The New Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. 2: c. 700-c. 900

This volume of The New Cambridge Medieval History covers most of the period of Frankish and Carolingian dominance in western Europe, a time of remarkable political and cultural coherence, combined with crucial, very diverse and formative developments in every sphere of life. Adopting an interdisciplinary approach, the authors consider developments in Europe as a whole, from Ireland to the Bosphorus and Iceland to Gibraltar. The chapters offer an examination of the interaction between rulers and ruled, of how power and authority actually worked, and of the impact of these on the society and culture of Europe as a whole. The volume is divided into four parts. Part i encompasses the events and political developments in the whole of the British Isles, the West and East Frankish kingdoms, Scandinavia, the Slavic and Balkan regions, Spain and Italy, and those aspects of Byzantine and Muslim history which impinged on the west between c. 700 and c. 900. Parts n, in and iv cover common themes and topics within the general categories of government and institutions, the church and society, and cultural and intellectual development.

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The New Cambridge Medieval History

EDITORIAL BOARD

David Abulafia Rosamond McKitterick Martin Brett Edward Powell Simon Keynes Jonathan Shepard Peter Linehan Peter Spufford V o l u m e i i c. -joo—c. 900

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The throne of Charles the Bald (Cathedra Petri), Vatican, Basilica of St Peter

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THE NEW CAMBRIDGE MEDIEVAL HISTORY Volume II c./oo—c.poo EDITED BY

ROSAMOND McKITTERICK Reader in Early Medieval European History in the University of Cambridge and Fellow of Nevnbam College

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

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CAMBRIDGE U N IVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521362894 © Cambridge University Press 1995 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 1995 Fifth printing 2006 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalogue recordfor this book is availablefromthe British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data ISBN-13 978-0-521-36292-4 hardback ISBN-10 0-521-36292-X hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

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CONTENTS

List of maps List of tables List ofplates List of contributors Preface Acknowledgements List of abbreviations

page x xi xii xiv xvii xx xxi

PART I POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

1

Introduction: sources and interpretation

3

ROSAMOND MCKITTERICK

2

The British Isles (a) England, 700—900

18

SIMON KEYNES

(b) Ireland, Scotland and Wales, c. 700 to the early eleventh century

43

DONNCHADH 6 CORRAIN

(c) England and the Continent

64

ROSAMOND MCKITTERICK

3

Frankish Gaul to 814

85

PAUL FOURACRE

4

The Frankish kingdoms, 814—898: the West

110

JANET L. NELSON

5

The Frankish kingdoms, 817-911: the East and Middle kingdoms JOHANNES FRIED

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142

viii 6

Contents Fines imperil: the marches

169

JULIA M.H. SMITH

7

The Vikings in Francia and Anglo-Saxon England to 911

190

SIMON COUPLAND

8

Scandinavia, c. 700-1066

202

NIELS LUND

9

Slavs and Bulgars

228

JONATHAN SHEPARD

10

The Muslims in Europe

249

HUGH KENNEDY

11

Spain: the northern kingdoms and the Basques, 711—910

272

ROGER COLLINS

11

Lombard and Carolingian Italy

290

PAOLO DELOGU

13

Byzantine Italy, c. 680-e. 876 T.S.

14

320

BROWN

Byzantium and the west, 700-900

349

MICHAEL MCCORMICK

PART II

15

GOVERNMENT AND INSTITUTIONS

Kingship and royal government

383

JANET L. NELSON

16

The aristocracy

431

STUART AIRLIE

17

Social and military institutions

451

HANS-WERNER GOETZ

18

Economic organisation

481

ADRIAAN VERHULST

19

Rural society in Carolingian Europe

; 10

CHRIS WICKHAM

20

Money and coinage MARK BLACKBURN

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Contents

ix

PART I I I C H U R C H AND S O C I E T Y

21

The papacy in the eighth and ninth centuries

563

THOMAS F.X. NOBLE

22

The organisation, law and liturgy of the western church,

587

700—900 ROGER E. REYNOLDS

23

Carolingian monasticism: the power of prayer

622

MAYKE DE JONG

24

Religion and lay society

654

JULIA M.H. SMITH

PART IV CULTURE AND INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENTS

25

Eighth-century foundations

681

ROSAMOND MCKITTERICK

26

Language and communication in Carolingian Europe

695

MICHEL BANNIARD

27

28

The Carolingian renaissance: education and literary culture JOHN J. CONTRENI

709

Theology and the organisation of thought

758

DAVID GANZ

29

Book production in the Carolingian empire and the spread of Caroline minuscule

786

DAVID GANZ

30

Art and architecture

809

LAWRENCE NEES

Conclusion

845

ROSAMOND MCKITTERICK

Appendix: genealogical tables List ofprimary sources Bibliography of secondary works arranged by chapter Index of Manuscripts General index

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849 867 886 1040 1042

MAPS

1 2 3

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Anglo-Saxon England, 700—900 page 22 Ireland, Wales and Scotland, joo—c. 1000 44 The missionary areas on the Continent in the eighth century: 74 Boniface, Chrodegang, Pirmin, Willibrord and their followers Charlemagne's Europe and Byzantium, 814 80 The Frankish kingdoms, 714—40 95 The Frankish kingdoms, 751-68 100 Divisio regnorum, 806 113 Ordinatio imperil, 817 114 Partition of 843 (Treaty of Verdun) 122 Partition of 870 (Treaty of Meersen) 123 Partition of 880 124 T h e East Frankish kingdom in the ninth century 15 2 T h e Vikings in Francia, 789—895 191 Scandinavia, 700—1050 203 Sweden, distribution of prehistoric burial sites 204 T h e Balkans, 700—900 230 T h e Iberian peninsula, 700—900 273 Italy, 700—900 295 T h e ecclesiastical provinces of western E u r o p e , 700—900 590 Carolingian schools, scriptoria and literary centres 722

FIGURE

1

Fineness of Italian gold coinages

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541

TABLES

1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11 12

Anglo-Saxon rulers, c. joo—c. 900. 1 Northumbria; page 849 11 Bernicia; i n T h e Scandinavian k i n g d o m of York; iv South Saxons; v East Angles; v i Hwicce; VII East Saxons; VIII Kent; ix Mercia; x Wessex T h e last Merovingians 856 T h e Arnulfings 856 Pippin III and Charlemagne 857 T h e descendants of Louis the Pious a n d J u d i t h 858 T h e descendants of Louis the Pious a n d Irmengard 859 Scandinavian rulers 860 Rulers in the Balkans, c. 700—c. 900. 1 Bulgars; n Croats; 861 i n Serbs Rulers of Spain, c. 700-c. 900. 1 Visigoths; 11 Arab governors 862 and amirs of Cordoba; i n Umayyad amirs of Cordoba 863 Rulers of the Christian k i n g d o m s of n o r t h e r n Spain, c. 700— c. 900. 1 Kings of the Asturias; n Kings of Leon; i n K i n g s of Pamplona; iv Counts of Barcelona 864 Rulers in Italy, c. 700-c. 900. 1 L o m b a r d s ; n Carolingians; i n Princes of Benevento Byzantine emperors, c. 700—
XI

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PLATES

frontispiece

The throne of Charles the Bald {Cathedra Petri), Vatican, Basilica of St Peter between pages 830 and 831 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Oxford, Bodleian Library, cod. Douce 176, ivory cover Pictish symbol stone, from Hilton of Cadboll Vatican, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, cod. Reg. lat. 124, fol. 4V, Hraban Maur, De Laudibus S. Crucis, Emperor Louis the Pious Aachen, Palace of Charlemagne, model by Leo Hugot Hunterston brooch, National Museum of Antiquities of Scotland, Edinburgh Susanna crystal, British Museum, London Ruthwell cross, oblique view St Gall, Stiftsbibliothek, cod. 1092, Plan of St Gall Vatican, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, cod. Pal. lat. 67, fol. 5r, dedication page, Erembertus before St Martin St Gall, Stiftsarchiv, cod. Fab. 1, p. 24, Liber Viventium from Pfafers Munich, Schatzkammer der Residenz, Prayerbook of Charles the Bald, fols. 38V—3 9r, Crucifixion and Charles the Bald Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, cod. lat. 1, fol. 423^ Vivian Bible, Presentation of book to Charles the Bald Trier, Domschatz, cod. 61, fol. lv, Christ and Evangelist symbols Germigny-des-Pres, Oratory of Theodulf, apse mosaic with Ark of the Covenant Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, cod. lat. 12048, fol. lv, Gellone Sacramentary, Virgin Mary Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, cod. lat. 9428, fol. 15V, Drogo Sacramentary, Te Igitur xii Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

