habitat and Social Responsibility 4. Refurbishment and Evidence Based Education 5. Research into Teaching Courses 6. Urban Design and Sustainable Cities 7. Schools and Professional Views 8. Materials and Renewable Energy 9. Virtual Building and Generative Design 10. Design Research 11. Courses and Curricula In fact the number of the oral papers was limited to the number of speaking slots available in the programme, and the oral papers chosen by the Forum leaders. However the extensive programme of poster sessions allowed the majority of submitted papers to be displayed and discussed during the Conference and each Forum provided the opportunity for discussion after the papers and

during the workshop events with the intention that each Forum brought to the final session recommendations for the New Agenda for Architectural Education. It is inevitable that strong themes emerged from the event. In 1958 many of the same themes were also debated: ‘If architecture is to take its proper place in the University and if the knowledge which it entails is to be taught at the highest standard, it will be necessary to establish a bridge between faculties: between the Arts and the Sciences, the Engineering Sciences, Sociology and Economics. Furthermore, the Universities will require something more than a study of techniques and parcels of this or that form of knowledge.’ The issue of the extent to which architectural students today should be expected to know the science of how buildings work as well as how to make them attractive is still a crucial issue for debate as well as the need to keep the theoretical basis of architectural education rooted in reality. “Theory,” as one speaker in 1958 said, “is the body of principles that explains and inter-relates all the facts of a subject.” Research, the discussion continued, is the tool by which theory is advanced. Without it, teaching can have no direction and thought no cutting edge. Experimental development in schools of advanced technology would give these institutions the opportunity of advancing those aspects of architectural education which are proper to their framework and of adding to the variety of skills that are required of the architect. Those basic skills and the extent to which they are being taught in schools today are still up for debate. The 1958 Conference effectively sidelined alternative methods of delivering architectural education and did away, for instance, with ‘unrecognised’ facility schools for one. ‘The Facility School’, they wrote, ‘can develop in any institution at which a reasonable number of candidates present themselves for part-time and evening training.’ But the need to get RIBA approval amongst other things ensured that the only organisations that were licensed to provide architectural education were in the Universities although some distances learning is still managed by the RIBA itself. How sustainable are full five year courses in today’s volatile economy? Such issues need re-visiting. The 2008 Oxford Conference provided an inclusive forum for the debate and development of new approaches to architectural education and resulted ultimately in the New Agenda document that will influence future directions for the profession itself. One real difference in 1958 is evident in one line of the original report, ‘This opportunity for the interchange of ideas between men of different interests and experience is of the greatest importance to both students and staff.’ In many Schools of Architecture today women are in the majority on many courses and this may in turn influence the way we think about building design. The following essays, published here in alphabetical order in the Forum section in which they were presented in Oxford, come from a wide range of contributors and are meant to provide thoughtful re-evaluations of where

architectural education has failed and succeeded over the last five decades and provide many interesting ideas on how we can build on the best practices demonstrated to move forward with an evolving architecture that faces head-on the challenges of the 21 st century and uses the gifts of human ingenuity to build a safer and better world, with better buildings, to keep us all safe in the uncertain decades ahead while promoting quality, comfort and the dignity of people around the world. S.Roaf, Conference Chair Oxford, 2008

The Oxford Conference - some thoughts from the past Special introduction by Sir Andrew Derbyshire When I was a student at the AA over half a century ago a group of us wrote, designed and published a magazine called PLAN on behalf of the Architectural Students’ Association. PLAN No 6 of 1949 looked at the relationship between building, architecture and education and included fourteen points for the reform of architectural education. These included proposals for students to work “as labourers on building sites” and “in factories…studying machine processes and techniques on the spot” plus “workshops in the school for the experimental study of materials and techniques.” This echoed our enthusiasm for real architectural practices based in the school like the one led by Douglas Jones at Birmingham. We also called for “Joint programmes with students of other faculties such as medicine, economics, sociology, engineering and the natural sciences” and “collaboration with students of painting, sculpture and the other arts from the beginning of design programmes.” We said that design programmes should have “sites and clients to which the student had access.” This was of course a reaction to the artificiality of the Beaux Arts tradition embodied in the standing joke of a programme for “A monastery on a rocky promontory”. A related demand was for “Technical courses based on and continually referring to fundamental human needs.” We cheekily demanded “Group working on design subjects, joint working between students of different years in the five-year course, substitution of formal lectures by free discussion where possible and control of the school curriculum by joint student-staff committees” – the last of which was operating, perhaps uniquely, at the AA at that time and reflected the fact that the Association had initially been started by disaffected articled pupils who paid their premiums but were treated as office boys. We realised that we were a better off at the AA in terms of the content and didactics of the course than were our fellow students at the general run of architectural schools, and felt that we were speaking on their behalf against the rigid curricula of the Beaux Arts tradition which canonised the precepts of classical architecture and treated the modern movement with scorn. We were also concerned about the isolation of the architectural student from the real world of human needs and the practical skills of building and engineering.

Many of us who had been involved in the recent war understood that management skills were essential to getting anything difficult done and should also be an essential part of the curriculum. My own experience as a scientist working for the navy had also left me devoted to the principle of feedback and the free exchange of experience and I couldn’t wait, having at last achieved my boyhood ambition to be an architect, to introduce the discipline of scientific method to the building industry. I acknowledge in retrospect that our rather priggish certainty was derived partly from our shared belief in the anarchistic ideals of the self-regulating society – our heroes were people like Patrick Geddes, Martin Buber and Herbert Read – but mainly from the impatience we felt that the world was facing the horror of the third, and potentially last, atomic world war but seemed unable to do anything about it – paralysed like a rabbit by the blinding light of a brand new problem of indescribable immensity. So when I was pressed to attend the Oxford Conference of 1958 I had mixed feelings. I was deeply committed to the Sheffield City Architects’ office by then and the aim to restrict architectural education to the universities looked to me like fiddling while Rome burnt. However I admitted that life had to go on and while the architectural profession as a collective, never mind its individual members, was helpless in the face of a potential cosmic disaster the least it could do was to put its own house in order. For one thing it would obviously be good to improve and widen the intellectual basis of architecture and I thought that the university milieu would be able to do this and at the same time provide a fertile ground for the development of multidisciplinary studies. On the other hand – there is always a “but” – I was worried that architectural students would lose touch with the “horny handed sons of toil” at the vocationally oriented polytechnics and colleges of building and become even more isolated from the practicalities of construction. However, the organisers of the 1958 Conference had their way and eventually nearly all architectural schools have been embedded in universities. Has this been a good or a bad thing? Do any of our aims of the 1950s seem relevant to the students and teachers of today; what indeed has become of them during the intervening years and what new ones do we need to embrace to face the future with confidence? I very much hope that your conference will be able to find some answers. Meanwhile here’s my twopenn’th, for what they’re worth. First I have to deplore the failure to establish architectural practices within the schools. George Grenfell Baines had a go at Sheffield some years ago but was defeated, as I understand it, by small-minded local practitioners who complained that he was stealing their livelihoods. More important, however, is the virtual absence of multi-skilled education without which effective multi-disciplinary practice is impossible. Over ten years ago I spent some time under the auspices of the Construction Industry Council, and with the help of a government grant, looking at the obstacles and recommending action to overcome them. The result was a report called Crossing Boundaries, published in April 1993, on the state of commonality in education and training for the construction professions. It ended up with over thirty recommendations for action divided between the three bodies most appropriate to take the lead, namely the professional institutions, the HEIs and the Construction Industry Council. It

was warmly welcomed by all concerned, and as far as I know absolutely nothing has happened. Why? I think the reason is to be found in the vested interests of the professional institutions. They are obliged, for economic reasons as much as any, to draw a tight boundary around their membership and resolutely defend any dilution of their closed shop by migrants from other professions. This means that, as far as education is concerned, each professional qualification is regarded as sacrosanct by the institution concerned and this is locked in place by the corresponding departmental structure of the universities, which inhibits any attempt to cross boundaries. In this respect the work of the 1958 Conference has been a disaster. Why is this important? In the 1950s we were facing the catastrophe of the third world war, but it was only a possibility. On the contrary the catastrophe the world faces today is a certainty and unless we can, in the short time available, modify the consequences of climate change the results don’t bear thinking about. Improving the sustainability of the built environment is an essential part of this modification and the construction industry must equip itself to play a leading part. This will demand an unprecedented degree of creativity and joint working on the part of the skills involved but this is prevented by the faulty communications and lack of mutual trust that bedevil the relationships of architects, engineers, builders and planners. Multi-disciplinary education is the only effective answer and I hope your conference can find ways to make the necessary changes of heart and undo the damage of 1958.

Andrew Derbyshire, Attendee of the 1st Oxford Conference in 1958

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank our generous sponsors and exhibitors for their support for the 2008 Oxford Conference. We hope that they really have contributed, through their generosity, to the future of architectural education around the world. They include: AIA: The American Institue of Architects, Bauder Ltd., Berman Geddes Stretton, CABE: Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment, CAT: Centre for Alternative Technology, CEBE: Centre for Education in the Built Environment, Computers Unlimited, The Concrete Centre, Earthscan Ltd., Informa Plc., Elsevier, Fulcrum Consulting, Gensler, Graphisoft UK Ltd., Heriot Watt University, Hoare Lea, Integrated Environmental Solutions Ltd., John McAslan + Partners, Lime Technology Ltd., Man and Machine Ltd., The Prince’s Trust, SBSE: The Society of Building Science Educators, Square One research Ltd., TIA: Teachers in Architecture, UKGBC: The UK Green Building Council, The University of New South Wales. In particular we would like to single out Rab Bennetts of Bennetts Associates, and Paul King and Jeremy Sumeray of the UK Green Building Council for their support for this volume of essays on the subject of architectural education from many different points of view. In addition we are grateful to the eleven Forum Leaders who put so much time and effort into assembling the excellent oral and poster contributions and taking the considered views of their group forward to contribute to the final ‘2008 New Agenda for Architectural Education’. They include Matthew Barrac, Chris Cross, Jonathan Davis, Marcial Echenique, Murray Fraser, Walter Grondzik, Bruce Haglund, Elkadi Hisham, Alan Hain, Melissa Kinnear, Alison Kwok, Jonathan L , Andrew Marsh, Andrew Roberts, Catherine Rousell, Alan Short, Richard Simmonds, Fionn Stevenson and Jeremy Till. I would also like to thank Andrew Bairstow and Brian Privett for their work on this volume, and Sally Harper and Gabriel MacDowell for organizing the Oxford Union Debate, and Oxford Architects LLP for their generous support of it. Finally, thanks go to Angela Jones for her sterling work on fundraising and the exhibition and Karen Purvis for her marketing skills. Last, and by no means least, we are very

deeply grateful to Gill Heaton for the incredible work she put into not only making this volume possible but who, by master minding and managing the entire Oxford Conference, has helped to ensure that this meeting of minds has indeed left its mark on the architecture of our time. S.Roaf

Contents Plenary Papers The unspoken assumption and its antidotes C. Alexander ........................................................................................................ 3 Do no harm: preparing the architecture profession for the 21st century D. A. Andrejko ..................................................................................................... 7 Reasserting the architect’s position in pursuit of sustainability R. Bennetts ......................................................................................................... 11 One world architecture N. Maritz............................................................................................................ 17 Forum 1: Buildings and the Environment Teaching climate responsive design to beginning architecture students P. La Roche........................................................................................................ 23 The influence of climatic design on Iranian symbolic form designing N. Nassiri ........................................................................................................... 27 Apology for architecture I. A. Meir............................................................................................................ 33 Experimenting with climate as a learning tool for the “architecture and climate (A+C)” undergraduate studio at UTFSM N. Hormazábal, P. Serrano & F. Hammersley.................................................. 37

Growth of the post-industrial city: densification and expansion – two models for sustainability on the urban scale S. Lehmann ........................................................................................................ 43 The Jerusalem Eco-Housing Project G. Peled ............................................................................................................. 49 The Queensland Architectural Practice Academy: a new model in industry-focused education J. Clarke............................................................................................................. 53 Architectural education for an “Age of Sustainability” M. W. Mehaffy.................................................................................................... 59 Beauty of environmental architecture: finding ideas in representation Z. Karczewska.................................................................................................... 63 Activism as both research and pedagogy: projects in support of greening the UW System J. Wasley............................................................................................................ 67 Changing paradigms of technology: towards building a living environment M. Arya .............................................................................................................. 71 The carbon neutral design project T. Meyer Boake, M. Guzowski & J. Wasley....................................................... 77 Counting carbon from buildings and cities: fundamentals and methodologies R. Gupta & S. Roaf ............................................................................................ 83 Towards sustainability: rethinking architectural education in India P. Shah............................................................................................................... 87 Forum 2: Sustaining Studio Education in a Climate of Changes Studio culture: learning from the American experience A. C. Caruso ...................................................................................................... 95 Accommodating diversity: the case for pedagogic evaluation D. McClean........................................................................................................ 99

Innovations in the studio: experiments distilling peer discussion and learning using diagrams B. M. Munby .................................................................................................... 105 The role of student self-regulation in design studios M. N. Powers & P. A. Miller ........................................................................... 109 Integrating sustainability through imaginative studio assessment F. Stevenson..................................................................................................... 115 Coming and going: itinerant education and educational capital S. C. Ewing ...................................................................................................... 119 Constructing bodies: gesture use in the design studio I. Mewburn....................................................................................................... 125 Forum 3: Human Habitat and Social Responsibility Après la guerre (After the war): design without borders E. Charlesworth............................................................................................... 133 Learning from slums: a shift from ‘designing for’ to ‘designing with’ and some challenges in integrating the new professionalism into architectural education S. Tovivich ....................................................................................................... 137 Amending the agenda: the anthropology of architecture P. Oliver........................................................................................................... 143 Forum 4: Refurbishment and Evidence Based Education The case for real buildings with real budgets J. D. Quale....................................................................................................... 149 Refurbishment as a challenge for future architects B. Stein............................................................................................................. 153 Towards sustainable management of existing heritage M. I. Amirante, C. Frettoloso & M. Musto ...................................................... 157 Teaching architectural regeneration and development A. Orbasli & M. Vellinga................................................................................. 161

Building for the future: making the UK further education colleges sustainable R. Gupta & S. Chandiwala .............................................................................. 165 Following Kahn in Texas M. Zaretsky ...................................................................................................... 171 Sustainable design versus energy performance H. Altan............................................................................................................ 177 Design learning from case studies M. Hancock...................................................................................................... 183 A Bridge Too Far – an ecological experience with students and their hands E. Ng ................................................................................................................ 189 The Live Project P. Chiles & A. Holder...................................................................................... 195 Learning to build in 40 days S. Gampfer, M. Dobmeier, W. Haupt & M. Hoppe.......................................... 201 Forum 5: Research into Teaching Courses Architectural engineering: collaborating to deliver energy-efficient buildings M. H. Ramage, F. A. McRobie & R. Thomas................................................... 207 Teaching space syntax through reflective practice and practica R. C. Dalton & L. Vaughan ............................................................................. 211 Environment and the studio: integrating the quantitative and the qualitative S. Hagan .......................................................................................................... 215 Communicating sustainability in undergraduate architectural education A. Wyckmans.................................................................................................... 219 European design education for sustainability J. O. Lewis ....................................................................................................... 225

Architectural design composition: understanding the American and European basis of form V. C. da Silveira............................................................................................... 231 Forum 6: Urban Design and Sustainable Cities Urban design re-examined: urban vs. design A. Adhya........................................................................................................... 237 The meaning and usefulness of the “feeling map” as a tool in urban design and architecture Y. Rofè.............................................................................................................. 243 Forum 7: Schools and Professional Views Accrediting agencies: towards practical ethics of professional accreditation C. Walker ......................................................................................................... 249 Pride and prejudice: illusions of consensus in architectural debate D. Gloster ........................................................................................................ 255 The future of design teams in a zero carbon world A. Ford............................................................................................................. 261 Architectural technology 50 years on: Oxford to Oxford, SAAT to CIAT S. Allwinkle ...................................................................................................... 267 The hand hits back A. Berman ........................................................................................................ 273 Forum 8: Materials and Renewable Energy Integrated household solar system S. D. Dent......................................................................................................... 279 Hemp and lime in sustainable construction I. Pritchett & L. McCann ................................................................................. 283 Improving the content of building material courses through sustainability E. Kasapo÷lu ................................................................................................... 287

Material libraries: promoting materiality and interdisciplinary collaboration R. Arens ........................................................................................................... 291 Assessing buildings with green credentials M. Fuentes, M. Kessler & F. Nicol .................................................................. 297 New materials and design strategies for sustainable buildings J. D. Deshpande............................................................................................... 301 Forum 9: Virtual Building and Generative Design Integrating energy simulation applications and building information modelling in the design studio U. Poerschke & L. N. Kalisperis...................................................................... 307 Real-time simultaneous collaboration in the BIM repository K. E. Hedges .................................................................................................... 311 Biomimetic architecture in a climate of change S. Altomonte..................................................................................................... 315 Botany for designers: a generative design model for the classroom S. Hammer & P. Loheed .................................................................................. 321 Digital construction in architectural teaching R. Garcia Alvarado, C. Eribitis, U. Bruscato & R. Lagos............................... 325 Construction documents in a digital future C. Livingston.................................................................................................... 329 Thinking like an industrial designer? C. L. Newton .................................................................................................... 333 E-learning by studying: topics for online architectural design teaching V. C. da Silveira............................................................................................... 339 Is this the future? Case study: a competition winning green tower designed in BIM S. D. Dent......................................................................................................... 343

Forum 10: Design Research A new nature A. Abraham...................................................................................................... 349 Post digital G. Riether......................................................................................................... 353 Soft garniture: developing hybrid materials between academia and industry R. Morrow & T. Belford................................................................................... 357 The architect and the academy: research through design at the Welsh School of Architecture W. P. Forster, S. Coombs & R. Thomas .......................................................... 363 Designing for time: the case of kinetic skins J. Moloney ....................................................................................................... 369 Forum 11: Courses and Curricula Developing sustainable architecture education in Kuwait University: beginning from where the others ended A. Al-Hassan & S. S. J. Dudek......................................................................... 375 One model for the reform of the architectural HE curriculum in the context of EHEA M. Savic ........................................................................................................... 381 Restructuring Architectural education: a review of the curriculum, objectives and outcomes J. D. Deshpande............................................................................................... 385 Developing a new architecture curriculum: achieving educational goals within program constraints A. Sherif, N. Sherif & M. Mostafa.................................................................... 389 Lines in the sand: teaching architecture in Doha R. el Samahy & K. Hutzell ............................................................................... 395 A curriculum for city design S. D. Atkinson .................................................................................................. 399

Experiments in traditional building, architecture and urbanism education: INTBAU's recent work M. Hardy.......................................................................................................... 405 The European School of Urbanism and Architecture: a model curriculum for an age of globalisation A. Engh ............................................................................................................ 411 Designing architectural curricula according to international documents: the case of the Eastern Mediterranean University, North Cyprus S. O. Hoskara................................................................................................... 415 RIBA Examination in Architecture for Office-based Candidates: a unique and flexible alternative J. Stevenson ..................................................................................................... 419 Designing the future professional: expectations of the next generation A. C. Caruso & T. P. Vanky............................................................................. 423 Designing an academic syllabus for the Master of Science in Urban Design and Conservation at Khwopa Engineering College, Nepal B. K. Shrestha .................................................................................................. 429 Climate change as inspiration to a better built environment P. King ............................................................................................................. 435 Appendix......................................................................................................... 437 Author Index .................................................................................................. 447

Plenary Papers

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The unspoken assumption and its antidotes C. Alexander Keywords: architectural education, architectural vocabulary, architectural opinion, the mechanist fallacy. My title refers to an unspoken assumption. I shall describe this unspoken assumption, by describing, first, several unspoken assumptions, all inimical to architecture, and then going on to show how these several assumptions, lethal to our profession, are all instances of a larger assumption. I shall argue that to find antidotes to the unspoken assumption, we need to understand the single underlying assumption, so that we may be guided by this perception, and may then be able to do something about it.

1

The symbiosis

The last hundred years have not been good to architecture. And the same goes for architectural teaching. The schools of architecture have not found ways of teaching an art of building that is effective. The not very good architecture of our era, and the not very good teaching in our schools, maintain a symbiotic stranglehold on the process. It must be said that there are dawning signs of improvement. Some recently built buildings show signs of improvement. Some teaching programs show signs of inspiration. And we have met here, because we want, collectively, to make architectural teaching better, and through that, to make architecture better. We are meeting in the hope that what we do here this week can help to steer the teaching of architecture, and the practice of building, so that the architecture of the 21st century may become, on balance, better.

2

The “mechanist” fallacy

I believe the decline happened because the discourse about architecture has focused on matters of relatively less importance, and architecture, as fashioned in the 20th century, was therefore not capable of creating a good environment for people to live in. At the same time, there are matters of vital importance, hidden

4 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE matters essential to construction of a good environment. These matters have been obscured by certain key assumptions. Buildings are more important than the space between the buildings Belief in the use of blueprints Unnaturally little focus on the best way to spend money in a building Too little focus on involvement of people and neighborhoods What is the single broad assumption underlying all these particular assumptions? It is what used to be called the “mechanist” fallacy. It was inherited from the rationalist world view of the 17th and 18th centuries. But let us consider the assumption in blunt language. The scientific world view has now embraced the idea that everything is made of “things.” Atoms are made of things like electrons and quarks. That means that people are made of things like molecules and hearts and lungs. Minds are made of things. Everything, it is now being said – flowers, even human beings – are assemblages of pieces of stuff, rattling around in their interconnections. This view is obsolete on the face of it. Modern physics has long ago given up this view. Biology has not yet given it up, but it is on the way to going there. Yet architecture persists in this feeling and this attitude. Components play a large part in architecture. Components are separated by nothing – leading to destruction of positive space. Components are assembled, rather than unfolded, so their capacity to adapt themselves to context is not there. Development is a suitable way of getting buildings made. Even sustainability is viewed as something that can be achieved by making technological toys. Separation of design and construction as two different processes. Separation of architectural design from landscape design, from urban planning, from structural engineering. Putting things in little boxes (by category) arises directly from the fundamental assumption.

3

Beautiful architecture

There is a more fundamental error in our present view of ourselves and of the earth. In a well-made world, small events are driven by, and launched by the larger wholes in which they sit. But in our typical current world view, larger wholes are constrained and driven by the details from which they are made. Because of this, the very simple idea of beauty is not tenable, cannot be understood. It has almost dropped out of our vocabulary. Especially in architecture schools and even in the practice of architecture, this concept is not encouraged; it is almost not allowed to exist, or to be thought. Another assumption that surrounds this topic is roughly the following. When we want to say that we like a building, or we want to suggest that it is good, the

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language of the last half century or more offers us a great variety of expressions. It is interesting, it is stylish, it is cool, it is groovy, it is far out, it is wild, it is fascinating, it is brilliant – almost anything can be said, but to say that it is beautiful, comes out with the greatest reluctance. In short, the idea of a beautiful building is no longer a concept we use or understand. Not only that, but if somebody does want to make a beautiful building, the concepts, ideas, and practices which would make it possible, or which would help, are not permitted. It is certainly OK to say that a building is sustainable. This is a technocratic concept. It does not have much truck with the souls of men and women. It is precisely this that I mean to point to, when I say that the fundamental assumption, we are encouraged to make, is that there is no such thing as beauty. Beauty is not part of the technocratic and mechanistic vocabulary. Therefore it is not a valid concept. This is yet another way of forbidding our access to what is beautiful.

4

A need for antidiotes

The whole is not permitted. We are not encouraged to see or feel the whole. We deal with parts, but rarely deal with the way that things intertwine, and interlock, and fuse. This fundamental assumption, never mentioned explicitly, yet nonetheless pervasive in our professional beliefs, actions and processes, is inimical to the life of the environment. Indeed this assumption makes the design and construction of life in the environment all but impossible. We shall find, too, that our best efforts at making towns sustainable will also be frustrated by the action of this assumption. We therefore need antidotes – practical ways of thinking, and teaching, which prevent the fundamental assumption from taking hold. The Oxford Conference offers us the opportunity to meet, to speak about the unspoken assumptions and to begin to put in place the antidotes – in architectural practice and in architectural education – which we will need to build truly sustainable architecture.

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Do no harm: preparing the architecture profession for the 21st century D. A. Andrejko The American Institute of Architects, USA

Abstract Focused on the necessary goal of ecologically responsible design and fully integrated project teams, the work being done this year to support the AIA’s strategic initiatives explores the connections among diversity and inclusiveness, Integrated Project Delivery, and sustainability; and the resulting opportunities and benefits for architects and society that accrue through triple bottom line thinking. Keywords: sustainability, integrated project delivery, diversity.

1

What we believe

The American Institute of Architects’ (AIA) mission statement, with its commitment to serve society, has been the bedrock guiding the articulation of its values for much of the association’s 151-year history. Among AIA members, “service to society” is the ethical first cousin to the physician’s “do no harm.” Defining just what “service” means, however, is an on-going challenge, which each succeeding generation must address and fulfill. In recent decades, making clear in a public and professional arena the concept of “service” has been the driving force behind the emergence of the AIA’s Directory of Public Policies and Position Statements. Ratified by the AIA’s Board of Directors, this document articulates what today’s client and the public can expect of AIA members and what the members can expect of one another. It also, by extension, may serve the academy.

2

What we advocate

Our industry is changing swiftly in response to a range of natural, cultural, and economic forces. In practical terms, what the AIA calls “triple bottom line

8 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE thinking” means expanding traditional decision making frameworks to take into account environmental issues in addition to social considerations and economics. Trends in diversity, sustainable design, and integrated practice/integrated project delivery, design and building technologies, and construction delivery models are converging toward a common path. 2.1 Sustainability Buildings are by far the largest consumer of energy. It therefore follows that the profession has inadvertently contributed to this present environmental crisis, and architects have the potential, indeed the responsibility to play a leadership role in discovering solutions that make a positive difference in how we shape our future. The relevant AIA Public Policy on Sustainability reads as follows: “The creation and operation of the built environment require an investment of the Earth’s resources. Architects must be environmentally responsible and advocate for the sustainable use of those resources.” 2.2 Diversity The AIA’s Public Policy on Diversity and Inclusiveness states “Architects must encourage and celebrate the contributions of those who bring diverse experiences, views, and needs into the design process.” The AIA believes that diversity is a cultural ethos – a way of thinking or acting that fosters inclusion, enhancing our profession and the quality of life in our communities. Yet, currently neither the AIA nor the profession in the U.S. is a mirror of the society it serves. For example, the number of women who are licensed architects does not nearly reflect the number of women pursuing an architecture education, which today is roughly equal to the number of males. When the numbers of minorities in the schools are compared to American society as a whole, the disparity within the profession is even more pronounced. 2.3 Integrated Project Delivery Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) leverages early contributions of knowledge and expertise through the use of new technologies, allowing all team members to better realize their highest potential while expanding the value they provide throughout the project lifecycle. The relevant Supporting Position Statement on Project Delivery reads: “The AIA believes that every project delivery process must address the quality, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability of our built environment. This can best be affected through industry-wide adoption of an integrated approach to project delivery methodologies characterized by early involvement of owners, designers, constructors, fabricators and end user/operators in an environment of effective collaboration and open information sharing.”

3

What we are doing

3.1 Sustainable design The AIA has pledged to achieve an immediate 50 percent reduction from the current level of fossil fuels used to construct and operate new and renovated

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buildings, and promote further reductions of remaining fossil fuel consumption by 10 percent or more in each of the following five years – resulting in carbon neutral buildings by 2030. In 2007, the AIA developed “50to50,” a resource that offers 50 strategies based on the highest and most immediate impact on carbon reduction for elements that are within the architect’s reach and control during the design process. This year, the AIA will add layers of strategies, while improving the usability of the resource as an interactive web tool. The “2030 Toolkit,” which is a refinement and expansion of the “Green Cities Toolkit” produced and developed with one of the AIA’s key strategic partners, the US Conference of Mayors, is a virtual connection to resources and examples that demonstrate the greening of our built environment. 3.2 Diversity At the AIA’s recent Diversity Plenary this past April in St. Louis, participants from across the industry created the “Gateway Commitment,” the preamble of which reads: “We, the participants…are committed to significantly improving the representation and management of diversity in architecture education and practice.” Through ongoing mentoring and scholarship support, the AIA has committed to encouraging the recruitment, matriculation, retention, and graduation of qualified minorities in the profession. The AIA has also supported language in the December 2007 White Paper for the National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB) 2008 Accreditation Review Conference in October that advocates “preparing for a more integrated approach to design and practice” and “cultivating a diverse and inclusive profession.” 3.3 Integrated Project Delivery Cranbrook 07, a special joint session of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture (ACSA) Teachers Seminar and the AIA Educator/Practitioner Network Summer Practice Institute (June 28-July 1, 2007) explored the impact of emerging project delivery methods and the imperative of sustainability on the professional curriculum. The conference included a series of panel presentations on themes related to the central challenge of what changes are needed in architecture education to prepare for changes occurring in practice and in the construction industry. An “Integrated Project Delivery Guide,” jointly developed in 2007 by the AIA’s Contract Documents Committee and the AIA California Council, identifies the characteristics of IPD and provides specific information and guidance to owners, designers, and builders on how to use IPD methods to achieve enhanced design, construction, and operations processes.

4

Getting there from here

4.1 Education for/within the community The AIA recognizes that without broad public support built upon an understanding of the role of the profession in addressing the challenge of

10 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE sustainability, progress in transforming the built environment from a liability to a resource will not be possible. Therefore, the Institute has embarked on an ambitious government advocacy effort at every level of government – local, state, and national – and invested heavily in public education and action. The AIA’s Communities by Design website provides links to resources on a broad range of issues from transportation options to preserving open space under the heading of “Design’s 10 Principles for Livable Communities”. The “Blueprint for America” initiative launched in 2007 provided funds for 156 community service projects nationwide to bring architects and the public together to address community needs related to design and livability. The results are gathered together under the heading of the “Blueprint Mosaic” as a resource for the public and community leaders. The “Walk the Walk” program unveiled at the beginning of the year is both an awareness campaign and a practical guide to sustainable design and how architects are leading the sustainable “evolution.” 4.2 Education for/within the profession Beginning in January 2009, the AIA mandatory continuing education requirement will include a learning requirement for sustainable design. Closer to home, the AIA Board has endorsed transforming the Institute’s Washington headquarters into a model of a 21st-century workplace. At a future date the building itself will engage those who walk into it to think about the resource inherent in our nation’s existing buildings. Our role is to lead by doing. 4.3 Education for/within the academy Once every five years, NAAB reviews requirements for the accreditation of architecture programs. As part of a collaborative review process, the AIA Board of Directors approved the previously mentioned White Paper that addresses the Institute’s priorities and their implications for architecture education. Specific in the White Paper is the imperative to prepare the next generation of professionals (1) to think, act, design, and advocate sustainability to their clients and the public; (2) to think holistically and inclusively (for all generations, races, and community groups); and (3) to rise to the challenge of being leaders within their chosen profession and within their communities in an integrated, holistic, and multidisciplinary design approach.

5

Conclusion

In a speech to the 2007 AIA Convention in San Antonio, Nobel Prize recipient and former Vice President Al Gore dared architects to rise to the challenge presented at a unique moment in history, a moment when the gifts and training of the profession can play a leading role in healing our only home, the planet Earth. “Do no harm” has served the medical profession since Hippocrates first uttered those words. “Help heal the planet and serve its peoples” is a more assertive agenda, one uniquely within the grasp of the world’s architects and one that can and should be vested in all schools and programs of architecture.

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Reasserting the architect’s position in pursuit of sustainability R. Bennetts Bennetts Associates, UK

Abstract Marginalisation of the architect by project managers and other process specialists often reduces the role to that of the stylist or theorist, which means that many within the profession are ill-equipped to deal with the team leadership and multidisciplinary thinking required to create sustainable buildings. Provided architectural education addresses this deskilling process, the route to sustainability holds out the prospect not only of reducing environmental impacts but also of restoring the architect to a central position in the design and construction team. Keywords: marginalisation, deskilling, stylist, indulgence, globalisation, sustainability, leadership, integration, collaboration.

1

Erosion of the architect’s position

Ever since I graduated in the late 1970s, it has been obvious that the architectural profession has been drifting from a position of strength and respect within the construction industry to one of relative weakness and dislocation. There are numerous reasons for this that would justify a separate conference on its own but, from my own observation, one of the underlying causes has been the tendency to place a higher value on formal or theoretical ideas than on implementation and building performance. In practical terms, this means that architects are often found wanting at a technical level and are frequently criticised for failing to meet cost and time restraints. Architects are widely seen as the purveyors of excessive risk, remote from the needs and identity of the construction industry and many clients. Perhaps this is a legacy of the 1958 Oxford Conference, although I suspect more good than harm came from the decision at that conference to raise the academic standards for entry into the profession.

12 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE If the architect is no longer the undisputed leader of the design and construction process, those who are familiar with the work of Bennetts Associates will know that we jealously guard our position as the leader of the design team, because it is the only way we know of creating the kind of thoroughbred architecture to which we aspire. Bennetts Associates appears to be among a small minority of firms who have won the respect of contractors, managers and clients alike but, even for us, retaining the position of design leadership is becoming increasingly difficult in an industry that widely regards architects as self-indulgent.

2

The effects of marginalisation

The simple and unavoidable truth is that, as a generalisation, architects have been increasingly marginalised over the last 30 years to the point where they are regarded by many as stylists, rather than the orchestrators of a collaborative endeavour. In consequence, much of the management territory has been poached by those who have become specialists in short-term “process” issues, with the effect that the long-term “product” isn’t recognised for its relative importance. The tension between product and process is evident in the increasing separation of skills between visual design and implementation, which is aggravating the deskilling of the architect. There is a brutal logic in commissioning one of the architectural “stars” for a concept, preferably of iconic status, only for it to be implemented by a different firm with far less lofty ambitions. Some of the UK’s most prominent architects actually promote this as a way of working. The rise of project management is a familiar topic, but the effects of architectural marginalisation can now be seen in a far wider context than even a few years ago. The prevalence of design and build contracts is one obvious manifestation, but what about the Private Finance Initiative for public buildings? To procure a school, a hospital, or a library, the commissioning authority no longer holds an architectural selection competition but instead invites property development consortia to submit all-inclusive bids, thereby ensuring that the allimportant selection of the architect is delegated to a third party whose primary concern is the risk of cost or time over-runs. What this means in practice is that most public buildings are not executed by design-led architects with the most talent, as they are seen as too risky. It’s hardly surprising, then, that PFI buildings are often at the prosaic end of the spectrum and that the more commercially-driven architects are getting the bulk of Britain’s most spectacular re-building programme for generations.

3

Sustainability as threat or opportunity

There is a further, possibly more challenging trend emerging that has the potential to shift even the conceptual design away from architects altogether and it concerns sustainability. The irony here is that even the architectural “stylists” will be under threat, as it will no longer be possible to conceive buildings that

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ignore the science that our fragile planet is telling us. The prevalence of shapely, glass-clad buildings facing the sun is perhaps the most obvious example but there are many others that will lack basic technical viability for the long term. The role of the architect is being questioned here as never before, but many within the profession seem in denial about the erosion of their position. Indeed, Building Design magazine recently ran a seminar entitled “sustainability – are engineers the new architects?”. The writing on the wall could hardly be clearer. By way of illustration, I attended a meeting recently with a major London property developer who is exploring new markets and the extent to which sustainability will influence their policies. I was the only architect at the meeting and the developer – a well respected company with an impeccable track record of commissioning good architects – had felt it appropriate to invite services and structural engineers from three firms to aid the debate. The message is that it is these consultants who are more likely to determine form and technical viability than the architects. It is certainly the case that the science governing carbondioxide emissions will soon be having a greater influence on architectural form than any stylist could possibly tolerate; architects are seen as part of the problem, rather than the solution, such is their lack of objectivity and willingness to face up to difficult choices. By contrast to the architectural profession, services engineers seem to be revitalised by recent advances in environmental design. They are no longer “pipes and wires” technicians but holistic designers who can influence the form of a building from the outset. Moreover, they and the growing army of sustainability specialists are so much more knowledgeable about building science than the architects that it is they who might now advise on orientation, the proportion of solid to glass, the choice of principle materials or structures, the performance of the external envelope and so on. This expertise is now supplemented by facilities managers and quantity surveyors, some of whom offer sustainability audits allied to cost plans, making it virtually impossible for the architect to draw a line unless it can be justified against measurable criteria. Despite all this evidence of marginalisation, leading architects and, I would argue, many involved in education still hang on to notions of unbridled creativity, fostering the illusion that architects retain the freedom to create more or less what they want and that some sort of technological fix is available in support. It is hard to overstate the damage that is being done by creative indulgence and the proliferation of so called icons; with every illustration of a glass tower in a hot climate, or a blob-shaped scheme for an urban office building I fear not only for the environmental impact but also for the sigh of resignation from those who sense that architects have lost the ability to do anything other than dream up ever more eye-catching shapes. There is of course a far more optimistic prognosis than the one I have outlined above. Far from being a potential threat to architectural freedom, I have found from personal experience that sustainability is in fact a liberating influence – both a rewarding means of exploring new architectural forms and a means of

14 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE reasserting the architect’s position at the centre of the design process – provided the architect is able to marshal the huge amount of information required so that he or she can apply a high degree of editorial control. Consider what is at stake. The overall objective, backed by government targets or international treaties, is to dramatically reduce environmental impacts and, in the case of carbon-dioxide emissions, aim for 80% reductions or possibly even carbon neutral within a few years. This is not by any stretch of the imagination business as usual; the shape and form of buildings – and the way in which they influence lifestyles in general – are going to have to change and education will have to respond radically.

4

Skills for sustainable, better architecture

After a gap of several generations, architects are having to learn to work once again with passive design principles based on local climatic conditions and responsibly sourced materials – the opposite of the globalised, westernised, ubiquitous architecture that shapes the magazine covers at present. Passive design principles imply using the structure and fabric to achieve the conditions previously provided by mechanical services – thermal stability, radiant cooling, fresh-air ventilation, solar control and so on – so the architect needs to adopt the position of the cross-disciplinary generalist, whilst the specialists undertake the necessary thermal, solar or structural analyses. The need for thorough integration between architects, engineers, contractors and suppliers is fundamental. In my view, only the architect has the breadth of vision and the intellectual overview of a project to undertake the leadership role, which is why the loss of architectural control to managers, engineers or surveyors is potentially so damaging to the quality of our built environment. Drawing from my own experience once again, the architect who masters the generalist skills required for meaningful sustainability will find that a wellconsidered design is far more robust and far less prone to being undermined than one which is extravagantly conceived and scientifically dubious. For Bennetts Associates, it has strengthened the principle that the exterior and interior should be related and that the anatomy of the architecture is part of its physical expression. Philosophically too, it is likely that designs based on sustainable principles will feel better suited to their locations wherever they are; less removed perhaps from local cultures and economic circumstances than the work of those architects who offer more or less the same kind of building across the globe. It is tempting to use the argument that sustainability is a Trojan horse for better architecture.

5

The challenge for education

The challenge to architectural educators, then, is to resist seeing the sustainability debate as either optional or purely technical; it is neither. Rather, it is nothing less than essential for the planet and for those who believe that architects should take responsibility for our building stock by leading the

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creative process. In short, the route to sustainability runs parallel with the route to restoring the architect to a position of respect within the design and construction industry. The deskilling process that is both the cause and the effect of architectural marginalisation will have to be reversed if architects are to have the primary role in shaping sustainable buildings. Architectural students need to emerge from higher education with their idealism intact, but they also need to have sufficient knowledge of technique if sustainability is going to have any resonance with the future form of architecture. This is not something that can be picked up during practical training; in particular, the notion that this is a team-based activity is something that needs to be instilled from the earliest encounters with design education. My hope, then, is that the 2008 Oxford Conference will recognise the significance of sustainability as a vehicle for change, not simply in the rapidly evolving design of architecture for a better environment, but in the way buildings are conceived, crafted and procured. If architects wish to be at the centre of things once again – and I would argue that they cannot afford to be anywhere else – the arrival of sustainability as the issue of our age requires an educational manifesto of equal stature.

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One world architecture N. Maritz Architect, Namibia

Abstract The developing world context highlights pertinent issues to confront in the way new practitioners are trained and practice. Among these are character prerequisites, academia versus commercial practice, stardom, a basic platform, style over content, processes and thinking scope, continuous learning, globalisation and motivation. Keywords: architectural education, architectural practice.

1

Introduction

As a practicing architect in a “developing” country I have done some tutoring, and lectures and was educated at the University of Cape Town. Contacts with architects at work, conferences and via the media lead to some questions: 1.1 What kind of people should (or should not) become architects? Architecture is HARD work and requires perseverance. If you don’t have the ability to sit on your butt and concentrate for long periods at a time – do something else. An architect must have an inborn spatial sense. CAD is not going to compensate for the lack of an ability to visualise in 3 dimensions IN YOUR HEAD. Some people just cannot do so. Architecture is a hardcore mix of art and science. Being creative is not enough. You must be practical as well. But being good at math and physics while being colour blind doesn’t cut it either. If you’re in it for the fame and money – get real or get out: very few decent architects make lots of money. 1.2 What kind of architects should come out of architecture schools? Are we trying to make architects or academics? Many schools seem unable to decide whether to train young philosophers or to churn out cannon fodder for the commercial architectural “market”. Is there anything in between?

18 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE 1.3 How many graduates will produce decent architecture? Most architecture will be produced by middle of the road firms in generic cities throughout the world. What to aim for? One or two brilliant students, or to turn out a regular supply of well-qualified architects that will improve the world rather than “commit architecture” upon it? Each graduate should have the ability to become a decent architect. To achieve that, I’d like to see that schools should aim to teach/inspire/imbue at least the following in all their students.

2

The basics

Architecture is such a multi-faceted, multi-skilled discipline that it is difficult to define the basics. However one chooses to phrase this basic knowledge or group it into subjects, certain things remain essential aspects to architecture that should not be replaced by 30 hours of CAD training a week. The basics are not the traditional preconceptions taught at each school. A clear distinction must be made between rules and principles. The basic rules will still remain the same, no matter how the world changes – gravity results in things falling downward, the sun sets in the west. Just because we know these, doesn’t mean we can take them for granted and override them. Orientation is still a better way to solve heat gain problems than a funky high-tech screen on the west side. The design studio system, whatever its value in other terms, can lend itself to an ad-hoc approach to the teaching of architectural basics, varying extremely from school to school. It tends to be reactive, instead of a systematic definition of principles. There are also 3 essential basic skills that should be taught/learnt/acquired: • How to research properly (and by that I don’t mean Google!) • How to communicate – to listen as well as convey. • How to take decisions –essentially the art of making the right decisions. And of course, the ultimate basic that will ensure our survival – sustainability. Not as a fashion item, not as a knee jerk PC reaction, but as an integrated fundamental in all architecture.

3

Let content triumph over style

Most contemporary architecture has degenerated to a purely visual art, propagated by the glossy magazines. These images influence each successive generation of students, who consume and regurgitate this month’s magazine pinup into next week’s project proposal. Many of them then get stuck in the mode that they graduated with. So you’ll find a rash of “post-modern” buildings built during the 80’s and early 90’s across the world. Similar style expressions before and since indicate that schools still emphasise form over function, style over content. Dare I utter an architectural heresy: “It doesn’t matter what it looks like - but it should work, it should fit in its place, and it should do no harm”. Of course it is important that it should not be ugly, but maybe that is just a subsidiary function of whether it works, fits in and benefits.

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Think properly

I’ve always been fascinated by the limited themes in most science fiction - the insider vs. the outsider. We are living in that world now –a kind of schizophrenia that splits all into rich and poor, natural vs. manmade, urban-rural. Humans seem to struggle with multiplicity: everything gets defined in dualistic terms. Could that be due to our ostensibly symmetrical bodies? This dualism has been a characteristic of architectural education for a long time, and should be discarded. Architecture is a discipline of multiple factors, the space in between, neither the one nor the other, or both of and more. Hurrah! We’re talking complexity & contradiction. By advocating a move away from a dualistic to a multi-focal approach, I am not recommending chucking everything at the students from all directions. Chaos theory is rather limited in its application to architecture (as are most borrowed academic theories). Instead I am proposing the teaching of architectural thinking as connected thinking – literally, how factors across the scale range from the design of a piece of furniture can influence and interact with the design of an urban precinct.

5

Think deep and broad

Architects love designing furniture because the parameters are so limited. But once you start adding considerations like: Where does this wood come from? Is this noxious paint? Where and how will this be made? – you are adding depth. Architects need to know about regional economics, social patterns, resource management, environmental impacts, or if they don’t know – how to find out. Many communities in Namibia want to build a campsite/ whatever to have money streaming in. Many architects build these, not asking a) whether money will come, and b) what money is needed for. Better spend the budget on training people to work in other places, than a forlorn building waiting for the odd lost tourist to come by once every 3 weeks.

6

Teach what can/will not be learnt later

Once architects start working, very few conceptualise thoroughly. Many never learnt to do so. Current CAD software allows for wonderful presentations, but it cannot think. Most young students cannot draw a thumbnail sketch to save their lives. By not being able to analyse and express a concept in a few lines, the student’s ability to cut to the quick is impaired. After university, there is never another chance to learn thinking conceptually.

7

Architecture doesn’t travel well

Most architecture today has become a commodity, bought and sold across the world like designer trainers. This type of architecture is a manifestation of

20 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE superficial thinking that does not have the depth and breadth I argued for earlier. Schools should teach that local context is non-negotiable. By that I mean culture, climate, landscape, geology, politics, you name it.

8

Learn to learn (and never stop learning)

Many architects seem to stop learning as they graduate. Continued learning is spurred by an innate curiosity, a lack of self-consciousness, and a healthy dose of self-doubt. The studio teaching style of defending concepts as if your life depends on it, tends to create a culture of ego-driven design. Students become attached to their own ideas and rarely gain the ability to be objective. Instead, by not feeling precious about a concept, being able to let it go and being able to generate multiple ideas that can be compared, students can start exploiting the richness of imagination and experience that increases day by day as one gets older. This is another valuable lesson - lose your ego, and find your identity.

9

Passion

“Man is only great when he acts from great passion”

Benjamin Disraeli

By passion I mean the emotional aspect of motivation. A passion for what? A passion for design? No. A passion for architecture? No. I think it should be a passion for the environment – and by that I don’t mean that fuzzy feeling for nature, but our total environment – the world, call it what you will: life, the universe and everything. This quote paraphrased from George Orwell expresses it really well: There are four great motives for writing (or any other creative endeavour): Sheer egoism, aesthetic enthusiasm, historical impulse (to record), or political purpose in its broadest sense – a desire to push the world in a certain direction, to alter other people’s idea of the kind of society they should strive for. If students cannot emerge from a school of architecture with a conviction and drive to change the world for the better, that school has failed in its purpose.

Forum 1 Buildings and the Environment

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Teaching climate responsive design to beginning architecture students P. La Roche Department of Architecture, California Polytechnic State University Pomona, USA

Abstract This paper describes some ideas and strategies implemented by the author in the teaching of ecological design to beginning architecture students at California State Polytechnic University, Pomona. All second year architecture students in our department are introduced to sustainable design in the spring of their second year. Lecture courses are integrated with the design studio portion of the course, in which students design a sustainable building and evaluate its performance using different analog and digital tools. Keywords: teaching climate responsive design, beginning architecture education, sustainable architecture, carbon neutral design.

1

Introduction

There is no doubt now that humans are modifying climate (IPCC [1]) and that buildings are responsible for a major portion of green house gas emissions that cause climate change. To reduce building related anthropogenic warming, architecture students must learn how to design buildings with a reduced environmental impact. This is especially important in the United States, responsible for 350 Gj of energy and 15 tons of carbon per capita, and the largest single energy consumer and generator of carbon in the world. Educating architecture students takes several years, during which sustainability concepts have to be embedded in many courses. Introductory design courses can provide the initial exposure of students to these concepts. Lectures provide an overview of the key issues in sustainable architectural design while focusing on a few key issues that permit to reduce carbon emissions. Some of these general ideas have been introduced previously (La Roche [2]). This paper introduces specific ideas and strategies implemented in beginning

24 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE design studios. Some of these have been adopted or adapted from discussions with fellow faculty or conference presentations, but have been organized by the author in an original, hopefully coherent way, fig. 1. Results have been very good, and students have demonstrated that they are able to implement these concepts in their designs. (http://www.zerocarbondesign.org/).

Figure 1:

2

Second year carbon neutral design process.

General principle: stewardship

Architecture students should understand that they must become stewards of the environment, and that for this to happen they must become ecologically literate. Ecological design in Orr’s words is: “the careful meshing of human purposes with the larger patterns and flows of the natural world” (Orr [3]). This principle is introduced in my first lecture as an expectation for the quarter. If students understand their role as stewards of the environment they will understand that all of the sustainable strategies that they implement are framed by this principle.

3

Pedagogical strategies

3.1 Delve deeper In order to have a more thorough understanding of sustainable design concepts, the student should go into more depth in their resolution. As Ralph Knowles [4] suggests “It is time to re-evaluate the studio custom in most schools of architecture, starting with small and simple projects and advancing to ever larger and more complex ones. Usually, as students become more capable, the projects become proportionally more comprehensive and difficult. The result is that students often become progressively more skilful at making diagrams of shape and layout, but not always with a deeper understanding of how the thing really works. What about delving progressively deeper instead of bigger, at least part of the time?” Second year is a perfect opportunity for this; a small project, or a portion of a larger project is developed to a greater level of detail, fig. 1. To do this appropriately the student must have a thorough understanding of sustainability concepts and the tools to test them. Magic arrows disappear to become real “tested” representations of air movement and solar radiation.

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Emphasis is on development and evaluation of ideas, especially those related with solar control and ventilation. Students evaluate the performance of their projects, or portions of their projects with digital or analog tools. Simple energy modeling tools are used to determine energy consumption and CO2 emissions. Over the years, as students have become progressively more computer savvy, additional digital tools have been introduced. These enable more and faster iterations of the alternatives. Nevertheless, analog tools are always pertinent because of the stronger haptic connection established between the physical model and the student. 3.2 Studio and lecture integration There is general agreement that lecture courses and studios should integrate, but this is not always easy to do. Integration is key to student success in the quarter. Lecture courses are taught in several areas: sustainability, history of architecture, construction, and digital tools. Sustainability lectures focus on three major issues: comfort, climate and energy. Construction emphasizes building assemblies with materials such as wood and concrete. Digital lectures focus on 3d modeling. History consists of an architectural survey that also includes readings in contemporary sustainable design. Many of the lecture assignments are directly related with the studio projects and two of the instructors usually teach the sustainability and construction lecture courses in addition to the design studio, allowing for a more seamless coordination, fig. 2.

Figure 2:

4

Lecture and studio integration.

Environmental principles

4.1 Understanding energy and natural forces with analog and digital tools Students learn how to design buildings that use low energy materials and are able to operate with little energy. In the studio I emphasize understanding energy, the main “architectural factor” that affects climate change. In this introductory level this is achieved by understanding the effects of the sun and the wind through the evaluation of solar radiation, daylight, indoor temperature and air movement inside the spaces. Analog tools test physical models with class built wind tunnels

26 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE to determine air flow, sun dials to evaluate shading and solar penetration, and illuminance meters to determine daylight levels. Digital tools are used for modeling or analysis. Modeling tools are typically used to develop the design and analyze shading. Analysis tools are usually Very Simple Design Tools or VSD Tools (La Roche and Liggett [5]) that are fast, easy to use and provide sufficient precision for the initial phases. Some of these digital tools are Climate Consultant and HEED developed at UCLA (http://www2.aud.ucla.edu/energydesign-tools/) (Milne et al [6]) and the Weather Tool and the Solar Tool developed by Square One (http://www.squ1.com/). Beginning this year students also compare CO2 emissions from their project with an energy code compliant building in the same climate zone. 4.2 Low energy architecture: passive solar Low energy buildings result from appropriate design of the envelope and its architectural components. Passive Solar is the most effective way to reduce CO2 emissions. Because of limited lecture time emphasis is on selected passive heating and cooling techniques appropriate to the site. These include passive cooling strategies such as nocturnal ventilative cooling and evaporative cooling, and passive heating strategies such as direct gain systems or Trombe walls.

Acknowledgements I am grateful to second year faculty and students at Cal Pomona, for what they have taught me. Travel to this conference has been funded by the International Center and President’s Travel Award at Cal Poly Pomona and some of the work has been sponsored by Energy Design Resources, which is funded by California utility customers under auspices of the California Public Utilities Commission.

References [1] An Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, Valencia, Spain, 12–17 November 2007, Working Group contributions to the IV Assessment Report. [2] La Roche, P., Teaching Architecture in a Changing Climate, TIA Conference, Krems, Austria, 2007. [3] Orr, D., Environmental Literacy: Education as if the Earth Mattered, E. F. Schumacher Lectures, 1992. [4] Knowles, R., Proposal for conference on Sustainability in Architecture and Higher Education, February 26–27, 2007. [5] La Roche, P., Liggett, R., “Very Simple Design Tools: A Web Based Assistant for the Design of Climate Responsive Buildings”, Architectural Science Review, vol. 44, pp. 437–448, 2001. [6] Milne M., Liggett R., Alshaali R., Climate Consultant 3.0: A Tool for Visualizing Building Energy Implications of Climates, Annual Conference of the American Solar Energy Society, Cleveland Ohio, 2007.

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The influence of climatic design on Iranian symbolic form designing N. Nassiri Architect, Ph.D Candidate, Member of Young Researchers Club, Science & Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

Abstract Each climate needs a definite and distinct architectural design. During past centuries, in consideration of the different cultures in Iran, distinct climatic design sprang up within the various Iranian climatic districts. This act gave rise to distinct symbols for each climatic district, which can be termed Climatic Symbols. The climate can be significantly influenced by cultural elements; thus we try to find these climatic symbols and the relationship between climatic design and symbolic design. This research is concerned with the reciprocal aspects of climatic condition and symbolic design by using pictures. The case study will be the variant Iranian climatic designs in different districts in different kinds of buildings; such as water reservoirs, Yakh-Chals (Ice Pits) and houses; also architectural details and strategies such as wind catchers and the height and size of buildings will be considered in this study Keywords: climate, symbol, Iranian architecture.

1

Introduction

Firstly, what is the meaning of climatic symbol in this paper? Symbol is something that represents something else by association, resemblance, or convention, especially a material object used to represent something invisible (Anonymous [1]) or abstract (Anonymous [2]). This abstract and invisible thing can be dependent on culture, history, function and climate. We know geographical and environmental factors made climate and climatic condition, however climatic and functional aspects are very close together, in

28 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE early centuries when humankind had decided to build functional shelters, he had paid attention to climate as a main factor for choosing the best design strategy and because of that the design varieties emerged in each climatic district. Therefore I conclude that the origin of symbols referred to climate and climatic conditions. The climate is a very impressive factor in forming an architectural sign, so that the sign can be changed to a symbol of distinct climatic zone. These differences justify the existing philosophy of symbolic architecture especially in non sacred buildings. In other words, initially without any climatic differences, no diversity and creativity sprang up in architecture and architectural symbols design; these symbols show their hidden climatic meaning implicitly in their differences.

2 Climatic division of Iran Iran has four famous climatic divisions: 1) Hot-dry: central plateau region 2) Hot-humid: northern shores of the Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman 3) Cold-dry: mountain and high plateau region 4) Temperate climate: southern shores of the Caspian Sea (Ghobadian [5]) In this paper, we will discuss four kinds of symbolic design. In our current divisions, a symbol represents not only mental content or meaning in visual context but it also represents functional and non visible aspects of buildings that are concerned with climatic form designing: 1) Symbolic space in an urban context such as water reservoirs (AbAnbar) and Ice Pits (Yakh-Chal) 2) The city’s domineering skyline: some architectural details such as the wind catcher and ceiling forms created the City’s domineering sky lines. 3) Underground spaces in Iranian traditional house design: some functional spaces in houses such as “Hozkhane”, “Shovadan” and “Sizan”. 4) Some design strategies such as the height of the building, the quantity of open spaces and the volume of spaces. Now we start to discuss these topics.

3

Water reservoirs (Ab-Anbar) and Ice Pits (Yakh-Chal)

Water reservoirs are usually located in the centre of the city and contain four main parts: 1) A reservoir that was constructed cylindrically and was below the ground surface. The water, coming from underground canals, pours into it; 2) A dome built over the reservoir, which keeps the water cool; 3) “Pasheer”, the platform, with a traditional or modern faucet which is used for taking water from the reservoir 4) Wind catcher (Badgir), used for air ventilating in order to protect water from spoiling (Anonymous [3]).

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Table 1:

Water reservoirs (Ab-Anbar)

Hot –Dry

Water reservoirs. Hot-Humid

A Cistern in Bandar lengeh City which is named “Berke” (Cistern) These cross shaped cisterns in the south are called “Chahar Berkeh” (four cisterns)

Water Reservoir in Yazd City, with six wind catchers

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Temperate Climate

A water reservoir with five wind catchers in Kish Island

New water reservoir (Ab anbare No), in Sari City. It has a dome (without any wind catcher) We can't see a lot of water reservoirs in the north of Iran, because of many rivers and rainy days.

We can’t find any Yakh-Chal in the hot-humid climate, because the very hot temperatures of that region do not let water freeze. We can find them only in hot-dry and cold-dry climates, which have been adapted to regional climates. These traditional Ice Pits, some of which are still in use, have four compartments: 1) ice gathering place 2) dome 3) main wall (the wall used for making shade to protect ice from the heat of sun and to provide a cool place for it) 4) pond (Anonymous [4]). In the cold season, when a sufficient amount of water was available, the water was being led into the pool, where it would freeze overnight. A tall wall as a barrier protected ice from the heat of sun, and the layers of ice formed in cold nights throughout winter and were used in hot summers. Table 2:

Ice Pit (Yakh-Chal)

Hot-Dry

A view of two domed YakhChal in Sirjan City – South of the Province of Kerman It has a height stepped dome

Ice pit (Yakh-Chal). Cold-Dry

The elevation of the Yakhchal in Save City (near Tehran) It is settled under the ground and it has a rib and vault ceiling. It has neither a dome nor a main wall for making shade.

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City’s domineering sky line: wind catcher (Badgir) and ceiling forms

In Iran, Badgirs or wind catchers have been exploited for air ventilation since 1000 years ago. Wind catchers have various designs, such as the uni-directional, bi-directional, and multi-directional. Generally ceiling forms, like flat or gable roofs, show a city’s domineering skyline as a symbol that they were designed on the basis of climatic necessities.

Wind Catcher (Badgir) and Ceiling Forms

Table 3:

5

Wind catchers and ceilings.

Hot –Dry

Hot- Humid

Cold –Dry

Temperate Climate

Yazd city's Sky line with Tall & Narrow 4 sides Wind catchers

Gheshm Island's Sky line with voluminous 4 side Wind catchers

Tabriz City's Sky line with flat ceilings, view above Castle Rashidi

Thatched roof protects the house from the wind & rain in north of Iran. Only the southern side of the roof is open for access to the sun

Underground spaces

There are three different climatic underground spaces and one traditional design strategy in Iranian climatic regions.

6

Some design strategies

Another creative method to achieve a climatic symbol design is design strategies, such as the height of the building, the quantity of open spaces and their volumes. For example we can see those strategies in Iranian Bazar designing. In a cold-dry climate the ceiling height is impressively short and in contrast in a hot-dry climate, it is impressively tall; because of muggy weather in humid climates near the Seas, the Bazars of the southern Caspian Sea and the northern Persian Gulf have a great quantity of open spaces, and sometimes they have no ceilings to create easy air ventilation. In fact, the ventilation process had an important role in the differences between climatic designing and creating distinct climatic symbols. Sometimes we need to cool our building, so we design a high and bulky space, and planed opened space; sometimes we need to keep our building hot, therefore we design it to be shorter and less voluminous. In figure 1, four different Bazar types from different climatic regions in Iran are compared schematically.

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Table 4: Hot-Dry

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Under ground places.

Hot-Humid

Cold-Dry

Temperate Climate

(Shovadan*)

(Sizan)*

Wooden Foundation

A ruined “Shovadan”* in Dezfol City. A designed place in HotHumid traditional houses that was near 6-7 meters under the ground, used in summer

A house in Hamadan City. In native language “Sizam”* means “Underground Floor”, this place is closed and has a short height and limited openings, used in summer

In the traditional houses of north Iran, any climatic underground spaces were not designed because of high humidity of the soil, and instead of that, a lot of buildings were constructed on a wooden foundation above the ground.

Underground Places

(Hoz Khane*) Ameri family's house in Kashan City. “Hoz khane”* is a large room in a traditional Persian house with a small pond in the centre, usually settled under Shabestan (Main Hall), sometimes under a wind catcher, used in summer

Figure 1:

7

Four different Bazar types from different climatic regions in Iran.

Conclusion

In traditional architecture, human exigencies created new forms and space that they adapted to suit the climate very creatively; in this process local and regional symbols, which we name climatic symbols, emerged gradually and because of this, these types of symbols can implicitly present the climate and culture of a place.

References [1] Anonymous, Symbolmeaning, http://www.answers.com/topic/symbol. [2] Anonymous, Symbolmeaningl, http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/ symbol?view=uk

32 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE [3] Anonymous, Waterreservoir, http://www.caroun.com/Countries/Asia/Iran/ Yazd/General/Reservoir.html. [4] Anonymous, Ykhchal, http://www.caroun.com/Countries/Asia/Iran/Yazd/ General/Yakh-Chal.html. [5] Ghobadian, Vahid, Climatic Analysis of the traditional Iranian Buildings, Tehran University Publications, First edition, 1998.

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Apology for architecture I. A. Meir Department of Man in the Desert, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel

Abstract This paper makes the case for architectural education within the context of environment-conscious design. It aims at showing that indulging in styles and pseudo-philosophical arguments has positioned the architectural profession as a generator of environmental problems rather than solutions. Keywords: architecture, climate change, desert, energy, fuel poverty, sustainability.

1

Introduction

“Architect”, coming from the Greek “arkhitekton” – master builder – implies a broad background of knowledge in planning, design and construction, as well as the arts. Architecture may thus be defined not as a discipline per se but as an umbrella for related disciplines. It has been named the “mother of all arts” – a description that now seems to be something from the past. The vast majority of buildings – common dwellings for common people – were once produced by artisans and end-users. Only since the mid-18th century has architecture evolved into an academic pursuit, disconnected from other building professions – a trend due in part to the over-indulgence of architects in “higher order” philosophical questions, styles and aesthetics. It is common for architectural students and practitioners to be intimately versed in the most recent stylistic discourse, but oblivious to issues concerning the actual interaction between buildings, users and the physical environment.

2

Deserts, desertification and climate change

The academic discourse often leaves out marginal populations and regions, among them deserts and their inhabitants. These are places where resources are limited, constraints are extreme, indigenous populations are typically poor, and

34 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE shelter has a very flexible yet basic meaning. The extent of drylands has grown by over half in the last 20 years, covering today over 40% of the continents, with some 20% of humanity living in or at the edges of these regions [1]. Ranging from sub-humid to hyper-arid, from freezing rocky highlands to simmering expansive sand dunes, what all these drylands have in common is the extremity of their environmental conditions. Temperatures fluctuate widely over daily and seasonal cycles, and precipitation is intermittent and unpredictable. The vegetative cover is sparse and soils are easily eroded by floods and wind, causing frequent dust and sand storms. While deserts are often rich in mineral resources, their extraction exposes inhabitants to even more extreme conditions: drilling and mining often cause environmental degradation that affects the health of workers and residents alike, and in some cases have caused irreversible damage for future development [2]. Desertification is often blamed on the practices of local populations: the extreme Sahel drought that devastated 20 African countries in the 1980s-90s was originally attributed to overgrazing, but was later shown to be the indirect result of emissions from fossil fuel combustion in neighboring countries [3]. While the citizens of the industrialized world tend to feel that their technology will protect them from Sahelian-scale disasters, nature "has been busy proving them wrong.” ([4]:127). Along with climate change, it turns out that dust-rich environments may increase the morbidity and mortality of populations located thousands of kilometers from away [5]. But what does all this have to do with architecture and architects? In industrialized countries, buildings are responsible for up to 50% of all energy consumption – energy invested in all stages of their production, and over the years that they must be kept habitable and comfortable. Urban design shapes our habits and lifestyles, including our use of transportation, which compounds the energy and atmospheric emissions attributable to architectural decisions – whose impact today extends far beyond the immediate surroundings.

3

Energy security, public health and fuel poverty

The industrialized countries’ dependence on imported fossil fuels is now a publicly-recognized security concern, guiding political thinking in countries such as the UK, Germany and Japan. A Pentagon report leaked to the press [6] includes the word “energy” over 30 times, alongside concepts such as “tight” and “stressing” [7]. The dependence of industrialized countries on fuel resources from “politically unstable” countries has been making headlines at a growing rate and intensity. Despite continuous efforts to locate additional fossil fuel resources, we are approaching the turning point of peak oil production [8]. Increasingly expensive “wonder solutions” such as the extraction of oil tar sands only emphasize the fact that energy scarcity has arrived. In addition to the well-publicized ramifications of their greenhouse-gas emissions, coal-fired power plants have local effects: air pollution in their vicinity has been shown to increase lung cancer and cardiopulmonary mortality, even when not exceeding local pollution standards [9]. But public health issues arising from fossil fuel combustion have received relatively little exposure

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within architectural education, even though energy-inefficient buildings are among their main causative factors. Residential and commercial buildings in developed countries are only growing as energy consumers. The main drivers for this growth are increases in population, economic development, diffusion of energy consuming equipment (like airconditioners in Mediterranean countries), space requirements, and behavioral factors [10]. An almost instinctive reaction is the claim that population growth control should solve the problem, and this is something for LDCs to attend to. However, energy consumption statistics as reflected through CO2 emissions show that per capita, OECD countries produce an average of approximately 11 tons per year, (about 20 in the US) – which compares to a world average 4 t/yr, and a level of 2.5 in China and 1 in Africa [11]. The heaviest burden on the environment, then, is still coming from the developed countries, though this burden will only grow heavier as their consumption habits are emulated by the masses in China and India. At the same time, firewood and other biomass are still the major energy sources in the rural developing world. The combustion of these fuels has detrimental effects on the public health [12], and firewood collection is one of the major sources of desertification. Furthermore, the poorer the quality of shelter, the higher will be the fuel demand. Fuel poverty has very different meanings in different geopolitical contexts. In LDCs this may mean restricted accessibility to firewood and other combustibles for cooking and heating. In the industrialized world, the term was used in the past primarily in cold countries, but has paradoxically become quite common in warming climates in recent years. With a barrel of crude oil having surpassed the $100 barrier, electricity has been falling in step, thus becoming less accessible to the poorer strata of the population, developed countries included. In many countries the monthly average consumption per consumer of the lower decile may be 5–10% that of the upper one, both in cold and hot seasons. This means that even if a low-income family may be able to afford the purchase of a cheap air conditioner, operating it is becoming a heavy burden on the overall household budget. There is also a correlation between the income group and quality and age of housing. Thus the poor live in low-quality housing, need more energy for heating and cooling, representing a more significant part of their lower income [13]. It seems imperative to keep such realities in mind when considering the implications of climate change, given the potential rise in morbidity and mortality during extreme weather events – especially among poor, old and sick populations. The summer 2003 heat wave, with over 14,000 deaths (above average) in France alone, should serve as a reference. Ultimately such matters fall directly within the architect’s responsibility, and architectural education must address them.

4

Conclusions

Architects seem to have just started understanding the emergent problems of environmental design and planning. Sustainable design cannot be considered a style, nor a collection of gadgets for environmentally conscious marginal groups. It is rather an essential toolbox for future design and policy-making. Public

36 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE health problems, energy insecurity, fuel poverty, climate change, and pollution represent just part of the external costs which conventional accounting often overlooks. Once this point is clearly understood, the economic advantages of existing sustainable technologies and practices will be better appreciated. It seems unreasonable not to be considering sustainable design and planning in a serious manner. “Style” becomes trivialized the moment we fully appreciate the “externalities” of the business-as-usual scenario. It is up to architects to provide appropriate solutions, and it is up to architectural educators to prepare them for this task.

References [1] Middleton and Thomas, 1997. World Atlas of Desertification. London: Hodder Arnold Publishers. [2] Meir I.A. (2005) Deserts: Ultimate dumps or last frontiers? In Xudong Yang, Bin Zhao, Rongyi Zhao (eds) Indoor Air 2005, Proc. 10th Int. Conf. on Indoor Air Quality & Climate, Beijing, V: 3908–3912. [3] Giannini A., R. Saravanan, and P. Chang (2003) Oceanic forcing of Sahel rainfall on interannual to interdecadal time scales. Science 302: 1027–1030. [4] Flannery T. (2005) The Weather Makers. The History and Future Impact of Climate Change. London: Allen Lane/Penguin Group. [5] Chen Y.S., Sheen P.C., Chen E.R., Liu Y.K., Wu T.N., Yang C.Y. 2004. “Effects of Asian dust storm events on daily mortality in Taipei, Taiwan,” Environmental Research. 95 (2): 151–155. [6] Townsend M. and P. Harris (2004) Now the Pentagon tells Bush: climate change will destroy us. The Observer (Feb.22, 2004). [7] Schwartz P. and D. Randall (2003) An Abrupt Climate Change Scenario and Its Implications for United States National Security. http://www.gbn.com/ [8] Bartsch U. and B. Mueller (2002) Fossil Fuels in a Changing Climate. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [9] Dannenberg A.L., R. Bhatia, B.L. Cole, S.K. Heaton, J.D. Feldman and C.D. Rutt (2008) Use of health impact assessment in the U.S: 27 case studies, 1999–2007. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 34(3): 241–256. [10] de la Rue du Can S. and L. Price (2008) Sectoral trends in global energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. Energy Policy 36(4): 1386–1403. [11] Krewitt W., S. Simon, W. Graus, S. Teske, A. Zervos and O. Schäfer (2007) The 2 °C scenario—A sustainable world energy perspective. Energy Policy 35(10): 4969–4980. [12] Desai M.A., S. Mehta and K.R. Smith (2004) Indoor Smoke from Solid Fuels. Assessing the Environmental Burden of Disease on National and Local Levels. Environmental Burden of Disease Series, No 4, World Health Organization, Geneva 2004. [13] Santamouris M., K. Kapsis, D. Korres, I. Livada, C. Pavlou and M.N. Assimakopoulos (2007) On the relation between the energy and social characteristics of the residential sector. Energy and Buildings 39(8): 893– 905.

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Experimenting with climate as a learning tool for the “architecture and climate (A+C)” undergraduate studio at UTFSM N. Hormazábal, P. Serrano & F. Hammersley Department of Architecture, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Valparaíso, Chile

Abstract This paper describes the experience of undergraduate design studios focused on architecture and climate (A+C). It summarises academic experiences realised at the Architecture School of UTFSM, Valparaiso, Chile. The learning process for design studio courses is based on the educational model known as social construction of knowledge combined with “learn by doing” and work-up methods. These studios are oriented toward experimentation with and experience of climate, naming them “the suffering of climate”, where climate is both that given by the latitude and the one which architecture creates. These studios take advantage of the Chilean reality of climates, considering the different climatic zones Chile has, from latitude 18° to 55°S, from the Pacific Ocean to the Andes Mountains. Therefore, each semester includes a field trip to extreme latitudes with extreme features to learn ‘in situ’ from it. We use methodologies and tools for learning from different programs, such as Vital Signs from UC-Berkeley and Tools for Climatic Design from Lund University combined with our own, where ‘show and tell’ from peers coming from different latitudes becomes an important input for learning. We firmly believe that environmental design (ED) topics must be a core part of architecture studio courses, given the importance architecture students give to it. Keywords: environmental design (ED), regional climate, educational tools, teaching experience in architecture, environmental design and studio courses.

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1

Introduction

This paper presents a book published at the beginning of 2007 about the work realized by the undergraduate studio courses at the School of Architecture at UTFSM. In many architecture schools, especially in Chile, topics related to climate, energy and environment in architecture are parallel to studio courses, and some times they are not even part of the study programs. Environmental design courses tend to be very theoretical and independent from studio courses. Therefore, most of the time climate aspects are not included in the design process; they appear, if they are considered, at a very late stage and as a result they are not truly integrated to design. The studio courses are based on the educational model of social construction of knowledge combined with the traditional “learn by doing” and “work-ups” methods. The main objective of these studios is the experimentation with and experience of climate, which we term “the suffering of climate”, in which climate refers both to that naturally given by latitude and geographical location and also that which architecture creates. Methodologies and tools for learning are adapted from different programs, such as Vital Signs [1] from UC-Berkeley and Tools for Climatic Design [2] from Lund University combined with our own ones, where ‘show and tell’ from peers coming from different Chilean latitudes becomes an important input for learning. We also believe that bioclimatic architecture topics must be a core part of architecture design studio courses, as architecture students rate it highly with respect to other courses. In this way, most of the issues directly related to environmental design in architecture are part of the studio, and this course has a large contribution toward the skills of the professional the school is graduating.

2

General situation

On November of 2006 ED academics had the opportunity to participate in a 2days Workshop titled: “Energy Efficiency in Architecture School Education” organized by two Chilean governmental programs: Energy Efficiency National Program (PPEE) [3] by the Minister of Economy and MECESUP 2, Bicentenary [4] by the Minister of Education. One of the aims of this workshop was to investigate the presence of environmental design issues in study programs among the 40 architecture schools existing in Chile. 25 schools participated, 5 of which have formal courses in energy and environmental design included in their programs. This bad situation should be reverted in a mid run given the agenda the government has implemented for education in regard to environmental issues. Since 2002 the A+C design studio it is normally taught at both formative and advanced levels, within our five-year program, the course is introduced at the 2nd year and it is offered for 4th and 5th year as one of the 4 studio choices. The first year it was offered, the A+C studio obtained less than 18% as first choice

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election out of the student universe. Currently it has reached about 27% as first choice. Also, students studying for their professional degree are choosing related ED topics as their final project or thesis. It has reached to a 35% of the graduating group today, compared to none it was on first year of graduation, on 2001. It is projected to grow more due to changes Chile is going through in regard to energy use in buildings.

3 A+C bioclimatic design studio courses at UTFSM 3.1 Context for experimentation, Chilean regions as the ED laboratory For the A+C studio, the main objective has been oriented to the experimentation and experience with climate, which we have called “the suffering of climate”, where climate is both the one naturally given by latitude and geographical location and the one architecture creates. Taking advantage of the Chilean reality of climates, considering the different climatic zones Chile contains, from latitude 18° to 55° South, from the Pacific Ocean to the Andes Mountains, altitude from 0 to over 4000 m, in this way our country itself becomes a laboratory for exploration. A typical Chilean region within 4 degrees of latitude can have 3 to five climatic zones, as the Coquimbo Region for example. Chile is divided in 7 macro climate zones plus Eastern Island semi tropical one. The division is made transversally from West (Pacific Ocean) to East (Andes Mountains) and from North (Atacama Desert) to South (Antarctica). 3.1.1 Experimentation phase: 1:1 scale work and field trip, team work Studio assignments are developed and proven on real time and context. The emphasis is on “learning by experience” through the exploration of materiality. In these cases building construction materials have to respond to the location and the use requirements for the assignment. Certain parameters are emphasized over others; different parameters are not taken into account at the same time. The body scale is the dominant one, and users are student themselves. Each semester includes a field trip to latitude with extreme features as the one shown in Table 1. Table 1: LOCATION Curarrehue Quebrada Verde Calama

LATITUDE 39º20’ S 33º02’ S 22º43’ S

Features of three locations of field trips. LONGITUDE 71º30’ W 71º36’ W 68º50’ W

ALTITUDE 1,500m 300m 2,500m

CLIMATE Zone 6, extreme climate. Mountainous. Zone 2, moderate climate. Littoral. Zone X, very extreme climate. Arid.

These assignments are partly based on the Vital Signs Project curriculum materials, “The project encourages architecture students to examine architectural, lighting… occupant well-being, and architectural spacemaking.”

40 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE [1], they called the “secret life of buildings” and their procedures include scientific research, questions and hypothesis related to how much do I know about the interior climate of this building? How comfortable is to inhabit, work, study, live, etc. in this building? How much energy this building consumes? We do adapt to our reality Vital Signs Project methodology combined with others and supported by the Bioclimatic Arch. Lab. instruments to help students to understand the physics of buildings, as a physician use the stethoscope to sound a patient. Capsule assignments are examples of demonstrative exercises, which experiment with “architecture’s climates” [5], where thermal comfort becomes the most important parameter. “Dressing by layers” becomes the architectural concept. Location, use, period and length of use and performance are analyzed, measured and tested. Another type of assignments will be one that brings students back to their own place, “beginning at home”. Students come from different Chilean regions, and therefore the studio becomes a collection of diverse climatic experiences and visions. A Valdivian -39º46’S, 3.000mm rain/year, most of year overcaststudent along with a Calama student -22º43’S, 24%RH, less than 4 days of rain a year, 3.000 W/m²year of solar radiation- have the most extreme and antagonist experiences. The rehabilitation of our studio classroom (Fig. 1) became our case study and body for experiment. A diagnosis of the interior climate of the studio place characterized it as: very bad acoustic, difficult for communication, fatigue due to reverberation, thermal stress, bad envelope quality, and lighting was good.

Figure 1:

Beginning with home assignments. Studio classroom rehabilitation.

3.1.2 Proposal phase: site and climate analysis, individual work After the experimentation phase, which is done in a more intuitive manner, students have acquired certain experience, learned to use some climatic design tools to move to the next stage. This occurs after the field trip when tools from the program “Tools for Climatic Design” from Lund University [2] become part of the studio process, where a more formal understanding of climate takes place. Therefore every student has to know the climatic features of the place where each proposal is going to be realised and comprehend how climate can inform the architectural form.

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Discussion and conclusion

Discussion of A+C issues in architectural education, concepts such as zero carbon, life cycle, embodied energy, local materials, air quality, comfort and health among others should be considered. If we start the discussion looking at the situation in developing countries, where buildings usually are designed without considering climate, instead there is a major tendency to implement foreign architectonic models. In the particular case of Chile, a good indoor climate could be achieved with little ED efforts, especially in Central and Northern areas. However, education is a crucial aspect that has to be implemented among all stages of society, especially on architecture and building studies. Buildings are poorly adapted to their climate because a lack of specific knowledge of architects, builders, planners and engineers. Because of the aforementioned on the above sections any contribution in education, especially in architecture schools is a task academics, ED educators overall, of high education institutions have to assume and commit to it, especially in developing nations. To finish I would like to quote a question stated by the Spanish architect Xavier Millet [7]: “Can an architect be called as such when his/her buildings are incapable of responding to the issues of our era?”

References [1] Vital Signs Project. Center for Environmental Design, University of California, Berkeley USA. http://arch.ced.berkeley.edu/vitalsigns/ [2] Architecture, Energy and Environment, AEE. “Tools for Climatic Design” Program. Department of Architecture and the Built Environment, Lund University, Lund, Sweden. [3] Energy Efficiency National Program (PPEE) by the Minister of Economy. Launched in January 2005. http://www.programapaiseficienciaenergetica.cl/# [4] MECESUP 2, Bicentenario. Programa de la Calidad y la Equidad de la Educación Superior (Equity and Quality Improvement of High Education Program) by The Minister of Education. Launched in 1997. [5] Serra, Rafael. Arquitectura y Climas. Ed. Gustavo Gili. 1999. [6] Hormazábal, Nina. Bioclimática, Architectura y Clima: Archivos de Taller. UTFSM. January 2007. [7] 2nd Meeting of Sustainable Building, Chilean Building Chamber, Santiago, 11/2006.

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Growth of the post-industrial city: densification and expansion – two models for sustainability on the urban scale S. Lehmann The University of Newcastle, Australia

Abstract This paper reports on research in the area of ‘Green Urbanism’ and new models for urban growth and neighbourhoods. Excessive fossil fuel dependency and the growing demand for energy are likely to be major challenges for urbanism in the 21st century, as cities need to transform from a fossil-based model to a model based on sustainable energy sources. Urban design and the fundamental principles of how to shape our cities have barely featured in the greenhouse debate. Much of the debate has so far circled around ideas about active technology for ‘eco-buildings’. This is surprising, given that avoiding mistakes in urban design at early stages could genuinely lead to more sustainable cities. The study deals with cross-cutting issues in architecture and urban design and addresses the question of how we can best cohesively integrate all aspects of energy systems, transport systems, waste and water management, passive and active strategies, natural ventilation and so on, into contemporary urban design and improved environmental performance of our cities. Two recent examples for the application of such urban design principles are the proposals for the Australian city of Newcastle: the ‘City Campus’ (densification model) and ‘Port City’ (expansion model). These case studies illustrate that it is less environmentally damaging to stimulate growth within the established city centre rather than sprawling into new, formerly un-built areas. Research in sustainable urban design recommends increased harnessing of the energies manifested in the existing fabrics, through the adaptive re-use of former industrial (brownfield) sites and upgrading of the existing building stock. Keywords: urban design principles, climate responsive ‘green urbanism’, compact communities, post-industrial cities in transition, renewable typologies.

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Introduction

The significance of the presented research is found in the pressing need for an integration of sustainability principles in the urban design process of postindustrial cities. This is of particular relevance to the rapid urban growth of Asian cities that have, in the past, frequently been poorly managed. Research in sustainable urban design recommends increased harnessing of the energies manifested in the existing fabrics – for instance, through the adaptive re-use of former industrial (brownfield) sites and the upgrade and extension of existing building structures. The two case studies for the application of such urban design principles are discussed through the ‘City Campus’ and ‘Port City’ projects.

2 Sustainable urban growth Global climate change, excessive fossil fuel dependency and the growing demand for energy are major challenges of the 21st Century. Research published by the Urban Land Institute (study ‘Growing Cooler’, 2007) gives comprehensive evidence that there is a connection between urban development and climate change. Sustainable urban growth of cities leads to human settlement that enables its residents to live a good quality of life while using minimal natural resources and supporting maximum biodiversity. These settlements could be typified by: urban consolidation to ensure that new homes are close to employment, education, shopping, health services, etc. giving the option to walk, bike, or public transport; residential typologies that are multi-storey and compact, to maximise the land available for green space and gardens and to avoid sprawl; buildings that make the best use of renewable sources, such as sun, wind, rainfall and bio waste; a high proportion of building materials that are designed for reuse and recycling; materials, food and other goods that are sourced from nearby, in order to cut CO2 emissions through transport.

3

Background to Newcastle City

What industries have closed down? Employment in manufacturing and heavy industries in the Hunter region has, historically, always been high (over 10per cent of the population). Steel manufacturing plants, smelters and ship building yards went out of business and closed in the years around 1985-95. Today, the formerly industrially used lands are brownfield sites in prime waterfront location. - What is Newcastle like now? The major urban regeneration development ‘Honeysuckle’ was started in 1992 with the NSW State Government’s ‘Building Better Cities’ program, and is now almost completed. It is redeveloping 50

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hectares of derelict land and buildings along Newcastle Harbour, adjacent to the CBD. The development has introduced apartment living to Newcastle; it is frequently accused of having sucked out the vitality of the Hunter Mall. However, until today, the Honeysuckle precinct remains an isolated fragment, only weakly connected to the existing city centre. There is now increasing pressure for there to be some large development investment in Newcastle through ‘dispersed mosaic projects’, such as the Royal Newcastle Hospital site, with a lack of an overall vision for the city.

‘Growth Area’ City West

Figure 1:

Heritage City East

Leisure Nobbys

The city of Newcastle is the capital of the Hunter Region, around 140 kilometres north of Sydney, in New South Wales (Australia). The greater population catchment is around 600,000 people. Newcastle city centre is located on a narrow peninsula, between the Pacific Ocean and the port. Through its close proximity to the city centre, the area around the Inner Harbour and Dyke Point (see ‘Growth Area’) is ideal for a sustainable city expansion along the waterfront. A particular problem causes the fracture of the city by the rail corridor between the harbour and the city centre. In Newcastle, as in Sydney, the 19th Century’s near total neglect of waterfront-as-leisure allowed the industrial railway to run right along the harbour’s edge, severing the centre from its own front room. The consequence is a series of underutilized and derelict spaces along this impermeable rail corridor.

- Predicted population growth: Most new jobs are created to build houses for new people arriving in Newcastle and the Hunter region. For Newcastle city centre, the predictions are: 10,000 new jobs and 6,500 new residents in the

46 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE next 25 years. In fact, since 1996, people have started to move back to the city centre, and, over the last ten years, it has witnessed a population increase of around 6,000.

4 Two urban design proposals: City Campus and Port City Today, large areas of formerly industrially used land – brownfield sites in prime waterfront locations – are becoming available for sustainable urban development or conversion into parkland. The following is a short description of two projects, City Campus and Port City. Both projects are based on a balanced approach and aim to include renewable energy technologies. They offer a great opportunity for Newcastle to grow and regenerate over the next twenty years. The two presented case studies to renew the post-industrial landscape are: By 2010 - The City Campus will be a major contribution to the densification and revitalization of the City Centre; By 2016 - The Port City will be a unique opportunity to expand the city centre along the waterfront. ‘City Campus – strategies for urban infill’ is a design study recently undertaken by the author, with the aim to accommodate educational facilities for 2,500 students in the area around Civic Park. The relocation of significant parts of the University from its 1960s suburban campus back to the city will increase the university’s presence and revitalise the neglected centre. A new landscape design for Civic Park is part of the project to get a high quality green space, green roofs and biodiversity within a sustainable neighbourhood. The City Campus will be based on optimised density and will include eco-buildings with ideal day-lighting conditions, where each city block gains maximum solar exposure for renewable energy generation, combined with good shading devices for western facades. The urban renewal of the existing city centre can be generated through such programs that carefully develop new densities around transport nodes or along park edges and cultural precincts, hereby improving the quality of urban life for all groups including the disadvantaged residents. ‘Sustainable neighbourhood’ has been defined as ‘a compact community cluster using as little natural resources as possible, with careful consideration for, and improvement of, public space.’ The City Campus will facilitate the revitalisation of the city centre and be instrumental in halting any further decline. The brief asks for university facilities, including a new public library, a flexible performing arts theatre space, buildings to relocate the Faculty of Business, and adjacent research and student services facilities, to be partially accommodated into new structures as well as into existing buildings. The design proposals were publicly exhibited and discussed, and key recommendations for practitioners and policy makers were formulated. The results of this study were publicly exhibited. City expansion along the waterfront: The ‘Port City’ proposal: The world’s most intriguing city centres are the ones located on the water edge and the most successful waterfront cities are those that are based on developments that celebrate the relationship between the city centre and the harbour. Large port

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Figure 2:

The ‘City Campus – strategies of Urban Infill’ studio, proposal (2007) by the author, with students Michael Smith and Tim Hulme.

Figure 3:

The ‘Port City – reclaiming the post-industrial waterfront’ studio, proposal (2007) by Bede Campbell and the author.

infrastructures juxtaposed with the cityscape is a constant inspiration for any planner. ‘Port City – reclaiming the post-industrial waterfront’ is part of the urban design study involving a cohort of final year architecture students. This project, which is based on strategies for reclaiming former industrially used waterfront land, is a mixed-use urban waterfront development of ten hectares, of which about half will be dedicated to public parkland. Once the industrial working harbour has moved up the Hunter River (in around seven to eight years), it is proposed to connect the Dyke Point peninsula with the city centre by a new pedestrian and cycle bridge, so that the now underutilised land can be turned into a sustainable city precinct. This mixed-use extension of the city centre along the desirable waterfront land is strongly connected to the Honeysuckle precinct by the footbridge. Forging this strong link between the city centre and the waterfront development, and integrating the existing Carrington community, are crucial to the success of the Port City. The aim for the Port City is to be a zero-

48 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE emission development, to demonstrate that it is affordable and achievable to make such a major new urban development carbon-free. All energy is to be provided by distributed power from a variety of sources – photovoltaic, wind, biomass and consideration of geothermal. Questions of density, scale, ecological footprint, urban public transport, solar orientation, and the maritime heritage of the working harbour are all critical to the project, as is the integration of the established Carrington community. The staging of the Port City development is to be used to drive the design approach, and could activate the existing Carrington Pump House as a catalyst and starting point. The Port City could offer 1500 units in this very special inner-city waterfront living and working environment.

References [1] [2] [3]

Breheny, Michael J., 1992, Sustainable Development and Urban Form. Pion Publishers Burton, E., 2000, The compact city: just or just compact? A preliminary analysis. In: Urban Studies, no 37 (11) Lehmann, Steffen, 2006, Towards a Sustainable City Centre: Integrating Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD) Principles into Urban Renewal. In: Journal of Green Building, Vol. 1, Number 3 (Summer 2006), College Publishing, Virginia, pp. 85-104

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The Jerusalem Eco-Housing Project G. Peled Architect and Project Initiator, Eco-Challenges, Israel

Abstract The Jerusalem Eco-Housing Pilot Project, the first of its kind in Israel, consists of the renewal of a typical multi-storey residential building, focusing on sustainable and affordable improvements to the building’s structure with the participation of the occupants in the process. The purpose of the project is to create specifications and procedures that can be widely implemented to improve the existing housing stock in historic and modern Jerusalem for the benefit of all its residents. For this, a methodology has been developed and applied, which tackles acute sustainable issues such as: energy efficiency, water conservation, use of materials, waste reduction, occupants’ wellbeing, health and safety, and disaster control. The paper and oral presentation describe the current status of the project, the sustainable measures applied, the replication potential, the achievements and the lessons learned. Keywords: sustainable, housing, Jerusalem.

1

Introduction

The fifty-year-old apartment building is typical of about half of the multi-storey residential buildings throughout the country (800,000, 10% in Jerusalem) which have reached the end of their first life cycle and are in need of renovation. The Pilot Project, initiated in 2002, has developed strategies for energy efficiency, water conservation, waste reduction, use of materials, alternative transport, occupants’ wellbeing, urban ecology, health and safety and disaster control. Initial reductions of 30%-50% in energy and water consumption and waste emissions have been achieved as well as the enhanced eco-awareness of the occupants.

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The physical structure

The building comprises eight 50m2 two and a half room and two 26m2 bedsit apartments on three floors over an entrance level, with a total built up area of 607m2 on a 577m2 plot. Construction method, typical of most Jerusalem houses, includes concrete and limestone cavity walls with concrete floors and roof. Partition walls are largely concrete bricks. Indoor finish is plaster and paint, terrazzo tiling, SG wooden and DG aluminium openings. Space heating systems are mostly electric radiators and some air-conditioning units. Water heating systems are mostly electricity powered, so far 50% of apartments have solar panels. Health and safety risks include asbestos content, condensation on walls, general wear and tear of building components.

3

The social structure

The 20 person multi-generational occupancy, in owner-occupied and rented apartments, has created a dynamic social network with an understanding of the benefits everyone can gain from this process. Occupants are involved in auditing and monitoring their energy and water consumptions in their households with each of them focusing on areas of special interest to them and sharing experiences between them. Informal gatherings in the communal stairwell or garden are the common way of exchanges of information, advice and support. The project has also enhanced the participation of occupants in joint activities and decision-making regarding upkeep of the building.

4 Methodology A survey of the building structure, including thermal imaging, has been carried out by various specialists, identifying issues requiring special attention. Strategies have been prepared to improve energy efficiency, water conservation, and waste reduction, as well as testing innovative ideas and technology. A work plan for implementation of sustainable and affordable measures has been set out according to the identified issues (see table 1). A database has been created to quantify and to monitor resources used in the operation. Occupants’ audits have enabled calculation of energy and water consumption, as well as their ecofootprints. These baseline figures enable evaluation and comparison with national averages, and with reduction levels in projects worldwide.

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Implementation Table 1:

Current status.

Issue

Method

Energy Efficiency

Energy saving lighting in communal areas & apartments Installing central underground gas storage tank (LPG) Waterproofing and insulating roof (phase 1)

Water Conservation

Restoring existing water cistern for irrigation Installing pump and computer drip irrigation system. Installing water saving devices in apartments

Waste Reduction

Recycling unit for batteries, bottles, textiles, paper Household organic waste unit for compost Retaining garden trimmings for compost

Use of Materials

Use of eco-friendly cleaning materials Clearing building waste from garden Reuse of building materials for new purposes

Alternative Transport

Creating a bicycle storage room in stairwell Mapping amenities within walking & cycling distance Encouraging use of public transport

Occupants’ Wellbeing

Creating recreation areas in shelter and garden Adding indoor plants & improving thermal comfort Planting herbs for occupants’ consumption

Health and Safety

Improving stairwell ventilation and smoke escape Replacing hazardous gas containers with safe storage Preparing a decommissioning plan for asbestos

Urban ecology

Installing nesting boxes on trees and netted fences Use of leaves as earth cover, mapping wild flora Creating a fruit and vegetable kitchen garden

Disaster control

Refurbishing bomb shelter to current standard Providing fire control and fire fighting equipment Review of building’s earthquake resistance

Eco-Awareness

Enhancing occupants’ participation & decision making Encouraging eco-friendly habits, audits and activities Preparing a carbon emission reduction scheme

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Promotion

The project is being promoted among relevant stakeholders in the country, applying a bottom-up top-down approach. Government ministries (interior, environment, energy and national infrastructure, housing), various municipalities, emerging companies of green technologies, practitioners, NGO’s as well as the wider public. The aim is to demonstrate feasibity of such projects on a wide scale as well as to create public private partnerships for their implementation. So far central and local government have been reluctant to fund eco pilot projects, therefore the cost of this project has been borne by the occupants and project initiator, with some assistance from green funds and companies. The project has been presented at various national and international venues as well in the local media.

7

Findings

Throughout the progress of the project we have developed and tested a strategy and methodology which has substantially reduced energy, water and waste emissions, up to 50%, and has contributed to improving the indoor environment, enhancing health and wellbeing, eliminating health and safety hazards, improving accessibility as well as improving building aesthetics,. The project is still underway and remains a continuous challenge in design and implementation, however it has already demonstrated the feasibilty and affordabilty of various sustainable measures for widespread application in the existing housing stock. Occupants and visitors have responded well to this initiative, understanding that improvements in health and environmental standards benefit them first and foremost, on a personal as well as on a national level. We have identified the project’s potential for replication, in old as well as new buildings and at neighbourhood level. Crucial factors for its success remain availability of funds, working together of public and private stakeholders, and occupants‘ participation. We hope this pilot project, a pioneer in Israel, will inspire others in the country and beyond.

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The Queensland Architectural Practice Academy: a new model in industry-focused education J. Clarke Practice Manager, Architectural Practice Academy, Department of Public Works, Queensland, Australia

Abstract In the British/Australian contexts, five years of full-time education and two years of approved practical experience together prepare the graduate for the requirements of registration. In Australia, one of the two years of approved practical experience may be obtained during the five years of university study although few register in the allowable timeframe. In fact, in our local context of Queensland, research shows a situation of declining registrations. The path to registration is often not resolved within the minimum two-year period and there are impediments to the traditional processes of internship and mentoring by the architectural industry. This paper presents a study of the Queensland Architectural Practice Academy (APA) as a distinctive setting for the post-university education and for individual professional development of architectural graduates, towards registration and public service to the regional community. It is an initiative of the Royal Australian Institute of Architects (RAIA) and the Queensland State Government’s Department of Public Works and a legacy of Australia’s 2004 Year of the Built Environment and in collaboration with the universities. It embodies the values of Queensland’s ‘Smart State’ Policy towards excellence in practice, working smarter and skilling professionals to serve the state wide regions. The APA each year takes in six graduates from Queensland universities for a two-year period of internship, employment and training. At any one time, there are six junior and six senior interns and in pairs they cycle through practicebased roles as they build their competencies (within the framework prescribed by the Architects Accreditation Council of Australia). The graduates are supervised by the APA director and mentored by local practitioners. Initially supported by seed funding from the Queensland Government the APA is a not-for-profit but self-sustaining architectural practice with one third of projects and fees deriving from Government sponsored projects, one third from Public Corporations and one third from private clients. To date, APA interns have all successfully completed registration at the conclusion of their tenure. In addition to describing the contexts, frameworks and operations of the practice as both prototype and exemplar, this paper reflects on the broader applicability of the APA as a model of industry-focused cooperative postgraduate education in practice, and a regenerative process towards building the local profile and expertise of registered practitioners. Keywords: internship, practice competencies, work-based education, collaboration.

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Background

The Architectural Practice Academy (APA) Queensland is both an experimental and successful implementation of a new initiative in Architectural Practice education. This paper shows how this innovative program is contributing to the Queensland Government’s Department of Public Works’ strategies for: dealing with skills shortages in the design professions. providing and promoting architectural services to more remote and regional sections of the State, contributing to a new paradigm in Architectural Design practice. In addition to describing the contexts, frameworks and operations of the Practice as both prototype and exemplar, this paper reflects on the broader applicability of the APA as a model of industry-focused, cooperative, postgraduate education in practice, and a regenerative process towards building the local profile and expertise of registered practitioners. The Australian State of Queensland is undergoing an unprecedented growth in its economy, population and development. In ten years, Queensland’s population has increased from 3,240,000 to 4,233,000 (Source: ABS 3101.0 Australian Demographic Statistics.). The Gross Domestic Product in 1997 was $31,159 (Source: Queensland Treasury, Queensland State Accounts, September Quarter 2008.); currently the Gross Domestic Product is $51,259. The number of building approvals in Queensland in 1997 was 138,632; currently the number of building approvals is 175,536 (Source: ABS 8731.0 Building Approvals, Australia.). The construction industry estimates that the current investment per annum is approaching $13.6 billion (Source: ABS 8762.0 Engineering Construction Activity, Australia.). In addition, Queensland has experienced unprecedented levels of low unemployment, and shared the benefits of a global resources boom, which has had its effect on a significant proportion of the economy in the areas of resource extraction and value adding. These developments have all had an obvious effect on production, and this is reflected in the labour market with an increase in skills shortage across specific industries. The construction industry and the building consulting professions are among the hardest hit. Engineers are in shortest supply, followed closely by architects and other design and construction professionals. In response the Queensland Government has developed a long-term strategy of providing Queensland with a firm base of knowledgeable, practical and broad-skilled architects based on the education, training and on-the-job exposure for younger architects. Currently, these opportunities are not being offered by higher education or industry in the time, place or form now required by Queensland’s overstretched architectural industry. New and different forms of internship for graduate architects are needed, as well as an increase in the number of internships. In the British, Australian and Queensland contexts, five years of full-time education and two years of approved practical experience prepare the graduate architect for the requirements of architectural registration. In Australia, one of the two years of approved practical experience may be obtained during the five

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years of university study, although few register in the allowable timeframe of two years. In fact, in the local context of Queensland, research shows a situation of declining registrations. It is unclear why registrations are frequently not taken up in the minimum two year period, but there are impediments to the traditional processes of internship and mentoring by higher education organisations and the architectural industry. The current practice roll of architects published by the Board of Architects, Queensland has been assessed as 1,540 practising architects (Board of Architects Practice architect roll June 2007 - 2332 total, 320 estimated as retired, 472 interstate list. June 1987 - 1599 total, 207 estimated as retired, 319 interstate list.). The Queensland Chapter of the Royal Australian Institute of Architects (RAIA) statistics (RAIA Membership Statistics Feb 2008 - total 1528, 847 RAIA practice level, 14 affiliates, 10 academic, 247 graduate, 85 retired, 58 honorary, 239 student architects .) show 1,094 architects to be practising members. This represents the current proportion of architects serving the Queensland population of 4,233,000, as in the order of 1 per 2,748 persons. This a marginal decline in 20 years from 1 per 2,454 persons (population based on Australian Bureau of Census and Statistics 2005), but a real decline in accessibility to the significant numbers of new projects required and the increasingly demanding regulatory burden on architects. The APA Queensland is presented in this context as a distinctive setting for post-university education, and for individual professional development of architectural graduates towards registration and public service to the regional community. The APA is an initiative of the Queensland Government’s Department of Public Works and the RAIA, and is a legacy of Australia’s 2004 Year of the Built Environment in collaboration with the universities. It embodies the values of Queensland’s ‘Smart State’ vision towards excellence in practice, working smarter and skilling professionals to serve Queensland’s regions. This innovative program has been established as a self-funding prototypical practice. The Department of Public Works has provided support by partial funding for the initial establishment of the APA, and has also been supportive and generous in its models of budgetary funding and funds recovery implementation. Currently, the operation of the APA is primarily funded through fee revenue from project work performed by the APA. Industry partners have also been able to sponsor specific programs undertaken by the APA. Each year, the APA takes on six graduates from Queensland universities for a two-year period of internship, employment and training. At any one time, there are six junior and six senior interns and, in pairs, they cycle through practicebased roles, being both the administrators of the practice and designers, project managers and the documenters of the specific architectural projects they strategically direct. The graduates are supervised by the APA Practice Manager, and mentored by committed and invited local practitioners, and supported by Government building professionals. It is both envisaged and demonstrated through the APA programs, education and exemplar projects, that there is a fostering of best practice architecture, new benchmarks in sustainability and service, and the iteration of government policy

56 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE into well-managed project outcomes. This has been validated by the successful completion of well-designed buildings. As the interns undertake projects and the management of the practice, they build their skills and knowledge from a complex interplay of industry and selfprepared professional development programs, departmental training and cooperative communication with Project Services (the incorporated building consulting practice of the Department of Public Works), experience from a variety of architectural projects and the differing roles in project experience, and from the mandatory responsibility for running the Practice. The culmination of the two-year program is the mandatory and stated requirement to successfully achieve competencies, and to sit the Board of Architects of Queensland Practice Examinations (defined within the framework prescribed by the Architects Accreditation Council of Australia). To date, all finishing interns have successfully achieved the requirements for Practice Registration. To date, approximately one-third of projects and fees have come from Government sponsored projects, one-third from public or local government corporations, and one-third from private corporations or clients. The APA does not normally compete in the open market for the selling of architectural services but negotiates with clients on the specific understanding that the services are being provided by non-registered interns under the mentorship of registered professionals. Understandably, to meet the required competencies, the mix of service type varies across the whole spectrum from planning, urban and pre-design services through design development, tendering and contract administration and ultimately, to post-occupancy services. Within these structures, APA interns are expected to act as project leaders, contract administrators to builders, and in Principal and Coordinating roles to allied design consultants. Design and building types are as equally varied as the interns’ roles. Projects range from minor interior fit outs, housing and multi-unit dwellings through to complex facilities such as health, mental health and aged care facilities. Urban projects, such as pedestrian bridges, landscape renewal and urban design analyses, add another broad spectrum of project types, while contribution to publications and architectural scientific research add complexity rarely found in all but major architectural practices. In the short period since its inception, the APA has undertaken hundreds of projects across the State ranging from historic buildings work, urban design, building design, campus planning and sustainable housing. Also included are many projects in the rapidly increasing region of South East Queensland, including health and aged care facilities, urban design and campus studies for new urban villages, sporting facilities, police training establishments and ambulance stations. The projects by type and site show the commitment of the APA to serving Queensland’s regions in which the general architectural industry have been unable to keep up with demand. In their management roles, the interns collaborate closely with their colleagues on different projects on a weekly or daily basis. The need to consult

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on office resources, financial control and deadline management is real and constant. Twice in their two-year program, each intern must take on the roles and responsibilities of a wide range of office roles. The APA interns must report bi-monthly on the state of affairs of the APA to the Advisory Board, which is chaired by the Executive Director (the General Manager, Project Services), and to the sitting members, comprising of the Chief Architect of Project Services, the President of the RAIA (Queensland), the Practice Manager and, as required by the Chairperson of the Board, any other members of the APA network of supporters including the University of Queensland and the Queensland University of Technology architecture schools. In fact, the APA relies heavily on, and is indebted to, its supporters and patrons. Without this support, the interns would not receive the mentoring or the support for the APA’s ongoing operations and longevity. There is no doubt about the success of the APA, with two years of graduate’s achieving their Practice Registration requirements. The APA has received commendations and awards from the RAIA and the Queensland Government for its individual success, the program, for individual designs, and the practice of architecture. Clients continually offer return commissions, which is a testament to the professionalism with which the interns deliver their projects. There will be more challenges and opportunities to embrace in the future, as the nature of architectural practice is changing. The APA will need to understand and deal with the nature of integrated practice. The profession should continue to retain the leadership of integrated practice and this can only be undertaken by the continual renewal and understanding of that leadership role. Also, the use of Building Information Modelling will need to be implemented to a far greater extent, with the obvious need for continuous and advanced training in specialties of software applications for the modelling process. With the wider specialisation in industry, there is a growing need for a seamless collaboration of practice and architectural research. The APA is in a better position than any other organisation of its type to assume this role with little adjustment to its work practice. Already there are project evaluations being undertaken by interns and clients, such as Queensland Rail, in a collaboration of architectural science and practice. Hopefully, this will be extended into 2009 by other supporters, depending on grant funding. In conclusion, the APA is a complete success in Queensland and no doubt many of its successes stem from a State that is at the forefront of innovation and industry cooperation. The APA has achieved the kind of success that happens when like-minded partners collaborate with a vision for the future. The APA was founded as a result of the Queensland Government’s Smart State policies and, having found its success, remains an exemplar to all other states of Australia, as well as providing a model for any number of similar architectural jurisdictions in Scotland, Ireland, Canada and possibly on a Federal basis in the United States of America.

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Architectural education for an “Age of Sustainability” M. W. Mehaffy Sustasis Foundation, USA

Abstract In response to climate change and other environmental challenges, most schools have already added courses in building energy efficiency, sustainable materials and the like. But we argue that a much larger step-change looms ahead, one that must address much wider whole-systems phenomena. New inter-disciplinary topics must include urban systems, evidence-based design, qualitative and “biophilic” factors. The role of existing and historic local structures must also be recognised, and tools developed for their preservation and development. Students must learn “meta-skills” – collaboration, leadership, research – to overcome modern economic, technological and cultural limitations. Keywords: interdisciplinary curriculum, sustainability, urbanism, evidencebased design, biophilia.

1

Introduction

Among architectural educators there is wide recognition of the need for an educational “step-change” in response to looming environmental challenges, and in particular the crisis posed by climate change. Indeed, buildings account for roughly half of the total emissions of greenhouse gases, and therefore more efficient building design must surely play a key role in an effective climate change strategy. In response, many schools have already added courses in building energy efficiency, sustainable materials and the like. A “step-change” is indeed under way; but we argue here that it will necessarily become far more radical in scope, beginning with its current relatively modest beginnings.

2 The new urban agenda Already it is clear that buildings cannot be treated in isolation, as they are not static emitters of fixed quantities of greenhouse gas. Rather they are elements of

60 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE a dynamic urban system that profoundly affects the activities and consumption patterns of users, which in turn profoundly affects emissions. Among other factors we must take into account the proximity of buildings to one another, their densities, their average size, and their placement within a well-connected, walkable neighbourhood that affords a viable low-carbon way of life. This “systems approach” will entail a new emphasis on the study of urbanism as an integrated discipline within any sustainable architecture curriculum. Other subtle factors appear to play a role in emissions and may also be critical to a successful low-carbon design strategy. For example, it is now known that certain classes of aesthetic perceptions, particularly experiences of natural vegetation, can lower the apparent comfort threshold and result in successful lower-energy conditioning. Access to sunlight and other “biophilic” factors appear to play similar beneficial roles in consumption patterns and offer significant opportunities for lower-carbon design. These perceptions do not stop at the building envelope, but extend into the views and experiences beyond – that is, into the larger urban system. At the urban scale, the behaviour of pedestrians, and their inclination to walk or use other modes besides the automobile, appears to depend greatly on the aesthetic character and harmony of the streetscape. The aesthetic character of public spaces seems to play a direct role in the activity patterns of users, their sense of comfort and willingness to interact in low-carbon activities. So-called “evidence-based design” helps to reveal biophilic and other key spatial characteristics, and gives designers new tools to facilitate low-carbon activities and other environmental benefits. As we develop additional “green” features for new buildings, we are also beginning to recognise the vast store of resources embodied in existing buildings. In many cases it will be a much lower-carbon strategy to retrofit and regenerate existing buildings than to build new ones, after taking into account the production of new materials and the costs of maintenance and repair. Likewise, we are beginning to recognise that the “software” of older buildings as well as the “hardware” – their design patterns as well as their construction – often offer viable low-carbon strategies for us today. These include passive energy features, durable and adaptive design, and response to biophilic principles. This is not so surprising, since older buildings often evolved to adapt successfully to a time when much lower-carbon technology was the rule. Nor can climate change be treated in isolation from other current challenges. It is worth remembering that if the climate challenge were somehow miraculously resolved tomorrow, we would still be faced with a daunting mix of sustainability challenges, including resource depletion, habitat destruction, degradation of soil and water, growing political and social instability, endemic economic failures and inequities, and other grave threats to human well-being. Architects increasingly will be called to respond to these challenges along with other professions. That in turn requires that they be educated generalists, literate in other urban disciplines, and able to collaborate effectively with other specialists.

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Barriers to reform

The need for this step-change comes at a time when the relevance of current architectural education and practice is already under challenge by prominent critics and commentators. One challenge is the insidious effect of current economic pressures. Kenneth Frampton (2005), echoing other critics, has written of the trend toward the “commodification” of architecture, and the emergence of “architainment”, serving as little more than branding for global corporate interests – even while it aspires to be artistically and politically challenging. Deyan Sudjic (2005) is one of a number of prominent critics who have attacked the excessive focus on iconic buildings as marketing brands, and argued that their much-hyped economic benefits are largely ephemeral (e.g. the so-called “Bilbao Effect”). A related factor is the effect of production technology, as it is manifested in low-cost, expedient production methods for large parts of the built environment. In many cases these are based on relatively rigid “modern” methods of standardisation and replication. As Christopher Alexander (2004) and other theorists have noted, this limitation forecloses major classes of natural morphology generated through iterative processes of differentiation and local adaptation. Alexander and others have noted that biological systems are more robust – and more “sustainable” – precisely because they use these more adaptive morphogenetic processes, and are not limited by rigid, pre-planned template designs for production. A third factor, in part a response to the other two, is the modern emphasis on architecture as a fine art, and in particular an exploration of visual culture applying the limited morphologies of industrial production. But this is a dangerously non-urban approach that treats the city as a kind of sculpture gallery. Worse, it demands a steady stream of extraordinary novelties and eschews the well-adapted but perhaps visually subtle solutions that may be needed for a sustainable city. At its worst it becomes a kind of artistic “magical thinking” that reduces the complex response needed for a sustainable city to a pure semiotic exercise: packaging the programme in a sufficiently brilliant expression of our modern condition, without really addressing it. But this quest for rarefied novelty is a distraction from credible architectural leadership in the more ordinary parts of the built environment, and those that need such leadership the most: the houses, shops and offices where most of life is lived – and, not insignificant for sustainability issues, where most resources are consumed.

4 Complexity and its lessons Fortunately, other disciplines offer useful models for the radical and effective curricular reforms that will be necessary. Most useful, we suggest, will be those of the burgeoning fields of complexity science. Their urban lessons were articulated early and brilliantly by Jane Jacobs (1961), most notably in her famous description of “the kind of problem a city is”. She noted that a city is a system exhibiting “organised complexity,” or mutually influential variables,

62 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE “interrelated into an organic whole.” Planners and architects misunderstand this with dire consequences for the success (and sustainability) of modern cities. Our forms of representation and exchange -- our best practices -- must come to reflect this deeper state of interconnectedness and urban wholeness. In principle this is straightforward, although this will require radical reforms within economic, technological and artistic cultures. We can summarise these lessons as follows: • Students must learn to work within whole urban systems, treating them not as collections of fixed objects but as temporal, evolving structures; • Students must become much more inter-disciplinary in their thinking, learning the lessons of economics, ecology, sociology and other fields; • Students must learn “meta-skills” such as research, facilitation and collaboration with other disciplines and specialists; • Students must learn a broader conception of design, not only as a linear expression of artistic intentionality or programmatic extrapolation, but as an evolutionary and collaborative process of artfully managing emergence and urban self-organisation; • Students must learn the discipline of evidence-based design, taking into account social, medical, qualitative and “biophilic” factors; • Students must learn to engage the means of production, and to apply more robust adaptive, iterative methods for developing qualitatively superior, cost-effective structures; • Students must recognise the powerful resources embodied in existing structures, and in their traditional patterns of “collective intelligence”, and learn to mine them effectively and regenerate them authentically; • Students must be prepared to subordinate expressions of visual culture to a wider civic discipline, and integrate work successfully within it. We suggest that the agenda of sustainable building will increasingly challenge the architectural and urban professions, and their educational preparation. Civilisation as a whole may be increasingly unwilling to indulge a profession that is more preoccupied with selling a brand (their client’s or their own), or with arcane artistic expressions of limited industrial technology, than with finding effective new ways of preserving and enhancing the natural and cultural foundations on which well-being and even survival will depend. For the profession, this will surely be a painful challenge, but also a hopeful opportunity.

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Beauty of environmental architecture: finding ideas in representation Z. Karczewska Montana State University, USA

Abstract This paper does not attempt to set an agenda for architectural education. It is rather an idea and a wish for what may happen in the next 50 years. There are very obvious issues that architects have to embrace in the near future. We have to start creating buildings that work with the environment and not against it. In order for that to happen globally that way of thinking has to penetrate our common mindset. The most natural way for this to happen is through the education of the young architects. My belief is that during the next 50 years in architecture schools both teachers and students will be trying to answer the question of what the beauty of environmental architecture is. Keywords: beauty, aesthetics, environment, natural force.

1

Introduction

It is quite clear that we, as a society and as architects, will have no choice but to change the way we relate to the environment. We need to start thinking of ourselves as a part of the natural world and not as the masters of it. As architects, we have to start creating structures that work with the environment and not against it. It has been often thought that a building is an important manmade artefact that stands in opposition to nature and thus proclaims our superiority and independence from it. That mindset and attitude has not been exclusive to the field of architecture but it has been adopted more widely, in many disciplines. Of course, there are multiple voices calling for the radical change in how we do things and how we behave, but it is very clear that what we need is a complete change of the attitude. In other words we need a paradigm shift (Kuhn [1]). Since buildings are one of the most important and influential man-made artefacts that are placed in the natural world, they use 40% of total

64 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE energy that we produce and the way that we design and produce buildings has a huge impact on the environment, architects must be a major if not the leading part of that paradigm shift. The majority of architects are people of passion. We cannot thrive and be inspired simply by being responsible, using the right materials and technology. We need to find excitement and aesthetic satisfaction in environmental design. In addition, as James Wines noted, people in general do not care to keep buildings that are not beautiful even if they are environmentally friendly. That means that buildings that are smart but not beautiful are not fully sustainable (Wines [2]).

2

New understanding of beauty

I would like to propose that the necessary shift of mindset, that I mentioned earlier, could come with a new understanding and ideal of beauty. In order to understand how it could be established one could look to the ideas of beauty that were prevalent in western culture in the pre-renaissance epochs, in Ancient Greece, Middle Ages and early Renaissance. In all these aesthetic models the conventions of beauty were derived from something bigger than a man. Proportions, harmony and beauty came from the cosmic understanding of the world, the relationship within the universe, understanding of what God and His ways in the Heavens and Earth were. Men were seen as a part of the overarching system. Because the ideals of beauty in those cultures came from something bigger than man, beauty was understood as a public and common idea rather than a subjective and individual experience. Beauty was not debatable but publicly established. It is clear that we cannot bring back the medieval or ancient ideals and simply accept them today. There is too much thought, science, philosophy, history etc between today and then. We need to look for our own basis to build these common ideas. In addition, the new understanding of beauty is only a part of the necessarily changing mindset that would relate to the general understanding of the world. That understanding would embrace the world as a set of phenomena very closely interrelated rather than a number of compartments and disciplines that focus exclusively on a single part of the world. Michael Benedikt talks about this new theory in relation to architecture: “Such new theory should explore the circle route from architecture through cosmology, thermodynamics, and complex systems, through biology, and evolutionary theory, through social psychology and psychology, through economics and economic history and back again to architecture, to show that the activities of designing and making buildings and of organizing, forming and planting the land are so deeply rooted in the doings of the universe that they must elaborate themselves alongside all other human activities, not self-simplify and flatten if we are to be happy on this planet.” (Benedikt [3]). If we understand the different realms of the world as closely related to each other we will necessarily find beauty in those relationships. Architectural education seems to be a very appropriate tool for instigating that shift on a large scale. Through it the subsequent generations of architects are

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formed and so they could be introduced to the new ideals at their formative years of education which could than influence the convictions of the profession. This paper is a speculation on how through architectural education we could take on the instigation of the large scale change in the mindset of the architects. It also should be understood that this paper presents only one of very many ways that this may happen. 2.1 The project; membrane I would like to introduce a design studio project which was developed for second year studio at the University of Kansas and is a very small scale example of how one could bring that new approach to aesthetics and thought to the early design studio class. Since my primary interest is in representation and the relationship between the representation and the thing that is represented, the project that I am going to talk about here is also developed within that realm. The structure of the project revolves around a series of representations of essentially the same idea (Paz [4]). The appearance and physicality of each actual artifact (representation) changes but the essence of it remains the same. Each representation takes on the specific characteristics of the used media, materials and techniques which allow us to see the idea in a particular light and from a particular point of view. Each next representation retains something of the previous ones and in the end of the process we end up with the manifestation of the idea/essence which is complex and rich with the traces of the previous embodiments. In this project students were asked to find and research a natural, living skin which could be human, animal or plant skin. They were then asked to design a wall that would moderate light, air and heat. The idea was to find two different phenomena analogous to each other but belonging to two different disciplines of knowledge, find a relationship between them and draw from that relationship in order to create a specific performance and consequently form. A skin and a wall relate to each other in that they both are membranes that contain and protect some things, must allow certain things through and block the others. That first step – setting up the specifics of the problem and finding the two related phenomena was the task of the instructor. The first task of the students was to research their chosen skin and understand how that skin works and clarify their understanding of the essence of the skin as its performance. The first time when this idea took on a physical and visual manifestation was in the graphic presentation of the research. The students re-presented their findings visually on boards. The text and images were important, but their placement on the surface of the boards and the physical relationship among them were equally crucial. After presenting their research and creating their first physical realization of the relationships and processes the students needed to find tools such as materials, techniques and forms for developing their walls. They were encouraged to find their own way to intuitive or scientific understanding of various materials. Each student experimented with a few materials of their choice. There was only one directive to their experimentations: outcome of each experiment needed to be closely examined for the performance of the material as

66 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE we wanted to find what the material does rather than what it looks like. The next experiment was to be set up to follow and build on the preceding one. Since, immediately before working with the materials the students completed their skin research, the performance and working of their respective skins was latently on their minds. In result the experiments that they were setting up were inherently directed towards exploring materials’ behaviour that would relate and parallel the behaviour of their respective skins. One could perceive these material studies as an attempt to find another re-presentation or re-embodiment of the processes taking place within the skins. At this point the students had the tools they needed and were able to start thinking of how to design a wall. The design of the wall was another, very crucial if not the most crucial embodiment of the idea/essence that we started with. That idea was the performance and works that we found in the skin. Thus the wall became the next re-presentation of the skin. The “harmony” of the natural system – the skin, became inherently present in the wall. It may have to do with proportions understood as a physical form or with proportions understood as the ethical quality of something (Eco [5]).

3

Conclusion

The project kept unfolding in consequent representations for the rest of the semester. We worked on re-presenting the wall itself as a section drawing revealed by the air, light and heat. We used the wall sections to develop a conceptual building section and we devoted the rest of the semester to development of that building on a specific site and with specific program. I think that this project was valuable because it offered students a chance to create things that are tentative, awkward and definitely not beautiful in the conventional way accepted by a traditional school of architecture. I believe that in this project students tried to discover a new language. Because this language was abstracted from and re-presented the essence, it offered the chance to create the new consensus and to approach the new collective understanding of beauty which will again become individual only after being absorbed collectively.

References [1] Kuhn, T., Structure of Scientific Revolution, Chicago, 1996. [2] Wines, J., Green Architecture, Koln, p.14, 2000. [3] Benedikt, M., Less for Less Yet; On Architecture’s Value(s) in the Marketplace, Harvard Design Magazine, volume 7, pp. 1–7, 1999. [4] Paz, O., Marcel Duchamp; Appearance Stripped Bare, New York, pp. 91– 178, 1991. [5] Eco, U., History of Beauty, New York, p.89, 2004.

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Activism as both research and pedagogy: projects in support of greening the UW System J. Wasley Department of Architecture, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, USA

Abstract For the last five years, the author has directed graduate design courses towards challenging the various campuses of the UW Wisconsin System to build high performance green buildings and landscapes. This combination of research, activism and pedagogy has progressed down three paths. The first is the design studio-based investigation of actual campus building projects for various UW System campuses. The second involves an interdisciplinary master-planning research project and a series of landscape demonstration projects dealing with ecological storm water management. The third involves staging public events to bring these issues to the attention of the administration. This paper will trace the common thread of activism in all three activities; one of which would typically be categorized as teaching, one as research, and one as service. It will argue for an expanded vision of academic research that includes the fruits of such activism as research products. Keywords: activism, green campus, design studio, green building, storm water, master-planning.

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Introduction

In the spirit of ‘rethinking architectural education for the next 50 years,’ this paper is a rough first attempt to define what I would call ‘activist’ research by distinguishing it from ‘scholarly’ and ‘creative’ research. I am assuming both that activism toward environmental sustainability is the call to arms of this conference, and that activism as conceived of here is actually a better description of the work of many design educators than either scholarly or creative research. Academia neatly divides the activities described here into the three categories of ‘teaching, research and service.’ Activism could be located conceptually as a

68 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE fourth category and this is a claim that I have made casually in the past; that my work is comprised of ‘teaching, research, service, and activism.’ This doesn’t reduce the ambiguity that is the reason for this paper, which is that many of the activities common to architectural education both blur these distinctions and pursue objectives not captured by either the abstract pursuit of knowledge or artistic expression. So what does ‘activism’ look like?

2

‘Activist teaching’ – UW System building projects

As a result of hosting the first ‘UW System Green Campus Symposium,” In the fall of 2003 I was invited by the interim dean of the Gaylord Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies on the UW Madison campus to teach a design studio using their proposed building project as its subject. Our mutual goal was to have students of architecture explore the potentials for the building in a way that would help the Institute better understand its desires, generate fund-raising materials and create enthusiasm for the project within the environmental studies faculty. The dean provided $5,000 to pay for the production of exhibit materials, and thus was born an ongoing effort to run funded studios promoting environmentally progressive building projects within the 12 campuses of the UW System. The site for this project offered by the campus planning office turned out in the end to be so controversial that, as described elsewhere, the most significant effect of this initial exploration was to see the site reclassified as a new ‘campus natural area.’ We take this to be a wholly appropriate outcome of our activist research, in that as a speculative design exercise engaging a real project, we effected real change in the UW Madison campus plan. The fact that this was not the outcome that either the campus planner or the Director of the Institute was expecting points out the utility of engaging students to test these waters. Both learned valuable information with little loss of face. What followed points to the difficulty of separating teaching, research and service when the frame of reference is activism. Before the first semester had ended, I presented the student’s progress to the Board of Directors of the Institute. As a result of that meeting and the subsequent controversy over the site, a Board member came forward with an additional $5,000 to sponsor a second design studio and a summer research project that would proceed it to pre-screen alternate sites . The second studio successfully examined the architectural and environmental potential of the selected sites. Challenging the directives of the campus masterplan, four of the 12 students chose to explore the potential for adaptively reusing buildings that are currently slated to be demolished; seeing this as the ecologically more progressive alternative. These schemes were developed and presented to campus faculty, administrators and the general public, and the resulting press coverage announced to the world that the Madison campus would soon ‘get its first green building.’ At this point, the Director of the Institute was replaced by a new Director who did not see the building as her agenda and the project was shelved. The question arises: Is this activism research? If the goal is

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to change the culture of the institution, is the public anticipation created by a newspaper article in fact a legitimate research product without a new building to deliver on the promise? To frame this activity differently, what the offer to teach design studios as a means of promoting the construction of green buildings by the UW System proposes is to use architectural course work as the foundation for a consulting service that is internal to the University System. The gambit all along has been to eventually see the Division of State Facilities contribute financially to this effort… perhaps in the Dutch model of the Government subsidizing its environmental critics as a means of forging consensus. Predictably, this hasn’t come to pass. So when is architectural consulting legitimately considered ‘research,’ and why is it so often not?

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‘Activist research’ – UWM as a zero-discharge zone

To come at the question of activism as research from another perspective, consider the product of an actual funded research project; the UWM as a ZeroDischarge Zone Masterplan. This study of the potentials for our urban campus to retain stormwater on site was conceived of in the same spirit as the sponsored studios; as directed student and faculty research aimed at fomenting change in the culture of the University. One result of this research that has played out to the activist script has been the relationship that I have developed with the facilities manager and the director of our student housing, resulting in the replacement of the 35,000 s.f. roof of the commons building between our campus housing towers with a green roof. This is a case where the research agenda leads to the construction of an actual demonstration project, and yet at the end of the day the result of getting the green roof built has less ‘research’ standing in the traditional sense than the original master planning document. This raises the question of what makes activism legitimate as research not just when it fails to change the landscape, but when it is successful. As a demonstration project, the Sandburg Commons represents the largest green roof constructed in Wisconsin and the first fully integral green roof that the Division of State Facilities has overseen. As a work of activism I would thus claim that its greatest achievement is that it has forced the State to develop specification language that I have now circulated to several other architects working on State projects. It has changed the landscape of what is can be asked of the State. On the other hand, one could easily argue that spurring the construction of a well established commercial roofing system does not constitute research. A second aspect of the project is the aesthetic component of the design of the green roof, and we could judge its merits as ‘creative research’ on the critical attention that this receives. The aesthetic design is something that I have been responsible for, though I have often presented it as the work of my students and they deserve much credit as well as provide much useful political cover in dealing with the administration. In fact, I have no ‘official’ standing on the project, though I have

70 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE been at the centre of every decision. The actual ‘author’ of the project would be the engineering firm that the Division of State Facilities hired to produce the construction drawings. Would being on the State payroll make it research? No. Is this successful research only if the result is judged critically significant from an aesthetic point of view? Even if it is, this misses my true objective of transforming the culture of the campus. In terms of generating new knowledge, the project does involve an actual physical experiment. A portion of the roof will be planted with Wisconsin native species, also a first for the region. This ‘demonstration’ is made more vivid by the fact that weight limitations have mandated an extremely shallow growing medium – far more shallow than is considered appropriate for the plants that we will attempt to grow. As a result, we are prepared for them all to die, and from a scientific perspective this will validate the experiment in the negative. But as ‘scholarly research’ this has more to do with the student in biological sciences that selected the native plants than it does with my aesthetic and activist agenda. If the plants die, I may be able to claim an advancement of knowledge, but I fear that the cause of adopting a green roof policy will be set back. Does this matter?

4

Tentative conclusions

So what would be the measure of successful research for either the faculty led student consulting work in the guise of coursework or the green roof demonstration project? A ‘scholarly’ research perspective would narrow the measures to provable results, generating new knowledge and presented in academic venues. A ‘creative’ research perspective would narrow the measures to critical acclaim for different but equally limited aspects of each project. Neither get at the intention of fostering a change in the culture of the institution. I would thus claim that ‘activist’ research is a separate category that sits between ‘scholarly’ and ‘creative’ research. For most academics in ‘creative’ fields such as architecture, this may in fact be the nature of their creative practice in as much as they strive to be both speculative and reflective, and to reflect social and ethical as well as scientific and aesthetic concerns. My point in distinguishing them is to say that the measures of success may be very different and need to be framed on their own terms.

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Changing paradigms of technology: towards building a living environment M. Arya Faculty of Architecture, CEPT University, Ahmedabad, India

Abstract The past five years have seen a dramatic shift in the architectural scenario in India. A booming economy has seen a frenzy of building activity. With the advent of communication technology, global trends are easily available. Actual construction technology too has seen major transformations. However, much of this is based on an imagery of an advanced, and generally perceived western world. These factors, with market forces and available technology, make it easy to create images of modernity and contemporariness for consumption. The result is an architecture consuming enormous resources through so called ‘advanced technologies’. On the other hand, countries like India have a tremendous tradition of building that is a cumulative wisdom of centuries of understanding the context. This understanding allowed development of methods and techniques harmonious to the environment. They were directly responsive to their physical parameters and did not add to the consumption of natural resources. A deep understanding of the context meant that they relied very little on artificial technologies for comfortable environs, effectively reducing the pollution to the environment. However, as the potentials of advanced technologies seduce us, we rely less on the cumulative wisdom of the past. This has become the biggest drawback of the globalization phenomenon though there are advantages transferred elsewhere. The questions posed in front of us are many – how does the understanding of the traditional architecture get transformed into comfortable and suitable solutions for today? How do we restrain and evaluate the potential and appropriateness of the technology? The paper opens up to debate this polemical situation faced by the contemporary Indian architect. It will also show how some measures are taken in the classroom as well as by niche critical practices in the profession. Keywords: tradition, context, innovation, cumulative wisdom, technology.

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1

Introduction

2

The historical paradigm

The history of India (here India refers to the current political boundaries) is characterised by a constantly evolving society negotiating change caused by external impacts and continuity sustained by several traditions of its own. Over centuries, India has lured many a people by legends of wealth. The result is a culture that is diverse, at the same time capable of absorbing foreign interventions and resilient due to the strength of its chequered background. This kind of a historical background has resulted in a tremendous tradition of building that is a cumulative wisdom of centuries of understanding the context. This wisdom is a built up of local traditions and influences from foreign invaders. These invaders like Alexander in 326 BC or the Ghaznavids in the 10th century did not come with the intention to rule. However, their presence generated certain building practices and architecture that have now become an integral part of the Indian culture. In different parts of the country building traditions developed and matured. Since they were evolving from local situations, they took a considered look at climate, availability of materials, manpower, site conditions such as topography, the lifestyle and culture. There was an assimilation of knowledge that was gained from the various invaders like the knowledge of building domes and arches was brought to India by the Islamic rulers. The technologies that developed out of this kind of a situation were composite in nature. New methods integrated with local traditions. There was a relationship that came out of the interaction between craftsmen that came from foreign lands and the local craftsmen. There was an assimilation of different techniques and methods. This was greatly possible because the materials being used in most places across the globe were mud, stone or timber. These were materials directly procured from the earth. And they were materials that the cultures lived with in their day to day life. Therefore there was a respect accorded to them in the sociocultural milieu. There was an intrinsic understanding that was overlaid with additional knowledge. Secondly, there were similarities in climate (most of the invaders were coming from the desert regions of the middle east and entering India from the north east). Therefore, though the arcuated and the trabeated systems were two different ways of putting together stone and therefore, the responses were different in their form and space, there were similarities of concerns. To block out harsh sunlight, to allow for natural ventilation were the common working ground. Similarly, most traditional cultures are frugal in their consumption of natural resources. There was very little reliance on artificial technologies for living or human comfort. This allowed development of methods and techniques that were harmonious to the natural environment. From this arose civilizations that were the genesis of a built form directly responsive to its physical parameters.

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The colonial and post-independence period

A different kind of invasion came to India in the form of the Europeans many of who started with the primary idea of trade. However, as is well known, this eventually led to the colonisation of India by the British. This was also the period of the Industrial Revolution in England, France and other European nations. As part of the process of colonisation, in building technology, one saw the arrival of new materials of construction – steel and concrete. There was no know how of these materials and related technologies in India at that time. There was no knowledge base available to the local craftsmen to use the new materials. The entire team of labour, skilled persons, engineers and other associated professionals had to be built up. They therefore became labour with specific instructions on what to do and how to do it. While this was being done in order to support the proliferous building activity that the British took up, the local technology did not receive adequate partronage. Gradually, much of the local traditions became relegated to a continuity of existing knowledge or were lost in obscurity. The active development and innovation that were part of the culture became slow ultimately becoming negligible. Simultaneously, with the use of the new materials, the British could not take advantage of the local knowledge base. The use of steel, concrete and glass were completely new. A similar situation occurred with the coming of modernism and the entire focus on the building of a new nation post-independence. While, during the colonial period, the preference was for building with steel, post-independence, concrete was the preference. One of the issues of this change is our connection to the technology of the materials and the method of putting them together. The traditional method was where the person who was making the building was directly associated with the procurement of the material. They would therefore know exactly what they wanted to do with it and the quantity required for that. Also the quality was checked at the point of procurement. For example, if it was timber, it was checked and tested out on the tree itself. Only those trees that were appropriate for the purpose were cut. However, with the advent of new technologies resultant of the Industrial Revolution, there was a disconnection between the technology of procurement and the person who was to utilize the material. There was no emotional, personal or scientific connection to the technology. The appropriateness and quantity emerged from calculations, statistics and building physics. Common sense knowledge and the wisdom of experience got lost in this process. The other issue of disconnection of technology is the construction practices and who is making the building. In most traditional construction, the inhabitants were the people who were making the architecture. They were therefore directly associated with the manner in which they were making. This scenario allowed for innovations in many ways to occur on the site itself. It is at this point that the technology gets assimilated and it becomes a part of what makes the culture of the place. It thus becomes alive and malleable. However, in the later period,

74 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE especially post the modern period, technology was removed from the sociocultural milieu. It was an artefact; a pure object, to be revered and enjoyed by a select few. This disconnection translates into a disconnection from the environment in terms of relation to nature, climate, local conditions of context etc. And it is here that the new technologies could not respond adequately. And lack of association and connection with the imported technology did not allow for the process of innovation and development to occur. However, with time, there is now growing new generations of skilled labour who know how to work the material. They are also comfortable with the technology that they are working with. But there is a loss of sensitivity to local situations and conditions that are the primary factors for a living environment.

4

The contemporary paradigm

The past five years have seen a dramatic shift in the architectural scenario in India. The economic boom has fed the construction industry. The recent years have seen a frenzy of building activity. With the advent of communication technology and international marketing, global trends are easily available. The growing influx into cities, expanding urbanity, lack of value attached to the traditional way of life has seen a detachment from the traditional systems. Globalisation is equated to imitation of a perceived advanced western world. Glass facades have become the norm for making a statement of ‘growth, contemporariness and advanced technology’. This is particularly true for urban areas, especially where the economic boom is more evident. Architects, clients, expected users all use the glass façade typology without giving due consideration to climate. The use of glass façade in a western country is for maximizing heat gain from the sun. This is due to the cold temperatures. However, in tropical countries like India, the temperature is high for most of the year. Glass increases the heat gain in a building greatly which in turn increases the energy consumption for cooling. Recently, a building in Ahmedabad claims to be self sufficient in its consumption of energy (meaning that it does not need to depend on the national grid for electricity). The monthly consumption of diesel (fossil fuel) for this complex is 100,000 litres. And there is a distinct sense of pride in the developers for this high consumption. The high consumption indirectly indicates high end ‘technologies’ to them. Seductive images of modernity and contemporariness pose a direct threat to the existing practices which are based on simple observations, shared skills and oral knowledge. It is seen that many historic sites, which are thriving settlements, are coming under threats of disintegration, demolition and uncontrolled urbanization. There is a loss of actual physical built environment as well as the embodied knowledge that gave a built environment that was sustainable, living and participatory. We are, therefore, in grave danger of losing the very spirit of the place. In today’s context, the material of construction arrives at the site prepared with a technology which is completely removed from all the people associated

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with the construction – neither the architect, nor the client or the contractor or the people actually making the building are aware of the process of procurement of the material on a regular basis. They need to extend knowledge to make themselves aware. The question is, ‘what has the disconnection of technology got to do with sustainability’? The answer lies in another common sense understanding – the idea of frugality, which was part of most of the traditional cultures in their vernacular manifestations (here one cannot be talking about the monumental which in any case, does not belong to the realm of sustainability – the idea itself is not sustainable). One has observed that where the lives of the people are directly bonded with the source of material like forests (timber), village ponds (mud) or mountains (stone), there is a respect for nature and an understanding which proclaims that use only what you need. There are generations after you that are going to need the same things and therefore the responsibility for that lies with you.

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The carbon neutral design project T. Meyer Boake1, M. Guzowski2 & J. Wasley3 1

University of Waterloo, Canada University of Minnesota, USA 3 University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, USA 2

Abstract Never before have architectural educators and professionals faced the magnitude and urgency of today’s ecological challenges resulting from global warming and climate change. To meet these challenges, the Society of Building Science Educators (SBSE) has initiated the Carbon neutral Design (CND) Project to create and disseminate the resources and tools needed to integrate carbon neutral and zero-energy design into professional architecture programs and practice. This project is a direct response to the 2010 Imperative (which is a call for architectural educators to address carbon neutral design and fossil fuel reduction in the design studio, to improve ecological literacy for design students, and to integrate related issues in the design and operations of university facilities and campuses) as well as the Architecture 2030 Challenge which proposes the realization of carbon neutral architecture by the year 2030. This paper provides an overview of the CND Project, including: 1) project goals; 2) carbon neutral design studio project, 3) online carbon neutral design resource, and 4) SBSE carbon neutral design education opportunities. Keywords: architectural education, carbon neutral design, the 2010 imperative, the architecture 2030 challenge.

1

Introduction: project goals and overview

The Carbon Neutral Design (CND) Project is a multi-faceted, multi-year project designed to bring together architecture’s professional and academic communities around the topic of carbon neutral design. Our goal is to codify and disseminate the knowledge base that is emerging in both practice and academia on producing zero energy and carbon neutral buildings. This means not only applying the current best practices of high performance sustainable design to

78 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE design education, but also envisioning the next generation of design thinking and communicating it to both the profession and to design students. Phase I and II: The first phase of the CND Project includes two existing efforts: the Carbon Neutral Studio initiative and the SBSE 2008 Summer Retreat focusing on carbon neutral design education. The second phase of the project is a proposed Carbon Neutral Design Summit and development of an online Carbon Neutral Design Resource to be initiated over the coming year. The proposed CND Summit will bring together design practitioners and educators to discuss best practices and innovations in professional practice and design studios. The resulting list of design strategies, simulation tools, web resources, case studies and other educational materials will be assembled for web-based dissemination. The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee is proposed as the venue for the CND Summit in August 2008. Web-ready content will be created by the end of the year. Phases III and IV: The third and fourth phases of the CND Project focus on further development of the online and educational resources as well as regional and national educational efforts during the next five years. Phase III will further develop the online resources, assess and develop new computer simulation tools, and develop case studies of carbon neutral buildings. Phase IV envisions a multiyear training program based on regional partnerships between design practitioners and educators that will emphasize climatic and bioregional implications of carbon neutral design. The SBSE is currently seeking regional, national, and international partnerships for all phases of the project. The following discussion considers current resources and efforts.

2

Carbon neutral studio initiative

The SBSE Carbon Neutral (CN) Studio initiative was implemented in Fall 2007 to develop carbon neutral teaching resources and tools; to pilot those resources and tools; and to develop a means to share educational resources and studio outcomes for carbon neutral design education. The studio initiative includes a network of 50 participants from around the world and thirty-one carbon neutral studio projects taught during the 2007-2008 academic year (see Figures 1 and 2). Fourteen studios were completed in Fall 2007 and the remaining studios will be completed by the summer of 2008. Ten studios are undergraduate, graduate, or mixed-level elective studios; at least four are designed to satisfy the U.S. National Architectural Accreditation Board’s “comprehensive design” requirement; and four are either capstone or thesis studios. The studio problem statements include: affordable and green housing programs; schools; nature centers and other public programs; high-volume retail environments; an office park/data center; other commercial programs; and several higher education projects including a 20–30 story mixed-use dormitory. Geographic and Program Distribution: As illustrated in Figure 1, the participating institutions are geographically diverse. The studios include a range of degree programs (BSAS, B.ARCH, and M.ARCH) as well as varied curricular

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Carbon neutral design studio participating institutions mapped on the four climate zones of North America.

Figure 2:

Carbon neutral design studios by climate and type.

80 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE approaches within the different programs. One segment of architectural education not well represented is the beginning design curriculum. To address this issue, SBSE would like to partner with other groups, such as the annual Conference on the Beginning Design Student, to solicit participants from early design studios. Participating Studio Projects by Climate and Type: As illustrated in Figure 2, the studio projects include a wide range of building types and climates. Smallscale building projects are popular since they easily lend themselves to in-depth investigations and most studio projects are located in temperate climates. These biases will be analyzed during the evaluation and tool distillation process to ensure that tools appropriate for each scale and climate type are developed. Preference will be given to the underrepresented climates and project types during a proposed second round of studio evaluations during the 2008-2009 academic year. The results of the design studios will become part of an online Carbon Neutral Design Resource website to share the educational resources and outcomes of the studio efforts. An “Educator’s CND Workbook” is proposed to help educators apply the outcomes and lessons of the CN Studio and a proposed CND Summit. Faculty and programs throughout the world are invited to participate in the CND Studio initiative.

3

Online carbon neutral design resource and website

The proposed online CND Resource will be a vehicle to refine and develop educational materials that will prepare educators, students, and practitioners to undertake carbon neutral design. This resource database will include outcomes from the various components of the CND Project as they are completed. The online CND Resource website will provide educators and practitioners with access to guidelines, strategies, case studies, and tools, including the following design resources for educators and practitioners: CND Processes and Strategies: Reframing the Design Problem: The CND Resource will provide practical design guidelines and strategies to assist carbon neutral design planning and processes. It will include methods to frame carbon neutral project goals, strategies to establish proposed energy and carbon profiles, and evaluation methods to assess performance. Design lessons, processes, strategies, and examples will be drawn from practitioners’ projects and from the studio work of design educators participating in the CND Summit. CND Case Studies: Real World Solutions: The CND Case Studies will document successful built projects that combine design excellence and performance goals for carbon and fossil fuel reductions, including design processes, strategies, assessment methods, and lessons. The CND Case Studies will include projects from practitioners participating in the CND Summit and the AIA COTE Top Ten Green Projects Awards Program. CND Tools and Software: Evaluation and Assessment Resources: An annotated bibliography of CND Tools and Software will be compiled from the CND Summit to provide practitioners and educators with a guide to current assessment tools and their applicability for different aspects and phases of carbon

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neutral design. Phase III will include an in-depth analysis of design tools, software, and performance metrics.

4

Carbon neutral design education opportunities

The SBSE annual summer retreats provide additional opportunities for design educators to participate in the CND Project. In the spirit of the 2008 Oxford Conference, “Resetting the Agenda,” the July 2008 SBSE New Forest Retreat will focus on defining new directions in building science research and architectural education (SBSE [3]). The objectives of the retreat are to share new and emerging best practices and to chart a course for the engagement of the SBSE in global discussions on the future of research and education. Two themes will be explored: 1) “New Topics and New Approaches,” focusing on sharing emerging ideas and approaches to teaching energy and other green building topics, and 2) “Resetting the Agenda,” which will create position statements representing SBSE’s vision for the future of building science research and education. The outcomes of the retreat will become part of the online CND Resource available through the SBSE website. The SBSE welcomes participation in the CND Project from faculty, students, administrators, allied organizations, and the building industries. For more information on the related carbon neutral design efforts please see the SBSE website at www.sbse.org.

References [1] Society of Building Science Educators, www.sbse.org. [2] Architecture 2030, www.architecture2030.org. [3] SBSE New Forest Retreat, http://www.sbse.org/retreat2008/index.htm.

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Counting carbon from buildings and cities: fundamentals and methodologies R. Gupta1 & S. Roaf2 1

Oxford Institute for Sustainable Development, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK 2 School of the Built Environment, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK

Abstract This paper discusses fundamentals of carbon counting to underpin various methodological approaches of carbon counting for buildings and cities prevalent in the UK, to help build a consensus in moving towards common, robust, widelyagreed and widely-applicable methodologies for a low carbon future. The paper is a result of a series of meetings of the Westminster Carbon Counting group convened by the authors, on principles of carbon counting. Many leading-edge organizations, communities and individuals are now undertaking carbon audits of their own operations, buildings and even cities. A range of interesting carbon counting methodologies have emerged, including: the Code for Sustainable Homes; SAP and SBEM methodologies for domestic and non-domestic buildings to meet the requirements of the EU’s Building Energy Directive; operational ratings for public buildings; the EST carbon monitoring protocol; the actonCO2 calculator for zero carbon communities. Keywords: carbon counting, carbon footprint, energy, buildings, cities.

1

Introduction

Scientific evidence shows that climate change is real and happening already, and that urgent action is needed now to avoid its worst impacts (www.sternreview.org.uk). Heightened awareness of this need to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions has led to an interest in the principles of CO2 estimation or carbon counting, i.e. the monitoring and reporting of CO2 and other greenhouse gases (GHGs). This has been happening in various ways and for different reasons, over the last two decades, and to an increasing extent, is being

84 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE applied at every level of a national economy (Figure 1). However no standard methodology applicable to the circumstances of a city is yet formally established, although cities house half the global population, account for threequarters of the total global energy demand and produce almost 80% CO2 emissions driving climate change. Moreover within cities, half the CO2 emissions arise from energy used to heat, light and run our buildings.

Figure 1:

2

Overview of scopes and emissions across a value chain GHG Protocol by in World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD).

Carbon accounting for buildings and cities

In line with these concerns, the UK Government has launched a raft of carboncounting methodologies to enable calculation of the carbon impact of energy used in buildings. For instance, the Code for Sustainable Homes (www.planningportal.gov.uk/uploads/code_for_sust_homes.pdf) launched in 2006, which acts as the vehicle to facilitate the Government’s goal of ensuring that every new house built in England is ‘zero-carbon’ by 2016, uses six levels of sustainable development and assigns mandatory performance criteria for energy consumption and CO2 emission standards at every level. The carbon emissions standards are measured by a Government-approved Standard Assessment Procedure (http://projects.bre.co.uk/sap2005) based on the energy costs associated with space heating, water heating, ventilation and lighting, less cost savings from energy generation technologies. Furthermore SAP along with the simple building energy model (SBEM: www.ncm.bre.co.uk/) are used to generate the statuary building energy certificate when almost any building is constructed, sold or let, under the requirement of the EU Directive on the Energy Performance of Buildings (EPBD: www.communities.gov.uk/epbd). These certificates must be prominently displayed in larger public buildings, and are based on CO2 emissions counted from the operational energy for existing buildings.

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To measure this ‘real’ carbon, more recently in March 2008, the Energy Saving Trust (EST: www.energysavingtrust.org.uk) produced a consultation document for monitoring energy and carbon performance in new homes, to verify the performance of housing built to the standards detailed in the CSH. EST is currently discussing using a standard measuring and mapping tool for domestic emissions based on the DECoRuM® model developed, validated and demonstrated by Dr Rajat Gupta in the Department of Architecture at Oxford Brookes University (Oxford, UK). This model works through a GIS-based interface that estimates current energy related CO2 emissions from existing UK dwellings and aggregates them to street, neighbourhood and city levels to allow mapping of emissions hot spots (www.decorum-model.org.uk). This enables DECoRuM to evaluate the potential and financial costs for domestic CO2 emission reductions by implementing a range of best practice energy efficiency measures, low carbon systems and renewable energy technologies. For existing homes, the Government has launched the actonCO2 calculator which aims to increase public understanding of the link between individual’s actions and behaviour and CO2 emissions and, hence, climate change (http://actonco2.direct.gov.uk/index.html). For public buildings in the UK the Carbon Trust has been responsible for a wide reaching programme for carbon reporting and reduction in the UK responsible for significant emissions reductions from many different buildings types (www.carbontrust.co.uk ). In 2005 the UK Carbon Counting group was started to try and develop consistency of outputs between different methods and this was later moved from academia to be affiliated with the UK and the Scottish Parliaments in the Westminster and Scottish Carbon Accounting Groups who now meet regularly to compare, share and develop methods (www.carboncounting.co.uk). A range of discussion papers outlining various methods used to account for carbon emissions from buildings are available on this website and the Group is now in the process of a series of sectoral workshops designed to bring transparency to the often very different systems of accounting. Details of related presentations and discussion papers can be found on this website.

3

Conclusions

Strong drivers are pushing markets to demand that buildings be low energy and low carbon in the UK including: UK and European Regulations; the soaring price of energy; increasing environmental and carbon awareness; the rising profile of the impacts of climate change; a deteriorating economy and wide concern over the impacts of rising population and diminishing resources. Academia has an important role to play in our adaptation to this rapidly changing world. Schools of Architecture have demonstrated that they are well placed to contribute enormously to reducing the environmental impacts of buildings through intellectual leadership; researching and teaching a clear understanding of the related issues; development and promotion of effective tools and methods for building performance evaluation and reporting; action

86 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE planning for reduced emissions through good building and system design; building, analysing and honestly reporting case study buildings and encouraging related research and publications. Increasingly questions are asked about an architectural education system that too often turns out students who know little about how buildings actually work. Because of the growing potency of the environmental and economic drivers in this field there can no longer be any doubt that a School of Architecture that does not produce graduates who know how to design, measure, report on and produce Low Carbon buildings is letting down not only their own students but also future clients and the rapidly changing world at large.

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Towards sustainability: rethinking architectural education in India P. Shah D. C. Patel School of Architecture, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India

Abstract In India after independence, the focus on industrialization, invention of new building materials and the irresistible urge to modernize, inspired and promoted socio-culturally unrelated patterns of building and city planning. The ideals for such development were contrived on the basis of neither the social-cultural needs nor the climate nor the living styles. The effectual sequels were an increased use of resources and energy and subsequently the degradation of the environment; especially the built environment of cities now characterized by the International style, which has uprooted the people socio-culturally. The outcome has been scary and terrifying resulting in loss of both identity of place and of architecture. With the advent of the 20th century and a strong desire to keep up the pace with the rapidly modernizing world economy, the social concerns, cultural ethos, climatic and environmental considerations lost their respective positions of priority, with the result that the architectural profession in the country is now following a different path, rather aimlessly without a firm bearing. The emerging trend in post modern works of architecture all over the world has sent very bewildering signals. It is felt rather strongly that professional respectability can be achieved only if there abides total academic responsibility. This paper describes the new directions that need to be drawn and navigated urgently in the educational programmes in architecture, in order to resurrect the situation in this country. The paper addresses these concerns and suggests rather draconian measures including the way the curriculum is built, recasting the contents and focus of academic curricula, the need for an interdisciplinary approach redefining the roles of the statutory bodies such as the COA, teachers, the methods of teaching various courses, the manner in which design problems should be set and studios conducted etc. Keywords: curriculum, architectural profession, sustainability, architectural education, Council of Architecture, consultancy cell, environmental performance, studio-lab model, mobile studio, industry-institute collaboration.

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1

Introduction

The world is changing faster than ever before. Growing human populations and economies are driving an unprecedented cultural, social and technological transformation. The place of the industrial society of the 20th century is being taken up by the information and knowledge society of the 21st century. This dynamic process promises a fundamental change in all aspects of our lives, including knowledge dissemination, social interaction, economic and business practices, media, education, health, leisure and entertainment. Architecture is a discipline that is concerned with defining and realizing a harmonious relationship between human habitation and the environment. Architecture is the design of places for people; places that are appropriate to and supportive of their situation. Thus, architecture is a value loaded activity. Architecture is the only professional discipline that has the strongest and largest interface with the society. It is the spatial expression of human conduct. Architecture – the human habitat is the largest consumer of natural and manmade resources.

2

Current scenario

Architecture in the 20th Century began as a celebration of the age of industry and technology, but this is rapidly changing in response to the new age of information and ecology. Historically, architecture has been the only artefact by which one can judge the achievements of a civilization comprehensively. While every civilization is proud of its past, discovered through the cities and monuments created by their ancestors, there is very little for us to be proud of in the industrialized and technological society we have created. From an ecological perspective, mainstream architecture in India for the past three decades has sent out wrong messages. Making of a specialized environment by today’s man has made him boast that his own development is unimpeded; but the truth is just the opposite – for man is more tightly entangled into his environment than ever before and forcibly more dependent on it. As a result of designers’ obsessive desire to maintain the stylistic imagery identified with the 20th century’s earlier industrial and technological dream, buildings are continuously competing to display characteristics reminiscent of everything from factories to dirigibles, turbines, etc., but uprooted from the connection with the place itself, where they belong. Presently there is an aggressive discontent about the poor quality of architecture practiced across India. There is nothing that evokes a positive reaction to it. The reason attributed to this condition is that architecture is largely not being evolved indigenously – it is being borrowed – it is being drawn on from inspirations that may be true to a different region, climate, culture etc. Architecture has been reduced to mere glass and concrete boxes, to be reproduced as a packaged design solution in all places irrespective of its climate, geography etc, all as symbols of modern and high-end technological exhibits. As a result, education and training in architecture are under doubt and the onus of the educational system is in question!

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Contemporary demands of architectural professional practice

Since architecture has an absolute interface with society and the practice of architecture is a meeting ground of scientific thinking and artistic expression, architectural education has a very special obligation to the society at large. It is the responsibility of the architect not only to generate new ideas and thoughts in the fields of built form as well as art, culture, society and environment, but also to propagate futuristic concepts while preserving respecting traditional wisdom. An architect needs to be trained as a service provider to the society with the interest of the human community as the focus. It is rather intriguing that the architecture schools/universities have isolated themselves from reality. Perhaps there is a general decline in the involvement and role of an architect in the society. Central to architectural education is the quality of architectural design and essentially it is an issue for the profession to address. Today, in India, the architect will have to perform the following roles and in the following order all at the same time: 1. The architect as an environmentalist and resource manager; 2. The architect as community advocate and social reformer; 3. The architect as manager and leader of the building team; 4. The architect as designer (spatial and form organization, systems of construction and structural support systems.) 5. And lastly, the architect as a professional representative of the client.

4

Architectural education

Learning in architecture is essentially perceptual and sensitive. It is not limited only to architectonic stylization or the visual. It deals with the entire life and living of man and his societies, continuing traditions and his development progress. It is evolutionary progression in nature. Architectural education, therefore, is not a simple matter of information dissipation. It must be valuebased and shape a rationalization process and must support in shaping a thinking society. The basic tenets of architectural education are response to regional characteristics, climatic and cultural context, historical continuity, issues of use of resources and consumption pattern of energy, use of appropriate technology and materials etc. With these as the alphabets and the corresponding grammar, given during the course of education, the student learns to evolve and communicate through his own language with the help of developed vocabulary. When these alphabets and the grammar are imbibed correctly, there can be no use of an indecent architectural language. The task of education is to develop the abilities to acquire, synthesize and apply knowledge as changing problems and possibilities present themselves to ideate new forms and patterns out of raw material: the changing natural environment – i.e. the ability to be creative. In India, imparting architectural

90 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE education has to be understood as an extremely serious concern as it has to transcend image-making and move past borrowed stylization. 4.1 What we do not teach in schools of architecture We do not teach students anything about real life situations. We teach idealized academic situations, which do not exist anywhere in actually. We do not inform them of the simple concept of limitation, the limits of our natural resources, limits to the number of customers the earth can support, limits to the sheer size of our business. We fail to make them realize that we are in an ever-deepening ecological crisis unparalleled in history. 4.2 We should have taught them the following a.

Any architecture created is a profound modification to the existing environment and that architecture cannot be opulent. b. To account for natural resources critical to our survival as a company – forests, soils, ocean, rivers, air, mountain and lakes. c. To augment the capital, expenditure and stock of natural resources. d. To appreciate indigenous cultures with sustainable ways of living. e. To study the long-term effects of industrial operations on ecology. g. To respect the criticism of technologies. It becomes imperative for the student architect to understand the amount of natural resources consumed and the waste generated in the environment for every ideation created even as a classroom academic exercise!

5

Reforms: a way forward

What should education in architecture today aim at? Education should conceivably be teaching students to think critically; it should be teaching them to feel, to sense, to see and to understand architecture that will sustain the natural environment. In order to fulfil this agenda, it is necessary to embark on the following recommendations: 5.1 Role of Council of Architecture (CoA) The CoA will have to play a more proactive role. It would have to transcend its task of legitimatizing education. It should induct interdisciplinary credit based programmes and laterally encourage interaction amongst the 136 schools across the country. This would impart an opportunity of self up-gradation and assist in development towards meeting national goals. Further, it would have to enact the role of a facilitator for the schools to help them in making a social hallmark by being a catalyst between industry-society and the Institute. 5.2 Curriculum development Sustainability is becoming a movement in design not because architects have brought it along, but because society has started asking for it. The curricular framework should necessarily be used to sensitize the students to the various

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aspects of architectural space-making, natural resources, patterns of energy consumption, historicity of a place etc. A serious need is felt to make the curriculum a dynamic tool to understand the relation between environment and built-form and the physical dimensions of ecology that may lead to approaches that will result in place-making, indigenous, sustainable architecture. A student of architecture is so intrigued by numbers that he absolves from it. Hence the attitude and mindset to meet sustainability goals remain very incidental and esoteric. The curriculum needs to be reviewed efficiently and updated often while the Academic Boards of Statutory bodies like the University need to process and approve them faster in order that academics do not suffer. 5.2.1 Studio-lab model The duration of the course in architecture may be retained as five years for a degree programme with one and half year training in the consultancy cell. This consultancy cell will be a part of every school/institute’s set up with the help of the CoA which will influence industry, government bodies and parts of the society to support it by way of professional projects tendered to the school in towns and areas of establishment of the respective institute. In the present system, project delivery processes, feasibility studies, use of property, energy consumed, type of people for whom projects are being designed etc. is very often unaddressed. The study of architecture is compartmentalized into discreet subjects arranged in a linear sequence. The student enters the system at one end, follows a prescribed course and emerges with a degree at the other. The students’ experience of architecture is through the glossy pictures of international books and magazines. Student exercises are filtered down so as not to address costs and trade-offs, whether economic, human, cultural or environmental. Resources unfortunately are assumed to be available in endless supply, so as to be able to engage freely in pure design. We therefore need to devise a system to expand and expose the minds of these students to a real world of people, places, public issues and politics. Hence it would be most ideal for all students to work on various live projects along with other senior students, faculty members, experts in various fields and consultants, craftsmen etc. In this manner a consultancy cell called a studio-lab can be established for the institute, which could also be carried out for three years after the first two years of regular studio-work where the focus is skill-building. It is proposed that all civic projects and industry supported projects should come to the institution for this purpose. 5.2.2 Mobile studios and study tours To learn architecture, one of the best things is to go and look at architecture. With a questioning mind and an urge to find and experience answers to these questions, the architectural vocabulary would be improved in a way that no studio, no teacher or a book could ever teach. Every school/college imparting architectural education must become a resource-base and create a fund of knowledge concerning vernacular architecture and its environmental performance. This will not only provide teaching material but also improve and improvise on the indigenous local practice of construction, crafts and art and also promote it.

92 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE 5.3 Industry-institute interaction Intensive collaboration between industry and academia must be fostered. This opportunity will result in very fruitful researches, studies, innovative materials and techniques that are very essential to address the core issues of sustainability, products used in architectural education and practice. Sustainability as a concept needs contiguous feedback, encouraging the instrument of post occupancy evaluation to be an imperative methodology. It would help in up-keeping academic standards thereby maintaining professionalism.

6

Role of teacher

Upgrade, motivate and redefine the role of teacher. A teacher helps in fostering self-reliance and independence of thought to build up a rational and intellectual society. The role of a teacher should be that of a facilitator. Imparting information will no longer be considered important as electronic media and the Internet will shoulder that responsibility. But the real challenge will be how to bring out the student from the marshy land of over-choice and the ocean of information. The nuances of self-expression, psychological counselling and care taken by the teacher cannot be replaced by machines.

7

Epilogue

Across the globe, architectural education is on the threshold of changes. The issues of concern are availability of committed faculties, quality of students, physical resources, governing bodies etc. Fundamentally, the issue is what direction architecture itself should take in the future. Clarity of these goals would influence the educational process. Focus of education would be to recognize the environment as a manifestation of society, rather than as an instrument for its manipulation. The existing lifestyle of the consumer society, which has already caused serious destruction to the natural resources, cannot exist in the long run and therefore cannot continue to be prototypical for all people. Further, even if the society by and large aspires that so-called modern buildings silhouette skylines of their town or cities alike their international counterparts, it would be the onus of the architect fraternity to show the society the right direction. The demise of the international style will resurrect regional identity and originality of architectural expression, but it will depend to the greatest extent upon the acuity in profession and keenness in the educational system.

References [1] Arun Nigavekar, GATS and Higher Education: What is at stake for India, 2003. [2] Preety Shah, Role of Industry-Institute Collaborative in Architectural Education, October 2002, paper presented at ISTE National Seminar [3] RIBA Magazines Ltd., Architectural Education-1 edited by Stephen Trombley, 1983

Forum 2 Sustaining Studio Education in a Climate of Changes

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Studio culture: learning from the American experience A. C. Caruso President, American Institute of Architecture Students, USA

Abstract Beginning in 2000, the American Institute of Architecture Students (AIAS) established the first Studio Culture Task Force, in an effort to study the culture of contemporary architectural education. A series of publications and events culminated in the inclusion of “Condition for Accreditation 3.5” of the National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB), which currently requires all schools to have a documented Studio Culture Policy. Five years after the initial success of these advocacy efforts, the AIAS launched a review effort to re-asses the impact of the studio culture dialogue in schools across the country. In parallel to the 2007–2008 AIAS Accreditation Review Conference (ARC) Task Force, President Caruso convened the second AIAS Task Force on Studio Culture. The process and results of this multicollateral review and assessment effort of studio culture are introduced through this paper. Keywords: architecture, curricula, curriculum, students, American, United States, national architectural accrediting board, American Institute of Architecture Students, AIAS, NAAB, Caruso, accreditation, accreditation review conference, ARC, studio culture, design culture.

1

History

Beginning in 2000, the American Institute of Architecture Students (AIAS) established the first Studio Culture Task Force, in an effort to study the culture of contemporary architectural education. In 2002, the task force published The Redesign of Studio Culture, capturing the results of the task force research and offering a call to action, focused on the values of optimism, respect, sharing, engagement and innovation.

96 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE At the 2003 National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB) Validation Conference, AIAS successfully advocated for a thirteenth condition of accreditation, entitled “Studio Culture.” Condition 3.5 of the 2004 NAAB Conditions for Accreditation requires schools to have a written policy regarding the culture of their studio environment. Finally, in October of 2004, the AIAS held a Studio Culture Summit to open the dialogue on this issue to a national community of students, educators, practitioners and related experts. The results of this summit are published in The Studio Culture Summit: A Report. Five years after the initial success of these advocacy efforts, the AIAS launched a review effort to re-asses the impact of the studio culture dialogue in schools across the country. In parallel to the 2007-2008 AIAS Accreditation Review Conference (ARC) Task Force, President Caruso convened the second AIAS Task Force on Studio Culture. The results of this multi-collateral review and assessment effort of the studio culture initiative provided the foundation of this report and catalyzed the series of recommendations contained herein.

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Task force intent

Over the past five years, much progress has been made toward the integration of the studio culture initiative into the academic context. The task force selects the following items as cause for celebration: • Inclusion of NAAB Condition 3.5, “Studio Culture” as a condition of accreditation for architecture schools in the United States. • Creation of initial studio culture Policies at many schools across the country • Improvements in culture of the studio environment, as cited by students, faculty, and administration • New opportunities for collaboration and dialogue about shared responsibility within the studio environment • Broader and more holistic understanding about the nature of educating future architects and designers While the task force notes successful improvement in many of these areas, the review process uncovered opportunities to strengthen these successes and evolve the studio culture dialogue into an even more effective and holistic dialogue.

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Task force process

3.1 Phase I: data collection Beginning in 2007, the AIAS collected 44 studio culture policies. This collection of documents represented 100% of policies submitted as part of the accreditation process as of September 2007. Additionally, the Studio Culture Administrators’ Survey was conducted for the first time in the history of the studio culture initiative, and the results of this effort have informed the review process. Lastly, the AIAS also surveyed its members, particularly the leadership of many of its chapters regarding issues of studio culture.

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3.2 Phase II: policy review Beginning in January 2008, four working groups with cross-collateral representation were convened to review and assess studio culture policies that were submitted as part of the NAAB accreditation process. Representatives for this process were appointed by collateral leadership, and were invited to create diverse representation as measured by the following characteristics: • Prior participation at the 2004 studio culture Summit vs. new thoughts, ideas, perspectives • Equal representation from each of the collateral organizations (AIA, ACSA, AIAS and NCARB) in “member” and “chair” roles • Diversity of academic/professional experience as related to degree types, geography, race, ethnicity, and gender • Policies were distributed across the four working groups (11 policies/group) to prevent any conflicts of interest with group members, as well as to provide a diverse range of program and degree types. Studio Culture Policy Review Groups were given the following charges relative to the 11 policies selected for their review: • Identify common responses and/or methods of responding to studio culture goals and NAAB criterion • Identify common strengths of policies • Identify common opportunities for improvement of policies • Identify the range of issues presented/addressed in policies • Identify exemplary policy characteristics as models for excellence in policy creation, distribution and maintenance • Compare drafted policies to original goals and intentions of the studio culture documents. The chairs of each of these working groups (one representing each of the collateral organizations) captured the discussion, analysis and recommendations of their groups in a summary report. 3.3 Phase III: analysis and future vision The third phase of the review process engaged additional leadership from across and beyond the collateral organizations to analyze findings to-date and to envisage the future evolution of the Studio Culture Initiative. The additional participants in this group were also selected based on the characteristics identified earlier in this document. The chairs of the studio culture Policy Review Groups remained engaged in the third and final phase of the studio culture task force process. In this capacity, they brought forward the summary reports of their prior working groups for comparison, analysis and vetting by the larger task force. This group was charged with the following objectives: • Review successes of the original studio culture initiative and suggest opportunities for future growth as related to the initial goals/vision

98 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE • Highlight lessons learned/best practices and/or recommendations for policy creation, implementation and maintenance as clarified through review process • Provide visionary thought about the evolution of “studio culture” into an even more holistic, forward-thinking and empowering discourse by which to consider the broader implications of our design culture on current and future professionals.

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Task force findings

The work of the 2007-2008 AIAS Task Force on Studio Culture culminated with the authoring of the following report: Toward an Evolution of Studio Culture: Report of the Second AIAS Task Force on Studio Culture, which includes: • Summary of the 2007 Administrators Survey on Studio Culture • Summary of 2008 AIAS Student Leadership Survey on Studio Culture • Summary of Policy Review Group Findings • Best Practices, Lessons Learned and Guidelines for more effective Studio Culture documents. Toward an Evolution of Studio Culture: Report of the Second AIAS Task force on Studio Culture is available through the American Institute of Architecture Students. (http://www.aias.org)

Acknowledgement With contributions from the Second AIAS Task Force on Studio Culture.

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Accommodating diversity: the case for pedagogic evaluation D. McClean The Robert Gordon University, UK

Abstract At the 1958 Oxford Conference, the raising of entry standards to schools represented one of the primary concerns. Today, however, presents a dramatically different context driven by the principles of Widening Participation, internationalisation, and equity and diversity. Historically the profession of architecture has exhibited a relatively homogenous social profile, which is being progressively challenged by the impetus for social inclusion emanating from national agenda. Within the academy, low funding levels, declining space standards, and performance measures, have put further strain on the already awkward ‘fit’ of architecture within universities. Additionally, the drive to increase funding from nongovernmental sources elevates the importance of international student recruitment that, whilst enriching learning and providing the basis for a more cosmopolitan exchange, also presents challenges for a socially and culturally integrated and responsive UK education. Finally, the RIBA has established its own agenda with consequences for educators, including the need to address the unacceptable levels of female drop-out between university and professional practice. This issue alone has shone a spotlight on underlying value systems and traditions, and the role that education plays in the development and perpetuation of professional cultures. It may be argued that the prevailing climate has imbued a sense of protectionism in many, militating against a more objective appraisal of what pedagogy in architecture typically entails, and how it might be constructively developed. This paper addresses aspects of pedagogy for an increasingly diverse learning community in architecture, and proposes the principal areas of review. Keywords: diversity, inclusivity, pedagogy, enhancement.

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Introduction

50 years ago, the Oxford Conference set out the template for architectural education as we know it, arguing that university-based education provides the means by which the corpus of knowledge particular to the profession can be advanced. Little has changed. However, it also resolved to raise entry standards out of a desire to elevate the quality of professional education, and in doing so a measure contributory to preserving the exclusivity of the profession was introduced. Today, government sponsored agendas in the UK, such as that of Widening Participation, are imposing new conditions on a form of professional education that has until now been designed to replicate its profile socially, culturally, and economically (Stevens [1]). Widening Participation brings with it a bourgeoning variety of perspectives, diversity of learning styles, and cultural standpoints, and any transformation of the educational process must address these facets. Universities are rightly faced with the ethical and legislative obligation to accept students in a manner that reflects the principle of equal opportunities, and to provide a learning environment that enables all students to engage, acclimatise, and progress. Indeed the challenge for educators is the development of a learning experience that is equitable in the way that it balances the experiences of diverse students through the learning process. Everything has changed. It is argued that Widening Participation, coupled with an educational process that truly embraces diversity, arguably represents the first time in the history of the profession where the profile of its membership can mirror that of the societies that it serves. At the level of pedagogy, the changing context of higher education similarly presents the conditions necessary to prise off the lid that Schön’s studies of the early 1980s has represented, opening up the discourse about studio-based teaching, and offering opportunity for deeper scrutiny. Some schools have begun to respond creatively to the declining unit of resource, increasing numbers, and constraints on facilities and space, confronting the very architectural challenge of doing more with less. Cumulatively, therefore, it may be considered that the broader trends in the university sector have presented architecture education with an unprecedented opportunity to enrich the learning experience, and ultimately the profession, through enhanced pedagogies that capitalise on the richness of experience and perspective embodied in today’s students.

2

Exclusivity, homogeneity and the perpetuation of professional cultures

In both the UK and USA the charge has been made that the architectural profession is exclusive in its composition, and in its control of entry through education. Indeed it is argued that historically architectural education has systematically ensured the replication and preservation of professional models (Stevens [2]), such controls being exemplified by the desire in 1958 to carefully regulate entry to university-based education. The consequence is a profession

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whose composition is homogenous and significantly at odds with the constituency it serves. However, through Widening Participation and the growing drive to recruit from overseas, steps are now being actively taken by schools and professional bodies to address this - at least superficially. Boyer and Mitgang [3] advocate the ‘celebration’ of diverse student backgrounds and cultures and, critically, representation of these differences in the curriculum and learning environment itself. In other words, the whole student experience should be both socially and culturally inclusive. The globalisation of today’s profession presents another powerful argument for greater inclusion. However, whilst the student body may be becoming more diverse, to what extent are pedagogies accommodating this?

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Inclusivity and diversity for the profession of the future

The diversification of UK Higher Education embodies a number of key strands; those of multi-culturalism, socio-economic background, educational background, gender, motivation and aspiration, and learning style. The position adopted here is that diversity forms one of the fundamental conditions of contemporary education and society, requiring the development of new pedagogies to enhance the effectiveness of student learning for all, whilst also seeking to address matters of efficiency and sustainability. Constructivist Theory relates powerfully to the notion of cultural diversity through its desire to capitalise on the differences in students. Accordingly, it strongly opposes the notion of students as ‘empty vessels’, instead seeking to develop learning from the existing platform of prior education, experience, and perspective of the individual. But how inclusive are the curricula within schools? Some claim there to be a singular view of architectural education, one dominated by Anglo-American thinking despite the multi-culturalism of contemporary university education (Boyer and Mitgang [4]). In a separate vein, the broadening of the socio-economic constituency for architectural education through Widening Participation has generated shifts on the work patterns of students. Increasingly, students are required to work to fund their studies (Yorke and Longden [5]), but to what extent is this acknowledged in course design and staff expectations of their engagement with their course?

4

Hidden diversity

Generic reference to the student body as a homogenous group tend to conceal the fact that different experiences, perspectives, and expectations, impact significantly on the engagement and educational experience of the individual. The personal ‘learning styles’ and preferences of students are easily dismissed or ignored, thus denying a hidden diversity that is present in any cohort group, and which places a range of demands and expectations on the pedagogies utilised. Yet, Constructivist theory is inextricably linked to that of the individual learner. Indeed, the very notion of the tutor as learning facilitator or ‘coach’ (Schön), is based on the notion that the tutor is able to understand and engage with the

102 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE student as a unique learner (Brockbank and McGill [6]). From this perspective it is argued that architectural pedagogy has paid scant regard to the concepts that lie at the heart of Piaget’s Personal Construct Theory, or to the changes implicit in the evolution of tutor from traditional teacher to facilitator (Webster [7]). Rather than attempting to crudely categorise learners within a specific group, Rowbotham [8] argues, that were teaching to include methods designed to engage a diversity of learners, the spectrum of learning styles would thereby be addressed and engagement and active participation fostered across a cohort.

5

The case for pedagogical development

Schools increasingly struggle to maintain an educational process derived from the 19th century in a climate that has seen in the UK a 30% reduction of academic staff in architecture schools since 1988 (Milliner [9]). Increasingly it is argued that the educational processes that many educators seek to defend possess inherent weaknesses which resource depletion merely threatens to amplify. The specific challenge that architecture education faces today is the development of pedagogies that can flourish in the prevailing climate, and which also address the weaknesses of current practice with particular regard to Constructivist theory and the placing of the individual at the heart of the learning experience. Over the last two decades the university sector has undergone a paradigm shift from being a provider of teaching to a producer of learning (Skolnik [10]). Along with the drive to make teaching more effective, consideration of this in business terms portrays a shift from a supply-driven to a demand-driven model in which the student expects to develop learning in ways that acknowledge and accommodate their individual condition (Cormack [11]). Whilst this shift has placed a general emphasis on means of developing independent learner cultures, many of the pedagogies adopted in institutions remain unchanged from the days of didactically oriented, more selective university education (Webster [12]).

6

Areas of pedagogic review

Recent years have seen the emergence of a body of research that critiques and challenges the pedagogical practices typically operating in design studio in particular. Some commentators (e.g. Till, Dutton, etc) have expressed the view that that the continued widespread endorsement of much current studio practice is flawed, and that Schön’s ideas have acted as a legitimising agent for questionable methods, their dominance serving as a mere convenience that justifies the status quo. The emerging discourse aimed at maintaining and enhancing the effectiveness of studio has occurred at a time when external factors are driving change with increasing momentum and urgency, and are challenging accepted conventions. These conditions present an opportunity to reevaluate existing pedagogies from the perspective of the needs of the contemporary student and profession, as well as educational sustainability. However, such reflection demands an objectivity borne out of a deeper understanding of the educational theories that underpin our actions. Within the

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context of this paper, it is proposed that the following areas, each relating to the overarching concept of the independent learner, are of primary importance: • Internationalisation and the building of multi-cultural professional learning • Accommodating Learning Styles • Creating effective dialogue and discourse • Behaviours and communication of values The above areas have implications for curriculum development, the cultivation of staff skills, and the learning environment, which when considered in an integrated way offer the potential for an enhanced and contemporary education of relevance to tomorrow’s profession.

References [1] Stevens G, The Favored Circle: The Social Foundations of Architectural Distinction, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 1998 [2] Stevens G, The Favored Circle: The Social Foundations of Architectural Distinction, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 1998 [3] Boyer E L, Mitgang L D, Building Community: A new future for architecture education and practice, Princeton, The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1996 [4] Boyer E L, Mitgang L D, Building Community: A new future for architecture education and practice, Princeton, The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, p98, 1996 [5] Yorke M, Longden B, The First Year Experience of Higher Education in the UK, The Higher Education Academy, 2007 [6] Brockbank A, McGill I, Facilitating Reflective Learning in Higher Education Buckingham: Open University Press, 1998 [7] Webster H, Facilitating critically reflective learning: excavating the role of the design tutor in architectural education, Art, Design and Communication in Higher Education, Vol 2, Issue 3, pp 101–112, 2004 [8] Rowbotham D, The application of learning style theory in higher education teaching, unpublished article, 1999 [9] Milliner L, Studio Cultures Conference paper, Oxford, November 2003 [10] Skolnik M L, in Thorne M (Ed) Universities in the Future, London, DTI HMSO, p52, 1999 [11] Cormack S, in Thorne M (Ed) Universities in the Future, London, DTI HMSO, p126, 1999 [12] Webster R, Metacognition and the Autonomous Learner: Student Reflections on Cognitive Profiles and Learning Environment Development, Edith Cowan University, Perth, ICED, p1, 2002

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Innovations in the studio: experiments distilling peer discussion and learning using diagrams B. M. Munby The University of Sheffield, UK

Abstract This study explored the potentials and limitations of peer group discussion and learning by comparing and evaluating three experimental workshops undertaken by MArch students from The University of Sheffield. It focuses on the use of drawing diagrams as a way to communicate and record ideas, start discussion and promote learning between peers. The pedagogical experiments showed that peer discussions in the studio not only invigorate students but also have an impact on their understanding and learning by encouraging students to think for themselves. The workshops clearly demonstrated that the students did trust each other, valuing peer feedback and advice in a non-hierarchical environment, which promoted equal group discussion and learning, with a cross-fertilisation of ideas. The effectiveness of using diagrams as a framework for discussion was dramatic – they were useful for efficiently condensing and connecting ideas across themes and between peers, as well as becoming a record of the discussion and feedback given. The method of diagramming enabled more informal, yet meaningful and uninhibited discussion between peers to take place, and helped avoid unequal participation. The study concludes that it is vital to practice learning from peers. Approaching peers for advice, rather than being competitively secretive, is an incredibly important part of learning and skill development. Instilling the habit of peer learning early in architectural education (or even sooner) could have dramatic effects not only between student peers, but also in relationships between architects once in practice, and even between those of different disciplines. Keywords: peer, discussion, learning, pedagogical experiments, innovations, workshops, diagrams, studio, leaderless groups, student-led, non-hierarchical.

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Introduction

To explore the potentials and limitations of peer group discussion and learning, three experimental workshops were studied. They were all carried out with a mixture of MArch students who were required to use diagrams as a way to communicate and record ideas.

2

Method

2.1 Experiment 1: kitchen brainstorm (one hour, ~15 diagrams) The first workshop was spontaneously and informally initiated by our tutor, who was trying to encourage our studio to condense and summarise pre-Christmas group work about the town of Selby. The eleven members of studio 7 sat around our tutor’s kitchen table with sheets of tracing paper, pens, cups of tea and a cat. In groups of 2–3 we produced diagrams relating to different areas of research, which were then explained and discussed informally. Some rules were set by our tutor: all diagrams had to be drawn at the same scale (enabling us to overlay sheets to make connections), and we could not draw too many diagrams. 2.2 Experiment 2: innovation (two hours, 100 diagrams) The second workshop was arranged by myself and another student, to be a ‘studio innovation’, with the aim of encouraging students in our studio to help each other focus on individual projects. Ten students sat around a large table in the studio with paper and pens, each briefly introducing their project before having it ‘diagrammed’ for two minutes by all in the group. One by one students then explained their diagram to the project ‘owner’. Only ten pens (black, red or green) were provided, and we started with a rule of colour coordination for the issues/themes/ideas diagrammed. 2.3 Experiment 3: project clinic (over two hours, ~30 diagrams) The third workshop was designed by myself to further explore the successes and limitations of the previous workshops, and to help individuals with a particular problem they may be having with their project by encouraging cross-fertilisation of ideas. Five students were allowed one prop to explain their project and were asked to bring a variety of their own pens and pencils. The structure of this workshop was similar to ‘Innovation’, but without such strict time limits.

3

Evaluation

3.1 Learning through peer discussion The ‘kitchen brainstorm’ invigorated the studio to work together, although the lack of a conclusive part to the session prevented meaningful feedback at the

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time. The other two workshops benefited from more structure. For example, the domination of any group member was naturally avoided in ‘innovation’ with the two minute time limit allowed for diagramming, which made the process very equal, and non-hierarchical. It also forced people to respond quickly and focus – having to ‘distil’ a project is a very helpful process for a student to go through. However, ‘project clinic’ benefited in a different way from having less structure – students discussed projects in more depth and jointly rather than one by one. ‘Innovation’ and ‘project clinic’ provided an opportunity for 'fresh' heads to suggest new routes for a project. This cross-fertilisation of ideas is a key advantage of peer discussion identified by many such as Van Ments [1], who argues that discussion “encourages flexibility to modify opinions”. The large number of peers giving feedback in ‘Innovation’ gave people confidence in the advice given, and the diverse views provided many potential ideas. This diversity prevented a small number of issues being concentrated on at this early stage of the projects (perhaps in contrast to traditional tutorials). Both Van Ments and Rudduck [2] identify that some fear peer lead discussion does not always allow for the “correction for errors”. However, in the context of architectural education, it is very difficult to argue this is a problem – there is often no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answer. All the workshops provided an additional basis for learning by encouraging discussion between peers, and there can be no drawback to this, as long as the students are receptive and do not resent advice. 3.2 Diagrams: information distilled The diagrams created during ‘kitchen brainstorm’ could be very quickly interpreted, especially as they were all at the same scale, drawn over a map of Selby. They bred and fed off each other well, which encouraged discussion to grow and aided peer learning. This was further helped by using tracing paper, as it was very easy to see new connections between areas of research that different people had been exploring. The diagramming method used was widely accepted by students as being a powerful way to communicate and condense ideas fast. The drawing element of the exercise also forced everyone to take part, listen, and react to other people’s projects and ideas. In this way, unlike some traditional tutorials, the format made everyone contribute, while it prevented (preventing?) people from only concentrating on their own projects. The graphics used during the ‘innovation’ workshop were noticeably different from the ‘kitchen brainstorm’ diagrams as people were not just drawing in plan but communicating change over time, ranges of design approaches, as well as drawing analyses in section, 2D and 3D. The additional length and depth of most ‘project clinic’ discussions was also reflected in the complexity of the graphics employed. People often produced more than one diagram for each person; sometimes a whole series showing the drawer had gone through several stages of thought before ‘arriving’ at a later one. The diagrams also reflected the method of representation the project ‘owner’ had used in their introduction. If models had been used to explain a project, the diagrams drawn in response rarely

108 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE ignored 3D representation, whereas 2D drawings presented to the group tended to restrict the variety of diagrams received back. The success of all the workshops, in different ways, strongly suggests that the diagramming element could be applicable at any stage of a project. The diagrams produced during each workshop suited the stage of the projects and the aims of the workshops. The diagrams from ‘innovation’ were more condensed; the diagrams from ‘Project clinic’ were more stewed.