List ofplates 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

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New York, Pierpont Morgan Library, cod. M. 644, fols. 152V— 15 3r, Morgan Beatus, Woman clothed in the Sun, and Dragon Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, cod. lat. 4404, fols. iv—zt, Legal collection, Emperor Theodosius with Roman lawyers Amiens, Bibliotheque Municipale, cod. 18, fol. 123 V, Corbie Psalter, David and Goliath Corvey, interior of western end Rome, Sta Prassede, interior towards apse Quintanilla de las Vifias, interior with entrance to chancel San Miguel de Escalada, interior Larbro, sculptured stele (Bunge Museum) Ahenny, North Cross, west face Cividale, Sta Maria in Valle ('Tempietto'), entrance wall with stuccoes and wall-paintings St Gall, Stiftsbibliothek, cod. 53, ivory with Ascension of Virgin and scenes of St Gall, by Tuotilo Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, cod. fr. 10440, fol. 45 r, Arch of Einhard Milan, S. Ambrogio, Wulvinus altar, back Rome, Sta Maria Antiqua Chapel of Theodotus Rome, Sta Maria Domnica, apse, Virgin and Child with angels and Pope Paschal I Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, cod. n. a. lat. 1203, fols. 2v— 3r, Godescalc Evangelistary, Evangelist John and Christ Vatican, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, cod. Barb. lat. 570, fol. n v , Barberini (Wigbald) Gospels, Evangelist Matthew Essen Munsterschatz Gospels, pp. 5 5-6, Cross with Evangelist symbols, and initial page Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, cod. lat. 9332, fol. i4or, Medical compendium, Alexander medicus and salvific cross Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, cod. lat. 12168, fol. lr, Augustine, Quaestiones in Heptateuchon

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CONTRIBUTORS

STUART AIRLIE: Lecturer in History, University of Glasgow MICHEL BANNIARD: Professor of Latin, Universite de Toulouse-Mirail MARK BLACKBURN: Keeper of Coins and Medals, The Fitzwilliam

Museum, Cambridge THOMAS s. BROWN: Lecturer in History, University of ROGER COLLINS: Edinburgh J O H N j . CONTRENI: Professor of History, Purdue

Edinburgh

University, West Lafayette, Indiana SIMON c. COUPLAND: Bath MAYKE DE JONG: Professor of Medieval History, University of Utrecht. PAOLO DELOGU: Professor of Medieval History, 'La Sapienza', University of Rome PAUL FOURACRE: Lecturer in History, Goldsmiths College, University of London JOHANNES FRIED: Professor of History, University of Frankfurt -am-Main DAVID GANZ: Associate Professor, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill HANS-WERNER GOETZ: Professor of History, University of Hamburg HUGH KENNEDY: Lecturer in History, University of St Andrews SIMON KEYNES: Reader in Anglo-Saxon History, University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Trinity College NIELS LUND: Lecturer in History, University of Copenhagen MICHAEL MCCORMICK: Professor of History, Harvard University ROSAMOND MCKITTERICK: Reader in Early Medieval European History, University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Newnham College LAWRENCE NEES: Professor of Art History, University of Delaware JANET L. NELSON: Professor of History, King's College, University of London xiv

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List of contributors

xv

THOMAS F.X. NOBLE: Professor of History, University of Virginia DONNCHADH 6 COR RAIN: Professor of History, University College,

Cork, National University of Ireland ROGER REYNOLDS: Professor of History, Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, Toronto JONATHAN SHEPARD: Lecturer in History, University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Peterhouse JULIA M.H. SMITH: Associate Professor of History, Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut ADRIAAN VERHULST: Professor of History, University of Ghent CHRIS WICKHAM: Professor of History, University of Birmingham

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PREFACE

This volume covers most of the period of Frankish and Carolingian dominance in western Europe, a time of relative political and cultural coherence, combined with crucial, and, as the various chapters make clear, very diverse and formative developments in every sphere of life. A volume devoted to the history of western Europe between c. 700 and c. 900 in all its richness and diversity inevitably suggests a number of possible methods of organisation. The related volumes of the old Cambridge Medieval History, on 'The foundation of the western empire' (from c. 500—c. 814) and on 'Germany and the western empire' (from c. 814-f. 1000), were published in 1913 and 1922 respectively, and contained only a few chapters each on the period covered in the present volume. They were conceived when little was available in English on the early middle ages and there were few specialists in the English-speaking world able to write the chapters; volume in in particular was blighted by the Great War. No such impediment has presented itself for this volume. We have endeavoured to expunge the unhappy legacy of the old volume in when the principles of scholarship were sullied with political enmities and many scholars excluded as authors because of their nationality. The new series, and especially this volume, reflects the extraordinary community of interest among medievalists of all disciplines and all nationalities as well as a far greater knowledge and appreciation of medieval Europe as a whole in the academic world, among students, and in the general public. There is a far stronger acceptance of the importance of an interdisciplinary approach. There is a much greater awareness of the irrelevance of modern, or ancient, national boundaries and the need to consider developments in Europe as a whole, from Ireland to the Bosphorus, rather than focusing mainly on Anglo-Saxon England or the empires of Charlemagne and the Saxon rulers of Germany. Given the increasing economic and political integration of the European states, moreover, their common cultural inheritance adds an essential dimension to

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Preface

their history. It is this that must be properly understood and which this new history is designed to serve. Three volumes of this new series are planned, covering the centuries encompassed in the old volumes 11 and in. The twelve chapters devoted to the period 700—900 in the old Cambridge Medieval History, divided between volumes n and in, omitted many topics and regions, or at best subsumed, as short sections within narrative chapters, areas and themes which are now accorded full chapters in the New Cambridge Medieval History. Some of these, indeed, were rarely the subject of scholarly study at that stage. The emphasis of the old history was on the creation and maintenance of imperial domination. In place of the preoccupation with empire and the simple, blow-by-blow account of conquests and coronations, this volume offers an examination of the interaction between rulers and ruled, of how power and authority actually worked, and of the impact of these on the society and culture of Europe as a whole. There are, therefore, chapters on the 'Celtic', Slavic, Balkan and marcher regions, the aristocracy, kingship and government, Byzantium's relations with the west, Arab activities in the Mediterranean, ecclesiastical organisation, monasticism, money, the economy, rural society and social organisation, and the many different aspects of intellectual and cultural life. This greater concentration on themes reflects the current preoccupations of historical scholarship with many different facets of social and cultural history. Thus part 1 of this, the second volume in the planned New Cambridge Medieval History but the first to be published, encompasses the events and political developments in the whole of the British Isles, the West and East Frankish kingdoms, Scandinavia, the Slavic and Balkan regions, Spain and Italy, and those events and individual actions in Byzantium and parts of the Islamic world which impinge on the west between c. 700 and c. 900. The factual and narrative portions of these chapters are blended with analysis and new interpretations of key issues. These chapters underpin those in parts ii, in and iv, which cover common themes and topics within the general categories of government and institutions, the church and society, and cultural and intellectual development. In these thematic chapters all regions of Europe are considered wherever possible on a comparative basis in cases of great contrasts and in a more unified way where there is great similarity. Footnotes have been kept within strict limits, but comprehensive bibliographies for each topic will be found at the end of the volume. Association with volume in (c. 900—c. 1030) of this new series, moreover, has been close. It is particularly to be noted in the division of chapters on the Russian lands, Celtic regions and the Scandinavian lands covering the period from c. joo-c. 1030 between the two volumes. Thus the discussion of

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'Preface

xix

the Russian lands for the entire period is to be found in volume in while the chapters on Scotland, Wales and Ireland and on Scandinavia are in this volume. The original intention for volume n was to devote an entire chapter to law and legal practice. Because this chapter did not arrive in time to be included, however, discussions of law and legal practice are integrated at appropriate points among a number of chapters, while a Bibliography for these topics has been added to that for the Introduction. Josef Semmler was initially asked to provide the chapter on monasticism. Owing to ill health at a crucial stage he was obliged to withdraw, but I am immensely indebted to Mayke de Jong for filling the breach at very short notice. I am particularly grateful to my contributors, colleagues and friends from all over the world, who have joined in this enterprise, written their chapters, sometimes in very difficult circumstances, and put up with a great deal of editorial interference and cajoling from me with admirable good nature. I have incurred other debts, notably to William Davies of Cambridge University Press, for his constant support and encouragement, and to the staff at Cambridge University Press responsible for seeing the volume through the press, to the Editorial Board of the New Cambridge Medieval History for their preliminary advice and suggestions, to Timothy Reuter, Jonathan Shepard, Chris Wickham and John Contreni for cheering me on and offering excellent advice through all the years this volume, in its various guises, has been on my desk, to Chris Wickham, Roger Wright, Christoph Heyl, and the authors themselves, for their invaluable help with the translation of chapters 12, 27 and 5, from Italian, French and German respectively; to Vanessa Stefanak who helped with the organisation of the mountains of typescript and an intermediate version of chapter 22, to Sheila Willson of the History Faculty in the University of Cambridge, who cheerfully typed the intermediate and final versions of chapters 12 and 18, to Yitzhak Hen who compiled the composite list of primary sources, to Mary Rycroft who helped with the proofs, to Meg Davies who compiled the indexes and to Frances Brown for her meticulous copy-editing and unfailing patience. Finally, no one will be more pleased to see the volume finished, bound and quietly on the shelf than my husband David and daughter Lucy. To them both, for never-failing support, suggestions and practical assistance, I offer my heartfelt thanks, as always. ROSAMOND MCKITTERICK

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

For permission to reproduce artefacts or manuscripts in their possession, the Editor is grateful to the following institutions: Bibliotheque Municipale, Amiens; Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris; Bodleian Library, Oxford; CNMHS, France; The Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, Edinburgh; National Museum of Antiquities, Scotland; The British Museum, London; Schat2kammer der Residenz, Munich and the Bayerische Verwaltung der staatliche Schlosser, Garten und Seen; Pierpont Morgan Library, New York; Stiftsarchiv, Sankt Gallen; Stiftsbibliothek, Sankt Gallen; Domschatz, Trier; Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana; Reverenda fabbrica di S. Pietro, the Vatican; Westfalisches Amt fur Denkmalpflege; ICCD, Rome; Bunge Museum; Essen, Miinsterschatz.