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Conclusion

Brewer [3] cites The Hale Report into tertiary education (1964), which states “an implicit aim of higher education is to encourage students to think for themselves”. All workshops achieved this, and as has been shown from these pedagogical experiments, peer discussions in the studio not only invigorated students but also impacted their understanding and learning. Students found that being forced to think about someone else’s problem freed up their minds, which influenced their own work. Many said the exercise of thinking less preciously about a project helped them make more radical suggestions, allowing them to stand back from the accumulated assumptions and issues of their own designs. The effectiveness of the use of diagramming exceeded aims dramatically. In ‘kitchen brainstorm’, it was most useful for connecting ideas across themes and peers. ‘Innovation’ thrived on the use of diagrams as a way of quickly condensing ideas to be communicated between peers, whereas ‘project clinic’ produced diagrams from more contemplation. Across the workshops, all students benefited to different degrees by using diagrams as a portable record of the discussion, feedback and learning. The diagrams also enabled more informal, uninhibited and equal discussion between peers to take place, helped by the non-hierarchical group structure. The less time students had to draw, the less self-conscious they became, as there is a limit to what anyone (even gifted draughtsmen) can produce in two minutes. There is never a point at which you stop learning, and therefore it is vital to practice learning from peers. Once in practice, approaching your peers for advice (rather than being competitively secretive) is an incredibly important part of learning and developing your skills. Instilling the habit of peer learning early in architectural education (or even sooner) could have dramatic effects not only between student peers, but also in relationships between architects once in practice, and even between those of different disciplines.

References [1] Van Ments, M., Active Talk – The effective use of discussion in learning, p.31, 1990. [2] Rudduck, J., Learning through small group discussion, p.101, 1978, and Van Ments, M., op. cit., p.32. [3] Brewer, I.M., Learning more and teaching less – a decade of innovation in self-instruction and small group teaching, p.1, 1985.

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The role of student self-regulation in design studios M. N. Powers1 & P. A. Miller2 1 2

School of Architecture, Florida A&M University, USA College of Architecture and Urban Studies, Virginia Tech, USA

Abstract In their study Building community: a new future for architectural education and practice, Boyer and Mitgang (Princeton, NJ: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1996) contend that for a design project to function effectively as a pedagogic approach, students must become active participants in their own learning. In this view, students need to generate, monitor, and manage their own thoughts and behaviors in the studio, or in other words, they need to self-regulate their learning. Self-regulated learning refers to the learning that comes from a student’s self-generated thoughts, feelings, strategies, and behaviors oriented toward the attainment of goals. Even though self-regulated learning already occurs in design studios, little is known about how students employ self-regulation during design projects. Therefore, this study examines self-regulated learning in design studios in order to develop pedagogic guidelines intended to improve learning and performance on studio projects. Two key questions guide the study: how do students self-regulate their learning and behavior in design studios, and how does self-regulation influence learning on design projects? The study uses interviews with students of different achievement levels to examine the role of self-regulated learning in design studios. Study findings indicate that a student’s ability to self-regulate his or her learning and performance is based upon an understanding of design as a complex set of behaviors and activities. The findings also suggest several key differences between high achieving and low achieving students in terms of how they engage in self-regulation. Together, study findings shed light on how students selfregulate their thinking and behavior in design studios, thereby providing design educators with a basis for developing pedagogic strategies that optimize learning and performance on studio projects. Keywords: design studio, design pedagogy, design thinking, self-regulated learning.

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Introduction

Self-regulated learning refers to the learning that comes from a student’s selfgenerated thoughts, feelings, strategies, and behaviors oriented toward the attainment of goals (Schunk and Zimmerman [2]). A growing body of research from scholars in fields ranging from medicine to engineering has shown that self-regulated learning enhances learning and performance, particularly when solving complex, often indeterminate problems such as those faced in professional practice. Furthermore, educational researchers have shown the value of self-regulated learning as a pedagogic approach to adolescent and adult education. Despite its potential benefits, the role of self-regulated learning in design education has yet to be examined. Therefore, this study explores selfregulated learning in design studios in order to find out how this promising pedagogic approach might influence student learning and achievement on design projects.

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Background

In design studios, learning occurs by actively engaging and working toward the resolution of a design or planning problem. In the lexicon of education, this approach to learning is known as problem-based learning (PBL). Problem-based learning is the learning that results from the process of working toward the understanding or resolution of a problem (West [3]). According to Savery and Duffy [4], four criteria are critical for optimizing PBL including: (1) an authentic, complex problem; (2) a learning environment that simulates a professional setting; (3) a teacher that serves as a facilitator or guide; and most importantly for this study, (4) the use of self-regulated learning. Generally, the studio teacher controls, to a degree, the choice of studio project, their own level of facilitation, and the authenticity of the learning environment. However, studio teachers have very little control over a student’s willingness to self-regulate. Moreover, an outstanding teacher, well-conceived project, and rich studio environment, only provide a setting for learning to occur, these factors do not ensure that learning will occur. Therefore, only the student can make certain that he or she acquires the skills, knowledge, and experience that the project affords. This means that effective PBL in design studios, indeed learning how to design, requires willingness on behalf of the student to selfregulate, generate, and monitor his or her own thoughts, behaviors, and activities. 2.1 Self-regulated learning Self-regulated learning (SRL) theorists believe that “learning is not something that happens to students; it is something that happens by students. They assume that, for learning to occur, students must become actively engaged.” (Zimmerman [5]). Effective SRL provides learners ample ownership and decision-making opportunities within the learning situation. Noted SRL

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researcher Barry J. Zimmerman [6] says that SRL varies from high to low depending on the amount of choice students are given and how they choose to participate in their own learning. Since studio teachers expect students to assume ownership for their work while actively engaging the design project including making decisions regarding process and product, the need for SRL on studio projects is essential. Another factor influencing SRL is goals. Goals serve as standards or reference criteria against which progress is monitored and abilities are judged (Barone et al. [7]). Goals, especially those set by the student, are important because they provide a sense of ownership and motivation that is essential for SRL. In summary, current literature suggests that SRL is a likely factor in successful design learning and that goals serve as catalysts for effective SRL. The next section describes the data collection and analysis procedures.

3 Methodology This study uses interviews with landscape architecture students to answer the research questions. Study participants include twenty-one undergraduate students from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg, Virginia. The criteria for selecting subjects include the student’s academic year and their achievement level. Interviews were analyzed using Glaser and Strauss' [8] method of grounded theory. The next section discusses the study’s most significant findings.

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Results and discussion

Interview analysis reveals that design students engage in SRL behaviors in response to issues related to both the process of designing and the studio environment. In terms of designing, students self-regulate their learning through a reiterative process of engaging in design, then using SRL to address issues that arise during design, then generating more design issues that require additional SRL, and so on. The findings suggest that a design student’s capability for engaging in SRL is limited by his or her awareness and understanding of three factors including (1) how to design, (2) how to learn in a studio setting, and (3) how to use effective SRL activities and behaviors while designing. This means that to optimize learning and performance through SRL, students may need instruction about what design entails and how to use a studio setting to facilitate designing. In addition, students given instruction about SRL strategies such as time management, social interaction, and goal achievement may become more capable of self-regulating during design projects. Additional findings indicate that once a student becomes aware of and understands the three factors mentioned above, addressing specific design issues within the project become possible. Since issues arising during the design project initiate SRL activity and behavior, only those students who recognize these issues will feel the greater need to engage in self-regulation. In turn, SRL helps students identify project-related issues that they should address through design,

112 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE thus leading to greater engagement with the design project. For example, a student that does not understand that he or she needs to generate multiple design alternatives may not self-regulate time or effort to that end, resulting in a single, probably undeveloped idea. What these findings show is a strong relationship between students that self-regulate their learning and the degree to which they participate in the design project. Finally, the findings indicate that the highest achievement and most meaningful learning in studios results from the freedom to pursue additional skills, knowledge, and experience beyond the basic requirements of the project. This freedom comes when a student attains the knowledge and expertise to redirect their thinking and behavior away from learning how to design and gaining an awareness of potential SRL activities and shift their cognitive resources towards risk-taking, personal interests, and learning new information. Thus, students who know how to design and understand the role of SRL are able to complete the project requirements easily, freeing them to pursue other designrelated interests. 4.1 Pedagogic guidelines This section uses the study’s findings as a basis for providing three general SRL guidelines associated with the design project. First, at the beginning of the project have students develop a detailed plan for achieving their project-related goals including a project completion schedule. These plans should help students manage their projects while addressing time and resources. Additionally, ask students to write their plans down and to monitor them regularly. Encourage students to share their plans with other students in order to encourage social interaction. Second, during the project ensure that students interact with other students in the studio with more skills and knowledge. Ask students to use their project-related goals as a basis for interaction and soliciting feedback. Encourage students to write down or graphically represent what they discuss. Finally, at the end of the project have students review their goals and plans. Ask students to identify those strategies and behaviors that worked and those that did not work, setting future goals aimed at improving deficiencies.

5

Conclusions

This study has shown that SRL supports active project engagement, a key factor in optimizing learning and performance during design projects. Furthermore, the study suggests that design teachers should be mindful of the mutual relationship between design learning and self-regulated learning in order to intervene effectively during studio projects. In conclusion, the success of teachers, projects, and studios rely on a student’s willingness to learn, something that cannot be imposed but rather encouraged. As such, self-regulated learning provides a framework for using an individual’s own goals, choices, ownership, knowledge, and understanding as a basis for greater project engagement, thus persuading students to become actively involved in their own design learning.

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References [1] Boyer, E. & Mitgang, L., Building Community: A New Future For Architectural Education and Practice, Princeton, NJ: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1996. [2] Schunk, D.H. & Zimmerman, B.J. (eds). Self-Regulated Learning: From Teaching To Reflective Practice, New York: Guilford Press, pp. 1–19, 1998. [3] West, S.A., Problem-based learning: a viable addition for secondary school science. School Science Review, 73(265), pp. 47–55, 1992. [4] Savery, J.R. & Duffy, T.M., Problem-based learning: an instructional model and its constructivist framework. Educational Technology, SeptemberOctober, pp. 31–37, 1995. [5] Zimmerman, B.J., Theories of self-regulated learning and academic achievement: an overview and analysis (Chapter 1). Self-Regulated Learning And Academic Achievement: Theoretical Perspectives, 2nd Edition, ed. B.J. Zimmerman & D.H. Schunk, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 1–37, 2001. [6] Zimmerman, B.J., Dimensions of academic self-regulation: A conceptual framework for education (Chapter 1). Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance: Issues and Educational Applications. ed. B.J. Zimmerman & D.H. Schunk, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 3–21, 1994. [7] Barone, D.J., Maddux, E., & Snyder C.R., Social Cognitive Psychology: History and Current Domains, NY: Plenum, 1997. [8] Glaser, B.G. & Strauss, A.L., The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research, New York: Aldine Publishing Company, 1967.

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Integrating sustainability through imaginative studio assessment F. Stevenson Department of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University, UK

Abstract In evidence-based education for architecture it is now an imperative given that 40% of new buildings fail to meet the requirements of the building regulations in the UK. At the same time, the teaching of architectural design in the studio shows a distinct lack of evidence-based and integrated assessment of building performance factors such as carbon dioxide emissions and resource use. This paper reviews in detail some of the current assessment strategies and techniques that are available in the UK for ensuring that sustainable performance is assessed within studio design work at both undergraduate and postgraduate level in RIBA validated architecture courses. It also offers a critical evaluation of their effectiveness in relation to energy efficiency, resource use, and carbon emissions benchmarking that is developing in Europe. A clear challenge, however, is how to cross the cultural divide that exists between design tutors and building scientists in relation to their respective languages of communication (visual. v. numeric). Very often architecture students and their tutors are unable to evaluate design work in meaningful ways that can re-inform the design. The assessment tells them what is wrong, but not how to put it right for their specific design in a visio-functional way. The various forms of assessment are thus evaluated in relation to this divide and imaginative ways of overcoming these communication barriers are exemplified. Keywords: sustainability, education, architecture, studio, assessment, design.

1

Introduction

Architecture students being trained today are required by the UK government to design sustainable “zero-carbon” buildings by 2019. Yet in a recent survey, 40% of all new buildings tested for regulatory air tightness in the UK failed, leading to excessive carbon emissions. How well are our students prepared to deal with

116 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE these challenges and what are the principle means for ensuring this radical transition in their education? In order to know whether a design proposal meets “zero carbon” standards, students need to be able to assess their design strategies with a reasonable degree of accuracy. Clear evidence is also required to demonstrate that the student has actually attained the relevant standard and understood how this has been achieved. This paper focuses on assessment as one of the principle means of such a transition. At present there is no requirement in the UK for students in Schools of Architecture to meet any particular standards in relation to environmental design and sustainability beyond “awareness” of these issues and a demonstration of “knowledge and understanding” within an integrated portfolio of work. The professional institutions have devolved any setting of standards to the level of “peer esteem” via external examiners. But what happens if the examiners themselves are not versed in the necessary standards and means of achieving them? At a recent UK national workshop jointly organised by the author [1] studio tutors from 28 Schools in the UK unanimously agreed that they urgently needed educating on how to address climate change issues in design. The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) has recognised a similar need for practitioners. External examiners are drawn from both these areas, demonstrating that evidence-based assessment clearly needs to be addressed within architectural education.

2

A critique of current environmental assessment strategies

The divide between design tutoring and technology teaching is well recognised with many studio tutors feeling that criterion-based assessment can stifle creativity. As a result, the requirement for an integrated portfolio has seen examinations and tests dropped in favour of assessing environmental design through drawings and technology reports. Typical requirements include section diagrams to show ventilation and thermal strategies and construction details to show materials used with no actual evidence of carbon targets, u-values or embodied energy levels. Technical reports tend to be assessed in terms of intention without any specific environmental performance requirements. Evaluated case studies are another popular means of ensuring integrated assessment but these do not equip a student to evaluate their own design proposals; they merely demonstrate best practice for benchmarking purposes. In a further workshop session organised by the author on the use of best practise and design tools in relation to climate change [1] participants outlined their studio teaching techniques. None of the twenty two tutors involved acknowledged the use of any criterion- referenced tools. This is despite the availability of proven tools such as “PassivHaus” standards, BREDEM, LEED, carbon counting tools and a wealth of literature on building performance [2]. Why is this happening? To answer this it is necessary to deconstruct the studio design brief as a prime teaching vehicle in the studio. The learning outcomes set in the studio design brief determine what sustainability factors will be assessed but these are rarely criterion-based and

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tend to be written only to satisfy the nebulous requirements set by the professional registration boards. The assessment criteria rely solely on the knowledge of the tutor, which may be lacking. The adoption of scoring matrixes, which are equally vague in their terminology, can leave a student thinking they have a very good “understanding” and “knowledge” relating to environmental design when in fact they have no idea what they should be aiming for. A key problem lies in the term “sustainability” which is often used as an assessment criterion without a clear definition of what evidence is required to demonstrate it. Design tutors can thus defend a purely visio-spatial approach to environmental assessment against the intrusion of the more numerical approach forwarded by building scientists.

3

Choosing evidence-based criteria for assessment

One valid argument forwarded by studio tutors is that sustainability is “too complex” for design assessment and that there is “conflicting evidence” which confuses the student. Much educational literature on sustainable design in architecture offers a huge range of factors to consider and then proceeds to effectively discount them in terms of assessment by pointing out the complexities and contradictions involved [3]. A way forward is to offer students a strategic overview of sustainability factors that need to be considered but focus only on one or two evidence based criteria for strict assessment in each year of study. This teaches students the reality of performance-based design while at the same time allowing them a degree of design freedom elsewhere, and builds up a more coherent selfevaluation process over time. Technology and design tutors can map out criterion-based assessments of graded difficulty over the 5 year programme. Level one commences with simple u-value calculations; level five requires a full criterion-referenced modelling exercise that calculates the total carbon emissions (including embodied energy) from a building. Although Schools can determine their own assessment strategies, it is vital that common units of measurement (e.g. carbon dioxide emissions/tonnes/square metre/per year) and benchmarks are adopted across all Schools if any significant progress is to be made. A good starting point would be the requirement for “low carbon” design at some point in the programme that aimed for an 80% reduction on current building standards. While this approach might solve some problems, there are deeper issues that need to be tackled before building scientists and studio design tutors can “talk” to each other effectively when proposing design brief learning outcomes.

4

Communication strategies in environmental design assessment

There are a variety of communication strategies used by staff to provide students with feedback on the environmental aspects of their design proposals. These include: tactile, textual, numeric, visual, spatial, holistic and detailed methods.

118 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE Design studio tutors tend to favour visual, spatial and holistic methods whereas building scientists favour tactile and numeric methods. As project drawings are the final arbiter during portfolio assessment, it is not surprising that physical and numerical evidence looses out to visio-spatial intention. Assessment methods that imaginatively fuse these strategies and demonstrate physical and numerical evidence in visio-spatial ways, allow tutors to point out visually how students can improve their design proposal in terms of actual performance. Examples of imaginative visio-spatial studio assessment related to environmental factors are numerous. The classic technique is to overmark students’ drawings in pencil during a review in order to point out exactly where the problem is and how to overcome it. This allows students drawings to be treated as working/learning drawings during a review rather than untouchable electronic showpieces. The visual recording of site data can be physically measured with instruments and the tactile body. Early on, the calculation of a uvalue can be displayed by colour coding the actual materials in section detail in relation to their resistivity. Similar approaches can be used for technology reports, requiring the student to infuse visual diagrams with actual hard numerical data and physically visiting/analysing buildings for case studies while using visual literature. Finally, electronic modelling packages such as “Ecotect” and “IES” can visually demonstrate energy, thermal and lighting performance in later years of the programme, using colour graded rendering on plans, sections and elevations, providing clear targets are introduced.

5

Conclusion

Given that there is no shortage of imaginative ways of integrating sustainability factors into studio design assessment, we are still left with the question – “so why isn’t it happening”? Although the development of new tools and techniques can change attitudes, there is no real change at present because of the lack of appropriate environmental standards in studio assessments. While much can be done through dialogue between building scientists and design tutors, it requires leadership from the professional accreditation bodies to ensure that such standards are actually introduced.

References [1] Swenarton, M. and Stevenson, F., Designs on the Planet Workshop, RIBA Journal, Issue 4, 2008 (forthcoming). [2] Preiser, W., & Vischer, J. ed., Assessing Building Performance, Butterworth Heinemann, 2004. [3] Guy, S. & Moore, S.A. ed., Sustainable Architectures: Cultures and Natures in Europe and North America, Spon Press: Abingdon and New York, 2005.

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Coming and going: itinerant education and educational capital S. C. Ewing School of Arts Culture and Environment, University of Edinburgh, UK

Abstract The design studio is itinerant. It travels from place to place, alternating between working and wandering. Journeys are made, learnt from, forgotten, and revisited. But how do you learn ‘as you go’? What models, motivations and methods underpin itinerant aspects of architectural education? Models traverse the public learning of the Grand Tour, the private consumption of Architectural Tourism, mobilities of the Field-Studio. Motivations shift from Euro-centric sites deemed worthy of study to a global field of competing and contested urban futures. Emergent site practices of the late twentieth/early twenty-first century mirror disciplinary changes over the past 50 years. Two pivot points are the Yale studio of 1968, the basis for the influential Learning from Las Vegas, and King and Kelleher’s concept of South West as a budget airline in 1971. In 1958, the UK’s first motorway, the Preston Bypass, opened; by 1969 the UK had 1000 miles built; in 2008 there are 2200 miles, costing £30m per mile (ten times the amount which the University of Cambridge has just spent on its Architecture buildings). Is a ‘home and away’ studio model predicated on the site and dominant content of architectural education/practice being ‘home’, inflected and enriched with study visits ‘away’, responsive enough? How might recent academic discourse in other disciplines, which has engaged with the ethics and politics of fieldwork, situated knowledge, questions of research and post-colonialism, mobilities, the privilege of tourism practices, inform Architecture’s engagement with studio/field practices, the increasingly itinerant reality of architectural students, academics and practitioners? How might a model of education as a critical itinerant practice be a way of positioning and pursuing relevant and rigorous architectural knowledge and endeavour? Is a more precise understanding of the coming and going of ‘educational capital’ a way forward? Keywords: tour, site, itinerant, simile.

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Coming and going: architectural education is itinerant

The design studio, a central locus of architectural education, has been criticised for being too isolated, and for over-emphasising the primacy of the individual, inadequately preparing students for skills needed for participatory practice (Nicol and Pilling [1]). The site visit/field trip can act as a corrective to this alleged weakness and becomes a place for critical transformation of aspects of architectural knowledge and practice. In developed traditions of learning-bydoing, Schön outlines “less easily nameable traditions that inform the ways in which groups of students learn from and with one another.” (Schön [2]). The studio site visit/ field trip is simultaneously spatially ‘outside’ the Academy, yet also temporally ‘within’ its own parameters. It can be seen as a kind of extension which is necessary to the creative survival of the discipline, “Architecture was inside the university, but inside as an outsider.” (Wigley [3]). Students have potential to have more control over learning processes, as the social context for learning is generally weighted more towards the student/ field/site than the teacher/academy. There are overlaps between field as a place to learn from and site as a place to practice (design and/or research) in/on/with. Travel and tourism practices, from the normative to the self consciously performative, contribute to how ‘learning through going’ is understood and undertaken in architectural education and urban studies. It is hard to imagine an architectural education without some degree of itinerancy. The history of the international site visit in architectural education begins with privileged travel of the Grand Tour of Europe from the eighteenth century. This often prolonged and idealised period of three to four years was seen as a completion of education, as well as an engagement with a potential pool of clients. The motivation was to complete a body of work that would demonstrate suitability for gaining commissions as an architect back at home in the UK, gaining “a more public knowledge...a kind of academic education on tour and inside the office, without direct contact with the building trades...pupillage, travelling and painstaking archaeological investigation” (Crinson and Lubbock [4]). Study itineraries recur and continue as a mode within twentieth century architectural education in the US and Europe, continuing an implicit nexus of value of the western historical tradition, and an emphasis on architecture as insitu artefact. Implicit and explicit references to this mode of architectural education are found scattered through reports of twentieth century UK design studios. However the Grand Tour now usually operates as a foundational element, or is disguised as Architectural Tourism, or more marginal flâneur wanderings. Students return from Gap Year or vacation travel with speedy sketches and digital data which informally contribute to their personal development (or blogs) rather than laboured measured study and observations “likely to prove of the least Utility” with which set up a practice portfolio (Crinson and Lubbock [5]). The much expanded travel industry of the latter part of the twentieth century, and new experiences and modes of mass travel, have influenced design studios. Shifting the idea of studying valued cultural artefacts

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to studying more ‘common’ sites of everyday life, allowing preoccupations with networked mobilities to be generators as well as sites of architectural possibility, enabling injections of (usually urban) junk travel fixes. What differentiates ‘tour’ from ‘tourism’ from ‘travel fix’? Embedded notions of rites of passage and travel as discovery remain as remnant, sometimes hidden objectives of many architectural field trips. Travel over a long period of time was key to the gaining of public knowledge in the Grand Tour. Denise Scott Brown identifies two primary motivations for the relevance of travel to architects: understanding the potential field for action: ‘broadening of the terms of reference...understand the context in which they build’, and aesthetic development, ‘sharpening and refining their aesthetic sensibilities...an aesthetic jolt...opening the eye to new possibilities of beauty...reviving the creative energies’ (Pearce and Toy [6]). While these can be true of architectural education in both the eighteenth and twentieth century, the potential field for exploration/ study/work is now trans-atlantic, post-colonial and global. Tour is protracted, fosters practical engagement/production, coming and going; tourism is fleeting, limited often to ‘gaze’, primarily consumes in passing; travel fixes may become a habit. Field-Studios of the twentieth century include the seminal Venturi, Scott Brown and Izenour Yale architectural studio project of 1968-70 and The Harvard Project on The City, 1996-present. Both Learning from Las Vegas and Project on The City connect fieldwork research and design proposition in their methods. The former aimed to learn from contemporary urban sprawl through the documentation and analysis of the physical form of Las Vegas; “we… wondered if our brand of sightseeing research- which is entertaining, enjoyable, and enormously instructive for our own work- could not, if carefully and rigorously organised, prove enjoyable and instructive for our students as well.”(Scott Brown [7]). The latter aims to highlight a disciplinary lack of ability to describe new urban conditions, with emphasis on “evolving agents, relationships and consequences of urbanization...collective (staff + student) ‘travel and research’... in the first semester of an academic year, with “fleshing out individual inquiries taking place in the second part of the year” (Koolhaas [8]). Engagement with the topic in-situ is intensified by its short duration. A compressed going to the field informing more expansive coming to conclusion in the Academy, then disseminating in public is a now familiar conventional model of research.

2

Coming and going: architectural education is capital

Within Pierre Bourdieu’s conceptualisation of cultural, social, symbolic capital where might the ‘educational capital’ of the design studio be situated? Bourdieu accords general educational success to a range of cultural, social and symbolic behaviour outwith academic features, and sees education as a critical example of capital transfer between generations. What does that mean in terms of understanding activity, behaviour, motivations, methodology, for an architecture student, architectural educators, collective studio practice and outputs, and transfer across global networks? Coming and going in the design studio can be

122 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE understood as a practice with particular logics, placing importance on the body and practices within the social world, as architecture demands bodily experience, or imagining of experience, within the world. The architectural design studio is an agent in the flow of educational capital.

3

Coming and going: architectural education as a critical itinerant practice?

Collective environmental/ geopolitical dilemmas are drawing attention to a need to reassess education’s relationship with travel. If architectural education, and the design studio as its key locus, is itinerant, and learning ‘as you go’ (Grand Tour) or ‘through going’ (Field-Studio) continue to be a creative nexus for critical transformations of architectural knowledge, skills and practice responsive to a globalised situation, what is an appropriate future model? The 1958 Oxford Conference, in seeking to consolidate and make consistent UK architectural education, emphasised a predominant retreat into the Academy, the Universities/Colleges, with excursions into ‘live’ projects, the field, the building site’ in preparation for practice. How might the design studio, an agent in the flow of educational capital, enact a critical and relevant itinerant practice fifty years on? The implicit confusion, lack of direction and ambiguity in ‘coming or going’ may alternatively be read as a basis for a self-conscious practice of ‘coming and going’. Reviving slower practices of travel, where methods of looking and doing include both fleeting gaze-recording and extended in-situ material study; reassessing hidden curricula and agendas of studio travel where motivations are consciously critiqued, may promote re-engagement with what/where the sites of knowledge and value in architecture are. Reconceptualising the design studio as critically itinerant; as probe, as prosthetic, as home, as host/guest, as script, as project, as archive, as worker and wanderer.

References [1] Nicol, D & Pilling, S Changing Architectural Education. Towards a new professionalism. London & New York, E & FN Spon, p7 quoting Dana Cuff, 2000 [2] Schön, D The Design Studio: An Exploration of its Traditions and Potentials London, RIBA Publications Ltd for RIBA Building Industry Trust, 1985 [3] Wigley, M ‘Prosthetic Theory: The Disciplining of Architecture’, Assemblage 15 p6-29, Aug 1991 [4] Crinson, M and Lubbock, J Architecture, Art or profession? Three hundred years of Architectural Education in Britain Manchester University Press, p24,40, 1994 [5] ibid. p24, quoting pamphlet ‘An Essay on the Qualifications and Duties of an Architect’, 1773 [6] Pearce, M & Toy, M The Education of Architects, London, Academy Editions, p127, 1995

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[7] Scott Brown, D ‘On Formal Analysis as Design Research, JAE, Vol 32, No4 Search/Research, p8, May 1979. [8] http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/people/faculty/koolhaas/research.html.

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Constructing bodies: gesture use in the design studio I. Mewburn University of Melbourne, Australia

Abstract Most teaching and learning activities in the design studio are carried out through talk and the manipulation of things, including tools and various forms of architectural representation. This paper reports on the preliminary outcomes of a research project examining the role of gesture in the design studio. Gesture is an essential, but largely overlooked, component of this practice of ‘talk with things’. Four key ways in which gesture performs in meaning-making are identified: to convey physical properties and discuss architectural composition, as a way to ‘stick’ words to representations, to animate the more ‘ineffable’ qualities of space and as a way to order the studio into a particular kind of knowledge environment. An argument is made for the recognition of this kind of ‘embodied knowing’ as a legitimate form of disciplinary knowledge, a better understanding of which can help enrich design teaching practices. Keywords: architecture, design studio, gesture, knowledge, body.

1

Embodied knowing

One day I approached my father in law, a builder in his mid 50’s, to advise me on a bathroom renovation that I had documented on five A3 sheets. When I handed the bound drawing set to him he first carefully licked his thumb and then riffled back and forth through the pages, holding the set open in front of him like he was reading a newspaper or magazine. He then folded one page in half, and then in half again, to show me a specific part of the drawing he was confused about. Before too long one of the staples had come loose and I was suffering (quietly) at the rough way he was treating my drawings. The nature of his handling told me something about what a drawing set meant in a builder’s world: it was a thing to be tucked in the back pocket of a pair of overalls, useful in much

126 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE the way a hammer is; a set of instructions which could be manipulated in order to strategically reveal or conceal information; a thing to use when talking to architects and something to be occasionally pressed into service as a make-shift coaster for a hot mug of tea. In my professional life I had never seen an architect handle a set of drawings like that; they tended to lay them on a flat surface, opening one page at a time and settling the pages carefully on top of each other – as if they are looking through a photo album or art catalogue. They almost never folded over pages to isolate particular bits of information; instead they would use their finger, a ruler or a pen to trace over parts under discussion. In an architect’s world the drawing is handled this careful way because it took hours or weeks of labour to make and is a material manifestation of the service the client is paying for. That architects have an ‘architect-y’ way to handle drawings, and builders have a ‘builder-ly’ way of doing the same thing speaks to the important role that embodied practices play in the ontological domain of each profession and how knowledge and meaning is constituted within them. These two different kinds of ‘embodied knowings’ (after Dall’Alba and Barnacle [1]) are part of, but not reducible to, the manual expertise of the respective professions, such as the ability to draw a straight line without a ruler or build a straight wall with the help of a stretched piece of string. This fits comfortably with the idea that knowledge can be understood as a socially constructed process that is both situated and ‘localised’. Previous scholars (Schön [8]; Anthony [9]; Cuff [10]; Stevens [11]; Wood [12]; Webster [13]) have hinted at how the ontological and epistemological domain of architecture may be reproduced through dress, speech and habits, but little systematic attention has been paid to the expressive resources of the body. One of the ways to test out this proposition about knowledge as a social practice and how it comes to be ‘embodied’ is through a study of gesture; the rest of this paper will be concerned with reporting on preliminary results of just such a study.

2 Gesture and the learned body It is obvious that humans make extensive use of the expressive resources of the body such as facial expression, eye contact, gesture, posture, laughing and blushing in order to function effectively in society. Gesture behaviour occupies a spectrum from the spontaneous movement of hands and arms while speaking, to the codified sign systems like American Sign Language (ASL). People gesture almost all the time when communicating with others, even when they can’t see their interlocutor because they are on the phone or legally blind (McNeill [2]). Mostly however, gesture is usually a relatively opaque form of communication because, despite a demonstrated ability to tame it in sign language systems, it tends to be both idiosyncratic and contingent on the situation to hand. There is a vast amount of existing research that suggests that gesture serves a role in communicating the status of understanding between teachers and students (Goldin-Meadow [3]); spatial organization and action between adults (Lovano and Tversky [4]) and in meaning making with representations (Goodwin [5]).

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There is also sufficient evidence from previous studies to assume that gesture is culturally influenced (Efron [6]; and Kendon [7]). The study in progress at the University of Melbourne has used various ethnomethodologies to gather data about gesture use in the design studio, including participant and non participant observation, interviews and video recording. Eight different studios, located in two different universities, were observed; nine teachers of various levels of experience (ranging from 25 years to 3 months) and approximately 150 students participated in this research. The gesture use observed in these design studios was multifarious and complex, however four broad categories of gesture use emerged from a content analysis of the data: to communicate physical properties of the proposed built form(s); to ‘stick’ words to representations in order to make them intelligible for others; to animate ‘intangible’ and dynamic spatial qualities (such as the passage of time, qualities of light, traffic through spaces and sound) and; to create order within the classrooms that assists students and teachers to ‘do the design studio’. Since space is limited here, I only have room to present short examples from the first three categories, each drawn from the same segment of film. In it a student (foreground) is talking to his teacher (seated on the couch) within her own house, which she has asked her students to redesign. The student has a laptop to show his design images to the class, the images are projected, somewhat awkwardly, onto a wall that is out of frame. Gesture is particularly useful for communicating physical composition: size, shape, orientation and distance. While language is precise for giving absolute dimensions, it is imprecise in conveying the relative dimensional attributes that are important in discussions about spatial composition. In addition gesture is global and holistic, rather than linear and sequential, so it packs a lot of detail into a single gesture ‘phrase’. The data show that both teachers and students rely heavily on this type of gesturing, even when they have access to multiple, high quality representations to communicate compositional features:

1: 37.8 “They’re all…like”

1: 38.1 “this is just plaster with –“

1: 39.5 “these little glass bulbs”

On the word ‘like’ he brings up his right hand and shakes it, fingers orientated toward the screen so that we know he is still talking about the objects displayed on it, he draws his hand backwards slightly as if he is ‘pulling out’ something from the screen

He now brings both hands up so that we get the impression he is ‘holding’ the thing he has pulled out of the screen.

Swings his right hand down, with palm cupped up to form the idea of a ‘bowl’ , simultaneously he brings his left hand up to mimic holding a ‘bulb’ and moves it up and down slightly over the other hand. In this gesture he manages to convey the spatial relationships of object (plaster and glass bulbs) and the sense that one is carefully ‘placed’ inside of the other.

Figure 1.

128 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE By making parts of representations or objects salient with tracing gestures and posture, students can frame how representations are to be understood (Goodwin [5]). This is a way in which gesture can ‘stick meaning’ to representation. The following is only one example; note that the words used here are relatively useless – ‘this’ only becomes a ‘corridor’ through the gesturing:

2: 32.8 “um…in ”

2: 33.2 “this house”

2: 35 “this is what we walk through in the front thing.”

He points at the projection screen and moves the end of his finger up and down, tracing over the ‘corridor’ part of his drawing in order to make it salient to the teacher and the rest of the class. His hand is slightly tilted so that we know that it is the screen that we should be paying attention to.

He now shifts the attention of the class from the representation of the corridor on the screen to the real one. He does this by making the gesture ‘louder’, shifting his body forward and tilting his wrist away from the screen, but staying in the same ‘corridor’ pose.

He points back towards the front door; both pointing motions are loud and exaggerated. If you like they are at the ‘scale’ of the actual space the class is sitting in rather than at the scale of a representation or projection as other tracing gestures have been.

Figure 2. Gesture helps to convey qualities of space that are not easily captured in static representations. Despite the access to animation software, the flexible and ‘insitu’ nature of gesture makes it useful to convey qualities such as the passage of time, light and movement of people:

1: 49.4 “that hole can kind of”

1: 49.6 “dia-“

1: 50.2 “-late”

He tightens his let hand to make a ‘hole’ shape with his fist and then lays his left hand over it as a ‘cover’. In the process we also get the sense that there is a thickness or wall being summoned

Both his hands open out, his left hand ‘cover’ springs up from its position covering the hole. In this movement we get the idea of dilation being an expanding and opening out

By the time the word is finished the student has shown how the wall might ‘flare out’ and close again.

Figure 3. Embodied knowings such as those I have shown here in this student’s gesturing tend to be invisible and disregarded because they are not easily written down or spoken about, but they play a vital part in the knowledge making practices of the design studio. Through participating in these bodily performances students come to develop ways of relating to others (including inanimate objects like representations) ‘like architects’. This form of knowing is

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important for the student because it schools them in ways to share and mobilise knowledge in mutually understood disciplinary ways. It should be noted that this process orientated approach implies that the student’s knowledge is not fixed, but constantly being made and re-made through their interactions with their peers, their teacher and inanimate things. Teachers who pay attention to gesture may find a rich resource of knowing that speaks much louder than words.

References [1] Dall'Alba, G. and R. Barnacle, Embodied knowing in online environments, Educational Philosophy and Theory, 37, pp. 719–744, 2005 [2] McNeill, D, Hand and Mind: What Gestures Reveal about Thought, University of Chicago Press, 1992 [3] Goldin-Meadow, S, Hearing Gesture: How Our Hands Help Us Think, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003 [4] Lovano, S. and B. Tversky, Communicative gestures facilitate problem solving for both communicators and recipients, Journal of Memory and Language, 55, pp. 47–63, 2005 [5] Goodwin, C, Professional Vision, American Anthropologist, 96, pp. 606– 633, 1994 [6] Efron, D, Gesture, Race and Culture, The Hague, Mouton and Co, 1972 [7] Kendon, A, Gesture, Annual Review of Anthropology, 26, pp. 109–128, 1997 [8] Schon, D. A, The Design Studio: An exploration of its traditions and potentials, RIBA Publications for the RIBA Building Trust, 1985 [9] Anthony, K. H, Design Juries on Trial: The Renaissance of the Design Studio, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1991 [10] Cuff, D, Architecture: The Story of Practice, MIT Press, 1991 [11] Stevens, G, The favoured Circle: the social foundations of architectural distinction, MIT Press, 1998 [12] Wood, P, The Critique, Association of Architecture Schools: Design + Research conference proceedings, Melbourne, 2003 [13] Webster, H, The Architectural Review: A study of ritual, acculturation and reproduction in architectural education, Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, 4, pp. 265–282, 2005

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Forum 3 Human Habitat and Social Responsibility

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Après la guerre (After the war): design without borders E. Charlesworth Senior Research Fellow in Architecture, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University, Australia Australia Founding Director, Architects Without Frontiers, Australia

Abstract This paper examines the multiple roles of design professionals in the rebuilding of a range of cities decimated by armed conflict. By working ‘without borders’, I suggest that architects have a significant opportunity to assist peace-making and reconstruction efforts in the period immediately after conflict or disaster, when much of the housing, hospital, educational, transport, civic and business infrastructure has been destroyed. The aim of my exploration is to expand the traditional role of the architect from ‘hero’ to ‘social reformer’ and discuss how design practitioners and design educators can stretch their wings to embrace the proliferating agendas and sites of civil unrest. Keywords: post-war reconstruction, war, architecture and peace-building.

1 Sites of despair and sites of triumph Events in Beirut during 2006 that re-escalated war one again in Lebanon prompted me to re-examine cities, as simultaneously sites of despair and sites of triumph; as urban pawns in a spin-doctored war of so-called global terrorism. Beirut: a city I thought I knew so well (a city I lived and worked in for three years; 2000-2003) and yet it had become an unintended terra nullius; with the Lebanese capital transformed into a fierce battlespace and its inhabitants the unwilling targets. How does the architect engage with such shifting political and geographic landscapes of fear, trauma and spatial annihilation? This paper focuses on how design professionals can play more effective roles in cities destroyed by social conflict and natural disasters. My investigation is a response to the dilemma presented when we examine the roles played by other

134 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE professionals in alleviating the chronic human and physical suffering caused by the alarming acceleration of urban conflict: the doctors, lawyers, and engineers are ever present, but where are the architects and urban planners? In the aftermath of conflict, where and what is the intersection between reconstructing the physical landscape and reconstituting civil society?

2

Three snapshots: Beirut, Nicosia and Mostar

The original research for this paper was based upon a series of interviews that were conducted with thirty-five architects, urban designers, politicians and social commentators in Beirut, Nicosia and Mostar between 2000 and 2004. Reflections upon these discussions revealed that design professionals might play any one of five roles in post-conflict reconstruction. These include the designer as: Pathologist, Hero, Historicist, Colonialist and Social Reformer. In this paper I will briefly examine how these roles were specifically played out in Beirut, Nicosia, Mostar, (with fleeting references to Jerusalem and Berlin).

3

Five reconstruction roles

I: Design professionals as pathologists As pathologists, design professionals seek to diagnose the post-war city and prescribe the right “medicine” in the aftermath of sustained civil conflict. This role can suit reconstruction goals of domestic peace, economic restructuring, and recapture of lost investment and tourist dollars. In practicing architectural surgery, design professionals often see themselves as facilitators of control and order and as curers of pathological diseases who cut out the diseased cells. II: Design professionals as heroes The contemporary concept of the designer as “hero” largely results from the celebrity ranking system that operates within the international design community. In this elite hierarchy, we see much continual glorification by the profession and the press of individual design professionals such as Frank Gehry, Rem Koolhaus and Daniel Liebskind. Linked to this hero model is the supporting role of the architect as an independent artist and creative genius, who sullies his profession in any act of artistic compromise by dealing with clients or community. III: Design professionals as historicists The reconstruction of historic city areas and cultural monuments has been accorded high priority in many design approaches for rebuilding destroyed cities. For example, the rebuilding of Beirut’s downtown district has focused solely on the rebuilding of the former city center and its associated archaeological relics rather than plans for the much larger and socially disadvantaged Beirut metropolis. IV: Design professionals as colonialists Design professionals in cities such as Beirut, Nicosia, Mostar and Jerusalem are often working within the colonial mentality of “we know what is good for you”.

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The colonialist stance in architecture is clearly not limited to post-war cities. The reliance on international aid agencies in countries such as Bosnia also illustrates such colonialist-colonized relationships. In Mostar, for example, design professionals have played only a small role in determining the future of their city, as they are completely dependant on foreign aid for reconstruction projects. V: Design professionals as social reformers If the division lines of war are political, do design professionals have a political role within the broader mission of achieving social reform? Architectural and landscape projects can be used to bring conflicting parties to the table in the political mediation process, as I observed in Nicosia. There is something tangible about an architectural plan as a basis for negotiation rather than just a series of discussions, policy or peace treaties.

4

Conclusion: sans frontieres?

My interest as both a design professional and educator is to envisage alternative and often liberating futures for designers, as roaming, collaborative mobile agents able to work outside of traditional sites and constructed environments. My analysis of cities after urban conflict, sees the task of the design professional in the much more expansive role of city mediator, moving between the design of actual buildings to the negotiation and problem solving inherent in the urban reconstruction process. The role of the designer is thus not limited to being satisfied with opportunities and constraints, so much as imaginatively finding ways to engage with diverse community expectations and associated planning processes. It is thus only by looking over the self-defined walls of the architectural profession into more pressing issues affecting the social and physical health of cities that the practice of architecture can be re-invigorated. Focusing exclusively on aesthetics, on the understanding of architectural form and its representations, while paying lip service to “others” in the process, has confined architectural discourse within the extremely narrow community of its own professional elite. Without such a radical change in their professional direction, design professionals may therefore become increasingly marginalized and irrelevant in terms of their potential contribution to society at large and the complex and increasingly fragmented landscape we inhabit. Finally, both architecture and planning are systems of spatial thinking that can be linked to both site-specific design problems and to a wider contemplation about urban and regional territories and their associated patterns of social contexts. This broader definition of design extends the role of the design profession beyond acting as the conceivers and executors of designer objects, to, potential negotiators and mediators of urban politics and planning. While an urban pathologist maybe needed to dissect the diseased city at hand, it is the social reformer and educator that ensures the prescribed medicine: the capacity of architecture to contribute to the social and physical reconstruction of the proliferating club of destroyed cities and communities, is therefore vast, but still unfortunately, largely untapped.

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Learning from slums: a shift from ‘designing for’ to ‘designing with’ and some challenges in integrating the new professionalism into architectural education S. Tovivich Development Planning Unit, University College London, UK Faculty of Architecture, Silpakorn University, Thailand

Abstract Not only the Lincoln Cathedral can be claimed as a piece of architecture, but something which looks very much like a bicycle shed can also be claimed as a great piece of architecture – or, at least, there are many lessons architects can learn from it. In fact, the-bicycle-shed-like type of architecture or slums is the majority of the built environment in many cities in developing countries. Where have architects been? What does it mean to architectural professionalism and education? This paper puts forward the notion that to work ‘with’ urban poor communities, new professionalism is needed. It explores the three roles of architects in dealing with the urban poor – a provider, a supporter, and a catalyst. The analysis comes from case studies of architects working in three different organizations in Thailand. This paper also explores the challenges in integrating new professionalism into architectural practice and education. Keywords: architectural professionalism, community architecture, architecture of empowerment, participatory design, architectural education.

1

Broadening the boundary of architecture?

To engage architects in design is often seen as extravagant. Only about ten percent of the population has resources to commission the kind of buildings that the ‘academically trained’ architect has learnt to design – and only ten percent of them would think of engaging architects (Correa [3]). Additionally,

138 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE as of 2001, almost one billion people or one-third of the world’s urban population lived in slums (United Nations Human Settlements Programme [11]). What does this mean to architectural professionalism and education? Thousands of years ago, architects were building for kings, princes, nobles, churches, and other elites. What was considered ‘architecture’ were buildings serving royal and religious functions. Architecture was seen as a craft and ‘architects’ were known as ‘master masons’. Things began to change in the Renaissance, when an architect was seen as an artist and an intellectual. An architect’s work as technical crafts became liberal arts. Then, in the 18th century, architecture was polarized again between ‘architecture as a science’ and ‘architecture as a fine art’. However, regardless of its position along the art-science scale, architecture remains to be designed and controlled by architects, and their clients continue to be from the elite class. The poor seem to be invisible from an architectural agenda. Although, in the modern architecture era, the poor have became more explicit in the architectural agenda through Bauhaus architects promoting prefabrication and mass production in housing design. This attempt to make design affordable to reach the masses, still has architects at the core of the design process. The poor were nothing more than passive recipients. Not until the 1960s–1970s was the idea of participation advocated and the poor became active agents. However, simply inserting development jargons – participation and empowerment – in architectural theory and practice is far from enough. Many scholars criticised that this ‘good’ idea is often co-opted by those who exploit (free/cheap) labours of the poor. It is important to emphasize that, while academes were arguing whether self-help was ‘Rightist’ or ‘Leftist’, what should be aimed at is to make the interests of both poles converge rather than diverge (Hamdi [5]). The key is partnership. There is also tension between ‘small change’ and ‘scaling-up’. An ideal is to “start where you can” (Hamdi [6]: 130) and, at the same time, look for multipliers, because “small may be beautiful but big is necessary and inevitable” (Hamdi [6]: 139). Furthermore, it is often criticised that many ‘community architects’ merely play ‘lip-service’ to the community. At the same time, some other community architects fall into the romantic idealism of the “let’s do it all with the people, because people are always right.” (Hamdi [5]: 25). Arguably, one of the most important criticisms is that “the more the architect is willing to live up to the demands of the current model of participation, the more he (sic) becomes a mere facilitator and coordinator, relinquishing essential features of architectural activity” (Albrecht [1]: 24). This is crucial because architects may not enjoy being ‘someone else’ – a facilitator, not a designer – in the participatory design process. The question is, by expanding architectural services to the marginalized majority and by sharing the design process with others, does participation restrict or enrich architectural practice? The point is whether to look at participation as a ‘threat’ or an ‘opportunity’ to design. Serageldin [9] argued for the latter and emphasized that participation and empowerment are not restrictions for the creativity of architects, but an enrichment of the profession – making architecture more effective and sensitive.

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Learning from slums: exploring the new competencies – values, knowledge, skills – to work ‘with’ the everyday environment

In architectural practice, an architect’s creativity has been claimed as the key to design success, but what about the creativity of others? The idea of learning from the everyday environment is not new; the study of vernacular architecture is a good example. It values ‘non-pedigreed architecture’ (Rudofsky [7]). Studies of vernacular architecture seem to successfully promote wisdom and creativity of the ‘rural’ poor. And, what about the local wisdom in the ‘urban’ poor’s shelters or slums? From the author’s previous study on “Occupied Spaces and Materials Used in Urban Poor Houses” (Tovivich [10]), it shows that, despite many limited conditions of site, land, budget, time, construction tools, and materials, the urban poor have their own creativities in spatial adaptability, applying low-cost or free materials, basic structure, and local construction skills to build their houses to respond to their basic needs. In order to struggle and survive, the urban poor ‘have to’ be creative to solve their shelter problems under difficult conditions. The study argues that there are many things architects can learn from slums. However, it requires a new set of values from architects to be capable of seeing the urban poor’s wisdom. From the author’s ongoing PhD study at the DPU with Caren Levy as the supervisor and Dr. Robert Biel as the secondary supervisor, the fieldwork from Thailand with case studies from the National Housing Authority (NHA), the Community Organizations Development Institute (CODI), and Community Architects for Shelter and Environment (CASE) shows that there are three roles of architects who are working ‘for’ and working ‘with’ urban poor communities – a provider, a supporter, and a catalyst. A provider designs basic structure; a supporter enables spontaneous emergence; and a catalyst encourages small changes which can be scaled-up. Each organization focuses on all three roles to a different degree depending on organizational values. Ideally, the three roles should be integrated into a project. In practice, balancing the three roles is challenging. One of the most interesting findings is that the three roles are not contradictory, but complimentary. The fieldwork shows that to work ‘with’ urban poor communities, a different set of knowledge is required, such as a sensitive insight into the everyday life of ordinary people, ‘appropriate technology’, power relations in a community, and multidimensional impacts and limitations of design. Different skills are needed, such as negotiation, communication, teamwork, and participatory tools and techniques.

3

The impacts on architectural education and professionalism

Problem setting and problem solving of each role is different. To educate a provider is the most familiar task in architectural schools. To educate an architect to be a supporter and a catalyst seems unusual in architectural schools, but they are crucial in practice. From the PhD fieldwork study, the supporter and the catalyst practitioners learned few things about their role from architectural

140 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE schools. Most of their competence came from practice. Most of them stated that they learned a lot from urban poor communities. Freire’s idea of Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Freire and Ramos [4]) is a key to integrate the new professionalism into architectural education. To work ‘with’ a community, an architect has to be a facilitator rather than an expert. An architect should inspire and support the community to want to make a change by themselves. At the same time, for the ‘true’ education, a tutor is not a knowledge informer, but rather a coach. The challenge lies in the tension of ‘structure’ and ‘emergence.’ Without enough structure, things will be too chaotic. Simultaneously, if there is too much structure, creativity from the communities and the students will not emerge. Freire’s libertarian concept of education also contests the teacher-student relationship, where the ‘teachers’ often conduct themselves as a ‘master’. There are many steps to move forward. Firstly, we (architects) need more explicit examples – in researches and mainstream publications – to show how participation can enrich design. Secondly, we have to learn how practitioners learn from slums. It is important to have more research on ‘theories of action’ (Argyris and Schon [2]) of practitioners – architects who are working ‘for’ and working ‘with’ urban poor communities – to draw up the new professionalism from practice. Thirdly, we need to integrate those lessons in mainstream architectural education. It is time for architects to rethink their roles in working with the majority of the world population. Not so much because we want to save the world, but because we know that our role as an ‘architect’ can positively contribute something to the ‘swamp’ (Schon [8]). At the same time, the ‘swamp’ enriches our architectural practice.

References [1] Albrecht, J. (1988) Towards a theory of participation in architecture - an examination to humanistic planning theory. Journal of Architectural Education, 42, 24–30. [2] Argyris, C. & Schon, D. A. (1974) Theory in practice: increasing professional effectiveness, Jossey-Bass, 1974(1982). [3] Correa, C. (1997) The new landscape. IN SERAGELDIN, I. (Ed.) The Architecture of empowerment: people, shelter and livable cities. London; Lanham, Md, Academy Editions: Distributed to the trade in the United States of America by National Book Network Inc. [4] Freire, P. & RAMOS, M. B. (1972) Pedagogy of the oppressed, Harmondsworth, Penguin 1972. [5] Hamdi, N. (1995) Housing without houses: participation, flexibility, enablement, London, Intermediate Technology. [6] Hamdi, N. (2004) Small Change: About the Art of Practice and the Limits of Planning in Cities, London, Earthscan. [7] Rudofsky, B. (1964) Architecture without architects: a short introduction to non-pedigreed architecture, Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press.

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[8] Schon, D. A. (1987) Educating the reflective practitioner: toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions, San Francisco; London, Jossey-Bass. [9] Serageldin, I. (1997) The Architecture of empowerment: people, shelter and livable cities, London; Lanham, Md, Academy Editions: Distributed to the trade in the United States of America by National Book Network Inc. [10] Tovivich, S. (2002) Occupied Spaces and Material Used in Urban Poor Houses. Architecture. Bangkok, Silpakorn University. [11] United Nations Human Settlements Programme (2003) The challenge of slums: global report on human settlements, 2003, London, Earthscan.

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Amending the agenda: the anthropology of architecture P. Oliver Department of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University, England, UK

Abstract While the world is changing technically, it is also changing exponentially in its population growth, which is forecast to increase from six to nine billion by midcentury. The implications of this growth in terms of the need for accommodation, the pressures on available land and the lack of appropriate material resources have to be addressed. Expansion of the world’s cities has led to immense selfbuilt, informal settlements in a great many of them. Architects, who it is estimated, design less than two percent of current buildings, may be employed for future housing and development. If this is so, their understanding of the needs and values of contemporary forms of vernacular architecture in many different cultures, will be essential. The future of architectural education will necessitate studies, research and experience in the anthropology of architecture, which consequently, will have a profound bearing on education in both these professions. Very few schools of architecture include any studies in anthropology that have bearing on the education of their students or on their anticipated professional life as designers of buildings in the physical environment. Even fewer courses in anthropology include more than the most superficial references to the significance of buildings within the cultures that are studied and this is reflected in writing on the subject. The implications of this are considerable and may have profound impact upon the built environments of the future. These issues are examined in this paper and suggestions made for the objectives and implementation of appropriate proposed courses in the anthropology of architecture. The implicit amendments to the present educational policies, including the parallel implications for the education of anthropologists, will be discussed. Keywords: population growth, resources problems, vernacular, architecture, architectural anthropology, amending education.

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The preperation of architects

As the Summary of the Intentions of the Oxford Conference, July, 2008, states: “In the rapidly changing word around us, the time has come to re-set the agenda and lay the foundations for a new generation of buildings and designers for the 21st Century and the education that will inform them.” The key to the issues that the summary implies is in the final phrase, for the preparation of architects, planners and designers will have considerable bearing on the future of the built environment. Their education will affect the attitudes to the demands for new building and will help shape their own approaches. Their understanding of the concepts underlying their knowledge, their sense of purpose and their abilities will substantially influence and appropriately direct their architectural design. Should this be held in question, the nature of modernist design education and the unsatisfactory, often disastrous effects it had on the failure of much mass highrise housing of the 1950s and ‘60s makes for clear, if painful, evidence. While a case may be made that the present and future generations of architects are aware of the problems and wish to “learn from past mistakes” the question arises as to whether the demands for accommodation, which will shortly confront us and which will increase greatly in scale, are being addressed in architectural education. It may be argued that the extent of housing demand, especially in view of the increasing number of single occupants, is such that housing blocks of greater height and prominence will be necessary to cope with it. Moreover, the loss of land and space which low-rise building incurs is such that multi-storey, high-density housing is necessitated.

2

The architecture of population

Clearly, there are serious problems here, and these may be far greater in other regions of the world. At the commencement of the new millennium in the year 2000, estimates of the global increase in population were made that anticipated a fifty per cent growth by mid-century. At the time the world population was estimated at six billion, of which a billion were living in the Indian subcontinent, and far more were resident in China. A population growth of three billion was considered by some demographers to be an under-estimate, with the projected figure of ten billion by 2050 and, with a sixth of the period already past, it appears that they may well have been right. Estimates of the global population by the end of the present century are hesitant, and those for the end of the third millennium virtually unheard. Population growth may be natural, or “Malthusian”, but other factors play an important part, including a reduction in the figures of post-natal demise, increasing international control of virulent ailments and diseases – although HIV figures are still high – and increasing longevity with substantial growth in the proportion of nonagenarians and centenarians, being anticipated by the end of the present century. Whatever the accuracy of the estimates, the implications for architecture are considerable when the issues of affordable materials in immense quantities, the demands on servicing, whether of pure water, of electricity or other power

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supplies, the problems of sanitation and of waste disposal, are all considered. When these are placed against the demands of industrial growth as well as those of population increase, the architectural implications may prove to be beyond measure, at least at the present time. Among the world’s built structures the proportion of architect-designed buildings is currently minute, figures of two percent or less being considered by some estimates to be too high. If, however, the people of the future are to live in appropriately designed and constructed contexts, these matters have to be seriously addressed. A major issue is that of the cities and towns. At the turn of the century several international conferences were held with their focus on rapid urban growth, a persistent argument being made that half of the world’s human population is now dwelling in cities. This may be so, although convincing evidence is seldom offered. If it is correct, it has to be recognised that the majority of the world’s urban residents, from Calcutta to Mexico City or Nairobi, are living in so-called “squatter”, or “informal”, settlements, identified as favelas in Brazil, as bustees in Mumbai, as gecekondus in Turkey and by many other specific names elsewhere. Generally self-built, but sometimes with community-installed facilities, they are frequently dissimilar in settlement plans or in structural systems and materials. The reasons for this are complex, depending upon natural and other resources, and greatly upon the social needs and dwelling aspirations of their rural, but urbanising populations. If half the world’s population is now urban, which may include suburban, the corollary of this is that half the population is not urban, and is therefore, rural. This generally implies that architects have little to do with the rural populations of a great many cultures throughout the world. Increasingly however, there are schemes for architects and planners to be more engaged in the accommodation of the non-urban populace, including the devising and, in some instances, the implementation of large-scale projects. Yet, in the majority of instances to date, they have had little or no knowledge of indigenous cultures, their beliefs and values, and their traditional ways of life.

3

A vernacular model

When architects are to be so engaged in the future, including the designing of post- disaster housing, it will be necessary for them to become far more aware of the issues involved. These include an understanding of the factors that help determine the vernacular traditions of different cultures, including participatory construction, which may need to be met in future design. They have bearing on social structures, on land utilisation, on patterns of settlement, access to materials and their use, appropriate technologies and indigenous responses to climate and environment as well as their significance in building design and utilisation. It may be rightly considered that such factors are anthropological in nature, but they can no longer be disregarded if architects are to be prepared to meet the demands of the future, both immediate and long-term. If western architects will increasingly design buildings that are within unfamiliar physical and cultural

146 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE environments their understanding of, and responses to, this milieu will be vital if their plans are to be appropriate. In view of this, the Architectural Education agenda should be amended, with Anthropology of Architecture incorporated in the subjects taught at both First Degree and Master’s Degree levels. It should also be an essential component in the RIBA Examinations, providing a sound basis for Doctorate research. The implications of all this will also affect education in Anthropology, which, with a few exceptions, currently avoids architectural and building issues but which will necessitate their being confronted now, and in the forthcoming decades. If the built environment throughout the world is to be appropriate for the diversity of countries and cultures, the agenda for professional education in both architecture and anthropology needs to be substantially and realistically amended. Most effectively this may be achieved through a continuing dialogue between both disciplines and the planning and conducting of relevant higher degree projects.

Forum 4 Refurbishment and Evidence Based Education

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The case for real buildings with real budgets J. D. Quale University of Virginia School of Architecture, USA

Abstract This essay challenges the architectural avant-garde to take on real world problems, and architectural educators to rethink curricula. Late in their education, architectural students should develop their critical thinking skills by designing and constructing small buildings, and then evaluating the performance of them. Keywords: design-build, post-occupancy evaluation, critical thinking.

1 Essay In an article about the future of architecture published in Harvard Design Magazine, architect Zaha Hadid and her partner Patrik Schumacher wrote that in order to evaluate their provocative and seductive projects that "different (but related) criteria have to be applied. …Originality and innovative potential are more important than the actuality of its performance." In trying to distinguish their work from a conventional practice, they stated: “The significance of the avant-garde project can not be reduced to the contribution it makes to a given concrete life process. Rather it is pointing beyond any concrete problem towards the potential for new generic resources (formal/organizational repertoires) for the future problem solving capacity of the discipline.” [1] All disciplines require trendsetters, and avant-garde architects lead the way both intellectually and artistically. As a profession and a form of artistic expression, architecture should be both practical and inspirational – often with more emphasis on the later for the leading edge of the discipline. This is also true when it comes to the construction of groundbreaking buildings. Frank Lloyd Wright’s houses often leaked, but the adoption of similar forms by others led to the development of more dependable roofing materials and detailing. Frank Gehry’s curvilinear forms have broken new ground in digital fabrication and metal cladding assembly. Zaha Hadid is finally able to construct buildings that

150 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE for many years remained an exquisite rendering of formal potential. The architectural avant-garde should take risks, as long the client understands them. Yet the comments by Hadid and Schumacher are also disturbing. They have given voice to an opinion that many well-respected contemporary architects (including ones with far less skill or finesse) are not always willing to openly express: form is more important than function. Even in this supposedly golden era of sustainable design, most buildings are still conceived with little consideration for energy performance, let alone the building’s impact on its occupants or the resources of the earth. In the age-old ‘form’ versus ‘function’ debate, we need to be reminded that the two cannot be separated – especially in this era of global climate change. As architects and the general public are finally waking up to the enormous environmental impact of buildings, society needs designers who are skilled at design and performance. Frank Gehry and Zaha Hadid are among the very few architects in the world whose reputation has spread to the general public. They have also built some of the most visually and formally innovative work in recent years, and are hired by clients looking for a dramatic architectural statement. Yet their work appears hollow when one understands that the exquisite forms don’t actually serve any purpose other than pure intellectual and spatial exploration. Given the fluidity of their forms, it is not difficult to imagine a performance-based form-making that blends art and science into an inspiring and functional building. Isn’t it reasonable to ask Pritzker Prize winners (with their wealthy clients, and their teams of talented designers and engineers using the latest digital technology) to go beyond image making? Shouldn’t they be testing the performance of these forms to assess how they can be refined to work better? In fact there are emerging designers influenced by their work that are trying to do exactly that – justifying their assembly of both aerodynamic and more normative rectilinear forms as a method to improve natural ventilation and daylighting. In Hadid’s search for “future problem solving capacity,” she limits the scope to “formal/organizational repertoires.” Does this mean social and environmental issues are fair game for abstract exploration, but an actual contribution to resolving a social and/or environmental problem is not relevant? Is it more important to Hadid that the ‘climate responsive’ form of her Madrid Civil Court of Justice project actually ventilates air, or that it simply gives the impression of it? Wouldn’t a post-occupancy assessment of some of their compelling buildings contribute to a more broadly interpreted capacity for “future problem solving?” Aren’t emerging social issues or the staggering environmental impact of buildings worthy problems to be solved? Obviously there are limits of this critique. We should all be encouraged by the recent evolution of the profession to the point that designers are now starting to be able to address environmental and/or social issues without losing credibility as creative designers. For every Gehry, there is a Thom Mayne of Morphosis; for every Hadid there is a Sir Norman Foster, or a Günter or Stefan Behnisch. But with the possible exception of Lord Foster, none of them have achieved the level of recognition with the general public as Gehry or Hadid. So shouldn’t the

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most celebrated architects be leading the way on these issues – responding to real problems, and limited by reasonable budgets? One of my mentors, W.G. Clark, taught me that real creativity thrives within the context of challenging constraints. As architects, we must reconnect with the real world, and use our skills and experiences to address challenges that directly impact society. Inconvenient constraints like budgets can be seen as opportunities for a creative design response, or the creation of a process to clearly identify both “first costs” and potential long term cost savings. Designers must also take responsibility for our work. We must engage in performance assessments and post-occupancy evaluations to learn what works, and what doesn’t. We must use this feedback in future design processes. Evaluation should not be left only to engineers who often assume a narrow responsibility for a building. POE must be supported by those responsible for synthesizing all relevant information – architects. As architectural educators, we have an important responsibility. We must create an academic culture where creativity, intellectual rigor and humility all thrive. Rather than create the next generation of ‘starchitects,’ we should be focused on challenging our students to develop a productive design process that is based in both creative and critical thinking. Most architecture students tend to excel at creative thinking. The ability to imagine new ideas and forms is an essential skill in our discipline. Yet the alignment or linkage of creativity with critical thinking skills should not necessarily be assumed. The ability to use both intuition and reflective (or critical) thinking in a design process is an important skill that is not always emphasized in design curriculum. Critical thinking, in this sense, is best described by a consensus document on the topic put out by the American Philosophical Association: “The ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of reason, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject and the circumstances of inquiry permit. Thus, educating good critical thinkers means working toward this ideal” [2] The challenge of encouraging students to be an “ideal critical thinker” is a difficult one. It requires discipline from the faculty, to ensure they are acting as appropriate role models. It also requires a curriculum structured to emphasize this important skill. An ideal architectural curriculum would move through a process of developing basic artistic and technical skills aligned with guiding principles, and conclude with collaborative and interdisciplinary team activities to design and construct small buildings. By offering advanced students an opportunity to test drive their design ideas, and collaborate with other emerging professionals, all of them can benefit from the non-threatening feedback loop of academia. In addition, these projects allow students to be intimately exposed to other disciplines, and more carefully hone their critical thinking skills.

152 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE If academia balanced traditional design education (individual students working independently on a project) with the more complex process of collaborating with future landscape architects, engineers, planners, contractors and business people, architecture students could more quickly mature as designers, and truly develop a capacity for “future problem solving.” Rather than allowing the current fascination with 3-D parametric modelling of natural flows to be limited to their formal potential, students could also refine the forms to assess their actual performance. By applying themselves to projects that have a real client, site and budget; by building their own architectural detailing; and by evaluating the built results, they can appreciate the full impact of their design decisions. The author has directed a project of this type at the University of Virginia. Initiated in 2004, the ecoMOD Project is a design, build, evaluate project – a hands-on initiative for students and faculty to work together to address the important issues of sustainability and social justice. The project is a partnership of the UVA School of Architecture and the School of Engineering and Applied Science. ecoMOD (www.ecomod.virginia.edu) is providing several prefabricated housing units through partnerships with Piedmont Housing Alliance (PHA) of Charlottesville and Habitat for Humanity International (HFHI). In the context of this multi-year project, interdisciplinary teams of architecture, engineering, landscape architecture, historic preservation, planning, business, environmental science and economics students are participating in the project. Five sustainable, affordable housing units have been completed so far. Each housing unit is actively monitored and evaluated by subsequent student teams. Sustainability and social issues must be seamlessly integrated into architectural education, much like coursework in structures and architectural history. The challenge of the current interest in sustainable and socially responsible design is that it has the potential of fading from architectural discourse in the same way the latest architectural theory or formal strategy is inevitably replaced by a new one. Our discipline must focus on developing flexible yet timeless educational strategies for making sure future generations of architects have the ability to apply both creative and critical thinking to all future problems.

References [1] Harvard Design Magazine, Stocktaking 2004: Nine Questions About the Present and Future of Design, HDM #20, 2004 [2] American Philosophical Association, Critical Thinking. "The Delphi Report," Committee on Pre-College Philosophy. (ERIC Doc. No. ED 315 423). 1990

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Refurbishment as a challenge for future architects B. Stein Institute of Applied Building Technology, Hamburg University of Technology, Germany

Abstract Germany, like other industrialised countries, does not have much need for new buildings. Therefore, dealing with the existing building stock will become an important topic for architects, town planners and civil engineers. Compared to designing new buildings, refurbishing existing buildings requires additional knowledge. However, despite its significance, refurbishment and the existing building stock are dealt with very little within architectural education. The Institute of Applied Building Technology, directed by Prof. Dr.-Ing. H.-J. Holle, teaches about existing buildings and details of refurbishment in the context of its lectures and seminars. Thereby, full size demonstration models are used to visualize original and refurbished structures. We hope that other institutes and universities will consider similar methods and include these issues in their curricula. Keywords: refurbishment, existing buildings, energy efficiency, education.

1

Introduction

Germany, like other industrialised countries, does not have much need for new buildings. Taking into account predicted population stagnation or decline in most developed regions [1], dealing with existing buildings will become an important topic for architects, town planners and civil engineers. The German new-build rate is lower than one percent, more than 74 percent of all residential buildings were erected before 1979 [2]. Over recent years in the German residential construction market, structural alteration work has accounted for a larger share of construction volume than new construction [3].

154 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE Apart from the necessity of repairs, the energy performance of existing buildings older than 25 years usually is rather poor. As a result, approximately 30 percent of the German final energy consumption is used to heat and cool buildings [4]. In times of climate change and an emerging shortage of fossil energy, existing buildings offer the single largest potential for energy efficiency in industrialised countries. However, upgrading and enhancing the built environment brings with it numerous complexities for present and future architects.

2

Demands and challenges on future architects

The challenge for refurbishing and upgrading the existing building stock is immense. Refurbishment schemes need to upgrade the structure, the fabric and the building services in a cost effective way and at the same time comply with new standards and government legislation. When intervening in existing structures, new ideas and concepts have to be developed, and solutions have to be found somewhere in between continuity and change. Compared to designing new buildings, refurbishing existing buildings also requires additional knowledge – on historical backgrounds, building conservation and maintenance, building typologies, condition surveys, structural damages, formerly used materials, life cycle costs, etc. Although concepts of construction like air tightness or the handling of thermal bridges are generally similar for new and for existing buildings, their application may be very different. In association with the year of construction, different design concepts, materials, and details have to be appreciated and dealt with. By contrast, the owners and users of buildings nowadays have requirements, e.g. for indoor climate or comfort, which may also be very different from those in former times. Examples of best practice show that, with today’s technologies, it is possible to convert building components or whole buildings to Passive House standard. By using renewable energy they may even be converted into Plus Energy Houses, like the so called ‘first energy winning building in existing rental property’ in Ludwigshafen [5]. But refurbishment is not only a technical matter. It also modifies the human living environment and therefore needs to meet aesthetic requirements as well. All these are complex and sometimes conflicting issues. To create a design for transformation responding to aesthetic, technical and functional demands is not easy to handle for someone inexperienced. Nevertheless, refurbishment and the existing building stock are dealt with very little within architectural education.

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Teaching refurbishment

Over the last few years several postgraduate study courses, dealing with existing buildings and focussing on different aspects, have been established all over

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Europe. It seems nevertheless important to also include the basic concepts of refurbishment in graduate and even undergraduate studies. The Institute of Applied Building Technology, directed by Prof. Dr.-Ing. HansJürgen Holle, is qualifying teachers for vocational education, civil engineering, and urban planning. We teach about existing buildings and details of restoration, refurbishment and modernisation in the context of lectures and seminars. Thereby, the latest findings from the Institutes research projects are included. Since 2004 the Institute works on and with the Centre for Future-Oriented Building in Hamburg, where professional and vocational training in the field of sustainable and innovative building techniques is offered. In the heart of the centre seven full-size demonstration models are exhibited, which as a rule have a footprint of 3.00 m x 4.00 m. The intention of this exhibition is to highlight alternative methods of construction as well as energy-saving, sustainable, and ecological concepts [6]. Four of the seven master models in the permanent exhibition deal with structural alteration work to existing buildings and enable the visualization of crucial construction details and building structures appertaining to various types of building. In 2004 and 2005 students were involved in designing the models, and since then various supplementary smaller models have been designed and built. As far as our experience goes, students are especially motivated by the prospect that their ideas will be put into practice. They also particularly appreciate the opportunity to work practically and build some of the smaller models themselves. Due to the fact that various details in a 1:1 scale and built from original building materials can be examined, most of the students even benefit from simply visiting the exhibition.

Figure 1:

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Centre for future-oriented building.

Conclusion

Given its social, economic and cultural relevance, the conservation and transformation of existing architecture is of vital importance. As the existing building stock offers the single largest potential for energy efficiency, future architects will have to bear great responsibility. It will be their job to spread and implement new findings in research.

156 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE Future architects therefore need to get prepared and educated to meet the complex requirements linked to these tasks. To include basic concepts of refurbishment in undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate studies is essential and possible. Thereby, the use of demonstration models offers new opportunities for teaching and learning and enables a better understanding of such difficult and complex issues. We hope that other institutes and universities will consider similar methods and include these topics in their curricula.

References [1] United Nations (ed.), World Populations Prospects: The 2006 Revision. Highlights, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, New York, pp. 1, 48, 2007. [2] Statistisches Bundesamt (ed.), Wohneinheiten in Gebäuden mit Wohnraum nach dem Baujahr für das Jahr 2006, 2007. Retrieved 10 April 2008 from www.destatis.de. [3] Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung (ed.), Strukuturdaten zur Produktion und Beschäftigung im Baugewerbe. Berechnungen für das Jahr 2006. Kurzfassung, p. 12, 2007. Retrieved 10 April 2008 from www.bbr.bund.de, 2007. [4] Verband der Elektrizitätswirtschaft e.V. (ed.), Energie-Info. Endenergieverbrauch in Deutschland 2005, Berlin, p. 10, 2007. [5] GAG Ludwigshafen (ed.), Passivhaus im Mietwohnungsbestand, Ludwigshafen, p. 11, n. d. [6] SmartLIFE project (ed.), International network of SmartLIFE Centres. Design solutions for sustainable construction in new build and refurbishment in the UK, Sweden and Germany, Cambridge, p. 41, n. d.

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Towards sustainable management of existing heritage M. I. Amirante, C. Frettoloso & M. Musto Department of Recovery and Construction of Architecture and Environment, Faculty of Architecture, Second University of Naples, Italy

Abstract This study aims to focus on the delicate topic of sustainable management of existing heritage both in Environmental Design teaching within degree courses and in post graduate formation. The purpose is to bring up professional profiles with the capacity to manage the multiplicity of environmental variables and to promote the implementation of innovative strategies inspired by sustainability principles. The integration between the traditional Environmental Design tools and methodologies and new technologies and testing models, used in research fields, not specifically design, contributes to satisfy the compatibility needs. The introduction of innovative methodologies for cultural heritage and the definition of appropriate strategies for industrial buildings refurbishment are the main issues on which we will focus our attention. Italian archaeological sites are often degraded: incomplete excavations, ruins inadequately covered, no protected areas and no accessible sites. The necessity emerges to think over actual conservation and management processes through an innovative approach to satisfy both visitor needs and environmental sustainability. Recently, refurbishing disused industrial buildings according to a sustainable strategy has become a central issue in studying design models oriented to territory consumption and in the right use of the existing settlings. Our approach to industrial building refurbishment starts by adopting new sustainable materials, processes and installations within an architectonic organism with the aim of saving its original character and of using its energetic-spatial structure features. Keywords: innovative management models, cultural heritage fruition, sustainable refurbishment.

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Teaching sustainability: educational degree and PhD courses (Maria Isabella Amirante)

Technological improvement has created instruments and methodologies to remediate environmental breakdowns, directing choices, programs and projects to the culture of eco-compatibility in the built environment. It needs, therefore, to elaborate tools and methods towards the global defence of architectural and environmental heritage degraded by the effects of irrational development. This increase has systematically privileged the economical reasons and it has overlooked the ecological compatibility, the maintenance of the cultural characters that have traditionally distinguished and identified the various local realities. Today the problem of protection cannot be posed as a static bond: the safeguarding has to be thought of in a dynamic way, and it is necessary to evaluate and define, in every situation, the relationship between artificial and natural systems. The environmental designer, in collaboration with experts coming from different disciplinary fields, has over the years built a unique method of analysis directed to safeguard territory according with specific design finalities. In the didactic experience of the “Final Laboratory in Technological Disciplines for the Architecture and the Building Production”, the students have dealt with the theme of environmental recovery in sustainable key and in particular they experiment with the applicability of a mathematical simulation model (under professor Giuliana Lauro’s supervision), based on graph construction (static evaluation) and differential equations (dynamical behaviour), as a choice decision support tool. The disciplines involved in the PhD course, in “Technologies of Architecture and Environment”, aim to valorise the managing issues and control the project actions, orienting the research results towards the elaboration of knowledge and assessment indicator systems. This approach is applied to buildings and landscapes, elaborating suitable strategies of intervention finalized with physical control: physical-constructive transformations and energy performances, at the environmental and building scale. The studies explained how to deal with the delicate theme of managing the existing heritage with the intention of innovating processes and strategies. In particular Caterina Frettoloso works on the definition of integrated methodologies for an “augmented fruition” of archaeological heritage and Manuela Musto tackles the recovery in a sustainable energetic key of industrial buildings, defining some models of space-functional-energetic articulation (Arinat et al [1]).

2

An innovative approach to the archaeological site’s fruition (Caterina Frettoloso)

This study is continued from a PhD thesis and it examines the use of multimedia technology in archaeological visits. The main contribution of the thesis was the elaboration of meta-project methodologies finalized in the integration of a museum visit, defined as an “augmented path”: the real experience becomes part of the multimedia and virtual scenery. Moving from these previews I am dealing

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with the definition of guidelines for the application of the “augmented path” methodology in my Post-PhD research. The interest in the theme of managing an archaeological site and the fruition was born from some important issues. First of all, the dreadful conditions of many beautiful examples of our cultural heritage: incomplete excavations, ruins inadequately covered, no protected areas, no accessible sites. The problem regards all the conservation processes which perhaps cannot satisfy the complex needs of both heritage and visitors. To improve this argument it is helpful to introduce the concept of sustainability. In my approach sustainability means the capacity of a conservation process to manage each phase: from the analysis of archaeological context and its ruins to the public fruition and site promotion. We should remember that an important reason to protect sites is the possibility of knowing our heritage: the public fruition is the main justification for the excavation. A suitable future should comprehend a preservation model in which the excavation is not the final phase but an intermediate step of the conservation program. To achieving more sustainable management of archaeological sites, we have to modify current procedures: this means, first of all, a new conception of excavation, from an extensive work area to a small study-yard. This is the main key of the research and it is also possible thanks to new survey technologies which allow the use of non-invasive investigation tools. The interpretation and presentation of archaeological artefacts to visitors have the same importance: they are directly involved within the preservation process. Archaeological ruins do not appear to us in their original form, they are “mutilated” as a person without an important part of their body! So it is hard “understand” them and it is necessary to introduce more complex fruition tools. I am speaking about the concept of “incompleteness” well expressed by Ranellucci [2]: this is the main answer to our need to use educational supports during the archaeological visit. The fruition approach proposed aims to better the archaeological knowledge process through multimedia tools too. My purpose is to underline how to offer visitors the opportunity to dialogue, in a virtual and real way, directly with the heritage and its environment: a relationship that optimizes the communicative – knowledge component. The visitor becomes the main actor of the fruition’s project. The idea behind the research is to invert the traditional relation both between the “archaeological survey and fruition” and the “real context and virtual reality” promoting “past knowledge working without its presence”. The archaeological context will appear through the “denotative and connotative elements”: the first will coincide with the physical visit and the second will be interpreted through the use of innovative technologies.

3

The industrial building refurbishment: moving to a second nature (Manuela Musto)

Restoration should be considered not as simple refurbishment but as a project full of dynamic strength able to transform architecture into our second nature, not opposite our surrounding environment but in a continuous osmosis with it. The industrial building refurbishment will start adopting new sustainable material processes and installations in an architectonic organism, that will not

160 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE lose its original characteristics and using its energetic-spatial structure features. One should not forget that the industrial buildings came to us through a series of structural and system innovations. Change is intrinsic in its nature as a living organism: during its business life innovation is the rule as a vitality symptom. The aim of this work is to describe a sustainable refurbishment research approach. For this purpose some case studies have been analysed, the more innovative ones have been studied in depth. Furthermore, an investigation on various applicable sustainable refurbishment systems has been done for each typology of industrial building. We have taken into account limitations arising from already shaped environment systems, where the site choice, positioning, shape, building size and opening layout have already been defined. Moreover we have to consider the installation, management and maintenance cost interventions. Due to the complexity of environment phenomena in disused industrial sites, it has been necessary to introduce a subset division: ambient context, settlements group and building organism. Besides, the numerous constraints, due to the analysed building typology, its conservation grade and structural features, restrict the opportunities of using both bioclimatic systems and technologies. So the organizational, distributional and conformational characters of single manufactured buildings have been studied and in particular “(…) the morphological, physical-spatial characters and building devices, on the basis of arrangement asset defined by natural and/or artificial place characteristics” (Marocco [3]). For these reasons, the overcoming or breaking of the mono-functionality concept and industrial district marginalization process have been introduced, considering and defining a program that involves closeness in terms of town planning, architectonic, technological and energetic aspects. The level of manipulation of some industrial typologies has been considered too, in fact depending on technological, energetic and functional urban decline, it is always high and permits us a good margin of technical and formal intervention. The changing use destination forces a high level of transformation and it determines the bioclimatic technologies use; in this case it is much more important for two reasons. It is evident that the existing industrial buildings have low energetic features and the performance standard needed for home buildings is higher and expensive, so these kind of costs are justified only for adapting purposes. In addition to the structural performance adjustments, the energetic, typological and system adjustments are justified too, when they are realized by bioclimatic technologies. In such a way one obtains an energetic saving and a better well-being condition for all users.

References [1] Arinat, M. I. O., D’Angelo, A., Frettoloso, C., Musto, M. Metodologie e strumenti progettuali per “contesti sensibili”, Aracne, 2007 [2] Ranellucci, S., Strutture protettive e conservazione dei siti archeologici. Carsa, 1996. [3] Marocco, M., “I requisiti del comfort nell’istruzione del progetto ambientale”, in M. Marocco, F. Orlandi (ed.), Qualità del comfort ambientale, Libreria Dedalo, pag. VII, 2000.

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Teaching architectural regeneration and development A. Orbasli & M. Vellinga Oxford Brookes University, UK

Abstract Most education programmes in the field of regeneration often focus on policy based approaches, while those concerned with conservation programmes rarely touch on the broader social, community and sustainability issues. This paper will discuss an approach to teaching architectural regeneration that is multidisciplinary and cross-cultural, combining critical thinking and analysis with creative design. The programme engages in a teaching and learning programme that combines a theoretical knowledge base with field research and design studios that integrate learning with practice. Keywords: regeneration, vernacular architecture, inherited built environment, multi-disciplinary, intercultural.

1

Introduction

The inherited built environment, including vernacular architecture, must be recognised as a significant cultural and environmental resource and its regeneration an essential component of sustainable development. The combined processes of globalisation, rapid urbanisation, population growth, environmental change and technological developments have resulted in an increasingly complex and dynamic situation in which concerns about the meaning of cultural heritage and identity, the depletion of natural resources, the increasing gap between rural and urban areas, and the impacts of climate change continue to grow. This presents a significant challenge to professionals charged with delivering culturally and environmentally sustainable architecture to respond in a critical, dynamic and creative way. Most educational programmes in the field of regeneration are focused on policy and planning issues, taking a global, and frequently urban, outlook but not

162 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE paying specific attention to issues of architectural design, or the cultural values, criteria and problems involved. At the other end of the spectrum, the conservation profession that has been concerned with the preservation and restoration of monuments, historic buildings and places, maintains a physical environment and materials focus (Jokilehto [4]; Feilden [3]). The revitalisation of historic quarters and traditional settlements with their vernacular traditions often requires an approach that recognises many of these conservation principles, but also needs to deliver on the regeneration objectives of economic, social and cultural sustainability (Rodwell [8]). This often has to be achieved in the absence of large regeneration budgets, with smaller scale, case specific and culturally and socially sympathetic interventions. In order to achieve its two principle objectives, namely social and economic development, alongside maintaining and enhancing the unique and inherent character of a place, this process has to be based on an understanding of how the traditional buildings and morphology make up the character of the place, how they have come to be used, and how they relate to current economic, social, cultural and environmental needs (Oliver [6]; Orbaşlı [7]). As such it is a multi-disciplinary and multistakeholder process. In practice, regeneration projects that are based on such an understanding can be found in various parts of the world. In terms of education in the field, however, the understanding, tools and skills that are needed to successfully engage in such multi-disciplinary and (increasingly) multicultural projects are not generally taught. The purpose of the International Architectural Regeneration and Development (IARD) masters programme at Oxford Brookes University is to address this gap.

2 Teaching philosophy and approach The IARD programme, started in 2006, has been established so as to enable students from various disciplinary and cultural backgrounds to recognise the value and potential of the built heritage, and to critically reflect on the approaches, contexts, criteria and practices relating to its regeneration and development. As a masters programme, the course attracts architects and others with linked disciplinary interests. Most of the students joining the programme will have had several years experience in practice and/or in the field. In addition, part of the programme is offered to sixth year architecture students on the Architecture Diploma. One of the key challenges in designing the programme was to find ways in which the skills required to respond to the complex issues of regeneration could be most effectively taught to an international group of students with varying backgrounds, experience, skill levels and cultural values, within a single calendar year. Another challenge is to teach architects alongside non-architects and to build up synergies between various disciplines that contribute to the physical, social and cultural well being of the lived-in environment. In order to achieve the goals of providing students with the knowledge, tools and skills to play an active and leading role in architectural regeneration and

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development, a teaching and learning programme has been designed that combines theory, field research and a design/project studio that aims to mirror practice experiences. Throughout the programme students are encouraged to learn from each other through group work, while also developing individual skills and specialism through their own work. Aspiring to a ‘deep learning’ approach that encourages students to critically and actively engage with the information provided to them (Biggs [2]), the programme intends to encourage critical and creative engagement with the numerous issues, themes and problems concerned. Learning to comprehend the unique and culturally defined local character of a place or building, and developing a critical understanding of the complex and dynamic relationship between the inherited built environment and its economic, social and cultural values (Oliver [6]), is a fundamental starting-point of the programme. This is achieved through a series of lectures, tutorials and participatory seminars. The critical stage is the application of the theoretical framework into practice that will result in innovative yet sensitive strategies for the re-use, regeneration and development of places, buildings or landscapes. At this stage the learning process is taken into the field. Alongside a number of day visits two field studies underpin the programme. The first to Dartmoor is predominantly an observational fieldtrip and introduces students to fieldwork methodology. This field study undertaken early on in the programme illustrates the intimate and dialectic relationship of buildings to the local environment and culture, encouraging students to explore the characteristics of materials and technologies, of forms and layouts, and of human behaviour, from a diachronic perspective. The second fieldtrip is to an international location and is linked to the project component of the programme. Field visits provide opportunities for students to directly experience regeneration-in-action, including those involved, and critically question various approaches. Recent trips have been to India and Turkey and northern Cyprus. Students experience working in a ‘real life’ international situation, engaging with both the built environment and the cultural, social, economic and political issues that underpin its identity. During the visits students engaged not only with a real ‘client’ but also with local users and stakeholders. The projects, involving an area-based regeneration strategy and more specific proposals within this framework are developed in the design studio over a semester. On completion the student projects are fed back to the local host. Additionally, master classes and one-day workshops directed by experts in the field address issues such as community participation or feasibility in more depth and are designed to ensure students actively participate in the learning process. In the final stage, students explore specific issues individually, through their Masters theses. This also allows them to develop their strengths in more depth. Taken together, the programme allows students to address and engage with the entirety of aspects involved in the regeneration of the inherited built environment. The combination of theory, fieldwork and design projects allows students to address the key issues involved in regeneration projects from a

164 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE variety of perspectives, in different cultural contexts, whilst collaborating with a variety of stakeholders (colleagues, informants, local communities and governments) from a variety of disciplinary, professional and cultural backgrounds.

3

Summary

Kostof [5] points out the need to promote the less glamorous side of architectural design, such as rebuilding to ‘bring forth new models of professional worthiness’. Promoting an interdisciplinary approach that combines critical thinking and analysis with creative design, IARD aims to provide students with the knowledge, skills and tools that will enable them to recognise the potential, and contribute creatively to the re-use, regeneration and development of the inherited vernacular built environment of the world. The academic focus and scope of the IARD programme, and the specific learning and teaching approach used on it, enables students to learn how to design, regenerate and develop architecture that is rooted in tradition, culture and place, yet at the same contemporary and environmentally, economically and socially sustainable. Such skills, and the knowledge and understanding that underlies it, are important assets to today’s architects. Understanding that there need not be a dichotomy between tradition and modernity, or between the past and the present, graduates from the programme are able to work as ‘enablers’ (Oliver [6]; Asquith and Vellinga [1]), advising local communities on how to best deal with their built heritage.

References [1] Asquith, L. & Vellinga, M. (eds). Vernacular Architecture in the TwentyFirst Century: Education, Theory and Practice, Taylor & Francis: London, 2006. [2] Biggs, J. Teaching for Quality Learning at University, Open University Press: Maidenhead, 2003. [3] Feilden, B. Conservation of Historic Buildings, Architectural Press: Oxford, 2003. [4] Jokilehto, J. History of Architectural Conservation, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1999. [5] Kostof, S. ‘The Education of the Muslim Architect’ in Architecture and Education in the Islamic World, Aga Khan Award for Architecture: Singapore, 1986. [6] Oliver, P. Dwellings: The Vernacular House World Wide, Phaidon: London, 2003. [7] Orbaşlı, A. Tourists in Historic Towns, Urban Conservation and Heritage Management, Spon Press: London, 2000. [8] Rodwell, D. Conservation and Sustainability in Historic Cities. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, 2007.

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Building for the future: making the UK further education colleges sustainable R. Gupta & S. Chandiwala Oxford Institute of Sustainable Development, Oxford Brookes University, UK

Abstract This paper describes the methodological approach and evidence-based findings from a recently-completed GROW project, funded by the Association of South East Colleges, to encourage ‘sustainable development in the UK Further Education (FE) sector’. The main driver for the project is the recent announcement by the Learning and Skills Council to provide an additional 10% capital funding for supporting sustainability measures in new FE buildings. However the sector is in a state of inertia – there are no recent benchmarks for quantifying energy or water consumption and carbon emissions. Against this background, investment into sustainability and energy efficiency has been discretionary, non-core and low priority. The GROW projects seeks to address this knowledge gap by developing three research-based ‘How to’ guides on: commissioning sustainable construction; conserving energy and conserving water, with robust metrics and benchmarks, to facilitate knowledge transfer of best-practice information. In addition, postoccupancy evaluation (POE) studies of two recently-constructed educational buildings have been undertaken to share evidence-based lessons. The POE studies include both hard and soft issues of building energy performance: a detailed audit of actual energy use and environmental impact; monitoring of temperature, humidity and lighting; as well as an assessment of occupant satisfaction through questionnaires. Although both buildings are found to have reduced heating loads, they tend to overheat in summers and have an unexpectedly high electricity load. The project has highlighted the urgent need to incorporate passive design in new FE buildings, and rapidly update energy and carbon emissions benchmarks, to eventually move towards evidence-based sustainable design and performance. Keywords: sustainable development, buildings, further education, post occupancy evaluation.

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Introduction

The Learning and Skills Council (LSC) strategy for building greener colleges of the future, released in 2007, states, that in the future, for FE colleges to qualify for LSC capital funds, all proposals will need to promote and deliver good sustainable practice in all design, new build and refurbishment activities. An additional 10% capital funding will be provided for supporting these sustainability measures and the Government will make a commitment to rebuilding the FE Estate, investing £750 million annually in capital projects by 2011 (LSC 2007). Particularly in the south-east region of UK, over £1.4 billion would be spent on FE buildings in the next five years (LSC 2006). However there is a lack of exemplar developments within the sector, with no recent benchmarks for typical and good practice figures quantifying energy or water consumption and carbon emissions from buildings. The GROW projects seeks to address this knowledge gap by developing three research-based ‘How to’ guides on: commissioning sustainable construction; conserving energy and conserving water, to facilitate knowledge transfer of bestpractice information. In addition, post-occupancy evaluation (POE) studies of two recently-constructed educational buildings – City of London Academy and Merton College, London – have been undertaken to share evidence-based lessons.

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Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE)

Post Occupancy Evaluation is a key tool to evaluate and analyse building performance while in use. A POE essentially allows evaluating the energy performance of a building and relating it to occupant satisfaction within it, providing important clues to designers and estate managers equally. Some of the common evaluation parameters in the POE for this project included a detailed energy audit analysing fuel use and cost, occupant satisfaction survey for thermal comfort within the building and usability of controls and an environmental audit incorporating monitoring of temperature, light and humidity. 2.1 City of London Academy, London City of London Academy is a secondary education institute providing specialised courses in business, ICT, and finance. Built in 2005, the school caters for 11-19 year old students and was awarded the Prime Minister’s Public Building of the Year Award in 2006, for Public Partnership Contract (Prentice and Elkin 2006). 2.1.1 Energy Gas use in the building for space heating and hot water was less than good practice benchmarks that show a well performing building fabric and an efficient heating system. However, electricity use was found to be much higher than typical practice. As compared to 25% in typical schools (Carbon Trust 2005), it accounted for around 45% of the energy use and 73% of the total energy cost in

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the school. This could possibly be due to increase in IT equipment, increased lighting load or even wastage of electricity. Electricity also accounted for. The total carbon emissions for the Academy were hence, mid-way between typical and good practice benchmarks, highlighting the potential for both fuel and cost savings. 160

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2.1.2 Occupant and environmental survey The walk-by survey and occupant satisfaction survey highlighted several other issues with the building performance. South facing rooms frequently overheated in the summer reaching highs of 30°C–37°C. Additional heat gains from people, equipment and lighting and lack of any external shading strategies exacerbated the discomfort. The central atrium suffered from high noise levels and frequent overheating as well. 38

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2.2 Merton College, London Merton College is a further education college with a user group of mostly 16-19 year old students. The new 5600m2 three storey college building studied for this project comprises of an IT centre, library, laboratories, classrooms and offices. The building has been designed to incorporate passive design measures and

168 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE address sustainability issues. Some of the key strategies include increased thermal mass and air tightness levels, interstitial window blinds to control glare, artificial lighting controls such as dimmers, daylight and occupancy sensors, with additional manual controls, a building management system (BMS), night time ventilation, chilled beams and rain water harvesting. 2.2.1 Energy The new building forms a part of a multi building site with a single meter providing gas and electricity to all buildings. It was thus, not possible to separate the fuel use of the new building from the other buildings on site. Energy use was therefore estimated for different areas using typical practice benchmarks. Similar to the Academy, the gas use in the building is considerably lesser, but the electricity use was almost double the typical benchmark figures. 2.2.2 Occupant and environment survey The occupant satisfaction survey was integral to the POE of the college, as it highlighted numerous issues with the building controls. High temperatures were generally experienced in the summer with stand alone fans being a common feature in offices. Especially in IT and library area, most users regarded the chilled beams as inefficient. It was found that occupants continually opened the windows by overriding BMS controls, rendering the chilled beams ineffective in providing comfort temperatures. The effectiveness of a new technology depends on how users interact with it and also shows that probably, people prefer to manually regulate their immediate environment through simple controls.

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Conclusions

The project highlighted the lack of any particular focus on sustainability or setting targets in new developments, which is a loss of a valuable opportunity. It is imperative that the funding initiative by the LSC is used to incorporate sustainability measures in the new buildings and any successes and failures are highlighted for the benefit of future projects. There are key lessons to be learnt from the project. Passive design is the first step to a low energy building and can greatly affect energy consumption as well as how buildings are used. Simple measures such as providing shading can be effective. Buildings need to be designed so as to avoid overheating in summers. Higher than typical electricity load in both the buildings led to higher carbon emissions, as opposed to emissions from gas. Hence, it is essential that electricity use is minimised by designing for naturally daylit spaces. Incorporation of new technologies should address the issues of user interface. It is important for people to be able to control their immediate environment through simple controls and users should be made aware of any new technologies used and how they function. There is an also urgent need for the FE sector to evaluate its energy use in colleges and establish baseline consumption figures for FE colleges. This can

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then be used to update energy and carbon emissions benchmarks to set future targets for the FE estate and to eventually move towards evidence-based sustainable design and performance.

References [1] Carbon Trust (2005). Saving energy - a Whole School Approach. Good practice guide 343. London. [2] CIBSE (2004). Energy efficiency in buildings: CIBSE Guide F. London, The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers. [3] LSC (2006). Regional statement of priorities: South East region 2006-07, LSC. [4] LSC (2007). LSC: Strategy for building greener colleges of the future. [5] Prentice, C. and S. Elkin (2006). The making of an academy - City of London Academy. London, Specialist Schools and Academies Trust.

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Following Kahn in Texas M. Zaretsky University of Cincinnati School of Architecture and Interior Design, USA

Abstract “I challenged the designer, Renzo Piano and the engineers, Arup, to design something that had never been done before, to bring natural light into the galleries without the use of any mechanics.” - Ray Nasher from the Arup website Ray Nasher hired Renzo Piano to design the Nasher Sculpture Center in Dallas, Texas in October 1997, with the goals stated in his quote above. Ironically, Louis Kahn had already achieved this goal thirty years earlier with his design of the Kimbell Art Gallery 30 miles away in Fort Worth. Kahn’s concrete series of cycloid vaults are lit by a slit at the top of the vaults that allows light to enter and then bounce off reflectors before washing down the reflective concrete interior surface of the vaults. Thirty years later Piano, in conjunction with Arup, developed a roof skin that effectively filters out any direct light year round while evenly washing the space with daylight. Yet, there is a significant difference in the approach to cooling through thermal mass and as a result, the two museums offer fundamentally different phenomenological experiences. The Kimbell represents an innovative technical structural resolution in its concrete cycloid vaults that effectively act as beams, while the Nasher uses the latest in 3-dimensional modelling to achieve even daylight distribution without direct solar gain. Building comparisons are a critical tool for research and education. Understanding a single building is relatively meaningless without a basis for comparison. In this paper, I am evaluating two buildings built thirty years apart in the same region, with a similar architectural program and approaches to daylight, both of which were designed by world famous architects. Keywords: daylight, site, museum, building performance comparison.

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The shadow of the Kimbell

Louis Kahn’s Kimbell Art Museum opened in 1972 to immediate praise. This humble, (predominantly) single-story concrete and travertine structure is

172 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE unequivocally one of the masterpieces of 20th century American Architecture. The project represents absolute clarity of concept and is one of the great achievements of Kahn’s career. What followed in the region were museums by Ellerbee Larrabee Barnes, Ando, Piano and others. The inspiration for this paper was the challenge they faced when designing in the shadow of the Kimbell. In 2002 Tadao Ando’s Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth (MAMFW) opened across the street directly to the east of the Kimbell. As Paul Goldberger stated when announcing that Ando had received the Pritzker in 1995, “if Louis Kahn had been Japanese, he would have been Tadao Ando” (NYT 04/23/1995). Ando’s sketches show an extensive study of the Kimbell although, with the exception of their use of concrete, Ando’s design response ignored many of the design principles that were motivating forces in Kahn’s design for the Kimbell. In contrast, in the Nasher Sculpture Center (2002), Renzo Piano employed many of Kahn’s principles. Piano was hired by Ray Nasher to design the 55,000 sf (5110 sq meters) Nasher Sculpture Center in Dallas as part of the flourishing Arts District in the struggling downtown. This paper explores the architectural and environmental relationship between the Kimbell and the Nasher. 1.1 The Kimbell Art Museum “An architecture must have the religion of light. A sense of light as the giver of all presences. Every building, every room must be in natural light because natural light gives the mood of the day. The season of the year is brought into a room. It can even be said that a sun never knew how great it was until it struck the side of a building.... The Kimbell Art Museum uses all natural light.” - Louis Kahn (Wurman, p.216) Louis Kahn’s projects addressed issues of materiality, monumentality, programmatic flexibility, the relationship between servant and served spaces and overall conceptual clarity, but in the Kimbell daylight was essential. This was the last project Kahn saw built and it represented the culmination of his exploration of natural light. Though the scope and orientation of the site and building schemes varied throughout the design process, Kahn was rigorous in his approach to daylighting the interior spaces through a continuous strip oriented north-south which provided diffuse reflected daylight. The cycloid vaults that were developed in conjunction with Engineer August Komendant allowed for uninterrupted clear spans within the gallery spaces and a continuous slot for diffuse daylight in all gallery spaces. The vaults are lit by a two and a half foot slit at the top that allows light to enter and then bounce off reflectors before washing down the interior reflective surface of the vaults. 1.2 The Nasher Sculpture Center I challenged the designer, Renzo Piano and the engineers, Arup, to design something that had never been done before, to bring natural light into the galleries without the use of any mechanics. - Ray Nasher from Arup website Ray Nasher hired Renzo Piano to design the Nasher Sculpture Center in Dallas in October 1997, Texas with the goals stated in his quote above.

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Ironically, Louis Kahn had already achieved this goal thirty years earlier with his design of the Kimbell Art Gallery 30 miles away in Fort Worth. Kahn’s concrete series of cycloid vaults are lit by a slit at the top of the vaults that allows light to enter and then bounce off reflectors before washing down the reflective concrete interior surface of the vaults. Thirty years later Piano, in conjunction with Arup, developed a roof skin that effectively filters out any direct light year round while evenly washing the space with daylight. Yet, there is a significant difference in the approach to cooling through thermal mass and as a result, the two museums offer fundamentally different phenomenological experiences. From 1965-70 Renzo Piano worked in Kahn’s Office in Philadelphia. Piano’s work is unquestionably influenced by Kahn in terms of the relationship to daylight and formal clarity. In comparing the Kimbell and the Nasher we gain insight into the difference in priorities of the two architects as well as the different priorities of architecture practice in the late 1960’s as compared to the beginning of the 21st century.

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Comparable

Designing a museum in central Texas at a latitude of 32° 47' that utilizes natural daylight has inherent challenges. According to NOAA, over half the year, the average temperature is above 80 degrees Fahrenheit (27.7 degrees centigrade) and 64% of the available daylight hours there is sunlight in Fort Worth, Texas. Louis Kahn addressed daylight in most of his projects, but in the Kimbell he effectively provided diffuse daylight without receiving nearly any direct light. The architects that followed him in Texas addressed this to different degrees, though it wasn’t until Piano’s Nasher Sculpture Center that another designer fully took this challenge. 2.1 Program Many of the differences between the Kimbell and the Nasher are a result of differences in program. The Kimbell Art Museum is a small-scale museum designed for the display of 2-dimensional artwork ranging from antiquity through modernist eras while the Nasher is devoted to contemporary sculpture. As a result, the Kimbell, while retaining strong connections to the exterior at precise locations, is predominantly an interior-focused museum. In the Nasher, Piano utilizes a similar form, but opens the ends and orients the whole building towards the exterior which includes the one and a half acre exterior sculpture garden which houses much of the sculpture. 2.2 Form Both the Kimbell and the Nasher are comprised of a series of bays – cycloid vaults at the Kimbell and “pavilions” in the Nasher. There are five internal bays (one external porch at the Kimbell) in each building though there is no “servant” space between the bays in the Nasher. While in the Kimbell, there is an A-B-A rhythm through the section, in the Nasher, there is a staccato repetition of bays.

174 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE This is but one of many design choices that differentiates the internal orientation of the Kimbell from the externally oriented experience of the Nasher. While the similarity of section through the bays of the Kimbell and the Nasher is clear, there is no “servant” space between the Nasher bays. Instead there are stone planes on the entry side that invite the visitor and lead them through the building and out to the garden. The visual axis is clearly parallel to the wall in the Nasher while in the Kimbell the comparable axis is the entry forecourt, which defines an axis perpendicular to the vaulted bays. 2.3 Structural expressionism It is much better not to cover anything up but to show the full nature and relationship of part to part, including the present condition of each which is a record of how it got that way. – Louis Kahn (Johnson, p.59) The travertine-clad walls in the Nasher enclose the building systems and structure that supports the roof. The structure is completely hidden within the wall. Even the elegant tension cables that help support and stabilize the thin structure of the roof are only visible from a distance on the exterior. The Italian travertine panels are two inches thin and are merely an outer layer in a wall that incorporates all of the building systems. In some previous projects (Lyon Cite International, 1986) Piano uses panelised materials but goes to great lengths to clarify tectonically that they are simply a skin. The untrained eye visiting the Nasher might not realize that the stone walls are merely a thin layer. This significant difference reflects not only a difference between the architects but also a difference in the culture of design that was still addressing the modernist ideals of structural expressionism during Kahn’s time but have now embraced layered construction and (in this case) define the expression of formal purity (the planes of the Nasher’s stone walls) as something quite different from structural or systems expressionism. 2.4 Mass The walls of the Kimbell are concrete structure with travertine infill separated by minimal insulation in the walls and no insulation in the roof. Nearly all exposed interior and exterior materials have the capacity to store heat and therefore mitigate interior temperature swings. Though I haven’t seen data on the heating and cooling requirements, Kahn’s design of a low, massive building seems appropriate from a climatic perspective in a hot arid climate. There is almost no direct, unshaded glazing regardless of the fact that nearly every space is daylit. This is an impressive achievement. While Piano’s Nasher responds to the Kimbell in terms of form and ordering of the bays, the building is not utilizing thermal mass. Most of the Nasher walls and roof are glazed, though they are designed with a sunscreen to eliminate direct solar gain through the glazing. Nonetheless, the elimination of thermal mass and the tremendous glazed exposure must have an impact on energy requirements in the temperature extremes.

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2.5 Daylight Beyond their formal similarities, the Kimbell and Nasher share a commitment to continuous daylight provided through the roof. In the Kimbell, the continuous slit at the peak of the vaults allows daylight to enter, bounce off of the reflectors (with 50% transmittance) and wash down the interior surface of the reflective concrete ceiling. The result is a low, but even level of lighting throughout the gallery spaces (varying only from 5.2-10.4 footcandles on a rainy day in late March, 2008). Piano worked with Arup to develop the concept of a “museum without a roof”. This is a fully glazed roof that utilizes a low-iron composition glass to increase visible transmittance. The light levels in the Nasher were significantly higher and more varied (46 fc on the north, 126 fc in the centre, 156 fc on the south side of the pavilion) than in the Kimbell, though given the concept of the roofless museum and the different programmatic goals of each museum, this seems appropriate. The challenge here was to work in the same climate as the Kimbell and respond to the need to eliminate direct solar gain. (Illuminance measurements of the Kimbell and Nasher were taken on March 28, 2008 between 11am-3pm.) Complex technological daylighting solutions had served Piano in many previous museums using either multiple layers of shading and louvers (Beyeler Museum in Switzerland) or others in which louvers move throughout the day to respond to the changing angle of the sun (Twombly Gallery in Houston). In the Nasher, the design solution was a fixed, cast-aluminium sunscreen designed to allow only northern light to enter the gallery spaces. In the thirty years between the buildings, the thermal resistance of glazing assemblies have improved immensely. However, the fact that the building is nearly completely glazed on the roof and along two sides raises questions about its capacity to retain thermal comfort throughout the weather extremes. This is certainly not passive solar design. Both buildings serve their functions admirably and both reflect advances in technology. The relationship to thermal mass and structural expression reflects differences that architects and historians might learn from in attempting to understand the priorities of contemporary museum design.

References [1] [2] [3] [4]

Arup website, “Sunscreen for Nasher Center, USA”, 10/23/2003 - http:// www.arup.com/arup/newsitem.cfm?pageid=1124, accessed 09/29/2007. Goldberger, Paul, “Architecture View; 'Laureate' in a Land of Zen and Microchips”, New York Times (nytimes.com), April 23, 1995. Johnson, Nell quoting Louis Kahn conversation with the client, Light is the Theme: Louis I. Kahn and the Kimbell Art Museum, Kimbell Art Foundation, Fort Worth, Texas, 1975, p.59 Wurman, R.S. “What will be has always been. The words of Louis I. Kahn”; comments on the library, Philips Exeter Academy, Exeter, 1972; pp.216, Rizzoli Press, 1986

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Sustainable design versus energy performance H. Altan The University of Sheffield, School of Architecture, UK

Abstract The evidence that global warming exists appears to be increasingly overwhelming. Climate research has established the likely correlation between burning fossil fuels and climate change, and as a result other human activities are accelerating the rise in global temperatures, such as the energy use in buildings and the consequent carbon emissions from buildings. In the UK, buildings are responsible for almost 50 percent of the total CO2 emissions in the country that have great environmental impacts. As a result, global warming is an uneasy fact for building designers, the construction industry and human kind. This paper discusses the importance of designing sustainable buildings for the future and overseeing their performance in order to meet the design criteria for energy use and the environmental impact on our environment. This is further demonstrated with two case studies of low energy, low carbon buildings where the design principles and their actual energy performance are analysed. In general, the paper emphasises the importance of designing and maintaining sustainable buildings in the built environment and is also a reminder for all architects, engineers and other professionals involved in building design, construction and development to understand the challenges of sustainability. Keywords: sustainable design, climate change, environmental impact, energy performance analysis, building energy efficiency.

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Introduction

Efficient use of energy is important since the global energy resources are finite and power generation using fossil fuels has adverse environmental effects. As buildings are responsible for almost 50 percent of all energy consumed in the UK [1], it is vital that we make our buildings more energy efficient. At the forecast rate of building, a large proportion of current buildings will still be in use in 2050 and therefore improving energy performance of existing buildings is a high

178 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE priority. Communities and Local Government (CLG) is leading the introduction of a number of energy and cost savings measures to make all buildings more efficient [2]. The measures are being applied across all European Union (EU) countries including UK and are in line with the European Directive for the Energy Performance of Buildings (EPBD). On the other hand, energy prices are on the rise in the country at a much faster rate than inflation and building energy use has now become an important concern that requires urgent attention in order to be tackled immediately. With the implementation of the EU’s Energy Performance Buildings Directive, building energy performance and sustainability is in the government’s agenda [3] and therefore designing sustainable buildings that actually do perform accordingly with the design aspirations is what’s required. Today, we can all agree that sustainable building design is not just to be awarded for its green and environmentally friendly design, but should also be assessed by its energy performance and environmental impact. One way of knowing more about the actual building energy performance is to conduct a Building Energy Monitoring (BEM) [4]. There are several advantages of building energy monitoring; such as to find out more about the building in terms of its energy use (i.e. energy base loads and overall energy performance) and to help optimising its operational energy use. As a result, BEM could easily indicate solutions to improving energy efficiency in buildings and reducing carbon emissions by also maintaining building sustainability.

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In this paper, the following two buildings were selected for their green and sustainable designs, and were investigated as example case study buildings: The case study A building is the Information Collaboratory of the Social Sciences (ICoSS) at the University of Sheffield. The case study B building is the Student Health Centre (SHC) at the University of Sheffield. ICoSS building was designed as a state-of-the art information technology based research facility and has a striking appearance that visually forms a landmark. Its design incorporated passive solar design strategies such as natural lighting, solar protection and passive stack ventilation. The building was completed in October 2004 and awarded the national gold winner at the International Green Apple Awards in the Built Environment and Architectural Heritage category for its low energy use and visually striking design in 2006 (see figure 1; left). SHC building was designed to be bold, contemporary and visually striking both inside and out. Its design incorporated glass blocks and floor-to-ceiling windows for natural lighting, a reception area with oak detailing and an energy efficient natural ventilation system with solar shading. The building was completed in September 2004 and won two prizes for design at the annual Royal Institute of British Architects’ (RIBA) Yorkshire Awards ceremony in 2005 (see figure 1; right).

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ICoSS (left) and SHC (right) buildings.

Both case study designs carried green design approach for making the building sustainable and environmentally friendly, and at the time of construction the University had in place an Environmental Policy with respect to the procurement of new buildings [5] that also encouraged ‘Building Sustainably’ in order to achieve: The new buildings to obtain a BREEAM [6] rating; designs to have better standards than current Building Regulations [7] and as far as possible to be naturally ventilated; materials to be selected accordingly with the Green Guide for Construction [8] and preference to ‘A’ rated ones. In addition, to ensure the above criteria (for building sustainably) were delivered within the cost budget, a Project Management team oversaw the project.

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Architects and Engineers are often forgetting that building environmental sustainability is not only to be included in the building design process, but also to be equally carried out over the buildings’ life cycle. In this study, in order to identify if the buildings are performing accordingly with the design aspirations in terms of their low energy use, energy performance analyses were conducted. Case Study B

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Thus today, it is vital that such sustainable designs remain sustainable throughout their life cycle and by some means monitored in order to provide truly sustainable buildings, and therefore again the importance of designing

180 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE sustainable buildings and overseeing their energy performance is inevitable for building energy efficiency and long term environmental sustainability. The above graphs are showing the actual metered energy consumption for both heating demand and electricity use in two case study buildings. In case study A building, electricity use (see figure 2; left) is on the rise which indicates vital change over the first three years and suggests further investigation in terms of optimisation of electricity use for building energy efficiency and sustainability. On the other hand, heating demand over the years has been weather dependent (which is most likely the case) with relatively similar patterns throughout, and is again suggesting potential savings in terms of optimisation of annual heating and its seasonal operation, such as heating during summer season where the university has a switch off policy, etc. In case study B building, the situation for energy use (see figure 2; right) is slightly different; electricity use has a changing pattern over the initial years, however on the rise and requires further investigation in terms of building energy efficiency and sustainability. In contrast, heating demand has also been very different over the years (this case not necessarily weather dependent) and there is a clear indication that heating seasonal operation should be monitored if energy efficiency is a priority in the university’s energy and environmental agenda where potential savings are due and can be achieved. Overall, there is an indication that the two higher education (HE) buildings are not monitored for their energy use and as a result both buildings’ energy performance are not as anticipated, and therefore such building designs are not truly a representation of sustainable design. Furthermore, a comparison study was undertaken in order to identify how satisfactory the building energy performance are compared to the energy benchmarks set for similar purpose built buildings, and whether the results are indicating urgent attention to improving energy efficiency for building environmental sustainability. 250

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Case study A and B energy use against energy benchmarks.

As you can see from above graphs, the case study A building (see figure 3; left) is not performing very satisfactory with its current energy consumption compared to the energy benchmarks required for a good practice standard building, and therefore building operational energy use would require close monitoring and optimisation in order to improve building energy efficiency. On the other hand, the case study B building (see figure 3; right) is performing slightly worse than a good practice standard building in terms of its heating

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demand, however not very satisfactory with its electricity use compared to the energy benchmarks required for good practice standards, and therefore building electricity use would require close monitoring and optimisation in order to improve building energy efficiency. In this study, energy benchmarks were considered from the CIBSE standards [4] due to the fact that HEFCE energy benchmarks for HE buildings are rather outdated and thus was not considered [9], which again indicates future studies needed to look into new benchmarking for HE buildings in the UK.

4

Conclusion and discussion

We have to be very clear in terms of building energy efficiency and environmental sustainability; particularly today with the new regulations being enforced by CLG and the EU’s EPBD implementation [2, 3], and that is: ‘If a building is not performing as designed, in other words, not meeting the design aspirations, then it is not truly a sustainable building even though its design can represent a sustainable design’ (Altan, 2008). The main aim of the paper is to draw attention to the area that is often forgotten and is becoming more important for future sustainability in buildings. Particularly in the UK, main focus is on existing buildings and setting standards for achieving energy efficiency and environmental sustainability throughout the whole life cycle. Building environmental sustainability goes beyond designing sustainable buildings (such as incorporating green design features, etc.) and should also be followed up with building energy monitoring and post occupancy evaluation for user satisfaction [4]. Sustainable designs should be monitored in order to maintain the building sustainability and in order to achieve energy performance to meet the standards of best practice. In this paper, the main conclusion and discussion point is that in both case study buildings, the project management and design team (i.e. architects and engineers) carried out a green building design approach in order to meet sustainable design criteria that could also help to achieve low energy, low carbon building designs. However in reality, this is to show that the only possible way is by close attention to building energy performance and optimisation of overall energy use as well as by improving working environments for better user satisfaction, which is still yet to be achieved in real terms.

References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

Energy White Paper 2003: http://www.berr.gov.uk/, 2008 CLG, http://www.communities.gov.uk/, 2008 EPBD, http://www.communities.gov.uk/epbd/, 2008 CIBSE, Guide F: Energy Efficiency in Buildings, 2006 The University of Sheffield, Environmental Policy, 2006 BREEAM: http://www.breeam.org/, 2006 Approved Document L2B: http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/, 2008 Anderson, J., et al., The Green Guide to Specification, 2002 HEFCE, et al., EMS in the Higher Education Sector, 1996

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Design learning from case studies M. Hancock Oxford Brookes University, UK

Abstract Not many buildings are carefully evaluated either from a user perspective or from the view point of sustainability. Students develop design strategies from reading magazine articles (Architects Journal, Architecture Today etc). Magazine articles avoid discussion of features in the building that are not successful. This skews the learning process. Design can be improved by a deeper understanding of the complexities of buildings. Carefully assessing the performance of existing buildings can inform both future design as well as existing projects. This paper explores and reviews a case study approach to learning in the module u30020 ‘Technology and sustainability’ for second year architecture students at Oxford Brookes University Keywords: case study, post occupancy studies, technology in architecture.

1

Background

The distance between architects and the finished building is a relatively new separation; designing, building and using were all part of the same continuum in previous societies. Architectural training does not encourage students to spend much time actually building or directly experiencing buildings or analysing how successful the buildings are in use. Oxford Brookes is the only undergraduate architectural course in the UK that encourages post occupancy studies in its undergraduate courses but it is widely acknowledged that architects need closer experience of buildings. Alexander (Carpenter [1]) suggests that ‘architects should develop an awareness that every part of a building has its life’ Investigating curriculum in Architectural education, Bunch regrets that ‘no institution (in America) made a concerted effort to develop post occupancy studies as a formal part of the curriculum. This is unfortunate because students never learn how to learn from their mistakes’

184 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE (Bunch [2]) Developing from this omission are generations of architects who lack these same skills At this time there is a particular need to develop buildings that are more sustainable, and to demonstrate that they actually deliver the performance anticipated. Buildings are unlikely to become more sustainable until there is more interest taken in the final performance of buildings. How do the buildings perform? Do they support their intended activities? Were they difficult to build? Are they conservative with energy use and materials? Will they require lots of maintenance? Information collected can inform the sustainability credentials of each building, and used in practice, can inform a virtuous circle in design. Technology occupies around one eighth of the curriculum (measured in units of modules) in the first and third years of the undergraduate course and a little more in the second year when the students follow this module as well as applying technology within their design project. Teaching of technology in the Bachelors in Architecture (BA) has three identified stages: The first year introduces topics associated with producing buildings- often referred to as ‘technology’ but clearly central to design! The second year is approached through investigating how other designers have made buildings (case studies) and in the third year students are expected to express technology in the development of their own design projects.

2

The module

This case study module takes place in semester 1 of the second year. The assessed work is 80% individual report and 20% group marks preparing the Wiki data source (as a group depository for information) and presenting a five minute video of the building. The learning outcomes for the module focus on the student developing skills in: Observing and recording the construction of a small building, analysing and explaining how the building operates and responds to its users, recording the structural form and behaviour through annotated sketches. It is intended that the module help the student to develop professional skills, for example, reading architectural drawings, collecting evidence from secondary sources and analysing the performance of buildings from a range of both primary and secondary data sources. Working in groups of six, students identify a building in conjunction with the unit tutor and then carry out a detailed case study, evaluating the building’s performance, reporting on how the building is resolved structurally, drawing a section through the building and presenting a construction detail, and making suggestions for improvements. The lectures are grouped together in the first four weeks of the module to introduce the requirements of the case study and to set out aspects of making a case study that might not be obvious- deciding on the relevant research questions and achieving University ethics approvals for example. Students have to personally visit the building, so the choice needs to be made at the beginning of the semester to set up the necessary arrangements for access.

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The building choice

Choice of a suitable building is critical to the whole process- the choice of a building that is architecturally interesting is the most important feature- we have had good studies from students who chose buildings where the access was very limited- for example the choice of the Lloyds building in London encouraged the students had to be very ingenious in their information collection! Some buildings have much more data available in published form- sections, and plans and this tends to make collection of information about the construction and detailing easier. Architecture students’ lives revolve mainly around the design studio so the study has had increased success since the building choice changed to one linked to the studio design projects. Following the suggestion of Mike Neary (ex CETL, Warwick), the students have been encouraged to make their study visits unaccompanied. This transfers responsibilities for collecting the data to the student- if a guided tour is set up and the tutor attends, very often the person carrying out the tour will respond to that person, and that tends to transfer the responsibility back to the teaching staff, inhibiting the students as learners and researchers.

4

Review

Student study visits to buildings are increasingly difficult to fit into the curriculum. ‘Issues of health and safety, increasing student numbers and increased staff workloads’ (Wilson and Crisp) all combine to make building visits more difficult. It therefore seems particularly important to fit in building visits where possible. Visiting completed building offers opportunities for observation of the building in use and presents reduced risk management problems in comparison with visits to construction sites. Thomas (CEBE case study) points out that in the developing area of sustainable construction, text books are often an outdated source of information so direct observation gives more up to date knowledge. Students often produce user questionnaires with responses that contribute little to expand their understanding of the building. Students need to be helped to develop a cognitive map of the problem- analysing a building is often not something they have previously considered and they start with little idea of the shape of the problem. Zeisel points out that preconceptions can be a helpful starting point for hypothesis to test in the research questions. In the next run of the module it is proposed to ask students to generate hypotheses about how the building works; their questionnaire can then be focussed to establishing the validity of the hypotheses. (Zeisel [4]) Wilson and Crisp (CEBE case study) recount that their Barcelona case study visit for built environment students is preceded by a dummy run in their home town of Edinburgh- which gives the students experience of the approach required and increases their confidence. Our data collection on the Wiki is intended to provide a virtual field trip that could be used in the same way- students will be encouraged to set up hypothesis to analyse building data on the Wiki as a

186 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE practice run to gain experience both in setting up the hypothesis and research questions and identifying the additional information that would make the task easier. Students who choose a building that is well written up in the journals with sections and plans generally have an easier time assembling their structural and construction information than those who opt for an unpublished building. They have complained that the marking system is unfair in relation to construction because the starting point is not the same for all. Sometimes there have been doubts about how students have assembled sophisticated sections. BrunusWagstaff and Norton comment (Rust [3]) that if students perceive that the assessment is not fair they resort to surface learning approaches, for example playing the system. The introduction of a sketch made on site as a starting point for the construction detail could be helpful in resolving this difficulty. Wilson and Crisp at Herriott Watt have required students to sketch on site – they favour sketches over photos ‘ because use of a camera makes students more passive in their observations and sets up a screen between the observer and the object‘ (CEBE case study) Ruslan Ramanau evaluated the group work in the module as part of the Pathfinder project. He reported ’ All of the respondents felt that not everyone was pulling their weight… Some respondents saw the source of misunderstandings in cultural differences: one international student found it difficult to follow some of the discussions because of the language difficulties’ The problem of group working is more acute when a large percentage of the marks hang on the group work. Cultural differences and language barriers are often underestimated and not fully accommodated. Strategies for improving this aspect of multinational undergraduate teaching need to be investigated. In the same survey, Ruslan reported ‘The students felt that they could have used the Wiki more, but knew relatively little about it, although there was always somebody in the group who had some knowledge of this technology’ It was unexpected that students were not confident using the Wiki- a single training session for the Wiki is demonstrated to be inadequate, and should be expanded to include a practical training session.

5

Conclusions

Student feedback indicates that the building visit and the interaction with people perceived as clients are high points of the module- building owners and operators who have co-operated in the study are often keen to receive copies of the finished reports; this interaction is valuable for the students.

References [1] Carpenter, William J (1997) Learning by Building Van Nostrand Reinhold [2] Bunch, Michael A (1993) Core curriculum in Architectural Education Mellen Research University Press, San Francisco

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[3] Rust, C (1998) Improving student learning: improving students as learners published Oxford Centre for Staff Development. [4] Zeisel, John (2006) Inquiry by design WW Norton and Company

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A Bridge Too Far – an ecological experience with students and their hands E. Ng Department of Architecture, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Abstract In 2000, a small team of investigators went to North West China and conducted survey studies of a few remote village of the loess plain. It was during the study that the dire need for a simple bridge to cross the river, which bisects a village, became apparent. Two years ago, a mother and her son were washed away, their corpses were found six days later. Less tragically, students from the opposite side will not be able to attend school for months. Something needed to be done. With little resources, a simple bridge is needed. It has to be cheap, simple, able to withstand flooding (up to 5 metres), easy to repair and maintain, and easy to build. In 2003, the project was dubbed “A Bridge Too Far”. A Bridge Too Far is an experiment with students on ecological architecture – to save life and to demonstrate the ideas of ecological and sustainable architecture and village infrastructure. Eighteen months of design and planning, students, professionals, volunteers and villagers joined hands and built the bridge in six days in 2005. The “A Bridge Too Far” project is a design, research, as well as a learning exercise with student participation. Through using their hands, and living with the villagers in a natural setting, they appreciate the beauty of nature and the importance of sustaining it. Keywords: bridge, ecological architecture, student participation.

1

Background

In 2000, a small team of investigators went to North West China and conducted survey studies of a few remote village of the loess plain. One of them is Maosi Village of around 2000 inhabitants. It is 8 hours of drive from Xian. It was during the study that the dire need for a simple bridge to cross the river (a branch of the Yellow River), which bisects the village, became apparent.

190 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE On a normal day, the Po River is calm. Students and villagers from one side of the river cross it barefoot to attend school and to continue their livelihood. A simple wood plank and mud bridge, which gets wash away every year, is their only means. Unexpectedly, a few times during the rainy reasons, the water level rises. It washes away the wood-mud bridge and sweep away lives. 2 years ago, a mother and her son were washed away, their corpses were found 6 days later. Less tragically, students from the opposite side will not be able to attend school for months.

Figure 1. Something needed to be done. With little resources, a simple bridge is needed. It has to be cheap, simple, can withstand the flood (up to 5 metres), easy to repair and maintain, and easy to build. In 2003, the project was dubbed “A Bridge Too Far”.

2

Concept

A few study investigations and many rounds of donation calls later, the team (professionals and university students) started to put their designs into reality. A submergible bridge was opted. Instead of trying to resist and overcome the floods, the design tries to accommodate it. A study of the water levels reveals that a bridge 1.5 m above the river bed will be crossable 95% of the year. The other 5% of the time it will be under water.

3

Cost, buildability and maintenance

A few key concerns underline the design. Firstly, it has to be cheap. Secondly, it has to be buildable with hands only. Thirdly, it must be easily repairable by the villagers. The bridge construction finally cost GBP 33,000, or HK$500,000.

4

Structure

There is no foundation. The bridge needs to rest on the river bed. A few dowels are still needed to provide keys into the bed. Otherwise, it is the weight and shape of the piers that will survive the water. The piers are all shaped like submarines. Gabions have been investigated to be the “holder” of rocks, which

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was quarried up the river. First time, as far as we know, gabions have been used as bridge piers. The need to stabilize and equalize the loading became a challenge. A key resolution could be seen with the zigzag of the planks. The plank must not act as a dam to the flood. Any debris will destroy the bridge. The planks rest on the sub-structure of the pier. It will dislodge and sink if pushed. Handles are provided so that, should this happen, 6 villagers could lift it back up the pier within 5 minutes. Instead of handrail - which might catch too much of the debris, an innovative idea call the “leg guard” was used to provide a psychological rail to the planks. An eighty years old villager reported later that, after 20 years, he could now visit his friends on the other side.

5

Materials

As much as possible, the bulk of the bridge is of natural materials. The gabions and the steel planks are the only intervention deemed necessary. The surface of the bridge is bamboo. We found a simple way to assemble the panels in such a way that it is cost effective.

Figure 2.

6 Construction Some 50 team members travelled to the village, joined by 20 local university students and many villagers, we completed the construction in 5 days. The bridge is some 80 metres long. An important consideration is that the villagers should know how to repair and maintain the bridge. We worked with them and coached them how to tie the gabions, how to lay the planks and how to secure the rails. We worked together. It is their bridge as well.

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Unexpected

The evening after the opening ceremony, villagers began to gather and sit on the bridge in the evening. The “negative table” of each turn provides nature gathering spaces for social activities. The bridge is now more than a means of

192 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE crossing, it is part of the lives of the villagers. We named the bridge “never ending” signifying the journey and a future to come. A hidden line was that we were not sure if we had done it right!

8

Urgent call

The bridge was completed on 17 July 2005. By mid August, an urgent phone call was received from the village, a 4m flood had hit the bridge! The bridge is under water and nobody knew what was happening. We all braced ourselves. 2 days later, a phone call came. “The bridge is intact. Not enough a single plank dislodges. Some foot guards need repairing. Student could continue going to school”. We know it works.

9

Statistics

11 volunteers suffered heat stroke. 96 minor cuts were reported. 1 student had his shoulder dislodged – while playing basketball! Otherwise, it was a week of a lifetime in our life. It is an experience to share, a dream comes true.

10 Feedback Sir David Akers Jones, former acting Governor of Hong Kong – Patron of the project – told us, “It is important to build two kinds of bridges, the real one, and the invisible one of understanding, passion and humanity”. Therefore one must bring our young students to the site and let them experience reality first hand.

Figure 3.

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Figure 4.

11 Postscript In 2007, a monk from Tibet came to Hong Kong. He wished that we could help them too. His village is 2 days 4 wheel drive from anywhere. We have visited. After our survey in August this year, the engineer told me “this is not a bridge too far, it is a bridge impossible”. I told him, “We will be back”.

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The Live Project P. Chiles & A. Holder University of Sheffield, UK

Abstract A review of the Live Project programme after ten years. Keywords: live project, student-led, participatory practice, innovative teaching methods.

1

Introduction

“Through the live project architectural education is once again an inspirational model on which other forms of education may draw.” Rachel Sara - Live Project participant 1998 Initiating the Live Projects programme at the University of Sheffield in 1998 was a response to a desire in both staff and students to make students’ education more relevant, to encourage students to lead the process and also to be more involved in the city. Ten years on we carry out projects far and wide in all parts of the country and internationally. We have completed over 70 live projects to date, establishing an enormous archive of fresh ideas and useful work. The live projects are a fluid and dynamic part of the course, casually arranged and mentored by the staff. Every year there has been some form of reflection on their complexity and their potential as a learning experience through student feedback and essays written for their management studies. This paper looks to review the Live Projects programme from the comments and analysis of the students and to build on this for the years to come.

2

The Live Projects programme

Established as a core part of the March, the projects involve students working in groups with community, regional or national organisations. The projects have to be ‘live’ i.e. with a real client with a real problem and are done in real time, with

196 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE a defined end result. This is often a report, feasibility study or presentation to the client group. In some cases the result is a built structure. They reject the separation between real and theoretical, practice and education and allow the student to be creative within constraints. We see the Live Projects as an important tool in educating architects of the future. Too often architectural education establishes a set of remote values with which students then go on to use in practice; shaping and recreating received values that are often removed from the concerns of the everyday world. Live projects are happening in other Schools of Architecture now but they vary enormously from place to place. Perhaps what is unique at Sheffield is the extent to which they are student-managed and led. Also groundbreaking, we believe, is the level of formal skills teaching and support that goes with the live project programme. This is the area we want to build on; the projects develop collaborative techniques and skills in communication and participatory practice – approaches that are essential and relevant to the future practitioner. Students comment that this helps their confidence and ultimately their creativity. The projects establish an awareness of the social responsibility of the architect All 5th and 6th year students participate in the Live Projects for the first 6 weeks of the year. Now we have around 10 projects every year embodying from their inception a range of approaches to architectural design and practice: from exterior landscape design and construction, through interior historical restoration, theoretical exploration and virtual and actual communication. This range of projects has remained a goal of the programme and every year there is some new request requiring a new set of skills; a reflection again of the expanding role of the Architect. In contrast to the standard theoretical ‘paper projects’ students are used to, the live projects are public and accountable, placing a large responsibility on the groups to deliver. Increasingly one of the live project outcomes is an event to invite ideas and contributions or responding to propositional work.

Figure 1:

Live Project for the charity Space of Waste 2007. RIBA special commendation.

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A Live Project on Live Projects

A recent 'Live Project on Live Projects' - the Inconspicuous Yellow Office attempted to evaluate the outcomes and effects of the Live Projects, and this has gone some way to embedding the critical nature of the projects. A list of the qualities a Live Project should adhere to formed a conclusion to this project and this forms a backbone to review the complexity of the programme. “Live Projects should value failure…. and be an opportunity to take risks”, In a culture of conformity, mark chasing and financial debt it is difficult for students to take risks. The Live Project allows this in a real world context. Live projects do not always succeed. They expose the students to different client bodies and the differing expectations and levels of experience they have. Two of the uncertainties of any Live Project are how “good” and committed the client is going to be and how good and committed the team of students is going to be. A client that either does not recognize the skills and professionalism of the students constitutes one of the largest risks in the potential failure of a project. Not being clear how it is going to be funded is another. In fact risk and failure abound. Some comments from a recent essay highlight this. “The client’s role was the main reason for confusion within this project. Our client was unauthorized to make decisions and the real client had other motives which meant that any of our changes could not happen. Olivia Beaumont Live Project student 2007 However, from a tutor’s point of view the live project is not just about the product; it is more about process. Failure is expected and even welcomed but sometimes difficult for the students to accept. That is not to say the product is not often exceptional but it is the process, the teamwork, the communication skills and the involvement that is critical. Exploitation of the students by the client is also possible and is a difficult thing to judge. Within the category of exploitation would be taking on building designs for individual clients; but sometimes ethically worthy projects demand so much of the students it can feel exploitative. “Live Projects should be something that typical projects should do” If it is a conventional project that any architect could do, it is probably not for us. In fact a definition of what a live project could be: “Could an architect do this? If the answer is probably no - then it could be a live project. We should always be bringing something to the table that a normal practice couldn’t” Jeremy Till interviewed by the Inconspicuous Yellow Office

198 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE In developing Live Projects within this ethos of participative processes, we have found that many students go on to develop high standards for themselves in terms of the importance they place on user participation in architectural design. Students graduating from the M.Arch programme have been inspired by the live projects to develop participative work in practice, taking a self-developed agenda out into the wider architectural world - new agenda for architectural practice Many of the Live Projects also prioritise ecological principles such as the recycling of materials or the embodiment of sustainable systems. Two recent examples of such projects are the Composting Toilet in Ecclesall Woods, Sheffield, and the ‘Space of Waste’, an innovative prototype building constructed using only surplus materials obtained from a web-based waste exchange run by a local charity. Both these projects were winners of industry awards – focusing attention on an ecological agenda for architectural practice. “Live Projects should create opportunities for action with the profession, the city and the school.” The Live Projects at Sheffield embody a huge diversity of academic and practical principles. They are neither wholly alternative, nor typical. However, the range of clients, users, processes, products and outcomes provide an invaluable contribution to the student experience for action within the profession and potentially to contribute to a new agenda for practice. Live Projects sometimes involve actual building but the majority use creative processes to empower, to explore and to uncover potential. With the live building projects, students have

Figure 2:

Opening ceremony for the Composting Toilet in Ecclesall Woods, Live Project 2006. RIBA small projects – second prizewinner North East Timber Trade Association Prizewinner.

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the opportunity to realize designs, and to gain skills and understanding of construction techniques. One of the challenges of the Live Projects is the relatively short period over which they take place. In the case of built projects, students learn early in the process that they must work in a time-effective manner: communicating with clients and stakeholders, designing, sourcing materials, researching building processes and techniques, and physically carrying out the building work, which often involves a certain amount of trial-and-error or iterative learning. “Live Projects should have the possibility to be student led or led by others” One of the most difficult balances to get right in the Live Project programme is how the mentor /student relationship develops. The projects help challenge fixed value systems and power relationships that exist within typical education practice. The process actually provides learning for not only the student but also the tutor/mentor and the client or groups involved in running the project. The mentor/tutor is acting in a split role – that of both educator and practitioner. The roles have very different responsibilities - to help deliver a project to a client and to deliver education to a student. Sometimes the client takes a tutor role and drives the project dominating the agenda and the process. By far the most successful projects are those where the students have challenged the initial brief and worked with the client to deliver a professional outcome. “Live Projects should be critical as this is the only way to be political” Many of the live projects involve students taking a critical position on social, environmental or economic issues through their designs or through the research that informs them. This is one of the areas where the Live Projects still need to develop. Partly as a result of the short time over which they take place, many of the live projects take an event-based approach to their interventions or propositions. While this can often be highly effective as a tool for raising awareness and galvanizing the interest of local community, stakeholders and others, it is important that students realize the limited scope of such work in terms of the situations they are addressing. “Live Projects should progress beyond the six week academic framework” Organisations affiliated to the university live projects through teaching staff, such as the Bureau of Design Research, (www.bdr.group.shef.ac.uk) and the Atelier d'Architecture Autogeree (http://madeo.club.fr/aaa.htm) provide an opportunity for students to engage further with the communities and clients involved in the live projects. Longer-term projects develop out of the Live Projects, and students are taken on as paid employees to work on such projects. “Live Projects should not be marked by traditional means” Finally should the Live Projects be assessed at all? As this is a student led project it seems reasonable that students should self-assess the work and/or decide whether it is assessed. Despite the involvement and the analysis the students

200 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE undertake when they write their essays (5th year management) they are in the main clear they would like it to be assessed by an external party. An experiment last year asked students to assess themselves personally with a grade and then give the whole live project team a grade. The marks were very high; almost across the board students feel they excel at this project. Curiously some women students marked themselves a little lower as an individual than the group. It is clear we have more work to do here in looking at the role a tutor, student and client might take in assessing the work.

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Learning to build in 40 days S. Gampfer, M. Dobmeier, W. Haupt & M. Hoppe Technische Universität München, Germany

Abstract The project of building a kindergarten in a township near Johannesburg was initiated with two main objectives: the first was to create a strong motivation for a group of students to face the challenge of building an urgently needed building in an underprivileged area near Johannesburg. The second, more sustainable, objective was to learn more about the potentials of so called full-scale-projects as a teaching method in architectural education. The design work was divided into three main phases in order to enable the large group of 29 students to come up with one solution for the building. At first, design teams were made up of only two students, later enlarged into teams of 8–10 participants. In a second design stage, students were assigned different individual or joint tasks in the execution of final drafts, and the preparation of the actual execution of the building. A separate group of engineering students worked as building physicists on thermal simulations for principal parts of the structure, not only providing important information, but also creating the necessity for multidisciplinary communication. In the course of the last project phase, the actual realization of the building, great physical and mental challenges were contained in the group’s teamwork, such as independent allocation and the coordination of various tasks in foreign cultural, social and climatic surroundings. Keywords: architectural education, full-scale project, development aid, kindergarten.

1

Project description

The project presented here was initiated as a student project at the Technische Universität in Munich. A group of 29 students of architecture, supervised by two tutors, designed a new preschool for a township in South Africa. The same group then build this structure with the help of local workers in an extremely short construction time of only 40 days. The whole project was financed by donations

202 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE raised by the student group in addition to their own voluntary work. The project aims at two main objectives: The first is to create a new preschool building for about 60 – 80 children as an urgently needed educational institution for an underprivileged area. The site of the new building is in one of the extensions of the township Drieziek near Orangefarm, about 40 km South of Johannesburg. The second objective was to offer a group of students the singular opportunity to experience and assess the consequence of their own planning in extreme working and living conditions within an unfamiliar cultural context. For the local residents, contact and collaboration with the foreign supporters was expected to generate confidence and encourage self-help measures in the future. The project affects a number of highly relevant issues for the development of underprivileged, informal settlements in South Africa on its own small scale.

Figure 1:

2

Team of students and local workers.

Design objectives

The improvement of early childhood education ranks among the most urgent challenges in the townships. In South Africa, buildings for the needs of preschool children are not provided by the government. The fact that this building was made possible by an immense physical and mental effort in a collaboration of volunteers and local workers is an important statement for its significance within the community. Since most of the children spend their whole day at the preschool, it is supposed to be like a second home to them. The buildings are staggered in height to convey the idea of a small village. Covered spaces, the interior corridor and the clear and

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comprehensible layout are meant to add to a general sense of comfort and security. Many of the children do not have access to adequate washing facilities at their homes. This gives particular significance to a spacious common wash-stand, where the children learn about daily hygiene in a playful way. This project offered the opportunity to try out and evaluate the use of inexpensive, locally manufactured building materials and methods of construction to create a building of exemplary character. The use of bricks for a permanent structure already marks a certain value in public perception, a fact that is further enhanced by the colour scheme and subtle play of light and shade on the exterior surfaces. In a larger context, the relevance of the new building comes from the fact, that it uses ordinary building components to create a much higher level of architectural quality than that which exists in the surrounding area. It uses easily comprehensible images like the large sheltering roof, which illustrates the value of such transitional spaces in the South African climate, in an effort to contribute to a better understanding of functional and aesthetic qualities for future buildings in the township.

Figure 2:

3

View of finished building.

Teaching objectives

From a teaching point of view, to virtually realise the outcome of a team design project offers a rare opportunity on another level of observation: students are given the chance to experience and personally evaluate the consequence of their own planning decisions. Even during the design phase, decisions have to be assessed, compared to preliminary assumptions and then adapted or discarded. Inevitably, individual concepts have to be given up in favour of mutual decisions. This process is part of an architectural education that aims at preparing students for realistic situations in their professional career. The studio work aimed at a joint result from the large group of 29 students, without entering into a competitive situation at any stage. Every single student

204 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE should be able to find his or her contribution in the final design of the building. Therefore, from the beginning the students worked in groups of two on their preliminary designs. After a presentation of these first concepts, they were arranged according to the principal idea of each, cutting down the number of alternatives to four. Larger groups of eight to ten students then worked on the remaining projects. This step required an independent assignment of tasks within the group, similar to the approach of a larger design team.

4

Interdisciplinarity

It was one of the main targets of the design to create an experimental building for the conservation of energy. The context of University education allowed the question to be introduced to a group of students from the Faculty of Civil Engineering, who studied climatic conditions and simulated the physical behaviour of indoor spaces according to the preliminary building specifications of their fellow architecture students. High solar radiation and heavy rainfall during the summer months led to the principal concept of the building. A freestanding roof construction spans the schoolrooms as well as the large open space in between and offers protection from sun and rain. The ecological objective of this building is to come up with indoor spaces that retain a comfortable temperature throughout the year without any need for heating or cooling energy. Detailed planning of the building and roof construction as well as the size and placement of openings in the exterior walls made it possible to achieve both maximum solar energy gains in winter and sufficient shading of indoor and outdoor spaces during the summer months, when the rooms can also be cooled through natural ventilation at night. Additional specifications were needed for the size and position of openings, both in terms of solar gains and ventilation, and for the materialisation of walls, floors and roofs of the buildings. The results of the engineering students’ calculations were presented to the architecture students and integrated into the final stage of planning wherever this was possible. The building is being monitored by several data-loggers in order to verify the assumptions of both design and calculations.

5

Outcome

A visit to the building half a year after its completion showed that things have changed for the better, although much remains to be done. There are training courses for the teachers, a health permit and government grants can be obtained because the new structure exists. As a planning exercise, the project incorporates many facets of an architectural education, such as project-related design, spontaneous creativity, communication and collaboration skills. It turned out that dealing with local people connected with the building proved to be the greatest challenge, but also the most valuable experience for the whole group. There is no doubt that a strong social responsibility should be a part of every architect’s training.

Forum 5 Research into Teaching Courses

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Architectural engineering: collaborating to deliver energy-efficient buildings M. H. Ramage, F. A. McRobie & R. Thomas Cambridge University, UK

Abstract The demand for and complexity of sustainable buildings mean that architects and engineers increasingly need to collaborate to deliver high quality designs for both small and large projects. Whether considering the design, efficiency, economics or, more broadly, sustainability, the input from each profession is vital and makes a significant contribution to the constructed outcome. At Cambridge we are addressing this need for close collaboration by jointly teaching final year Architecture and Engineering undergraduates in a projectbased course in Architectural Engineering, focusing on the design of energy efficient buildings. Student groups work on focused projects where design incorporates calculated solutions for energy, lighting, ventilation and structure. Our aim is to dispel traditional notions of the role of architects solely in design and engineers solely in calculation, and firmly establish that good design (in both architecture and engineering) is the goal for each profession, best attained by collaborating from the inception of any project. Integrated design teams incorporate all the knowledge and skill required to deliver a first-rate building in the 21st century. We hope to instil this method of design in architects and engineers early in their careers. Our first year of the course indicates that students from both disciplines benefit from considering the design implications of technical aspects of buildings, and that the collaboration among more experienced students, while not always easy, results in thoughtful, innovative, plausible, and substantiated design. Keywords: engineering, energy efficiency, design, technical teaching.

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Introduction

Achieving dramatic reductions in CO2 emissions from the built environment requires significant change in the way we design and deliver buildings. It calls for new approaches to teaching future architects and engineers. Although there are many ways to reduce emissions, we decided to focus on energy demand reduction via the design of efficient buildings. Energy efficiency in buildings has a rich history of research, teaching and practice. The current recognition of climate change as a significant problem has brought energy efficiency, and its younger sibling sustainability, to the mainstream consciousness. The architectural engineering course we teach brings together architecture and engineering students to work on a design project of architectural and engineering merit that will also reduce energy demand. Each instructor is a practitioner as well as an educator, and we believe that the best sustainable buildings come from the work of integrated design teams. The course mimics an arrangement of architects, environmental engineers and structural engineers working together toward a common goal. Our aim is to begin the cross-disciplinary conversation as part of the regular course of lectures in the Cambridge University programs in Engineering and Architecture. We want the students to work together in teams. We want them to strive for energy reductions. We want them to produce plausible designs that take our breath away. Our ambitions have been limited by the time students can devote to the class and the wide variety of backgrounds students bring to it. The results of the first year, based on our observations and feedback from colleagues and students, show that we have been broadly successful, but there is also room for improvement. The architectural and structural work is strong, but heating and ventilation strategies are often weaker. We see rich diagrammatic work, but is it real? Among the best projects, it is, but we aspire to be able to claim that about all the innovative output from Architectural Engineering.

2

Syllabus overview

Architectural Engineering aims to teach how to design sustainable buildings in multi-disciplinary teams. We bring to the course an appreciation of theory with the realisation that it must also be applicable to practice. The course focuses on applying architectural and engineering principles to the holistic design of a building, and learning to integrate renewable energy technologies into building design while at the same time reducing its overall demand for energy. Groups of students work for the entire term (8 weeks) on the design of the team project. Lectures and coursework are intended to support the development of the project throughout the term. The course meets once a week on Thursday afternoons for three hours; the time is divided into a short lecture at the beginning and end of each class with significant time in between devoted to group work. The instructors and invited guests (two or three each week, from Cambridge University and architectural and engineering practices) circulate during this time and give guidance and answer questions, much like a desk critique in an

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architectural studio class. We run a two hour “surgery” each week where discussions can pick up loose ends from the previous class. The final session of the class is a critique to which we invite architecture and engineering professionals to review the students’ work. Each student turns in an individual report describing the project that draws on the work of the whole group. The coursework is based on a scoping study commissioned by the Engineering Department on the potential development of the site as a world-class example of sustainable redevelopment designed to embody the Department’s knowledge of energy, control, building engineering physics and sustainability. Students examined one aspect of the scheme: to create an atrium with an underground lecture theatre in a fountain courtyard. Teams composed of architects and engineers developed a variety of elegant, coordinated responses to the brief, and included basic calculations and more sophisticated computer modelling using historic weather data to predict the building’s performance. Lectures on a variety of architectural and engineering topics and individual problem-sets support the term-long project. Each architecture student wrote an essay on an engineer and, similarly, each engineer wrote an essay on an architect. The students prepared and presented brief synopses of this work to the whole class, expanding everyone’s knowledge of the professions. Given the time constraints, these were necessarily cursory, but nonetheless proved to be entertaining and informative.

3

The architectural engineering experience

Mixing disciplines proved a rewarding challenge as students got to know each other and learned to appreciate each other’s abilities. In the words of one student, it was “initially very hard to work in a group. Time consuming, not getting anywhere. But after this frustrating effort was put in, the project was very rewarding and a great success.” The architects (for whom the class is required) have some background in structural and environmental engineering and two years of experience in the studio applying architectural principles to plausible designs in model and drawn form. The engineers (for whom the class is elective) come from a more varied background, because they can select options in their third and fourth year. They are more accustomed to problem-sets and exams. There is no single background necessary to be successful in the class, but one must be able to make decisions for calculations based on design and decisions for design based on calculations. Most essential is a willingness to engage with a loosely defined problem and an uncertain outcome. Many engineers who had signed up for the course found this aspect problematic and elected to take a different class. We’ve been told that the primary course task, to design an energy efficient atrium, was too unconstrained, and they would therefore spend an everincreasing number of hours on the project. Others found it truly inspirational. The student work was rich and thoughtful. As with any time-limited project, there is room for improvement, but the solutions the groups presented are plausible and considered a wide range of ideas. We didn’t succeed completely in our goal for integration, as some students tended to focus on what they already

210 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE knew how to do. Many did get a lot out of working back and forth between technical and conceptual issues. The designs tended to come together in the last few weeks of term when the pressure of a deadline forced teams to develop solutions from a broad range of possibilities.

4

Organization

Architectural Engineering grew out of an existing course delivered exclusively to engineers every other year. The course has been restructured completely so that the integrated course with architects (now offered every year) is part of a broader initiative to address an engineering student’s question: “What courses should I take to learn how to design sustainable buildings.” The Engineering and Architecture Departments are committed to teaching and research in sustainability. Architectural Engineering fits into a strategy that suits each department and is built on increasing cooperation between the two. The course is possible in part because Architecture and Engineering maintain separate marking and weighting of the course. This institutional imperative unfortunately also contributes to a separation between architects and engineers. We frequently set parallel but different coursework to satisfy requirements of each department.

5

Continuing education

We believe the design and construction of a more sustainable built environment should be based on active collaboration among design professions, and we see the advantages of a class that replicates an approach of the best architecture and engineering firms. Future classes will provide clearer boundaries about the output we expect each week. The successful integration of advanced architecture and engineering students, and their work bridging quantification and qualification in Architectural Engineering, establishes a new direction of collaborative learning and teaching for designing sustainable buildings.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Professors R. Mair and M. Echenique and the Royal Academy of Engineering for their support, as well as our many academic and professional colleagues who helped to make this course a success.

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Teaching space syntax through reflective practice and practica R. C. Dalton & L. Vaughan University College London, UK

Abstract Space syntax is a set of theories and techniques about buildings and cities and how they function, rooted in a theory of society and space that originated at UCL in the 1970s. The theory and techniques have been built into an MSc course that has run for over 30 years, in which space syntax is embedded into the curriculum initially as a tool for understanding the relationship between spatial configuration and social form to students new to the field. Later in the course it is also used to assist the students to read texts critically, so as to improve their ability to construct and communicate theoretical ideas coherently. Lastly, it is used to train the students to think about buildings and urban environments in relation to their social context, which we see as a critical part of architectural education. We describe the variety of learning modes used; these range from group work to comparing and analysing examples of housing. The group work is supported by 'practica', in which the students actively engage with pre-set texts within a tutor-led workshop to ensure a grounding in spatial theories, including space syntax, anthropology and architectural theory. These are coupled to practical workshops on basic space syntax modelling tools, through which we introduce concepts such as configuration, interface, privacy and permeability. By teaching through actionbased learning, with students taking on their own analysis of what is arguably the most complex building type, we suggest that space syntax is an ideal vehicle for taking architects from where they are at the start of the course, with an intuitive understanding of built form, and helping them to build on that foundation, so that they can become reflective architectural practitioners. Keywords: space syntax, learning modalities, reflective practice, domestic space.

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1

Introduction

The MSc Advanced Architectural Studies (AAS) at University College London (UCL) has run for over 35 years and it focuses on an architectural analytic field known as space syntax. The 12-month programme comprises six taught modules, which together with the final 15,000-word thesis, aims to provide a fundamental grounding in an essentially scientific approach to architectural research. A typical annual profile consists of approximately 12-15 full-time MSc students accompanied by a selection of doctoral students from our research group as well as interns from UCL’s space syntax technology transfer company. One of the main challenges for the course is that we are introducing theoretical and scientific approaches to analysis to students who have had scant experience of research methods in their undergraduate studies. The majority of our students are qualified architects with considerable practice experience and one of the goals of the teaching is to transform their approach to design from an intuitive understanding of built form to one in which architectural solutions are objectively analysed using abstract modelling techniques. These challenges have led us to seek new ways of teaching an early section of the Housing module. This paper focuses on a component of the teaching of the Housing module: class-based exercises (termed ‘practica’) that the students undertake in weeks four and five of the course. We will illustrate how a new mode of teaching was used to improve the learning experience for students on our course. After an overview of the module, its different teaching modes, and the short exercises comprising each practicum, we will discuss the challenges involved in taking the students from their existing intuitive understanding of built form towards an understanding of scientific research, so that they can become reflective practitioners of this complex research field. After presenting the learning experience from the students’ point of view we will briefly discuss the main findings that emerged from the exercise. The paper ends with conclusions about the efficacy of the practica and their applicability for the wider architectural teaching community.

2

The practicum in context

The Housing module consists of three teaching modes: hands-on workshops for teaching practical spatial-modelling techniques, formal, theoretic lectures and the main topic of this paper, the tutor-led practica, which, synergistically, result in a thorough grounding in spatial, social and anthropological theories. The teaching modes outlined above are reinforced by a group-investigation into domestic space undertaken in parallel by the students. This section will briefly introduce you to the three teaching modes utilised in the Housing module, ending with the practica. This provides the broader context for the module’s teaching. First the workshops: A single building was used as the spatial setting for a series of spatial-analytic tasks intended to enable the students to comprehend the ways in which specific analytic tasks led to subsequent ones and how each of these formed the ‘building blocks’ of the final dataset

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describing the building under study. A personal workbook was designed to accompany, support and record these sequential workshop-exercises. Second, the lectures: these were directly linked to the workshops in order that the students might have the opportunity to immediately apply the theories outlined in the lectures to practical tasks. By completing the workbook (described above), the students explicitly replicated the processes of observation, representation, transformation, calculation and then interpretation that they had just learnt about in the accompanying lectures. Third, the practica: these consisted of a preparatory reading followed by a series of class-based tasks (as individuals, pairs or small groups) introducing some challenging, theoretic (rather than skillbased) concepts. One example being a furthering of the students’ understanding of how houses can encode cultural and class differences by how they are laid out and used through time. Each of the practica also had required follow-on reading. Table 1 below outlines the structure of the two practica. Table 1:

Structure of the two practica.

Practicum 1 – Domestic Space Codes Task 1: Two Familiar Views of Home Task 2: A Functional View of Home Task 3: Family Cycles Task 4: Space and Place Task 5: Bernstein’s Visible and Invisible Pedagogies Task 6: Visible and Invisible Pedagogies Continued - Toilet Rules Task 7: Ethnographic Method Task 8: Lawrence’s Study of British and Australian Houses

Practicum 2 – Social Life as Drama Task 9: Goffman’s Metaphor of Social Life as Divided by Front Stage/Back Stage Task 10: Space as a Reflection of Society, Synchronic Relations Task 11: Changes in the Organisation of Domestic Space & Socio-political Complex Task 12: The Structure of Social Encounters Task 13: Space as Social Drama – the Second Theatre

The prior reading for the first practicum was ‘A Lived Hermetic of People and Place: Phenomenology and Space Syntax’ (Seamon, 2007: http://tinyurl.com/6apzqb) and for the second was from ‘The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life’ (Goffman 1959: Penguin Books). The follow-on readings for both practica were selected chapters from ‘Decoding Homes and Houses’ (Hanson 1998: Cambridge University Press). Each of the tasks was designed to last approximately ten minutes with subsequent time for class discussion and summarising between tasks. The tasks ranged from being individual tasks, to tasks undertaken in pairs and small groups. The kinds of tasks ranged from being descriptive-exercises, comprehension/reading comprehensions, discussion tasks, brainstorming and word association, role-playing, extrapolation/novel application of presented concepts and word/concept completion exercises. All of the material had been taught in a traditional lecture format for many years and so we were able to directly assess the differences in learning experience afforded by this new mode of teaching.

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Summary: student feedback

We found that actively engaging students with a pre-set text ensured that the key concepts in some spatial, social and anthropological theories are understood from the start of the practicum. In addition, the dynamic learning environment appears to be particularly good for helping students engage with challenging theoretic concepts. We found that providing a variety of learning modalities suits the diverse range of learning experiences students bring to the course, including those from non-native English backgrounds. The teaching framework also assists the students in becoming reflective architectural practitioners. Finally we found that the guided reading and exercises introduced the students to reading complex texts, but through smaller, more accessible, ‘bite-sized’ chunks. We requested student feedback at the end of the two Housing module practica: students were asked to asses, using a discrete Likert-scale from 1 (low) to 5 (high), the ‘clarity’ and ‘interest’ of each of the 13 tasks. Further opencomments/feedback was elicited. From the point of view of clarity, it is clear that next year, for a couple of the tasks, we need to allow more time for class discussion of the results. Scoring of interest was more consistently high. Students commented: “The idea of the practicum is super great!” and “It is more engaging than just attending a lecture”. Overall the practica were highly successful from the point of view of the students, who found them far more engaging and interesting than traditional lectures.

4

Conclusions

In order to conclude whether the practicum is a more effective mode of teaching, we need to clarify why it is different from either a lecture or workshop. Our suggestion is that a workshop is habitually perceived as being inherently practical: it concerns methods and skills rather than theories and concepts, which are usually the domain of the lecture. In contrast to both of these modes, the practicum is about trying to facilitate and enable the students to work through quite complex theoretical ideas by and for themselves. This results in the students having the satisfaction of ‘working it out’ for themselves, as well as gaining a ‘deeper’ rather than mere ‘surface learning' of the material. The practica’s punctuation into short exercises appears, at a first glance, to resemble a workshop but it is the fact that we are guiding the students through difficult theories in a piecemeal yet aggregative fashion that differentiates the practicum from the workshop. Finally, the practicum is far less passive than a lecture (a fact readily appreciated by our more mature students). In some respects, it is more akin to a seminar insofar as the onus is on the students to work through the material, but it is significantly more structured and less open-ended than a seminar. It is for these reasons that we felt it necessary to adopt the different terminology - the practicum. We conclude that the aims of the introduction of the practica were met and that this mode of teaching is highly effective for mature architecture students. We suggest that this mode of teaching might have a more general applicability for the wider architectural teaching community.

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Environment and the studio: integrating the quantitative and the qualitative S. Hagan University of East London, UK

Abstract While providing a certain empirical rigour to the teaching of environmental design to architecture students, building physics has influenced not only the way the subject is delivered, but the way it is perceived within many architecture schools: as a technical fix that has little to do with the process of design. And yet any architect who has successfully integrated it into their practice knows environmental design is essential from the beginning. Too many design tutors, however, lack the technical training to communicate this integration, so that all too often environmental design is cut off from the studio, and tacked on when most major decisions have already been made, a pattern all too often repeated in practice. Changes in the teaching process will come more easily from engaging the imaginations of design tutors and students than from crunching numbers in Technical Studies. The ways in which environmental thinking and practice enrich rather than restrict architectural design can be best demonstrated through design. The environmental therefore needs to be brought directly into the studio. If teaching staff are also engaged in research that requires a similar integration, they have a great advantage in developing pedagogical techniques. The MA Architecture: Sustainability+Design at the University of East London has been evolving towards this model over the last ten years, trying to achieve a balance between research, technique and design, particularly in its Sustainable Cities studio. The work of this studio is offered as an example of the often unexpected synergies that can result from this emerging model of research and teaching. Keywords: architecture schools, architectural research, design pedagogy, environmental design, environmental research, master’s programmes, sustainable cities, teaching architecture, urban design, urban research.

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Introduction

Transition periods are always complicated, with some people far ahead of the majority and some unwilling to acknowledge they are in a transition period at all. The whole of material culture is currently in transition, as it is shifted painfully from linear to circular patterns of production and consumption, following the model of an artificial ecology. As part of material culture, architecture is undergoing its own painful shifts, pushed by the theory and practice of environmental design. The transition is, however, more painful than it needs to be, and certainly slower than it should be. While architects in practice may have the excuse of pressures of work for not acquiring the new knowledge and skills to go beyond a ‘greenwash’ of their designs, design tutors in architecture schools do not. Wherever one sees environmental design as part of Technical Studies and not the studio, that school is resisting the implications of an inescapable change. There are historical reasons for environmental design being seen as exclusively technical, rather than a catalyst for design, but any architect who can do it knows there is a new dispensation between the science and art of architecture. Thus it is that practice is ahead of academia in many instances. Because it is such a new field, each genuinely environmentally-designed building is an experiment, and its architects are researchers by default. Academics tend to research a particular aspect of this vast subject area, whether scientific or conceptual, keeping its parts apart: new software for environmental analysis, for example, or new paradigms for avant-garde form-finding. Some academic research has tuned in to the extraordinary sophistication of the material in nature, using digital tools to analyse the mathematics of organic structures to generate designs that are not only performative but also poetic. Even here, however, environmental design is dismissed for dealing with such mundanities as energy efficiency and ‘cradle-to-cradle’ material cycles, as if the nature this avant-garde is using as a paradigm isn’t also the source of these mundanities. Until those who do research-by-design perceive environmental design as ‘worthy’ of their attention, its integration into the studio will continue to be slow. There is no requirement by the RIBA that design tutors take the equivalent of even the cursory updating of a CPD course to speed up an intellectual shift, and there is not yet any embarrassment within academic culture in remaining uninformed.

2

Research-by-design

The MA Architecture: Sustainability+Design at the University of East London lays no claims to being the only programme transferring its research-by-design to its Masters studio, merely the one best known to the author. We have two design modules in the programme, one at urban and one at architectural scale, which allow us to experiment in the first, and deliver office-based environmental design skills in the second. The urban studio is run as a continuation of the architecture studio, so the students can develop a project over the full academic year, and understand the essential interrelatedness of different scales of intervention when thinking environmentally. These pedagogical aims are only achievable because

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my colleagues, Swen Geiss, Sofie Pelsmakers, and Marco Poletto and Claudia Pasquero of ecoLogic Studio, are that rare breed, architects fully competent in environmental design. The alternative is to have an environmental engineer acting as consultant to a design studio, as long as s/he is there from Day 1. Students in the programme have always been seen as fellow researchers, and are integrated into our research work as much as possible. Over several years, our research group R/E/D (Research into Environment and Design), has been looking at ways in which environmentally-led design can address different urban pathologies. Three projects our Masters students have worked on, in Wuppertal, Germany (with Swen Geiss), Sao Paulo, Brazil (with Swen Geiss and ecoLogic Studio), and the Thames Gateway, London (with Sofie Pelsmakers and ecoLogic Studio) have shown them how this design approach can help generate rich and environmentally productive urban design proposals. This collaboration has proved very popular, as students feel they are making a contribution on the ground as well as to their own development.

3

Sao Paulo, Brazil

The two year pilot project between R/E/D and the Laboratorio de Conforto Ambiental e Efficiencia Energetica, Faculdade de Arquitectura et Urbanismo, University of Sao Paulo gave rise to a project for the Masters students in both countries on a large brownfield site earmarked for development by the city of Sao Paulo (Barra Funda), classified by the city government as one of their “Operações Urbanas” – a regeneration site. Eco-machines in Barra Funda, in collaboration with Marco Poletto and Claudia Pasquero of ecoLogic studio, was one of the UK students’ contributions, an experiment in responding to environment first on a large empty site. This approach, the reverse of a conventional one, demonstrated, first, the power of environmental parameters in driving urban design, producing marked social and economic benefits, and second, their limits – other, more typically ‘urban’ considerations have to be added in succeeding layers of design development, and conflicting parameters reconciled. 3.1 Methodology Environmental design lends itself very well to parametric design methods, and parametric design methods lend themselves very well to algorithmic software that can populate a site with ‘eco-agents’ of various kinds to perform environmental tasks. This may or may not generate the first draft of an urban design, but it will provide at the very least a productive landscape on which to put it. This in turn provides cues for urban morphologies that might otherwise never have appeared, and which allow natural processes to carry on less hindered by the new built layer on top of it. There was a certain amount of exasperation on the part of the students at having to acquire not only a large amount of environmental knowledge, but also the computational skills necessary to programme and run the generative software

218 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE that would deploy their eco-agents on the site. Different teams had different environmental parameters: solar, water, urban agriculture etc. The sheer time it took to learn to perform these digital displacements meant we didn’t get as far as we wanted with the trade-off process – that is, assembling one inclusive site plan with the teams’ separate environmental parameters reconciled. Both students and staff have learned to be philosophical. Understanding process, rather a polished product, is the object of the exercise. It’s important to achieve both, but each year in the studio is a new stage in an ongoing research and pedagogical experiment, and if we’re somewhat nearer ‘truth’, we’re not yet very near ‘beauty’. The research character of the studio, in which we’re all learning, is made very clear to students from the outset, and most of them embrace it enthusiastically. Those who don’t have so far still managed to come up with interesting contributions.

4

The royal docks, London

What worked well on an empty site in Sao Paulo – digital displacements of environmental ‘agents – was more problematic on an occupied one in the London Docklands, with a great variety of built conditions. There were too many exceptions to the parametric rules. We learned it was far easier in the time we had to intervene manually than to programme software to take all the ‘singularities’ into account. The project was much more focussed than Barra Funda – one environmental parameter, flooding, instead of four – but even so, there were many complexities to address in a ‘go with the flow’ scenario that required not only the design of new buildings that could cope with flooding, but the retrofit of existing neighbourhoods to mitigate water damage. Teaching environmentally-led design to architects requires a decision about just how detailed and precise to get about performance targets and ‘real life’ workability. In this project, for instance, there was a danger that the urban studio would turn into a gigantic engineering rather than design exercise, full of canal dimensions and water flow calculations. A line has to be drawn at urban and architectural scales, in research as well as the studio, beyond which the environmental aspects are the province of engineers. What is important for architecture students and researchers is an understanding of the relationship between environmental constraints and imaginative and testable design proposals, and the crucial importance of the environmental as a driver for design. Not all research programmes would marry quite so well with studio teaching. R/E/D is conveniently focussed on working out and working with environmentally-led design at all scales, and is therefore placed to achieve such synergies. But any academic engaged in some form of research-by-design could join the happy few, if they are prepared to view environmental design creatively.

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Communicating sustainability in undergraduate architectural education A. Wyckmans Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art, NTNU, Norway

Abstract Most schools of architecture currently face the challenge of students, construction sector and media screaming for sustainability. In this context, it is important to maintain a reflective attitude and not merely expand existing courses and add teachers into the existing structure. A change of perspective in education is needed to fully accept sustainability issues as an intrinsic part of the architectural discipline. In response to this urgent demand, a learning environment is being developed at the Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art as a framework for new knowledge and new recognition regarding sustainability. The learning environment includes a range of measures aiming to enhance the potential of the existing curriculum, optimise the transfer of knowledge from expert courses to undergraduate education, and improve the development of competency and mastery among students and teaching staff. The proposed measures are elaborated in co-operation with the Faculty and the teaching staff as part of a postdoctoral project. Keywords: architectural education, sustainability, pedagogy, undergraduate.

1

Introduction

Alongside society’s rapidly increasing focus on climate change and sustainable development over the past few years, architectural education has seen a widespread emergence of graduate and post-graduate programmes related to sustainability in the built environment. Simultaneously, recent surveys among Norwegian building professionals have uncovered two alarming trends. Sustainability in architecture is progressively being reduced to quantitative measures such as energy efficiency, mainly as a response to advancing specialisation and ever more strict building codes. In addition, these measures

220 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE are increasingly regarded as a technological problem for which architects feel no responsibility [1–3].

2

Research question and scope

This apparent contradiction leads to a range of urgent questions. Which competency in sustainability is the average architect expected to possess when entering professional practice in the 21st century? Can a Masters degree in architecture be sufficient, or is specialisation required in order to be able to handle a sustainable project? And how can architectural education facilitate a sustainable development in the built environment? In response to these questions, the paper presents a package of measures to integrate sustainability as a continuous lead into the undergraduate architectural education at NTNU.

3

Research method

Bloom’s taxonomy is used to analyse the existing curriculum at the Faculty and to propose a range of modifications. Bloom, one of the reference experts in pedagogy of the 20th century, divides the learning process into six consecutive cognitive processes; in rising order of complexity: remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate, and create. Learning to create a sustainable project, for example, may be facilitated by first understanding theory and analysing examples. Anderson and Krathwohl [4] reviewed the taxonomy and added a second dimension including four types of knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural, and meta-cognitive. The result is a two-dimensional table in which learning aims, pedagogic activities and test items can be listed and evaluated, fig. 1.

Figure 1:

Bloom’s revised taxonomy of educational objectives. Areas 01, 02 and 03 indicate specific challenges for the faculty.

In this paper, the taxonomy is complemented with theory regarding pedagogy in architecture, sustainability and experiential learning. In an analysis of the curriculum at the Faculty, three main challenges can be highlighted in the context of Bloom’s taxonomy, fig. 1. Area 01 concerns the

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addition of factual knowledge and methodology to the curriculum. Area 02 is related to the transformation of theory into design routines. Area 03 includes the creation of an arena for sustainability discourse.

4

Adding factual knowledge and methodology

The Faculty offers several graduate and post-graduate courses related to resource use in buildings and town planning; some of them are interdisciplinary to let architecture and engineering students co-operate on sustainable building projects. Such courses, however, are absent in the compulsory undergraduate programme. Faced with the challenge to include (more) sustainability into the curriculum, a logical short-term solution has been to add sustainability lectures to existing courses and to expand the existing graduate courses to include more students. These measures only seem to have strengthened the students’ impression of sustainable architecture as architecture with special needs. Though the students are not always aware of it, the undergraduate programme does feature a wide range of issues that are vital to sustainable practice but not necessarily explicitly related to it, such as the ability to optimise divergent demands into a holistic project, the ability to co-operate with many professions, and the ability to visualise and communicate information in an understandable manner to different professions and user groups. In addition to increasing the knowledge content in the undergraduate curriculum, there thus seems to be a dire need to highlight the significance of the existing course content with regard to sustainability issues – to students as well as teaching staff.

5

Transforming theory into design routines

There is a clear need for educators to facilitate the transfer and integration of theory into design routines. Students are easily encouraged to formulate ambitious environmental goals, but few manage to translate them into successful designs when sustainability has to compete with other architectural issues. In order to facilitate this process in the graduate course, the students’ design experience is organised around a range of singular projects – featuring specific issues such as site, materials and energy and geometry – that combine experiential learning with factual knowledge. As similar topics also are being handled in the undergraduate programme, these exercises can easily be transferred there. It is less confusing for the students to learn the issues only once instead of twice – the first time in a general architectural context, the second time in a sustainability context. In addition, the transfer communicates the role of sustainability in architecture better and uses teaching resources more efficiently. These topics form the subject of seminars in which the teaching staff is invited to discuss and evaluate different measures that can help integrate sustainability into the curriculum and, at the same time, reveal and enhance the significance of the existing teaching experiences and practice in this context. The seminars are not designed to determine the specific content of each course, but rather aim to provide a range of well-defined written objectives that guide the

222 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE development of the curriculum with new knowledge as well as new recognition. The integration of sustainability issues in the undergraduate curriculum also provides an excellent opportunity to improve the continuity of the entire education.

6

Creating an arena for sustainability discourse

In order to support the alteration process in the curriculum, a range of arenas for sustainability discourse are established at the Faculty. The main aim of the arenas is to promote sustainability dialogue and discussion in a visible and outspoken manner, and to create an environment in which attitudes and experiences can be shared and tested to facilitate the learning process. In the spring of 2008, the Faculty challenged all of its guest lecturers to include own learning experiences related to sustainability into their project presentations. Furthermore, a seminar was organised in which the undergraduate students were asked to reflect upon the professional ethos related to sustainable architecture. In addition, a green lunch arena is created in which the teaching staff can gather every week to discuss teaching experiences, reference projects and literature as well as other activities related to sustainability. It is hoped that these measures will support the integration of sustainability issues into the undergraduate curriculum, and facilitate the recognition of sustainability as an intrinsic part of the architectural discipline.

7

Conclusion

Schools of architecture currently face the challenge of students, construction sector and media screaming for sustainability. In this context, it is important to maintain a reflective attitude and not merely expand existing courses and add teachers into the existing structure. A change of perspective in education is needed to accept sustainability as an intrinsic part of the architectural discipline. In response to this urgent demand, a learning environment is being developed at the Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art as a framework for new knowledge and new recognition regarding sustainability. The learning environment includes a range of measures aiming to enhance the potential of the existing curriculum, optimise the transfer of knowledge from expert courses to undergraduate education, and improve mastery among students and teaching staff.

References [1] Ryghaug, M., Towards a sustainable Aesthetics: Architects constructing energy efficient Buildings, NTNU, Faculty of Social Sciences and Technology Management, Department of Sociology and Political Science: Trondheim, 2003. [2] Moe, H.T., Tro, Håp og hybrid Ventilasjon: Mål på Miljøvennlighet i Bygninger, NTNU, Faculty of Social Sciences and Technology Management, Department of Sociology and Political Science: Trondheim, 2006.

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[3] En Undersøkelse av Arkitekter og rådgivende Ingeniørers Forhold til energieffektive Bygg. Kortfattet Sammendrag; Norske Arkitekters Landsforbund (NAL). http://www.arkitektur.no. [4] Anderson, L.W., Krathwohl, D.R., (eds). A Taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing. A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational Objectives, Longman: New York, 2001.

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European design education for sustainability J. O. Lewis UCD Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, Landscape & Civil Engineering, UCD Dublin, Ireland

Abstract Sustainable design integrates consideration of resource conservation and energy efficiency, healthy buildings and materials, ecologically and socially sensitive land-use, protection and enhancement of biodiversity, and an aesthetic sensitivity that inspires, affirms, and ennobles. Sustainability demands integrated thinking. The European Commission has supported several important initiatives during the past 30 years relating to environmental design and building. These included actions in undergraduate and mid-career professional education and architectural ideas competitions; and the development of innovative tools which can be used to support students and architects. Almost all have been characterised by interdisciplinary and multinational inputs, with the objectives of improving the energy and environmental performance of European buildings. This paper reviews some of these initiatives in the context of challenges facing architectural education. Keywords: education, design, sustainability, European.

1

Introduction

In the context of the 2008 Oxford Conference, ‘50 Years On – Resetting the Agenda for Architectural Education’, it is timely to consider the over-used term sustainability in relation to design education. During the half century the topic, while never foreign to architectural education, has grown to now appear likely to be of dominant importance during the next 50 years. Increasing resources are being made available in support of professional architects wishing to practice more sustainably. Considerable quantities of multimedia materials are freely available as a result of various projects partfunded by the European Commission. Certain earlier initiatives reflected a

226 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE conviction that programmes of education and dissemination are essential to advance the implementation of new approaches to energy in architecture (Lewis [2]). Education and design support activities were devised to directly inform the diverse design decisions, which determine the indoor environment, its quality and the ‘resource efficiency’ with which it is achieved. One particularly relevant initiative was closely paralleled by the American ‘Vital Signs’ initiative, which despite similar objectives resulted in contrasting output. Over time, concerns have broadened to encompass the building/environment interaction.

2

Two cultures

Most architects describe their work in terms of architectural concepts such as space, form, light and structure. Engineers may attach particular importance to component performance, and quantification. There is a need to extend the shared areas of concern, the common agenda –and it is arguable that the greater challenge faces the engineer. The integration of concepts of physical science has been a perennial issue in architecture and in architectural education. But just as the theoretical basis for this matter requires further exploration and articulation in mainstream architecture and criticism, the converse is also true. There is also an onus on the engineers to relate their technological concerns to the wider context within which the architect may be grappling. Energy and environmental issues cannot be considered only in their technical dimensions as of their nature certain energy systems can have profound architectural implications. Too often, the approach in designing buildings has been to use more or less sophisticated engineering systems to heat, cool and light the interior so that satisfactory indoor conditions are provided for occupants. An alternative approach integrates consideration of the occupants, their living and recreation and working places, and the outdoor environment in an architecture which seeks to utilise ambient energy sources and seasonal and diurnal outdoor changes to reduce reliance on mechanical and electrical systems. While reduced consumption of energy in use is the single most important factor in sustainability, strategies to reduce environmental impact are also needed in other areas of building design, construction, and use. These include waste production, building materials and systems, and consumption of natural resources including water vegetation and soil. Much research has yet to be done on the relative sustainability of different materials. Superficially similar components may have widely differing environmental impacts in their manufacture and delivery to site. It may yet be that the use of locally produced materials will combine with regional responses to climate and produce a new paradigm of the regionally-based architecture which many people value in Europe’s historic environments.

3

Design and education

While most would by now agree that such considerations should be integrated into the design process, it can be argued that proposals to facilitate this are sometimes based on inadequate models of the process of architectural design.

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Many solutions appear to apply a linear sequential model (appropriate for the logical structuring of information) to the design process itself. One needs to make a clear distinction between architectural design as a series of operations leading to the erection of a building on the one hand, and on the other, architectural design as a process of thinking and deciding. The requirements for sustainable design constitute a potentially disruptive element in the traditional design process, at least until such time as experience has ensured that the ‘technical intuition’ so central to architectural design generally, is extended to encompass the necessary areas of knowledge (Kealy [3]). The distinguished American architectural educator Ed Allen has argued that almost all students of architecture enter School wanting to acquire a broad technical competence in structures, materials and methods of construction, and environmental control systems for buildings. They want to learn to design elegant structures like those of Santiago Calatrava. They want to learn to use materials as creatively as Renzo Piano. By the end of their first year, Professor Allen maintains that we have educated this desire out of them. By the end of their first year, they believe that studio is important and technical classes are not. He explains that students’ interest in the technology of architecture is destroyed by separating design and technology in the curricula; and by not teaching the theory and practice of detailed design -the language by which we instruct how a building is to be made to achieve the result we desire- but instead teaching courses in structures, HVAC, acoustics and other areas in which in practice the architect will usually draw on other’s expertise within a building design team. The challenges of preparing students of architecture for multidisciplinary practice have considerable resonance with concerns addressed in several activities undertaken within and part-funded by various programmes of the European Commission.

4 Research and change Programmes of the European Commission (EC) have played a significant role in the emergence of low energy building technologies, and important initiatives were undertaken within JOULE, THERMIE, SAVE and ALTENER. The EC energy R&D programme JOULE and energy technology promotion programme THERMIE, taken together, represented an unusual, if not unparalleled, effort aimed at bringing about technical change in building design and providing the necessary design and evaluation support and tools to professional architects and engineers and to students, as well as financial assistance to energy research and innovation. The EC Directorate-General XII for Science Research and Development undertook work in the architectural use of solar energy from 1981. From 1986 special attention was given to technology transfer and research dissemination, because of the particular problems which arise given the characteristics of the European construction industry, its scale, diversity and fractured structure, and

228 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE rather conservative nature. In more recent years the lead has been taken by DG Energy and Transport’s Intelligent Energy for Europe programme, now managed by the Agency for Competitiveness and Innovation. The SOLINFO project promoted the transfer of information from the solar research community to the European building design and construction professions. It aimed at improving the understanding of the particular information requirements of building designers during the different stages of the building process, and making available this information in suitable forms for practitioners and students. In order to accomplish these objectives a variety of measures were undertaken including the organisation of workshops and seminars and the preparation and dissemination of various materials including newsletters, digests and design, specification, and evaluation tools. In a highly-targeted activity funded by the European Commission through the SOLINFO project which is of special relevance to the present conference, three sets of teaching materials for undergraduate architectural education were prepared and disseminated to Schools of Architecture throughout the European Union (Lewis et al [4]). Each set comprises an integrated suite of multi-media teaching resources. The three resource packages were designed to be of support in different architectural school curricula and for different teaching methods. Architectural ideas competitions played an important educational role in EC R&D programmes from 1980, working in tandem with emerging research priorities. The ‘Working in the City’ ideas competition illustrated the considerable design potential of daylighting, in addition to the scope for saving energy and improving the quality of the indoor environment. ‘Zephyr’ promoted awareness of the opportunities offered by passive cooling and made available information on passive cooling design strategies and simplified design methods. ‘Living in the City’ focussed on the rehabilitation of apartment buildings. All had important participation from students of architecture, who competed in their own separate category. The objectives of these competitions were primarily educational, and in each an extensive package of information was delivered to all who registered. “The Energy Conscious Tradition” exhibition was in poster form designed for easy dissemination and mounting at architectural schools, institutions, conferences and workshops. It consists of sixteen highly visual posters illustrating traditional architectural devices and building forms that modify the impact of the immediate environment. Text is minimal, and passive solar concepts are shown using graphic symbols. “Energy Conscious Architecture” follows a similar format but illustrates distinguished contemporary buildings. The exhibitions were made available to all European architectural schools and professional institutes and were widely seen throughout the Union. The ALTENER programme supports the development of sectoral market strategies, standards and harmonisation, and information dissemination. Taking one example relating to this paper’s theme, an integrated package of teaching materials on solar energy and energy efficiency in office buildings was developed. The project focused on mid-career education and the primary audience consisted of the organisers and instructors of mid-career courses for

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architects, engineers, building economists and building/energy managers in the fifteen EU Member States. The package includes eight Technical Modules, four exemplar Case Studies (two of which involved the re-use of existing urban buildings), Instructors’ Modules and a training software program. The entire package is available on the World Wide Web (McNicholl and Lewis [5]) and may be freely downloaded in pdf format. There is a significant collection of teaching resources, much of it dating back a decade or more but with some more recent materials, which could provide a platform to support an ambitious initiative to deliver support to European building design education for sustainability.

5

Conclusions

Concepts such as resource intensity and full cost accounting, and the perception of the thermal and luminous implications of elements such as walls and roofs is more difficult and less familiar to most designers and students than concepts such as architectural space and structure. It is interesting that vernacular architecture often displays an exemplary appreciation of the exigencies of local climate but (apparently through a period of cheap energy) professional building designers seem to have lost the skills of designing in harmony with climate. Many architects certainly are not comfortable in relying upon mathematical modelling for the evaluation of thermal performance. Thus, while many computer software tools and manual methods are available, an action of key importance in the successful development of this field will be the preparation of readily-usable integrated design tools and evaluation methodologies. There are important challenges for architectural education in addressing these changes, which promise to facilitate new patterns of collaboration between architects and engineers. Reference was made previously to the importance of the development of informed technical intuition. For effective learning on the part of professionals as well as students, creative interaction with the information involved is necessary. For architects that means they have to be able to use the information actively in the design process, and to construct buildings accordingly. The pool of experience in sustainable design is still limited. To leap-frog this log jam of established attitudes and to seize the opportunities inherent in new forms of relationship between building design professionals, one must look to the nature of innovation in architecture as well as the longer term impact of more enlightened architectural education. Innovation in architecture comes in two forms. Generally, innovation occurs gradually at the margins through the percolation of good practice. Innovation also occurs radically -through the recognition by architects of new insights into enduring values. Are the interest in and commitment to sustainability, climatesensitive and environment-conscious design motivations for the emergence of an “avant-garde” for the 21st Century? Can the patently multidisciplinary challenges inherent in the search for a more sustainable built environment forge new and more constructive relationships among building professionals? The

230 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE precondition of a positive answer is the emergence of an architecture good enough to surpass fashion, not simply an architecture fashionable enough to render its sustainability message acceptable.

References [1] UIA Declaration of Interdependence for a Sustainable Future. UIA/AIA World Congress of Architects in Chicago, 1993. [2] Lewis, J.O. Solar Building –European Union R&D Programmes. Solar Energy Vol 58, Nos 1-3, pp127-135. Pergamon/Elsevier Science, Oxford, 1996. [3] Kealy, L. Information Requirements for Architects. Final Report. Energy Research Group, University College Dublin, 1988. [4] Lewis, J.O., A de Herde, E. O Cofaigh, and S Yannas. Teaching Solar Architecture: Teaching Materials for Architectural Education. Proceedings, EuroSun ‘96 pp1602-1606. DGS-Sonnenergie Verlags-GmbH Munich, 1996. [5] McNicholl, A. and J. O. Lewis, Energy Efficiency and Solar Energy in European Office Buildings: a Mid-career Educational Initiative. Energy and Buildings 33 (2001) pp 213–217.