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ABBREVIATIONS

Full references for the primary sources are to be found in the Primary Source Bilbiography, pp. 867-885 AA A ASS AASS OSB

AB(i) AB(2) AB(j) Adam of Bremen (1) Adam of Bremen (2) AE AF(i) AF(2) AF(j) AfD AHE

Acta Archaeologica (Copenhagen) Acta Sanctorum quotquot toto orbe coluntur, ed. J. Bollandus et al. (Antwerp and Brussels, 1634—) Acta Sanctorum Ordinis Sancti Benedicti, ed. J. Mabillon, 9 vols. (Paris, 1668—1701) Annales Bertiniani, ed. Waitz Annales Bertiniani, ed. Rau Annales Bertiniani, trans. Nelson Gesta Hammaburgensis, ed. Trillmich and Buchner Gesta Hammaburgensis, trans. Tschan L'Anne Epigraphique Annales Fuldenses, ed. Kurze Annales Fuldenses, ed. Rau Annales Fuldenses, trans. Reuter Archiv fur Diplomatik Auctarii Havniensis Extrema, ed. T. Mommsen,

MGH A A ix (Berlin, 1892), pp. 337-9 AHP AHR AL An. Boll. Annales ESC ANOH ANS API

Archivum Historiae Pontificae American Historical Review Annales Laureshamenses Analecta Bollandiana Annales: Economies, Societes, Civilisations Aarbeger for nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie American Numismatic Society Archivio Paleografico Italiano

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List of abbreviations

XX11

ARF (i) ARF (2) ASC ASE AV AX BAC BAR BBA BBCS BBTT BCL BEC Bede, HE Besevliev, lnschriften

BHG

BHL

BHR Bib. Mun. Bischoff, MS 1, ii, i n Bischoff, Schreibschulen

BLMS BM

Ausgewdhlte Quellen \ur deutschen Geschicbte des Mittelalters, Darmstadt Annales Regni Francorum, ed. Kurze Annales Regni Francorum, trans. Scholz Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Anglo-Saxon England Annales Vedastini Annales Xantenses Bulletino di Archeologia Cristiana British Archaeological Reports Berliner Byzantinische Arbeiten, Berlin Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies Belfast Byzantine Texts and Translations M. Lapidge and R. Sharpe, A Bibliography of Celtic-Latin Literature 400—1200, Dublin (1985) Bibliotheque de I'Ecole des Charles Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum V. Besevliev, Die protobulgarischen Inschriften, Berlin (1963) or Bulgarian 2nd edn, P'rvob'lgarski nadpisi, Sofia (1979) Bibliotheca Hagiographica Graeca, ed. F. Halkin, 3rd edn (Subsidia hagiographica 8a), Brussels (1957) and Novum Auctarium Bibliotheca Hagiographicae Graeca (Subsidia hagiographica 65) Brussels (1984) Bibliotheca Hagiographica Latina (Subsidia hagiographica 6), Brussels (1898-1901), Supplementum (Subsidia hagiographica 12), Brussels (1911); Novum Supplementum (Subsidia hagiographica 70), Brussels (1986) Bulgarian Historical Review Bibliotheque Municipale Bernhard Bischoff, Mittelalterliche Studien, Stuttgart (1966, 1967 and 1981) Bernhard Bischoff, Die Siidostdeutschen Schreibschulen und Bibliotheken in der Karolinger^eit 1: Die Bayerischen Dio\esen, 3rd edn, Wiesbaden (1974); 11: Die Voriviegend Osterreichischen Dib\esen, Wiesbaden (1980) London, British Library manuscript J.F. Bohmer and E. Muhlbacher, Regesta

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List of abbreviations

BMGS Bond, Facsimiles BNJ BN lat.; n.a. lat. Brackmann, GP

BS/EB BSl BSOAS

By^bulg BZ CA CAS

CB CC CCCC CCCM CCM CCSL CDF CDI CDL CDP

Imperii: Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern,7Ji-<)i8, Berlin (1908; rep. Hildesheim, 1966) Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies E.A. Bond, Facsimiles of Ancient Charters in the British Museum, 4 vals., London (1873—8) By^antinische-neugriechische Jahrbiicher

Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, manuscrit latin; nouvelles acquisitions latines A. Brackmann, H. Biittner, H. Jakob, W. Seegriin and T. Schieffer, Regesta Pontificum Romanorum, Gertnania Pontifica, 5 vols., Berlin and Gottingen (1910—81) Byzantine Studies/Etudes Byzantines By^antinoslavica Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies By^antion By^antinobulgarica By^antinische Zeitschrift Chronicon Altinate, ed. R. Cessi, Origo Civitatum Italiae seu Venetiarum (FSI 72), Rome (1933) Christianity among the Slavs: The Heritage of Saints Cyril and Methodius, ed. E.G. Farrugia, R.F. Taft and G.K. Piovesana (OCA 231), Rome (1992) Breviarum Ecclesiae Ravennatis (Codex Bravo) Codex Carolinus Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Mediavalis, Turnhout(1966-) Corpus Consuetudinum Monasticarum, ed. K. Hallinger, Siegburg (1963) Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina, Turnhout

Codex Diplomaticus Fuldensis, ed. E.F.J. Dronke, Kassel (1850) Codice Diplomatico Istriano, ed. P. Kandler, Trieste Codice Diplomatico Longobardo Codice Diplomatico Padovano dal secolo sesto a tutto Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

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CFHB ChLA

CIG CIL CL CLA

Clm CMCS CNS i

CR

CSEL CSHB CUL

cv DA DACL DAI DBI DHGE DO AW DOC

List of abbreviations I'undecimo, ed. A. Gloria, Venice (1877) Corpus Fontium Historiae By^antinae Chartae Latinae Antiquiores, ed. Albert Bruckner, facsimile edition of the Latin charters prior to the ninth century 1—, Olten and Lausanne (1954-) Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum iv, ed. A. Boeckh, Berlin, (1877) Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum Codex Laureshamensis E.A. Lowe, Codices Latini Antiquiores: A Palaeographical Guide to Latin Manuscripts Prior to the Ninth Century 1—xi plus Supplement, Oxford (1935—71) Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Codex Latinus Monacensis Cambridge Mediaeval Celtic Studies Corpus Nummorum Saeculorum ix—xi qui in Suevia reperti sunt, ed. B. Malmer et al. 1: Gotland, Stockholm (1975—7) Cartulaire de I'Abbaye de Redon en Bretagne, ed. A. de Courson, Documents ine'dits sur Fhistoire de France, Paris (1863) (charters cited by editor's numbering) Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, Vienna (1866-) Corpus Scriptorum Historiae By^antinae, 50 vols., Berlin (1828-91) Cambridge, University Library John the Deacon, Cronaca Venevyana Deutsches Arch iv fur Erforschung des Mittelalters Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne et de liturgie, ed. F. Cabrol and H. Leclercq, Paris (1924—) Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, De Administrando Imperio Di^ionario biografico degli Italiani, Rome (i960-) Dictionnaire d'histoire et de geographie ecclesiastiques Denkschriften der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

List of abbreviations

DOP DOS DOT DRIA EB EC EHD EHR ELC

EME ESSH fol. Fordun, Cbronica FrSt FSI Gd GEN

GIBI GMC GRBS Grumel

GSR

xxv

i, ed. A.R. Bellinger, Washington, DC (1966); n, ed. P. Grierson, Washington, DC (1968); in, ed. P. Grierson, Washington, DC (1975) Dumbarton Oaks Papers Dumbarton Oaks Studies Dumbarton Oaks Texts Royal Irish Academy, Dictionary of the Irish Language, ed. E.G. Quin, Dublin (1915-76) Etudes Balkaniques Etudes Celtiques see D. Whitelock, English Historical Documents 1 English Historical Review Epistolae Langobardicae Collectaey ed. W. Gundlach, MGH Epp. in, Berlin (1892), pp. 691-715 Early Medieval Europe A.O. Anderson, Early Sources of Scottish History, 2 vols., Edinburgh (1922) folio Johannis de Fordun Chronica Gentis Scotorum, ed. W.F. Skene, Edinburgh (1871) Friihmittelalterliche Studien Fontiper la storia d'ltalia (Instituto storico per il medio evo) (1887-) Gdstriklands Runinskrifter, ed. S.B.F. Jansson, Sveriges Runinskrifter xv, Stockholm (1981) Gesta Episcoporum Neapolitanorum, ed. G. Waitz, MGH SRL 1, Hanover (1878), pp. 398436 Gr'tski I^yori ^a B'lgarskata Istoriia, 1—ix, Sofia (1954-74) Georgius Monachus Continuatus, in Theoph. Cont. Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies V. Grumel, Les Regestes des actes du patriarcat de Constantinople, 1:2: Les Regestes de 7 / / a 104), Chalcedon (1936) The Monks of Redon: Gesta Sanctorum Rotonensium and Vita Conwoionis, ed. C. Brett (Studies in Celtic History 10), Woodbridge (1989)

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List of abbreviations

XXVI

HBS HGL HJb

HZ IB IC IHS IJMES IQ TRMA ISN Jaffe, Regesta JAOS JESHO JMH JNES JOB JOBG JRAS JSS JTS Karl der Grosse

Kehr, Regesta

Kenney, Sources

KHL Konst. Porph.

Henry Bradshaw Society C. Devic and J. Vaissete (eds.), Histoire generale de Languedoc, 2 vols., Toulouse (1875) Historisches Jahrbuch Historische Zeitschrift Istoriia na B'lgariia 11, Sofia (1981) Islamic Culture Irish Historical Studies International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies Islamic Quarterly Ius Romanum Medii Aevi, Milan (1961—) Istorija Srpskog Naroda 1, Belgrade (1981) P. Jaffe, S. Loewenfeld, F. Kaltenbrunner and P. Ewald, Regesta Pontificum Romanorum, Leipzig (1885-8) Journal of the American Oriental Society Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient journal of Medieval History Journal of Near Eastern Studies Jahrbuch der Osterreichischen By^antinistik Jahrbuch der Osterreichischen By^antinschen Gesellschaft (1951-68) Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Journal of Semitic Studies Journal of Theological Studies Karl der Grosse: Lebenswerk und Nachleben, ed. W. Braunfels, 5 vols., Diisseldorf (1965 and 1968) P.F. Kehr, W. Holtzmann and D. Girgensohn, Regesta Pontificum Romanorum, Italia Pontifica, 10 vols., Berlin and Zurich (1906-75) James F. Kenney, The Sources for the Early History of Ireland: Ecclesiastical. An Introduction and Guide, rev. edn Ludwig Bieler, New York ( I 9 66) Kulturhistorisk Lexikon for nordisk middelalder, 22 vols. Copenhagen (1956-78) Konstantin Bagryanorodnij, Ob upravlenii imperiej, ed., Russian trans, and commentary by G.G. Litavrin, A.P. Novoselcev et al., Moscow (1989)

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List of abbreviations La Neustrie

LD LP(i) LP(2) Leo VI, Takt. LSCM

MA Manaresi

Mansi

xxvii

La Neustrie: les pays au nord de la Loire de 6jo a 8jo, ed. H. Atsma (Beihefte der Francia 16), Sigmaringen (1989) Liber Diurnus Romanorum Pontificum, ed. Hans Foerster, Berne (1958) Liber Pontificalis, ed. Duchesne Liber Pontificalis, trans. Davis Leo VI, Takita, PG 107 The Legacy of Saints Cyril and Methodius to Kiev and Moscow. Proceedings of the International Congress on the Millennium of the Conversion of the Rus' to Christianity, ed. A.-E.N. Tachios, Thessalonica (1992) Le Moyen Age C. Manaresi (ed.), Iplaciti del 'Regnum Italiae', 3 vols. (Fontiper la storia d'Italia 92, 96, 97), Rome (195 5—60) J.D. Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum Nova et Amplissima Collectio, Florence and Venice (1757-98)

MBS

MEC

MGH AA Cap.

Cap. episc. Cone.

Dip. Germ.

I. Dujcev, Medioevo By^antino Slavo 1—in (Storia e letteratura raccolta di Studi e Testi 102, 113, 119), Rome (1965—71) Philip Grierson and Mark Blackburn, Medieval European Coinage, with a Catalogue of the Coins in the Fit^william Museum, Cambridge 1: The Early Middle Ages ()th—ioth centuries), Cambridge (1986) Monumenta Germaniae Historica Auctores Antiquissimi, 15 vols., Berlin (18 77— 1919) Capitularia, Legum Sectio 11, Capitularia Regutt Francorum, ed. A. Boretius and V. Krause, 2 vols., Hanover (1883—97) Capitula Episcoporum, ed. P. Brommer, Hanover (1984) Concilia. Legum Sectio in, Concilia 11, ed. A. Werminghoff, Hanover (1906-8); in, ed. W. Hartmann, Hanover (1984) Die Urkunden der Deutschen Karolinger 1, ed. P. Kehr, Berlin (1932—4); n, ed. P. Kehr, Berlin (1936-7); in, ed. P. Kehr, Berlin (1956); iv, ed. T. Schieffer, Berlin (i960)

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hist of abbreviations

XXV111

Dip. Kar.

Diplomata Karolinorum i and in, ed. E. Miihlbacher and T. Schieffer, Hanover (18931908) Epistolae iii-vm ( = Epistolae Merovingici et Karolini Aevi, Hanover (1892—1939)

Epp. Epp. Sel.

Epistolae Selectae in usum scholarum, 5 vols.,

Fontes

Form. Leges nat. germ.

Lib. Mem. Nee. germ. Poet

SS SRG

Hanover (1887—91) Fontes Iuris Germanici Antiqui in usum scholarum ex Monumentis Germaniae Historicis separatim editi, 13 vols., Hanover (1909—86) Formulae Merowingici et Karolini Aevi, ed. K. Zeumer, Legum Sectio v, Hanover (1886) Leges Nationum Germanicarum, ed. K. Zeumer {Lex Visigothorum); L.R. de Salis {Leges Burgundionum); F. Beyerle and R. Buchner {Lex Ribuaria); K.A. Eckhardt {Pactus Legis Salicae and Lex Salica); E. von Schwind {Lex Baiuariorum), 6 vols. in 11 parts, Hanover (1892—1969) Libri Memoriales, and Libri Memoriales et Necrologia Nova series, Hanover (1979—) Necrologia Germaniae, 5 vols + Suppl., Hanover (1886—1920) Poetae Latini Aevi Carolini, ed. E. Dummler, L. Traube, P. von Winterfeld and K. Strecker, 4 vols., Hanover (1881—99) Scriptoresm folio, 30 vols., Hanover (1824—1924) Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum

separatim editi, 63 vols., Hanover (1871—1987) SRL

Scriptores Rerum Langobardicarum et ltalicarum

SR'M

saec. VI-IX, ed. G. Waitz, Hanover (1878) Scriptores Rerum Merovingicarum, ed. B. Krusche and W. Levison, 7 vols., Hanover (1885—1920)

MlOG Morice, Preuves

MLUHM

Mitteilungen des Instituts fur Osterreichiscbe Geschichtsforschung H. Morice, Me'moires pour servir de preuves a I'histoire ecclesiastique et civile de Bretagne, 3 vols., Paris (1742—6)

Meddelanden fran Lunds Universitets Historiska Museum

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List of abbreviations Me^hS

MMFH MMS MS MSHAB N NAR nd NF Niceph.

NIYR OCA ODB Pal. PG PL PMLA Porro PP PRIA QFIAB

RB RE REI REB

xxix

Me^hdunaroden Simpo^ium: uoo godini ot bla^henata konchina na sv. Metodii i—n, ed. N. Shivarov, Sofia (1989) Magnae Moraviae Fontes Historici 1—iv, Brno (1986-77) Miinstersche Mittelalterschriften Manuscript Me'moires de la Societe d'Histoire et d' Arcbiologie de Bretagne Nessebre, ed. T. Ivanov, Sofia (1969) Norwegian Archaeological Review no date Neue Folge Nicephorus, Patriarch of Constantinople, Short History, ed. and trans. C. Mango, CFHB xni; DOT 10, Washington, DC (1990) Norges innskrifter med de jngre runer, ed. M. Olsen, 5 vols., Oslo (1941-50) Orientalia Christiana Analecta Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford (1991) Palaeobulgarica, Sofia Patrologiae Cursus Completes, Series Graeca, ed. J.-P. Migne, 161 vols., Paris (1857-66) Patrologiae Cursus Completes, Series Latina, ed. J.-P. Migne, 221 vols., Paris (1841—64) Publications of the Modern Language Association of America Codex Diplomaticus Longobardiae, ed. G. PorroLambertenghi, Turin (1873) Pliska Preslav 1—iv, Sofia (1979-85) Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken Quellen %ur Karolingischen Reichsgeschichte, ed. R. Rau, 3 vols. ( = AQ 5—7), Darmstadt (195 5—60) Revue Benedictine Paulys Realencyclopddie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft Revue d'Etudes Islamiques Revue des Etudes Byzantines

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List of abbreviations

XXX

REG RESEE RHEF RhVjb RIS

RN RSM s. s.a. Sawyer SBC

SBVS Settimane SI SM SSS StMBO SymM

Theoph. Chron.