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Architectural design composition: understanding the American and European basis of form V. C. da Silveira Fondazione CRT, Italy

Abstract We present a work of mapping the theoretical grounds in teaching architectural composition design between America and Europe under the supervision of Professor Marco Trisciuoglio from the Ph.D. course Architecture and Building Design at the Polytechnic of Turin. The mapping has been realized through individualization and the study of some manuals of composition adopted from laboratories of architectural design in America and in Europe. The mapping consists of identifying the interlacements among these works, and – above all – the points in common among their theoretical-philosophical references, pointing out the possible oppositions or overlaps among the American and European continents. Keywords: architectural design composition, education models, laboratories, theoretical bases of form.

1

Introduction

From all our considerations three principal points of reference emerge as very evident among the manuals observed in this study: (i) the perception of the form as a cognitive starting point of the work produced by the arts, as in the studies of Rudolf Arnheim; (ii) the use of the logical structures to represent the problems of planning, as in the studies of Christopher Alexander; (iii) the comparative and diagrammatic analysis of the procedures of composition, as in the studies of Collin Rowe. This is only an example of a long tradition of studies: debts, credits and interlaces between theoretical positions in teaching architectural composition design in America and in Europe.

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2

From Europe to America…

The studies of Aby Warburg [1] from the 1920s observe the formal references in artistic activity and in the works of architecture. In 1949 Rudolf Wittkower [2] published the studies realized in the Warburg Institute on the geometric organization of the humanistic architecture. In the same period Colin Rowe [3] proposed the continuity of the architecture through mathematical-formal models with the essay The Mathematics of Ideal Villa. In the 1950s Noam Avram Chomsky developed, with his linguistic studies, the concept of generative grammar. One of the premises of his theory, published in 1957 in Sintactyc structures, is furnishing a general method of selection of a grammar for every language, beginning from a group of sentences of the same language. Following the job of Chomsky and the studies of Colin Rowe, Peter Eisenman wrote his 1963 Ph.D. thesis, The Formal Basis of Modern Architecture. He performed systematic architectural composition readings, showing the existence of an implicit dictionary in the realizations of Le Corbusier – grammar and syntax of a formal language – and proposing the recognition of the rules of this language. The rising use of computers at that time as an aid to the process of designing architecture implied an explicit and precise mechanism of description of the architectural object. In this perspective, William John Mitchell proposed with The Logic of Architecture. Design, Computation, and Cognition (1989), a descriptive-generative logic (shape grammars) of the architectural object, studied since the 1970s. Besides the linguistic references of Chomsky, he uses the principles of the artificial intelligence developed by Herbert Simon and the logical structures to represent the architectural problems studied by Christopher Alexander. To mathematically describe the form to depart from its geometric principles, he referred to the theories of Colin Rowe and uses the perceptive and descriptive qualities of the form in art and in architecture, individualized by Rudolf Arnheim [4]. When Mitchell experimented and theorized the grammar, between 1968– 1970, the Swiss Pierre Von Meiss taught at Cornell University, where Colin Rowe, Mathias Ungers, Robert Slutzky and Bernard Hoesli also worked. Von Meiss affirmed, in De la forme au lieu (1986), that architecture cannot be a science, even if it uses the sciences. The psychological, symbolic and semiotics influence on the theories of Von Meiss probably originates from Ernst Cassier and passes through the Warburg Institute and its principal students, such as Ernst Gombrich and Rudolf Wittkower. Another line of thought that strongly appears in writing and is of interest for the psychological data is that of the Gestalt, assumed through the theories of Rudolf Arnheim. The book of Von Meiss is a manual that exposes step by step the processes of architectural composition. For him, the laws of beauty are not verifiable and the geometric references of architecture are individualized through the perception. In 1990 the English edition of De la form au lieu appeared by Van Nostrand Reinhold. The publisher of De la form au lieu also edited all the books of Francis

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D. K. Ching, and among them the review of the 1976 Architecture. Form, Space and Order. Ching proposed a base dictionary following the idea of an existence of universal elements already proposed by Klee and Kandinsky in the 1920s. Throughout the work of Francis Ching a strong influence of Arnheim writings on the universal principles of organization and visual perception of the forms is evident. Also the idea of formal composition through geometry, present in Architecture. Form, Space and Order, begins from the studies on mathematics in the architecture of Colin Rowe. Ching also points out the continuity of architecture through the recurrence of geometric formal references (an idea that Von Meiss also had following the thoughts of Henry Russel Hitchcock and Heather Martienssen).

3

…or from America to Europe?

Around this time, in France, a group of researchers were working on the architectural composition as ideation, the architectural composition conception (the conception architecturale). Since the 1970s they have published several essays such as Enseigner la conception architecturale. Cours d’architecturologie, by Philippe Boudon (1994), that proposed a way to understand that the process of conception of architecture includes whole operations that constitute the vast trial of conception. The formal solutions are simpler, based in conceptual principles, recurrent in different situations and proposed by architects from different cultures and eras. So, the teaching of the composition stays in the identification, in the analysis and in the practical exercise of such principles. In the last twenty years some French researchers have developed and renewed a patrimony of reflections, thanks to the variety of studies developed in the same country, starting important works on the genetics of architecture. While in the United States they established some contacts with Europe in terms of architectural research (urban planning and collective spaces), in South America the exchanges aim rather toward the typological theme, to the debate on the character in architecture and design methods. During the end of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s in Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina, cycles of lectures and debates were promoted about the “crisis in teaching architecture”. The question is finding a way to integrate the different and specialized disciplines assumed in the formative curriculum, conserving the central role of the project studio and the architectural composition. In 1990 Alfonso Corona Martìnez published Ensayo sobre el proyecto, a book that, since then, has been among the bibliographical references of practically all courses of the theory of architecture and planning in South American schools, among others. Martìnez sustains that, acquiring a typological knowledge, the architect takes possession of a fundamental tool for the project. The types are not the constant of a primitive culture but the material the architects and the users need to communicate among themselves.

234 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE Martínez suggests that the didactics of architecture have had a decisive role in the persistence of architectural composition practice and concludes that the methods of teaching formalized during the period of the schools of Beaux-Artsm are today still present in schools of architecture (above all American), and are in good part responsible for the stylistic instability that has permeated the whole Modern Movement. In this review it finds support in the writings of Rowe on the Mannerism, translated in Spanish. However, with regard to the generation of architectural forms, Martinez operates a vehement criticism over the above methods, favoring the exclusive use of perceptive-expressive parameters, the use of the mathematical-geometric, deriving graphic computation. Paradoxically, in recent years Martinez has participated in different researches at international level with the aim of describing a model of design trial in teaching architecture, with the ability to insert the graphic computation in the design studios in every phase of the same trial and not only in the representation of the results. In the same year that the book of Martinez appeared in Buenos Aires, the essay of Carlos Martì Arìs about type in architectural composition (Le variazioni dell’identità, 1990) was published in Italy. Conceiving the type as a liable formal structure of innumerable developments, the project of architecture is understood as cognitive activity according to which only the connection with the preceding experience allows continuation. Marti Aris distinguishes subjectivity from objectivity in the thought, which feeds him from the physical objects characterized by their particularity and singleness in architecture. The type is therefore the product of human activity, without this it contradicts its condition of cognitive principle with objective character. Elements and relationships constitute the ingredients that compose the type. This is the principle organizer, according to which a series of elements, from precise relationships, acquire one determined structure. This is a process of abstraction that manifests the root common of a series of different objects. The author reflects upon the relationship between the typological research and the structuralism as a method of analysis to determine the principles of formation and intelligibility of the form. The tipological research and consequently the trial adopted in the teaching of the composition has the purpose of showing the inside structures of correspondence that bind objects until now held distant, different and heterogeneous.

References [1] Warburg, A. Mnemosyne Atlas, Studies of the Warburg institute, London 1929. [2] Wittkower, R. Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism, Studies of the Warburg Institute, London, 1949. [3] C. Rowe, The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa, in «Architectural Review», London 1947. [4] Arnheim, R. Art and visual perception. A psychology of the creative eye, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1954.

Forum 6 Urban Design and Sustainable Cities

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Urban design re-examined: urban vs. design A. Adhya Lawrence Technological University, USA

Abstract This paper examines the relative emphasis of urban and design in theories and practices of urban design. Traditionally, urban design has been conceived as a discourse in design and has been practiced as an extension of architecture, urban planning, and civil engineering. Post-modern critical thinking, in recent literature, questions the design dominance and calls for understanding complex relationships of politics, economics, sociology, behaviour, and environment embedded in the urban context. In the prevalent paradigm, urban designers are primarily trained as architects, planners or engineers, each having one’s own design bias. Architects see design as formal orientation in space. Planners conceive design as implementation of policies reflecting social and economic values. Engineers understand design as efficiency in production. This eclectic approach of urban design creates a partitioned education model with conflicts and contradictions. This paper posits an inclusive model with the focus on urban instead of design. Such an approach allows opportunities of interrelationships and interactions among multiple disciplines and diverse issues. The inclusive approach is teleological (process oriented), relevant (specific), and catalytic (empowering). Rethinking the pedagogy of urban design is critical in understanding the diverse roles urban design can play in the process of placemaking and in defining the specific responsibilities urban designers can have in society. Keywords: urban design, pedagogy, urban theory, placemaking, place theory.

1

Introduction

The 2009 Global Report on Human Settlements, developed by the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UN Habitat), focuses on revisiting urban planning. Renewed interest in urbanism in the last ten to fifteen years has driven this timely exploration of the nature and role of urban planning. The intention is

238 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE to develop an appropriate and adaptive form of planning that addresses the emerging global trends, complex urban patterns, and evolving challenges of urbanization (UN Habitat [1]). In the United States, the latest Association of the Collegiate Schools of Architecture (ACSA) conference “Seeking the City,” examines the opportunities and possibilities of architecture in envisioning the expanding and exploding meanings of urban centre and periphery in the context of shifting social, cultural, political, economic, environmental, and spatial parameters in the fluid and pluralistic post-industrial city (ACSA [2]). These efforts reflect reinvigorated interest in cities and need for a critical urban design framing the increasingly contested terrain of urban resources and environments. Though urban design has historically been embedded in the development of cities, urban design, as a contemporary theoretical and professional discipline, is relatively new compared to the associated disciplines of architecture, urban planning, and civil engineering. The close reference of these allied disciplines and search of an appropriate framework for this nascent discourse resulted in a definition of urban design as an ambiguous amalgamation of architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning, and civil engineering (Inam [3]). Definition of urban design is thus muddled at the best and vague and meaningless at its worst. I argue here that a re-examination of the definition and envisioning a remodelled balance of urban and design is crucial to the future of urban design and that of the cities.

2 Defining urban design The notion of urban design has fluctuated from the modernist architectural conception of the city to the post-modern problematic effect of the negative space (Kallus [4]). Traditionally, urban design has been conceived as a discourse in architecture focussing on the design of the city as an object. From Daniel Burnham’s City Beautiful movement to Ebenezer Howard’s Garden Cities, from Corbusier’s Plan Voisin to Wright’s Broadacre City, the solution to urban problems were found in redesigning the spatial order of urban morphology. Postmodern critical thinking, in recent literature, questions the design dominance and calls for understanding complex relationships of politics, economics, sociology, behaviour, and environment embedded in the urban context. Some urban designers have addressed this post-modern urban problem studying environment and human behaviour (Lang [5]), celebrating the market driven quotidian and everyday needs (Chase et al. [6]), examining economic-political nexus as a growth machine (Molotch [7]), or embracing diversity in grassroots level participation towards communicative action (Sandercock [8], Amin [9]). In the prevalent paradigm of urban design pedagogy, urban designers are primarily trained as architects, planners or engineers, each having one’s own design bias. Architects see design as formal orientation in space. Planners conceive design as regulatory framework and implementation of policies reflecting social and economic values. Engineers understand design as efficiency in production. This eclectic approach of urban design creates a partitioned

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education model with conflicts and contradictions. Urban design is defined in multiple ways depending on who defines it.

3 Contemporary paradox of urban design: urban vs. design Within this late twentieth century debate of modernist morphological understanding of the city and the post-modern multiple notions of the urban environment, there exists a contemporary paradox regarding the relative emphasis of urban and design in defining, directing, and practising urban design. The paradox is thus manifest in the polarization of contemporary American and European urban design theory, practice, and pedagogy: some committed to social change, but ignores questions of form, material, and spatial order; another is devoted to technology, computation, and morphology, but disregards social and cultural concerns (Hatuka and D’Hooghe [10]). Within the design disciplines, Bernard Tschumi [11] has asserted, this has created a contradiction, as architects and designers have been unable to reconcile their need to address everyday life with a wish to engage abstract concepts. In a critique of the traditional understanding of urban design, Aseem Inam [3] has proposed a meaningful approach to urban design that is teleological (driven by purpose), catalytic (embedded in contribution to long-term development process), and relevant (grounded in first principles and human values) towards a pedagogic model that is process oriented, specific and in-depth, and interdisciplinary. The problems with positioning a meaningful urban design should focus more on the “urban,” understanding the complex relationships of the city with the community, economics, and politics, rather than “design.” The present author posits that the relationship between urban and design is indivisible and that their integration is essential. To address Tschumi’s concern for the gap between the spatial (abstract imagined space) and the social (lived experience), and to regard Inam’s call for a responsive approach to urban design, this paper proposes a new theoretical framework for urban design. This paradigmatic shift in the focus of urban design needs deviation from the current model of urban design framework, where the social control, economic efficiency, and spatial order are compartmentalized. The focus on understanding urban, on the contrary, requires an adaptive inclusive model that addresses relational issues among multiple dimensions of urban design and the urban environment.

4 50 years on – towards an inclusive model of urban design The proposed framework is derived from two important concepts: “orders” and “place.” N.J. Habraken [12] describes “physical order, territorial order, and cultural order” as the three underlying orders in any urban structure. These three orders establish an urban design framework that addresses the heterogeneity, complexity, and contradictions of the urban context. David Canter [13] describes a “place” as juxtaposition of three elements: “conceptions, actions, and physical environments.” Applying this model, urban design can be understood as a

240 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE discourse that reflects and shapes the structure of urban life, through the dynamic connections among urban culture, urban activities, and urban form. This prevalent notion of understanding urban design, fig. 1(a), reinforces the distinct rigid boundaries of the three triad elements resulting in uni-dimensional exclusive perspective of the urban, for example either through historic meanings (values), or through landuse and ownership (actions), or through formal spatial typology (form). This education model is conflicting and contradictory for understanding the construct of urban design. Alternatively, an inclusive approach to urban design, fig. 1(b), can be developed by deconstructing the existing place model and imagining a different relationship that is overlapping and hierarchical. Such interpretation creates an open dialogic space of communicative system and allows interrelationships and interactions to occur among the triad elements. For example, urban design from the perspective of formal order and spatial typology can also be interpreted as reflection of everyday needs and activities associated with those typologies. Such actions can then be read as translation of specific values embedded in the community or the context. The new model facilitates urban designers to establish a very specific role for them and for urban design in the city, which does not overlap with that of the architects, planners, and engineers, but operates in relation to them as well as to the political, economic, and social forces in the city. Relating to education, specific urban design course or project could adapt the model and thus could appropriate the urban – design balance to suit the specific pedagogic goals or certain project constraints.

(a) Figure 1:

(b)

(a) Prevalent notion of urban design and (b) proposed inclusive model of urban design, with three forces – 1: social (meanings), 2: economic (actions), 3: environmental (forms).

Urban design lacks a theoretical framework of its own (Sternberg [14]). This critical examination of the existing urban design and development of the new inclusive model here explores the various ways in which “urban” can be understood in relation to social (community and networks), economic (production and investment), and political (power and communication) forces. This inclusive model (social – economic – environmental) can also be applied to understand some key concepts in current theories and practices of architecture

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such as, sustainability, design, and smart growth. Instead of comprehending these ideas as absolutes restricted within a specific theoretical realm, this model focuses on the opportunities and potential of interrelationships that exist between the city and the evolving dimensions of urban placemaking.

References [1] United Nations Centre for Human Development (UN Habitat), www.unhabitat.org [2] Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture (ACSA) 96th Annual Meeting, Seeking the City: Visionaries on the margin, 2008 conference. https://www.acsa-arch.org/conferences/Annual2008_Proceedings.aspx [3] Inam, A., Meaningful Urban Design: Teleologic/Catalytic/Relevant. Journal of Urban Design, 7(1), pp. 35–58, 2002. [4] Kallus, R., From Abstract to Concrete: Subjective Reading of Urban Space. Journal of Urban Design, 6(2), pp. 129–150, 2001. [5] Lang, J. Urban Design: The American Experience. John Wiley: New York, 1994. [6] Chase, J., Crawford, M. & Kalinski, J., (eds). Everyday Urbanism. Monacelli Press: New York, 1999. [7] Molotch, H., The City as a Growth Machine: Toward a Political Economy of Place. The American Journal of Sociology, 82(2), pp. 309–332, 1976. [8] Sandercock, L., Cosmopolis II: Mongrel Cities of the 21st Century. Continuum: London & New York, 2004. [9] Amin, A. Reimagining the Urban. Polity: London & New York, 2002. [10] Hatuka, T. & D’Hooghe, A., After Postmodernism: Readdressing the Role of Utopia in Urban Design and Planning. Places, 19(2), pp. 20–27, 2007. [11] Tshumi, B., The Architectural Paradox. Oppositions, ed. M. Hayes, Princeton Architectural Press: New York, pp. 224–27, 1998. [12] Habraken, N., The Structure of the Ordinary: Form and Control in the Built Environment. The MIT Press: Cambridge, pp. 10–12, 1998. [13] Canter, D., The Psychology of Place. Palgrave Macmillan: London & New York, 1977. [14] Sternberg, E., An Integrative Theory of Urban Design. Journal of the American Planning Association, 66(3), pp. 265–278, 2000.

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The meaning and usefulness of the “feeling map” as a tool in urban design and architecture Y. Rofè Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Israel

Abstract This paper presents a pilot study of the “feeling map”, a new tool for place diagnosis. It is based on Alexander’s use of feeling as a central criterion for welladapted environments. This understanding is supported by ideas in the fields of neuro-psychology, rationality, and psychological research on well-being and optimal experience, and placed among other approaches to place evaluation. The results of empirical experiments of mapping feelings by students, residents and professionals show that feelings vary more with place of observation, than between observers. This supports Alexander’s claims that feelings are shared more than usually thought. Mapping them describes the experienced environment moment by moment. Recent psychological research points out the importance of these experiences for a general sense of well-being. This means that the effects of architecture and urban design on human happiness are both measurable and significant. Understanding these facts should become a part of normal architectural education and practice. Keywords: feeling map, environmental evaluation, urban design, place assessment.

1

The importance of feelings

We all have feelings, most particularly a sense of our own well-being. This sense is constantly with us, and may change regularly as we move about or as we engage in different activities. We can access that ever present sense of wellbeing by asking ourselves: how do I feel now? Sometimes we become aware of it when we sense a change in that feeling for better or for worse. This paper describes research that was carried out with the aim of mapping this feeling and

244 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE using it as a basis for planning at the neighbourhood scale, by understanding the connection between what people feel in different places in a neighbourhood and the way that these places are made physically and function socially. Alexander’s theory and practice depart from questioning of the idiosyncrasy of feelings (Alexander, [1] and [2]). In his theoretical and practical work, human feeling is used as the central criterion for the wholeness of place. It is understood as our response to the emergence of order in the environment. His notion of order is of a complex and unified field, created by the effect of spatial and functional “centres” of organization helping each other form at all levels of scale. When the world around us progresses towards this kind of complex order, it allows us more opportunities to experience wholeness in our daily activities, and this is reflected in our feeling of well-being and wholesomeness. Within this perspective, a person's feeling in an area is a direct indication of their sense of the state of the spatial and functional order of that place. That cognitive and evaluative experience can be mapped individually and aggregated to show the agreement between people has been shown by Lynch [3] and Nasar [4]. However, our technique differs from theirs in its reliance on direct experience of place, rather than on its generalization and recollection. In this it is similar to using the experience sampling technique pioneered by Csikszentmihalyi [5], for the study of personal well-being, which was found to be more reliable for the study of personal quality of life than asking people for their overall life satisfaction and well-being (Brandstätter [6], Kahaneman [7]).

Figure 1:

Feeling map of part of the Golden Gate Neighbourhood in Oakland, CA.

2 How do we map feeling? The technique of mapping feeling is simple enough. Each subject is given a map of the area to be surveyed, and is asked to walk around in it and to report on

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his/her feelings using a four level scale: (very good, good, bad and very bad). Then the observations of individual subjects are transferred to a common map using a simple colour code. Because the areas under investigation are usually larger than the area that one is able to survey in a reasonable amount of time, it makes sense to break down the area into sub-areas, and to have subjects survey only a part of the whole area under investigation. The results show that it is possible to map feelings – people find the personal feeling survey easy to perform, and an aggregated feeling map of a neighbourhood can be produced from the individual partial mappings. It is possible to discern in the maps many areas of agreement about feelings. This agreement is manifested more often as a statistical tendency and departure from a normal distribution of responses, rather than in the form of complete consensus. The map was also shown to be a reliable representation of the feelings of the population sampled, once a certain density of observations is reached. In our case study, high reliability was achieved with 5 different observers for every block.

3

Variation and agreement about feelings in a neighbourhood

Three kinds of variables were examined as sources of variations in feeling: the social characteristics of the respondents (tenure, length of residency in the neighbourhood, age and gender), places (streets) in the neighbourhood, and a variety of places within streets. The analysis indicated that tenure, age, and years of residence in the neighbourhood affected feelings, but that the effect of place was more significant. In a logistic analysis comparing the place variables and the social characteristics as predictors of feeling response, the social variables alone predicted 50% of the responses correctly, whereas the location variables alone predicted 69% of the responses. Combining the location variables and the social variables added only 5% to the accuracy of the model. This means that while personal and social characteristics tend to influence people's feelings, they do so in a constant way. The tendency still remains for people to feel better in some places and worse in others; personal and social variables affect the degree of response, but not so much its direction. The correlations between the feeling map, and mappings of other physical and social attributes of the neighbourhood were low. This means that the feeling map adds another layer of information not captured by any of the variables usually mapped in planning and urban design. Feelings seem to be related more to the way different variables interact than to any variable in particular. They also relate to context, and thus to expectations; a certain attribute can have different meanings in different contexts.

4

Using the map as a basis for urban design

We return to Alexander's understanding of feeling as a way to evaluate the degree of wholeness, or life, of a place. Areas of bad feeling are areas where people's expectations are not met, or areas where the dynamics of the city cause

246 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE the neighbourhood to change in a direction that is unwelcome to its residents. They may also signify areas where there is conflict between different groups living in the neighbourhood. They also signify places where change has the potential to be welcome. On the other hand, areas of good feeling are places that meet peoples' expectations, and where their life is enhanced. These areas can serve as positive examples of what works in the local context, and where intervention has to be done more carefully. Our task as planners is to expose and resolve the conflicts, while conserving and building on those aspects of the neighbourhood that work well. In the Golden Gate Neighbourhood case study, for example, the major conflict was between residents' wishes to live in a “smalltown” neighbourhood, and the need of the neighbourhood to develop more “centre-city” characteristics (Brower [8]) befitting its metropolitan context. While untangling the reasons why people feel the way they do in particular places may be complex, the feeling itself is usually clear and immediate. This quality allows it to be the basis for a democratic planning process. The mapping of feeling transforms it into data that is accessible for professional consideration, and allows for better communication between professionals and lay persons and for public debate. Moreover, the extensive agreement between people with regard to feelings fosters respect for human feeling as a social fact about places that cannot and should not be ignored.

References [1] Alexander C, The timeless way of building. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1979. [2] Alexander C, The nature of order. Book 1: the phenomenon of life. Berkeley, CA: Center for Environmental Structure, 2003. [3] Lynch K, The image of the city. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1960. [4] Nasar JL, The evaluative image of the city. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998. [5] Csikszentmihalyi M Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco, Washington, London: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1975. [6] Brandstätter H, Emotions in everyday life situations. Time sampling of subjective experience. In Strack F, Argyle M and Schawrz N (Eds.), Subjective well-being: an interdisciplinary perspective. Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press, 1991. pp. 173–192. [7] Kahneman D, Experienced utility and objective happiness: a moment-based approach. In Kahneman D and Tversky A (Eds.), Choices, Values and Frames. New York: Cambridge University Press and the Russell Sage Foundation, 2000. [8] Brower S, Good Neighborhoods: a Study of In-town and Suburban Residential Environments. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2000.

Forum 7 Schools and Professional Views

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Accrediting agencies: towards practical ethics of professional accreditation C. Walker Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand

Abstract In 1951, a committee appointed by the New Zealand Minister of Education recommended the transfer of total responsibility for architectural education to the University; effectively pre-empting the recommendations of the Oxford Conference by some seven years. This pedagogical shift also prompted a consideration of how the results might be validated. A key aspect has been the visiting board system for professional accreditation and recognition of schools and programmes. The general notion conveys an apparently benign interest in ensuring the relevance of architectural education and the competence of graduates. Yet, as external mechanisms of control, the procedures frequently hold schools, their host institutions and their academic practices to account; not only in relation to any professional agenda, but to knowledge creation and intellectual life more generally. This paper is part of a wider thesis that builds on Pierre Bourdieu’s “logic of practice” (The Logic of Practice, Stanford University Press, 1990) to posit accreditation as a symbolic – and contestable – field operating on at least two related levels. First, at the level of global institutional networks designed to set out formal professional expectations and to facilitate credential portability. Secondly, through inter-subjective practices of individuals or small groups, agents, brought together as site visiting panels charged with implementing the system at a local level. Based on interviews with members of visiting panels, the paper suggests that agencies must negotiate three further constellations of ethical affects that shape individual and collective interactions with and within the field. Authority is the power to compel or influence; predicated upon the discursive framing of rules, norms, and boundaries, or asserted in taken-for-granted notions of ‘real-world’ practices. Legitimacy predicates adoption of global performance criteria on the basis of predetermined authority and/or the endorsement of peers and subordinates. However, the ultimate credibility of the procedure may depend on perceptions of qualities of expertise, judgement, personal standing and rhetorical practises adopted by, or attributed to, situated agents at a local level. Keywords: practical ethics of accreditation, authority, legitimacy, agency, ethico-aesthetic disposition, credibility.

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Introduction

In setting out the objectives for the new architectural education in 1951, the New Zealand Ministry of Education also asserted that “the aesthetic principle must be given first place in architectural education. It should dominate the teaching and study of every aspect of architecture, so that the contributory value of each may be perceived and the nature of architecture as a plastic and spatial art be apprehended” [2]. While some form of ethico–aesthetic motivation has been the key factor in individuals’ decisions to participate in architectural education, whether as learners, educators or practitioners - and a marker of status within the general field - accreditation bodies have historically remained suspicious of the presumed subjective, arbitrary, or superficial status of the aesthetic, relative to the perceived seriousness of professional or pedagogical agendas. While there was general recognition of the benefits of the university path to professional qualification, the 1951 report also records that a focus on theory and aesthetics led “some witnesses to complain that the degree course was not sufficiently practical, that it did not by itself fit the graduate for the practice of architecture … that the whole course should be more closely linked with the problems of architectural practice in New Zealand” [2]. These comments from the first New Zealand visiting board were to establish a recurring pattern for the future. The most recent report, from 2006, similarly notes that “the integration of technical studies … is inconsistent and unsatisfactory for an architectural course aimed at professional practice” [3]. In New Zealand, as elsewhere, the main function of accreditation has been to reinforce vocational training of general practitioners; a position that raises further ethical questions about academic legitimacy within research-led institutions. Accreditation has also been anecdotally represented as a kind of ritualized, adversarial game played out by academics against practitioners. The game metaphor does not reduce the ethical stakes. Indeed, in New Zealand, games are taken very seriously and are well understood in terms of relationships of players on the field and their varying abilities to play. Moreover, not only are there ethical stakes in terms of what values are central to the game of accreditation, but there are also, not unconnected, value and power dimensions in terms of individuals’ institutional positions and/or personal career possibilities. In addition, the field must now confront or accommodate not only new social, environmental and technical demands, but also new institutional priorities, managerial tactics and marketing incentives that have resulted from an ongoing global restructuring of both education and practice. Related to this, and running parallel to the presumption in accreditation documents that there exists a common basis for architectural education, there are also expectations for diversity and difference between programmes. By conceiving accreditation practices as part of an expanded relational field this paper avoids reductive or dualistic characterisations of education and practice in favour of a more nuanced ethical understanding of disciplinary positions and dispositions.

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Authority

Underpinning the practice of accreditation is a notion of the profession as a formal authorising power. Within this framework, education is seen as the key to the profession’s future and subject to its control. Yet, accreditation has not arisen in response to any external or public concern about standards. It has been largely bound up in the discursive dynamics of architects themselves attempting to address or redress their own specific epistemological uncertainties, ethical dilemmas or socio-occupational anxieties. However, while the changing conditions of contemporary practice are now widely discussed, much less attention is paid to corresponding changes to the institutions that architecture schools now find themselves compelled to operate within. Consequently, while the new academic environment has become a key factor in the accreditation of any programme hosted therein, it is the least understood by accreditation panels. Just as “practice” cannot be defined as easily as it was fifty or even five years ago – making it impossible to speak of a singular profession – so too have the changing institutional conditions and management strategies of higher education resulted in new divisions of intellectual labour; within which individual academics have become increasingly isolated and accountable. Architecture, more than other disciplines, has struggled in the academy. Yet, institutional discourses and their associated policy technologies that limit how accreditation can adapt to the contemporary field have not been explored in architectural research. This paper poses three interrelated inquiries. First, what is the basis of the profession’s authority in this new institutional field? Second, what effect does this institutional context have on the professional identities of architectural academics and/or practitioners, in relation to their socio-institutional roles? And third, how do individuals confront the logic of professional accreditation, with its implicit practice-based ideology vis a vis newer demands for academic and managerial performativity, when they are also part of the process and therefore subject to its procedures?

3 Legitimacy A critical dimension of current accreditation procedures is an attempted de facto standardisation of template-based criteria across institutions on a global scale; intended to render neutral the position of reviewers in relation to what they observe during their inspection. Although it is clear that accreditation visits are heavily orchestrated events that have been meticulously prepared for, the relationship between the accreditation criteria, the visiting panel inspector, and the material inspected, is assumed to be unproblematic and objective. In this sense, the criteria templates function as tools with which to mediate or legitimise the selective redesigning of local practice to comply with the discursive practices of remote authorities.

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Credibility

In as much as they are carried out by peers, most panel visits purport to be collegial. Yet, within the academic tradition, externality is required to ensure objectivity. So that within any community of peers there is both a marking out and a blurring of boundaries - raising questions about the nature of peerness within the multi-layered field. It is possible to draw a distinction between a group of peers, as a community of practice, and the notion of an “epistemic community” [4]. In the latter, the cognitive function of the collective agency is not limited to verification but extends to the creation, specification, validation and dissemination of knowledge to the wider group of practitioners. On the other hand, local panels, as agents, are typically charged with legitimising and extending the credibility – including symbolic credibility – of the epistemic authority. While there will be an overlap at the level of the visiting panel, the greater significance of the epistemic community lies at a higher level, in its authoritative role in forming policy, framing criteria and producing template documents upon which future practices will be based. However, because this authoritative function is also situated in taken-for-granted and historicallyspecific notions of a global model for architectural education, it is always open to questions of legitimacy and acceptance, either in whole or part, by the various agents in the field that do not share this professional episteme.

5

Summary

The motivating concern here is not so much whether accreditation maintains standards, inhibits programme diversity, or ensures competence of graduates. These are subsumed within an attempt to establish the possibility of a practical ethics of accreditation within which agents may better understand their own position and its relation to others within a dynamic and contested institutional field. Currently, panels remain largely wedded to an understanding gained while they themselves were students, or maintain an image of education that is insulated – by the procedure itself – from human, institutional or symbolic complexity in order to make it fit within the generic mono-professional template. In parallel to an institutionalised reluctance to confront the discomforting reality of the profession’s loss of control over education, schools have re-oriented themselves towards academic research and funding imperatives, as well as towards the diverse agencies, motivations and learning styles of today’s post digital-age students. One result of this is the current institutionally driven shift from the traditional five-year professional bachelor degree to the Bologna-model of a three-plus-two year structure that anticipates a specialised research-based post-graduate qualification. It remains to be seen whether this new complexity will render impractical, if not obsolete, the generalist model of the profession that accreditation procedures have, by and large, compelled schools to sustain.

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References [1] Bourdieu, P. The Logic of Practice, Stanford University Press, 1990. [2] NZMoE, Education and Training of Architects in New Zealand, New Zealand Ministry of Education, Wellington, p.8, 1951. [3] National Visiting Panel, Australasian Architecture Program Accreditation & Recognition Procedure, report to University of Auckland. p.7, 2006. [4] Haas, P.M., Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination, International Organization, 46(1), pp. 1-35, 1992.

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Pride and prejudice: illusions of consensus in architectural debate D. Gloster Royal Institute of British Architects, UK

Abstract This paper asks if 1958 could be represented as a point in the development of architecture education where, with architects and architecture operating in a significantly smaller arena than now, both profession and academia subscribed to a shared and robust set of values. By contrast, could the ideological schisms of an early 21st century where little consensus on either the form or content of architecture and the city is readily identifiable, be seen as a fundamentally conflicted condition, shorn of the certainties of the previous half century? The development of architecture as another consumable is set against Cold War tensions and the reflection of these in popular culture, with the epistemology of 1950s architecture examined for consistency (or otherwise). Key events and buildings are cited, and a view offered that the intellectual and practical loads carried by the modern practitioner and student of architecture respond to an unrecognisably different set of circumstances from those of fifty years ago – with implications for our expectations of architecture education. Keywords: consumption, Cold War, CIAM, GEAM, drawing, technology, nature of cities, cities from zero.

1

Introduction

Despite the ‘Investment In Tomorrow’ strapline to the great Harley Earl’s Firebird 111 concept car, there were few reasons for the only real consumers in 1958, i.e. American consumers, to feel entirely comfortable about their prospects for the next 24 hours. Half a century ago, most inhabitants of the planet fretted endlessly about the Kruschchev/Castro axis or, in the US, their chances of acquiring a Cold War Cadillac. An atmosphere of febrile technical consumption seemed appropriate reaction to both the nuclear testing taking place at the time, and the incineration in 1957 of plucky Russian space dog Laika. Eisenhower signed a unilateral test ban in October of the following year, but tomorrow was

256 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE still an uncertain construct that could be excised from the script without notice – so it was best to simply (and literally) buy into today. Fifty years on, Marinetti’s Futurist template seemed vindicated: The fundamental characteristics…will be impermanence and transience. Things will endure less than us [1]. This sense of an uncertain future fed on lurid media accounts of military activity in the Cold War period, with manned Tupolevs and B-47s warming their engines at aerodromes from Smolensk to Seattle, as if the boom box button could be pressed at any moment. …when we asked my father later what he had been doing…he said that he had spent a good deal of the time sitting in the plane with his crew, with the engines running and a full load of nuclear weapons. Waiting for the word to go [2]. Paradoxically of course, the period between the end of the Korean war in 1953 and the escalation of the Vietnam conflict a decade later may yet be judged one of the more peaceful in world history, as nervousness of the unintended effects of intervention stalled most real military action. But the nervy 1958 zeitgeist translated into popular culture’s obsession with mutation (Attack of the 50’ Woman, The Fly, The Blob), while the paranoia of Hitchcock’s Vertigo, Orson Welles’ Touch of Evil, and Jody Reynolds’ classic death song Endless Sleep reflected a more introspective perception of the period.

2

Consensus versus conflict?

To return to the context of architecture, writing this paper involved revisiting previous assertions, with slightly perplexing results. The resonance this event has as a marker in architecture education had led me to infer on the conference website that understanding the last fifty years was simple enough. We would characterise the situation in 1958 as one of consensus among a united profession, clear in its programme, and steely in its resolve to deliver a sophisticated and well tested Modernism to European and American clients. By contrast, the notion of what constituted good architecture education in 2008 would emerge (I suggested) as an ill tempered and dysfunctional hydra, tentatively framed because we have been taught that all definitions are contested, pointless at best and authoritarian at worst. The ‘familiar scene of instruction’ criticised by Derrida has given way to a sagging table stacked high with infinite possibility. But testing this opposition against the society and culture pencilled into my prologue actually suggested something rather different; this paper will thus make three points. The first is that there were fewer intellectual certainties among architects and educators in 1958 than we might presume, the second that by extension many of the debates in architecture then would be familiar to us in tone and content. Finally, I suggest that in the early 21st century both architecture education and its graduates are necessarily more sophisticated and skilled than is acknowledged, despite curriculum creep and reduced resources.

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Agreement is a fiction

In 1958 an uncompromising urban architecture often formed the backdrop to advertisers’ unvarnished come ons; the ultimate downtown tower stalking these images was, of course, Mies’ Seagram Building, completed that year. So architecture was complementing commerce, but also offered brain food of a rarefied order: Corb and Xenakis’s Philips Pavilion was actually a three way collaboration, using 480 seconds of specially commissioned music by Edgard Varese - the urban thrum of the Poème Electronique. By 1958, Corbusier had re-established at Chandigarh a definitive architecture of mass for the 20th century, and was three Unités into an eventual programme of five; in the same year, Aalto’s Kullttuuritalo for the Democratic Union of Finnish People opened in Helsinki. In amongst the structural aluminium of the Polk County Science Building and late season follies of the Marin County Courthouse, Frank Lloyd Wright was leaking details to the press of an almost finished Guggenheim. On a different tack, Pier Luigi Nervi and Ricardo Morandi were delivering the ultimate engineering messages of spectacular economy, and structure as space. Yet, whilst these buildings and new Detroit iron seemed not only desirable but accessible to consumers, the evidence was that many certainties in architecture’s programme were unravelling. The best known building of 1958 was probably André Waterkynd’s Atomium for the Brussels Expo, which succeeded in cartooning both science and architecture. And the key prefacing event was the CIAM X Congress organised by team 10, held in Dubrovnik in August 1956, and widely considered to have been the last true CIAM congress [3]. The event was clouded by the resignations from CIAM of Gropius, Sert, Corbusier, Giedion, and Cor van Esteren; the latter three did not attend in Dubrovnik, provoking Alison Smithson to anger. The Charter of Habitat produced at the Congress did establish issues that resonated for some time after (‘the cluster’, ‘mobility’, ‘identity’ etc.) - but the potency of the 1928 Congrès was gone. Even Mumford’s ideas of regionalism (complete with the ‘primitive, inchoate’ neighbourhood) expressed conflicted concerns. In his 1958 essay ‘The Highway and the City’, he admires the post war infrastructural explosion: In many ways our highways are not merely masterpieces of engineering, but consummate works of art…on a par with our highest creations [4, p. 181]. Although barely a page later, he places these creations on a par with the construction programme of the Pharaohs; Mumford’s much loathed technological ‘megamachine’: This is pyramid-building with a vengeance; a tomb of concrete roads and ramps covering the dead corpse of the city [4, p. 182]. Also in 1958, UK lost boy/polymath Wells Wintermute Coates passed away, and after 20 years in post Mies van der Rohe stepped down from the headship of the Illinois Institute of Technology. But most tellingly, and in direct reaction to his conviction that by rejecting portable construction CIAM no longer traded in modern currency, Yona Friedman founded the Groupe d’Etudes d’Architecture Mobile (GEAM). He cited the view that:

258 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE If a theory is well constructed and spread abroad, it has the advantage of no longer being the property of specialists, but of stemming from the public domain. The present day monopoly of the architect has to do with the fact that there is no real theory, but a set of pseudo-theories; in other words, observations which only reflect the preferences of their authors [5]. Essentially a political comment on the role and status of the professional architect, GEAM’s manifesto was the curtain raiser to a string of schismatic notions questioning the authority of the architect. In some way precipitating everything from Rudofsky’s architecture without architects, to the hippy Sears mail order cipher of the Whole Earth Catalog, GEAM’s manifesto has had remarkable penetration in terms of tearing down the professional edifice.

4

The new programme of architecture

Contemplating the intellectual and practical load carried by a modern student of architecture is actually sobering. The past half century has heard numerous complaints by the profession of graduates’ skills, with much associated ‘in my day’ harrumphing. No-one has successfully located the golden age during which that sublime balance of practice, theory and design skills were manifest in every graduate – although it is generally thought to coincide with the date at which each complainant graduated… 4.1 Drawing Taking the skill of drawing, the cross hairs of the modern cursor are actually a greater leveller of drawing ability than the finely wrought pencil esquisse delicately washed with tepid watercolour, where the merest proportional gaffe is immediately apparent. The romantic legacy of architecture will rightly be painterly drawings of the projects that got away, or those renderings offering a perception of the design previously unexplored; the role of this work is psychological, as well as architectural, insight. MicroStation and Auto Cad have of course the capability to be extremely agricultural, but the skewed projections, perspectives and renderings they offer would surely have heartened Blake and Gandy - and at the purely technical level, can we really have too much precision in production information? It is right to complain about the industrialisation of design, the poor social relations of architecture’s new satanic mills, the punishing hours and insulting remuneration – but automated drafting has democratised this baseline ability to the extent that a graduate is instantly purposeful from their first day in an office. 4.2 Technology A second point is that, despite much building today still being constructionally normative, modern architecture (to make the Ruskinian distinction between building and architecture) can often be technically very complex. Norman Wienand’s recent letter to The Independent provided a welcome perspective on the debate about technical competence:

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To state that the ever-diminishing number of technically competent staff is a result of poor training is to ignore the major developments in building complexity that have arisen over the past 20 years…to blame… the schools of architecture ignores both the advances in highly complex building systems, and the development of a professional culture where specialist designers prevail [6]. In expecting graduates to have ‘just add water’ technical skills at graduation, critics miss the point of a university education complemented by practical training; it is the synergy between the two that makes the structure of architecture studies so intelligent and responsive. Academic work puts intellectual gas in the tank for the long professional journey ahead; practice refines and extends the parameters within which performance is delivered. Much contemporary constructional complexity seems unconsciously set on delivering the Modernist axiom of machinic architecture in more than form – rather, as a mechanism responding to a building’s environmental loading, or occupation. It would be generous of the profession to acknowledge that asking a student (at any level, and of any ability) to factor in the data necessary to establish these conditions and develop anything but the most naïve constructional response is over optimistic. And it could be argued that as normative construction can be found in plenty of ‘how to’ books, there is no disgrace in adapting this generic motherlode. Before anyone pounces, this is not a rationalisation for students being technically unaware, rather an argument for managing expectations about capability at the point of graduation. 4.3 The nature of cities Reading any 21st century city of more than 2 million inhabitants now requires a kind of semiotic kama sutra; coherently planned setpieces à la Bernini, Le Blond, Haussmann and even Niemeyer are often now criticised as socially irrelevant, a kind of indulgent mannerism missing the point of how the city functions – although the buildings studding those impeccably conceived routes may still be regarded as paradigms. However, the ‘absurdly beautiful’ PoMo juxtapositions Koolhas claims as urban excelsis are already being displaced by the phenomenon of the city from zero. The Vegas Strip with Marlene Dietrich playing a Sands Hotel the size of a Chigwell bungalow quickly segued into Lana Turner/Johnny Stompanato Syndicate-style super-Vegas. Onward and upward, this is now America’s fastest growing city with a population of 2,5 million increasing 25% every 5 years, [7] and gorging on an annual gambling revenue of $25 billion [8]. Standing on the site of the old Desert Inn and next to the new Museum of the Mob (really) is the recently completed Wynn Las Vegas, architecturally vapid and of interest for one reason only – it was constructed at a cost of nearly $1,000,000 per bedroom [9]. Examples of the conspicuous consumption of global cities are everywhere; Shanghai now has more than 3000 buildings over 30 storeys, 12,000 with 18 or more [10]. Dubai alone uses more than 25% of global cement production, topping per capita usage at 3 tonnes in its venture to modestly recreate ‘The World’. The ant farm-like mass housing blocks of Hong Kong fundamentally challenge notions of space standards, privacy, and daylight. Cities unfold as an urbanist pornography where the visual spectacle of what has been built works

260 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE only from a distance; closer, they have the social conviviality of an artillery barrage. Sao Paolo and Seoul (to name but two) are globalising megalopoli, the disturbing realisation of a City of Bits/Sim strategy for urban design; the South Korean capital is in fact the newest franchised world city for the Championship Gaming Series - ironic that the most virtual nation on earth still considers gamers need to physically meet. In his work on global media cities, Stefan Kratke talks of the merging of culture and market: The…media industry functions as a ‘trend machine’ that picks up on the trends developing primarily in the leading media cities, exploits them commercially in the form of a packaging and repackaging of lifestyle elements, and transmits them worldwide as part of the phenomenon of globalisation [11]. Present students of architecture have then to register and absorb multiple images of the city in a world geographically and culturally compressed by air travel, synthesising into their designs ideas of context that can no longer exclusively address ‘sympathy with materials’, ‘uniform parapet lines’ or ‘appropriate scale’. If any certainty exists, it is that the notion of working in a fixed place for lifetime clients who become as familiar as well-worn shoes will be assailed as patterns of practice reconfigure themselves. It is tacitly expected the student will reflect changes in the city’s nature with which we ourselves are either unfamiliar or fundamentally uneasy, engage with a lexicon of materiality and digitally hosted systems that would have been considered fantasies fifty years ago – and still work in conditions George Dance might recognise. It would appear in fact the only consensus ever likely to emerge about architecture’s identity and the nature of the education our students receive is that agreement on both or either is impossible. That we can never, to paraphrase Bruno Latour, Be Modern – because as soon as it is identified as such, Modernity becomes institutionalised, sanitised and uninteresting. This may just be the condition all of us elect to live with, and feel least uncomfortable in accepting.

References [1] [2] [3] [4] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]

Filippo Marinetti, 8th maxim, Futurist Manifesto (1908) Kenneth D Rose, p. 13 One Nation Underground: The Fallout Shelter In American Culture (2001) The last CIAM congress was held in Otterlo, the Netherlands in 1959 Lewis Mumford, The Highway and the City, p. 181 Architectural Record (April 1958) Yona Friedman, l’Architecture Mobile (1958) Norman Wienand, letter to The Independent, 5 April 2008 US Census Bureau, quickfacts.census.gov Insider Viewpoint of Las Vegas, insidervlv.com honeymoons.about.com Facilities Management Action Agenda, fmactionagenda.org Stefan Kratke, Global Media Cities p. 329 The Global Cities Reader ed. Neil Brenner and Roger Keil (2006)

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The future of design teams in a zero carbon world A. Ford Director, Fulcrum Consulting, UK

Abstract The environmental performance of buildings in use will in the future become mandated. This will change the roles and power structure within design teams. This paper questions who will win and who will lose and looks towards a closer understanding and movement between the professions of engineering and architecture. Keywords: zero, carbon, engineer, architect, profession, environmental, sustainability.

1

The future of design teams in a zero carbon world

I am a consulting environmental engineer that has been deeply involved in the design of high performance low energy buildings for in excess of 20 years. I and my company, Fulcrum Consulting, are now leading the drive for zero carbon developments. We are advising the government and have members on both BERR and the Schools Zero Carbon Task Force. We became founding members of the UK Green Building Council and I am currently the incumbent technical chair. This paper aims to discuss the shifting roles in the design team and how the interface between engineering and architecture needs to blur to allow exciting and intelligent buildings to be constructed in a world of legally binding carbon and water targets. It is my contention that low energy and sustainability are not only compatible with beauty but also, when the science of these is correctly interpreted in a built solution; they are what we humans call beauty. I believe that each of our senses is aware of pleasure and that when they jointly find themselves pleased it creates a powerful emotional response.

262 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE Architecture that uses all the senses is better than that which only considers the visual. In order to be able to access the skills architects need to realise that engineers have long moved from being designers of plant and ducts. These days we engineers spend our effort simulating what we refer to as the real ‘performance’ of spaces to ensure they are comfortable. Put another way this means is we simulate how they ‘feel’ .We know what will make your space feel different and we seek to use our design team position to influence these factors. My question to architects is. Do you know you want and how to work with an engineer to make it feel the way you want? Comfort is not the same as pleasure. If you don’t believe me think of pleasure as a sauna or a beach neither would be ‘comfortable’ in any way. All I have said above I deeply believe. This is how I have developed my practice I am interested in innovation. But now the world has changed. Now, all the above must be achieved in a world where the resources we use are tightly regulated. What does this do to the design team and why do I say roles are changing? What does this mean for teaching future design professionals? Do architects have the skills to deliver the built environment that we as a society want and the world needs? Are Architects going to take on more responsibilities or are they going to give up fee? Should there still be architects and engineers? Are these names the problem? Chani Leahong, one of my senior associates, put it well recently in an internal review we have been holding, she said “For Fulcrum the future goes way beyond collaboration between architects and engineers, it involves the removal of the barrier which identifies an architect of engineer as a separate entity. In our field of vision there are no barriers or boxes that cannot or should not be deconstructed when the time is right so to do. The construction industry itself has been deconstructed to the point where we find ourselves governed by titles which define a very narrow scope of what we are and therefore a massive spectrum of what we are not. Rather than being governed by our working title, we should be governed by the logic of physics and the beauty of nature. These things will drive a rational solution that meets the needs of the present and other things beyond. Was Gaudi and engineering architect or was Brunel an architectural engineer? Whether sitting in an architectural practise or engineer consultants, it is the individual’s ability to think laterally to solve a problem that helps them to arrive at a good design solution. It seems the industry has forgotten the basics along the way somewhere in the race to develop ever more detailed and sophisticated tools and knowledge we have become more fragmented.” This can change. It is the way forward. We are rapidly moving towards a world where there are legally enforceable commitments on energy, carbon usage and imminently water. This is going to require better architects and better engineers and an all together higher level of

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interaction between them. I suspect that somewhere along the line in the near future the concept of legal enforcement will directly apply to a member of the design team. At this point ‘they’, lets not be specific yet as to whether this will be an architect or and engineer, must have the power, ability and fee to create buildings that genuinely do perform to meet their targets. This is just not the situation at the moment. As an example, I sit on the task force to Zero Carbon Schools. The DCSF produced a document where they looked at the best new schools that they could find (Schools for the Future). None of them perform according to their predictions, not one, none of them. This cannot continue and I have to say the worst people for making excessive claims about their buildings are architects. The number of times I have had architects stand up and present buildings I have worked on with them as ‘having no heating’ or being ‘zero carbon’ is just ridiculous. These buildings are not and until somebody gets a grip they never will be remotely able to be called zero carbon. But by 2016 they must be and not just in theory. Will it be the engineers or the architects that become legally responsible? If it is the architects, are you going to take that legal responsibility seriously enough to train and understand engineering sufficiently to be able to do it? If it is the engineers, are they going to be able to be trained and taught sufficiently well that they can effectively control and enhance the design of buildings because it also matters that we have beauty. Either way, greater knowledge, skill and respect is required but currently missing. This is our challenge for the future and it is a very major one. I hope, that this conference, may be remembered in 50 years time as the point our respective professions grew up, took their responsibilities seriously and agreed to work together to solve this the worlds greatest challenge. Building performance and its accurate prediction is now vital to high-quality building design. It is no longer good enough to design an elegant well planned building and claim it is ‘green’. Something much deeper is needed. We need buildings that work. The figure below shows the task and how buildings do not work at present have not for a very long time and that despite our recent attempts and changes to the building regulations, still do not. In Europe and currently in the UK, the requirement for energy performance certificates for buildings is incrementally being applied to all domestic and non-domestic buildings on completion, sale or rent. An enormous database of real energy performance will be built up. Pretence will become a thing of the past. Simultaneously, proposals are well advanced to legally require net-zero carbon new buildings. The governments ‘Building a Greener Future: policy statement’ outlines the likely future changes to the Building Regulations regarding energy use and CO2 emissions. It indicated that all new domestic buildings will have to be net-zero carbon from 2016.

264 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE The government has also announced its ambition to make the same true in non domestic buildings by 2019 with schools being earlier perhaps by 2016. The collection of the huge amount of data not previously available will enable a benchmarking of building types and systems and, over time, the beginning of an ability to understand how age affects performance. Maybe this will even include how design and particular designers affect the results. Similar performance based analysis has already happened in the medical profession and teaching profession. Fulcrum Consulting’s response is to formalise a concept of integrated design which has embedded in it effective feedback mechanisms.

Figure 1:

The UK existing building stock with future projection UKGBC. Carbon Emissions (kg/m2)

60 50 40 30 20 10

Pr e

19 19 19 20 -1 94 19 5 46 -1 96 6 19 67 -1 97 6 19 77 -1 99 5 19 95 -B SF BS F20 07 po st 20 07 po ? st 20 16 ?

0

Figure 2:

Existing and future schools DCSF.

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This design process takes benchmark information derived from current data and which in the future will become much richer and deeper as the stating point in the very first design team meeting. We begin by placing this understanding into the context of room, building type and area in a spreadsheet form to guide the design development process. It sounds a dry start but it enables clarity and avoids designing around past myths. By introducing it so early responsibilities to ensure the future building has certain characteristics can be distributed around the team. In this I include the QS and the client I believe that computational modelling will, of necessity, become universal for buildings how detailed they are varies and the current compliance programmes such as SAP and sBEM are but crude precursors of the future. I see the need for the ‘real’ data that is about to be collected to inform the parameters used within these programmes. Fulcrum have moved significantly along these routes already .We are developing tools to enable the dynamic effects of decisions to be tracked through the whole process of design, construction and use. Exploring how physical modelling might interface with computational modelling to assist with the need to train designers’ intuition. Beyond our immediate control lie the energy delivery systems, both of electricity and heat/cold. These become more variable as we move towards using naturally occurring sources. For example solar heat in summer, cool from winter storage and wind or PV electrical. Our modelling must deal with this for the specific site. The way engineers work has changed much in the last 30 years and the responsibilities and demands on us will continue change. I already employ architects who have retrained to understand engineering to provide the interface. I expect to do so more. We are getting better and recognition of support we give can ease the architects’ load as they learn to use us. But expect a shift in power to follow I want to make this a positive event for all The skills of an architect to work with engineers to elegantly integrate these particular design concepts into a site specific situation must improve. Site specific information on, say, wind and solar data linked with known performance of typical buildings types and usage, can then be used to create unique and beautiful designs. Engineering support programmes, such as TRANSYS, will in the future, begin to suggest site specific options for early stage design concepts to help the building form develop. They will suggest optimum solutions and predicted performance levels. We will reach the point where prediction and results match if we work together and when we do we will all gain respect.

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Architectural technology 50 years on: Oxford to Oxford, SAAT to CIAT S. Allwinkle Chartered Institute of Architectural Technologists, UK

Abstract Established in 1965 as the Society of Architectural and Associated Technicians, the Chartered Institute of Architectural Technologists (CIAT) is the professional Institute representing over 8,000 professionals working and studying in the field of Architectural Technology in the UK and overseas. As such, CIAT is internationally recognised as the qualifying body for Chartered Architectural Technologists (MCIAT) and professionally qualified Architectural Technicians (TCIAT). This paper provides a brief overview of the development of the most recent Chartered Professional built environment Institute, developed from an idea that was first discussed at the 1958 conference, into a modern professional body for the 21st Century. Keywords: architectural technology, professional body, chartered institute.

1

Introduction

1.1 Initial concept Following the discussion of an institute of Technicians at the 1958 Oxford Conference, the official history of the Chartered Institute of Architectural Technologists begins in 1962 with the publication of a survey; ‘The Architect and his Office’ produced by the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) [1], an Institute qualifying and representing architects, founded in 1834. ‘The Architect and his Office’ survey had been circulated to the RIBA membership and its results revealed that there was a need for Architectural Technicians and that ‘there should be an Institute for technicians sponsored by the RIBA to ensure the maintenance of standards, education and training’.

268 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE 1.2 Emerging profession For so many people making their careers in architectural practice, both public and private, the creation of SAAT in 1965 provided an opportunity to forge a meaningful identity for themselves and to take a direction in professional development, which has gained them respect and recognition throughout the construction industry. Much better by far to be seen and heard as technologists and technicians, than play out ill defined roles as architectural assistants, or be regarded both inaccurately and unkindly as ‘hack draftsmen’. 1.3 A Chartered Institute Fifty years on from the Oxford Conference there is now a Chartered Institute for Architectural Technologists sufficient in confidence and assured of the support of other professional bodies to contribute to the design and construction of the built environment. Architectural technologists are now recognised for their critical contribution to the successful completion of a construction project. They bridge the gap between concept (design) and construction (production) and in doing so integrate the team. Many architectural technologists, in practice on their own account, are very often in partnership, co-directorship or limited liability partnership with other construction professionals such as architects. This crossdiscipline approach demonstrates in practice the principles promoted by the Latham Report [2] and the Egan Report [3].

2

The development of the professional discipline

2.1 In the beginning: a society for technicians 2.1.1 Establishing a need In July 1964, RIBA appointed Stanley Mayne, an RIBA employee, ‘to investigate the kind of organisation that technicians in architects’ offices were most likely to want and the best methods of meeting these needs’. After numerous meetings, consultations and months of work, the working Committee submitted a proposal to the RIBA Council. Meeting on 9 December 1964, the Council unanimously resolved to support the formation of an association of Architectural Technicians, and to encourage the extension of the organisation to cover technicians working in offices associated with the design side of the construction industry as well. It was agreed that financial assistance be provided until the organisation became self-supporting through its membership subscriptions, and with this in mind, an RIBA grant-in-aid of £1,500 was immediately made available. 2.1.2 Creating a Society To implement this momentous decision made by the Council, on 4 January 1965, the RIBA requested that all allied societies arrange meetings of technicians to elect representatives to attend a meeting at the RIBA headquarters to form what would effectively be a council of technicians. According to the records, the allied

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societies ‘co-operated magnificently’ and almost every area in the UK were represented. The RIBA committee had in mind five main considerations to be addressed at the meeting, which were: (1) The RIBA’s lasting interest in a responsibility for the education and training of Architectural Technicians (2) The utmost importance of good communications between architects and technicians (3) The evident desire of technicians in architects’ offices for very close association with architects. (4) The strong advantages in as common a basic training as possible for technicians in the construction industry as a whole, including the free exchange of technicians from one sector to another. (5) The need to avoid, if possible, the further proliferation of organisations within the industry. 2.1.3 Formation of SAAT On Friday 12 February 1965, a total of 43 people attended the meeting and unanimously approved the founding of the Society of Architectural and Associated Technicians (SAAT): the industry now had a Society to represent technicians officially within construction. The discipline had now been born! 2.2 Architectural technology: technician to technologists 2.2.1 Developing a discipline In a short narrative, such as a conference paper it is not possible to describe adequately the journey of the SAAT to CIAT. It cannot be overstated that this rapid development could not and would not have happened without the dedication of the Membership and a small central office staff. The development from a society, which was seen as supporting Architects to a Chartered Institute with members now have a complementary role to Architects, could not have been envisaged in 1962. 2.2.2 Key development phases The following part of this section picks out the four phases of the institute and highlights some of the key achievements in the last four decades being the initial setting up development of SAAT, the change to an institute of technicians, Degree course development and change to institute for technologists and lastly building upon the QAA benchmark Architectural Technology to create a Chartered Institute. A full description and official history of CIAT can be found in Forty Years on by Endacott [4]. Phase 1 Formation and Development of SAAT 1965- 1986 1965 Founded on 12 February first Representative Assembly held…Constitution and Code of Conduct agreed Phase 2 Development of BIAT (Technicians) 1986-1994 1986 SAAT becomes British Institute of Architectural Technicians

270 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE Phase 3 Development of BIAT (Technologists) 1994-2005 1994name change to British Institute of Architectural Technologists...first degrees in Architectural Technology accredited by BIAT Phase 4 Development of CIAT (Chartered Institute of Architectural Technologists) 2005 Her Majesty the Queen approves the Grant of a Royal Charter...BIAT becomes CIAT 2.2.3 Educational foundations Needless to say the development of Architectural Technology as a discipline together with Chartered Institute of Architectural Technologists as a profession have been built upon education and training. This has been achieved by a strong educational ethos linked to professional standards and has moved Architectural Technology from primarily a technical discipline to a profession. The linking of Education and academic standards to professional competence has stimulated Architectural Technology growth in UK Universities with close to 30 centres offering undergraduate degree programmes with a fast developing postgraduate degree market. This new chartered discipline is modern, demand led being both proactive and reactive to meet the needs of a modern society in a global arena 2.3 Architectural technology and the chartered institute 2.3.1 The discipline The relationship that society has to the built environment involves differing needs and aspirations. These requirements have to be recognised, analysed and provided. In doing so, modern design and construction frequently involves the use of new materials and the development of new concepts, techniques and strategies. Adding this to alternative procurement strategies and extensive service installations, the design and construction process is now a much more complex process than ever encountered before. 2.3.2 Designing for production and performance In response to these challenges and based upon the twin concepts of designing for performance and production through the integration of technology, the discipline of architectural technology has seen rapid growth. Chartered architectural technologists are represented by CIAT. Programmes are normally accredited by CIAT in order to confirm that they provide a valuable and stimulating learning experience while also meeting the needs of the profession and industry. 2.3.3 Chartered Architectural Technologists CIAT defines academic qualification of architectural technology as follows: 'on completion of a degree programme and with appropriate assessed professional experience, the chartered architectural technologist will be able to analyse, synthesise and evaluate, design factors in order to produce design solutions which will satisfy performance, production and procurement criteria. This will

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be achieved through the design, selection and specification of materials, components and assembly and the management, coordination, communication, presentation and monitoring of solutions which perform to the agreed brief and standards in terms of time, cost and quality'. 2.3.4 Professional practice Architectural technologists are critical to the successful completion of a construction project. They bridge the gap between concept (design) and construction (production) and in doing so integrate the team. Many architectural technologists, in practice on their own account, are very often in partnership, codirectorship or limited liability partnership with other construction professionals such as architects. This cross-discipline approach demonstrates in practice the principles promoted by the Latham Report [2] and the Egan Report [3] . 2.3.5 Accredited Degrees While the discipline links to others, it is continually expanding academically, technically and professionally. Much of this development is championed by CIAT, as demonstrated by the high proportion of CIAT accredited degrees, all of which either have or are working towards CIAT accreditation. At the time of writing, CIAT accredits 27 of the 30 available degree programmes. 2.3.6 Defining the profession CIAT [5] describes chartered architectural technologists as 'providing architectural design services and solutions. They are specialists in the science of architecture, building design and construction and form the link between concept and construction. They negotiate the construction project and manage the project from inception through to completion'. 2.3.7 QAA Benchmark for degrees Degree programmes in architectural technology are designed to meet the needs of industry and the profession and typically in line with QAA Benchmark statements [6]: 2.4 Architectural technology: the next 50 years? 2.4.1 The reflection The development of Architectural Technology has come a very long way, certainly, much further than any of the founders imagined when SAAT entered the world of professional institutions in 1965. Endacott [4], chronicles the progress made since then, but what cannot readily be recorded are the efforts made to reconcile the desire of members for status and recognition with the realities of setting standards of performance which could only be achieved by widely accepted levels of education and training. It is a tribute to all concerned that against a background of constantly changing technology and legislation, the needs of the profession have been met through soundly implemented education and training policies. The professional status now achieved for full Members has

272 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE been forged through these means and is underlined by the respect of the Institute as accorded through its involvement in the wider councils of the construction industry. 2.4.2 The future Whatever the future may hold for the Chartered Institute, there will always be a pressure to meet changing circumstances which create demands on the industry, focused not only on the design and production of ever more technically complex buildings, but also on the provision of sound, reliable building to meet the requirements of those seeking more traditional solutions that perform over time and are sustainable. The professional performance of chartered members in successfully meeting these demands will surely remain one of the prime objectives of the Institute and will ensure their increasing recognition as it meets the challenges and grows in stature, as it most certainly will.

References [1] ‘The Architect and his Office’ produced by the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) 1962. [2] Latham, Michael Sir “Constructing the Team”(Latham Report) Department of the Environment HMSO 1994 [3] Eagan, J. “Rethinking construction: report from the construction task force” Department of the Environment, HMSO 1998. [4] Endacott, A. “Forty Years On” The official history of Chartered Institute of Architectural Technologists” CIAT 2005 [5] CIAT Careers in Architectural Technology, CIAT 2007 [6] QAA Benchmark Statement “Architectural Technology “, QAA UK.

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The hand hits back A. Berman BGS Architects, UK

Abstract The development of fine motor capabilities and tool making skills was key in the development of the human mind. Our hands, and all our bodily faculties and sensations are an essential and integral part of our human conceptual capabilities. We relate to our environment through the operation of the full array of sensory inputs, which are integrated into unified experiences. We are not, at base, a set of well developed mechanical body parts driven by that clever neural processor located between the ears – rather our conceptual and cognitive processes are founded as much in our bodies as in our heads. Therefore the substitution of a disembodied computer in place of the hand as a tool for drawing is bound to have a profound consequence on our conceptual and creative processes. Keywords: ghost, embodied mind, somatic experience, ruminative semiconsciousness, embodied tools.

1

Thesis

The idea, crudely stated, that conceptual powers are invested in our bodies as much as in our minds goes back to ancient Greece, was advocated by Berkeley, Montague and Merlieu-Ponty, and currently by, amongst others, Lakoff and Johnson, who use current work in cognitive neuroscience to demonstrate the fact by reference to work on mirror neurones and “cross-modal” brain activity. Body (or somatic) experience is essential to thinking and the way we construct concepts: the basis of our conceptual and cognitive systems are developed from, and laid down by, our very earliest, unconscious bodily experiences. All abstract concepts, thinking and experiencing apparatus are rooted in learned physical sensations. Somatic experience includes our entire body experience – weight, pressure, balance, direction, temperature, kinestheatics, skeletal and muscular tension and proprioception, as well as synaesthetic experiences – those sensory experiences

274 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE that although collected visually are prompted by other sensory stimuli, such as “seeing” roughness or heaviness, “touching” depth, sharpness or softness. All such sensory experiences contribute to our understanding of 3 dimensional and spatial forms, and to the body’s perceptive and orienting systems: they are part of the cognitive make-up that allows us to experience our environment. As design is the process of conceiving and imagining form and space in advance of constructing it in reality, it would seem that if we experience form through holistic multi-sensory experience, then the same processes will be brought into play during the creative conception of form and environments. The designer is engaged, conceptually, in a whole-body experience – as it were, experiencing the yet-to-be-made-real in reverse: imagining and conceiving an arrangement of physical, material elements so as to invest spaces, places and objects with qualities that will be experienced somatically. The devices that we have invented to facilitate this conceptual process are universally drawing, and sometimes physical modeling – they are metaphors for reality. So it seems bound to follow that this metaphor, the drawing, is engaged in, and becomes the site of, the operation of the same mental processes as the real experience. As we create designs by drawing them, we lay them down, examine and consider them and imagine “being in them”, a process of development and refinement that leads iteratively to a solution, which, in our imagination, we satisfactorily inhabit. Our consciousness shifts between the domain of the real sensation of hand on paper to the domain that we occupy in our imagination. When we draw a design we walk and feel and see the space by walking and feeling the drawing. So our hands, so central in the development of human mental capacities, create drawings that are both tools and manifestations of the embodied mind, facilitating the extraordinarily full creative potential of mind. Hand drawing uses very basic technology to make marks on paper. Like other simple technologies that mirror body movement, pen and pencil become “embodied” or “transparent” – i.e. we lose consciousness of the tool and become conscious of the primary action. As we lose consciousness of the lens in our glasses to become of what we see, so our consciousness moves from paper to the place or thing we are creating with our drawing tools. Thus drawing by hand affords two direct paths into the mental process of imagining, of creation: firstly our consciousness is able to move into what is being created through the embodiment of drawing instruments, and secondly, the act of drawing deploys the mind’s body based operating systems. We draw with our whole body using the full array of our sensory functions. When drawing, the free flowing, unrestrained hand facilitates an unstructured semi- conscious rumination and exploration of form and the exploration of mental territory – of partly formed suggestions generated on paper which become available for examination, rejection or retention and development. Creative conception involves oscillation between abstract, usually vague concepts and their potential physical reality. This process calls on what we already know through experience, and allows evaluation of ideas as they grow

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and manifest themselves in the drawing – a process of imagining, knowing, doing, evaluating, redoing, re-imagining, re-evaluating, and so on as a progressive development towards creating a solution. This process is facilitated by the enormously rich range of expressive potential of drawing, with its infinite variety of mark making – marks which in themselves contain the intended qualities of the proposed end product. This mirrors the way the brain thinks creatively. By means of empathy, metaphor, conceptual blending and concept formation we develop concepts and ideas that originate both in what we know from direct sensory experience, and also by extrapolating and developing imagined possibilities that we do not yet "know". In other words we are able to create new things. But these are not created ex nihilo – the seeds of the new come from our entire learned body-experience mechanisms, our perceptual apparatus that culls all our previous experience, and added to by that uniquely human ability to imagine something never before experienced. Such unstructured semi-conscious rumination, not at all dissimilar to doodling, is a key to the process of creative conception through drawing. Drawings done at this early stage in the design/creative process are not post facto: they are not produced after ideas have arisen – although they can record ideas developed prior to the drawing. The designer creates and draws in a semi conscious ruminative state when consciousness has moved from the paper to the place being designed and explored, when the thick drawn mark is “felt” as a heavy wall, the thin veil of a line is “seen” as a transparent light edge: the whole is built in the imagination by marks made on the paper. Hand drawing contributes fundamentally to the generation of ideas. Drawing is an essential part of the creative process – a unified, multi–modal sensory process in which hand, body and mind are forged into a single creative tool. CAD machines cannot become embodied in this way, they cannot “disappear” as we use them to imagine what we draw, and neither the CAD program, nor the hardware, operate within the experiential framework of our learned body experiences. There is – as yet – no ghost in computers. Until there is we must continue to exploit our uniquely human creative capacity by drawing with our hands.

References [1] G Lakoff & M Johnson – Philosophy in the Flesh. Basic Books New York 1999 [2] D Lewis-Williams – The Mind in the Cave. Thames & Hudson London 2002 [3] Margaret A. Boden – The Creative Mind. Routledge London 2004. [4] R Tallis – The Hand Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh 2003. [5] H. L Dreyfuss – Being in the World – A Commentary on Heidegger’s Being & Time. MIT Press Cambridge Mass. 1995 [6] K R Gibson & T Ingold, Eds – Tools, Language and Cognition in Human Evolution. [7] CUP Cambridge 1998

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Forum 8 Materials and Renewable Energy

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Integrated household solar system S. D. Dent Dent & Nordhaus, Architects, LLC, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA

Abstract An integrated system design led to an innovative design for a new, all-electric, home in north-central New Mexico. Located at an altitude of 6,700 feet, the sunny, cool climate is ideal for constructing an environmentally sensitive home. The highly insulated 4000 square foot home incorporates direct gain, a central mass wall, an entry sunspace, an underground cool tube, and no mechanical cooling system. Solar thermal panels preheat water for radiant floor heating and domestic hot water. The 5 kW photovoltaic system is interconnected with the solar thermal system to provide electrical power, auxiliary space heating, and domestic hot water and is “grid tied” – without the use of any fossil fuels on site. The site and building design were also influenced by the incorporation of a water harvesting system that supplies a 10,000 gallon underground cistern. Keywords: passive solar, integrated system, photovoltaic system, water harvesting, cool tube.

1

Project description

From the very beginning, the house was conceived as a passive solar home with a grid-tied photovoltaic system for its primary power supply. Located on a large 10-acre site with panoramic views, the floor plan was a response to the internal functional program, orientation needs for a passive solar home, and the (sometimes thermally compromising) requirement to capture views in a variety of directions. The original building program included three bedrooms, living room, den, dining, kitchen, bathrooms, garage, workshop, and utility room – all on the ground floor. As the design evolved, two home offices were added which extended the hallway/surface area while a second floor “view room” and deck were incorporated to have a separate space that captured the 360 degree views. The house is highly insulated with 2” x 8” framed walls with R-25 insulation, clad-wood windows with Low-E glazing, R-23 Rastra block stem walls, and R38 ceiling insulation.

280 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE The passive solar heating design includes the direct gain heating of south side rooms and a clerestory above the central hallway that irradiates a mass wall of split-faced concrete block. The block is grouted solid for maximum thermal mass and radiates heat into the hall and to north side rooms. Glass block in the wall allows south light into north facing rooms. A sunspace at the entry has vertical glazing only and a large overhang for better solar control in the summer. It is home to both plants and birds – and creates a thermal transition from exterior to interior. The floor in most areas is stained concrete over rigid insulation for additional distributed thermal mass and encases the hydronic radiant heating system. Enclosing garden walls, on the south and east sides of the house, create courtyards that are protected from the occasional strong winds and dust. Also included on this large site are a tennis court that is an integral part of the water harvesting system and a passive solar heated horse barn.

2

System integration

The all-electric heating and power system was designed as a unique hybrid that responded to the client’s requirement that no fossil fuel be consumed on-site. The resulting system design interconnects the nine-panel solar thermal system with the grid-tied 5 kW PV system that is comprised of thirty-167W panels. The auxiliary heating is drawn first from the solar thermal systems’ 750-gallon storage tank. For times when the solar thermal system is drawn down, daytime heating needs will go first to the PV system to heat water in a high efficiency tankless electric water heater. On very cloudy days or at night, auxiliary heating needs are supplied by grid-supplied electricity. Concerns, during the design phase, about the high costs of grid-supplied electricity during winter have been allayed by actual results. When the solar thermal system is drawn down on a winter day, the PV system is almost always producing electricity. Consequently, the thermal and cost problem is on cold winter nights after several cloudy days. The severity of this problem is greatly alleviated by the thermal storage capacity in the passive and active solar systems, the well-insulated building envelope, and the judicious use of two small, high efficiency wood stoves. There are two electric meters. The standard utility meter runs forward when electricity is being consumed and backwards when the PV’s produce more power than the house is using. A second meter records all of the electrical output of the PV system and the local utility, Public Service Company of New Mexico, will pay $0.13 per kWh for this power for the first 12 years. The PV’s are ground mounted for optimal efficiency, ease of maintenance, and to facilitate any future system expansion. The solar thermal panels are mounted vertically on a garden wall to avoid summertime overheating.

3 Water harvesting and passive cooling The entire roof was designed to collect and channel rain and snowmelt to an underground cistern that holds 10,000 gallons. The cistern is also fed from the tennis court drainage system. The collected water is used for drip irrigation of

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plantings within the garden areas – a water conservation strategy in this waterstarved climate. Water in the cistern may also be used for fire protection – and reduces the cost of fire insurance. The house has no mechanical cooling system and relies instead on shading, insulation, planting, natural ventilation, and the large diurnal temperature differences between day and night for maintaining comfort. To augment these efforts, an “underground cool tube” was installed to take advantage of geothermal cooling. The 10” PVC tube is 200 feet long, is placed about 8 feet under the surface, and has a small fan placed in the gooseneck inlet. The fan moves outside air to a centrally located outlet inside of the house. Contact with the cool earth at this depth cools the incoming air for nearly free cooling. The addition of several parallel tubes to the installed tube would have provided improved performance, but the cost of removing rock in the excavation limited this approach. So far the inside temperature during summer is kept within the clients’ comfort needs.

4

Performance timeline

4.1 October, 2004 The owners move into the house in the middle of October. The installation of the solar thermal system was in progress when the house was occupied. Although this led to extra short-term costs for a few months, it did allow for the establishment of a base case without the active solar and PV assists. 4.2 Heating season 1 (October 15, 2004–April 15, 2005) Utility bills for this first heating season indicate an average monthly cost of $215 and a monthly average energy use of about 2530 kWh (using an average cost of $.085 per kWh). A reasonable estimate of 730 kWh per month for heating domestic hot water, lighting, plug loads, well pump, and cooking (based on bills from the following summer) indicates an average monthly heating load for the winter of 1800 kWh/month. This translates to an auxiliary space-heating load of only 36.9 million Btu’s for the entire winter for a 4000 square foot house. The predicted annual heating load using Energy-10 software, without any passive solar contribution, was 142.4 million Btu per year based on 5500 Heating Degree Days for this location. The passive solar contribution plus the wood burned in the woodstoves contributed 74% in a “start up” year. (Note: It typically takes a year or more for the earth-coupled concrete mass to reach its’ full storage effectiveness.) The solar thermal system for domestic hot water begins to function May 1, 2005. 4.3 Cooling season 1 (April 15, 2005–October 15, 2005) Electric bills indicate an average use of 723 kWh per month for this period. Electric uses included are lighting, cooking, plug loads, well pump, and boosting the domestic water heating temperature, when needed.

282 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE 4.4 Heating season 2 (October 15, 2005–April 15, 2006) Electric bills for this period average 1572 kWh per month. Subtracting the 700 kWh per month for other uses yields 872 kWh per month for space heating. This translates into 17.9 million Btu’s for auxiliary heating for the second winter – a 51.5% reduction from the first year. This is significantly better than the first year even though the winter of 2005-06 was unusually cloudy. Consequently, it can be estimated that the solar thermal system is contributing about one half of the auxiliary heating needs after they are initially reduced by over 70% by the energy conservation measures and the passive solar system. 4.5 Full year – all systems (April 15, 2006–April 15, 2007) The 5 kW PV array was fully grid-tied on April 3, 2006. A full year of operating experience for the PV system produced 9104 kWh or almost exactly an average of 25 kW per day. The 25 kW per day quantity validates the rule-of-thumb for this climate of 5 hours of solar collection per day when averaged throughout the year. Net photovoltaic power production as monitored by the two meters yielded a net payment from the utility of $33.38 for this first full year of operation.

5

Conclusion

As architects with a strong environmental basis for our work, we were initially quite sceptical about the all-electric approach. We would have preferred to produce the backup heating without having to use any electric resistance heating, but the integrated system (passive solar + solar thermal + PV + grid electricity) does not make use of this mode very often. In a sunny climate, this is certainly a viable approach to on-site heating and power production without using any fossil fuels. And, of course, one must first incorporate appropriate energy conservation and passive solar measures. To produce an annual net zero energy balance for this system would require an addition of approximately 2.5 kW to the system capacity. This estimate is based on the on-site energy production only – not on source energy production. The owner is currently considering an addition to the system based on the charging needs of his current project; the conversion of a Porsche 914 to full electric operation.

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Hemp and lime in sustainable construction I. Pritchett & L. McCann Lime Technology, UK

Abstract Sustainability is the issue of our generation and is becoming a critical factor in the design, and construction of buildings. When hemp is mixed with lime it produces a concrete like bio-composite, with the properties of good insulation, thermal inertia, hygroscopic performance and good vapour permeability. The combining of hemp shiv with a lime based binder results in the non-structural construction material often referred to as ‘Hemcrete’. This is typically cast around a timber frame to provide an all in one wall structure. This solid, breathing wall is finished with permeable external cladding such as lime render. The physical properties of the building envelope include good insulation, high thermal inertia, air tightness and good acoustic properties. These buildings are comfortable to live in, offering warmth in the winter while remaining cool during summer. These properties provide a stable comfortable internal climate without the need for much heating or cooling. Keywords: hemp, lime, sustainability, construction.

1

Hemp and lime for sustainable construction

Over the last few years it has become increasingly important for us to consider sustainability in our building techniques. One of the key sustainability drives now focuses on the reduction of CO2 emissions in the construction and running of buildings. Studies have shown that around 100kg of CO2 is emitted in the production of each square metre of cavity walling for houses – equating to tens of tonnes for the walls of a typical house. Following the Stern Review, the government has highlighted a serious and urgent need to tackle climate change. As over 50% of the UK’s carbon dioxide emissions are a direct result from the construction and use of buildings. The construction industry must act, and will be driven to achieve the standards outlined in The Code for Sustainable Homes.

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Sustainable design principles

There is a growing appetite amongst consumers for more sustainable products and services, as such greater demand for homes offering reduced environmental impact, and reduced running. Developers will need to demonstrate and market the sustainability of their homes to homebuyers. The Code for Sustainable Homes rates the ‘whole home’ as a package. It considers sustainability principles throughout the life and use of the building, not just at the construction stage. It is beginning to be more widely understood how important it is to design and construct buildings that perform in reality rather than just on paper. In order to do this we need to understand all the properties of materials and building elements and how these relate to the real performance. There is no doubt that walls should prevent as much heat being lost as possible, and contribute to the feeling of comfort within the building. This seems to have led to a split between two main schools of thought. The first is to look at the lightweight structures that are highly insulated, possibly manufactured off-site and generally made from synthetic materials. The second school of thought is to look back at traditional structures and identify those construction methods that have worked in the past to produce comfortable houses with healthy internal environments and low energy use.

3

Lime

Lime is produced by heating calcium carbonate (limestone) in a kiln to a temperature of approx. 9000 ºC. At this temperature carbon dioxide gas is given off and the calcium carbonate is chemically changed, to form calcium oxide. Water and quicklime are combined in a process known as hydration to produce hydrated lime. These pure limes set by carbonation. This is a chemical reaction, caused by carbon dioxide from the atmosphere reacting with the lime (calcium hydroxide) to convert it back to calcium carbonate. The use of lime is certainly a major factor in the creation of sustainable buildings for the future; it enables the recycling of bricks and the widespread use of other lower energy materials. The properties of permeability and capillarity are vital when lime is used in conjunction with timber or hemp. The ability to draw moisture away from the timber/hemp and allow it to evaporate safely is essential to keeping them in good condition. If we look at historic buildings we can often see where the change from the lime based materials to modern cement based materials have caused water to be trapped leading to severe decay and loss of structural integrity.

4

Hemp and lime

Hemp used to be grown all over England because its fibre was used to make ropes and sails for the Navy as well as clothing. Hemp fibre is the strongest natural fibre known to man and is reputedly stronger, weight for weight, than steel. Hemp grows very fast, up to 4 meters high in 14 weeks and is virtually

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disease resistant. It is used in rotation with other crops and helps improve the soil. Hemcrete is a blend of prepared hemp shiv (woody core of the plant) and a lime based binder. Together these products form a bio-composite building material that can be used for the creation of buildings that have excellent thermal and acoustic properties as well as creating a healthy living and working environment. Additionally Hemcrete has the ability to make an impact on the future of sustainable building by helping to reverse the damaging effects of greenhouse gases, Hemcrete locks up approximately 110kg of CO2 per m3 of wall to provide one of the best materials for low impact construction. Recent innovation to bring binder and hemp processing to the UK enables buildings with a truly negative carbon footprint, and also reduces the damage and impact from the mineral aggregate industry.

5

Thermal performance

5.1 Conduction Heat moves by three mechanisms, conduction, convection and radiation. The U-value of materials gives a figure for the heat energy conducted through a square metre of material or building element for each degree difference in temperature on each side. To obtain the thermal conductivity of a material it is measured in a laboratory test using a hot plate. The nature of this test dries the material sample and therefore the actual performance of the material in real buildings, where a degree of moisture is always going to be present, may be very different from the test. Consequently very few buildings perform thermally as predicted at the design stage. There is no doubt that walls with the same U-values transmit heat at the same rate when they are in a steady state. However, walls in buildings are very rarely, in a steady state. Only a portion of the heat energy on one side of a wall is conducted through to the other side, the rest is stored and then released later. Materials with high heat capacity have greater its ability to store heat. This dynamic performance is very important to buildings in most climates but particularly in a temperate climate. Our weather gives temperatures that vary all the time but with an underlying diurnal cycle. It stands to reason that materials and designs that can create a stable internal temperature, despite external variations lead to buildings that require the minimum of heating or cooling. 5.2 Thermal diffusivity Thermal diffusivity indicates how rapidly heat is conducted in a material. Lightweight materials tend to have high diffusivity, which because they conduct heat quickly means that their temperature responds rapidly to that of their surroundings. Conversely, heavy-weight materials have a low diffusivity, which means they have a slow response to the surrounding temperatures, i.e. they slowly conduct heat. Despite Hemcrete being a relatively light-weight material, it has the lowest diffusivity of any common material – the same as water.

286 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE 5.3 Air tightness Significant amounts of heat are lost from buildings through air leakage. This simply means the hot air leaks through gaps and takes the heat with it, which dramatically reduces the overall thermal performance of the building. Hemcrete is a monolithic material that is inherently airtight, to create buildings with high air tightness performance. The construction concept of the solid Hemcrete walls avoids lots of complicated layers with just a simple solid cast or sprayed wall. This high level of air-tightness minimises the heat lost through air leakage and drafts. 5.4 Thermal effusivity Thermal effusivity is the heat transfer property that determines the surface temperatures when two objects at different temperatures come into contact. The thermal effusivity of Hemcrete is low, which is why it feels warm to the touch, greatly improving the thermal comfort of a building.

6

Summary

The idea of locking up CO2 within the structure of walls offers a “win-win” result. The thicker the walls, the more CO2 gets locked up and the better the thermal performance of the building will be. History shows us that buildings like this are comfortable to live in and can last for centuries. In addition using hemp in this way will help reduce the demand for aggregates and offer new opportunities to farmers. There is a real danger that, in our quest for sustainability, we will focus on reducing energy consumption and end up with lots of people living in lightweight, prefabricated, super insulated, air tight, mechanically ventilated buildings that are manufactured with high energy, unpleasant materials which make us ill. The current emphasis being placed on sustainability by the Government raises the profile of all sustainable forms of construction. Lime and hemp will certainly be used increasingly in the construction of normal domestic and commercial buildings. After all, lime has been used for virtually all new building work for thousands of years.

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Improving the content of building material courses through sustainability E. Kasapoğlu Department of Architecture, Istanbul Kultur University, Turkey

Abstract Wasting the resources of the world is one of the most important problems facing humanity at the end of the 20th century. In 1992 the UNO World Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro and the issues of sustainable development were studied thoroughly in all branches of science and technology. The architecture and construction industry has also inevitably followed this, as the building industry is a major consumer of materials and energy. The production of building materials and the use of pollutant substances are the source of pollution. As environmental labelling has an increasing popularity, today it is possible to produce building materials and raw materials through an ecological perspective. Sustainability can be defined as living in such a way to meet the needs of the present without comprising the ability of future generations to meet the needs of the future. Sustainability is both a social and environmental concept. As it considers the needs of the unborn, it is a social concept and as it addresses the effect of pollution and resource management on the ecological system of earth, it is an environmental concept. As it seeks to quantify the tolerable limits for consumption such that we can live instead of depleting the principle resources of earth, it is also an economic concept. Today it is important for an architect to be aware of sustainability. An architect should gain consciousness of sustainability during education. Although having necessary courses in the curriculum is important, reviewing existing courses through the view of sustainability is more important. In this paper a proposal of content for building material courses will be prepared. The content of building material courses will be reviewed through the view of sustainability and a new content will be presented. Keywords: building materials, sustainability, ecology, environment, education.

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1

Introduction

The architecture and construction industry undertakes one of the main roles in taking measures against wasting the resources of the world. Designing and building facilities has a direct relationship with reducing the waste of the resources of the world. During the process of designing, constructing and selection of building materials, there are also some criteria which affect the amount of energy wasted by the building in the future. A careful design and material selection is needed from the beginning to the end of the production process. In the first place, the architect needs to have the necessary environmental awareness; the gaining of this begins at school at the start of education. As there is not another world in which to live, it is important that education policies take into account the view of sustainability. In this paper, a new content for building material courses through the view of sustainability is prepared.

2

A new content for building material courses

2.1 The current content of building material courses The building materials course is in the second semester of the first year of architectural education in Istanbul Kultur University. The objective of building material courses, especially in Turkey, is providing the student with necessary information about building materials. In the beginning, information is provided to be able to understand the course, such as classification and structure of building materials; mechanical, technological, physical, thermal, acoustic and chemical properties of building materials. In the second phase, building materials such as natural stone, aggregate, binding building materials, artificial stone, ceramic, glass, metal, wood, paint and liquid covering materials, plastic, bituminous and tarred materials are presented one by one. They are introduced to the student with the help of the information given in the first phase. 2.2 A proposal of content for building material courses Although the current content gives the main information about building materials, it does not give information about their relationship with sustainability. Though the course gives the student a basic knowledge about building materials, it is far short of providing the needed criteria for choosing building materials through sustainability. Today, the world is threatened with losing energy resources. If the consumption of energy resources continues at the same speed, life will be threatened in the future. The construction industry has an important responsibility in decreasing the consumption of energy resources. Buildings use energy from the beginning to the end, for heating, illuminating, ventilating and for other purposes. An architect should have the necessary awareness of the

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environment from the process of design through to the choice of materials and construction phase. Education about the responsibility of environmental awareness begins at school, not only at university but also at primary school. It is also important for architectural departments of universities to maintain programs according to sustainable architecture. In today’s architectural education programs, sustainability is a way of approaching architecture. However, the problems facing the world today are beyond alternative architecture as the future of human beings is under the risk of disappearing. The conditions of the world enabling humanity to live are disappearing. Architectural education should be programmed with this point of view so that a student should gain awareness of the environment from the beginning of their education and should have the necessary concern during the education from design courses to technical courses. The student should gain the ability of looking through the view of sustainability from the beginning of the design. The content of all courses should be reviewed through the view of sustainability for that purpose. In this paper, the content of building material courses has been reviewed through the view of sustainability, as the careful selection of materials is an important phase for environmental friendly design. The easiest way for architects to begin incorporating sustainable design principles into buildings is the careful selection of environmentally sustainable building materials [1]. In the first phase, the content of the course should comprise some tools that will help in evaluating the material through the view of sustainability. Features of sustainable building materials are pollution prevention and waste reduction measures in manufacturing, recycled content, embodied energy reduction, use of natural materials, reduction of construction waste, local materials, energy efficiency, water treatment and conservation, use of non-toxic and less-toxic materials, renewable energy systems, longer life, reusability, recyclability and biodegradability. It is important to be aware of the principles of Life Cycle Design, which will provide important guidelines for the selection of building materials. The environmental impact of each material is examined at each step of the manufacturing process, from gathering raw materials, manufacturing, distribution and installation to ultimate reuse or disposal. The life-cycle of a material can be grouped into three phases, which are pre-building, building and post-building phases. These stages are not only parallel to the life-cycle phases of the building itself, but also allow for a cost-benefit analysis over the lifetime of a building [1]. This is not a proposal to leave aside the current content of the course. As the current information given today is also important for an architectural student, it should be supported by the view of sustainability. The student should have all the necessary information for choosing materials in construction. This will help the student strengthen the view of sustainability as a criterion. Sustainability should have a place to be perceived like the other design criteria. A view of evaluation of the materials through the view of sustainability is important. In the first phase, with mechanical, technological, physical, thermal, acoustic and

290 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE chemical properties, sustainability should have a place as another criterion. In, the second phase the building materials are introduced to the student with the help of the information given in the first phase. Natural stone, aggregate, binding building materials, artificial stone, ceramic, glass, metal, wood, paint and liquid covering materials, plastic, bituminous and tarred materials are the subjects of the second phase. The building materials should also be evaluated through the view of sustainability as a criterion. Although, like other building material properties, the title of sustainability will not have the necessary detail, the basic information for understanding the subject can be given. This will be enough for the student to evaluate sustainability as a material property, which is the main objective. In Istanbul Kultur University in the department of architecture the required course for the building material is in the second semester. It is necessary to support building material courses with the technical elective courses, of which we currently have three. Structural building materials, choosing materials in building and contemporary building materials are the current technical elective courses. Reviewing the content of the required building materials course is not enough without the support of technical courses. It is also important to review the content of all these elective courses through the view of sustainability.

3

Conclusion

In today’s environmental conditions, all architectural departments have an important role in providing future architects with a view of sustainability. As the definition of sustainability is “creating” a healthy built environment based on ecological sound principles” [2], the main role of the architect cannot be considered without the view of sustainability. Architecture is a profession performed in the environment, but the danger is not only losing the working area but also the future of human beings. Architects should do whatever they can for the environment. Governments and other facilities have some programs for the public to gain environmental awareness such as decreasing the consumption of water or electricity. Architectural education departments should have more effective responsibilities for the sake of the future of the environment, as construction has an important role in decreasing the waste of energy resources. The danger is beyond simple design considerations; it is more important to have the architects gaining the necessary environmental awareness.

References [1] Jong-Jing, K., Rigdon, B., Qualities, Use, and Examples of Sustainable Building Materials, Published by National Pollution Prevention Center for Higher Education: Michigan, 1998 [2] Kibert, J. C., Sendzimir, J., Guy, G. B., Construction Ecology, Spon Press Publications, London, 2002.

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Material libraries: promoting materiality and interdisciplinary collaboration R. Arens California Polytechnic State University at San Luis Obispo, USA

Abstract To be contemporary, buildings must employ sustainable materials and methods and synthesize them using innovation tectonic strategies. The best way to achieve this is through the intersection of analytical and design expertise that results when architects, engineers and managers work collaboratively in interdisciplinary teams. This paper outlines how a materials library was created and is being used to promote a greater awareness of materials and a heightened appreciation of collaboration between students of various disciplines. The first part of this presentation examines the rationale behind the materials library, and the second part discusses its creation by faculty at Cal Poly. Keywords: materials, education, sustainability, interdisciplinary, collaboration, database, research, curriculum.

1

Introduction

Simply put, the two issues weighing most heavily on the future of the built environment are sustainability and integrated practice. It follows then, that the education of architects, engineers, construction managers and all others involved in the creation of the built environment will have to change to make these two issues central to their curricula. Acknowledging the lengthy process of thoughtful curricular reform, this presentation looks at an effort by faculty and students at California Polytechnic State University to use materials as a platform to introduce small, but immediate measures to address these issues. Specifically, we created a new materials library intended to (1) promote an increased awareness of materials, especially in relation to sustainability, and (2) provide a setting for collaboration between students of architecture and related disciplines where a spirit of integrated practice can develop.

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Materials as an agent for curricular reform

Our decision to use materials as the change agent was inspired by a number of sources, among them the argument for an architecture of the senses articulated by Juhani Pallasmaa. In his various related essays such as “Eyes of the Skin”, “Six Themes for the Next Millennium”, and “Hapticity and Time”, Pallasmaa argues that the task of architecture “is to create embodied and lived existential metaphors that concretize and structure our being in the world”. To accomplish this, architects must resist the ocular-centric tendencies of contemporary culture and pursue what Pallasmaa refers to as “haptic architecture,” an architecture created for all five senses. “Our culture of control and speed has favored an architecture of the eye, with its instantaneous imagery and distant impact,” Pallasmaa writes, “As buildings lose their plasticity and their connection with the language and wisdom of the body, they become isolated in the cool and distant realm of vision. The detachment of construction from the realities of matter and craft further turns architecture into stage sets for the eye, and into a scenography devoid of the authenticity of matter and construction.” [1] “Every significant experience of architecture is multi-sensory; qualities of matter, space and scale are measure by the eye, ear, nose, skin, tongue, skeleton and muscle.” Pallasmaa continues: “ Haptic architecture promotes slowness and intimacy, appreciated and comprehended gradually as images of the body and the skin. The architecture of the eye detaches and controls, whereas haptic architecture engages and unites.” [2] 2.1 Materials and the environment While its imperative that designers be aware of the tactile qualities of architecture, they must also be cognizant of the social and environmental impacts of building materials. This is no easy task, since its estimated that a greater number of new materials and products have been developed in the last twenty years than in the entire prior history of materials science. In Material Architecture, John Fernandez underscores the heightened relationship between building materials and the environment. He writes, “Today, improving the environment requires a reconsideration of the contribution of materials in the process. One such issue is the relationship between the production and consumption of materials and the service lifetime of buildings. Yet, buildings constitute an enormous store of materials used in construction— primarily due to their long lives. Understanding and designing within an organized ecology of the built environment, and not just for a single project’s needs, requires more information about the material flows for construction. Therefore, the ecology of the built environment becomes one aspect of the study of materials for buildings”. [3] Not only is the scope of this task, that is understanding materials in holistic terms, extremely daunting, its also a task that is constantly changing as materials both enter the market or become obsolete. It’s clear to us that the focus can’t be

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on specific materials, but rather be on a methodology that can be used by students throughout their careers to research and evaluated materials. 2.2 Materials as a form of research We are also inspired by architects and engineers who view research into new materials as an opportunity rather than a burden, and who are not only comfortable with advances in technology and materials, but who see this research as an integral component of the design process. Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron focus much of their creative energy on the use of innovative materials. Herzog has written, “We look for materials that are as intelligent, as virtuoso, as complex as natural phenomena, materials that not only tickle the retina of the astonished art critic, but that are really efficient and appeal to all of our senses.” [4] On this last point, Herzog echoes Pallasmaa and his argument for a haptic architecture. Herzog continues: “Our work has always been conceived to appeal to all five senses, consciously involving also tactile issues and even smell. This clearly demonstrates that we believe in an architecture that stresses its material and physical conditions to perform successfully, in conscious contrast to an architecture based on illustration and imagery.” [5] The interest in materiality by these architects and others is in part propelled by two trends: the appropriation of materials developed for other fields by architecture, and a growing concern for resource management and material ecology. To engage these trends, designers must work with a steady hand and a willingness to research the intersection of new materials and their effective, sustainable incorporation into built works. 2.3 The verge of integrated practice The future of architecture is currently being shaped not only by Herzog and de Meuron, but also by practices such as KieranTimberlake, Gehry and Associates, Morphosis and others who are developing new modes of design and production while engaging materials in unprecedented ways. Not only do buildings by these architects look different, they are different. The new modes used to produce them employ a more synthetic work and information flow between interdisciplinary team members. Although relationships between architects, engineers, contractors, fabricators and material scientists have always been implicit in the architectural process, these relationships are becoming much more direct with less division of labor between disciplines. About the process used for the Federal Building in San Francisco Thom Mayne of Morphosis observes, “We did no two-dimensional drawings for this project. Three-dimensional models provided continuity from the initial concept to construction documents. The design model connects directly with the Permasteelisa Group, which continued through the design process, blurring the line between the architect and the sub-contractor. The model feeds directly into prototyping; and finally, into the fabrication and assembly of the construction. This environment is no longer linear. It allows us to continually move back and

294 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE forth between micro and macro.” [6] To hear Mayne tell it, the future is here and it is both demanding and liberating. He writes, “The tools we now utilize simplify potentialities and make them logical, allowing us to produce spaces that even ten year ago would have been difficult to conceive, much less build. Our conceptual thinking is increasingly embedding tectonic, constructional, and material design parameters.” [7]

3

Creating an active, interdisciplinary materials library

The question is not whether architectural education has a responsibility to respond to these changes in the profession, the vexing question is how. A compelling argument can be made that a complete and radical rethinking of architectural education is necessary. Daniel Friedman makes such an argument when he asks, “What would happen if each architecture school dismantled not just its current curriculum, but also its entire instructional apparatus? What would happen if schools acknowledged design as an epistemology more so that a skill; reoriented the development of individual expertise to the ethos of the team; and elevated building technology, engineering, construction economics, and professional practice to the same cultural status as visual composition?” [8] Recognizing both the validity of Friedman’s questions and the overwhelming scope of a complete reformulation of architectural education, the Department of Architecture at Cal Poly looked at its program and formulated some more modest questions: How can we create an environment that encourages the ethics of sustainability and inculcates a spirit of collaboration between disciplines? What other types of active learning spaces, besides the studio environment, can inspire the engagement of materials to a higher degree and generate research into materiality? 3.1 The materials library at Cal Poly The Architecture Department at Cal Poly is fortunate in that it belongs to a College that includes most of the disciplines mentioned by Thom Mayne and Jacques Herzog. Along with architecture, the College includes architectural engineering, construction management, landscape architecture and city planning. Although the inclusion of all the design and construction disciplines in one college is beginning to translate into interdisciplinary efforts, departments still suffer from insularity. In Materials for Design, Mike Ashby and Kara Johnson observe that, “Bridging the gap in information and methods is not simple. The technical terms used by engineers are not the normal language of designers –indeed they may find them meaningless. Designers, on the other hand, express their ideas and describe materials in ways that to the engineer sometimes seem bewilderingly vague and qualitative. The first step in bridging the gap is to explore how each group ‘uses’ materials and the nature of the information about materials that each requires. The second is to explore methods, and, ultimately design tools that weave the two strands of thinking into an integrated fabric”. [9]

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In 2007, we initiated a materials library that we believe has the potential to become a setting for information gathering and innovation, the measures suggested by Ashby and Johnson as necessary to bridge the gap between designers and engineers. The Library is loosely modeled on the Materials ConneXion, the largest global resource of new materials, which provided us with a viable construct to use as a point of departure. [10] 3.2 The physical component of the library When setting out to create the materials library, we made the physical collection of materials our highest priority so as to encourage our students’ appreciation and awareness of materiality. The collections area is a work in progress. Currently we hold about 400 samples with plans to expand these holdings to 2000. Since it is impossible to have a physical sample of every material, the emphasis of the collection is on new materials, green materials and smart materials. We encourage students to browse the collection, touch and smell the samples, feel their weight and tactility; in other words, consider the haptic possibilities that open up when a designer or engineer engages a material for the first (or fiftieth) time. A browsing collection offers serendipity: students may begin by looking for a specific material but leave the Library with two or three other materials in hand for future projects. The meeting area is an active learning space for groups and individuals to meet and examine materials. This is considered the ‘think tank” component of the space, and it is designed to be flexible enough for individual research, class meetings and presentations by manufacturers. Also included in this area is an exhibition area. Here, exhibits of all types can be created: materials can be pulled from the collection and given special prominence, juxtapositions can be created across materials classifications, and new materials or products can be highlighted. This area, like the active learning area, was designed to be flexible in anticipation of exhibits we’ve yet to imagine. 3.3 The digital component of the library Materials are physical and cultural artifacts that are loaded with information of many types, some understandable through empirical means and others only through intellectual engagement. To help students understand a material’s origin, means of production, performance, etc. a searchable database was created as a complement to the physical collection. Data entries were created for each material sample in the collection, and this information is linked back to the physical sample with a barcode. The database serves the purpose of facilitating the checkout and inventory of samples, but more importantly it interfaces with two important stages of student design projects: in the early stage of a project students use the database to browse broad ranges of materials; in later stages of design projects, students use the database to access performance characteristics of the materials they’ve selected. In both of these scenarios, the database is meant to interface with the physical collection as students move back and forth between the two different, but related

296 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE learning experiences. The database allows materials in the collection to be searched and studied from any computer, thus supplementing the hand-on experience of physical samples with information that allows the student to understand the place of a particular material in the large context of an increasingly complex material culture. In the future when Building Information Models are more widely used by students, the database will provide an important linkable resource.

4

Conclusion

Although the necessity to reformulate architectural education in response to the ecological and technological changes that are transforming practice is pressing, thoughtful curricular reform will likely take years. While larger curricular discussions occur at Cal Poly, we saw an opportunity to create a learning space for use by all disciplines in the college, that would not only encourage increased awareness of new materials, but also promote interdisciplinary exchange between students of architecture, engineering, construction management and landscape architecture. Although currently in its infancy, the materials library, with it physical and digital components, is positioned to promote a culture of materiality and interdisciplinary cooperation, harbingers of future curricular reform.

References [1] Pallasmaa, J., The Eyes of the Skin, John Wiley and Sons: West Sussex, p. 31, 2005. [2] Pallasmaa, J., The Eyes of the Skin, John Wiley and Sons: West Sussex, p. 41, 2005. [3] Fernandez, J., Material Architecture, Architectural Press: Oxford, p. 6, 2006. [4] Herzog, J., Pritzker Architecture Prize, Jensen and Walker: Los Angeles, p. 24, 2001. [5] Herzog, J., Immaterial/Ultramaterial, ed. Toshiko Mori, George Braziller: New York, p. 81, 2002. [6] Mayne, T., Change or Perish. Report on Integrated Practice, American Institute of Architects: Washington, DC, p. 3, 2006. [7] Ibid. [8] Friedman, D., Architectural Education and Practice on the Verge, Report on Integrated Practice, American Institute of Architects: Washington, DC, p. 6, 2006. [9] Ashby, M., & Johnson, K., Materials and Design, Elsevier ButterworthHeinemann: Oxford: p. 3, 2002. [10] Beylerian, G., Dent, A. & Moryadas, A., Material ConneXion, John Wiley and Sons: New York, 2005.

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Assessing buildings with green credentials M. Fuentes, M. Kessler & F. Nicol Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK

Abstract The European Project, Sustainable Architecture Applied to Replicable PublicAccess Buildings (SARA), comprises the demonstration of sustainable and replicable public-access buildings in different climate zones in Europe. In the UK the chosen project was a new building at Southampton University. This building is a new three storey high block linked to the old administrative block by an atrium. Oxford Brookes University carried out an assessment of the building using a holistic approach informed by experience of research in Thermal Comfort and Post-Occupancy Evaluation (POE) of buildings. The surveys were carried out one year after completion of the building work. Findings include a general high level of acceptance of the building, with good productivity feedback, but some areas were identified where development could increase the well being of the staff and result in better use of resources. Information, discussion and participation should help the fine-tuning of the building and capacity building of all teams involved. This could mean an important step forward in the process of designing and using buildings fitting for the new millennium. This paper discusses methodology, results and the implications for teaching sustainable architecture. Keywords: post occupancy evaluation, thermal comfort, adaptive opportunities.

1

Introduction

The European project Sustainable Architecture Applied to Replicable PublicAccess Buildings (SARA) [1], involves the assessment of sustainable and replicable public-access buildings in different climatic zones within the continent. In the UK, the chosen project concerned the new Administration and Student Services Building (ASSB) in Southampton University. With 2500 m2 gross area, this new department building, located on the existing campus site, comprises a new 3-storey block linked to the old administration block by an

298 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE atrium. The ASSB was finished in the spring of 2006, and the staff has been asked to comment on its performance over the first occupied summer and winter.

2 Methodology Technically, POE studies of buildings involve systematic collection and evaluation of information about both the physical performance of, and the occupants’ subjective responses to, the building in use. Data collected can include measured information such as energy consumption, temperatures, lighting levels, acoustic performance etc., and survey data from the perspective of the occupants regarding issues such as comfort, aesthetics, occupant satisfaction, management, etc. [2] The POE is concerned with the performance of the building (‘the building is often hot in summer’). The ‘function’ of the occupant in the POE is to provide a subjective measure of a building and act as its ‘memory’. The POE survey gives relatively little emphasis to measuring the physical characteristics of the environment (temperature etc) at the time of the evaluation Considering the dynamic nature of thermal comfort, the occupants will search for comfort within the possibilities to adapt that the building provides, hence its success is related to its adaptive opportunities. [3, 4] In our research, along with the questionnaires, we collected data and information from the building’s BMS together with our own measurements and observation.

Figure 1:

3

Measurements were made of temperatures and occupant responses. The atrium linking the buildings.

Summer 2006

After a very hot spell we set our survey and had to measure temperatures and different data on the spot without the help of the building’s monitoring system available on line later that year. When comparison was made between the two different sides of the old building, the north-eastern side open to the exterior and the linked to the atrium

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south-western, it was found that there is a perception of less control among staff in offices adjacent to the new building. Those findings are similar to those presented in the CIBSE National Conference in 2006 [5]. Most of the offices at the atrium side have lost their direct connection with the outdoor environment resulting in changes in their internal environment, and in levels of noise, ventilation and natural light, hence adaptive opportunities Most of the occupants of these offices had to endure the process of construction lasting several months. On the western side where lower sun angles often meant that louvers were down and the lights were on for most of the day. In the new building where the artificial light is managed by sensors, occupants do not feel in control. The week in the Summer 2006 when the monitoring took place was not an especially hot one (Figure 1), but the questionnaire and readings were taken just after an early heat wave and it was noticed that all desks had an extra fan. Because of much higher temperatures during August, air-conditioning units were placed at an internal office at the old building side and waste air from these dumped at the atrium.

4

Winter 2006

Occupants perception of control in the old building during the winter were similar those for the hot season, but comparison of the two sides of the building suggested that the differences were smaller. According to monitored data, temperatures are very similar in the three floors of the new extension, but despite this, the fourth floor: its southern side, farthest from the atrium, shows the lowest levels of satisfaction.

Figure 2:

Lack of control on the 4th floor, faraway from the atrium.

300 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE Our research also suggests areas for improvement such as direct access to daylight and ventilation for the upper floor, re-design of western windows and more control over different aspects of environment. Overall comments from staff show a good acceptance of the new building. Occupants appreciate the design and express tolerance of the open-plan offices layout: “it is difficult to please everybody…”

5

Conclusions

The above work, carried out by Oxford Brookes University, is linked to the University’s research informing teaching policy, especially in the area of sustainable architecture (MSc. EESB). The importance of designing for extremes of weather and the need to minimise energy consumption demands a deeper understanding of the context where the building will perform – physically and socially. Analysing buildings with green credentials represents a unique opportunity to discuss the dynamics of thermal comfort. Case studies are powerful educational tools, not just for architectural students but also to prepare the new teams responsible for the building performance, from design to management, setting guidelines for occupants as focus moves from the: ‘what can the build do for me?’ and blame the management, to the new active approach: ‘how can I control my environment, feel more comfortable and help the building perform?’ New concepts such as the adaptive approach to thermal comfort and sustainability, cannot develop without inter-disciplinarily work. That is our position as analysts as well as educators, in our masters programme we have students from all over the world and from different backgrounds.

References [1] Homepage for Sustainable Architecture Applied to Replicable Public-Access Buildings (SARA) project. www.sara-project.net. [2] Gupta, R. (2006) Learning by doing: a post-occupancy building evaluation module for postgraduate architecture students. Proceedings of Solar 2006 Congress, 8-13 July 2006, Denver, USA. [3] Nicol, F. (2004) Closing the loop Seminar presentation at Oxford Brookes University. [4] Nicol, J. F. and Kessler, M.R.B. (1998) Perception of Comfort in Relation to Weather and Indoor Adaptive Opportunities. ASHRAE Transactions vol. 104, also in ASHRAE Technical Data Bulletin Vol. 14, Geschwiler M. et al., Atlanta, USA. [5] Dr. AbuBakr S. Bahaj, A Climate Envelope Extension of an Office Building, Perception and Reality of the Change in Environmental Condition; Paper presented at the CIBSE National Conference 2006 – Engineering the future, 21–22 March, UK.

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New materials and design strategies for sustainable buildings J. D. Deshpande Chairperson, Board of Studies in Architecture, University of Pune, India

Abstract A green building is often described as one that minimizes its negative impact on the fragile environment. Practical solutions given against traditional patterns of social and economic development circumvent set parameters to improve the quality of the surroundings, produce surplus power and food, and convert waste into nutrients and useful products. Traditional architecture has been constantly innovative, so that structures have presented a series of logical solutions to the problems of the climatic conditions, while attempting to enhance human comfort and productivity. This paper reviews the acknowledged concept of sustainability and examines the ecological impact of buildings designed to meet the needs of an affluent society in an era of rapid urbanization. The paper also looks at the mode of designing buildings with an integrated approach which simultaneously incorporates climate responsive design strategies using eco-friendly materials to create ‘Sustainable’ buildings that enhance users’ comfort. It explores the materials and methods of construction adapted to the context of Indian cultural concepts and seeks to establish a relationship between the sustainable design of buildings and traditional techniques of construction using new materials. Keywords: sustainability, ecological impact, eco-friendly materials, climate responsive strategies, construction techniques.

1

Introduction

The daily headlines scream of the looming energy and water crisis. The lifestyle, attitude and demands of the urban population indicate a voracious appetite for

302 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE material affluence, which is directly proportional to dependency on existing energy resources. Accelerated urbanization, supplementary spending power and a desire for an improved life style demand buildings, which are increasingly complex and insensitive to the context of contemporary environmental concerns. At this stage it may be appropriate to examine the meaning of the term ‘sustainable development’. There are various definitions in use but it is difficult to put a precise meaning to the term. Development is about improving the wellbeing of people, raising living standards and increasing facilities whereas the closest explanation of the term sustainable would probably be ‘long lasting’. Today, it appears that development is proving detrimental to sustainability.

2

Impact of built structures on ecology

Buildings are integrated systems that continuously interact with their surroundings. Designers, in an effort to meet the growing demands of lighting, ventilating, cooling and heating are regularly providing solutions that are energy intensive and inflict tremendous pressure on the rapidly diminishing energy resources. Excessive consumption of land, water and energy resources during the construction of buildings and their life span is having a negative impact on the fragile ecosystems leading to environmental degradation. Spiralling energy prices too accentuate the significance of resource conservation. In the present scenario, the energy and water crises would continue to worsen, and so will the associated negative impacts of pollution and environmental degradation, unless urgent steps are taken to control unsustainable design practices.

3 Integrated approach to building design Sustainable building practices seek to reduce and decelerate the depletion of natural resources of energy, water and ground cover and promote the process of eco-friendly habitat. Intelligent architectural design can enhance building performance. An integrated approach to design incorporating bio-climatic architectural design principles, responsive to the climate of that region goes a long way towards minimizing the load on conventional heating, cooling, ventilating and lighting systems. ‘Sustainable’ buildings so designed, minimize the negative impacts on our fragile environment while enhancing users’ comfort and productivity. The process of sustainable building design needs to be addressed right from the schematic design stage using scientific methods of: • Analysis: to understand the problem and its context, characterize important requirements and establish their relative priorities. • Application: to formulate and apply climate responsive design strategies which simultaneously establish relationships between architectural form, space and energy consumption. • Evaluation: to evaluate the performance of the building. The overall energy performance of buildings can be substantially enhanced by adopting sustainable principles promoting the use of efficient design strategies,

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renewable energy systems, and environmentally friendly materials and technologies. 3.1 Efficient design strategies A study of the macro and micro-climate of the site will help in evolving passive design strategies that dramatically affect energy performance. Astute application of design principles for orientation, building envelope, design of fenestration and shading devices, building form and shape, surface-volume ratio, passive solar design, conducive to the availability of natural lighting and ventilation will help in minimizing energy loads. Orientation of the building with respect to the wind and solar radiation is a major consideration and can govern the choice of shading and ventilating devices to achieve optimum ventilating conditions. The building envelope is a major promoter of energy consumption. Judicious handling of the components of the building envelope with stress on location, sizing and detailing of openings will optimize heat gain or loss, minimizing reliance on conventional heating and lighting systems. A compact built form with optimum surface-volume ratio controls heat transfer while a shallow form would reduce the load on lighting requirements. In certain climatic conditions, advanced concepts of passive heating like use of direct or indirect gain systems, sunspaces or passive cooling concepts like evaporative cooling, wind tower, earth air tunnel etc. may have to be considered to lower operating costs. The landscaping character can greatly alter the microclimate of the place and serve to reduce direct sun striking and subsequent heat build-up. Appropriate treatment of landscaping elements, vegetation and water bodies can decrease temperatures by evaporative cooling, create advantageous air-flow patterns resulting in desirable ventilation. Use of solar energy for water heating, wind energy for electricity, water conservation, rain water harvesting for ground water recharge, solid waste management can further contribute to the aim of reducing the strain on conventional energy sources. 3.2 Environmentally friendly building materials and technologies Traditionally man has depended heavily on nature to provide the basic materials for the construction of his dwellings. Over the years, innovations and developments in tools and techniques of construction have provided the impetus to create new materials with desired properties. Environmentally friendly materials demonstrate one or more of the characteristics like renewable source, high reused or recycled content, low level of emissions, smaller toxicity content, durability, longevity and local production. The judicious choice of building materials can be made by evaluating several characteristics on a comparative scale. An understanding of the lifespan of a material, the energy input and waste output at each stage can form the base analysis in the selection process. Use of low-energy materials contributes significantly to materials efficiency.

304 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE There is a need today, for developing cost-effective, sustainable, building technologies using locally available materials that are strong and durable yet aesthetic. To name a few, Ferro Crete substituting steel with wire mesh and eliminating aggregates, bamboo reinforced concrete components, terrazzo flooring using waste chips of broken tiles, stones and ceramic articles, interlocking porous concrete paving blocks, bricks manufactured using industrial waste fly ash and pulverized debris and many more.

4

Conclusion

Climate responsive design strategies using eco-friendly materials can become the means to create ‘Sustainable’ buildings. Although a range of environment friendly materials is available in the market, efforts at innovation, seeking to provide logical solutions to the problems of the climatic conditions, in order to enhance human comfort and productivity should be promoted. Generating awareness in the masses, acknowledging efforts of individuals, encouragement to industrial units by way of incentives from local bodies, and educating clients and builders in areas of sustainable practices can go a long way to help protect the environment.

Forum 9 Virtual Building and Generative Design

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Integrating energy simulation applications and building information modelling in the design studio U. Poerschke1 & L. N. Kalisperis1,2 1 2

The Pennsylvania State University, USA The Cyprus Institute, Cyprus

Abstract This paper presents an overview of a research project undertaken in several undergraduate and graduate design studios. It investigates the integration of energy simulation applications and Building Information Modelling (BIM) in the schematic phase of the design process. It was instigated by two hypotheses: first, while analysis tools have been so specialized, time-consuming and visually/graphically ineffective/unattractive that architects have not used them, the simplification and enhanced visualization of such analysis tools could allow information such as energy performance data to be used routinely within the early phases of design; second, that BIM could support architects to easily integrate analysis tools and processes that are normally outsourced to consultants. The project reviews different energy analysis packages in combination with a BIM tool in varied studio and seminar settings. The paper presents reflections on the analysis tools’ applicability during the early design stages and their effectiveness in supporting linking of the technical, aesthetic and social approaches of environmentally responsible design in order to achieve an architecture in which the environmentally sensible elements become meaningful parts of an architectural whole, rather than additive pieces. Keywords: BIM, energy simulation, schematic design, design studio.

1

The studio and seminar settings

At the Pennsylvania State University’s Department of Architecture, the integration of energy and environment simulation applications and Building Information Modelling (BIM) has been investigated in different studio and

308 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE seminar settings. In the first setting of a graduate architecture studio, the students designed a mixed-used building in Kolkata, India, utilizing the BIM application Revit Architecture and the energy applications Ecotect, IES , and GBS. Since Revit cooperates with IES and GBS their interoperability was further investigated (Fig.1).

Figure 1:

Penn State, Kaustav Gupta, mixed-used building in Kolkata, India.

Figure 2:

Penn State, Nicholas Chelko, community centre in Mumbai, India.

In a second setting, fifth-year undergraduate architecture students were introduced to small programs that can be downloaded from or directly used in the Internet. Preference was given to those applications that visualize the information rather than provide text based representations. Students generated sun and wind visualizations for their designs, looked into programs that provide principal design recommendations for specific design locations, and tested a simple daylight program (Climate Consultant, Dfcalc, Sun Path Chart Univ. Oregon, WRPLOT View, i.a.). In addition, Ecotect’s solar and wind analysis tools were used. Subsequently, the students visually superimposed the resultant

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representations with their design drawings in order to generate from these visualizations further ideas and improvements for their designs (Fig.2). In a third setting, a two-day workshop for fifth-year undergraduate students of architecture was conducted in which the use of Revit, IES and 3ds Max was taught with a particular emphasis on the workflow between the different programs. After the workshop, the students were asked to utilize the programs in their design work in a two-week assignment (Fig.3).

Figure 3:

2

Penn State, Katherine Kincel, exhibition space in Scranton, PA.

The effect of energy simulation applications in cooperation with BIM in the schematic design process

Environmental issues such as site and climate conditions, daylighting, natural ventilation, material choices, technical systems etc. have different places within the schematic design stage. Site and climate analysis stand at the very beginning of a design, followed by daylighting, natural ventilation concepts and material choices that can be viewed as a conclusion of the study of the first. From there, technical systems can be integrated in close relation. Since all of these issues need different energy and environmental simulation tools it can be concluded that for their further evaluation an additional partitioning of the schematic phase into smaller steps is necessary. Setting 2 explored the earliest design steps with basic analysis programs, or used a program’s basic climate components (as in the case of Ecotect). The challenge was to make the students use the results as idea givers for the design, which was successfully achieved through the direct visual superimposing of the output with the design drawings. Simulation tools like Climate Consultant propose energy conscious features based on the given global location. The exact percentage ratio in which these features are provided seemed inappropriate for the early design stage, however they could serve as idea givers as well. In setting 1 and 3, students performed daylight factor and energy consumption analyses. In particular the daylighting analyses provided the impetus to modify façade layout and fenestration. While the daylighting studies helped to further articulate the

310 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE façade, the energy consumption analyses did not lead to design changes. Although the dependence of the building’s orientation and energy consumption became evident, other parameters in the design, for example the urban context, weighted higher so the design was not changed to that effect. Moreover, detailed material issues like insulation thickness etc. were not studied during this stage. Related to the schematic design phase’s varied steps, the expected goals of energy simulation also need clear definition. For example, the second setting was the most successful as far as effective site/program analysis and principal idea generation was concerned. Setting 3 was the most powerful for the generation of more detailed ideas such as shading devices. The interoperability of BIM and energy simulation tools were perceived as highly desirable since additional 3Dmodelling in different programs can be reduced. Representation and intermediation in relation to a client was successful in all three settings.

3

General conclusions

Harputhugil et al. state that energy simulation programs deal “with better support for decision-making and optimisation in building design“ [1]. Clarke 2001 states that simulation gives “practitioners the ability to appreciate the underlying behaviour of a system and, thereby, to take judicious steps to improve performance across the range of relevant criteria”. Simulation, per Clarke, “will give rise to a cheaper, better and quicker design process” [2]. These statements are only partially applicable to the early design stage. In the described settings, the findings from the programs were never sufficient for decision-making, and the optimization process competed with the necessary openness and ambiguity of the early design stage. Since architectural design is not the application of discrete knowledge bases, but the integration of cumulative sequences of knowledge into a design including social, programmatic, technical and aesthetical issues, design decisions can be the easier based on “judicious steps” the more parameters are already fixed and thus the less complex a decision becomes. In respect to environmentally conscious design, the architect’s necessary knowledge and the complexity and duration of this design phase will increase. The experimental participative integration of energy simulation in the design studio suggests that energy simulation tools will serve architects better as idea givers and representation tools than as decision and optimization tools in the schematic phase of the design process. Instead of imitating the engineers’ work, architects could use these tools imaginatively and exploit the persuasiveness of energy software visualizations in relation to their clients.

References [1] Harputlugil, G. U., Hopfe Ch. J., et al., Relation between Design Requirements and Building Performance Simulation, Proceedings “Built Environment and Information Technologies,” Ankara 2006, p.460. [2] Clarke, J.A., Energy Simulation in Building Design, Second Edition, Butterworth/Heinemann, Oxford 2001, p.ix.

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Real-time simultaneous collaboration in the BIM repository K. E. Hedges University of Wyoming, USA

Abstract This paper explores how collaboration inside the Building Information Modeling (BIM) repository cultivates team learning environments for engineering students. The National BIM Standard Project Committee defines BIM as “a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility. A BIM is a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a reliable basis for decisions during its life-cycle”. A qualitative study in the participant observation tradition was conducted and unobtrusive artifacts such as drawings, informal interviews, surveys, participant journaling and dialogues, and raw field notes were evaluated to probe inside this shared knowledge resource. The setting is a series of introductory architectural design studios at the University of Wyoming, USA. The results illustrate that inside the BIM repository a real-time simultaneous collaboration emerges as a new learning environment. The students experience a sophisticated concept development (SCD) that extends beyond the previously documented rapid concept development. The SCD encourages the students to pursue more complex design alternatives. The advantages and disadvantages of real-time simultaneous collaboration establish the need for ‘best practice’ hallmarks in the area of disciplinary team learning. Keywords: architecture education, engineering education, building information modeling, BIM, sophisticated concept development, SCD, pedagogy, design.

1

Introduction

This qualitative study investigates the intervention of Building Information Modeling (BIM) on a series of introductory design studios in an architectural engineering (AE) program at the University of Wyoming, USA. The primary

312 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE purpose is to better understand how a shared knowledge resource may influence team learning. The paper addresses persons interested in the pedagogy of BIM. The USA engineering accreditation board, ABET [1], identifies the rationale for architectural design where graduates have an “understanding of an architectural design . . . that will permit communication, and interaction, with other design professionals in the execution of building projects”. The construction industry is shifting away from the traditional abstraction techniques of computer-aided drafting towards digital representational environments as a means of design communications (Hedges [2]). The UW studio instructors anticipated this industry shift and incrementally implemented BIM after a careful evaluation of feedback from diverse constituent groups (Hedges and Denzer [3]). During implementation, a qualitative study was conducted on the intervention of BIM in the introductory architectural design studios. The study was performed in the participant observation tradition to construct a portrait of the students’ learning experiences. Inductive and interpretive procedures were used to evaluate unobtrusive artifacts such as drawings, informal interviews, surveys, participant journaling and dialogues, and raw field notes.

2

Findings

The design studios utilized the BIM repository as a means of digitally storing and communicating student design ideas. The student teams developed their own collaborative models. The student team members worked simultaneously inside the BIM domain where issues emerged as it happened in real-time. One representative project was the 2006-2007 ACSA / AISC (Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture / American Institute of Steel Construction) Student Design Competition for the 75,000 ft2 (7,000 m2) Museum of Steel. Figure 1 illustrates one four-member team’s design concept of sculpted organic contours in a non-orthogonal, free-form-building design. The team commented that “BIM has allowed [us] to create a very complex design that would not have been possible in a program such as AutoCAD [non-BIM application].” This signifies that a potential relationship between BIM and conceptual complexity may exist via an accelerated design timeline (Hedges and Denzer [4]).

Figure 1:

Renderings from students without design or BIM experience.

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2.1 The BIM repository The National BIM Standard Project Committee [5] defines BIM as “a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility. A BIM is a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a reliable basis for decisions during its life-cycle”. Within the representational domain, each component has individual properties, characteristics, and relationships with other components where parametric modeling may be used to simulate the functional conditions. The shared knowledge resource acknowledges that the project stakeholders may longitudinally access the BIM repository. 2.2 Collaborative models The students worked jointly on the projects since the program scopes were of significant magnitude that no single student could complete a project. The ‘collaborative models’ had two distinct types: hierarchal and cooperative. In the hierarchal type, one team member was elected into a leadership position. In the cooperative type, the students managed the projects sans a team leader. Each student’s role was defined based on their area of interest or expertise. The areas emerged as discipline specific (architecture, structural engineering, etc.), design principles (form and function), and programmatic responses (lobby, auditorium, exhibition hall, etc.). Although the aforementioned models occurred in the representational environments, comparable collaborations emerged in abstract environments (Hedges and Denzer [6]). 2.3 Simultaneous collaboration In traditional abstract environments, simultaneous collaboration transpired as the students performed their roles or activities at the same time. A distinction was made in representational environments, where a shared knowledge resource facilitated these roles with digital restraints or individual ‘worksets’ to partition team member activities without imposing upon or affecting other worksets. This segregation is analogous to the theory of simultaneous equations where two or more equations are satisfied by the same set of values or variables. In essence, each student’s role is one linear equation that includes variables for disciplines, design principles, and programmatic responses. Therefore, in the representational environments, ‘simultaneous collaboration’ is symbolized by the composition of several linear equations. This analogy illustrates the potential restrictive nature of students becoming too contained in their roles and areas of interest. 2.4 Real-time conditions The students uploaded their linear contributions to a shared ‘design central’ file. Design central is the information repository, or distribution center, where the students downloaded their teammates’ work for ‘live’ updates. The simultaneous equations were analyzed by a computer, as it happened, establishing ‘real-time conditions’ where a new form of rapid concept development (RCD) emerged.

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Discussion

Real-time simultaneous collaboration is a new team learning environment in the architectural design studio. One primary advantage is the accelerated design timeline where students individually experienced an RCD. Past research has noted that earlier versions of parametric modeling, ACSYNT (AirCraft SYNThesis), offered the single user a similar RCD event (Malone and Myklebust [7]). Collectively, the teams underwent an advanced sophisticated concept development (SCD) based upon the live computer analysis. The collective nature of the SCD allowed for investigations into more complex form and space design alternatives as evidenced by the student outcomes over a threeyear period before and after implementation. One significant disadvantage is that the shift from RCD to SCD magnifies any RCD deficiencies. Hedges [8] identified the risk of an immaterial imagination brought about by the reliance on BIM’s palette of material choices. When the collective SCD takes place, the partitioning of roles may amplify these individual learning inhibitions and discourage materials and assembly systems exploration. Best practice hallmarks should balance the advantages and disadvantages. In academic settings, students may acquire a greater breadth of knowledge by passing through a series of disciplinary stages prior to entering into simultaneous collaborations. The initial stage would be monodisciplinary activities that build into multidisciplinary team frameworks. For further breadth, the students may rotate their roles (equations) or areas of interest or expertise (variables). If instructors seek a concentration of knowledge, rotations are not necessary.

References [1] ABET, Criteria for accrediting engineering programs, ABET, Inc., 6, 2007. [2] Hedges, K. E. How the impact of building information modeling (BIM) on the cognitive paradigm may influence the future of architectural education, Fresh Air: 2007 ACSA Annual Meeting, 461–469, 2007. [3] Hedges, K. E. & Denzer, A. S. From integrated practice to integrated academics: BIM in the classroom, DCA 20th Anniversary Conference Proceedings, 135–146, 2007. [4] Hedges, K. E. & Denzer, A. S. Conceptual complexity: How BIM shapes the introductory studio, Shell and Spatial Structures: Structural Architecture – Towards the Future Looking to the Past, 2007. [5] NBIMS Project Committee, Frequently asked questions about the NBIMS, accessed on-line December 9, 2007. [6] Hedges, K. E. & Denzer, A. S. How a collaborative architecture influences structural engineering education, 2008 Structures Congress, 2008. [7] Malone, B. & Myklebust A. ACSYNT: Commercialization success. 1996 World Aviation Congress, 1996. [8] Hedges, K. E. Immaterial imagination: How building information modeling influences material choices. Summer Institute for Architecture Journal, 3, 49–55, 2006.

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Biomimetic architecture in a climate of change S. Altomonte School of the Built Environment, University of Nottingham, UK

Abstract Evidence suggests that climate change is already with us and its effects will have dramatic consequences on many aspects of human activities. The knowledge gap that exists with respect to how buildings and their occupants can mitigate their impacts on the environment and adapt to new climate scenarios must be filled, involving integrated design, technical progress and multidisciplinary research. The need to fill this gap is imperative today not only to define methodologies for the design and construction of new buildings, but also to inform the retrofitting and/or conversion of built structures that are already part of the existing stock. Examining the interactions between human systems and environmental forces, the paper envisages the involvement in architecture of advanced design methods, technologies and tools developed learning from Nature rather than merely extracting from it, an approach to innovation that can produce more advanced forms of building ‘life’ able to adjust to the evident shift in the climatic equilibrium of the planet, while also ensuring our long-term sustainability within the context of the fragile ecosystem that houses and sustains us. Biomimicry of adaptive natural systems – structurally and behaviourally – can lead the path towards a substantial evolution in the way we design and inhabit buildings, maintaining human activities in connection with the dynamic cycles of Nature. Keywords: climate change, sustainability, mitigation, adaptation, biomimicry.

1

A climate of change

Climate change has been widely accepted as a reality of our times, although uncertainties remain on whether it is solely driven by human activities or rather also influenced by natural processes in a sequence of alterations occurred over the paleoclimatic record. The IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report states that “the observed widespread warming of the atmosphere and the oceans, together with ice mass lost, support the conclusion that is extremely unlikely that climate

316 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE change of the past 50 years can be explained without external [human] forcing, and very likely that it is not due to known natural causes alone” (IPCC [1]). Consequences of climate change will vary regionally, but a global synthesis of data reveals that anthropogenic warming has already had a discernible influence on many physical and biological systems. Temperature extremes, heat waves, cyclones and heavy precipitations at high latitudes are becoming more frequent and intense, while subtropical land regions are being affected by severe droughts. The question now is: is there anything we can do about this? Indeed, if we hold to the view that climate change is primarily due to natural cyclical shifts, then all we may hope for is to adjust as best as we can to the forthcoming variations. Conversely, if we accept that climate change is largely due to human activity and the release of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, then it follows that we should be able to do something about it. The variety of responses available is indeed very broad, ranging from technological, to behavioural, managerial and political resolutions, although the barriers, limits and costs to their effective implementation are still to be entirely overcome. Either way, when considering the global extent of climate change, it is evident that, to address at least near-term impacts, prompt adaptation measures are inevitably needed in several fields of human activity, and particularly in building design (Roaf et al [2]). The reason to emphasize adaptation here is due to the awareness that climate change would continue unabated for at least half a century even if the most effective mitigation actions were implemented straight away and greenhouse gases emission drastically reduced (or even totally stopped), due to the ‘momentum’ already built-up in the climate system (IPCC [1]). Yet, adaptive strategies alone cannot be expected to solve all the projected impacts of altering climate scenarios especially in the longer term, as most effects will increase in magnitude. Rather, adaptive solutions should be coupled with mitigation measures in order to diminish the risks associated with climate shifts which otherwise could exceed the capacity of natural (and human) systems to adapt. In this context, mankind’s habitats will play a key role. Indeed, buildings consume during their life-cycle considerable amounts of energy, mostly coming from the burning of oil, coal and natural gas. Their energy budget is accounted today for more than half of the global consumptions, significantly contributing – with the CO2 emissions they trigger – to the very causes of climate change. To mitigate these impacts and concurrently keep pace with the momentum of global warming, a new form of building design – integrating economical, social and cultural needs with environmental responsibility – becomes thus mandatory. This raises the practical question of how to make architectural design progress sustainably while also adjusting to drastic alterations in the climate. Actually, despite widespread availability of information on energy efficiency and renewable sources, the methodological implementation of environmental design strategies in the planning, construction, use and maintenance of buildings is still rather exceptional. Moreover, since buildings are generally designed to last at least well into the current time scale of climate science scenarios, there is also an

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imperative demand to fill the knowledge gap concerned with how existing and new buildings (and their occupants) can adapt to prospected climate changes. In the attempt to fill this gap, a fundamental inspiration could be represented by looking at the very natural system that humans are part of. As a matter of fact, in Nature practically every form of life develops, through evolution, responsive mechanisms to endure changing conditions without depleting their resources and altering the equilibrium of their ecosystem. Some adaptations are deemed structural – i.e. physical features like the bill on a bird or the fur on a bear – other are behavioural – i.e. the things organisms do to survive. Indeed, the animal and vegetal world teaches us that species that thrive over evolutionary time scales are those who live within their environment with the least expenditure of energy. Perfectly adapted creatures, shaped and evolved in such a way as to minimize the efforts required to run metabolism as well as their burden on other bio-networks. Food and waste balance each other, while the necessary energy is provided by the Sun. Natural adaptation is fundamental to life and should therefore provide the conceptual basis for the design practice of our future. If humans are going to prosper, they have to re-learn how to imitate Nature’s highly effective metabolic systems, integrating primal natural laws with cutting-edge technologies (and modern expectations) for the most ‘sustainable’ building design yet seen.

2

Biomimicry of adaptive natural systems

After two centuries of Industrial Revolution, we are only now realising that the world we have artificially built is strictly interconnected with the natural one. The suggestions made here are that we can look, learn and get inspired by adaptive natural systems to solve most of the challenges we are facing today. Maximum economy, structural and behavioural adaptation, and integration of functions have been the strategies that Nature has exploited throughout its evolution. In this context, Biomimicry (from bios, life, and mimesis, to imitate) is a new science that uses the inspiration from natural designs and processes to solve human problems. The “conscious emulation of life’s genius” represents – in a society that has for so many centuries tried to dominate or even ‘improve’ Nature – a radically novel approach based on what we can learn from the natural system rather than, as we have been doing for long times, only extracting from it. The basic ‘laws’ of Biomimicry are based on the study of Nature’s paradigms. Looking at the ecology of our planet, we may realise that there is more to discover than to invent. Life has probably already solved most of the problems we struggle with, as the search for energy, resources and shelter (Benyus [3]). Adaptive organisms have inhabited Earth well before humans, evolving and perfecting their techniques of survival. Throughout a long path of trial and error, species have adapted to their environments, created astonishing materials, defeated the coldest and warmest temperatures, without burning fossil fuels or producing harmful wastes. All natural processes are developed under lifefriendly conditions, in water, at room temperature, without dangerous emissions. Every construction of the natural world shows an internal organisation that calls

318 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE for self-assembly and an ordered hierarchy. And yet, regardless of this apparent ‘simplicity’, Nature manages to craft materials of a complexity and a functionality that we are not able to replicate with our current knowledge, as the inner shell of the abalone, which is twice as tough as our most developed ceramics, or spider silk, a material far more resistant and elastic than Kevlar which is manufactured at body temperature and without having to drill for oil. In addition, contrary to most of our technological endeavours, all natural systems operate uniquely on the direct energy received from the Sun, which through the process of photosynthesis – which literally means ‘putting together with light’ – interacts with the geochemistry of the Earth to sustain every biological network. Thanks to sunlight, life supports itself, supplying all its energy needs without burning fossil fuels. The challenge for us today is to embrace these strategies and tools in the design of our structures and implement them in a sustainable way.

3

Conclusions

The current climate crisis is triggering changes that will fundamentally alter the practice of building and inhabiting our environments. The task at hand is to identify the design methodologies that could adaptively respond to new climate scenarios while also developing tools and techniques to mitigate human impacts, locally and globally. Clearly, advances in technology will represent a major breakthrough on the road to a more sustainable building practice. Yet, it is the overall structural design of buildings (i.e. envelope, interiors, systems, etc.), together with the adaptive behaviour of their inhabitants, rather than the mere application of technology per se, that will govern the delicate balance among the complex interrelated factors fostering comfort without harming the ecosystem. Indeed, it is through strategic design and the thorough implementation of ancient and innovative knowledge that buildings could succeed in integrating their functions with dynamic natural forces and adapt to extreme climate changes. As a consequence, not only the use of cutting-edge technologies (and ‘gadgets’) has to be carefully weighed and optimised, but also contextuallyappropriate environmental design strategies integrating passive and active techniques have to be implemented, basing on climate, functions, environment’s and users’ needs. The question may be: why haven’t we always been working with something that was compatible with Nature? Ironically, it often takes dramatic circumstances to become aware of the need to take responsibility of our own actions and to adopt all the possible solutions to wisely utilise our intellect and efficiently manage our resources so as to achieve well-being in our ‘habitats’. However, if we succeed in using our knowledge to support and celebrate the Earth’s intricate web of biological (and cultural) diversity, and we recognize Nature as the very archetype of human creativity, the transition to an adaptive and carbon-free building design practice is achievable since we probably already have all the know-how needed. The sustainability of our future depends on getting this right.

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References [1] IPCC, Climate Change 2007 - Fourth Assessment Report, Cambridge, 2007. [2] Roaf, S. et al, Adapting building and cities to climate change, Elsevier, 2005. [3] Benyus, J., Biomimicry: innovations inspired by Nature, Perennial, 1997.

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Botany for designers: a generative design model for the classroom S. Hammer & P. Loheed Boston Architectural College, USA

Abstract Undergraduate students in a foundation science course at the Boston Architectural College are encouraged to go beyond the visual biomorphic facies when considering plants as a design model. The course provides students in architecture, landscape architecture, interiors, and design studies with the means to frame their natural science thinking with examples that support sustainable design. We approach plants as open systems that interact with their environment, focusing on broad issues that address profoundly plant form and function. Our starting point acknowledges that living systems are constrained by physical and chemical properties. Plants must accommodate the physical world around them, as must successful human-designed systems. Evolutionary trends such as modular anatomy, reduction of reproductive and photosynthetic organs, and water relations are brought to bear on design issues ranging from support to packaging to insulation to decision-making. Plants are considered in a cultural perspective as well, and we study spectacular design successes, for example Velcro, which was inspired by plants. For a diverse group of adult working students, the generative paradigm is both challenging and refreshing. Students find that emergent plant characteristics such as complexity, connections, selfmaintenance, transformation, and evolution relate to their design practice, and hands-on examinations of plants in the field and laboratory provide evidence for these concepts. Student projects focus on an analytical approach to plant form and are uploaded to user-generated photo and video sites. Keywords: evolution, plants, adaptation, science pedagogy.

1

Introduction

In this paper we discuss a collaborative, interdisciplinary approach to teaching science to designers. We focus on plant form and function, which reflect millions

322 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE of years of evolution. Through deep evolutionary time, plants have adapted to survive in a dynamic terrestrial environment (see Berleth and Sachs [1]; Iwatsuki and Raven [6]; Niklas [9, 10]). Similarly, the built environments we design must function in a world that is at once dynamic and potentially harsh (McQuaid et al. [8]). The goal of this course is to help students learn from the robust adaptations of plants in order to create effective designs. The Boston Architectural College (BAC) is the oldest independent design school in the United States. Over 1000 students are currently enrolled at the college, which offers professional degrees in architecture, interior design, landscape architecture, and a pre-professional degree in design studies. With a deep commitment to accessibility, diversity, and service to the professional community, the BAC retains an open admissions policy. Students at all levels of preparation are admitted to our rigorous program, which features a unique concurrent learning model. In this model students earn credits working in local design firms while attending classes in the evening. This unique model accomplishes more than connecting the theoretical to the practical: BAC students are able to test for licensure upon graduation. Our goal is to prepare wellrounded students who are equipped to move into professional practice as soon as they graduate. Generative design is characterized by evolutionary novelty, sustainability, complexity, and interconnections (see Gero [3]; Soddu [13]). Plant form and function, which have enabled the extraordinary evolutionary fitness of plants, reflect all of these signal characteristics. We can therefore interpret plants within the rubric of generative design, a framework that we can also apply to our built environments. However, many students experience an intellectual gap between scientific knowledge and design practice. Science must be survived on the way to a program certificate (Hammer [4]), and while science can provide enormous insight into design practice (Cross [2]), its liberating values are often pigeonholed as a useless exercise in memorization. Learning science is a challenge. Add to this, tired, hungry students who have worked all day, struggled to find a parking space, and trudged up five flights because of a broken elevator. How can we bridge the gap between scientific knowledge and design practice?

2 A generative learning environment In a generative learning environment students and instructor collaborate to build an intellectual model that allows ideas to connect. We construct a complex model of plants by engaging in a series of simple concepts, developing a scaffold of shared knowledge (see Pea [11]) that will be used again and again in the course. Active problem-based learning (see Handlesman et al. [5]), group problem-solving, and inquiry-based activities characterize the learning environment. We start by developing a visual consciousness about plantsconsidering first how plants are built, what they do in the landscape, and how human cultures incorporate them. These considerations are supported with field trips where students handle, sketch, and photograph plants. We visit the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, where antiquities with plant depictions remind students

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that humans and plants have co-evolved during their shared history. Assignments based on field trips further support the conceptual foundation of the course. All assignments involve uploading sketches and photographs to an open-source community based website in which we maintain a classroom site. By connecting visuals with short written commentaries students obtain valuable experience in communicating about science and connecting science to their observations. The internet experience (see Koonhang and Karman [7]; Rovar [12]; Weber [14]) provides more than an innovative forum for expression. Students understand that their submissions are available to the wider community. Consequently, they strive to upload their best images, use their best writing skills, and make the best possible scientific connections. Generative design is an evolutionary phenomenon, and evolution through natural selection is stressed throughout this course. While considering heredity, architectural domes are discussed as an example of homologous vs. analogous structures. Innovations in plant morphology are featured. For example, architectural simplification through evolution, one of the hallmarks of plant morphology, is compared to mid-century architecture and furniture design. Selective pressures are considered in the context of the plant as an open system that interacts with its environment, a model that characterizes our built environments as well. For example, we consider in detail the unique relationship of plants and water. A comprehensive discussion of the structure and properties of water provides an effective comparison of plant and built-environment architecture because both plants and built environments must accommodate the physical and chemical realities of water. By discussing water as a selective pressure we frame questions that concern designed spaces, especially those that incorporate plants. Soil, air, light, and water are environmental constraints that inform any site analysis. The course gains complexity as we consider ecological principles and apply them to problems of sustainable design. Why are succulent plants used in green roof projects? How does vegetative reproduction influence the landscape? Which symbiotic relationships enhance plant viability? Students are asked to apply their knowledge of plants to potential built environment design problems. Popular ideas like the use of native plants, resource conservation, and interactions at the community level begin to make sense as students make the connections between scientific ideas and design. For a final project/assessment, students are asked to analyze how well a site succeeds in terms of generative design principles that were the focus of the course.

3

Conclusion

“Teach a few things well,” wrote the American philosopher and psychologist John Dewey. The goals of this course are to make our students comfortable with science, to provide them with a reasonable amount of detail, and to challenge them to think about science in the context of design. Our course design allows time for students to explore and make connections, and we measure success partly by the problems students try to solve. One evening the electricity failed. A

324 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE student illuminated his microscope stage with his cell phone and asked me to comment on a spruce needle he had dissected. The transverse section he made illustrated perfectly the undulating laminar surface of the leaf, demonstrated the relationship of morphology to water relations, and could not have been assigned! A generative learning environment highlights exploration, problem solving, and making connections, three elements students construct themselves with the help of a simple, robust pedagogical design.

References [1] Berleth, T. and T. Sachs. 2001. Plant morphogenesis: long-distance coordination and local patterning. Current Opinion in Plant Biology 4: 57– 62. [2] Cross, N. 1993. Science and design methodology: a review. Research in Engineering Design 5: 63–69. [3] Gero, G. 1996. Creativity, emergence, and evolution in design. KnowledgeBased Systems 9: 435–438. [4] Hammer, S. 1997. Open the book but don’t read it: some approaches to success in science. Journal of General Education 46: 184–191. [5] Handelsman, J., D. Ebert-May, R. Beichner, P. Bruns, A. Chang, R. DeHaan, J. Gentile, S. Lauffer, J. Stewart, S.M. Tilghman, W. B. Wood. 2004. Scientific teaching. Science 304: 521–522. [6] Iwatsuki, K. and P. Raven. 1997. The Evolution and Diversification of Land Plants. Springer. [7] Koonhang, A. and K. Harman. 2005. Open source: A metaphor for ELearning. Informing Science 8: 75–86. [8] McQuaid, M., E. Lupton, B. Bloemink, and B. Hodge. 2007. Design Life Now. Perseus (Cooper-Hewlitt Museum Publishers). [9] Niklas, K. 1992. Plant Biomechanics: An Engineering Approach to Plant Form and Function. University of Chicago Press. [10] Niklas, K. 2003. The Bio-logic of plant morphogenesis. American Journal of Botany 90: 515–525. [11] Pea, R.D. 2004. The social dimensions of scaffolding and related theoretical concepts for learning, education, and human activity. Journal of Learning Sciences 13: 423–451. [12] Rovar, A.P. 2004. The Internet and Higher Education 7: 79–93. [13] Soddu, C.O. 2002. New naturality: A generative approach to art and design. Leonardo 35: 291–294. [14] Weber, S. 2004. The Success of Open Source. Harvard University Press.

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Digital construction in architectural teaching R. Garcia Alvarado, C. Eribitis, U. Bruscato & R. Lagos Universidad del Bío-Bío, Chile, Universidad de Concepcion, Chile, Unisinos, Brazil, Universidad del Bío-Bío, Chile

Abstract The use of digital media in the teaching of architecture has been criticized by its material abstraction, distancing the designer from the physical sensitivity and constructive requirements of the project. Several contemporary architectural firms are using manufacturing machines for the execution of physical models; which as such suggest new possibilities for the architectural design and industrialization of construction. However, these capabilities have initially been focused on individual experiments of form-finding. In order to promote general design conditions, we are defining procedures of digital modelling linked to automated fabrication and constructive systems, which we have called “digital construction strategies”. These strategies attempt to pinpoint design possibilities with industrialized construction, including intermediate tasks. Currently, we have defined seven strategies and a general working procedure of digital modelling targeted to automated manufacturing and construction. Testing examples of each strategy, we have detected a variety of problems so far, regarding construction details, structural requisites and building scale. Even so, this approach allows digital design to integrate aspects of conception, execution and industrialization. Keywords: digital manufacturing, architectural teaching, industrialized construction, digital media.

1

Introduction

Architectural teaching has broadly incorporated digital media during the last decade, with diverse graphic capabilities. But electronic representation has been criticized by its material abstraction, distancing the designer from the physical sensitivity and constructive conditions of the project [1]. Nowadays several contemporary architectural firms are using manufacturing machines for the execution of physical models; which as such suggest new possibilities for the

326 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE design and industrialization of construction [2, 3]. However, these capabilities have initially been focused on individual experiments of form-finding. The material conditions of the models can be related with actual constructive features, as well as building systems developed with digital manufacturing [4]. A general discussion of these possibilities suggests a classification based on the software and hardware relationship [5], and others identified some technical conditions to be regarded [6], but without definition of work procedures. Hence, in order to promote design possibilities related to industrialized construction, we are proposing some approaches of digital modelling related to automated fabrication, which we have called “digital construction strategies”.

2

Strategies

1. Boards: designs mostly composed of rectangular pieces can be digitally modelled by flat blocks. Afterwards they can be separated and distributed in one horizontal level, and arranged according to the size of the manufactured boards, reviewing the use of material. Later, the trace of pieces on the boards can be sent to automated cutters or CNC-routers for details and decorative treatments. 2. Unfolding: building elements made of folded material as well as surface compositions can be modelled and unfolded through digital resources (such as Papekura, Litio or internal utilities of 3D-Software), extracting the continuous envelop of the volumes with diverse conditions for digital fabrication and to send the profile for cutting systems. 3. Massive: monolithic designs can be digitally elaborated through whole volumes with subtractions of minor parts (usually called Boolean operations). These geometries can be sent to rapid prototyping as well as extracting the trace of surfaces to prepare moulds through cutter machines. 4. Sections: building structures with slabs, walls and/or grids, as well as some elements composed with internal sheets can be modelled with overall shapes applying 2D-sections in linear, radial or orthogonal arrangements, later getting the trace of each section and distributing them in a horizontal level for export to cutting machines and then assembly of the physical model. 5. Frames: designs composed of structural frames can be modelled through main volumes with a covering depth or internal void, and applied to an arrangement of sections to automatically create several frames. This procedure allows definition of the structure of complex shapes but it requires reviewing the features of each piece. The frames can be extracted and distributed for cutter machines and assembly. 6. Repetitions: a set of similar elements can be modelled with automatic arrays of minor volumes with variations of position or size. Maintaining some constructive properties allows testing of diverse arrangements or extensions and numeric sequences of location and dimensions to be obtained. The support elements or a series of pieces with different sizes can be produced by the numeric control system. 7. Meshes: sophisticated shapes or regular volumes structured by lattices can be modelled through basic forms with detailed meshes and modified by graphic

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transformations. Computer procedures allow conversion of edges to linear geometry, then overall mesh can be sent to a rapid prototyping machine to produce a study model or to separate pieces and export them for digital fabrication.

Figure 1:

3

Examples of digital construction strategies (1, 4, 5, 7).

Procedure

The elaboration of a digital design for physical fabrication through the strategies proposed must regard several of the following steps: 1. To define the whole geometry to be manufactured, taking care of simple and proper description according to fabrication requirements. 2. To divide the design by parts, due to reduced size of manufacture or to define constructive elements, using geometrical properties or graphic resources. 3. To detach each part and to review its formal characteristics according to manufacturing conditions and design requirements. 4. To study the connections between the parts and to define some details or support elements, such as can change the design of parts. 5. To arrange the model or parts in the corresponding format for fabrication, bearing in mind the graphical and geometrical conditions of computer file. 6. To transfer the design to machine through exchange formats, print drivers or manufacturing software, which sometimes simulate the process to check details and require configuration of some tasks and settings.

328 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE 7. To execute the physical model or pieces according to the design and configuration of the process, with the corresponding operation and material. 8. To finish the elements manufactured, to clean waste, to polish edges or surfaces, to apply coatings or paintings, etc. 9. To assemble the model or component, putting together the pieces in a basement, using reference grids or supports, and fixing connections.

4

Conclusion

This work proposes seven strategies and a general procedure of digital modelling for automated manufacturing and construction, in order to promote design possibilities to industrialized building. Some examples of each strategy have been tested with different software and machinery, detecting a variety of problems so far, regarding construction details, structural requisites and building scale. The scope and conditions of each strategy should be refined according to the fabrication processes and construction alternatives. This approach allows digital design to integrate conception, execution and industrialization, and suggests an interlace teaching of representation, construction and architectural composition.

Acknowledgements We thank the participation of students from the Universidad del Bio-Bio and the Universidad de Concepcion and Unisinos, and the support of research project FONDECYT 1080328.

References [1] Talbott K, “Hand-Machine Conflict and the Ethics of Digital Fabrication”, in Cheng R and Tripeny PJ (eds) Getting Real: Design Ethos Now, Proceedings of the 94th Annual Meeting of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture 207-214, Salt Lake City, 2006. [2] Seely J, “Digital Fabrication in the Architectural Design Process”, Thesis of Master of Science in Architecture Studies at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, 2004. [3] Stacey M, “Digital Fabricators”, University of Waterloo School of Architecture Press, Canada, 2004. [4] Kieran S and Timberlake J, “Refabricating Architecture, How Manufacturing Methodologies Are Poised to Transform Building Construction”, Ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2004. [5] Garber, R and Jabi, W, “Control and Collaboration: digital fabrication in academia and practice”, in International Journal of Architectural Computing, Vol 4, Nº2, pp 121-143, Ed. Multiscience, London, 2006. [6] Lim C-K, “Towards a Framework for Digital Design Process”, en Proceedings of CAADRIA-2006, pp. 245-252, Kumamoto, Japan, 2006.

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Construction documents in a digital future C. Livingston Montana State University, USA

Abstract The past fifty years has been witness to an unprecedented transformation in the means and methods of architectural design and documentation. The digital landscape has and will continue to test traditional tectonics and methods of representation in the construction of the built environment, currently in the form of 2D construction documents with augmented 3D building information modeling (BIM). It is within this digital milieu and into the next fifty years that the efficacy of traditional 2D representation as a pedagogical model is critiqued, exposing an increasing disparity between digital design and documentation. This paper explores the possibility of the construction document as a new platform for building data and information exchange, utilizing BIM as a central vehicle for data collection and dissemination. Through a series of 3D interactive, prototype ‘information drawings’ created to depict areas of construction data, as opposed to traditional 2D slicing, this paper seeks to illustrate the benefits of full 3D integration that provides a nexus for all construction information into a single digital environment. In this way, design and construction form informational systems, which blur the distinction between design intent, professional disciplines, the construction document, construction administrative tools and the specification as instruction. Using recent architectural trends, current practices as well as emerging technologies, this paper discusses the possibilities and opportunities for a full 3D integration of BIM into the construction document process. This paper documents the results of these investigations and the pedagogical value of understanding 3D building data and information exchange over traditional 2D drawing in our digital future. Keywords: construction documents, BIM, pedagogy, practice.

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Introduction

Technical documentation for the production of building has long been dominated by two dimensional drawing. Whether indicated in pure 2D, in the form of descriptive geometry and orthographic projection, or through implied 3D space in the form of perspective or parallel projection methods, drawing has remained persistently relegated to the surface of the page (Perez-Gomez and Pelletier [1]). Within consumer society and its implicit economic imperatives, the construction document, and the methods and details of construction it particularizes, has become the sole domain of the architect; disenfranchising the construction trades and further differentiating between the real in building and the virtual in drawing (Frascari [2]). In addition, concerns for a standard method to communicate the formal logic of construction, through a system of slicing consistent with the Cartesian logic of plan, section and elevation, has continued our reliance on descriptive geometry and orthographic projection while computer aided systems continue to challenge this standard.

2

Construction drawing

From a critical viewpoint, construction documentation has represented the craft and building heritage of its time through the technologies it has employed. While the Cartesian based geometries of previous architectural regimes have been adequately represented through traditional slicing methods, we can now see trends in architecture, in the form of current and emerging curvilinear, folded and pliant strategies, having an influence on the construction documentation of the future. Since the early 90’s, Greg Lynn’s proposed smoothness has served as a model for contemporary architecture over the fragmented formal strategies inherent to postmodern and deconstructive architectures (Lynn [3]). Smoothness, in the form of pliant, supple surfaces, is seen to represent more accurately our contemporary condition of a globalized, heterogeneous culture in the same way postmodernism and deconstruction before it utilized their own formal strategies (Lynn [3]). But while descriptive geometry and orthographic projection have been largely congruous to the Cartesian-based geometries and forms inherent to the project of Modernism, these types of representations currently seem inadequate to describe the construction of many deconstructive and now curvilinear formal strategies. It is within this digital realm that a new sensibility must evolve that will respond to the persistent changes in the formal logic and systems of construction in architecture. 2.1 Construction data Building information modeling (BIM) continues to gain strength as a revolutionary documentation and construction tool, but its full integration into construction documents is far from complete. Currently, BIM programs allow for material systems to be assembled in a 3D model environment but are

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subsequently translated into normative 2D construction documents for construction, consistent with historic slicing techniques. Within this current approach to BIM, it may be useful to consider alternatives that fully integrate the 3D model into the construction document package, precipitating new ways of visualizing construction data. Fundamental to these alternatives is that while practice, and the software companies that guide its production, may already be moving towards a goal of integrated modeling and data environments, architectural education, specifically in the areas of construction documentation, may offer a crucial role in envisioning the user interfaces and protocols that will be involved in the formulation of these new environments. Construction document pedagogy must expand beyond the current systems of slicing to anticipate and guide changes in the future. Alternatives strategies to historic slicing techniques utilizing BIM technologies will provide a necessary nexus for all construction information into a single digital environment. Devised from an alternative tectonic organizational strategy, construction ‘data’ drawings allow for the 3D depiction of materials and assemblies at canonical moments in a building including how the building meets the ground, meets the sky, how a building turns a corner and the construction and configuration of walls and openings (Cheng [4]). Within this tectonic logic, multiple materials and systems are described, blurring the distinction between the classic divisions regarding the design and drawing disciplines, building systems and construction roles and responsibilities. These ‘data’ drawings incorporate BIM technologies fully into the documentation environment, removing barriers that currently exist between BIM and conventional methods of communication. 2.1.1 Strategies The influences of fashion, style and the media on architecture are felt in both practice and education. While many feel mass media has reduced architecture and its ideological content to matters of style (Eisenman and Davidson [5]), strategies to harness the workings of mass media and expanding digital consumer markets may be useful to inform new methodologies related to construction document environment, content, delivery and interoperability. To continue to be relevant with the increasing demands of shifting formal strategies and sophisticated building systems, these new construction document environments must move increasingly towards the hyperreal; to be richer, more brilliant and pliable (Borgmann [6]). Richness in construction documentation suggests that information must be more complete (Borgmann [6]). In this environment, all of the necessary information including reports, specifications, material reference standards as well as all graphic information, including complete BIM data, would be accessible, animated and flexible. Digital technologies which incorporate search path schema including i-Tunes, Pandora® and ‘buy now’ merchandising sites as well as RFID and GPS technology are open to potentially influence the connectivity and completeness of construction documentation.

332 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE In addition to richness, documentation should also be brilliant. Brilliance suggests that information include all of the senses and exclude all unwanted information (Borgmann [6]). Sensory information including acoustic and solar analysis of BIM program spaces as well as enhanced video and audio messaging systems accentuate a possible brilliance beyond mere visual drawings and text. The exclusion of all unwanted information indicates visualization strategies that adeptly control information layering strategies, revealing hidden objects and data in question. Digital technologies including visual history scroll bars, dynamic dimensioning and hyperlinked visual and textural information are open to increase sensory input and selectively accessed information. Finally, documentation should also be pliable. Pliability suggests that information should be easily manipulated and customizable to ones desires. In addition to these attributes, pliability also suggests interactivity (Borgmann [6]). In this environment the ability to readily manipulate and customize information would allow for unlimited possibilities regarding systems description and diagramming. Transitioning from the current representational strategies of isolating building systems to data rich building assembly documents, construction information will be interactive and customizable for each user. Digital technologies including merchandising sites, multi-nodal QuickTime VR technology, simulations and interactive real-time exchanges are open to potentially increase the pliability of information. 2.1.1.1 Conclusion Data rich, fully integrated BIM, virtual environments will continue to be developed offering the industry greater flexibility and control of information. Challenges to construction document pedagogy must expand beyond the current systems of slicing to anticipate and guide these changes in the future.

References [1] Perez-Gomez, A. & Pelletier, L., Architectural Representation beyond Perspectivism, Perspecta, Vol. 27, Yale University, New Haven, pp. 20-39, 1992. [2] Frascari, M., The Tell the Tale Detail, VIA 7, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, pp. 23-37, 1984. [3] Lynn, G., Architectural Curvilinearity, The Folded, the Pliant and the Supple, Architectural Design, 102, pp. 8-15, 1993. [4] Cheng, R., Case Catalysts: Using Case Examples in Design Teaching, ACSA/AIA Teachers Seminar, Cranbrook Academy of Art, Michigan, July 8-11, 2004. www.aia.org/SiteObjects/files/S-R%20Track%20Session% 201.pdf [5] Eisenman, P. & Davidson, C., The End of the Spectacle, Hunch, No. 6-7, summer 2003, the Berlage Institute report, pp. 167-169, 2003. [6] Borgmann, A., Hypermodernism (Chapter 4). Crossing the Postmodern Divide, University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, pp. 78-109, 1992.

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Thinking like an industrial designer? C. L. Newton Faculty of Architecture, Building & Planning, The University of Melbourne, Australia

Abstract This paper argues that future Australian architects will benefit from overt industrial design skills in which buildings are perceived within a systems framework rather than a one-off response to a unique situation. As CADCAM technology is adopted within the construction industry, new design opportunities will arise to provide efficient, smart buildings, which have the flexibility to be adapted to suit individual users. To fully exploit new technologies, architects need to think through policy oriented scenarios as well as design oriented scenarios. Systems’ thinking is useful to relate this macro approach within the micro approach. Keywords: architectural design, industrial design, prefabrication, CADCAM, architectural education, learning environments, building construction.

1

Introduction

A marriage between different fields of thought is likely to result in interesting offspring. This paper has arisen from research titled ‘Smart Green Schools’ where architects and educators are conjointly considering how primary and secondary schools might be transformed to suit the needs of tomorrow’s students. Supported by National Government funding, the author has brought together a team of five researchers, two postgraduates and nine industry partners. The architects and educators in the team feel a sense of urgency to learn from each other’s area of expertise and to develop a shared language incorporating issues to do with design, pedagogy and sustainability. This critique of the architecture and construction professions is an unexpected offspring of our work with educators. The design imperatives and opportunities facing the school sector may be best answered if architects adopt some of the skill sets held by industrial designers working alongside design engineers.

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Thinking like an industrial designer

2.1 Prefabrication for schools Prefabrication is at the heart of the industrial and engineering design processes. Prefabrication is less prevalent within the Australian construction industry although significant building components are prefabricated including joinery, hardware and some framing and cladding. In Australia, in situ construction is still considered more economical than prefabrication but costs are changing due to labour shortages because of a resources boom. Although the prefabrication of classrooms is an accepted practice in Australia to cope with fluctuating school populations, the prefabrication of entire schools is not undertaken. Relocatable classrooms are commissioned in tendered contracts by education departments and are typically won by construction firms more associated with refrigeration, shed and transport industries. As labour is becoming scarce in some states and in many rural areas, Australian education departments are considering prefabrication as a broader procurement method. At a research round table in late 2007 for ‘Smart Green Schools’, the industry partners were divided about the potential for prefabrication to be successfully used in school designs. In particular, the architects coming from high-profile design firms argued that prefabrication would undermine school quality and remove the potential for place-specific designs developed in close consultation with the school community. In contrast, an architect with an ESD focus saw prefabrication as a way of crafting fine-tuned buildings incorporating new smart materials. One industry partner with a background in industrial design could see the potential of prefabrication to provide a bespoke approach [1]. 2.2 The potential for a bespoke prefabrication Systems for the prefabrication of schools have been regularly developed during the last century [2] but have not been taken up by school providers in Australia except for the provision of individual or paired classrooms to support fluctuating student numbers. Likewise, the Compendium of Exemplary Educational Facilities published by the OECD in 2006 contains no prefabricated examples [3] If prefabrication systems have been tried and rejected previously, why might they now be adopted? The tipping point may occur as the following factors align. Computer-aided manufacturing (CADCAM) and Building Information Management (BIM) are enabling smarter relationships between the design and the construction processes. Imposing a cookie-cutter outcome of one design for varying clients and locations is a concern for both designers and consumers. CADCAM and BIM can support a more bespoke prefabrication as currently explored within the car industry [4]. In addition, construction labour is in short supply. Off-shore manufacture is one option as is the industrialisation of construction through prefabrication to reduce labour input.

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2.3 Environmental imperatives in school design Imperatives to reduce energy consumption have an impact on school design but also have an impact on school curricula. Using the building as a 3D textbook is an idea being explored by educators and architects [5]. The school building becomes a text for students to understand both natural and built systems. The building is understood as a third skin modifying and filtering the natural environment [6] and becomes like an industrially designed object for manipulation by the students rather than a ubiquitous but ignored background. New smart materials such as integrated photovoltaic cells in cladding systems can be incorporated into leaner, more efficient buildings with a lower environmental impact. Fine tuning such design and production requires industrial design skills, design engineers and an agile manufacturing system. 2.4 Schools are not houses Prefabricated houses have been popular for decades in Europe [7] and the USA [8]. In Japan, the prefabrication industry is highly developed with one company alone producing 40,000 prefabricated houses annually from a palette of over two million different components. Australia has more recently had a surge of interest in prefabricated housing sometimes using off-shore labour [9]. Except for some minor office buildings and franchises there have been few prefabricated commercial or institutional buildings in Australia. While houses can be selected and consumed as one would buy an outfit [10], schools as community facilities have more complex ownership and use. 2.5 Working within a systems framework Because of the relatively short working life of products, industrial designers are accustomed to considering their products from cradle to grave. They are also accustomed to working within a more collaborative and democratic environment than architects utilizing skills of others early in each design process [11]. Cradle to cradle reuse is being adopted in firms such as Freitag Lab and Fuji Xerox Australia where objects or components are reincarnated. Within this context, objects are understood as an assemblage of functional components with multiple life spans [12]. Such strategies of reuse in architecture are also possible. Designing to minimize waste and carbon emission is helped by understanding the lifespan of products and how design, in a holistic sense, meets the needs of its users and is intrinsically linked to the processes of manufacture and production involving design engineers [13]. 2.6 Time and space Architects think romantically about time and space and how buildings age. Industrial designers focus on time because the life cycle of objects is shorter. Time is increasingly an issue for architects particularly working within the field of school design because technology is rapidly transforming education. Digital

336 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE technology is blurring the boundaries of the learning environments requiring architects and educators to envisage new learning modalities within an information rich world. As virtual communities increasingly have visual access to each other, there are implications for school design. For example a school wall may alternatively be a full scale digital screen into a remote classroom or other environment enabling new learning opportunities. 2.7 A hand-in-glove fit using a 1-1 scale The relationship to the user differs for architects. While industrially designed objects literally tend to fit the user as a hand-in-glove, the fit between architecture and its users has been much looser. A learner-centred curriculum in information-rich environments requires architects to adopt an inside-out design approach. Furniture is increasingly a core component of successful learning environments to support a range of learning modalities [14]. The skill of working at 1-1 with prototypes enables better testing of fitness for purpose.

3

Conclusion

These decades are an opportunity for major change in the design and construction of Australian schools Similar to the UK program of ‘Building Schools for the Future’ [15], the Australian government has committed to overhaul the school system within Australia. Also following the UK precedent, Australian education departments have recently advertised tenders calling for public-private partnerships (PPP) to design and build schools in quantity. Economies of scale possible in PPP tenders may help drive industry change. The construction industry is not as agile and adaptable as the manufacturing industry. Although architects may feel unable to influence the construction industry at a macro level, design is helping governments envisage new futures [16]. It may be time for Australian designers and fabricators to reconsider the potential of prefabrication but with bespoke flexibility using methods ranging from a kit of parts to completed modules.

Acknowledgements The author thanks the Smart Green School team of Dr Dominique Hes, Dr Sue Wilks and Professors Kim Dovey and Kenn Fisher, along with the industry partners including the Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (Victoria) and the Office of the Government Architect (Victoria). Linkage funding from the Australia Research Council is acknowledged. The author also thanks Dr Steve Loo, Dr Robert Crocker and Peter Schumacher, from the University of South Australia, and the Victorian Eco Innovation Lab (VEIL) for instigating collaboration with industrial designers.

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References [1] Newton, C., Hes, D., Wilks, S., Fisher, K. & Dovey, K., Smart Green Schools: ARC Linkage Project, Roundtable Meeting with investigators and partners, October 19, 2007, Melbourne, Australia. [2] Griffin, C.W., Systems: an approach to school construction, Educational Facilities Laboratories, New York, 1971. [3] OECD, PEB Compendium of Exemplary Educational Facilities, 3rd edition, OECD, Paris, 2006. [4] Anderson, M. & Anderson, P., Prefab Prototypes: Site Specific Design for Offsite Construction, Princeton Architectural Press, New York, 2007. [5] Nair, P., & Fielding, R., The language of school design: design patterns for 21st century schools, Design Share, Minneapolis, Minn, 2005. [6] Drake, S., The third skin: architecture, technology and environment, UNSW Press, Sydney, Australia, 2007. [7] Miguet, J., Prefab Design, Monsa, Barcelona, Unlisted date. [8] Arieff, A., Pre Fab, Gibbs Smith Publisher, Salt Lake City, 2002. [9] http://www.fabprefab.com/fabfiles/home.htm. [10] Campbell, C., I shop there I know that I am: The metaphysical basis of modern consumerism, (Chapter 2), Elusive Consumption, ed. K.M. Estrol & H. Brembeck, Berg, New York, pp. 27–44, 2004. [11] Schumacher, P., Head of Industrial Design, University of South Australia, Personal communication, 12th March, 2008, Adelaide, Australia. [12] Richardson, M. Redesign: Design for Reassembly, IASDR07 International Association of Societies of Design Research, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, 2007. [13] Eder, W.E. & Hosnedl, S., Design Engineering, A Manual for Enhanced Creativity, Taylor and Francis Group, CRC Press, New York, 2008. [14] Fisher, K., Linking Pedagogy and Space, Department of Education and Training (Victoria) now expanded into the Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (Victoria), 2005. [15] CABE, Creating Excellent Secondary Schools, Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment, London, 2006. [16] Victorian Eco Innovation Lab. http://www.ecoinnovationlab.com/.

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E-learning by studying: topics for online architectural design teaching V. C. da Silveira Fondazione CRT, Italy

Abstract A number of significant trends are converging and shaping practice and education with the ability to understand, simulate, and represent complex fourdimensional arrangements of space. The first is the technological revolution in the changing media of expression and the tools for this work. The second is the increased focus on knowledge, its communication and interpretation. The convergence of these trends points to a significant research area in design architectural education. This ALFIERI (2007/2008) research appraises the effectiveness and the transmissibility of some e-learning teaching models and their development in two different ways: the tutorial model and the design unit model. The work presents more than interface technological solutions: it represents studies about the cultural and pedagogic implications by introducing such technologies to architectural design teaching. The methodological research process is based on the study of some American and European laboratory models, which are critically selected and analyzed. Keywords: architectural design education, formal and informal education, lifelong education, online education, communities of practice.

1

Introduction

The concept of contemporary design architectural education is unanimously connected to the innovative tools of teaching communication. However, the pedagogic modalities and the communication methods diffusing the application of these matters remain without a clear definition. There is not yet a methodological or didactic instrumentation for these technologies.

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From course-centric to knowledge-centric model

The observation of some e-learning laboratories (architectural design courses) would seem to indicate that blended learning could bridge the gap between pedagogy and technology. These didactic experiences show us that the gap is not a particularly Italic problem. Schultz and Tønnesen [1] found that it is a common European problem which is possibly connected to a European mode of educational thinking, but that is more likely a world-wide phenomenon. Therefore the observation was focused on how blended learning has bridged a traditional and a new learning approach – including tutorial ICTs – in these courses (da Silveira [2]). This is evident in synchronous (face-to-face) models with the removal of location as a significant factor in participating in design and planning education. Networks offering the ability to engage in the dynamic face-to-face design processes that involve users distributed over a wide geographic area are central to the evolution of a design solution. While synchronous communications have provided a means to remove restrictions of location, asynchronous (non face-toface) transfers also remove concerns of time for providing information at any time to any place. A presentation of digital knowledge on the Internet is not a problem, but an introduction to analogue knowledge and working processes is something else. The theoretical answer to this problem has so far been collaborative work processes based on peer work. But, as we have seen, this is difficult when the participants have no experience they can use to reflect on the work process. Research needs to be done in this field. One point is that the Internet also offers a lot of images and sound facilities and new ways of communication that reduce the amount of material needed to be read. This is in some cases correct, and it leads us to the conclusion that learning on the Internet in some cases is time-saving, and in other cases time-consuming (Wojtowicz [3]). The asynchronous model does not allow immediate feedback to question in design computation research (Wojtowicz et al. [4]). However the use of asynchronous modes in architectural design education continues to grow enormously with the growth of the web. The web has provided a means for publishing multimedia material in a large-scale and neutral manner, portraying a wider and integrated representation of design and planning projects and material. Wide accessibility and higher-speed access make web publishing a highly practical communication strategy within spatially based educational activities (Mitchell [5]). This is evident in virtual design studio education. Virtual design studios have been attempts to utilize the strengths of e-learning to explore extended possibilities of collaborative design. Students and professors in each participating school usually work on design projects together, relying on remote participants to act as consultants or critics of their projects. This educational model provides students with a wider number of inputs to their development. In these situations students have more access to higher level, specialized and more diverse tutors/participants, difficult to do with individual

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course resources and limited access to expert tutors (Goodfellow [6]). The problem is therefore to develop pedagogically specific tools in support of remote participation supportive of the learning objectives. In the evaluation of existing approaches to design knowledge transfer involving computation, the requirements for design education are not yet clear. Many current e-learning computational strategies attempt to effectively enable conventional synchronous communications through face-to-face audio, video, and white boards, but fail to provide the bandwidth and resolution for drawings, meetings, workshops and reviews. Asynchronous communications have proven to be a more common and accessible means of communication through computational networks – witness email, and particularly the exponential growth of the Web. Some limitations due to bandwidth and server power still exist but are less critical than those in synchronous communication, and can also be assumed to increase over time (Maher et al. [7]). This mode of communication then eliminates place-time, and resource-based limitations. Teaching is typical of design reviews. They have received substantially less research attention in architectural design and cannot ignore the multiplicity of criteria, tools and theories which cannot be easily brought together into a single methodology (Schön et al. [8]). There is no pre-determined line: there are suitable methodologies and useful strategies, but there are no absolute methods or obligatory pre-established paths. Distance learning is better at supporting a more direct learning need – a ‘just in time’ approach which is not very easily combined with an academic understanding of learning. The new possibility in e-learning is that you learn what you need, when you need it.

3 A community for online architectural design education Architectural composition design is a collaborative and cooperative activity that is based on a platform, not as a specific and exclusive ambient of formal design courses. Now the web itself is the platform. The main questions treated are the pedagogical and communication modalities that make the web (2.0) a real platform for collaboration and cooperation on architectural design. A community of practice is defined as people who are bound by informal relationships and share a common practice. Community refers to the informality and personal basis of many relationships in typical communities. Practice indicates that communities of practice are centred on shared practices. Boundaries within communities do not correspond to official organizational boundaries but rather to practice and person-based networks. People in the community are contextually bound by a shared interest in learning and applying a common practice. This results in an emergent nature for the community. The theory behind communities of practice suggests that in addition to the team structure there should be multiple overlapping communities that transcend team boundaries for sharing knowledge and standardizing practices.

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References [1] Schultz, R., Guldbrandt Tønnesen, L., Clashes And Compromises Between Technology And Pedagogy In Adult Education The Reality And The Vision. In: articles www.elearningeuropa.info, 2006. [2] da Silveira, V. C., E-learning by studying: architectural design education between information technology and pedagogical issues. In Proceedings of INTED International technology education and development conference. International Association of Technology, Education and Development (IATED), Valencia, 2008. [3] Wojtowicz, J., Virtual design studio. University of Hong Kong Press, 1995. [4] Wojtowicz, J., Papazian P., Fargas, F., Davidson, J., Cheng, N. Asynchronous Architecture. In ACADIA 1993 Conference Proceedings: Education and Practice: The Critical Interface, 1993. [5] Mitchell, W., City of bits. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1995. [6] Goodfellow, D., Collaborative urban design through computer simulations. School of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Waterloo, Ontario, 1996. [7] Maher, M.L., W., Cicognani, A., Simoff, S. An Experimental Study of Computer Mediated Collaborative Design. Key Centre of Design Computing, University of Sydney, 1997. [8] Schön, D.A., Sanyal, B., Mitchell, W. High Technology and Low-Income Communities: Prospects for the Positive Use of Advanced Information Technology. Department of Urban Studies and Planning, MIT, 1996.

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Is this the future? Case study: a competition winning green tower designed in BIM S. D. Dent University of New Mexico, School of Architecture & Planning, USA

Abstract The proposed Phare Tower in Paris is a 68-story office building that is the product of an international competition. The selected winner was Morphosis Architects from Santa Monica, California headed by Thom Mayne, the 2005 Pritzger Prize winner. This case study examines the process by which this iconic structure was designed, and how it responds to major developments that are fundamentally changing contemporary architectural practice and architectural education: dynamic rather than static forms; sustainability; demanding performance goals; three dimensional modelling: advanced fabrication techniques; and global practice. Keywords: sustainability, building information modelling (BIM), design process.

1

Project overview

The design of the Phare Tower (lighthouse) is the result of an international design competition in 2006. In November of 2006 the winning design by Morphosis Architects of Santa Monica, California was selected from an international field of “starchitects” The Phare Tower is a monumental mixed-use office building that will rise 300 meters above La Defense, Paris with the stated intention of being “a powerful symbol of sustainable, performance-driven design that will position France at the forefront of environmental stewardship.” [1]. It will contain approximately 130,000 square meters of usable space and is sited between the CNIT (Centre des Nouvelles Industries et Technologies) and La Grande Arche on a difficult site. The developers, Unibail, envisioned it as critical to the redevelopment plan for La Defense. Guillaume Poitrinal, chairman and CEO of Unibail states, “For this highly symbolic project, we were determined to

344 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE give an example of groundbreaking architecture and a model of sustainable development by utilizing cutting-edge research in the new technologies.”[2]

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Design and environmental responses

Site constraints forced several major architectural decisions. The existing rail lines and the roadway that wraps the north and east edges of the site greatly limited points of support. Also critical was the need to facilitate pedestrian access from the CNIT and its’ Metro station, and provision for a required opening in the base of the building for a pedestrian bridge across the roadway. To further complicate matters, there was a limited bearing capacity for foundations. These were the primary factors that led to a “three-legged” solution with two occupied legs and one structural leg at the base. The occupied legs have their own entrances, different functions, and support the required 24m wide by 30m tall opening at the base for the pedestrian bridge. The structural leg carries the glass-enclosed escalators from the entry pavilion at ground level up to the main lobby space at 40m above grade. This grand atrium space continues vertically for another 30m and functions as a “plaza in the air”. The main tower emerges fluidly from these earth-bound elements and site responses to create a uniquely sinuous tower that is sure to create a new landmark in the Paris skyline. The building has a complex surface that connects continuously the east, south, and west facades and is curved in both plan and section. These facades are enclosed by a glass curtain wall and covered with a second skin of metal mesh. This is not a sealed double wall solution, but rather the two skins work together to dissipate solar gain and glare. The north wall is a simple flat curtain wall that is intended to yield maximum daylight access and penetration. At the crown of the building is a small, but highly visible, “metaphorical garden in the sky” comprised of vertical axis wind turbines. These turbines don’t, by themselves, generate a significant portion of the buildings electrical demand, but provide the energy needed to drive the natural ventilation system that will greatly reduce the cooling load for half the year. Cool outside air is drawn in by the wind-powered fans and distributed in the raised floor plenum to cool the concrete floor slabs and occupants. Individually controlled air handling units – also located in the floor plenum – would provide user control and minimize energy consumption. The skip-stop elevators reduce energy costs for vertical transportation and provide opportunities for social interaction. The structural system was conceived with a concrete core for vertical loads and an exterior steel diagrid for windload resistance. The diagrid reduces the weight and embodied energy of the structure and eases foundation problems due to low bearing capacity.

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Design process

The competition was conducted from June to September in 2006. In this short period of time, a comprehensive preliminary design was produced for this extraordinarily complicated project by an integrated team of architects, interns, and technical consultants. Thom Mayne, the Pritzger Prize winning head of

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Morphosis, places the conceptual problem in the rubric of “performance” in which sustainability is but one of many critical forces to address in a successful design. Early meetings with the involved parties provided definition to the scope and performance objectives. All viewpoints were respected and all assumptions were questioned by the designers. Mayne has written that “The tools we now utilize allow us to produce spaces that even ten years ago would have been difficult to conceive, much less build. Our conceptual thinking is increasingly embedding tectonic, constructional, and material design parameters.”[3] Much more information is required early in the process due to the increasing capabilities of the tools utilized in the design process and more sophisticated clients that demand more detailed submittals. The structural and mechanical consultants, for instance, were involved from the very beginning of the process. Morphosis’ team worked on refining a design response that incorporated their formal aspirations, site constraints, functional goals, and technical requirements in an iterative process. Working in a Building Information Modelling program (Bentley’s Triforma), allowed inputs from all team members to be visualized initially in three dimensional drawings and then, for critical visual and technical integration issues, to be directly downloaded into 3D model printers. These models were typically printed overnight and evaluated the next day in a process of unbroken continuity. The competition submittal consequently, presented the requisite presentation drawings and model of the building plus detailed drawings and 3D printed models of the proposed construction. As this design has moved forward into construction documents the process has not changed dramatically. There are sub-teams working on specific areas or aspects of the building (while always digitally connected through BIM to the whole design) and refinements are introduced for technical, cost, or program changes from all parties. 3.1 Evolving changes to competition scheme The extreme size and complexity of the Phare Tower dictates that the project team is ever vigilant in cost control. The client is very sophisticated and they have their own consultants to constantly help evaluate the evolving design solution. Under continuing scrutiny, due to its’ massive cost impact, has been the structural system. The mixed steel-concrete frame was a question mark from the beginning in a construction culture that is concrete-centred. First, the steel diagrid was moved inside the envelope to avoid thermal conduction and expansion problems. Then, in the design development phase, the steel diagrid was replaced (except at the atrium) with a simplified frame of high-strength, lightweight concrete with the minimum diagonal bracing. The exterior shading scrim has seen a series of sophisticated computerized shading studies and 3D models that explored: continuously differentiated fins and panels on the varied wall orientations and slopes; operable panels; and fixed shades of metal mesh. A full size mock-up in the design development phase suggests the latter solution due to a cost-benefit analysis (though there is still, at the time of writing, some concern with providing adequate daylight penetration). The user-controlled air handling units have been eliminated due to concerns with high maintenance costs and have been replaced with a system of chilled beams for cooling and perimeter

346 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE radiant panels for heating. Also eliminated were the skip stop elevators due to code issues and concerns with social acceptance of this approach by the clients. The wind generators are still on the roof, but their output is simply grid-tied, not designated solely for the ventilation system. The earlier approach was more costly in controls and somewhat less efficient.