Theoph. Cont. TIB TKAS

TM

Revue des Etudes Grecques Revue des Etudes Sud-Est Europeennes Revue d'Histoire de I'Eglise de France Rheinische Vierteljahrsbldtter Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, ed. L.A. Muratori, 25 vols., Milan (1723-51); new edn G. Carducci and V. Fiorini, Citta di Castello and Bologna (1900—) Revue Numismatique Rivista degli Studi Medievali saeculum sub anno Peter H . Sawyer, Anglo-Saxon Charters Srednovekovnata B'lgariia i Chernomorieto (Sbornik dokladi ot nauchnata konferentsiia), ed. A . Kuzev, Varna (1982) Saga-Book of the Viking Society Settimane di Studio del Centra italiano di studi sull'alto medioevo, Spoleto (1954—) Studia Islamica Studi Medievali Slownik Staro^ytnosci Slowianskich 1—vm, Wrociaw, Warsaw and Cracow (1961—91) Studien und Mitteilungen zur Geschichte des Benediktiner-Ordens und seiner Zweige Symposium Methodianum. Beitrdge der Internationalen Tagung in Regensburg (1/. bis 24. April ipS'/) %um Gedenken an den 1100. Todestag der hi. Method, ed. K. Trost, E. Volkl and E. Wedel (Selecta Slavica 13), Neuried (1987) Theophanes, Chronographia, ed. C. de Boor, 1, Leipzig (1883); English trans. H. Turtledove, The Chronicle ofTheophanes, Philadelphia (1982) Theophanes Continuatus, Chronographia, ed. I. Bekker, Bonn (1838) Tabula Imperii Byzantini Trudy Me^hdunarodnogo Kongressa ArkheologovSlatislov, Kiev 18-2j Sentiabria ipS'/ g, 1—iv, Moscow and Kiev (1987-8) Travaux et Memoires, Paris (1965—)

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List of abbreviations Treadgold

TRHS UF Vat. (lat.; pal. lat.; reg. lat.)

VA VC VuF

VIINJ VM VSWG VV Whitelock, EHD

ZfrP ZRG GA KA ZRVI

xxxi

W. Treadgold, The Byzantine Revival780-S42, Stanford (1988) Transactions of the Royal Historical Society Urkundenbucb des Klosters Fulda 1, ed. E. Stengel, Marburg (1958) Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana, MS (latinus; palatinus latinus; reginensis latinus) Vita Anskarii, ed. Trillmich and Buchner (as under Adam of Bremen) Vita Constantini Vortrage und Forschungen, herausgegeben vom Konstanzer Arbeitskreis fur mittelalterliche Geschichte Vi^antiski I^vvori %a Istoriju Naroda Jugoslavije Vita Methodii Vierteljahrschrift fur Social- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte Vi\antijsskij Vremennik Dorothy Whitelock, English Historical Documents 1, c. 500—1042, 2nd edn, London ( I 979) Zeitschrift fur celtische Philologie Zeitschrift der Savigny Stiftungfiir Rechtsgeschichte Germanistische Abteilung Kanonistische Abteilung Zbornik Radova Vizantolosskog Instituta

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PART I POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION: SOURCES AND INTERPRETATION Rosamond McKitterick

THE Frankish dominance of the period covered by this volume poses special problems for the historian, not least because of the apparent concentration of a great diversity of sources from the Frankish heartlands and the relative paucity of material from everywhere else. Indeed, if our understanding of the years between 700 and 900 depended on the historical narratives produced in this period alone, we would be obliged to accept a largely Frankish proclamation of self-confidence and greatness on the part of the ruling elites of Carolingian society, and the Carolingians' distinctive celebration of the intellectual and cultural vigour of their scholarship and art, as the central points of interest for the eighth and ninth centuries. Fortunately, however, an enormous range of other categories of evidence, drawn on in all the chapters below — charters, secular and ecclesiastical legislation, law-codes, saints' Lives, estate surveys, treatises on a wide variety of subjects, liturgical, school and library books, script, letters, taxlists, poems, relics and relic labels, inventories, penitentials, seals, coins, library catalogues, inscriptions, confraternity books and artefacts of all kinds, ranging from pictures in manuscripts to weapons, jewellery, sculpture and buildings - redress the balance. The archaeological evidence has played a crucial role in adjusting and augmenting our understanding of many developments in this period, most notably in the economic and ecclesiastical spheres, as is clear from the chapters by Blackburn, Verhulst and de Jong.1 The palace complexes unearthed at Aachen, Ingelheim or Pliska,2 the fortunes of the trading emporia at Dorestad, Hamwic, Hedeby and Quentovic, the astounding range of monastic buildings at San Vincenzo al Volturno,3 the exercise of patronage and display of wealth evident in the abundance of jewellery, metalwork and sculpture adorning churches and 1 2 3

See chapters 18, 20 and 23 below; Hodges (1991) provides a useful brief survey. Randsborg (1991), pp. 65-6, and see Shepard below, p. 244. Hodges and Mitchell (198;); Hodges 1993.

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filling treasuries charted by Nees,4 add a distinctive and essential dimension also in the spheres of politics, power and social status. Nevertheless, the principal evidence remains written material of one kind or another. Although there are many instances of texts in Irish, Old English, Old High German, Arabic, Old Slavonic and Greek, the vast bulk of our sources are in Latin. In the past, this has raised acute problems for the historian of the early middle ages, in that these Latin sources appeared to imply a major divorce between a tiny educated and clerical elite and a huge illiterate non-Latinate lay population. It has now been recognised, as Banniard explains,5 that such problems and misconceptions arose from mistaken assumptions about the development of the Latin language in relation to the emergent Romance languages of western Europe. There was, in addition, a lack of appreciation, despite numerous modern parallels, of the degree to which a conquered people could acquire the language of their masters as a second language, especially when it was used as the language of law, religion and education. Such was the case with Latin, adopted throughout western Europe as the language of the church, government and learning. Only in the British Isles and Scandinavia, as Keynes, 6 Corrain and Lund make clear, were the nonLatin vernaculars more widely used in law and administration.6 Although the role of the Christian church in introducing literate modes of communication to post-Roman western Europe is undoubted, we have to reckon with continuities in the use of the written word within the areas formerly part of the Roman empire. Even in areas outside the old Roman empire, Latin was acquired, along with Christianity, and was soon exploited. This Latin, however, was subject to many local and regional variations, and differs greatly in its level of formality according to the genre for which it is used. It is certainly different from classical Latin, and different again from what is commonly understood to be 'medieval Latin', that is, a Latin understood to be conceptually distinct from the contemporary Romance vernaculars which developed out of Latin in due course. What are we to call the Latin in use in the eighth and ninth centuries? A terminological solution has been proposed by Roger Wright.7 He argues that we have essentially complex monolingualism in the Frankish, Spanish and Italian regions once within the Roman empire. Some in the past have chosen to differentiate the elements in this monolingualism into Latin and Romance but they are more appropriately to be understood as many different spoken and written levels or registers of the same language, whether one chooses to call it 'Romance' or 'Latin'. Wright prefers 'Romance' as being less anachronistic and a way of 4 7

Chapter 30 below. Wright (1993; 1994).

5

Chapter 26 below.

« Chapters 2a, 2b and 8 below.

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Introduction: sources and interpretation acknowledging undoubted differences from both classical Latin and medieval Latin.8 Banniard below adopts an alternative position. Whatever the difference of opinion on the appropriateness of the terms, or the degree of contemporary recognition of the conceptual difference between 'Romance' and 'Latin', the upshot for the historian of the eighth and ninth centuries is that the surviving texts are in practice vernacular texts. Literacy, hitherto thought to be confined to a clerical elite, and literate skills, from the king issuing legislation and admonition and the landowner granting property to the church to the unfreed slave clinging to his new social status by means of a charter, were in fact widely dispersed throughout the society of the eighth and ninth centuries. Indeed, all the evidence available suggests that literacy and the written word were central elements of early medieval society, especially in the Frankish world. Written texts could also be made accessible to the unlettered by reading them aloud.9 No group could remain unaffected by the activities of those able to make the most of the opportunities afforded them by their possession of literate skills. Even with this recognition of the role of writing and uses of literacy in Europe in the eighth and ninth centuries, it is essential that oral procedures and the uses of orality be taken into account. Many of our written texts give clear indications of an oral dimension to their production or reception. Thus in legal business an essential role was played by the oral transaction in the social context of the law court, attended by the sort of people Airlie, Goetz and Wickham discuss in their chapters, where decisions were reached in public and subsequently recorded in a charter or notitia.10 In the famous dispute between the monastery of Tours and Atpert, his sister Agintrude and her husband Amalgar,11 Saraman the provost ordered that those persons who were in possession of that property should show their title deeds, auctoritates, at the appointed assembly in his presence. These title deeds were then brought before Saraman and other noblemen at Tours. But they could not settle the issue because of the absence of the neighbours to whom the case was known; their presence was necessary. Written charters also played a part and one of them was judged a forgery, on the grounds that the correct procedure for its redaction had not been followed, thereby fatally undermining Atpert's case. The oral witnesses, recorded in this notitia, told against Atpert, and we are bound to accept this formalisation of what was originally a dispute fraught with tension and grievance, with individuals of relatively modest social status attempting to uphold what they understood to be their rights in the face of a powerful institution. Even in such 8 9 11

See Wright (1982; 1991); McKitterick (1989); Banniard chapter 26 below for details. 10 McKitterick (1989; 1990). Chapters 16, 17 and 19 below. Discussed fully in Nelson (1986b).

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ostensibly objective documents as the Tours case, or those charting the aspirations, claims and disputes of both urban and rural communities, therefore, we have to attempt to distinguish the rhetoric from the reality as much as we do in historical narratives.12 The Tours case highlights the interdependence and interweaving of oral and written procedures and discourse that is apparent in every aspect of life in the early middle ages. Often oral discourse and written documents are explicitly placed in sequence in the conduct of business. The Annals of St Bertin, for example, recount how Louis the Pious dispatched messengers to every part of his realm to bring the people the news of his own liberation, to remind them to fulfil the obligations of loyalty which they had promised him and to reassure them that he had forgiven them. Thus written messages, or messages committed to memory, were recited aloud to the people. Further, an assembly in 8 3 5, convened to discuss the problem of Ebbo of Rheims and discussed by Nelson below,13 again demonstrates the interdependence of oral and written modes of communication and discourse. This is what happened according to the Frankish annalist: Each one present at the assembly drew up with his own hand a full account of its findings and of their own confirmation thereof, and authenticated it with his own signature. The outcome of the whole affair, how it had been dealt with, discussed, settled and finally confirmed in suitable fashion by the signatures of everyone present: all this was put together, set out in full detail in one collection, bound as a small volume, and agreed by all to be an accurate account. They then wasted no time in making it as widely known as possible, bringing it to everyone's attention with most devoted and heartfelt and kind concern, and with an authority most worthy of so many reverend fathers. For they gathered at Metz in the church of the blessed protomartyr Stephen, completed the celebration of Mass and read out the account of the whole affair publicly to all who were present.14 In this inevitable stress on written materials and the contribution of oral procedures, therefore, the interplay of oral tradition is clear even if it is extraordinarily difficult to determine precisely in the light of the fact that we can only work from written testimonies. But the questions of reception, transmission and audience, and the role of listening, speaking and ritual gesture, are nevertheless crucial. Who wrote the texts we can still read, and for whom? Who then could understand and use these texts, and for what purposes? Would the texts be read privately, be read out aloud to an audience or their contents communicated in some other kind of way, in an oral paraphase, in poetic forms, or by gesture? What can be determined about rituals associated with written documents, such as liturgical ordines, 12 14

Da vies and Fouracre (1986); Balzaretti (1994). ABs.a. 835.

13

Below, p. 116.

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Introduction: sources and interpretation

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oaths, celebratory recitations, or those that have no written expression, as in gift-giving, banquets, dances or mime where in some cases written descriptions are provided of actions accompanied by formulaic spoken language? The literate modes we are able to examine in our sources may or may not have oral associations or an oral counterpart. Occasionally we can observe the efforts of scribes to present texts in such a way as to suggest that they were designing the text for public reading out loud. Early medieval manuscripts from Britain, Frankish Gaul, Spain and Italy contain various innovations analysed by Ganz below.15 One of these took the form of punctuation marks to indicate the structure of sentences and new layouts in order to elucidate the text transmitted to the scribe, or corrector, according to the needs of his own audience. These include the use of display scripts for titles and headings. Diminuendo, in which the first word of a section begins with a large letter or littera notabilior and the following letters gradually decrease in si2e, first appears in sixth- and seventh-century books and was a favoured technique with insular scribes. A hierarchy of scripts, descending from the capitals of the Roman script system, through uncials and half-uncials to minuscule scripts, flourished triumphantly in Carolingian manuscripts of the ninth century, though is to be observed in English and Frankish manuscripts of the eighth century as well.16 In the Carolingian period the repertory of signs was increased: litterae notabiliores and individual letters modelled on ancient capitals were introduced at the beginnings of sentences; the question mark and various forms of punctus or points above or on the line were introduced to indicate minor or major medial pauses and the ends of sense units or sentences. These signs thus have much to reveal about how such texts may have been read and understood. They establish that writing had its own autonomous conventions and structures quite distinct from those of the spoken word, and this is nowhere more apparent than in such non-literary material as the legal documents of the early middle ages and the texts of various genres designed for record-keeping alluded to above. Written language is fundamentally the textual counterpart of the spoken language, rather than writing being dependent on the spoken word. As Nees demonstrates, illustrations in manuscripts and sculpture often enjoy a close relationship with writing as well. Book illustrations enhance the meaning and associations of a text, are dependent on the text for their meaning, and are often visual translations of the written words. Other forms of art may be wordless but express no less eloquently the thought and aspirations of those who produced them.17 It may be that the language itself can tell us something about the intended 1S 17

Chapter 29 below. "> Parkes (1993); see also Ganz, chapter 28 below. Nees, chapter 30 below.

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audience and the reception of a particular text. Just as there are several linguistic and stylistic levels in the Merovingian saints' Vitae, for example, so there are in Carolingian hagiography and miracle collections. Thus Alcuin in his Vita Kicharii mentions in his prologue that the monks of St Riquier still used the Merovingian text of the miracula to edify the common people, while they wanted a new and more polished text for internal use. There were, in this instance therefore, two written levels, each with its own public. Hincmar of Rheims also distinguished two kinds of public for his Vita Remigii: the legentes on the one hand and the audientiapopuli on the other.

Hincmar explained that he had marked the parts suitable for reading to an audience and those for study by the illuminati. But the difference between them is one of content rather than of syntax or style. The Carolingian hagiographers were not writing a simpler, more rustic Latin for the populace.18 Thus the nature of the language itself does not assist us greatly in determining the audience envisaged for it so much as its message and accompanying rituals. When these can be seen to change, then ritual and language together reveal something of the society that produced them as well as a little of what religion may have meant to the laity, a subject tackled below by Smith.19 Fundamental changes in the rites associated with an individual's last illness and death, for example, culminated in the creation of a common and coherent, if complex, death ritual throughout the Frankish realm.20 This ritual, and particular attitudes towards dying, death and the after-life it articulates, became the norm in Europe thereafter. Strong links between the living and the dead were created in the Carolingian period, not least by means of organised commemorative prayer on a remarkably large scale and manifest in the monastic sources de Jong confronts in her chapter.21 The death rites and prayers were included in the Sacramentaries or Mass Books produced in large numbers in the eighth and ninth centuries for local use, described by Reynolds below.22 Many of the later ninth-century Sacramentaries were produced at St Amand under the auspices of Abbots Adalhard and Gauzlin (also bishop of Paris) who may be credited with the elaboration of the rituals of death. With such evidence, royal involvement is nevertheless not to be discounted. It may be possible to associate the production of the eighth-century Mass Books with the Seine-basin convents and the bishops of Meaux and Paris, bearing in mind the undoubted royal connections of Chelles, chief among these convents in the time of Pippin III and Charlemagne.23 The stories Einhard and Notker tell us about Charle18 21 23

20 Heene (1991). " Chapter 24 below. Paxton (1990). a De Jong, chapter 23 below; Oexle and Schmid (1974). Chapter 22 below. See McKitterick, chapter 2 5 below.

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Introduction: sources and interpretation magne's keen interest in liturgical chant,24 the evidence of liturgical innovation in the royal chapel under Louis the Pious,25 the link between St Amand and its royal patron Charles the Bald,26 and the significance of the Mass Book, now Padua Bibloteca Capitolare D47, a member of the group of manuscripts associated with the Emperor Lothar's court school at Aachen, together suggest an abiding and active interest in liturgical matters on the part of the rulers that was closely in touch with developments within the church at large.27 The writing down of oral literature in the early middle ages may resemble the recording of legal transactions and the transcription of music. The ecclesiastical chant tradition was one of oral performance practice, but this oral tradition was first transcribed into writing in the form of neumes in the ninth century. This is as true of the older chant traditions as of new compositions, the tropes and sequences of the later ninth century. To presuppose written composition is to envisage a very different set of mental and physical processes.28 A more conventional source of links between literacy and orality is literature. Poetry in particular has to be considered in relation to theories of oral recitation and composition. Was the original composition in writing or oral? If the former, to what degree do the contemporary literary genres and forms, detailed by Contreni below,29 influence or even distort the forms of what we receive, to the extent of making it impossible really to recapture more than a faint shadow of the oral world to which they may once have belonged? Presentation in a particular form is, after all, in itself a sign language; punctuation in a written text and use of particular vocabulary, conventional metaphor and allusion can indicate appropriate rhythm stresses and patterns of phrasing. Presentation can act as a symbol of a particular cultural tradition and indicates as well as stimulates particular expectations about it. Transformations may well have been effected in an oral text when it was written down and the audience for the spoken and the written versions may well have been different. It is conceivable that the epics Beowulf and Waltharius and the victory song Ludwigslied were first recited at feasts in a lord's hall, composed and memorised for the purpose, but were later transcribed to accord with the needs of those accustomed to writing, or in a deliberate attempt to preserve and record them.30 It is these written versions which survive. Analysis of the written survivor therefore has to take account of the oral conventions (no longer retrievable) which may have 24 26 28

30

25 Rankin (1993). Bullough and Harting-Correa (1989). n Deshusses (1977); McKitterick (1980). See also Reynolds, chapter 22 below. Rankin (1993); Treitler (1974; 1981; 1982; 1984; 1988); Levy (1984; 1987; 1990) and Contreni, a chapter 27 below. Chapter 27 below. Dronke (1977); O'Brien O'Keefe (1990).