4

Summary

The Phare Tower embodies influences in contemporary design theory that have emphasized the potential of non-static forms. Differentiation in massing and the details of its’ skin reflect the potential in a newly evolving synthesis of formal exploration with the exigencies of climatic response and high performance goals. The design process demonstrates the value of sophisticated visualization tools (BIM, energy and structural performance modelling, 3D printers, and laser cutters) imbedded within an informal Integrated Practice organization that has incorporated the primary building service and construction systems from the initial conception. The architectural interns on the design team have had a fasttracked education in systems and construction integration. Few of them were well prepared for turning visionary design into buildable construction by their formal education. However, this talented group brought their sophisticated design, graphic, and problem solving skills forward to be informed and grounded by the technical requirements. Learning about building tectonics at Morphosis is largely by mentoring from the more senior staff and from intense self-directed study, but there is certainly great potential for the academy to improve and innovate in this critical content area. The Tower’s forthcoming construction will depend on sophisticated production and assembly technology that must be communicated across continents and respond to the local codes, construction methods, business practices, and cultural setting. Numerous construction components, especially the differentiated skin will require that the fabrication directly flows from geometric and material information imbedded in the virtual model of the building. The complexity of the Tower and communication issues has required the opening of an office in Paris where all design team members have a work space and communication has been greatly facilitated. In sum, it is a demonstration of the new reality of global practice on the cutting edge of technological influence and architectural composition.

References [1] Morphosis Architects, Project Phare – Vision Statement, November, 2006 [2] Unibail, Press release, November 27, 2006 [3] Mayne, T., Speech at AIA National Convention, Las Vegas, 2005

Forum 10 Design Research

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A new nature A. Abraham The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts School of Architecture, Denmark “Many would, in looking at this dense world of objects they see around them, see a new ‘nature’, which is just as irrational, incomprehensible and ruthless as the original nature.” Willy Ørskov Keywords: space, order, narrative.

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The composite

Architecture is both part of the world and a force that changes the world. It is simultaneously that which is framed and that which is part of the frame. Architecture assigns a space to the world. It assigns an order. And moreover, it assigns a narrative to the world. A building manifests itself as a model of our world, of our relationship to it and of our examination of who we are in the world. No building is unimportant! The precondition for this project is constituted by the very space we inhabit, which in 1979 was characterized by the French philosopher Jean-François Lyotard as a multiplicity of “little narratives” following the death of the ‘Grand narratives’ – the loss of an overall guiding narrative. It is a space whose previous coherence has gradually been dissolved and which the Danish architect Carsten Juel-Christiansen delineates in Monument and Niche (Rhodos, Copenhagen 1985, p. 12): “... the wearing down of the historical city centre by urban renewal and the eradication of the historical landscape in the city outskirts by urban growth indicate a tendency in the development of the new city, as a result of which town and country, past and future, merge to form a new entropic landscape.” This loss is central to architecture and to us as human beings – we will have to designate a basis for architecture and create a new foundation for our existence. The subject of this work is a condition as opposed to object. Unlike an object, a condition is not determined by its boundary or its form, but rather through a multiplicity of connections to its context.

350 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE If the object calls for us to “take a step back” in order to differentiate and understand it, the condition as a phenomenon requires that one remain within it and study the composite nature and the transformational forces within it. All around us, there are many different messages and statements that appear. These fill up space – physically, audio-visually and mentally. The French philosopher Michel Serres describes this as a struggle for spaces and positions: “... those who occupy the positions are unstable and stable. They create motion and rest.” We are a part of – and we are reaching into – a multitudinous world of complex connections, a world that the Danish artist Willy Ørskov describes in the following way: “Many would, in looking at this dense world of objects they see around them, see a new ‘nature’, which is just as irrational, incomprehensible and ruthless as the original nature.” The nature that Ørskov is speaking about here is a condition that is so composite that it seems to be wild – it does not possess any recognizable order. It consists of many conditions and orders, without boundaries and forms. A city can seem like a jungle. It contains quiet empty urban spaces and densely packed up houses, spaces that are connected by intervals of space with no recognizable form. In between the void and the dense, there are connections, interrupted sequences and inserted links. City and countryside are not contrary terms but can rather be regarded as different conditions of a jointly created cultural condition – a “new nature”, the Composite. In between the sparse and the dense, there are conditions between liquid and solid. They do not have any one name. They rather have many! They do not assume one single form, but rather many condition-forms. Conditions: If architecture can be said to be a condition and more precisely, a part of a condition of everything made by culture/man, the Composite, it enters into the process both in terms of forming and in terms of assuming form. The architectural object is replaced by an architectural condition, which is a fusion of a given material, its genesis (making/fabrication) and circumstances (background). As opposed to an object, a condition is not necessarily contingent upon a scale. In the present work, I am focusing on conditions that are without scale. This means that conditions with very different dimensions can possess the very same condition-form. There are many examples of this in nature: for example, lakes and forests. The space and the form of a forest are created by the addition of trees. Although they can have very different extents of area, a small and a large forest can be of the same form and contain the same kind of space. There are many examples of this in culture: for example, crowds, dams and labyrinths.

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By working with architecture as conditions and by defining these as being without scale, the conceptualization of the conditions is confined to a series of fundamental architectural notions like: degrees of order, measurability, magnitude, homogeneity – heterogeneity, fineness – roughness, form – formless, and so forth. A tumultuous demonstration can have an intense spatial and physical character as condition, but it does not possess any form. Large areas of our cities and urban spaces are products of indeterminable forces and circumstances, and as a consequence they are not held together by a form but rather by a certain character of space and material. If form and space do not make their appearance within a representation (as they do not have a recognizable form or a representational function, they do not have a specific meaning), the individual is then compelled to examine a form/condition for its significance by recognizing features or characteristics. The characteristics might be reduced to a minimum (as in “Specific objects” by Donald Judd) or they might be overwhelming (as in “The Unknown Masterwork” by Honoré de Balzac). A form/condition can convey very little, or as in Judd’s steel cases – nothing: there is an absence of narratives in relation to the surroundings and circumstances. Or, as in Balzac’s story, where the painter Frenhofer’s attempt at creating the sublime image of the female body results in nothing but a chaotic multitude of brushstrokes without a motif. In between the minimal and the overwhelming, we are making attempts to recognize the familiar in order to understand and inhabit the conditions. In this way, the conditions manifest themselves both physically and mentally. Process/genesis “Process Work” and “Anti Form” art works from the 1960s and 1970s were characterized by straightforward actions, executed with one homogeneous material over a certain time span. Art works within the category of sculpture were actually “records” of circumstances rather than being the embodiment of any one kind of constructed form. The most radical works issued from artists like Robert Morris, Gordon MattaClark, Robert Smithson, Eva Hesse and Richard Serra. Richard Serra’s “Verb List”, created in 1967-68, enumerates a number of simple actions connected with the production of sculptures; “to mix, to splash, to knot, to spill...” Serra describes the circumstances surrounding the actions in the following way: “So, while the list of active verbs suggests the temporal, it is a temporality that has nothing to do with narrative time, with something having a beginning, a middle and an end. It is not a time within which something develops, grows, progresses, and achieves. It is a time during which the action simply acts, and acts and acts.” He makes use of one of these actions in the work entitled “Hand Catching Lead”, from 1968, which is actually a film recording of Serra’s one hand, which tries over and over again to grab hold of a falling block of lead without any “result”. The action continues without any evident purpose or goal and does not

352 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE produce any object whatsoever. All that is recorded is the effort of the hand – but it is captured and accordingly secured by the film, the ultimate “recording device”. In another of Serra’s works from 1968, “Splashing”, he starts to throw liquid lead in the direction of the transition between the wall and the floor, and he keeps on doing so. By and by, what is amassed is a coarse, hardened layer of lead. The character of the hardened lead is of something unwanted, something impure – like garbage, an oil spill or something that has been burned. In an examination and a conceptualization of formless conditions (material without a representational function), the character of the conditions must necessarily be evaluated on the basis of our fundamental cultural values and norms positioned in between “good and evil”. Between liquid and solid The composite is a condition, compounded from a multitude of conditions. A condition makes up an organization of a material positioned between liquid and solid. This work’s conception of that which is situated between liquid and solid is a metaphor that refers to two conditions. The first condition is physical and refers to a cast material’s hardening process from liquid to solid. The second refers to the composite, a man-made world of conditions, situated between the unorganized – liquid, and the thoroughly organized – solid. The composite contains a multitude of transformational forces. The forces can be amplified, broken down or create interferences in their meetings with other forces in the composite; they can be accidental and/or planned. In order to construct architectural conditions in the composite, it is necessary to identify some of the elementary forces and map them out in an analytical field of vectors. By partitioning the field it is possible to deal individually with each one of the architectural conditions, which have been conceived into a larger continuous process. The field is divided up into nine segments extending from the liquid to the solid, forming a chain of nine architectural conditions. The idea of the project is to create an architectural foundation and vocabulary based on the notion of conditions in order to act in a multitudinous world. The chain of architectural conditions, which can span from liquid to solid, constitutes a conceptual open-ended structure for the fabrication of multiple combinations of architectural conditions, becoming sequences and forming narratives. Instead of introducing yet another autonomous house with its own story to the world, the idea of architectural sequences and narratives creates architecture, which is an integral part of the multitudinous.

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Post digital G. Riether Georgia Institute of Technology, USA

Abstract We live in a world that has been digitized. Now we need to find means to intensify our perception of this world in order to navigate through it. Suggesting a “Post Digital” process according to Kim Cascone this essay is influenced by ideas from experimental electronica music. Suggesting a strategy to expand our cognitive framework I will explore how media can operate as an interface that couples information with cognitive processes. Keywords: media, cognition, radical constructivism, emergence, computation, nomadism.

1

Introduction

Our world has been crushed into a sand of data, a “desert”, according to Vilem Flusser. The grain of data is organized and ordered by us. From this process of organization we construct, according to Ernst von Glaserfeld, a reality, that we use as a cognitive framework. Since there is no singular or correct world-view or “reality” every expression or conceptualization in architecture is based on a given individual’s reality. Therefore it is important in architecture education to expand the possibilities of perception of our environment. In order to do that we have to overcome two challenges: The first problem relates to the interface to our environment, which as we know from Immanuel Kant, constitutes a break. In addition to that the complexity of our environment is highly reduced by the limited capacity of our sensor’s receptors. The second problem relates to the way our brain functions as self-referential network. As described by Humberto Maturana, the brain is an autonomous system that maps through an environment back onto itself. We are therefore

354 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE constantly trying to match other exterior realities with our own, aiming for consensus. If we stay with Vilem Flusser’s image of the world as a desert, this world that is crushed into a grain of data opens up an enormous amount of opportunities to steer the grain and re-process this data “Post Digital” into an endless number of new realities. That steering and processing requires new interfaces. Every interface can create a new reality that might conflict with our existing reality and therefore potentially advance our space of perception.

2

Interface

The interface is a vehicle that allows the nomad to navigate the dessert dunes an interface that mediates and allows the communication between data and data carrier. This interface or media is a system that stirs and processes data in order to generate new realities. Similar to the DJ in techno music, cultural references are first cut into pieces. Tweaking them, mixing them and layering them in any way imaginable new synthetic sounds emerge. These new synthetic sounds are, as described by the musician Mika Vainio, collected and then reorganized into new pieces of music known as experimental electronica music. Similar to OVAL who painted small images on the underside of a CD in the 90s to make them skip, we need to find methods of stirring information to construct new realities from pre-existing data. Or to give an example from an 2nd year undergraduate architecture studio that I taught this semester at Georgia Tech, let us imagine a three dimensional topography as shown in figure 1 that we use as information to activate the process.

Figure 1. As an interface we use bass wood rods. These basswood rods have a specific materiality form therefore a system that is based on rules. This media is now used to read the three dimensional topography. The result is a new reality that emerges from the interaction between the characteristics of the interface and the characteristics of the three dimensional topography as shown in figure 2.

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Figure 2. If we would now move this experiment into a digital realm we would have to replace the materiality of the basswood with a virtual materiality. This virtual materiality is constructed as a system by defining rules and boundaries.

Figure 3. As an example we used the same three-dimensional topography as an environment, this time in the virtual space. As an interface we introduced a set of tools such as CV curve, a set of operations such as “snap to point”, “cut line”, and boundaries such as “no curve with more then 12 CVs” in Maya, a 3d software. The outcome was a different reality then in the previous project because we applied a different media. Media in that way is not used to just represent an existing reality, it is used to maximize the chance of generating new surprising realities from pre-existing data which requires a shift in thinking from media being steered to media doing the steering. Since the media is constructed based on feedback, the rules and boundaries that define this “Post Digital” operation have to be developed in a constant feedback loop. In that spirit we could create an endless amount of different media and realities.

3

Conclusion – advancing perception

If we want to intensify perception we have to think of strategies that lead to a continual expansion of our cognitive construct. This construct can be only

356 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE expanded by destabilizing it, which happens when we encounter information that exists in a contrary relationship with our own cognitive framework, or schema or set of ideas. This creates a state of instability. In this moment of instability we are faced with the task of balancing the harmony between the pre-existing construct, and the new contradictory one. When we successfully manage this disequilibriation our framework will be reconfigured and expanded. If media is pregnant of new realities we could by continuously reintroducing new media and reconfiguring existing media generate an endless amount of realities. These new realities have the potential to upset our cognitive framework and therefore enable an expansion of our cognitive construct. As shown in the example above we continuously test different media, analogue as well as digital as instruments of perception. The goal is to use different media in a way to maximize the chance for new realities to emerge from the processing of information. That will destabilize our framework of perception, which will have an expansion of our cognitive construct as a natural consequence. We are nomads, using media as interfaces or vehicles to navigate the sand dunes of our digitized world. The possibilities of perception have been destabilized, reconfigured and complicated through digital technologies. From these technologies we can construct new interfaces that allow us to interact and communicate with our environment in continuous new ways.

References [1] Medien Theorie: Das Wer Vilem Flusser, New York Center Art and Science Foundation, 1997 [2] Glaserfeld, Ernst von (1999) Wissen verpflichtet, Eine Eifuhrung in den X Radikalen Konstruktivismus, Herbert Utz Verlag, 1999. [3] Cox C. and Warner D.: Audio Culture, Readings in modern music, 2004.

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Soft garniture: developing hybrid materials between academia and industry R. Morrow & T. Belford University of Ulster, Belfast Northern Ireland, UK

Abstract This paper analyses the development of a hybrid material: Girli Concrete. The material has evolved out of a cross-disciplinary, funded research project involving a textile designer, an architect and a concrete manufacturing firm. The project brings together concrete and textile technologies, testing ideas of concrete as textile and textile as structure. Architecture and textiles have an odd, somewhat unresolved relationship. Confined to a subservient role in architecture, textiles exist chiefly within the categories of soft furnishings and interior design. This project aims to mainstream tactility in the built environment, by raising the human interface to the same specification level as the technical. This paper will briefly chart the background and wider theoretical concerns to the project; more particularly, the paper will examine the role of collaborative processes in creating innovative hybrid outcomes. This is innovation based not on new knowledge/techniques but rather the application of ‘old’ knowledge to new contexts, materials and scales. It is a plea for architects and researchers to occupy the ground of designing new materials and products for the built environment, in an acknowledgement that space is determined not just by how materials are used but also by the nature of the materials/built environment products themselves. The paper will argue that architects, in collaboration with universities and other disciplines, should seek to create space for creativity and experimentation, not only through engineering but also a user-centred model of artistic practice and product development. Keywords: concrete, textiles, building products, collaboration, innovation, usercentred, creative practice, hybrid materials.

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Background

Girli Concrete is a collaboration between a textile designer and an architect. Conceptually it sets the utopian challenge of bringing together hard and soft materials; and the technologies of two diverse but traditional Northern Irish industries: construction and textiles. Practically, the project has secured funding from Higher Education Innovation Funding, Arts and Humanities Research Council Funding, Arts Council of Northern Ireland Funding, Private Commissions, Integrated Art and Design Commissions (Big Lottery) and more recently the project has received significant matched funding from the University of Ulster's Technology and Knowledge Transfer Company to begin a spin out company. A leading producer of concrete products technically supports the project and descriptive details about the process and the products of Girli Concrete can be found on the project blog (http://girliconcrete.blogspot.com). Whilst the list of financial and technical support implies ‘success’, it is also a project that has raised questions about the wider context of working in this way in academia. To that end this paper intends to focus on two questions: - How can we fruitfully marry a practical project to an academic context? - How does the resultant project and process differ by being in an academic context?

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Intellectual framework

Although this is new territory for both project partners, they naturally bring experiences, skills and some unresolved ideas from previous work. In Practice there is typically more drive to progress projects as quickly as possible but in Academia there is an obligation to reveal and examine the context for activity, not least because with a background in architectural pedagogy one of the project partners has a longstanding commitment to the interrelationship between creativity and representation. So, as the practical elements of the project have evolved so too has representation and contextualisation of the work, revealing new conjunctions of knowledge and principles of practice. 2.1 Hands-on influence The Textile Designer has over 20 years experience in industry, successfully designing textiles for the fashion industry. She brings to the project: - A sense of expediency when it comes to product development in order to track or where possible lead market trends. - The need to be Hands-On and in control of the technical development of the aesthetic; trialling, testing and ultimately crafting each technical move. - An understanding of tactility as the result of appropriate technology. Overall such working methods/skills offer a challenge to contemporary architectural practice, but if we focus on the issue of tactility, we can reflect on Architecture’s (particularly in UK culture) expression and celebration of technology to the point where it can and often does dominate, becoming the first

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and the last interface that the user has with the building. In contrast, interacting with a textile is a personal and unique cosy, cuddly, slippy, scratchy, warm encounter. Simultaneously, one experiences an intimate physical and aesthetic reaction. Behind this emotive experience of textiles lies a world of technical expertise. It is the remarkable achievement of textile designers to take ‘hardcore’ technologies and transform them into something that evokes such responses. The Girli Concrete project learns from this and finds resonance in the words of Peter Rice, “...make real the presence of the material in use in the building, so that people warm to them, want to touch them, feel a sense of the material itself and of the people who made and designed it.” (Rice [1994]) 2.2 Inclusive/feminist The architect/academic had worked previously with inclusive design (evolving from disability studies) and feminist concerns around the built environment. The Girli Concrete project draws on this by - Developing a user centred model of artistic practice and product development. - Raising the human interface, i.e. the aesthetic and in particular the tactile aesthetic, to same level of specification as the technical. - Demystifying the process through dissemination (included in Woman’s Design Service’s Database on Gender and the Built Environment) and using a blog to recount the development of the project. - Provocatively titling the project ‘Girli Concrete’ to openly signal an unconventional, non-mainstream approach. 2.3 Historical As we work practically on the project we are at the same time developing academic papers. Defining and researching contexts for the work has allowed us to understand the work within a range of historical and theoretical contexts: - The architectural legacy for material sense of space as characterised by the work of Pallasmaa, Rasmussen, Holl, Franke, Bachelard etc. - The shifting relationship between architecture and textiles – from the Kurgan tombs in the High Altai (Hann 2007) with some of the earliest remaining textiles to the recent developments of nano and smart ‘architextiles’ (Garcia 2006). Through this process of contextualising, analysing and describing we have begun to realise that architecture uses textiles both literally and conceptually. When used literally, textiles are typically framed and strictly regulated; taut, stretched and controlled; they are the ‘smart’ petrochemical constituents of lightweight, space age structures, seen but not touched. And where there are used conceptually it is their characteristics of ‘lightness, surface, complexity and movement’ that mirrors ‘architecture’s shifts towards a more fluid state’ (Garcia 2006). Overall the result is architecture that may look like and indeed may even

360 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE appropriate textile technologies, but rarely feels like textiles. (There are of course some interesting exceptions.) Such Intellectual Frameworks lead us to advance Girli Concrete as a project that aims to mainstream tactility in the built environment. Whilst it may sound utopian it helps guide and formulate the project even within the scope of a business plan.

3 Hybrid processes and opportunities Although it is utopian and theoretically situated, Girli Concrete is neither an art nor an applied art project. It is also not traditional product development, since it is neither driven by an identifiable market nor an existing problem. Pragmatists struggle with the practicalities of it, questioning why one would deliberately place soft, delicate substances into a harsh alkaline environment. But the project persists, driven mostly through a strong sense of fun, a set of principles and a process of visual and theoretical critique. The project moves forward by a process of play, research, craft, and real life deadlines. PLAY to generate unlikely outcomes; RESEARCH to solve technical issues, define the territory and identify supportive partnerships; CRAFT to trial, rework, perfect and humanize the product and process; and REAL WORLD DEADLINES to inject Pace and Meaning (in an academic context!). The project works across a range of networking and funding opportunities within and beyond the university. It is understood as research, experimental design practice and entrepreneurial activity and is presented across a range of platforms such as exhibitions, craft events, business forums etc. Such hybrid opportunities would seem to map against many design based activities situated within academia.

4

Reflection

Hybridity however challenges the language and culture of most disciplines and requires a high degree of flexibility and persistence. Working between the interfaces of industry and academia, practice and theory, exposes the prejudices of both and their miss-match. Universities talk about practice-led research but have simultaneously degraded their technical provision and dis-enfranchised the associated technical staff. Administrative mechanisms do little to match external time/cost lines and accountability procedures overload small, fast-moving projects in ways that are simply unsustainable. Despite that, as academics we are in a privileged position. We do not have to, nor indeed should we, replicate traditional practices/processes. We have time (it’s relative!) and intellectual space to work in creative and challenging hybrid arenas; we are able to access a wide range of advice, funding and resources to support such activities and we can do so at no personal financial risk. None of these conditions (especially the latter) should be underestimated. Finally we have come to understand that Girli Concrete is as much about creating a product as refining a process. We now recognise it as the pilot project in an ongoing, larger and systematic interaction between textiles and construction.

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References [1] Franck K, Lepori, B, Architecture from the Inside Out: From the Body, the Senses, the Site and the Community John Wiley & Sons 2007 [2] Garcia, M. Architextiles AD; Wiley Publication Nov 2006 [3] Hann, M. The Great Pazyrk Felt: a stylistic analysis of a deep frozen treasure from kurgan 5 in the High Altai, Proc. of Ars Textrina International Textiles Conference, University of Ulster, Sept 2007 [4] Holl S, Pallasmaa J, Perez-Gomez A. Questions of Perception: Phenomenology of Architecture, - Architecture – A + U publication 1994 [5] Textile: The Journal of Cloth and Culture; special Issue Shaping Space: textiles and Architecture Vo, 4 Issue 3 Fall 06 [6] Pallasmaa, J. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses, John Wiley & Sons, 2005 [7] Rice P. An Engineer Imagines. Artemis, Zurich 1994

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The architect and the academy: research through design at the Welsh School of Architecture W. P. Forster, S. Coombs & R. Thomas Design Research Unit, Welsh School of Architecture, Cardiff University, UK

Abstract As a result of the 1958 Oxford Conference on Architecture, the Welsh School of Architecture, like a number of other UK schools, established a live project office to undertake the practice from a position within the academy. Most of these organisations failed to survive and, although there are some notable exceptions, bona-fide design practice from within schools of architecture is unusual. In this paper, the evolution of research through design at the Welsh School of Architecture is analysed within the context of UK architectural education and research. The current work of the Design Research Unit of the Welsh School of Architecture is used to illustrate a particular model of research through design. The work of the DRU is founded on the premise that rather than borrowing from other subjects, Architecture is a discipline in its own right and that design is a core activity. This positions the studio in terms of research and its activities alongside the library and the laboratory. The work of the studio, however, must be critical. As a starting point if critical practice is to be effective it must be founded on a coherently held theoretical position but then the theory or notion must be questioned, interrogated and ultimately tested through design (employing an appropriate operational framework) and critically reviewed and reported on. The paper will explain these processes and illustrate that when practice is conducted at the level achieved, the studio is, in fact, a kind of laboratory in which hypotheses, theories and methods may be tested and validated through the act of designing (and building) and how this is turn inflects design teaching throughout the school. Keywords: design, research, culture, practice.

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1 The Welsh School of Architecture and the legacy of Oxford 1958 The title of this paper springs from a paper authored by one of our founders and mentor Dean Hawkes [1]. In it, Hawkes argues for the role of the practitioner (as opposed to the researcher – the subject specialist) as core to the discipline of architecture and, therefore, to the centre of architectural education. The previous Oxford conference in 1958 redefined and clarified ‘the nature and methods of architectural education as conducted in Britain’ [2]. This was a response to the context within which architectural education was conducted at the time. Many of the schools were in institutions, such as art schools, which had little resource for teaching the growing technical content of design practice and, at the time, did not award degrees to their graduates, and there was very little research. The conference resolved that architects should, in future, be educated in university level institutions to guarantee the establishment of a graduate profession. Central to this was the creation of a coherent body of research. This was reflected in the Conference Chairman’s report. ‘If architecture is to take its proper place in the University and if the knowledge which it entails is to be taught at the highest standard, it will be necessary to establish a bridge between faculties: between the Arts and the Sciences, the Engineering Sciences, Sociology and Economics. Furthermore, the universities will require something more than a study of techniques and parcels of this or that form of knowledge. They will expect, and have a right to expect, that knowledge will be guided and developed by principles; that is, by theory. “Theory”, as one speaker said, “is the body of principles that explains and interrelates all the facts of a subject. Research is the tool by which theory is advanced. Without this, teaching can have no direction, and thought, no cutting edge.” [2] This in fact, is the way research was developed in many UK schools of architecture and the Welsh School of Architecture was and remains no exception. Indeed, WSA was one of the schools cited by Hawkes which, having successfully followed the Leslie Martin path now benefits by receiving a substantial proportion of its income as a direct result of peer assessment of the quantity and quality of the research output. Whilst acknowledging the benefits of the model, Hawkes was well known for expressing the view that this peculiarly British model, with its emphasis on ‘scholarship’, if left to run its course, would further diminish the role and status of the academic practitioner to the extent it will compromise the quality of architectural education, both intellectually and practically, and ultimately diminish the standing of the discipline [1, p.37].

2

The rise and fall of the Project Office of the Welsh School of Architecture

In reviewing the report of the 1958 Conference, Martin, acknowledged the potential for narrow specialisms to endanger the discipline, for the conference

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acknowledged the crucial role that the profession needed to play on architectural education: ‘…If the student’s complete course of training is to have any realism this means at some stage he must be brought into the closest possible touch with all the requirements of practical building… This can be done in two ways. It can be achieved by the development of the ‘live project’ as a school subject. This has been pioneered in the School and is in operation in others.’ [2] These were Birmingham, Bristol and Cambridge. Others were to follow, and it was not long before the Welsh School of Architecture followed suit and set up its own Project Office. The Project Office of the WSA was founded around 1968. It was set up to expose the curriculum, and those who followed it, to real clients in a practice or practical situation. In the first decade, the ambition was to take on ‘special’ or ‘exemplar’ projects that could be showcased. Research as defined at the Oxford conference, was not on the agenda for the Project Office, and it is difficult to establish what was exemplary about much of the work. At its height, however, awards were won. In 1973/74, the RIBA awarded the new County Library and Health Centre at Cowbridge an award. Newman [3, p.333] credits the design to students of the Welsh School of Architecture with John Roberts as Project Architect. If there was any connection to research through design, it was that these buildings implicitly reflect, to some degree, the then Head of School, Professor Dewi Prys-Thomas’s thesis, leaning toward Aalto, for the establishment of a distinctive regional architecture. By the end of the decade, however, the work of the Project Office could probably be best described as safe or risk averse. The idea of the Project Office as an opportunity for academics to be seconded in to experience design and construction directly, was not exploited until confidence in design standards in the Project Office reached a critical point. In 1983, two academic members of staff vied for the chance to design a new branch Library for Cardiff City Council in the socially challenging suburb of Ely in Cardiff. Richard Weston, new to Staff in 1984, and working with students, promoted an unashamedly modernist solution whilst Mike Harries who had been influenced by Piers Gough’s Visiting Fellowship in the School in 1983, designed a referential post-modern solution. Harries’ proposal won. The building gets a sympathetic press in Pevsner [3, p.289] ‘A jolly little building….’ The intention was to reflect the materials of the Resurrection Church and the motifs of the neighbouring housing, but Soane’s ‘barn à la Paestum’ and even the postmodernism of John Outram, seem to have been in mind’. If nothing else, the scheme raised the level of debate within the school about the future of architecture in the late 20th c. With Roberts’ retirement, the ability to secure potential ‘exemplar’ projects from the Welsh institutions and to contribute to lecture courses and studio, such as the National Museum withered. His replacement, Norman Robson-Smith, who had been Deputy County Architect at Monmouthshire County Council, ironically raised design standards, but found appropriate work in the recession of the 1990s hard to come by and could not fill the academic gap left by Roberts, and the Project Office never recovered. By the

366 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE end of the decade, as the pressure on all staff to make significant contributions to RAE returns and teaching grew, the beleaguered Project Office found it difficult to do either, and to make matters worse, was struggling to make its way financially. In 2002, after 34 years of existence, the Project Office of the Welsh School of Architecture and the last surviving Project Office of the UK Schools of Architecture was dissolved.

3

The Architect in the Academy – theory, practice and education

The fall (some may say failure) of the Project Office in UK schools of architecture was paralleled by the rise of the subject specialist over the architect generalist as the demands of returnable ‘outputs’ pressured research based schools of architecture to ‘academize’ the discipline. All this took place as Hawkes, who we have quoted elsewhere in this paper, took up his role as Professor of Design at the Welsh School of Architecture. Hawkes maintained that the ‘physical and pedagogical heart of all schools of architecture is the design studio. ‘It is in the studio that the lessons of scholarship, in history, theory and architectural science are, or should be, brought to bear on the conception and development of designs. [1, p.37] Returning to the outcomes of the 1958 Conference at Oxford, this was also on the agenda on the subject of advanced training the connection between knowledge and the studio was emphasised: ‘Inadequate knowledge handicaps and trammels the architect, limits the achievements of even the most creative and depresses the general level of design.’ [2] Having argued for knowledge, or in fact, research based practice, the question arises not whether ‘can design be research?’ but rather what lies at the heart of the academic discipline of architecture and how does each school and those who teach within define this?

4

Design Research Unit Wales and critical practice

When the idea of a Design Research Unit (DRUW) was hatched in the School, it was not considered to be a replacement for the then active Project Office. It was clear to Hawkes and others that general or ordinary practice would not do, as the process and outputs from such an organisation as DRUW would have to meet the RAE definition of research in that it should involve original investigation to gain knowledge and understanding…Hawkes, referring to a number of notable architect teachers such as Kahn and Zumthor, classified this as ‘critical’ practise. The quality of the outputs (designs) ‘implicitly represent a critical commentary on the production of ordinary practice’ [1, p.37]. The members of the Design Research Unit (DRUW) have striven to understand the notion of critical in the context of architectural practice. After nearly a decade of activity, during which, schemes and projects have been evaluated and re-evaluated in the light of Hawkes’ lucid observations, we are anxious that the critical act (in our case design) does not become abstracted from

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its real situation and circumstances. For us, this would mean to adopt critical judgement, including as Raymond Williams defined ‘necessarily, positive or negative, responses, a definite practice, in active and complex relations with its whole situation and context.’ [4]

5

The work of the Design Research Unit of the Welsh School of Architecture

The work of the DRU, therefore, rests on a number of premises, many of which are derived from the traditions and culture of the School. For Christopher Powell, the Welsh School of Architecture from its beginning in 1923 “[…] build a reputation for design work that favoured balance and [creative] pragmatism above […] heroics. [5] There remains sympathy in the school for an architecture that may be categorised as ‘Romantic Pragmatism’ described by Peter Davey as architecture ‘which celebrates the primacy of the individual and particular and, pragmatically, it responds to the exigencies of brief and site…’ These sympathies remain as an antidote to the kind of Millennium architecture that appeared self referential and to lack social mission. The work has evolved, however, toward what Pallasmaa has argued for – ‘Ecofunctionalism’ – which may be ‘more primitive in terms of meting the most fundamental human needs, with an economy of expression’ and may help to redefine ‘the architects role between polarities of craft and art’ [7]. These sentiments embodied in the words ‘pragmatic’ and ‘functional’ seem somewhat unfashionable but they remain cornerstones of design work in DRU. The key is the precise meaning of the words. We define ‘pragmatic’ as a method of understanding’ rather than the political version – ‘un-principled and timeserving’. For us this has to be accompanied by some evidence or justification. Yes, we have the support of the best environmental laboratory in a UK school of architecture and the University promotes the idea of evidence based research, but we would prefer rational in the sense that this implies, if not demands holistic reason. Examination of the work of the Unit to date reveals a flavour of much of this – certainly schemes have been designed using the principles of passive design and most have been subjected to scientific prediction techniques of the laboratory. There is also not much evidence of ‘look at me’ or daring form making. Also, as much of the work has been funded by the public purse or the voluntary sectors conspicuous consumption is a foreign territory! We find ourselves in sympathy with the principles set by Hawkes and Pallasmaa but how does this relate to research through design when we are faced with all the day-day realities of practice? Furthermore, how does such a ‘research group’ impact on the nature of architectural education within the university school? These are tough questions to answer definitively – the idea of the exemplar project for key clients’ lives on. We are bound to publish, and to be published and the work of the unit is open to peer review. We go beyond general practice and operate critically in that we open our work up to the criticism and the review by our visiting professors and mentors like Hawkes.

368 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE All who work in the Unit teach at some level in the school – mainly in studio, but we make up a small proportion of those who come in from other parts of practice and research. Therefore, there is no preaching of a DRU way and no desire to. The impact on school life is un-measurable, the DRU studio is located close to first year studio. At the very least this puts the studio and the design activities that take place in it at the heart and at the focal point of the school. The answer to the questions about impact will be tested through peer review but the crucial aspect about the value of design as research lies in Hawkes’ argument that practice and theory are interlinked and that theory develops from critical reflection on practice. In rephrasing Leslie Martin’s Conference declaration ‘Theory is the body of principles which explains and interrelates all the facts of a discipline. Critical practice it is the tool by which theory is advanced. Without theory and critical practice teaching can have no direction and thought no cutting edge’ [1, p.39] This turns the idea of research and theory in schools of architecture on its head and suggests a new model for the role of the architect in the academy. Returning to staffing, the rise of the subject specialist over the architect teacher in the past 15 years has structurally altered UK schools of architecture such as WSA to the extent that the centre of architectural education is held together by part-time tutors who, even if they were interested, would not meet the essential criteria for academic posts. Research through design, if reviewed in the light of the model described here may offer a permanent place for the Architect in the Academy.

References [1] Hawkes D. The Architect and the Academy linking practice and research. ARQ: Vol.4. No.1 2001. [2] Martin, L., RIBA Conference on Architectural Education. Report by the Chairman 1958. [3] Newman, J. The Buildings of Wales. Glamorgan ISBN 0.14 0710566 Edition. Sir Nicholas Pevsner, 1995. [4] Williams, R. ‘Keywords. ‘A vocabulary of culture and society’. Fontana Press 1976 revised p.86, 1983. [5] Powell, C., School Matters, Touchstone Oct.1997, 14.11.0. p.39. [6] Darley, G. and Davey, P., Sense and Sensibility, Architectural Review 1039, 1983. [7] Pallasmaa, J. From Metaphorical to Ecological Functionalism, Architectural Review 1156 (1993).

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Designing for time: the case of kinetic skins J. Moloney University of Melbourne, Australia

Abstract What is being designed when the outcome is a kinetic system, rather than static form? It is proposed that the design of kinetic skins sets a different agenda for designers, who have traditionally worked towards finding the best static mix of performance and elegance. Rather then a ‘finished’ architectural surface, the outcome is a kinetic system that interacts with users and performs in response to the changing environmental and socio-cultural context. This shifts the emphasis from the search for a singular design, to the specification of parameters, which will allow the architectural skin to interactively perform. A framework is presented that clarifies the range of design parameters, with the key shift for architecture being the explicit requirement to design for multiple timescales. Keywords: architecture, design, time, kinetics.

1

Performance

The term ‘performance’ is usually associated with functional issues – architecture performs in terms of planning, structure and environmental control. The recent development of intelligent facades has extended this agenda to embrace performance over time. Rather then a relatively static envelope optimized for a range of conditions, kinetic systems are being designed to interactively perform in relation to temporal cycles and changes in user requirements. In a parallel development, media facades are pursuing an alternate definition of performance, in which the envelope acts as a site for embedded information or public art. There would appear to be great potential for kinetic building skins to improve environmental performance and resurrect the cultural role of architecture as embedded information and public art. Somewhere between the two, and as yet under theorized, are new aesthetic opportunities for designers, such as that suggested by the poetry of a flock of starlings or a Bill Viola artwork. Regardless of the application, it is proposed here that kinetics raises theoretical and practical

370 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE questions for architecture, among them – what is being designed when the outcome is a kinetic system, rather than static form? Typically the objective of architectural design is to consider a range of ideas and use a heuristic approach to identify the best. When the design outcome can change over time, such as is possible with kinetic skins, there is a shift in design objectives. Rather then working towards a singular solution, design becomes the specification of a kinetic system that allows multiple permutations over time. The aim here is to clarify what is being designed in the case of kinetic skins, as a step towards understanding the opportunities and challenges of this emerging design practice. To this end, the presentation is structured in two sections. The first sets the scene: the background to traditional approaches to movement in architecture are summarized; from this discussion a clear definition of kinetics for building skins is proposed. The second section, and the bulk of the presentation, articulates a framework for understanding the range of design parameters that affect the performance of kinetic skins. Within this framework performance is defined in a holistic sense to include functional requirements, the cultural role of architecture as embedded information, and the potential for architects to consider the aesthetics of ‘movement itself’. Implicit in this wide definition of performance is a critique of current practice in so-called intelligent facades that continues the legacy of the 1958 oxford conference, at which architecture was conceived as a form of design science.

2

Defining kinetics relative to other traditions of movement

Architecture has traditionally engaged with ‘movement’ in four modes: (1) architecture as geometry awaiting transformation through the event of occupation; (2) through physical movement of the occupant and changes in visual focus, architecture is experienced as a temporal phenomenon; (3) static architecture can appear to deform due to the optical effects of changes in light and the presence of moisture; (4) the ageing of materials and effects of decay can be anticipated and exploited by designers. The grouping of these four approaches to exploiting change over time, under the umbrella term “movement” is obviously debatable. They are listed here for convenience, as individually they have been raised in discussion with colleagues when discussing the merits of actual movement, usually with the innuendo that kinetics is best conceived ‘subtly’ embedded in static form. While acknowledging the value of traditional approaches to designing for movement and deformation over time, the focus here is on the implications for design when kinetics occurs – defined here as the translation, rotation, and scaling of building components, or the controllable transformation of material properties. These are the basic building blocks of kinetics that can be combined to produce motion such as a directional twist. The inclusion of material properties allows the exploitation of phenomena such as opacity or rigidity, with the caveat that they must be in some way controllable.

3

Kinetic design as interrelated decision planes

A useful precedent for a kinetic system is parametric design, an approach based on conceiving a 3D computer model as a series of discrete but linked assemblies,

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where changes in parts are propagated through out the whole. The geometry can be controlled at the ‘meta level’ by parameters, generating a wide range of permutations in relation to factors such as site, building efficiencies, or a formal agenda. However this is just a means to end - parametric design may allow an animated design process but the design objective is to refine a singular artefact. By contrast, for kinetic skins the outcome is the parametric system of interlinked sensors, controls and component assemblies. It is proposed that kinetic design occurs in relation to three interconnected groups of decisions: choice of input or sampling; the processing of this by the control system; the tectonic output ie. translation, rotation, scaling or change in material property. As a conceptual model, these groups of decisions might be usefully considered as planes, where relative position identifies a decision against the primary design parameters that affect the kinetic outcome. Figure 1 illustrates the design parameters mapped onto decision planes with a vertical axis indicating time.

Figure 1:

Parameters.

372 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE 3.1 Sampling The primary axis represents the range of sources from environmental to sociocultural, while the cross axis represents whether the source is sampled locally or remotely. The underlying issue here is that normative engineering solutions are tuned to very particular data types, while the context generally requires a more complex range of sources. Considering sampling in terms of a full set of possibilities, makes explicit that input specification is a design parameter. 3.2 Control The primary axis indicates the range of approaches: homeostasis – simple feedback systems designed to maintain a steady state; reflexivity – the feedback is conditioned by multiple variables to produce more complex outcomes; emergence – interaction between variables without preconception of a steady state allowing novel outcomes. The secondary axis in this case indicates whether the control system is discrete and localized, or clustered into control centres. 3.3 Tectonics The primary axis indicates a range between mechanical and material tectonics: systems that physical move, either in translation or rotation; kinetics based on expansion and contraction such as pneumatic skins or shape memory alloys; controllable transformation of material properties. The cross axis draws the distinction between passive and energy intensive systems.

4

Further research

The position presented here is an adaptation of a parametric approach in which activity shifts in focus, from designing components to the design of kinetic process. Arguably the key shift for architecture is the explicit requirement to design for multiple timescales. This is new territory for designers and one that requires much research, ideally practice based. There are many areas to address, for example low maintenance / low energy technology, new virtual to physical interfaces, hybrid environmental / media skins, and not the least - research into the aesthetics of motion that arises from the most prosaic kinetics. Can this be systematically studied to identify general ‘types’ and nuances of kinetics? Moreover, terms such as control systems, while useful for enabling a conceptual understanding, are problematic when applied to architecture. They imply a mechanistic and scientific model for designers, and while science underpins architecture, occupants are not ‘data’ to be manipulated by a kinetic system. The primary challenge may be to keep people to the forefront when designing kinetic skins, be they environmental, information or hybrid versions.

Forum 11 Courses and Curricula

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Developing sustainable architecture education in Kuwait University: beginning from where the others ended A. Al-Hassan & S. S. J. Dudek School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape, Newcastle University, UK

Abstract The Kuwait University Department of Architecture was founded in autumn 1997 following guidance from experts from the National Architectural Accrediting Board Inc., and American and Saudi Arabian Universities. For this reason its curriculum is expected to be well established and equipped with sustainable architecture concepts that respond to sustainable development requirements within Kuwait. This paper will examine the development of the Kuwait University curriculum through taking on board new ideas and teaching methods from wellestablished institutions such as the Royal Institute of British Architects and the Architects Accreditation Council of Australia. An historical review of the development of the Kuwaiti Department of Architecture will be the starting point. The limitations of its curriculum in terms of teaching methods, requirements for graduation and achieving better education for sustainable architecture will be reviewed followed by suggestions for ways to improve this. Keywords: sustainability, architecture, education, development, Kuwait.

1

General introduction

For a small country like Kuwait, with a population reaching approximately 3 million in 2007, establishing Kuwait University in 1966 was considered a means to develop and build human ability as part of an overall development plan for better qualified human resources. While the Kuwaiti Architects League was found in 1960s, one may question the reasons behind the delay in founding a

376 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE Department of Architecture within Kuwait University until 1997 [9]. Formal education began in Kuwait in 1911 and become compulsory in 1960. The staterun Kuwait University was the country’s first university, offering free access to higher education to both Kuwaitis and non-Kuwaitis (ibid: 142) until 2001 when private universities (private universities in Kuwait: Arab Open University, Australian College of Kuwait, Gulf University for Science and Technology and The American University of Kuwait.) were opened for the first time. The College of Engineering and Petroleum was set up within the University in 1975, clearly reflecting the importance of oil to Kuwait economy. Perhaps the step of creating indigenous architectural education took place in recognition of the need for architects familiar with Kuwaiti culture or because Kuwaiti Architects League brought to the attention the pressing need for an architecture department in Kuwait [3]. Taking this step required comprehensive preparation through academic guidance from American and Saudi Arabian educational institutions [2]. With such a grounding, it is to be expected that the curriculum of the architecture department will combine Western advanced educational themes with Arabic Islamic perspectives covering art, technology and the science of architecture. And, it could be claimed that in some parts of the world architectural education began from zero four hundred years ago, but in Kuwait it started from where others finished, benefiting from their experience. As the world in general becomes aware of climate change and potential responses to this change, the role of sustainability needs to be examined within the curriculum. Does the architectural education in Kuwait accomplish this goal through transmitting adequate environmental concepts? This paper will examine the development of sustainability teaching in KU Department of Architecture, based on research carried out for a PhD at Newcastle University. The research aim was to investigate the role, importance and awareness of sustainable design among university academic teaching staff, students and graduates.

2

Sustainability concepts in the Kuwait University syllabus

The students admitted to the Department of Architecture on the basis of their high school exam results are handed the ‘measure sheet’ that contains all their programme courses. KU syllabus was examined using content analysis to determine the inclusion of sustainability concepts. It was found that environmental terms listed in the syllabus refer to the indoor climatic living conditions of heat, light, sound in buildings (the traditional approach) rather than promoting sustainable architecture through sustainable design solutions and construction. Although some environmental concepts are listed, there is no indication of how they will be taught in the courses or their practical applications within the classroom or the design studio. There is no indication that students are taught the use of IT in achieving sustainable building design and construction. NAAB visiting team pays the department regular visits to ensure that the American syllabus model is followed in Kuwait, which means that there is a straightforward relationship between the two syllabi. In that sense, the development of architectural education in Kuwait is linked to the direction of

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American educational goals, whether towards sustaining the environment, or following the footsteps of the American policy, or any other possible direction.

3

Result of analysis of surveys and interviews conducted

3.1 Undergraduates survey The Undergraduates survey included a range of questions to test their general knowledge, their competencies, their perception of sustainable awareness of the public and architects and their view of the government energy policy. The survey analysis results reflect their average to low sustainable architecture awareness. 3.2 Interviews with graduates Analysis of the interviews carried out with fresh graduates of the department reflected their wish for more IT training during their undergraduate years, better training on ways of dealing with clients, their wish for fieldwork trips abroad and longer professional training to develop their vocational skills. 3.3 Surveys and interviews with the academic teaching staff At the time of the research only 6 out of the 9 academic teaching staff working in the department participated in the survey, making it unrepresentative. The interviews with the same participants showed that they only teach environmental issues as a set part of the curriculum. They do not integrate environmental concerns across all topics. Environmental concerns are therefore conceived of more as an afterthought than as an integral part of architectural design. As a result, Kuwaiti students are not as well equipped to design environmentally friendly buildings as are students who get exposed to a more thoroughly integrated curriculum. This low awareness will likely result in inferior governmental policy planning as graduates will take up government jobs and assume positions of influence in ministerial posts.

4

Sources of Kuwaiti syllabus development and validation

The curriculum development procedures take place in the university (Ateya 2006), but the programmes are validated by various international bodies as there has been no main body to fulfil the task locally (Al-Hassan and Dudek, 2006).

5

General notes on KU bachelor of architecture degree syllabus (source [12])

The KU syllabus includes more humanities and liberal arts courses rather than science and technology. The 6 weeks long Professional Development summer course is elective and there is no Students Exchange Programme.

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The need for adding a sustainability dimension to the current syllabus

KU syllabus needs more in depth sustainable dimensions added to it. Perhaps through looking for good examples of programmes taught for the BA Architecture. The most appropriate programme should be chosen on basis of its relevance to Kuwait environment and it can be then modified to respond to their culture. The Curriculum can be developed to emphasize the connectivity among scientific, social, economic, technological, cultural, and value-based experiences [5]. The following two sections include two well established architecture bodies that monitor and develop sustainable architecture education programmes.

7 RIBA syllabus The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) was established in 1834 to organise both architectural education and professional standards in the UK. [8]. RIBA’s Outline Syllabus forms the basis of its own examination for membership. The syllabus includes five themes: Design, Technology and Environment, Cultural Context, Communication and Management, Practice and Law within five criteria: Awareness, Knowledge, Understanding and Ability [11]. The Architects Registration Board (ARB) established in 1997 validate courses in the UK. Both RIBA and ARB general syllabus outline leaves some space for each school of architecture to add specific details. Schools of architecture that choose their own curriculum criteria need to satisfy ARB’s delivery requirements to meet the validation criteria since variation in education and innovations in academic programmes must not compromise the delivery of the requirements’ essential content [6]. RIBA and ARB syllabus was not designed within rigid boundaries in order to allow the universities some space to practice creativity and innovation in their curriculum design and implementation, competing for positive outcomes.

8 AACA syllabus The Architects Accreditation Council of Australia Inc. (AACA) was founded in 1974 to become the sole body responsible for accrediting and advocating national standards for architects in Australia and setting the conditions for architects’ professional development. It is responsible for establishing, coordinating and advocating national standards for architects in Australia and for establishing and maintaining mutual recognition agreements with overseas authorities. AACA have 12 main objectives that include promoting common academic standards throughout Australia for registration of architects and to facilitate national and international recognition of qualifications. The Australian Architecture Program Accreditation and Recognition Procedure file is published on line for free [7].

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9 Notes on RIBA and AACA From the sections above, it can be concluded that RIBA offers a flexible open ended curriculum that leaves some space for schools of architecture to add their own interpretation and modifications, whilst AACA offers a well designed curriculum set within certain boundaries. As the Kuwait Department of Architecture is the sole higher education institute offering such a programme in Kuwait, perhaps they need to adopt the Australian rigid model rather than the British model to ensure better teaching outcomes.

10 Conclusion This paper examined education for sustainable architecture in KU. It demonstrated how the Kuwaiti syllabus needs to be re-examined by academics within the Department of Architecture in collaboration with teams from well established bodies such as RIBA and AACA that has a strong history of building architectural education policies that embrace the viewpoint of both the general public and academic practices. It also proposed using the expertise of academics from well established international universities to enrich the current curriculum bringing in a variety of academic perspectives

References [1] AACA (1997) Role of Architects Accreditation Council of Australia (AACA). Available at: http://www.aaca.org.au/RoleOfAACA.pdf (Accessed: [2] Abdullah, M. (2003) Re-Examination of the Current Architectural Curriculum at Kuwait University. Thesis. University of Miami. [3] Al-Hassan, A. (2006) Kuwait Architects League, November 2007. [4] Al-Hassan, A. and Dudek, S. (2006) ' Improving Sustainable Development Plans in the Arabian World through Initiating the Arab Architecture Board', Environment, Health and Sustainable Development (IAPS 19 Conference): 11-16 September 2006 Alexandria Bibliotica, Improving Sustainable Development Plans in the Arabian World through Initiating the Arab Architecture Board: IAPS, pp. [5] Alberts, B. (2003) Recommendations for Education for a Sustainable and Secure Future: A Report of the Third National Conference on Science, Policy and the Environment. Washington, DC: National Council for Science and the Environment [6] ARB. (April 2002) Prescription of Qualifications: ARB Criteria. London: Architects Registration Board. [7] Australian Capital Territory Architects Board, N. A. R. B., Northern Territory Architects Board, The Board of Architects of Queensland, The Architects Board of South Australia, Board of Architects of Tasmania, Architects Registration Board of Victoria, Architects Board of Western Australia, (2006) Australian Architecture Program Accreditation and

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[8] [9] [10] [11] [12]

Recognition Procedure. Architects Accreditation Council of Australia (AACA) and The Royal Australian Institute of Architecture (RAIA). Cunningham, A. (2005) 'Notes on Education and Research Around Architecture', The Journal of Architecture, 10, (4), pp. 415–441. MoI. (2001) Kuwait Facts and Figures. Kuwait: Government Printing Press. NAAB. (2004) NAAB Conditions for Accreditation For Professional Degree Programs in Architecture. Washington, DC: The National Architecture Accrediting Board. RIBA. (c2003) Tomorrow’s Architect: RIBA Outline Syllabus for the Validation of Courses, Programmes and Examinations in Architecture. London: RIBA Enterprises. http://reg.kuniv.edu.kw/PDF/ (last accessed: 16 March 2008)

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One model for the reform of the architectural HE curriculum in the context of EHEA M. Savic Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Serbia

Abstract Regarding multidisciplinary character, the field of architecture has generated different approaches to architectural education. Nowadays, intensive higher education reform has forced a number of existing architectural curricula to change under similar conditions. The intent of this work is to develop one possible model for the approach to the reform of architectural curriculum, with a goal of adjusting them to the EHEA principles, while preserving the individuality and uniqueness of schools, their profiles and educational systems. The principles of the model are based on commonly accepted documents either from the field of higher education (reform) in general (Bologna process), and also those focussed on the education of architects (UIA-UNESCO, EAAE). The keystone of the research is analysing similar points together, such as level descriptors and learning outcomes (Bologna) and competences in architecture (EAAE/ENHSA). Categorizing the character of the “11 points” and ENHSA competences list and making the matrix of their interdependence based on Bloom’s taxonomies, produces the specific tool for the control of learning outcomes and definition of the instructional methods. Keywords: European higher education area, architectural education, learning outcomes, competences, taxonomy, curriculum reform, Bologna process.

1

Introduction

In the last ten years, the general principles of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) have been promoted by the Bologna declaration and other successive documents. A student-oriented education system (presented with the ECTS system), modularity, learning outcomes and competences became the basic categories of the ongoing reform processes.

382 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE Bearing in mind the multidisciplinary character of architecture, different approaches to architectural education have been developed. This diversity has become the generator of the discipline itself. The scenario of the Bologna process intensive reform put a great number of schools and existing curricula under the similar socio-cultural environment (Europe, at present). On the other hand, only the diversity of schools’ profiles can guarantee that architecture could remain a polyvalent and multicultural discipline. The main task in reforming the curricula is to find a method which should provide the paradigmatic approach based on the EHEA principles, while simultaneously keeping the specificities of the particular schools.

2

Context

The context for the possible model is based on two areas: - EHEA principles based on the Bologna documents, and - Contemporary documents and research about architectural education. The continuous logical line leads from the ECTS system (students’ workload), through study cycles and modularization, to learning outcomes and competences as the basic points for defining the curriculum. The latest accents in the Bologna process have been put onto quality assurance procedures and the relationship between education and research. The UIA-UNESCO Charter for Architectural Education [1] provided the main objectives for architectural education in the 21st century. Furthermore, in the revised version of the same document the 11 points from the 85/384/EEC (and 2005/36/EC) and the list of capabilities which should be acquired (from the UIA-UNESCO Validation System for Architectural Education, 2002) was added. After these additions, the UIA-UNECSO Charter has become a unique document, with most of the data needed for the design of a proper architectural curriculum. The current expectations of architectural education in the academic and professional community have been declared in the list of competences, produced by (through) the EAAE-ENHSA (European Network of Heads of Schools of Architecture) Thematic Network [2].

3

Method

The teaching/learning process can be studied within the scope of different philosophic disciplines. In the teacher-oriented approach, knowledge is the measure for assessment of success. Contrary to that, the main aspect in the student-oriented paradigm is the process of gaining knowledge, skills or competence. This process is part of educational psychology. The taxonomies of educational objectives in the cognitive [3] and affective [4] domain, developed by Benjamin Bloom and associates, have been recognized as a useful tool for defining the character and level of learning outcomes/competences.

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The necessity for a successful result, either as a physical or ethical category, is the integrity of the educational process through dialectic pairs, such as teaching/learning, knowledge/skills and learning outcomes/competences.

4

Model

The intent of this work was to develop one possible model for the approach to the reform of architectural curricula with a goal to adjust them to the EHEA principles, while preserving the individuality and specificity of schools, their profiles and educational systems.

Figure 1:

Proposed model for the curriculum reform.

Inputs should be defined by the common “Bologna” principles, including QA statements (e.g. Dublin descriptors), NQF and local market needs. Aims and objectives should be specified concerning the specific situations in particular schools. The matrix between “11 points” and the ENHSA competences list should be used as the common tool for checking the integrity of the curriculum. Categorizing the character of “11 points” and the ENHSA competences list and making the matrix of their interdependence using the Bloom’s taxonomies, is producing the specific tool for the control of learning outcomes and the definition of instructional methods. Each reformed curriculum should cover most of the overlapping points from this matrix.

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Final remarks

Imperatives for successful results are: - Maintaining the difference between study programs and methods, by stimulating the local values (it seems that this aspect is not in great danger due to attention during the reforming processes [5] ); - Active participation of stakeholders (local government, professional associations, institutes, etc.) in the reforming process; - The education of educators (in this process, especially in the field of architecture, it should be kept in mind that being a good architect doesn’t always mean being a good teacher); - The integrity of the teaching/learning process (teaching-learning, knowledgeskills, learning outcomes-competences); - The quality of quality assessment processes. All of these imperatives will not give the sustainable results unless we become able to “...invent and develop institutions which are ‘learning systems’, that is to say, systems capable of bringing about their own continuing transformation”. (Schon [6])

References [1] UIA- UNESCO Charter for Architectural Education, 1996 /2005 [2] Research held in period 2003-2006 (extended in 2007-08 in some regions), published on: Spiridonidis, C.: Presentations on the 9th Meeting of EAAE/ENHSA Thematic Network, Chania, Crete, 2006. (http://www.enhsa.net/downloads/tuning/haniaAcademicsnew.pdf & http://www.enhsa.net/downloads/tuning/haniaProfessionalsnew.pdf) – Reachable on 03.04.2008. [3] Bloom, B., Englehart, M. Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D.: “Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain”, Longmans, Green, New York, Toronto 1956. [4] Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Bertram, B. M.:” Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain”, David McKay Co. Inc, New York, 1973. [5] As to be seen in Van Duin, L (Ed.).”EAAE Guide 2006 – Schools of Architecture in Europe”, EAAE, Leuven, 2006 [6] Schon, D.: ”Beyond the Stable State”, Penguin, Harmondsworth, pp. 28–29, 1973.

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Restructuring Architectural education: a review of the curriculum, objectives and outcomes J. D. Deshpande Chairperson, Board of Studies in Architecture, University of Pune, India

Abstract The scope and quality of the Architects professional services in the 21st century has considerably changed. The Architectural profession today, has become more multidisciplinary, collaborative and knowledge intensive. Architectural education is a subtle amalgam of the streams of technology and science as well as art and humanities. The objective at the undergraduate course of study is to produce a professional capable of taking decisions for providing appropriate solutions to man’s societal and human needs, both physical and metaphysical The course content of the Architectural curriculum needs to be an admixture of information, development of creative faculties, and skills required to cover wideranging areas from fine arts to high technology. This paper reviews the curriculum of Architecture in the face of the issues thrown up in the 21st century. It addresses the necessity to take stock of the curriculum, identify emerging issues and wherever necessary restructure the content of the Architectural curriculum, so as to achieve the stated objectives effectively in an attempt to bridge the gap between education and profession. It seeks to analyze the various aspects of the curriculum, teaching methods and also student expectations regarding teaching approaches and learning opportunities. It outlines some of the observations of the teachers in their endeavour to produce not only a professionally competent ‘Architect’ but an individual, sensitive to humane, socially relevant, and sustainable development of the built and natural environment. Keywords: architectural curriculum, architectural profession, curriculum objectives, student expectations.

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Introduction

Architects, in ancient India, underwent training under the tutelage of masters for a period of almost 35 years in various aspects of the Hindu Scriptures and diverse disciplines of social, environmental and physical health, science and technology, aesthetics, arts and finer life qualities. Architectural theories, education and practice were at their peak and architects enjoyed respect in society as scholars, humanists, mathematicians, artists, technocrats, designers, builders and master craftsmen all blended into one. Under the British colonial rulers, the diploma holders in architecture, who wished to practice in India after graduating from the few existing colleges of art and architecture, went to U.K. for professional recognition from The Royal Institute of British Architects. The Architects Act, enacted by the Parliament of the Republic of India on 31st May 1972, was meant to provide for the registration of Architects and matters connected thereof. The Council of Architecture incorporated under the Architects Act 1972, has been charged with the responsibility of enforcing the Act throughout the country, including registration of Architects, regulating the Architectural profession and the architectural education. The admission to courses of Architecture, duration and stages of the course, courses and periods of study, professional examination, standards of proficiency, qualification of examiners, standards of staff, equipment, accommodation, training, and other facilities for education are governed by the Council of Architecture Minimum standards of Architectural education Regulations 1983. COA handbook [1]

2

Emerging issues in the profession

The scope and quality of the Architects professional services in the 21st century have considerably changed. Architectural practice is spreading briskly across limits of time and space beyond the restrictions of language, social and cultural boundaries. The scale of architectural projects today, demands teamwork and expertise from various fields, dictating the need to form joint ventures, collaborations and consortiums. In a climate of increased competition, the architectural profession has become more multidisciplinary and knowledge intensive. Owing to globalization, technological advances and the rapid growth in information, there is a constant pressure for improved performance within the organisation of the architects’ professional offices and from increasingly knowledgeable and demanding clients for improvements in services rendered. The Architect has to develop the ability to analyse the requirements, aspirations and concerns of the client while negotiating the processes of brief building and design development. Concerns about the impact of the built form on the environment and natural resources are, moreover, assuming significant proportions insisting that architects develop a wider range of climate sensitive design responses and communicate clearly the logic behind their work. Indian architecture needs to focus on its own contemporary context to develop a distinctive identity.

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The scene in education

Education is the foundation of any profession. Architectural education in response to the changing forces of the society and profession must seek to equip the professional with technical know-how, intellectual persistence, practical skills and the ability and attitudes needed to evolve strategies for meeting new challenges of professional practice. In view of the constantly evolving scenario, on one hand there is a necessity to assess and redefine the educational content, tools and methods of teaching frequently, and on the other hand, the need for professionals to upgrade their knowledge and skills severally during a lifetime to improve planning operations and ultimately performance. Architectural education must besides, lay the foundation for continuous learning throughout life in order to minimize the gap between clients' needs and the service provided by architects.

4

Curriculum of Architecture and concerns of the 21st century

Architecture programmes in Indian schools of architecture are spread over a period of five years, in two stages, of three and two years respectively, for the award of professional degree. Practical training is fully integrated within the second stage of the five year degree structure. The undergraduate degree programme in architecture under the University of Pune has been taken as a case study of an attempt to respond to the issues in the profession. Since its inception in 1978, the Bachelor of Architecture program has followed the semester pattern of examination. Reviews and revisions undertaken by the Board of studies in architecture at the University of Pune, emphasized upon the subject content while reorganizing subjects within the structure of the programme The curriculum broadly covered four main areas of study, viz. Architectural design, Building construction and sciences, History, art and culture in architecture and Professional practice. A comprehensive effort undertaken in 2001 to revitalize the curriculum prior to its implementation in 2003 attempted to • Shift the emphasis from examinations to the teaching learning process. • Strengthen student abilities and interests in the streams of design, technology, management and allied subjects. • Inculcate the habit of research, develop reporting and communication skills, and train students in research methodologies, • Enlarge the scope of architectural design to include design theory, aesthetic appraisal and add focus on art inputs. • Provide training in basic skills in using computers for drawing, design and other tasks ordinarily required in an office. It was anticipated that these inputs would help to reduce the gap between the profession and the education.

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Students’ expectations

The opinions and feedbacks, regarding expectations, gathered from students during the process of curriculum revision provide a direction and help to bring about an improvement in students’ learning experiences within the programme. Some demands that came across among few others were more hands on practical sessions, more site visits, interactive sessions with professionals, development of verbal and written communication skills, training in relationship building and team working. Students also expressed a need to have clear learning objectives and a transparent assessment scheme to guide them on how to improve performance.

6 Observations and approach towards revision of the curriculum An analysis of the observations of which have arisen in the process of exploring the challenges faced by the teachers and professionals involved in academics suggested that • The curriculum should allow ample leeway for the institutes to develop a teaching program capable of respecting the institutional philosophies, the regional socio-economic as well as environmental considerations for sustainable development and the appropriateness of subject matters required for the making of an architect. It should also permit freedom for an institution to apply standards higher than those suggested in the guidelines. • There should be provision for introduction of additional course content or incorporating changes in the quantity of contents to suit specific situations of different educational institutions imparting architectural education in diverse regions. • Efforts should be made through the curriculum to help the students develop effective communication and interpersonal skills and focus at sharpening their senses through observation and practice. • There should be an emphasis on understanding and appreciating the application of appropriate technology in the building industry and also designing structures that are barrier free and earthquake resistant.

7

Conclusion

Shortly, winds of change are apparent in the architectural profession and there is a clear need to adapt to the change. As the saying goes, ‘We cannot direct the winds but we can adjust the sails’.

References [1] Council of Architecture, Handbook of Professional Documents 2007. [2] University of Pune, Syllabus of Bachelor of Architecture 1997 course. [3] University of Pune, Syllabus of Bachelor of Architecture 2003 course.

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Developing a new architecture curriculum: achieving educational goals within program constraints A. Sherif 1, N. Sherif 2 & M. Mostafa2 1

Department of Construction and Architectural Engineering, The American University in Cairo, Egypt 2 Department of Architecture, Cairo University, Egypt

Abstract The development of a new educational curriculum is always a challenge. The multi-disciplinary nature of architectural education makes it no exception. The institutional environment surrounding such a development plays an important role in its ultimate content and structure. This paper presents a case study of such a curriculum development. It reports on the development of the recently launched Architectural Engineering Program at the American University in Cairo, Egypt. The program was designed to satisfy various objectives and criteria of architectural education, while responding to the needs of the architectural profession in Egypt and the region. The program was constrained by a number of important factors. These include content related factors such as the limitation of the total credit load allowed, and the large percentage of non-architectural “liberal arts” courses required by the university. Efficiency factors were also paramount; the new program had to capitalize on the existing university resources including faculty, courses, facilities, libraries, etc. Accreditation requirements presented a further paradox that had to be resolved. The program had to satisfy the validation criteria of two different systems of accreditation: the Egyptian Higher Council of Universities and the American National Architectural Accreditation Board. Keywords: architecture, architectural engineering, education, curriculum development, accreditation, resource utilization, Egypt.

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Introduction

The architectural profession is becoming more globalized. Digital technology is rapidly growing, changing our ways of communication, expression, perception, thought and interaction. A large number of international and regional firms are now operating in Egypt, with either branch offices or outsourced work to local Egyptian firms. This became possible with the strong and high quality Information Technology Infrastructure that is the currently available in Egypt. Communication with the profession asserted the need for a new program of Architectural Engineering in Egypt that responds to its needs, avoids the shortcomings of the current Egyptian graduates and fills the quality gap that exists in the Egyptian profession. There is a need for a program that advances the implementation of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in architecture, while being balanced with special consideration to local culture, heritage and contextual aspects on one side, and globalization aspects on the other. The American University in Cairo (AUC), with its Liberal Arts educational approach, was the best candidate for the initiation of the needed new program. There was a strong evidence of an overwhelming demand from students and parents and the profession for the establishment of such a new program at AUC. This was facilitated by the University's upcoming move to its new state of the art campus in 2008. The objective of this paper is to outline the development of the curriculum of the Architectural Engineering program at the American University in Cairo. This development was based on fulfilling societal and professional needs, while adopting up-to-date educational approaches and embracing the University mission and philosophy. The new program was developed within two sets of constraints. The first set was internal, involving limitations on resources; while the second set of constraints was external, involving the different requirements of local and international accreditation systems.

2

Process

A multi disciplinary academic planning committee was formed at AUC in 2005 to explore the development the new program. It included members from Architecture, Engineering, Computer Science and Art. The committee documented the need for the new program by surveying current and prospective students, parents and the profession. After establishing such a need, the committee reviewed the latest trends in architectural education. The curriculum structure and educational approach of comparable programs in Egypt, the region and the USA were examined. In parallel, several top architectural firms were contacted seeking input about the qualities of the upcoming graduates and identifying the potential for future cooperation. In addition, requirements of local and international accreditation bodies were analyzed. Accordingly, mission of the program and its educational approach were established.

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Moreover, the committee identified areas of strength at AUC where comparative advantage could be realised. Also, available relevant resources at AUC were identified. Accordingly, structure of the program was designed, and new resource requirements were determined. An implementation plan was established. These were introduced to school faculty and university administration for feedback. In addition, feedback from the Egyptian Accreditation Authority was sought. Finally, the program was approved by the University Senate and President, and its initiation was granted by the Egyptian Ministry of Higher Education. The first group of students was admitted to the new program in September 2007.

3

Development of the curriculum

3.1 Context The context within which this program operates was an important starting point. It involves understanding the factors affecting the decision making process, and a clear understanding of the environment to which students will graduate. In the current age of globalization and digital technology, cultural identity, heritage and disadvantaged communities are at risk. Students should be in touch with current issues and in par with the global community, yet mindful of the disadvantaged communities that may be left behind and absorbed (ASHE Higher Education [1]). As the architectural profession evolves, the need for a graduate who speaks a multi-disciplinary language of technology, management, history, environment, society and the arts becomes eminent. Recent research has indicated the need for a shift in teaching strategies, to become more participatory and flexible, to suit the individual needs of the student as well as the constantly evolving requirements of the profession and growing body of knowledge (Kyan and Yunyan [2], Smith and Dalton [3]). Issues such as student-centred learning (AFC [4]), project based education (Spence [5]) and matching teaching and learning styles have been brought to the forefront (Mills et al [6]). The role of digital technology and its integration was taken into consideration (Hadjri, [7]). These and other issues became an integral part of the curriculum development process. This assessment culminated in the development of the program’s mission and educational approach. 3.2 Mission and educational strategies The mission of the Architectural Engineering program at AUC was defined. The program aims at training architects who can lead the architectural profession in Egypt and the Middle-East into the digital age while respecting the local heritage. The program promotes the implementation of the latest advances in Information and Communication Technology (ICT), stresses the rich local and historical context, and incorporates construction engineering and professional contents that respond to the needs of the industry. It also embraces the liberal arts approach to education through its multidisciplinary nature.

392 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE The following modes of delivery and teaching strategies were adopted in the new program. They were based on the educational approaches defined above and some of the recent research works in the area (Bilbeisi [8], Cavanagh [9], Davis [10, 11], Homer [12], McDonald [13], Senyapili and Basa [14]): 1) Integration of Information and Communications Technology into the curriculum; 2) Using student centred teaching strategies; 3) Adoption of complexity vs. typology design teaching approach; 4) Embracing thematic learning pedagogy; 5) Integration of curriculum; 6) Adoption of vertical studios; 7) Stressing professional practice and ethics. 3.3 Constraints The new program had to satisfy several internal and external constraints. The first of these was the efficiency of utilization of existing recourses at AUC. The program had to build on available course, faculty, lab and library resources that currently exist at the university. This constraint proved to be very useful as it resulted in a multidisciplinary program that integrates well with different university entities. Moreover, the program had constraints on its credit hour size and distribution. It had to be consistent with other five year programs at AUC in regards to total credit hours requirement. A ceiling of 162 total credit hours had to be satisfied. In addition, a substantial portion of the program (34-46 credit hours) had to be dedicated to the Liberal Arts component of AUC education. This constraint also proved useful as it provided students with an exposure to a wide range of humanities, sciences and arts subjects that are necessary for the preparation of well-rounded architects. Externally, the program had to satisfy the requirements of two different accreditation systems. Since architects are professionally licensed as Professional Engineers in Egypt, the program had to follow the Egyptian criteria for Architectural Engineering accreditation, which builds more on engineering requirements. At the same time, since the program aims at serving international architectural firms, the program had to satisfy the accreditation requirements of the US National Architectural Accreditation Board and the International Union of Architects. This constraint resulted in a program that balances well between the artistic and humanities aspects of architecture from one side and the professional and engineering sides of architecture from the other side.

4

Conclusion

The process used to develop this curriculum has taken a comprehensive look at the factors affecting the decision making process, the criteria required of the program as well as an informed view of the context within which the program will operate. The process itself, with its resultant outcomes, structure and learning strategies, will act as a basis for continuous self-assessment of the program. With careful ongoing examination, it is hoped that the program will sufficiently fulfil its mission and provide the region with architects who can lead the architectural profession in Egypt and the Middle-East into the digital age while respecting the local heritage.

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References [1] ASHE Higher Education, “Impacts of Liberal Arts Colleges and Liberal Arts Education: a Summary”, Liberal Arts Colleges and Liberal Arts Education, ASHE Higher Education Report, John Wiley & Sons Inc., Vol. 31 Issue 3, pp. 87–100, 2005 [2] Kvan, T., Yunyan, J., “Students’ Learning Styles and their Correlation with Performance in Architectural Design Studio”, Design Studies, v. 26 issue, Jan. 2005, pp 19–34, 2005 [3] Smith, P., Dalton, J., “Getting to Grips with Learning Styles”, NCVER, Australian Government, 2005 [4] Arizona Faculties Council (AFC), “Definition of Learner-Centered Education”, (available at ww2.nau.edu/’d-elearn/faculty_support/ internal_sites/best_practices/learner_ed.htm), 2000 [5] Spence, L., “The Usual doesn’t Work- Why we need Problem Based Learning”, Portal: Libraries and the Academy, Vol. 4 No. 4 pp. 485–493, The Johns Hopkins University Press, MD, 2004 [6] Mills, J., et al, “Learning About Learning Styles: Can this Improve Engineering Education”, MountanRise, Vol. 2 No. 1, Fall/Winter 2005, (available at http://facctr.wcu.edu/mountainrise/archive/vol2no1/html/ learning_about_learning.html) [7] Hadjri, K., “Bridging the Gap Between Physical and Digital models in Architectural Design Studios”, International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, vol. XXXIV-5/W10, 2003 [8] Bilbeisi, S., “Integrating Design throughout the Curriculum for Architectural Engineering Students”, ASEE Annual Conference Proceedings, pp. 5803–5812, 2002 [9] Cavanagh, T., “Introduction: Architecture, Technology and Education”, Journal of Architectural Education, Vol. 58, issue 1, no. 3, 2004 [10] Davis, D., “Integrative Curriculum in Architectural Engineering Technology”, Journal of Engineering Technology, vol. 18, issue 1, pp. 9– 13, 2001 [11] Davis, D., “Integrating Engineering, Art and Business into a Multidisciplinary Architecture Program”, ASEE Annual Conference Proceedings, pp. 541-546, 2002 [12] Homer, J.M., “Integration Architecture and Structural Design in the Comprehensive Design Studio”, AEI Building Integration SolutionsProceedings of the Architectural Engineering National Conference, 2006 [13] McDonald, S., “Engaging all Disciplines within the Education Process”, AEI Building Integration Solutions- Proceedings of the Architectural Engineering National Conference, 2006 [14] Senyapili, B., Basa, Y., “The Shifting Tides of Academe: Oscillation between Hand and Computer in Architectural Education”, International Journal of Technology and Design Education, Vol 16, issue 3, pp 253–271, 2006

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Lines in the sand: teaching architecture in Doha R. el Samahy & K. Hutzell School of Architecture, Carnegie Mellon University, USA

Abstract Doha is a city on the precipice of immense change. The numerous cranes, the vast infrastructural investments, and the alterations to the natural landscape merely mark the beginning of an enormous national project focused on education, culture and sports. Amidst the enthusiasm for this progressive policy, the following issues inevitably arise: the environmental impact of rapid urbanisation, the changes to the local culture, and the long-term effect on the next generation. Throughout the 2007–2008 academic year, students in their final year at Carnegie Mellon University’s School of Architecture examined these issues through research-driven design projects. During the spring term, the students lived in Doha, working on their thesis projects and serving as teaching assistants for the architecture and urban design courses their advisors were offering to local students at Carnegie Mellon’s branch campus in Qatar. This full immersion experience, which included interaction with local students as well as substantial regional travel, has resulted in design work that equally enhances environmental and cultural sustainability. Moreover, these efforts represent the first thorough examination of one of the world’s fastestgrowing cities and offers suggestions for future modes of inquiry in similar urban situations. Keywords: architecture design studio, urban design, visual communication, emerging cities, public space.

1

Introduction

The tiny energy-rich state of Qatar is in the throes of a vast transformation. Over $100 billion has been budgeted for new infrastructure and construction over the

396 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE next six years, including projects for the energy sector, highways, sanitation, educational structures, sports facilities and museums. All of this growth – fuelled not only by record oil prices, but also due to the fact that this population of less than one million (eighty percent of whom are expatriates) sits on the third largest natural gas reserves in the world – has led to speculation that Doha might become the next Dubai. While similarities abound, there exists a huge difference between the two cities: without energy reserves of its own, Dubai developed laissez-faire polices that encouraged its deep-pocketed neighbours to invest their petro-dollars; in Doha on the other hand, most of the investment is local. More important, because Doha does not feel the same pressure to recoup its investment in a short term cycle, the strategy for development has a longer vision: by investing in LNG and GTL (respectively, Liquefied Natural Gas and Gas to Liquid) plants, Qatar is positioning itself to be a major player in the natural gas market; by investing in non-petroleum industries, Qatar is diversifying the economy for the inevitable day when oil is no longer king; by building libraries, museums, schools and universities, Qatar is attempting to create “a knowledge-based society” that will be prepared for its future. Carnegie Mellon University is a part of this future. Together with five other American universities, Carnegie Mellon has a branch located on the grounds of the Qatar Foundation’s Education City, an ambitious collection of institutions on the edge of Doha. Several of the world’s best-known architects have designed buildings for the campus, including Arata Isosaki, Legoretta + Legoretta, OMA (Rem Koolhaas), and Rafael Vignoly. EDAW is currently working on a new master plan for the 2500-acre (1100 hectare) campus. Currently Carnegie Mellon Qatar offers majors in two disciplines, Computer Science and Business Administration, with a third, Information Systems, beginning next year. With the exception of the courses offered this spring semester, no architecture classes are taught at CMQ – or anywhere else on Education City for that matter. In fact, there is no school of architecture in the country (Qatar University offers a four-year Architectural Engineering Degree to female students only, and the program is in its second year). The authors teach architecture and urban design courses on the main campus in Pittsburgh. When the chance arose to teach in Doha for a semester, they used the opportunity to investigate a number of issues in which they were interested, chief among them the teaching and practice of design in the non-western world, what it means to design in rapidly transforming society, and notions of sustainability that address local cultural and economic as well as environmental concerns.

2

The project

During the fall semester, the authors offered a seminar on the Pittsburgh campus that investigated the city of Doha. Using and expanding upon Arjun Appadurai’s notion of “scapes” as articulated in Modernity at Large, students investigated the city through various themes (ecoscape, ethnoscape, technoscape, etc). Students

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gathered data on the given scape, and presented it in a visually and verbally coherent fashion. Thus, a great deal of data collection and analysis was compiled and made available to their peers as well as to the general public via a website. Among the issues addressed were studies of the environmental impact of rapid development, the plight of migrant labourers, the question of a relevant identity, and the notion of appropriate public space in a city of wildly divergent cultures. Students then spent the second half of the semester identifying and investigating their independent thesis projects. They were required to pose an architectural problem, identify a site of intervention, and establish a program. The range of choices varied widely in location and scope: two projects looked at Education City’s campus: one a new library/exhibition space, the other investigated strategies for stitching together the disparate object buildings into a cohesive campus. Two other students responded directly to requests by the Qatar Urban Planning and Development Authority to investigate projects outside of Doha: an ecological park along a mangrove coastline north of the city and a Qatari wedding hall in a town south of Doha. Of the final two projects, one looked at mobile additions to public spaces and the other investigated housing in Doha. Upon arrival to Doha in January, and faced with the realities of place, the projects – and the questions they asked – began to take on a refinement that comes with a greater understanding of a situation. For example, the ecological park evolved to deal with the specific qualities of the Qatari coast, and investigated materials that would be sustainable in this environment, such as byproducts of the petrochemical industry. Another example, the housing project evolved to become a set of guidelines and a kit of parts for creating temporary housing for the labourers who are currently building the country. Similarly, the mobile public space project settled down in one spot, currently used by expatriate workers, and strove to augment their experience by providing them with digital connections to their home countries as well as to other parts of the city. And crucially, the wedding hall project was meaningless without the field research, including attending a proper Qatari wedding, observing firsthand the cultural norms and values that dictate use patterns. These transformations in projects and students occurred for myriad reasons: including repeated site visits, increased dialogue with Qatari agencies and authorities, the understanding that comes with living somewhere as opposed to visiting, and most important, the interaction with students from Doha. While some of these interactions were undoubtedly informal in nature, the structure of the semester abroad involved intense formal contact. The architecture students from Pittsburgh served as teaching instructors to the courses the authors offered to the local students, including two urban seminars (“Mapping Urbanism” and “Contemporary Middle Eastern Cities”), as well as an introductory architecture studio, entitled “Architecture for Non-Majors”. Both “Mapping Urbanism” which investigated a number of city typologies as they relate to the emerging city of Doha, and “Contemporary Middle Eastern Cities” which examined a series of regional conurbations, required the local students to visually organize data as it related to the city. As a result, computer

398 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE science and business students learned a suite of graphic design programs from their teaching assistants, while the TAs (and their professors) gained greater insight into Doha from the students who had grown up there. Those serving as assistants for the “Architecture for Non-Majors” studio encountered similar twoway learning experiences. When teaching an introductory design course one is forced to ask fundamental questions. While these basic questions may seem universal, their answers will vary given the cultural background of those asked. The Pittsburgh students were shocked to hear, for instance, that a Qatari student proposed to tear down a Legoretta project (completed last year) and rebuild it with a slightly wider footprint to accommodate his intervention. From the point of view of the young Qatari, however, living in a world in which everything is new, in which roads, buildings and neighbourhoods are constantly demolished and rebuilt, this seemed perfectly reasonable. To recognize that difference of view while they were simultaneously designing their own projects for this city and culture provided an object lesson for the advanced architecture students.

3

Conclusion

One of the biggest challenges in trying to understand a foreign culture within which one is attempting to design is to acknowledge that not all the information will be immediately available; what appears to be a familiar situation may in fact be completely different. Certainly one should continue to make efforts to understand, but one should also learn to be accomodate a degree of uncertainty. Consider, for example, the following: over ninety towers have been built in Doha during the last decade, while the city is only now completing its master plan. Too often architects privilege – and teach future architects to privilege – the product at the expense of the process. This is not to imply that the product is unimportant, but increasingly, it is design thinking rather than the design object that matters most. Doha, like Dubai, like Shenzhen, Bangalore or Lagos, is very much a work in progress. Evidence suggests that it will remain so for the foreseeable future. It is incumbent upon us, as practitioners and educators, to find ways to design for transition, which may or may not be as transitory as originally planned (i.e., what if the project is never completed?) as well as for uncertainty, which is certain to remain a characteristic of the geopolitical landscape.

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A curriculum for city design S. D. Atkinson The University of Texas, USA

Abstract Gerald D. Hines provides financial underwriting to the Urban Land Institute for an annual interdisciplinary team urban design competition for students. In studying the competition sites, approaches to the competition, and insights drawn from the competition over the last three years, it is clear that it also offers a new framework for teaching architecture. Design students have to take into account environmental, social, and economic issues, as well as learning a rapid basis towards joint decision-making, and, equally as important, approaches to readily understandable communication skills. This paper considers insights drawn from this work. It suggests that there is a new basis to an urban-scale of sustainable design thinking. It indicates the basis for a revised pedagogy in architecture, and possibly a revised vocabulary of key considerations, including: architectures of connectivity; design of mixed use environments; the creation of urban place; architecture as a stimulant to community action; an architecture of greening the city; and an architecture that describes understandings of identity and locality. Keywords: interdisciplinary design, pedagogy, urban, sustainability.

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The competition

The ULI Gerald D. Hines Student Urban Design Competition is a graduate interdisciplinary competition “strives to encourage cooperation and teamwork – necessary talents in the planning, design, and development of great places.” Thus, the teams must be interdisciplinary, and include non-designers. A typical team might include a graduate in planning, architecture, landscape, urban design and real estate finance. In 2006, the competition location was a 100-acre site in inner St. Louis, Missouri. It spanned the proposed Chouteau Greenway, currently a polluted industrial riverbed with adjacent rail lines and a metro-link center, and

400 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE encompassed an elevated I-64 freeway. This disaggregated area, with significant level changes, incorporates the north and south campuses of St. Louis University, scattered other buildings, and adjacent eroding neighborhoods. Competition entrants were challenged to design the Chouteau Greenway and links to adjacent areas; integrate the university environment; stimulate appropriate mixed-use infill and new urban places; and develop a sustainable framework for urban development and change. This year’s competition, the fifth, concerned the planning, design and redevelopment of East First Street in Los Angeles. First Street will see extension of the Gold line light rail corridor in the immediate future, linking the downtown to the east, through a proposed “Mariachi Plaza”, with adjacent hospital. First Street is currently characterized by large cleared sites and many poor and unused commercial buildings, and is crossed by a freeway. The First Street Bridge, which crosses the Los Angeles River, a vast concrete basin filled with graffiti, flanked by a large expanse of rail lines and sidings, is to be considered for public access and revitalization with a “greening” emphasis. What unites these two competition locations is that they are typical of wide expanses of blight and urban decay in the inner city, or what could be seen as an extension of the concept of a brownfield condition. They have neither the attractions of emerging downtown enclaves, nor the apparent allure of more suburban locations. Furthermore, they are complex; you cannot immediately put your finger on one or a range of interventions that will ‘solve’ the problem. Also, they are daunting in their unattractiveness and lack of human quality, with few positive features to ‘latch’ onto. And yet, this is the context to the houses, workplaces, shops, and social and educational provision of many Americans living in the inner city, and in search of the ‘American Dream.’

2 A basis to a sustainable urbanism This suggests a first ‘battery’ of propositions that can form a positive backdrop of understanding when addressing issues of a sustainable urbanism. 1. Dysfunctional Interpretation. One must understand the characteristics of a context, the views of those living and working there, and the nature, scale, and overlap of negative human and environment issues. This could be viewed as an ‘inverse McHarg’, where sieve mapping of say, diminished accessibility, danger, lack of identity, unused and dilapidated property, treeless areas, barriers, visual intrusiveness, noise and air pollution, etc. can take place. 2. Interdisciplinary Insight. ‘Threads of hope’ can be identified where, a seed of opportunity can be exploited through creative intervention (Clark et al. [1]). The above simply will not happen, or will be limited, if approached from the viewpoint of one discipline area or professional group. We clearly need to develop more complex and insightful means of viewing and recording urban phenomena, as well as new modes of intervention. The interdisciplinary team offers the basis for doing so, as well as developing those discipline areas, in

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themselves, to further levels of understanding. The scope of connection, or middle ground, between discipline areas changes. Counter to the more recent academic traditions of putting up ‘firewalls’ between discipline areas, it is their association that matters, and transforms them from positions of relative isolation to more comprehensive, and hence relevant opportunities for urban interpretation, leading to more appropriate action. For example, the association of a transportation planner and landscape architect would lead to greater understanding of spatial barriers towards mobility, and in turn, which was certainly the case with the competition, have landscape architects understand the particular landscape needs of stations and transit corridors. Links between real estate finance and architecture can identify “soft buildings” capable of adaptive re-use, opportunities for new buildings to help alleviate negative environmental impacts, etc. This in turn reinforces those professional discipline areas. In the limited example given, a transportation planner includes the environmental quality of stations, bike and pedestrian ways; a landscape architect develops interest in new spatial agendas; architects understand the market place, feasibility and building finance; and people in real estate develop a greater understanding of interpretations of the existing built environment. 3. Urban Catalysts. The chances are that an area that has been ‘eroding’, and facing socio-economic stress over many years, is more likely to continue going down rather than up. Alternatively, from the well-researched literature on ‘urban invasion and succession’, at least in the American context, an area, if with potential, is more likely to be taken over and ‘gentrified’. An understanding of the potential roles and intervention of agencies that can stimulate the first stages of an urban renaissance, and at the same time offer it both protection and opportunity, is a key to urban sustainability. This is what Bentley (Bentley et al. [2], Bentley [3]), refers to as the “socially conscious developer”, providing greater protection, social and environmental benefit, and also stimulating opportunity for the ‘informal’ and lower income job sectors. This is a key to bringing about a greater sense of equity, which is one of the prime understandings of moving towards a more sustainable society. In the first example, a university can offer a wide range of part time learning opportunities, capitalizing on an adjacent station of the light rail system. Not only could the improvement to the 24-hour environment of their university increase opportunity, but also an urban campus can stimulate programs that bring benefit to an adjacent environment and community. Last year’s competition saw an extension of a light rail line and consequent stations in Los Angeles. This will stimulate greater opportunity for people to visit, and benefit from any future economic enterprise in the area, as well as providing residents and workplaces with greater contact with the wider city. This ‘putting on the map’ appears to be an important characteristic of redressing blight. Equivalent work in London, for example, has found a correlation between economic and social distress and the relative lack of public transportation (Hall and Ward [4]). In the case of Los Angeles, stations mean opportunity for small-scale economic enterprise, accessible housing, and adjacent learning environments.

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New agendas

The idea of catalysts, and their ability to harvest a multiplier effect, bringing benefit to adjacent areas and enterprises, is a key to understanding urban potential. A further value is to recognize approaches that may be referred to as ‘urban healing’. Here a vital interplay takes place between form, movement, environment, economy, and human benefit towards healing wounds, removing barriers, replacing missing pieces, overcoming pollution, and heightening opportunity. This position is not new, Christopher Alexander, Hajo Neis, Artemis Anninou, and Ingrid King develop it in “A New Theory of Urban Design” (Alexander et al. [5]). Here the group advocates that each increment of construction must be made in such a way as to make the city whole. In moving to revised agendas both socially and environmentally based for interdisciplinary decision-making, and incremental change towards a more wholesome urban fabric, a new set of principles for urban understanding and intervention present themselves. 1. Re-Connecting the City. This is the act of putting back together, through revised criteria for less invasive, and more egalitarian forms of movement. As one of the competition teams (3333 [6]) put it – “experience, opportunity, connection”, principles that can be placed in any order, or the key act of “linking people and place”, team (9953). Environments for walking and biking become a significant consideration in recognizing a population that is aging, seeking healthier lifestyles, has limited resources, and can be encouraged to be more dependent on transit. In The Social Logic of Space (Hillier [7]), Hillier and Hanson suggest that space is a network of choices leading to ways to measure the integration and connectivity of those spaces. Components of isovist, axial, and convex space describe a process of navigability or wayfinding, in some ways not dissimilar to Cullen’s intuitive townscape analyses. 2. Re-Energizing is the act of bringing local intelligence to areas of opportunity, and opening up new points of contact, information, and culture. Take the position of the traditional ghetto, it may not have had outstanding amenity but it did have established social networks offering one on one contact, and points of information as a means to a more open society with greater opportunity. Mariachi Plaza, one of the points of focus in last years competition, literally has Mariachi players waiting to be hired, teams 6234, 4197, 1818, and 8206 in particular, saw the need to accentuate that as a re-energized place, where through introducing adjacent cafes and performance space, people would be attracted to come to them. Ideas such as micro retail incubators (9953), bike based policing (9953), centers of adult learning, the internet, job center, daycare, communitybased high school (i.e. sharing resources) (6234), local museums, are each examples of the principle of re-energizing. 3. Closeness is the principle of designing urban fabrics that layer, associate and mix, and yet respect individuality, offering societies engagement and experience. This interrelates with the previous principle but focuses upon appropriate

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grouping to find ways to associate alternate economies and fabrics of retail, work, and housing through interventions in the market place, the leveraged market place, and agencies for urban change. Central is the principle of reclaiming the block, stimulating live/work space, capturing opportunity to place grocery stores and banking facilities close to a wide range of housing, grouping intelligence and social facilities close to transit stops, stimulating new micro economies close to transit stops and considering much greater integration of all uses. 4. Urban Energy The encouragement of walking and biking is an urban energy system, but now, at last, attention has begun to focus on the urban environment as a latent energy system. Largely brownfield and eroded environments can be viewed as potential energy farms, with the particular benefit of being close to their users. The first areas of investigation are in fabrics and built form that can generate energy, – from highways through car movement, movement of rivers, industrial roofs, and particularly expansive open industrial areas (above rail lines, for example) can be adopted for solar generation. Urban energy, strangely, can be seen in an entirely different form by keeping the opportunity and skills of low income workers in the inner city – a difficult goal to achieve. Many cities are now experimenting with compulsory affordable housing provisions, even more difficult to achieve with a limited market place. This introduces the wider function of a transit authority. By purchasing more land than needed for transit and station construction, a land bank is offered to obtain greater housing mix. In this case, calculations of each team showed that at least twenty percent of housing could be in that category. 5. Greening the City, places a greater emphasis upon amenity, heat sink reduction, the walking environment, recreation, and ability of cities in food and plant production. The lack of “green” can be seen as one of the prime indicators of lack of equity in the city. Take, for example, the map of London, large, famous parks grace the west, whereas the inner southeast and east not only lack park space, but are characterized by polluted brownfield sites. “Greening” should therefore firstly be seen as a social force providing linear greening of main and secondary streets and offering parks, amenity and recreation space in areas that are currently empty, and forlorn. An interesting theme, “seed, grow, replant, harvest” is both metaphor and principle for implementing: river basins, tree supply (2211); hydrology and industrial greening (2211); regenerative wetlands (3333); urban farming for the production of local produce (1818, 9953); farmer’s market (for produce grown in and adjacent to the area) (9953). The act of “greening” can thus be seen as follows. 6. Identity is the means by which a city gains integrity, meaning, and senses of belonging. Making places a central aspect of identity also reinforces the act of bringing people together, thus defining a democratic community. (Sennett [10], [11]), This suggests a new form of critical regionalism where local character, event, and morphology are key to creating an identity of the particular.