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determined the written forms we now see, as well as the literary and generic conventions which may themselves have influenced the original compositions. Words attempted to encompass and express experiences and images in the mind; in any text there is an elaborate cross-referencing system between verbal and visual signs and aesthetic responses in reading and understanding a text. Historical narrative in the eighth and ninth centuries was thus a recreation of the past in words and in a particular form, a form which was itself linked to other, possibly older literary forms. Thus the historical imagination that recorded the events regarded as central to AngloSaxon history in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, or the imaginations of the Frankish annalists, may have been fired as much by past imaginings and word pictures as by their response to contemporary events and wish to provide an interpretation of them for posterity. Certainly the later eighth and the ninth centuries witnessed major developments in the secular Frankish historiographical tradition, with new forms of historical writing, such as annals,31 biography and epic poems. These offer essentially contemporary commentary on the events of their own day and are the staple fare for the analyses presented by Fouracre, Nelson, Fried, Brown, Smith and Coupland.32 All Carolingian historiography maintains, in one literary genre or another, a delicate balance between a profoundly and explicitly Christian and teleological sense of the past and an understanding of contemporary history which necessitated a temporary suspension of judgement in order to allow critical and constructive comment on policies or to explain setbacks. What was combined was an older Christian historiographical tradition, with its general explanation of historical change, and an annalistic and classicising approach to contemporary history. Although within this, narrative was the essential principle of organisation, subtle analysis was possible through the use of anecdote, moral fable, symbolism and parallelism in the plot. It is in this structural context that the presentations in our texts need to be understood, for, to a considerable degree, the historiography of the eighth and ninth centuries was a taught mode of organising and preserving memory.33 The Franks had an especially keen sense both of the past and of the importance of providing a record and interpretation of contemporary events for posterity.34 Yet in such works as the Lives of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious by Einhard, Thegan and the Astronomer, the account of the quarrels between the sons of Louis the Pious by Nithard35 or the portions of the Annals of St Bertin written by Prudentius of Troyes and Hincmar of Rheims,36 there is also to be 31 33 34

32 M c C o r m i c k (1975). Chapters 3 - 7 , 9, 12 a n d 13 below. C o m p a r e C a r r u t h e r s (1990); M o r r i s o n (1990); M o r s e (1991); C o l e m a n (1992). 35 M Innes and McKitterick (1994). Nelson (1986a). Nelson (1990a).

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seen an urgent political purpose in the interpretation of political events. These historians wanted us to believe the image they had created of their society and what they understood to be important in the process of events and the actions of individuals in their own day. Their motives, as well as the forms in which they chose to tell their story, need to be considered in the case of every imaginative reconstruction we encounter, in the light of the complicated relationship between the claim to be telling the truth about the past and the conventional representation in which such truths were expressed. If we consider early medieval historical narratives, we are looking at the world of authors who could manipulate conventions of writing — by omission, reducing events to narrative patterns, invention, and insistence that agents did or said things which accorded with the author's ideas about their status and character.37 The account Nithard gives us of the famous Strasbourg oaths of 842 is a case in point. Nithard had to present the alliance in 842 between the West and East Frankish rulers, Charles the Bald and Louis the German, positively.38 He therefore made striking use of language differences — exchanged by the brothers but maintained by their troops — to enhance both the political difference he wished to stress and the necessity and essential logic of their reconciliation. Nithard had to continue to address fellow supporters of Charles the Bald and could do so by letting them all be united symbolically and speak with one voice, that is, in the same language, which differed from his own formal written language, just as followers of Louis the German spoke one language. By giving each army a distinctive tongue, Nithard was able to stress their unity and coherence. But in putting the language of the other army in the mouths of their leaders he could at the same time underplay the differences between them. Nithard effected this through the medium of the oath; it is repeated three times, in the two languages of the Franks, the two current spoken languages 'Early Romance' and 'Old High German' and the formal written version of Romance/Latin. The collective nature of the commitments and loyalties is heightened by this clever and essentially literary use of language. It is a rhetorical device in the traditions of the great classical history writers. It certainly cannot be understood as an accurate reflection of the linguistic affiliations or capacities of either the nobles or the rank and file of the army, as distinct from the possible range of languages and loyalties within the two armies as a whole. In any case it is unlikely that Nithard is faithfully recording the actual words spoken. What he is doing is giving literary and formulaic oral structure to what was an extempore oral promise. He wished thereby to create an 37 38

Morse (1991). For historical background see Nelson and Fried, chapters 4 and 5 below.

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evocative impression of what he saw as a crucial moment in the relations between the two brothers in which political and cultural loyalties on the part of the different groups serving the Frankish rulers were expressed. Yet it is important to remember that Nithard, as Nelson makes clear, intended his history to be read aloud to his military colleagues and the followers of Charles the Bald, whether literate or illiterate.39 The oaths as written in Nithard's history are thus arguably provided by the scribe with a letter-forsound correspondence so as to make them, when read out, intelligible and the rhetoric still more effective. That texts could be and were read aloud widens their audience dramatically, for oral communication to the illiterate made many texts accessible and helped to bridge any notional divide between clerical and non-clerical culture. Such bridges are most likely to have been needed more across social classes than across institutional groups such as the clergy and laity.40 Potent and persuasive image-making such as that of Nithard was also a written mode of memory keeping. Many historians, both Franks and others, were also conscientious and perceptive collectors and compilers of earlier sources, documents and traditions. Some — Bede, Paul the Deacon, Nithard or Notker — wove a story of compelling interest from the fragments they had gathered; others, such as Agnellus of Ravenna, Hincmar of Rheims, Alphonso III of the kingdom of the Asturias, or monastic annalists and episcopal chroniclers, rendered the information as they understood it in a less literary and apparently more straightforward manner. Yet it is no less subject to their own prejudices, presuppositions and aims and is no less concerned with the historical process and human chronology. Histories, biographies, annals, chronicles and saints' Vitae are valuable, therefore, as much for their guide to contemporary mentalites as for the details of events and individuals that they yield. Saints' Lives are particularly fruitful in this respect. A hagiographer to some degree was not only providing an edifying account of the deeds of a holy man or woman; he or she was also expressing the identity of a community and identifying that community's fortunes with those of the saint. The virtues of the saint were regarded as exemplary and suitable as an inducement for those reading or hearing about them to embrace the religious life as completely as possible. Accordingly a Vita can also be an essential key to understanding religious expectations and moral aspirations. Thus the nuns of Remiremont wrote the Vitae of Amatus, Romaric and Adelphius in the early ninth century to proclaim the historical identity of Remiremont as well as to promote the cult of Remiremont's patrons.41 New communities in particular resorted to such written means of 39 40

Nelson (1985), and see also Nelson, chapter 4 below. 41 See the useful comments by Smith (1990). McKitterick (1991).

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expressing an identity that had formed largely as a result of emotional expression and spiritual conviction. The cults or memories of founders or associated patrons were promoted. A saint's Vita, whether written in Spain, Ireland, Anglo-Saxon England, Francia or Italy, could represent a carefully nuanced exploitation of literate modes to further certain worldly and political ends but at the same time establish a saint within the customary oral and physical forms of religious devotion, even if the forms that devotion could take, as Smith makes plain, were often markedly dissimilar.42 Such devotion bore fruit in orally transmitted stories on which writers of the Vitae could draw. The second part of Adrevald's Miracula Sancti Benedict, for example, concerns miracles performed within the memory of people still living in the community. Other hagiographers, such as Berthold of Micy, are able to distinguish between what the collective memory could provide, oral tradition and what was obtainable through written sources, and how the 'monuments of letters which are set down on pages fully inundate the senses of readers and listeners', complementing the veneration and pious embellishment accorded the shrines of the saints, the churches built in their memory and the physical blessings ensuing from prayers at their tombs. 43 Individuals ostensibly speak with their own voices in the many letters that survive from this period. They are an especially informative category of evidence in tracing the history of relations between the papacy and diverse Christian or quasi-Christian peoples,44 from the Franks and the colonists in the Exarchate of Ravenna to the English, the new Christian communities in Hesse and Thuringia, the Bulgars and the Moravians. They provide us with many insights into the conduct of secular administration, of business within the church, and of exchanges between scholars in the Carolingian 'republic of letters'.45 As the views of individuals, however, they speak with a distinctive voice that should not be confused with a general trend. Boniface's harsh condemnation of his Frankish episcopal colleagues, for instance, is not necessarily a fair representation of their activities.46 On a practical level, letters also witness to the extensive network of communications that bound Europe together, however tenuously, in the early middle ages. Willibald's pilgrimage to the Holy Places,47 the exchange of letters across the English Channel and throughout the Frankish empire, and the messengers, embassies, merchants, pirates and pilgrims who traversed the Mediterranean, not least the Byzantines and the Arabs 42

43 45 47

Smith, chapter 24 below. Brown (1981); Heinzelmann and Paulin (1986); Herbert (1988); Wolf (1988); Rollason (1989); Fouracre (1990); Ganz (1990); Sharpe (1991); Heinzelmann (1992). M Trans. Head (1990), p. 15. See also Smith (1990; 1992). Noble, chapter 21 below. See Contreni and Ganz, chapters 27-9 below. * McKitterick, p. 71 below. McKitterick, p. 78 below.