404 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE (Frampton [12]) As such, industrial legacy should not be shunned, or representation of local cultures. In the competition context, groups developed wall murals capturing local character (1818), promoted local art, and introduced a flea market (3333). To state the obvious, the above indicates both the seriousness and urgency of considering revisions to program format and curricula, as well as the agenda addressed in studio and seminar. Mixed curricula, joint programs, teamwork, reaching out to new adventures in alternate urban contexts, must become the norm. “That attitude – that you can sacrifice small things, young things, and a diversity of things for some great success – is sad,” Jane Jacobs.

References [1] Clark, J., Crawford, M. and Kaliski, J. Everyday Urbanism. Monacelli, 1999. [2] Bentley, I., Alcock, A., McGlynn, S., Smith, G. Responsive Environments. Architectural Press 2001. [3] Bentley, I. Urban Transformations: Power, People, and Urban Design. Routledge 1998. [4] Hall, P. and Ward, C. Sociable Cities. Wiley, 1998. [5] Alexander, C., Neis, H., Anninou, H., and King, I. A New Theory of Urban Design. 1987. [6] Team 3333 (Bricker, Scarfe, Rojas, Zhou, Haby); Team 9953 (Braun, Eckerman, Moore, Luecking, Metta); Team 5467 (Moss, Kim, Yang, Donoso, O’Hair); Team 6234 (Surat, Stern, Gladstone, Li, Egner); Team 4197 (Chen, Kone, Roberts, Humphry, Hu); Team 1818 (Trachtenberg, Roy, Finn, Biehle, Gully); Team 8206 (Devereux, Ballas, Buentello, Huie, Johnson); Team 2211 (Raab, Antozzi, Cox, Curulla, Duan). [7] Hillier, B. and Hanson, J. The Social Logic of Space. 1984. Cambridge, U.P. [8] Hillier, B. Space is the Machine: A Configurational Theory of Architecture. 1999. Cambridge U.P. [9] Schumacher, E.F. Small is Beautiful. 1989. Harper Row. [10] Sennett, R. The Uses of Disorder. 1992. Norton. [11] Sennett, R. Flesh and Stone. 1994. Norton [12] Frampton, K. Towards a Critical Regionalism: Six Points for an Architecture of Resistance in the Anti-Aesthetic Essays on Postmodern Culture. 1983. Foster H., Bay Press.

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Experiments in traditional building, architecture and urbanism education: INTBAU's recent work M. Hardy Secretary, International Network for Traditional Building, Architecture & Urbanism, UK Member, Royal Australian Institute of Architects, Australia

Abstract Since September 2000 the International Network for Traditional Building, Architecture & Urbanism (INTBAU) has been exploring ways of promoting education in and understanding of traditional buildings and places around the world. In a series of development workshops, live design projects, training programmes and conferences in Norway, Germany, the UK, India, Romania and Italy, INTBAU has been developing new methods for hands-on training of architecture students. Central to INTBAU’s method is the involvement of practitioners, academics, students and local residents together as “participants” (rather than as teachers and students). INTBAU believes that participants should both teach and learn from each other, while solving practical problems. Its workshops help local communities plan their future, and its training courses in Romania are restoring a building previously condemned for demolition for use as a training and information centre. The paper will be illustrated with examples from INTBAU’s work and will frankly examine the successes and failures of this approach, drawing lessons for future programmes. Keywords: traditional, building, architecture, urbanism, charrette, conference, Romania, India, Nigeria, Prince of Wales.

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Introduction

The International Network for Traditional Building, Architecture & Urbanism is a worldwide organisation dedicated to the support of traditional building around the world, the preservation of local character, and the creation of better places to live. It brings together all those who design, make, maintain, study or enjoy traditional building, architecture and places and promotes education in traditional architecture. INTBAU was launched in January 2002 with a conference in London entitled Tradition Today: Dead or Alive? and is now an educational Charity registered in the UK no. 1103068. It is truly international, with chapters in Australia, Canada, India, Iran, Ireland, Germany, Poland, Romania, Nigeria, Norway, the UK and USA, and 2,500 members are drawn from 100 countries. INTBAU’s activities can be neatly divided in three. First, it networks to link individuals and organisations concerned for the survival of traditional buildings, architecture and places. Second, it supports projects of other organisations and institutions by partnerships. To date these have included summer schools, workshops and academic conferences. Third, and an area which is rapidly increasing as the organisational structure develops, INTBAU undertakes its own educational programmes. Details of these make up the remainder of this chapter. All activities of the organisation, and third-party proposals for collaboration, are subject to a test of relevance against the aims of the INTBAU Charter [1]. INTBAU helps its members and others to work together and to publicise events, courses and matters of public interest through its website at www.intbau.org.

2 INTBAU education activities As the organisation has developed in recent years, so its own educational programme has grown. This programme is carried out in two major ways: in academic education; and by live urban design projects. 2.1 Academic education In 2003, UK INTBAU members developed a 1-day course in classical architecture that is offered free to architecture schools. The course was piloted at the University of Greenwich, and has since run there and at the University of the West of England in Bristol. The day begins with a lecture on the Orders by INTBAU Chair Robert Adam, followed by a walking tour of traditional buildings near the school, with tutors explaining where underlying Orders emerge on astylar facades in the form of string courses, bases, entablatures and cornices. Then all return to the studio and play the game, in which participants score by locating hidden orders on printed elevation drawings. The course has received very good reviews from students, and it is likely to be the only day of their five- or six-year course that they spend learning about traditional buildings.

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INTBAU's second major step in academic education came in 2006 with collaboration on the PhD programme of The Prince's School of Traditional Arts (PSTA). PSTA is founded upon the post-graduate Visual Islamic and Traditional Arts Programme (VITA) originally established at the Royal College of Art in 1984, transferred to The Prince of Wales’ Institute of Architecture in 1993, and incorporated into The Prince’s Foundation for the Built Environment (PFBE) in 2000. Like INTBAU, PSTA is located at the PFBE building in Charlotte Road, Shoreditch. Degree courses are validated by the University of Wales. External supervisors are sought from INTBAU's global network of academic contacts. INTBAU's third major contribution to academic education is as part of the editorial team of the Routledge Journal of Urbanism [2]. This new venture will publish research on placemaking and urban sustainability. The other two editors are Emily Talen (University of Arizona) and Charles Bohl (Knight Program in Community Building at the University of Miami). The first edition is April 2008. Finally, the organisation also sponsors an INTBAU Professorship in traditional building, architecture and urbanism at the University of Greenwich. The first INTBAU Professor is British urbanist Paul Murrain. 2.2 Peer-reviewed academic conferences Since 2005, INTBAU has run annual peer-reviewed academic conferences, starting with Tradition and Modernity in Urban Form with the International Seminar on Urban Form, and followed with The Venice Charter Revisited in 2006 and New Architecture & Urbanism: The Development of Indian Traditions and History, Heritage, Regeneration in 2007. The 2008 conference is The Relevance of Traditional Architecture, to be held in Kano, Nigeria. 2.3 INTBAU design workshops INTBAU's second focus in education is on programmes that run as part of live design workshops using the charrette model. Since 2002, INTBAU has conducted eight traditional architecture and urbanism workshops. All have involved students working alongside local and foreign practitioners. Atelier Neumarkt Dresden 2001 was held with Gessellschaft Historischer Neumarkt Dresden (GHND, Association for the Historic Dresden Newmarket). Dresden, once an elegant Baroque city, was razed by fire bombing in February 1945. In the early 1990s an appeal for help with the reconstruction of the Frauenkirche was launched. The exterior of the church was completed in summer 2004, but the area around it remained empty. Polls carried out in 1999 and 2000 suggested that over 80% of Dresdeners favoured a reconstruction [3], but the City was slow to react. While Dresden City planning guidelines respected the old street pattern, materials and proportions, a poll signed by 63,338 Dresdeners called for original buildings to be accurately reconstructed [4]. Late in 2000, GHND approached INTBAU to join the international campaign. INTBAU’s work, by students of the University of Ferrara under the direction of College of Chapters member Prof. Gabriele Tagliaventi, included designs and a feasibility

408 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE study showing that it was economically viable to rebuild on traditional lines. INTBAU’s contribution came at a crucial stage in the debate, and since then rebuilding has been a mix of reconstructed and new buildings. At the Scandinavian Summer School 2002, held with Stiftelsen Byens Fornyelse at the town of Fredrikstad in Norway, participants including students of the local architecture school made proposals for development of the FMV shipyard on the island of Kråkerøy, abandoned in 1989. Though the skilled manual jobs lost in the closure are replaced on the site by jobs in high-tech manufacturing, office and tertiary study, the buildings containing these occupy less than 5% of the site, leaving a big gap in the town. INTBAU devised a strategy for flexible subdivision and disposal of land that could be adapted to changing market conditions. The scheme was presented to the city and site owners at the summer school and following further development. Both were enthusiastic about the ideas, which transformed the site’s potential. Further development was expected, but the death of one site owner stopped the project. INTBAU's Transylvanian Village Development Workshop 2003, held in Laslea in Romania with the Mihai Eminescu Trust (MET), aimed at assisting in the sustainable development of the medieval ‘Saxon’ villages of Transylvania. The workshop involved 32 practitioners and students from Romania and abroad, working with citizens in a 5 day charrette. Participants analysed the village and produced traditional urbanist proposals integrating heritage preservation and sustainable development. The masterplan included design guidance for simple improvements to the streetscape and amenities of the village, and for new traditional buildings in the village and in extensions to it. Lack of a local organisation (since rectified with the formation of INTBAU România in 2005) meant that few of these recommendations were implemented. An exception was the restoration of House 344 Laslea, undertaken by INTBAU and MET, the process being used as a practical teaching resource. The Transylvania Pattern Book Workshop 2004 was supported by the Technical University of Dresden, and involved Romanian and foreign students. This workshop was the initial stage of a longer process aimed at developing design guidance for new buildings in Romania's 265 ‘Saxon’ villages. Work continues with the support of the University of Notre Dame, Indiana. INTBAU India’s Mumbai Mills Design Workshop 2005 had the support of the Indian National Trust for Arts & Cultural Heritage (INTACH), and drew attention to options for the 90 old textile mills and their sites. Participants included British regeneration experts, Indian community members, academics, government and students from the Rachna School of Architecture in a 3 day charrette. The sample layout produced showed that government objectives of affordable housing and open space could include conservation and sustainable re-use. The city then asked INTBAU India to report to a special committee formed by the Chief Minister of Maharastra. However, ongoing court cases for and against listing continue the uncertainty. The project gained wide publicity in South-East Asia, which may well have benefits that outlive the mills. INTBAU Romania's Transylvania Ecotourism Workshop 2005 continued the work started in 2003, and was followed by the Transylvania Drawing Tour

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2006 to test low impact tourism in the Laslea area. INTBAU Romania continued its activity with the Bran Protected Landscape Area Workshops in 2005 and 2006, involving students from the University of Timisoara in a project in conjunction with an amenity group, the Pro-Bran Association. The project was finalised in early 2008 with an adaptation of the US-based SmartCode [5], which will be incorporated into the Bran town planning regulations.

3

Conclusions

INTBAU continues to develop its skills in delivering live projects for local communities. Central to these is the involvement of students, in the belief that more is learned by working with practitioners than by academic lectures. The organisation now works with a range of university architecture schools in India, Italy, Nigeria, Romania, and elsewhere, providing content for summer schools and conferences. Student satisfaction with these courses appears high [6]. However, frustrations continue with the general acceptance of traditional architecture as a discipline in most other architectural schools. The number of schools where traditional design is tolerated – let alone encouraged – is very small. A list of such courses occupies a single page of INTBAU’s website [7]. Stories circulate of projects being failed solely because they are traditional. Little research on new traditional architecture is published. There remains a huge task to ‘rehabilitate’ traditional design in tertiary education. On a more positive note, traditional urbanism has had rather more success than traditional architecture in the last 20 years, driven by the efforts of NGOs such as the Congress for the New Urbanism (from 1994), Prince’s Foundation for the Built Environment (from 1999) and Council for European Urbanism (from 2003). Similarly, INTBAU’s hands-on training projects, at first at House 344 Laslea and now expanding to other locations, have been sell-out successes. Following Bran, INTBAU Chapters are now being invited to contribute to live projects in Romania and India. Perhaps this is a good route for INTBAU: to bring students into its own projects, rather than enter tertiary education directly.

References [1] INTBAU Steering Committee, INTBAU Charter, London 2002. Available in 22 languages at www.intbau.org/charter.htm. [2] Full details are at www.informaworld.com/rjou. [3] Tagliaventi, G., “International Project for the Traditional Reconstruction of Neumarkt (New Market), Dresden”, in A Vision of Europe, 1992-2008. Available at www.avoe.org/dresden.html (visited 6 May 2008 16:32). [4] Gesselschaft Historischer Neumarkt Dresden, Bürgerbegehren (Petition by Citizens), 2003. Reported at www.neumarkt-dresden.de/ buergerbegehren1. html (visited 6 May 2008 16:11). [5] Duany Plater Zyberk & Company, SmartCode, 9th Edition, 2008. Available at www.smartcodecentral.com/ (Visited 6 May 2008 15:38).

410 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE [6] Isopescu, B., et al, Workshop Report, INTBAU, 2006 (internal document). [7] Dunham, J. and Hardy, M., “Academies teaching New Urbanism and/or traditional design - alphabetical by country and institution”, 5th edition, 2008. Available at www.intbau.org/academic.htm.

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The European School of Urbanism and Architecture: a model curriculum for an age of globalisation A. Engh Association for Adult Learning, Norway

Abstract The European School of Urbanism and Architecture has a pilot curriculum for integrated urban and architectural study funded by the European Union’s Leonardo da Vinci programme in vocational education and training. Its thirteen partners in seven countries can use the elements of the curriculum as modular units of their own existing programmes within a cooperative network, or establish a quasi-independent full-degree programme. The programme features integrated study of urbanism with architecture, inter-disciplinary education, project-based learning, exchange studies across national boundaries, first-hand studies of local architectural and urban histories, Keywords: urbanism, architecture, interdisciplinary curriculum, project-based learning.

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Introduction

One of the key motivations for the formation of the European Union was to secure the competitive advantage of the European states in an increasingly global trade environment. In that spirit, the Leonardo da Vinci programme was established to raise European standards for vocational education and training. As its website says, the programme “aims to establish and bolster the competitiveness of the European labour market by helping European citizens to acquire new skills, knowledge and qualifications and have them recognised across borders.” A key gap has been the interdisciplinary education of professionals in the built environment. Henceforth education has been largely confined to isolated specialties of building design, landscape design, urban planning and the like. As

412 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE a result of this separation of disciplines, practices developed over years of urban development are now incompatible with conventional engineering and planning standards. Terms and standards within various fields are not consistent, and are further compromised by national variations of language and practice. As a result, the competitiveness of European practitioners on a global stage has been compromised.

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The ESUA project

The European School of Architecture and Urbanism is an initiative of thirteen partners in seven European countries, working to develop a pilot curriculum that integrates the disciplines of architecture and urban design. The ESUA project brings together existing initiatives in several European countries, to develop innovative measures and instruments to promote a recognised European qualification in urban design and architecture. The project rests on the premise that urbanism and architecture should be taught as an integrated discipline that brings interdisciplinary technical expertise to the complex problems encountered in city and town design. Present European courses in architecture and urban design are divided into separate disciplines, with European urbanism as a topic mostly excluded from architecture and taught in specialised schools. Students and practitioners from the different fields have little contact with each other’s ideas during education and professional life. The ESUA project will reintroduce urban design as a main curriculum topic from the first year, to form the basis for all design and architecture. Course modules will be developed to address areas that are particularly sought after by governments and the market. These include but are not limited to: community involvement in planning by the “Charrette” (or “Enquiry by Design”) process; spatial analysis using “Space Syntax”; design for walkable neighbourhoods; transport-oriented development; urban sustainability; building conservation; urban regeneration; adaptive re-use of abandoned buildings; transport planning; regional vernacular architectures of Europe; infill development in historic centres; redevelopment of social housing estates; traditional building crafts; and architectural design to enhance historic environments. The project’s university and lifelong learning partners will design, test and assess and develop a transnational curriculum of teaching modules for tertiary students, in a pilot programme by its 13 partners. Institutional partners can offer this curriculum as modular elements of a full degree programme through their institutional accreditation. The project will develop course modules able to be taken as units for Continuing Professional Development (CPD), as a Bachelor of Architecture, as components for a part-time Master of Arts (MA) in Urban Design, or as required precursors for Doctoral study. The first target group is new students from the age around 19 who wish to educate themselves to become urbanists and/or architects. The secondary target group is in the field of post graduate education for planners, architects and various professionals related to community development, as well as for practising skilled artisans wanting to broaden their range of skills.

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The ESUA project aims for these courses to become available as modular curricula for adoption by other universities, or as accredited units for students to take as part of other courses across Europe. To this end, we will encourage continuous training of teachers as well as practitioners. Modules will focus on specific issues relevant to each country, and the aim is to add more modules and more countries to the project in the future. The project results are also transferable to others, such as town planners, politicians, and people interested in the future development of their cities and villages. The process will include dissemination of the course curriculum free to others worldwide.

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Key elements of the curriculum structure

The curriculum offers a number of key innovations: 1. Students work on actual projects, alongside practicing professionals and stakeholders. There they learn “meta-skills” such as collaboration, facilitation, leadership and on-the-job self-education. 2. Students learn to collaborate with others across borders and with varying local conditions, languages and standards of practice. 3. Students learn a range of subjects in addition to technical specialties, including urban subjects (sociology, economics, political science, et al). 4. Students travel to varying locales and study local history and precedent. They learn to listen to local residents, research local conditions, and diagnose local needs and assets. They learn to analyze and compare the evolution of urban and architectural history in different cultural contexts. 5. Students gain hands-on experience in the building process, through study of building trades and crafts, and through hands-on exercises. 6. Students learn to develop and test design hypotheses through collaborative simulation processes, applying an evidence-based approach.

4

Development of the programme

The ESUA curriculum is being developed through a two-year pilot phase that includes five test modules in five countries. The modules are workshops that bring pilot students from several partners together with professionals on actual projects, and test their ability to learn in this kind of dynamic on-the-job environment. The workshop programme is supplemented with lectures and student preparation modules. In addition, the pilot phase includes curriculum development workshops, which combine elements of existing partner curricula, research into new curriculum approaches, and new pilot curriculum concepts. The entire curriculum will be published and made available to the public on completion of the pilot phase, and presented in a final conference in Oslo, Norway on September 13, 2008.

414 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE The curriculum will be further developed and disseminated through a second phase, the Education and Dissemination in Urbanism, Architecture and Craft (EDUAC). This phase will develop detailed curricular materials and additional programme elements.

Acknowledgements Thanks to Matthew Hardy for original ESUA documentation material.

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Designing architectural curricula according to international documents: the case of the Eastern Mediterranean University, North Cyprus S. O. Hoskara Eastern Mediterranean University, North Cyprus

Abstract The main aim of this paper is to discuss the current trends and approaches in architectural education and to set up a framework for the issue of “designing architectural curricula” according to internationally agreed documents on architectural education. With this intention, firstly, a brief review of the reasons on the changes and reforms taking place in the profession of architecture and architectural education will be presented. Then, through a documentary analysis, the international documents regarding architectural education – being one of the major factors of all these changes and reforms, will be reviewed, in order to set up a basis for the issue of reforming existing architectural curricula. Having set up such a framework, the recently revised and reformed curricula of the Department of Architecture of the Eastern Mediterranean University (EMU) – the biggest university in North Cyprus with 15000 students within 10 faculties, running 50 undergraduate, 25 master and 13 doctorate programs – will be presented, mainly based on the criteria set up in the Architects’ Directive. Keywords: architectural education, Architects’ Directive, European Higher Education Area, EMU Department of Architecture.

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Directives, declarations, directions on architectural education leading to change and transformation

Architectural education molds the shapers of the environment that gives meaning and substance to the future. The profession of “architect” and the professional

416 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE culture in which it operates in each country is very different. As was indicated in a comparative study completed in 1994-95 in University of York [1], even in a geographically and historically closely linked part of Europe, very different strands emerge. Accordingly, schools of architecture are by no means the same, nor do they have the same objectives. Spiridonidis [2] states that, since change is one of the fundamental dimensions of architecture, the reform of educational structure becomes a necessary condition of architectural education. There are several reasons behind the reforms, regulatory development and changes in schools of architecture and mainly on their curricula; the most crucial one being the European Higher Education Area – the new EU policies towards a cohesive European space of higher education, as well as other international level of declarations, charters, etc. by UIA, ACE, NAAB. Having reviewed some regulatory international documents and the EU initiatives so far concerning the profession (of architecture) and education of an architect, the following documents (including several declarations, directives, meeting reports, etc.) can be regarded as the main leading and guiding ones on architectural education: (1) The Architects’ Directive 85/384/CEE (1985) [3]; (2) The Magna Charta Universitatum-1988; (3) The UIA/UNESCO Charter for Architectural Education-1996/revised in 2005 [4]; (4) The Joint Declaration of the European Ministers of Education, Bologna-1999 (initiation of the so-called Bologna Process with Bologna Declaration); (5) The UIA Accord and Recommendations-1999-2002; (6) The Salamanca Convention of European Higher Education Institutions-2001; (7) The Student Göteburg Declaration-2001; (8) The Communiqué of the Meeting of European Ministers in Charge of Higher Education in Prague-2001; (9) The Communiqué of the Conference of European Ministers Responsible for Higher Education: Realising the European Higher Education Area, Berlin, 19 September 2003; (10) The Communiqué of the Conference of European Ministers Responsible for Higher Education: The European Higher Education Area–Achieving the Goals, Bergen, 19-20 May 2005; (11) The EU Directive on Recognition of Professional Qualifications Directive 2005/36/EC–which came into force on October 20, 2007; (12) The EU Directive 2006/123/EC on Services in the Internal Market, and, (13) The London Communiqué (of the Conference of European Ministers Responsible for Higher Education): Towards the European Higher Education Area–responding the challenges in a globalized world, London, 18 May, 2005. In addition to these regulatory frameworks, there are also attitudes and actions of international organizations (both in Europe and in US) such as the International Union of Architects (UIA), Architects’ Council of Europe (ACE), Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA), European Association of Architectural Education (EAAE) and its thematic-network – European Network of Heads of Schools of Architecture (ENHSA), Association of Collegiate of Schools of Architecture (ACSA) and National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB) in US, etc., on the existing conditions and the future of architectural education. Within this regulatory context, all schools of architecture in Europe are/have been under pressure to reform their curricula in order to be part of the so called European Higher Architectural Education Area.

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The revised and reformed curricula of the EMU Department of Architecture according to International Documents

Turkey and North Cyprus – where the case study of this paper, Department of Architecture at Eastern Mediterranean University (EMU) is located, are the two of these counties, where all the European and international level developments in architectural education are followed and adopted to the national contexts. For some years, as a part of the Europeanization process, in Turkey-being a candidate member in EU, and in North Cyprus-within the process of solving the political problems with the Southern Sector of the Island, there has been intensive discussion on the quality and length of university level education in architecture. These discussions are in parallel to the developments in EU countries and within UIA and ACE as well as basing on their national contexts, which represent similarities and differences. In Turkey there are about 35 schools of architecture and in North Cyprus there are 5. Heads of Departments of these 40 schools have set up a volunteer group, called MOBBIG (Communication Group of Heads of Departments of Architecture) which meets twice every year to discuss the recent developments in architectural education both at national and international levels. Besides, the Chambers of Architects in Turkey and in North Cyprus are also dealing with the reconfiguration issues of architectural education in parallel to the developments in the profession. Department of Architecture at EMU was set up in 1990 in city of Famagusta, in the northern part of Cyprus, where there is a separate governing system since 1974-named as Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) after 1983. Five years later, in 1994, right after the graduation of the first group of students of this initial program, there was a need to modify the program according to the changing trends of the day, both within the university and in the architectural arena. The committee in charge has evaluated various other architectural programs in US, Europe and in the Middle Eastern region, and in 1995 the second curriculum of the Department was in action and gave about 941 graduates until the end of 2007. The Department, today (with its 588 undergraduate students and 61 postgraduate students, from various nationalities (187 local students–North Cyprus/TRNC; 208 from Turkey; 254 from other countries with a majority from Iran and Nigeria), is running its third undergraduate program since 2005-2006 academic year. The need for reforming the second program of the Department occurred in 2000, when the University started taking actions as a result of the Bologna Process. Thus, the third undergraduate curriculum has been prepared by several sub-committees within the Department between the years 2000-2005, following the discussions in MOBBIG in Turkey, in ENHSA network, in UIA and ACE, as well as based on the developments and suggestions put forward by the international documents mentioned above. In the context of these latest reforms, a radical re-allocation of teaching time took place, a number of new subject areas were added, the importance of some other subject areas was diminished, and new directions of specialization were introduced in architectural education at EMU. The studio has

418 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE become the core of education which is supported by theoretical courses and electives; the students have been given opportunity to do a double-major by selecting a major route or a track-line among the elective courses from other departments or faculties to support an interdisciplinary approach. The new curriculum now also provides students to enroll general education lectures complimentary to the general education philosophy of the University. Accordingly, the Department, with its renewed program, aims at providing education of excellence, integrating theory and practice. The criteria set by the Architects Directive 85-384-EEC and then confirmed by the Qualifications Directive, has been expanded according to local and regional conditions in the First Architecture and Education Congress organized by the Turkish Chamber of Architects in collaboration with the Schools of Architecture at the Universities in North Cyprus in May 2007 [5], and six more criteria have been added to the list of the Directive. The curriculum of EMU Department of Architecture has been evaluated by using the eleven plus six criteria on architectural education. According to this evaluation, it can be stated that, the newly reformed curriculum of the Department covers almost all criteria of the Directive and the local conditions; however, it seems the contents of the curriculum are not sufficient enough in terms of profession-oriented issues. This can be explained as the general weakness of the program, which the recently introduced one-year M.Arch. program tries to cover, leading to a five year professional education within the country, as also been suggested and supported by the Chamber Architects both in Turkey and in North Cyprus, following the recommendations of UNESCO/UIA Charter and EU. EMU Department of Architecture, through its recently revised and reshaped undergraduate curriculum and its new one-year master of architecture program, which has been designed to cover the professional and technical weaknesses and insufficiencies of the running 4-year curriculum, is also (almost) ready to adopt itself to the changing trends and expected values of the architectural education as defined by the international organizations and documents. This will carry the Department to become one of the leading ones both in the Eastern Mediterranean Region and also in Turkey and Europe.

References [1] Orbasli, A. & Worthington, J., Architecture and Town Planning Education in the Netherlands: A European Comparison, York, Institute of Advanced Architectural Studies, 1995. [2] Spiridonidis, C., Formulating the future of architectural education in Europe, EAAE News Sheet Bulletin, 76, Special Issue, pp. 55-67, 2006. [3] The Architects’ Directive 85/384/CEE, 1985, Official Journal, L 223, 21/08/1985, p. 0015-0025. [4] UNESCO/UIA Charter for Architectural Education, Revised Version 2005, http://www.uia-architectes.org/image/PDF/CHARTES/CHART_ANG.pdf [5] 1st Architecture and Education Congress Report, 3-4 May 2007, EMU.

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RIBA Examination in Architecture for Office-based Candidates: a unique and flexible alternative J. Stevenson RIBA UK and Department of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University, UK

Abstract Under the provisions of the EU Directive on the recognition of professional qualifications (2005/36/EC, 7 September 2005), Article 47 provides for the recognition of architectural training that lies outside of conventional patterns of full-time university level education combined with periods in practice. Under this ‘social betterment’ provision, candidates who have been working for seven years or more in the field of architecture under the supervision of an architect can present themselves for examination, so long as the examination is of an equivalent university level. (The equivalent level, in terms of knowledge and skills, is defined in Article 46 of the Directive, covering all schools of architecture in the EU.) In the UK, uniquely, the Royal Institute of British Architects, in collaboration with the Department of Architecture at Oxford Brookes University, maintains a university level examination in architecture, known as ‘the RIBA Examination in Architecture for Office-based Candidates’. The examination mirrors the curriculum, level and bi-partite division of full-time study in the UK into two parts namely: the Part 1, equivalent to the three-year undergraduate programme, and the Part 2, equivalent to the two-year diploma programme. The important difference between this examination, and programmes of study in universities, is that ‘candidates’ (rather than students) are required to remain working full-time in architectural practice under the supervision of a registered architect, for the duration of their preparation for the examination. The examination route to qualification provides an alternative to university study, particularly for those who prefer to invest their personal development in practice. Keywords: alternative, collaborative, examination, practice-based.

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1 Office-based study Traditionally perceived as the ‘apprenticeship’ route to qualification, the concept of learning through practice lies at the heart of the Office-based examination. But it is not the practice work per se which is being evaluated. The objective of the examination is to measure how far each candidate is able to place their own experience and personal development in the context of the validation criteria at Part 1 and Part 2 level. The methodology relies upon the development of a ‘personal portfolio’ together with parallel portfolio evidence of professional practice development. The examination demands that candidates engage in critical studies in relation to design, technology, cultural and professional contexts. These subjects are examined formally through written examinations, essays and coursework submissions, and through traditional graphic and oral design presentations. The examiners also discuss and review the ongoing professional experience record and practice-based portfolio. In this way the examiners are able to assess how and where personal and professional development is taking place. Most of the candidates who choose this route to qualification, are either working at high levels of responsibility in practice, and therefore cannot consider taking time off for study, or there is no suitable part-time programme of study available in their geographical area. The Office-based route therefore offers these candidates the opportunity to develop their own critical and creative skills whilst continuing to work full-time. In order to support this process, candidates are required to identify a qualified architect within their practice who will act as a mentor during their studies. The mentor will meet periodically with the candidate to review their progress and is required to report their findings to the examination management committee. Candidates are also required to appoint a tutor, who has knowledge of the required levels at Part 1 and Part 2, and who is completely independent (outside of) the candidate’s workplace. The tutor is also required to report to the examination management committee on the candidate’s progress. Successful completion of the Office-based examination leads to the institute’s award of either the RIBA Part 1 Certificate in Architecture or the RIBA Part 2 Diploma in Architecture, which enables the candidates to progress to the Part 3 registration examination. There is no academic award conferred by the University.

2

Partnership

Although this examination is delivered by a University, which also delivers equivalent taught programmes of study, the Office-based Examination remains firmly within the ownership and over-riding management of the professional institute, the RIBA. The advantage to the institute is that all programmes delivered within a University context, are subject to rigorous quality assurance procedures, which ensure high quality programme design and delivery, and regulations, which reflect not only the interests of the academic institution, but

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also the interests of candidates. From the University’s point of view, it is able to deliver an alternative route to professional qualifications in architecture, using the benchmark of its own validated taught programmes (specifically at Part 1 and Part 2 level). The other arena of partnership is that which exists between each candidate and his/her tutor and mentor. The employing practice context provides the basis for the development of the individual candidate in relation to the specific culture and direction of the practice, and the mentoring relationship ensures that the practice is fully aware of the candidate’s pathway through the various stages of the examination. The other important partnership is that which develops between the candidate and his/her chosen tutor. The quality assurance process ensures that all parties to the examination, the candidates, their tutors and mentors, and the examiners, and external examiners, are enjoined in a systematic annual feedback process, which ensures that the management committee is appraised of the strengths and weaknesses of the operation of the examination. For example, it is vitally important for the management committee to get feedback from candidates and tutors on the effectiveness of the published examination guidance.

3

Learning contract

The programme operates through the exchange of an annual learning contract between each candidate and the programme administration. An annually updated guide called the ‘Guide, Syllabus and Regulations’ (GSR) is issued to every candidate. It contains guidance on the operation and management of the programme; a syllabus detailing each stage of the examination and the required submissions, cross referenced to the RIBA Part 1 and Part 2 Criteria; and academic regulations relating to the conduct of assessments. The Learning Contract also contains the specific (non-negotiable) dates for all examinations throughout the year ahead. Candidates use the Learning Contract to identify which pieces of work they wish to embark upon in the forthcoming year, and are able to plan their time in relation to the specified submission or examination dates.

4

Forms of examination

The subjects covered by the Office-based Examination mirror exactly the expectations of the validation criteria for the assessment of architecture, and ensure that candidates are examined in design and technology, and in the cultural and professional contexts of architecture, and in communication skills. The forms of examination, coursework and design project assessments also mirror those experienced within taught programmes and to equivalent levels. There are written formal examinations in technology, practice and management, and in cultural context. There are also written coursework requirements (essays, project-related reports and dissertations). The examination of design is preceded by the assessment of design portfolio development, and culminates in a graphic

422 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE and oral presentation of a comprehensive design project, at both Part 1 and Part 2 level. The design project-work which candidates present is characteristically and professionally ‘complete’, and is supported by written research reports in each of the critical subject areas. Given that candidates are continuously involved in many aspects of design and communication, contract management, and the technological resolution of design through practice, the most challenging aspect of the examination is the acquisition of skills relating to cultural contexts of architecture, and the development of design concepts. The examination highlights the importance of reading, research and writing, and the importance of identifying tutors who can guide candidates through these aspects of the examination.

5

Flexibility

Inevitably, the examination route to qualification can take longer to complete than traditional taught programmes leading to the same award. However the Office-based Examination identifies with the concept of ‘life-long learning’ and the importance of providing a flexible alternative route for relatively mature candidates. The programme recognises that many candidates have partners and children, and that moving job, moving house, having children may affect the regular progress of their work in ways not normally experienced by full-time students. Therefore there are provisions within the examination system to enable candidates to withdraw from study without penalty, but within reasonable time limits.

6

Feedback

Very few candidates ‘fail’ – many candidates take longer than planned to complete. Successful candidates express enormous satisfaction from the realisation of personal growth and achievement, and the ability to progress to registration by this route. Practices see this examination as a means to invest in the professional development of their employees, and tutors are incredibly supportive of the methodology and the opportunity to work with candidates from practice. This examination is one of a series of initiatives in the UK, including the new RIBA Teaching Practices scheme, and the ‘Earn and Learn/Learn and Earn’ research project at the University of Westminster, which highlight the need to consider how students and candidates learn through practice.

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Designing the future professional: expectations of the next generation A. C. Caruso1 & T. P. Vanky2 1 2

President, American Institute of Architecture Students, USA Vice President, American Institute of Architecture Students, USA

Abstract Among the many issues and venues in which the American Institute of Architecture Students (AIAS) has provided visionary leadership over its distinguished history, the presence of the student perspective in the process of architectural accreditation has been particularly poignant. In preparation for the 2008 Accreditation Review Conference (ARC) of the United States’ National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB), the organization proudly contributes the 2008 Issue Brief on Architectural Education to further inform and shape the educational process of twenty-first century design professionals. The 2008 AIAS Issue Brief on Architectural Education is positioned as a critical and anticipatory document, which highlights issues relevant to the future education and practice of the profession, citing opportunities for necessary and visionary change. It frames the voice of future practitioners, educators and leaders who will inherit the legacy of our current decisions. Keywords: architecture curriculum, national architectural accrediting board (NAAB), American Institute of Architecture Students (AIAS), Accreditation Review Conference (ARC), studio culture, trends in architectural education, pedagogy, issue brief on architectural education.

1

Introduction

Since 1956, the American Institute of Architecture Students (AIAS) has proudly represented the voice of over 100,000 future leaders of the architecture and design community. In that time, the AIAS has championed many issues relative to education and practice within the built environment. Through AIAS, the presence of the student perspective in the process of architectural accreditation

424 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE has been particularly poignant. In 2008, we proudly contribute the 2008 AIAS Issue Brief on Architectural Education to further inform and shape the educational process of twenty-first century design professionals.

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Intent of the Issue Brief

The 2008 AIAS Issue Brief on the Future of Architectural Education is positioned as a critical and anticipatory document that highlights issues relevant to the future education and practice of the profession, citing opportunities for necessary and visionary change. It frames the voice of future practitioners, educators and leaders who will inherit the legacy of our current decisions. Observations and recommendations herein may serve as a primer of the attitudes, priorities, expectations, and interests of a future generation of design professionals. In keeping with this approach, the brief conveys major areas of focus, trends in priority setting, and expectations of how emerging professionals will need to perform as future architects; and therefore, the means and methods in which they will need to be trained.

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Process of the Issue Brief

The 2008 AIAS Issue Brief on Architectural Education is the result of eight months of intense dialogue, both within and beyond organizational, constituent, academic, professional and disciplinary boundaries. Sincere thanks are extended to the AIAS ARC Task Force, the 2006-2007 Board of Directors and the 20072008 Board of Directors; a diverse and vibrant collection of student leaders whose talents and characteristics provide just one example of the multiplicities, complexities and pluralities in which we operate.

4 Fundamental concepts for this effort As the AIAS wades deeply into the issues of an increasingly relevant education and responsive practice of architecture in the twenty-first century, we approach these issues with the following core concepts: 1. Today’s architecture students will be tomorrow’s architects and design professionals. As such, they inherit the legacy of these decisions and share equally in the stewardship of the future. Furthermore, the student perspective provides valuable insight and vision to be leveraged into measurable results. 2. The only thing that is constant is change. The context of education and practice is radically evolving to meet the demands of an increasingly complex world. Students embrace this change and are prepared to answer its call with passion and enthusiastic determination. 3. At its best, the Academy serves as an incubator of ideas and values that shape the future of architectural practice. As such, the accreditation review process provides students a powerful opportunity to provoke visionary change.

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A note on process: evolution vs. revolution

While the AIAS finds great value in the current accreditation system, there is eager anticipation of progressive, evolutionary change to keep pace with contemporary trends and forces affecting the profession. AIAS urges the NAAB process to leverage broad vision into transformative change. Accreditation must seek to be an agent in a process that is increasingly nimble, inclusive and evidence-based. Additionally, an evolution in the accreditation review process should allow for substantial investment, inclusion and care in the process of preparing for changes in accreditation; and therefore, facilitate more meaningful and transformational change that is anticipatory, rather than reactionary.

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Emergent trends in architectural education

ECOLOGICAL LITERACY. Issues of ecological literacy and sustainability require integration into architectural curricula in both breadth and depth. Indeed, ecological literacy requires a fluid manipulation of both “hard and soft” skills, quantitative and qualitative, technical and conceptual. Future professionals are in search of a holistic “re-stitching” of design curricula along a green thread, integrating an ecological understanding as a fundamental aspect of design at all levels. Thus, the charge to embed ecological literacy as part of the DNA of architectural education could not more meaningfully justify an imperative to thoughtfully embrace disciplines beyond traditional borders. Furthermore, the gravity of the ecological imperative facing the design profession urgently necessitates accreditation to foster ecologically restorative goals for architectural curricula and the development of an ethos of stewardship within the academic environment that is both conceptually and practically rooted. SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY. The landscape in which future professionals will operate is increasingly politically charged, and will necessitate fluency in civic engagement and leadership beyond traditional professional capacities. Thus, the accreditation process must empower schools to nurture civic engagement and social responsibility in future professionals, supported by the necessary skills and competencies to be acutely aware, actively engaged change agents within society. GLOBAL CHANGE. Forces of globalization have given rise to new models of practice and reconfigured the architectural process. Thus, the education of future professionals must prepare them to work within a highly globalized profession while still supporting a more robust and finer-grain understanding of unique regional and vernacular contexts. An understanding of the larger global economy and its dynamic forces must create leaders who are broadly experienced and entrepreneurially trained. Additionally, graduates must understand the complexities and implications of the global network in which they operate, developing collaborative leadership skills to fully engage a rapidly globalizing, team-oriented workforce. PROFESSIONAL AND MULTIDISCIPLINARY CAPACITIES. As architects must meaningfully engage and leverage a diversified team of expertise, the development of a well rounded graduate with sophisticated

426 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE professional and multidisciplinary capacities will be increasingly relevant. While these capacities have long been valued, they have neither been a defined focus of professional education, nor have the skills, techniques or knowledge base of these capacities been formally structured into architectural curricula across academe. Institutions must also be an incubator of entrepreneurship where a culture of lifelong curiosity and learning are instilled. Developing a culture of research and invention, while embracing a broad liberal education made relevant to architectural studies allows the future practitioner to be nimble and relevant in a context of constant global change on many fronts. PROFESSIONAL AWARENESS: LINKING ACADEMY + PRACTICE. Students, educators and practitioners share equally in learning from each other. Thus, accreditation must play a supportive role in encouraging new pedagogical approaches and teaching methodologies that enhance collaboration while facilitating the development of a faculty that values and equally represents academic rigor and practice expertise. Furthermore, if licensure is to be a universally valued achievement, then organizations must collaborate to establish a professional license as an equivalent to a “terminal degree” within and beyond the realm of higher education. As a potential unifier between academia and practice, research must take on a dynamic and valued role in architectural curricula, simultaneously translating between theory and application within the built environment. Even more importantly, however, students must be equipped with skills and abilities to engage research if they are to be future integrators between these two currently disparate worlds. DESIGN CULTURE. Beginning in 2000, the AIAS launched the Studio Culture Initiative, a multi-year effort to critique and positively improve the quality of the student experience within design studios. Since these initial efforts, the AIAS has reviewed the results of this dialogue and will release Toward an Evolution of Studio Culture: Report of the Second AIAS Task Force on Studio Culture. Among the findings of the task force, however, a spirit of lifelong learning and curiosity coupled with an appreciation of the traditions and ethics of architecture yield a more holistic notion of design culture. HUMAN AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY. Practitioners consistently work in a multicultural landscape, relying on successful teaming strategies across generational, cultural, geographic and linguistic boundaries. It is in this sense of plurality that emerging professionals must be confident, perhaps even fluent. Thus, the AIAS encourages a pluralistic understanding of, and exposure to, architectural history and theory, as well as human culture, traditions, and modes of understanding. TECHNOLOGY AND MEDIA. Emerging graduates are faced with the need to be increasingly techno-literate in both design and production capacities. As such, much study has centered on the impacts of a digital design process on pedagogy, learning processes and outcomes. Architectural practice has seen a similar set of cultural shifts, including the rise of manufacturing, proto-typing and similar design methodologies that have radically changed the established norms of production.

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Emerging professionals must be confidently facile with methods of thinking, designing, communicating and producing digitally, while also able to adapt dynamically to the rapid pace of change induced by these tools. Agility with technology and media does not come from direct training in discrete tools of an industry; but rather, holistic education about the means and methods by which technology drives process change and product development. URBANISM. Emerging professionals must be ready to tackle issues of a growing international urbanism, as some portion of their practice will directly involve or be indirectly impacted by this condition. Increasing pressures of urbanism heighten the importance of urban design and planning, sociology, policy, international awareness, adeptness with regionalism and the vernacular, issues of sustainable development, landscape design, and the importance of historic preservation and adaptive reuse.

7 Summary and next steps It is the hope of the American Institute of Architecture Students, through this 2008 Issue Brief on Architectural Education to bring critical focus to areas of necessary change within architectural education. Current conditions within the architectural profession and the perspectives of our members indicate that a transformational evolution of the profession of architecture is underway. It is this evolution that warrants thoughtful, yet visionary response from architectural education, such that the trajectory of emerging professionals keeps pace with the rate of change in the profession.

Acknowledgement We are grateful for contributions to this paper from the 2008 AIAS ARC Task Force.

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Designing an academic syllabus for the Master of Science in Urban Design and Conservation at Khwopa Engineering College, Nepal B. K. Shrestha Post Graduate Department of Urban Design and Conservation, Khwopa Engineering College, Nepal

Abstract In response to the global change, domestic need and acknowledging the changing nature of the specification within architecture, planning and development professions, Khwopa Engineering College (KhEC) initiated a Master of Science in Urban Design and Conservation program in Nepal in 2007 to deal with the ever changing context in a critical, dynamic and creative way for the 21st century information and service oriented society. The whole program has been structured into two axes: the combination of ‘core courses’ with ‘supporting and elective subjects’ in each semester in the ‘horizontal axis’ with emphasis in theory, analysis and then application in the consequent semesters in the ‘vertical axis’. Moreover, the combination of formal teaching with the research oriented approach and project works in the ‘third axis’ helps to achieve the overall development of the students. To address the present needs of the new educational approach, curriculum design and the college facility, this program has defined its operation strategy by integrating the threefold activities of research, publication and information dissemination, developing new learning and teaching methods and providing consultancy, counseling and advisory services including extension of partnerships and networking with related agencies, other academic institutions, local government and community organizations, both at national and international levels. Keywords: urban design and conservation, master program, Khwopa engineering college, academic syllabus, research and networking, global knowledge, local context.

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Rational behind opening a new Master program

The combined processes of globalization of the economy, investment and information flow as well as environmental change, population growth and technological development have resulted in an increasingly dynamic and interrelated world system in which concerns about socio-economic inequalities, marginalization of the poor, loss of cultural heritage and identity, degradation of the environment and intensification of natural disaster vulnerability continue to grow. Failure to response to this phenomenon is threatening to human beings and the integrity of states. Such concern is critical for Nepal especially when it is entering into the global market and building partnerships with international communities on different fronts. In response to this global change, domestic need and finally acknowledging the changing nature of the specialization within the architecture, planning and development professions, Khwopa Engineering College (KhEC) opened a post-graduate course, Master of Science in Urban Design and Conservation (MSc-UDC) – a combination of dual degrees into one program, the first of this kind in Nepal in 2007 to deal with this ever changing context in a critical, dynamic and creative way for the 21st century information age and service oriented society. Urban design and Conservation – twin interrelated subjects that are not only concerned with the arrangement and interrelation of spatial artifacts and human activities taking into consideration socio-economic, cultural, environmental and climatic dimensions but also deal with individual, family, society and community and their built environment, which has numerous implications on their daily activities, quality of life and cultural and religious traditions – are the singular most important subject of human civilization and their settlements. Conservation guides Urban Design, and Urban Design gives continuity to Conservation – they are inseparable and are two sides of the same coin. It is significant for countries like Nepal, which are renowned for rich culture, history and nature thereby forming a unique built form with different layers of cultures embedded into the socio-religious activities. Unfortunately, such quality of built environment is yet to be recognized let alone conserved. The present notion of conservation is limited to national level public monuments focusing on the physical aspect taking into consideration the promotion of international tourism, whereas the vocabulary of urban design does not exist in government policy and development control. Even the Kathmandu Valley (capital of Nepal), which comprises seven monument zones combined into one World Heritage Site (inscribed in 1979), lacks a Master Plan and Development Control at city level. To address the present needs of the new educational approach, curriculum design and the college facility, this program has defined its operation strategy by integrating the threefold activities of research, publication and information dissemination, developing new learning and teaching methods and providing consulting services including the extension of partnerships and networking with related agencies, other academic institutions, local governments and community organizations, both at national and international levels. Its overall mission is to prepare students to become urban design and conservation experts by providing a

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multi-disciplinary professional education that teaches students to define issues, solve problems and implement solutions to improve the quality of the natural and built environments, in ways that promote social justice, cultural continuation, economic and ecological sustainability and disaster resilient community building. The new program offers a great opportunity to many graduates from colleges of Nepal as well as abroad to pursue higher study within the home country thereby not only saving huge outgoing foreign currency and reducing brain drain but also making quality education accessible to a wide-economic and social spectrum. Finally, it fulfils the great demand for highly qualified and skilled managers in the fields of urban design and conservation reducing the dependency on foreign experts.

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Concepts of curriculum design and course development

A curriculum is a philosophy, the purpose being concerned with planning, implementation, evaluation, management, and administration of education programs whereas the syllabus focuses more narrowly on the selection and grading of the content of a course. Syllabus design is a part of course development, and a course is part of a curriculum. However, the general trend of designing curriculum in architectural schools (for bachelor courses) in educational institutions in Nepal is to directly follow the syllabus of any famous colleges (or universities) of neighboring or western countries. In the past decade, at least five architectural schools under the affiliation of three different universities (Tribhuvan University, Pokhara University and Purbanchal University) opened in the Kathmandu Valley alone offering undergraduate courses in architecture and other engineering subjects. The syllabus in these institutions does not address the emerging local and global issues such as natural disaster, energy conservation, urban design and conservation. As there are fixed books, and a syllabus for consultation, the notion of ‘education’ is limited to the memorization of the limited knowledge of the books (or lecture notes provided by teachers) and producing the same in the examination. Unlike this trend, the course of this program is framed in terms of learning outcomes – what students are expected to learn and achieve (analytic syllabus) rather than traditional preoccupation of what teachers should teach and what materials are covered (synthetic syllabus). Moreover, it is accompanied by concomitant innovations of teaching practices and learning processes. Hence, it is structured into two axes and their integrations are achieved through coherence and coordination between the ‘core courses’ (urban design and conservation), ‘supporting subjects’ and ‘elective subjects’ in the same semester in the ‘horizontal axis’, and through the design of contents and instruction methods for individual subjects, emphasizing ‘theory subjects’ in the first semester followed by ‘analysis’ and ‘application’ parts in the subsequent second and third semesters in the ‘vertical axis’ (Fig. 1a). The last semester is completely dedicated to thesis work. Moreover, the combination of formal teaching with project works, group exercises, seminars and field visits requiring the collection and analysis of social and economic data, their interpretation and presentation in the form of jury and report writing in the

432 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE ‘third axis’ help to encourage active learning and the overall development of students. Finally, the quality of education is enhanced through not only integrating global knowledge with a local context to achieve the best result (Fig. 1b), but also by building partnership and networking with related agencies, other academic institutions, local government and community organizations, both at national and international levels (Fig. 1c).

(a) Course design in three axes Figure 1:

Theory Credit hour Semester II [Year I] Analysis Credit hour Semester III [Year II] Application

Credit hour Semester IV [Year II]

(c) Relation of program & society

Concept of curriculum design and course development.

Table 1:

Semester I [Year I]

(b) Integration of global knowledge & local context

Course structure and allocation of credit numbers.

Urban design [Core subject]

Supporting subject

[a] History of built environment [b] Theories of urban design 3+3 [a] Urban design principles and process [b] Field study – short term 3+2 [a] Urban growth management [b] Design studio –II

[a] Earthquake technology [b] Planning & design graphics

3+4

1+ 1 [a] Environmental psychology [b] Project design & research methodology

Elective subject

[a] Local culture & craft industry [b] Energy conservation

1+1 1 or 1 [a] Real estate [a] development Archaeology [b] Disaster [b] management & Neighbourho urban od planning development and design 2+2 1 or 1 Thesis [Presentation and report writing] [15]

Conservation [Core subject] [a] Theory of conservation [b] Construction technology 3+3 [a] Conservation method & technique [b] Design studio - I 3+4 [a] Cultural resource management [b] Thesis proposal seminar 3+1

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The whole course is organized in the framework of the credit system for flexibility. All the major courses on urban design and conservation in each semester are allocated three credit hours whereas the locally important subjects such as disaster management, real estate industry, etc. including the field trip have two credit hours. However, the project works are of four credit hours (Table 1).

3

Conclusions and recommendations

Though it will take many years to see either the success or failure of this course, including its impact on the society, KhEC has taken a bold step opening a Master program with a new concept, which is totally different from the general practice in Nepal. The active involvement of first year students in the international conference and national level essay competition on different occasions and achieving the first award has already shown a positive impact on society. Urban design, being a new profession in Nepal, and its combination with Conservation further widens the scope of career development. Graduates with the knowledge and skills to manage urban growth and the balance between development and conservation (Master degree in Urban Design and Conservation) are in high demand not only in Nepal but also in the international market. Finally, the syllabus needs to be refined based on the lessons learned from the international experiences, national demands of human resources and the feedback from the graduated students working in different organizations. Equally important is the continuation of building partnership and networking with other agencies (international, public, private and community) working in the field of urban design and conservation.

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Climate change as inspiration to a better built environment P. King UK Green Buildings Council, UK

Abstract It is the perennial dilemma of the environmental campaigner – how to communicate the brutal reality of the climate change threat, without transmitting so much ‘doom and gloom’ as to engender defeatism. I believe that the challenge of living within the environmental means of the planet may even enable us to enhance our quality of life with the built environment as key. Spreading ‘doom and gloom’ is not the way. Keywords: climate change, built environment, sustainable living, lifestyle.

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Main text

It is the perennial dilemma of the environmental campaigner – how to communicate the brutal reality of the climate change threat, without transmitting so much ‘doom and gloom’ as to engender defeatism. The challenge is stark. To stabilise atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases at current levels, the developed world needs to make an 80% cut in emissions over the next 40 years – starting right now – while at the same time helping developing countries grow their burgeoning economies in a sustainable way. Unless urgent action is taken, we will smash through the ‘2 degrees Celsius’ barrier. This is the threshold at which scientists tell us that dangerous climate change becomes unavoidable, and natural feedback loops exacerbate the warming process. It would expose millions to drought, hunger and flooding, on an even greater scale than exists now, and do huge damage to already fragile ecosystems and biodiversity. Fortunately, I believe there is a response that enables us to live within the environmental means of the planet while maintaining, or even enhancing our quality of life. And the built environment is key.

436 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE The 4th UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report told us that buildings account for almost half of global energy use and represent the biggest and best opportunity to slash emissions. That doesn’t come as much of a surprise to those of us working in the sector, but what isn’t yet clear is the role of the architect in addressing this challenge. Elsewhere in these pages Rab Bennetts argues eloquently that sustainability is not something to be feared, but should be the vehicle that puts the architect back at the very centre of the design and construction industry. Not only that, but sustainability can encourage good architecture, rather than reduce it to something worthy but dull. I agree. We need more than ever to have architects with a holistic vision of a sustainable building. Architects have always been concerned with place and its effect on design and development. More than ever, our buildings need to placemakers – enablers of sustainable living, not just through the use of services and functions in a given building, but in the lifestyles around and between our buildings. It isn’t just our carbon emissions, our ecological footprint is also affected by our food and transport choices, the materials we consume and the waste we produce. Our built environment can transform all these impacts through designing-in green space, local services, allotments, good public transport and cycle ways. Perhaps above all, our built environment can serve to inspire a different way of life, high quality but low impact. One that is rooted in pride of place, sense of community and a sense of shared endeavour. We have to see sustainability as an essential aspect of quality. Yes, we need buildings that are efficient, comfortable, adaptable and durable, but this can also mean beautiful, exciting buildings, contributing to places that make sustainable living easy, affordable and attractive. The architect can and must be at the heart of this process.

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Appendix : 1958 RIBA Conference on Architectural Education [1] Report on the Conference by the Chairman, Sir Leslie Martin The proposal to hold a Conference on Architectural Education had its origin in the Council of the RIBA. During discussions of particular reports from the Board of Architectural Education it became clear that there existed a general feeling that all the related aspects of the subject should be fully explored. This, it was suggested, might be done at a Conference and it was considered that it would be an advantage to the Council to have any views or ideas which such a Conference might produce. Consequently, a recommendation was made in 1956 that A Conference on Architectural Education should be held no later than the Spring of 1957. To allow time for adequate preparation, April 1958, was finally agreed. A Conference Organising Committee was set up by the Board of Architectural Education. This Committee had several objectives. First it was considered that any Conference should draw together as much relevant factual information as possible. Second, that the discussion should bring out as much informed opinion as possible from people interested in widely different aspects of Architectural Education. Third, that the discussion should be frank, and finally, that if possible, some line of action should emerge. In order to achieve these objectives the Committee decided to circulate preparatory papers giving a general background both of fact and opinion. In order to concentrate the discussion which was bound to be extensive it was felt that invitations to the Conference would have to be limited. Invitations were, therefore, sent to people inside and outside the profession who were known to have views to express. The Conference Committee was aware that in taking this selective action valuable contributions might be excluded. It hoped, however, that it had achieved in its selection an effective cross-section of opinion and interest. The range of subjects to be discussed formed another difficulty. These could certainly not be covered in any single session, but a limited number of people could perhaps spend longer periods together. It was, therefore, decided to hold a weekend conference at Magdalen College, Oxford, on April 11, 12 and 13. An outline programme was drawn up in order to give some form to the debate. After an introductory session to discuss the programme, the conference was divided into three main sessions. These covered broadly:

438 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE 1. The needs of the profession and the community and the desirable standards; 2. The means of education, the routes of entry into the profession and the standards that are being and could be achieved: 3. Developments of advanced training and research. The Conference was attended by 50 members. They made their contributions as members of the profession with interests in public or private offices of various kinds. They represented industry and local authorities, the teaching institutions, building and the associated professions. Several visitors from abroad and from the Commonwealth also attended. Their discussion forms the basis of these notes.

The 1924 Congress The last Congress on Architectural Education was held in 1924. At that Congress, Professor Budden gave an outline of the system and policy of Architectural Education in this country [2]. “The real qualifying work,” he says, “is to be done by the Schools which can offer a full-time course extending over a period of five years. Into this category come the principal University Schools, one Independent School and a School of Art. Though the pupilage system has practically passed in most of the larger centres of population it still lingers in certain localities. To meet the needs of these districts complementary courses are available.” These courses are given in Schools of Art and Technical Colleges and consist of part-time and evening training. Students taking these courses qualify by External Examination. The 1924 Congress clearly places the emphasis on full-time training in ‘Recognised Schools’. Training elsewhere exists to meet the needs of a dwindling minority. It can be carried out as and when the need arises in Institutions which differ from each other in origin and intention. The general conception was reiterated in 1943, when the Special Committee on Architectural Education, in referring to the decline of pupilage and apprenticeship said: “In the meantime the RIBA must maintain its own system of qualifying examinations for the benefit of those who, for one reason or another, have not passed through a ‘Recognised School’.” [3] What these statements recognise is that two main types of training have been set up – one inside a full-time School leading to exemption, the other outside these schools and designed to assist students to take the RIBA Examinations externally. But what these statements fail to recognise is that although pupilage may decline the numbers of students taking the external examinations may, for various reasons, continue to increase. In fact, in 1957, 486 students qualified at Recognised Schools and as many as 417 took the RIBA External Examination. In the same year 3,764 students were attending Final and Intermediate Schools and 3,342 were taking courses in Listed and Facility Schools. This latter figure does not include those who prepared themselves for examination independently (for example, by correspondence courses).

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Ways of qualifying Students of Architecture can, in fact, prepare for qualification in a number of different ways and in increasing numbers of institutions. There are now in the United Kingdom 21 Recognised Schools, 5 Intermediate Schools, 9 Listed Schools, 32 Facility Schools and a considerable number of institutions offering courses in Architecture. Numbers of students range from 500 in the larger schools to 7 at the other end of the scale. The aims of training and the standards reached in these schools differ widely. So do the standards of entry and the quality of instruction. But all students taking these widely different courses have one object – to qualify and to become Registered Architects. Numbers have risen sharply since the war. Corporate membership of the RIBA stood at 8,218 in 1938. It had risen to 10,706 in 1948, and it now stands at 18,175. Over half the profession has probably qualified since the war. This increase may continue irregularly but on average at a rate of about 500 a year, which might lead to an ultimate total of something approaching 30,000 architects. Factual evidence of this kind, (the Conference emphasised the importance of the statistical information which is now being gathered by the RIBA) supported by a considerable amount of information on the structure of the profession, formed the background to discussion. This dealt with the development of Architecture as a Public Service and what the public expects of the architect. It touched the changing nature of architectural practice and the technical standards that are now required. These demands and standards were in turn related to the standards of entry and training and to the ultimate and desirable level of performance in the profession. The ultimate purpose was repeatedly stressed. It was that the profession should attempt to improve its standards of competence at all levels. Any move in this direction must start with the standard of entry. Although the level of entry to a course in a University School can be high, the normal minimum standard elsewhere (5 passes at ‘O’ level) is far too low. Plenty of evidence to illustrate the depressing effect of this low standard was forthcoming. In one county, for example, “a student at a grammar school who wishes to become an architect is advised to leave as soon the 5 basic subjects at ‘O’ level have been obtained.” The reason given for this is that he would be wasting his time and public money to stay on in the sixth form. Representatives of secondary and higher education pointed out that there are now plenty of competitors for the best boys from Grammar and Public Schools. At present the entry standard for architects is well below that required by other professions, for example, doctors, dentists, pharmacists, veterinary surgeons, metallurgists, not to mention undergraduate entry to a University and the entry standard for the Higher National Diploma in Building. As one speaker quoted: "The question that arises is how far can a great profession, statutorily responsible for its own education, afford to have an entry standard below that which a good mind may nowadays be expected to attain. It is an issue which the profession may prefer to face sooner than later, for in the next few years (with an increase in the number of 18-year-olds available) it could

440 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE seize the opportunity to select candidates rather than to accept what material presents itself." The architectural profession will need every artifice to catch anything like a fair share of this increase.

Raise entry standards A sharp improvement in the standard of entry is urgent. This, in turn, would rapidly have repercussions throughout training and ultimately throughout the profession. The difference between an ‘O’ level pass at 16 and an ‘A’ level at 18 is not just a difference of educational standard. In the second case, as one speaker said, "the mind is two years older and more developed." "I cannot believe." he said, "that in one case a course of five years is long enough or in the other that five years is required." Among the conditions that flow from a uniform and higher standard of entry are the following: First, it makes possible at once a much higher standard of training in all practical and theoretical subjects. Second, the higher standard and range of study replaces training for a common level by the possibility of developing diversified interests as the student moves through his course. If architects are to hold their own in a developing field of technology this is, in itself, highly important. Third, the development of a higher standard in undergraduate study leads naturally to the important field of post-graduate study. Fourth, experience confirms that a good mind absorbs knowledge extremely rapidly. This fact would have repercussions on the length of theoretical training that is necessary and might open the way to new developments in training. One issue, however, cannot be avoided. The raising of the standard of entry for all students who intend to qualify as architects is likely to lead to a consideration of the desirability of other and complementary forms of training – not leading to Registration – but equipping the student to take his place as a valuable member of the building team.

Entry level at 16 for technologists In the discussion on this matter the following points emerged. The fact is that there exists in the profession a demand for highly competent technical assistants. If we are to reach a higher standard of training for the architect and, at the same time, provide competent technologists then we should recognize this distinction in our training. If the entry level for the architect is to be an ‘A’ level at the age of 18, there is a case for an entry level at 16 for those who will train as supporting technologists. The precise form of this training of the technologists will need careful study. The possibility of basic courses and combined forms of training with other building technicians may be considered. There is, in fact, interesting precedent: speakers from Denmark and Sweden gave comparisons, and reference was made to similar developments in other professions (engineering, for example).

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Although the ‘A’ level standard of entry for all intending architects was insistently pressed, several speakers mentioned the desirability of providing the opportunity for outstanding students who have started their training as technologists to move into an architect's course providing always that the required standard has been reached. The Conference followed this discussion by a consideration of the means of education. This consideration centred on the types of school and the main objectives of training. Although the content and the curriculum were discussed, it was obvious that the Conference could not give this detailed consideration. Three types of school were discussed: the Independent School, the University School, and the Local Authority School of various kinds. These were considered from a number of points of view including standards of entry, facilities for training, opportunities for the development of training and post-graduate work, staffing and the development of links with actual practice.

The major schools For the large Independent and University Schools it was stated that the qualification requirement at entry (judged either by examination standard or combined examination and probationary period) was high. A student taking a degree course, for instance, must reach ‘A’ level in two or more subjects. A student who fails to show promise in the early stages of his course can be excluded. (The probationary period should mean what it says. Consideration of exclusion from a course at Intermediate level is far too late.) Schools of this type are free to develop their courses well beyond the range of the RIBA syllabus, and within the Universities the opportunities for collaboration with other faculties can lift the content of the course to a very high level. This opportunity for the interchange of ideas between men of different interests and experience is of the greatest importance to both students and staff. This interchange can occur at undergraduate and post-graduate level. The background of the University influences the School: the School of Architecture, in turn, can influence the understanding of architecture in the University itself and in the minds of undergraduates who may well be its future patrons. A strong case can be made for the development of Schools of Architecture in Universities and for the transfer to Universities of Schools in other institutions. The characteristic feature of architectural education is that it involves widely different types of knowledge. From the point of view of the University this raises two considerations. If architecture is to take its proper place in the University and if the knowledge which it entails is to be taught at the highest standard, it will be necessary to establish a bridge between faculties: between the Arts and the Sciences, the Engineering Sciences, Sociology and Economics. Furthermore, the Universities will require something more than a study of techniques and parcels of this or that form of knowledge. They will expect and have a right to expect that knowledge will be guided and developed by principles: that is, by theory. "Theory,” as one speaker said, "is the body of principles that explains and interrelates all the facts of a subject." Research is the tool by which theory is

442 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE advanced. Without it, teaching can have no direction and thought no cutting edge. In spite of the strong arguments for University Schools, it was clearly recognized that several institutions out-side the Universities were capable of developing their training to a University level. Experimental development in schools of advanced technology would give these institutions the opportunity of advancing those aspects of architectural education which are proper to their framework and of adding to the variety of skills that are required of the architect. In contrast with the standard that such courses can achieve there is the picture of training in a great many institutions offering tuition in architecture. There are, of course, good ‘recognised schools’ and bad ‘recognised schools’. There are equally good ‘unrecognised’ schools and bad ones. The difference between the good schools in each category is, however, also a difference of opportunity. One is free to develop its courses, the other is restricted by the requirements of training for an external examination, and the whole concept of part time and evening training.

Facility schools The difficulty in the ‘unrecognised’ facility schools starts at the outset. The facility school can develop in any institution at which a reasonable number of candidates present themselves for part-time and evening training. This number is generally recognized as 10 but can be lower. There is an initial difficulty where students already engaged in offices arrive for training without even the necessary ‘O’ level standard. Training takes the form of preparation of testimonies of study: 32 drawings have to be approved by RIBA examiners. If they are not approved the reason is not clear to the student. There is no time to develop courses beyond the level of the RIBA External Examination requirements. Immediately before the examination the students concentrate exclusively on revision. Although only 40 per cent, may pass, eventually, after repeated attempts, 90 per cent, may finally succeed. This, said one speaker. "is not education, it is cramming." The very multiplicity of ‘unrecognized’ schools with different standards militates against the raising of the level of architectural education in these institutions. To this is added the confusion that comes from a lack of any clear indication of what is required by the profession. The raising of the standard of entry to a high level would be a welcome indication that the profession wishes to raise its standards of training for architects. The profession must decide whether anything approaching the desirable standard of architectural education can be achieved by part-time and evening tuition, (the ‘sandwich’ course which is developing in some schools is deliberately excluded and is discussed below). If not, then the profession should say so. The freedom from the restrictions of training by testimonies would allow some schools to advance their training to the level required for architects. Where this is impossible or inappropriate a parallel policy of training in building technology would give some institutions the possibility of building up new and useful courses for this purpose. The ultimate object should be that all schools

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worthy of providing the improved standard of training required by the architect should be recognized schools. The unrecognized school is an anachronism.

Lead from profession A clear lead must come from the profession. It must not only give a lead. It must play its part in architectural education. It can do this in several ways: First, staffing. The difficulties of staffing schools are of two kinds. On the one hand there is the danger that the promising student may find himself promoted to teacher without any really adequate period of practical or research experience or even any understanding of teaching. On the other hand, schools have also relied on young people who are starting practice and who may use a teaching salary as a basic income. These people may bring enthusiasm: but when their practice is established they go. What is necessary is an arrangement which brings into teaching, architects with creative ability and extensive practical or research experience so that they may add to the fund of knowledge that is available in a school. This can be assisted by the link with post graduate research. But it also requires a readiness on the part of able practitioners and specialists to take their place from time to time as teachers. It is simply no good for the profession to complain about the standard of education when those who have become skilled practitioners feel unable to collaborate. Second. If the student's complete course of training is to have any realism this means that at some stage he must be brought into the closest possible touch with all the requirements of practical building. The best way to achieve this is for him to be associated with a building project and the profession must recognize this as a necessary step in architectural education. This can be done in two ways. It can be achieved by the development of the ‘live project’ as a school subject. This has already been pioneered in one school and is in operation in others, eg. Birmingham School of Architecture; R W A School of Architecture, Bristol; University of Cambridge School of Architecture. The other possible arrangement is through the operation of combined or ‘sandwich’ courses. These are being developed in several schools and are proposed in others. The ‘sandwich’ course is not part-time training. (One conclusion on which the Conference was emphatic was that the part-time course must go.) The sandwich course which is proposed in schools, which carry out full-time training, is a means of breaking down the barrier between training and practice. This is done by alternating periods of training in a school with periods of training in an office. The collaboration in training by the office itself is essential to the success of any scheme of this kind.

Advanced training In its consideration of the question of advanced training the Conference had before it a paper (Deeper knowledge: better design. R Llewelyn Davies) which stated in its preface ''Knowledge is the raw material for design.” "It is not a substitute for architectural imagination: but it is necessary for the effective

444 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE exercise of imagination and skill in design. Inadequate knowledge handicaps and trammels the architect, limits the achievements of even the most creative and depresses the general level of design.'' The advancement of knowledge is not merely an ornament to a profession - it is its duty. This is the means by which the competence of the profession as a whole can be advanced. It is essential to improvement in both teaching and practice that a limited number of people should at some time devote themselves to advanced post-graduate study and research. Work of this kind is steadily increasing in volume. In addition to the main centres where it has developed, the BRS, the Ministry of Education and the Nuffield Foundation, important developments are now taking place in Universities in which this type of work may become progressively more established. The pioneering work of these centres of research has indicated the range of study that is required. In addition to the study of the space and functional requirements of building types, studies of building design in relation to daylighting and town planning, the prefabrication and industrialisation of building and the special problems of tropical building are now being followed up. The whole question of the architect’s contribution to town planning needs special consideration Work of this kind can be conducted as pure research but is more likely to take the form of investigations which involve inter-related studies: for example, the interrelation between architecture and social needs, the physics of environment, etc. Studies at present being conducted in this country already involve extensive contact with other disciplines: on the side of the means of production architects are at work with structural engineers, mechanical engineers, production engineers, management and time study experts: on the side of the needs of buildings they co-operate with clients, sociologists, psychologists, physicists and physiologists. The very nature of this pattern of co-operation makes postgraduate work in architecture a suitable subject for development in the Universities where, so far, the main developments of post-graduate study have largely concentrated on Historical Research which, indeed, they have carried out with distinction. The evolution of post-graduate studies of this kind is a natural extension of higher standards of training within the schools. These studies are the means by which students of diversified interests extend their own minds and the boundaries of knowledge. They also build up the specialised knowledge which is always replacing and reinforcing the generalised knowledge of practice. By the development of post-graduate study, the profession can provide itself with the higher technical ability and knowledge that it requires. Above all, it can advance and re-invigorate its teaching. These discussions clearly led to a series of important considerations. Many of the matters discussed are issues which can only be effectively studied over a period of time but there were certain issues which the Conference considered to be urgent, critical and essential safeguards to the future of Architectural Education. These matters arose from many aspects of the discussion and eventually crystallised into the following recommendations for action:

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Recommendations 1. The Conference unanimously agreed that the present minimum standard of entry into training (5 passes at ‘O’ level) is far too low and urged that this level should be raised to a minimum of 2 passes at ‘A’ level. 2. The Conference agreed that courses based on Testimonies of Study and the RIBA External Examinations are restricting to the development of a full training for the architect and that these courses should be progressively abolished. 3. Ultimately, all Schools capable of providing the high standard of training envisaged for the architect should be ‘recognised’ and situated in Universities or Institutions where courses of comparable standard can be conducted. 4. Courses followed by students intending to qualify as architects should be either full-time or, on an experimental basis, combined or sandwich courses in which periods of training in a school alternate with periods of training in an office. 5. It may be that these raised standards of education for the architect will make desirable other forms of training not leading to an architectural qualification, but which will provide an opportunity for transfer if the necessary educational standard is obtained. 6. The Conference regards post-graduate work as an essential part of architectural education. It endorses the policy of developing post-graduate courses which will enlarge the range of specialised knowledge, and will advance the standards of teaching and practice.

References [1] Architect's Journal, May 22nd 1958, pp. 772-777. [2] Book of Proceedings of the International Congress on Architectural Education 1924. [3] Report of the Special Committee on Architectural Education 1943.

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Author Index Abraham A. ............................. 349 Adhya A................................... 237 Alexander C................................. 3 Al-Hassan A. ........................... 375 Allwinkle S. ............................. 267 Altan H. ................................... 177 Altomonte S............................. 315 Amirante M. I. ......................... 157 Andrejko D. A. ............................ 7 Arens R. ................................... 291 Arya M....................................... 71 Atkinson S. D. ......................... 399 Belford T.................................. 357 Bennetts R.................................. 11 Berman A................................. 273 Bruscato U. .............................. 325

Gampfer S................................ 201 Garcia Alvarado R. .................. 325 Gloster D. ................................ 255 Gupta R.............................. 83, 165 Guzowski M. ............................. 77 Hagan S. .................................. 215 Hammer S................................ 321 Hammersley F. .......................... 37 Hancock M. ............................. 183 Hardy M................................... 405 Haupt W................................... 201 Hedges K. E............................. 311 Holder A. ................................. 195 Hoppe M.................................. 201 Hormazábal N............................ 37 Hoskara S. O............................ 415 Hutzell K. ................................ 395

Caruso A. C. ...................... 95, 423 Chandiwala S. .......................... 165 Charlesworth E. ....................... 133 Chiles P.................................... 195 Clarke J. ..................................... 53 Coombs S................................. 363

Kalisperis L. N......................... 307 Karczewska Z. ........................... 63 Kasapoğlu E............................. 287 Kessler M................................. 297 King P...................................... 435

da Silveira V. C................ 231, 339 Dalton R. C. ............................. 211 Dent S. D. ........................ 279, 343 Deshpande J. D. ............... 301, 385 Dobmeier M............................. 201 Dudek S. S. J............................ 375

La Roche P. ............................... 23 Lagos R.................................... 325 Lehmann S................................. 43 Lewis J. O................................ 225 Livingston C. ........................... 329 Loheed P.................................. 321

el Samahy R............................. 395 Engh A..................................... 411 Eribitis C.................................. 325 Ewing S. C............................... 119

Maritz N..................................... 17 McCann L................................ 283 McClean D................................. 99 McRobie F. A. ......................... 207 Mehaffy M. W. .......................... 59 Meir I. A. ................................... 33 Mewburn I. .............................. 125 Meyer Boake T. ......................... 77 Miller P. A. .............................. 109

Ford A...................................... 261 Forster W. P............................. 363 Frettoloso C. ............................ 157 Fuentes M. ............................... 297

448 THE OXFORD CONFERENCE: A RE-EVALUATION OF EDUCATION IN ARCHITECTURE Moloney J. ............................... 369 Morrow R. ............................... 357 Mostafa M................................ 389 Munby B. M. ........................... 105 Musto M. ................................. 157 Nassiri N. ................................... 27 Newton C. L. ........................... 333 Ng E......................................... 189 Nicol F. .................................... 297

Savic M.................................... 381 Serrano P. .................................. 37 Shah P........................................ 87 Sherif A. .................................. 389 Sherif N. .................................. 389 Shrestha B. K........................... 429 Stein B. .................................... 153 Stevenson F. ............................ 115 Stevenson J. ............................. 419 Thomas R......................... 207, 363

Oliver P.................................... 143 Orbasli A.................................. 161 Peled G. ..................................... 49 Poerschke U............................. 307 Powers M. N. ........................... 109 Pritchett I. ................................ 283 Quale J. D. ............................... 149 Ramage M. H........................... 207 Riether G.................................. 353 Roaf S. ....................................... 83 Rofè Y...................................... 243

Tovivich S. .............................. 137 Vanky T. P............................... 423 Vaughan L. .............................. 211 Vellinga M............................... 161 Walker C.................................. 249 Wasley J............................... 67, 77 Wyckmans A. .......................... 219 Zaretsky M............................... 171

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Structural Studies, Repairs and Maintenance of Heritage Architecture X Edited by: C.A. BREBBIA, Wessex Institute of Technology, UK The importance of architectural heritage for the historical identity of a region, town or nation is now widely recognized throughout the world. In order to take care of our heritage we need to look beyond borders and continents to benefit from the experience of others and to gain a better understanding of our cultural background. Featuring contributions from the Tenth International Conference on Structural Studies, Repairs and Maintenance of Heritage Architecture, this book covers a broad spectrum of topics including: Heritage Architecture and Historical Aspects; Regional Architecture; Structural Issues; Seismic Vulnerability Analysis of Historic Sites; Maintenance; Seismic Behaviour and Vibrations; Surveying and Monitoring; Material Characterization; Material Problems; Protection and Prevention; S i m u l a t i o n M o d e l l i n g ; Environmental Damage; Assessment and Retrofitting; Preservation and Prevention; Historical Dockyards, Shipyards and Buildings; Underwater Heritage; Surveying Techniques; Rivers, Lakes, and Canals Heritage; Site Protection, Oral Traditions and Stories. WIT Transactions on The Built Environment, Vol 95 ISBN: 978-1-84564-085-9 2007 736pp £238.00/US$475.00/€357.00

Digital Architecture and Construction Edited by: A. ALI, University of Seoul, Korea and C.A. BREBBIA, Wessex Institute of Technology, UK Digital Architecture is a particularly dynamic field that is developing through the work of architecture schools, architects, software developers, researchers, technology, users, and society alike. Featuring papers from the First International Conference on Digital Architecture, this book will be of interest to professional and academic architects involved in the creation of new architectural forms, as well as those colleagues working in the development of new computer codes for engineers, including those working in structural, environmental, aerodynamic fields and others actively supporting advances in digital architecture. Expert contributions encompass topic areas such as: Database Management Systems for Design and Construction; Design Methods, Processes and Creativity; Digital Design, Representation and Visualization; Form and Fabric; Computer Integrated Construction and Manufacturing; Human–Machine Interaction; Connecting the Physical and the Virtual Worlds; Knowledge Based Design and Generative Systems; Linking Training, Research and Practice; Web Design Analysis; The Digital Studio; Urban Simulation; Virtual Architecture and Virtual Reality; Collaborative Design; Social Aspects. WIT Transactions on The Built Environment, Vol 90 ISBN: 1-84564-047-0 2006 272pp £85.00/US$155.00/€127.5

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Traditional Architecture of the Arabian Gulf Building on Desert Tides and Ocean Current R. HAWKER, Zayed University, Dubai This book chronicles the florescence of architecture in the Arabian Gulf after the expulsion of the Portuguese in the early 1600s. It demonstrates how the power vacuum created by the collapse of Portuguese control over the trade routes in the Indian Ocean encouraged a growth in fortified architecture, especially in Oman, that radiated out to the surrounding region. It also shows how that architecture was slowly replaced by new patterns in domestic and public architecture and town planning throughout the Gulf as trade lines were secured and individual states moved towards new forms of governance. The book documents the building and crafts of this era and analyses them within the framework of the political, economic, and social information available through primary sources from the period in a way that is both intelligent and accessible. It considers the settlements as part of a larger-connected network of cities, towns and villages and focuses both on how the buildings provided innovative solutions to the demanding climate and yet incorporated new decorative and functional ideas. Topics are illustrated with photographs of the buildings as they are now, historic photographs from archival and museum collections, line drawings and computergenerated constructions. The book is therefore attractive to a number of different audiences such as people interested in architectural history, including those who live in or travel to the Gulf as well as people with an interest in Arab and Islamic design, culture and society,

vernacular architecture, and post-colonial approaches to colonial history. ISBN: 978-1-84564-135-1 2008 256pp £89.00/US$178.00/€133.50

The Great Structures in Architecture From Antiquity to Baroque F.P. ESCRIG, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain Starting in antiquity and finishing in the Baroque, this book provides a complete analysis of significant works of architecture from a structural viewpoint. A distinguished architect and academic, the author’s highly illustrated exploration will allow readers to better understand the monuments, get closer to them and to explore whether they should be conserved or modified. Contents: Stones Resting on Empty Space; The Invention of the Dome; The Hanging Dome;The Ribbed Dome; A Planified Revenge – Under the Shadow of Brunelleschi; The Century of the Great Architects; The Omnipresent Sinan; Even Further; Scenographical Architecture of the 18th Century; The Virtual Architecture of the Renaissance and the Baroque. Series: Advances in Architecture,Vol 22 ISBN: 1-84564-039-X 2006 272pp £95.00/US$170.00/€142.50

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Environmental Deterioration of Materials Edited by: A. MONCMANOVÁ, Slovak Technical University, Slovak Republic This book deals with the fundamental principles underlying the environmental degradation of widely used and economically important construction materials. The invited contributions cover aspects such as the deterioration mechanisms of materials and metal corrosion, environmental pollutants, micro- and macro-climatic factors affecting degradation, the economic impact of damaging processes, and fundamental protection techniques for buildings, industrial and agricultural facilities, monuments, and culturally important objects. Basic details of ISO standards relating to the classification of atmospheric corrosivity and low corrosivity of indoor atmospheres are also included. Designed for use by materials, corrosion, civil and environmental engineers, designers, architects and restoration staff, this book will also be a useful tool for managers from different industrial sectors and auditors of environmental management systems.It will also be a suitable complementary course book for university students in all of the above disciplines. Series: Advances in Architecture, Vol 21 ISBN: 978-1-84564-032-3 2007 336pp £98.00/US$188.00/€147.00 We are now able to supply you with details of new WIT Press titles via E-Mail. To subscribe to this free service, or for information on any of our titles, please contact the Marketing Department, WIT Press, Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst, Southampton, SO40 7AA, UK Tel: +44 (0) 238 029 3223 Fax: +44 (0) 238 029 2853 E-mail: [email protected]

Learning from Failure L. BINDA, Politecnico di Milano, Italy On March 17 1989, the Civic Tower of Pavia collapsed without any apparent warning sign, killing four people. After an experimental and analytical investigation lasting nine months, the collapse cause was found in progressive damage dating back many years and due mainly to the heavy dead load put on top of the existing medieval tower when realising a massive bell-tower in granite. Other case histories have been collected: the collapse of the St. Marco bell-tower in Venice in 1902; the Sancta Maria Magdalena belltower in 1992 in Dusseldorf; the damages to the bell-tower of the Monza Cathedral; and to the Torrazzo in Cremona. Later on, in 1996 the collapse of the Noto Cathedral showed that similar progressive damages can take place in pillars of churches and cathedrals. The experimental research aimed to show the reliability of this interpretation went on and it is still continuing since 1989 and it is described in the book. After a careful interpretation of the experimental results, also based on experiences from rock mechanics and concrete, the modelling of the phenomenon for massive structures as creep behaviour of masonry was implemented. The book has the scope of helping architects and engineers to deal with the continuous damage of heavy structures and, to understand the signs of the phenomenon while proposing some modelling, but also to give guidelines for the on site investigation, monitoring and repairing of the damaged structures. Series: Advances in Architecture,Vol 23 ISBN: 978-1-84564-057-6 2008 256pp £84.00/US$168.00/€126.00 Find us at http://www.witpress.com Save 10% when you order from our encrypted ordering service on the web using your credit card.

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Eco-Architecture II

Architecture IX

Harmonisation between Architecture and Nature

Edited by: C.A. BREBBIA, Wessex Institute of Technology, UK and A. TORPIANO, University of Malta, Malta This book contains most of the papers presented at the Ninth International Conference on Structural Studies, Repairs and Maintenance of Heritage Architecture. The Conference was held in Malta, a state smaller than many of the cities that this Conference has visited, and yet that is packed, in the full meaning of the word, with a history of heritage architecture that spans nearly six millennia – as far as we currently know! The islands of Malta have limited material resources, in fact, only one – limestone, and a rather soft one at that. However, out of this resource, our ancestor builders have fashioned the habitat for their lives, as these unfolded and changed over the centuries. The problems and efforts that are being made to repair, restore, conserve and protect such limestone architectural heritage are considerable and mirror similar problems faced by other architects, engineers, curators, art historians, surveyors and archaeologists in other countries throughout the world. The papers featured are from specialists throughout the world and divided into the following topics: Heritage Architecture and Historical Aspects; Structural Issues; Seismic Behaviour and Vibrations; Seismic Vulnerability Analysis of Historic Centres in Italy; Material Characterisation; Protection and Preservation; Maintenance; Surveying and Monitoring; Simulation Modelling; and Case Studies. WIT Transactions on The Built Environment, Vol 83 ISBN: 1-84564-021-7 2005 672pp £235.00/US$376.00/€352.50

Edited by: G. BROADBENT, University of Portsmouth, UK and C.A. BREBBIA, Wessex Institute of Technology, UK The development of Eco-Architecture is driven by the depletion of natural resources, especially fossil fuels and the need to preserve the balance of nature. Eco-Architecture makes every effort to minimize the use of energy at each stage of a building’s life cycle, including the extraction and transportation of materials; their fabrication; their assembly into the building; and ultimately the ease and value of their recycling when the building’s life is over. The design may also take into consideration the use of energy in building maintenance and changes in its use, not to mention its lighting, heating and cooling, particularly where the energy consumed involves the emission of greenhouse gases. This book contains papers presented at the Second International Conference on Harmonisation between Architecture and Nature, held in The Algarve, Portugal. The multi-disciplinary nature of Eco-Architecture is reflected in the contents, which include topics on: Historical and Philosophical Aspects; Ecological and Cultural Sensitivity; Energy and Building Technologies; Alternative and Renewable Sources of Energy; Design with Nature; Design with Climate, Siting and Orientation; Materials Selection and Their Life Cycle Assessment of Materials; Design by Passive Systems; Conservation and Re-use of Water; Building Operation and Management; Rehabilitation and Adaptive Re-use; Case Studies. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 113 ISBN: 978-1-84564-119-1 2008 368pp £132.00/US$264.00/€198.00

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Maritime Heritage and Modern Ports

Earth Construction Handbook

Edited by: R. MARCET I BARBÉ, Maritime Museum, Spain, C.A. BREBBIA, Wessex Institute of Technology, UK and J. OLIVELLA, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Spain This book contains papers presented at two meetings with many shared interests – the Second International Conference on Maritime Heritage and the Fourth International Conference on Maritime Engineering. The Second International Maritime Heritage Conference brought together scholars and professionals from a variety of areas. In addition to scientific advances, the contributions included in this volume discuss the future of historical harbours, dockyards and other similar maritime structures in today’s world, as well as the function of historical vessels and their heritage value. The role of development schemes and the relationship between tourism and the preservation of maritime heritage are also covered. The papers from the Fourth International Conference on Maritime Engineering, Ports and Waterways deal with topics such as port management, the integration of transport aspects, navigation, ship operation and multimode transport, information systems for ports and shipping, marine engineering works, hydrodynamic aspects, the construction and design of ports and marinas, and the development of ports and coastal areas. Emphasis is placed on the importance of the transport maritime mode in development and the requirements of making port operation more efficient, safe and productive. WIT Transactions on The Built Environment, Vol 79 ISBN: 1-84564-010-1 2005 512pp £179.00/US$286.00/€268.50

The Building Material Earth in Modern Architecture G. MINKE, Director of the Building Research Institute, Kassel University, Germany “…a good introduction to earth as a viable building material…well written and ordered in a way that makes its content accessible to those with limited scientific and technical knowledge. The reader’s understanding of the subject is supported by the many useful diagrams, tables and photographs.” JOURNAL ARCHITECTURAL OF CONSERVATION

“...interesting and well constructed.” E-STREAMS

Refined, updated and expanded for English speaking readers from the author’s bestselling Lehmbau-Handbuch (1994), this book is unique in providing a survey of applications and construction techniques for a material which is naturally available and easy to use with even basic craft skills, and produces hardly any environmental waste. The information given can be practically applied by engineers, architects, builders, planners, craftsmen and laymen who wish to construct cost-effective buildings which provide a healthy, balanced indoor climate. Partial Contents: Properties of Earth as a Building Material; Rammed Earth Work; Earthblock Work; Large Blocks and Prefabricated Panels; Loam Plasters; Weather Protection of Loam Surfaces; Repair of Loam Components; Designs of Particular Building Elements. Series: Advances in Architecture, Vol 10 ISBN: 1-85312-805-8 2000 216pp b/w diagrams & photographs £48.00/US$76.00/€72.00

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Eco-Architecture Harmonisation between Architecture and Nature Edited by: G. BROADBENT, University of Portsmouth, UK and C.A. BREBBIA, Wessex Institute of Technology, UK Unlike the mechanistic buildings it replaces, Eco-Architecture is in harmony with nature, including its immediate environs. Decisions have to be taken on ecological grounds concerning locations, siting and orientation, as well as on the well-informed choice of materials. Eco-Architecture is by definition interdisciplinary; it requires the collaboration of engineers, planners, physicists, sociologists, economists, and other specialists, in addition to architects. The papers contained in this book were written by different specialists and attempt to focus on the interdisciplinary character of Eco-Architecture. Featuring papers from the First International Conference on Harmonisation between Architecture and Nature. Topics include: Ecological & Cultural Sensitivity; Historical & Philosophical Aspects; Design with Nature; Assessment & Selection of Materials; Natural Technologies; Design by Passive Systems; Building Operation & Maintenance and Water Conservation. WIT Transactions on The Built Environment, Vol 86 ISBN: 1-84564-171-X 2006 432pp £150.00US$270.00/€225.00

written by internationally acknowledged researchers. The first two chapters centre on the most outstanding aspects of room acoustics studied in the twentieth century, namely absorption, sound reflection and diffusion, and echo and reverberation. The following sections present studies of simulation models of the binaural experience of listeners in a room. Finally, there are two examinations of recent work carried out on acoustics in concert halls and auditoria, and churches. Series: Advances in Architecture, Vol 8 ISBN: 1-85312-557-1 2000 192pp £87.00/US$140.00/€130.50

Historical Buildings of Iran Their Architecture and Structure M.M. HEJAZI, Queen Mary and Westfield College, University of London, UK The first authoritative work to investigate the historical buildings of Iran from the perspective of structural engineering. Series: Advances in Architecture, Vol 2 ISBN: 1-85312-484-2 1997 168pp £67.00/US$99.00/€100.50

Towers and Domes Computational Acoustics in Architecture Edited by: J.J. SENDRA, University of Sevilla, Spain Containing a significant amount of recent knowledge on room acoustics, this book is

F.P. ESCRIG, University of Sevilla, Spain Describing the evolution of towers and domes from a structural viewpoint, this highly illustrated book is written as two essays running parallel, one textual, the other graphic. Series: Advances in Architecture, Vol 4 ISBN: 1-85312-437-0 1998 120pp £59.00/US$95.00/€88.50