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investigated by McCormick and Kennedy,48 illustrate the practical possibilities for communications and their political and economic framework. We have to reckon with a continued use of parts at least of the Roman road network and of the Alpine passes (mostly Mont Cenis and the Great St Bernard Pass in the early middle ages). There was a system for carrying letters, even if it was more informal than the old Roman cursus publicus. Xenodochia and hospices catered to the needs of travellers. Extant documents affording safe conduct and providing introductions to potential hosts on the way indicate how common it was to travel. Surviving manuscripts, moreover, provide us with the consequences and outward and visible signs of the exchange and communication of ideas. So far a number of primarily literary categories of sources have been considered in which a common concern has been to read not only what the text says but what it implies, the assumptions upon which it rests, and what its very existence may signify. These texts were not necessarily intended to reflect reality precisely or faithfully. To appreciate as well as to assess the accuracy of the early medieval historiographers' interpretation of their own past, we must bring in other categories of source material, as well as nonFrankish perspectives on the progress of events to balance the predominance of the Frankish versions.49 There were, of course, other written modes of recording memory produced with different objectives, such as all the legal records designed to establish irrefutable proof of possession which play such an important role in many of the chapters in this book. It might be thought, moreover, that it is precisely the strength of the legal sources to provide some kind of authentic and reliable voice, were it not for the fact that the legislation which comprises a major proportion of this legal material is normative and may be outlining an ideal rather than reflecting what actually went on within any one region of Europe. Legislation may well have confirmed reality, as it appears to do in many clauses in the supplementary laws of the Lombard ruler Liutprand, but in other legislation, such as some of the major capitularies of the Carolingian rulers whose implications are addressed by Nelson below, the laws are prescriptive rather than descriptive.50 They establish and define aspirations and norms of right conduct and say what ought to be done, not what was being, nor what had been, done. When older 48 49

50

Kennedy, chapter 10, and McCormick, chapter 14 below. The many surveys and bibliographical guides, such as Wattenbach, Levison and Lowe (195 3-), Genicot (1972—) or van Caenegem (1978), to the wealth and diversity of the source material for this period, as well as the discussions of genre, are listed in the Bibliography to this chapter. Chapter 1 j below.

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secular and ecclesiastical legislation is drawn on by secular rulers and the clergy,51 it may not always be in order to proclaim a specific ruling so much as to establish a principle or associate themselves with the wisdom of earlier law-givers.52 Even functional documents such as law-codes are inconsistent in their terminology and an unreliable indication of reality. Yet there seems little doubt that the functioning of the law in practice was a major concern of early medieval rulers. For some the law-books produced may well have been intended as a set of guidelines and accumulated wisdom.53 For others they were more obviously of direct social relevance and served to define group self-consciousness in a practical way. A wide variety of early medieval texts expresses group consciousness and a sense of community in one way or another, whether or not this can be linked to nationality or ethnicity.54 The law-codes or so-called Germanic leges in particular, that is the leges of the Salic and Ripuarian Franks, and the Bavarian, Visigothic, Lombard, Burgundian, Alemannic and Saxon laws, have been thought to express a very narrow self-consciousness linked to nationality. They may witness rather to the bestowal of political allegiance and the acknowledgement that one codification of legal customs will be the set of guiding principles in social and legal relations rather than another on the part of a number of groups. These groups might, on grounds of language or family origin, appear to be very different from one another and may have had little else in common other than the authority they recognised or had been forced to acknowledge.55 Group identities of some kind may well therefore be reflected in aprqfessio iuris, such as was required of anyone in the court, just as a judge was expected to judge according to his own law when presiding in court. Yet what established this group identity may have been allegiances subjectively determined with little reference to race, culture, religion or language, and where freedom, or lack of freedom, a distinction stressed by Goetz and Wickham below, may have been the most important social determinants of status and action.56 Certainly the Carolingians established the principle of the personality of the law in the early ninth century. That is, they confirmed the legal principle that different legal systems applied to different groups within the same society according to ancestry or place of origin. The Carolingian rulers legislated in their capitularies for radically new social and political situa51 s2 s3 55 56

Nelson (1990b); Collins (1990). See Nelson, chapter 1 j , and Reynolds, chapter 22 below. M See 0 Corrain, p. 50 below, on the Scncbas Mar. Amory (1995). For political aspects of this see Fouracre, Nelson, Fried and Delogu, chapters 3,4,5 and 12 below. See Goetz and Wickham, chapters 17 and 19 below.

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tions; as their conquests spread, so their legislation became applicable to the new territories which came under their rule.57 Yet they apparently endeavoured at the same time to cater to local and habitual modes of settling business and dealing with injury and misdemeanour by allocating to certain groups their 'own' law.58 To this end they encouraged the production of revised versions of the leges and did much to promote their dissemination. It is certainly the case that the Carolingian rulers took a very close interest in assembling the laws of the peoples within their realm and for ensuring that correct texts were available to the judges in the court for use. It is even possible to associate the production of correct texts of the Salic law and Ripuarian laws, often accompanied by the standard early medieval digest of Roman law, the Breviary of Alaric, with the royal writing office and notaries of the Emperor Louis the Pious.59 But the link between the production of these legal codes and rulers may not always have been as direct as this. In terms of surviving manuscripts, for example, we are often confronted with collections that are linked with the individual enterprise of particular bishops known to have acted as counsellors to the king, such as Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims.60 The thoughtfulness in providing a people with its own written law may not always have been appreciated by the recipients. In 841, for example, the Saxons refused to follow written law and wished to retain their own customs, regarded by the annalist as pagan and evil usage.61 This may be as much Saxon rejection of Frankish legislation as a specific objection to written law as such; nevertheless, the Saxons' apparent suspicion of what was written and preference for their own custom, held within their collective memory, act as a warning not to overestimate the success of the Franks in superimposing their own cultural presuppositions and methods on another people. While the legislation of the Carolingians, its production and distribution have received full discussion in recent years, the role of the king in the production of copies of the so-called customary laws of the people, embodied in such collections as the Salic and Ripuarian laws, the Alemannic, Bavarian, Lombard and Burgundian collections, as well as the actual dissemination, reception, function and use of these collections by the peoples for whom they were ostensibly destined, remain a matter for debate.62 Although it is acknowledged that the link between literacy and the law is an essential one to have established, the effect writing had on the law and the degree to which it may have altered its function or affected its 57 59 61 62

5S McKitterick (1989); Nelson (1990b). Annales Regni Francorum s.a. 802, e d . R a u (1974). McKitterick (1993). <° McKitterick (1989); Nelson (1983). See Schott (1979); Mordek (1986); Kottje (1986; 1987); McKitterick (1989); Sellert (1992b). Sellert (1992a).

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Introduction: sources and interpretation practical applicability and adaptability within early medieval society still remains to be fully explored.63 Clearer distinctions need to be maintained between the legislation of rulers, notably that of the Carolingians in capitularies, and the laws embodied in the so-called Germanic leges. If laws are an ambiguous, if crucial, category of evidence, the formularies for charters and the extant charters themselves provide an indication of the special importance attached to the written word and its correct application, quite apart from what they reveal about the structure and affiliations of many early medieval communities. For the day-to-day recourse to legal procedures and documentary methods of proof, particularly in relation to land ownership, many charters survive, both in originals produced in relation to the actual transactions, and in later copies made of such originals. Notable charter collections include those of Weissenburg, Fulda and St Gall, Lucca, Farfa and Milan. But societies which displayed the greatest interest in the production of formal records, such as that of the Franks, were also those most suspicious of and best able to take steps to counter the existence of forged documents. Indeed, three of the most audacious forgeries, the Donation of Constantine, the Le Mans forgeries and the Pseudo-Isidorean decretals were produced in this period. The greater the emphasis on written records, the more determined could be the efforts to circumvent or manipulate them.64 Charters recording the settlement of disputes, moreover, are hardly objective in their presentation of the evidence and the establishment of claims to property, in that for the most part what survives is the process of judgement as recorded by the winning party. In all the great diversity of evidence weighed by the authors of the following chapters, it must be acknowledged that they also have had to contend with silence and a total absence of any information at all. In the light of both of these lacunae, and of the ambiguities of the evidence we do have which I have outlined in this chapter, the interpretation of the extraordinary history of the eighth and ninth centuries is one more than usually fraught with difficulties and controversy. Yet it will be seen from the rest of this volume how much can, nevertheless, be said. 63

Wickham, chapter 19 below.

M

Fuhrmann (1986).

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CHAPTER 2(a) ENGLAND, 700-900 Simon Keynes

IN his Historia Ecclesiastka Gentis Anglorum, written c. 730, Bede expounded

a vision of English history which was intended to instruct his contemporaries 'in their various kingdoms', and which has always exerted a powerful influence on those who would follow in his path.1 The 'race of the Angles or Saxons' had sprung from different Germanic tribes in northern Europe, but they shared a common language and had come to be united in their adherence to the Christian faith; so that while Bede recognised a distinction between the people of Kent, the East Saxons, the South Saxons, the West Saxons, the East Angles, the Middle Angles, the Mercians and the Northumbrians (HE 1. 15), he also perceived them collectively as the 'English people', and his history as that 'of our nation' (HE, Preface). Bede's conception of the collective identity of the English people is a good example of the way in which he could distance himself, for his particular didactic purposes, from the real world of personal ambition, political aspiration, social pressure and material greed: it was a convenient and effective way of presenting his message to a wide audience but, in any political sense, it was a long way ahead of its time. One need not suppose, however, that Bede was an early advocate of the unification of 'England', as if unification on such terms was something already considered to be desirable for its own sake, and as if Bede had been concerned to set a programme for succeeding generations. The conception of unity which came most naturally to Bede was that of the island of'Britain', implicit in his account of its Roman past (HE 1. 1-14) and in his summary of its present state (HE v. 23). Bede may have felt that the 'English' were destined to prevail over the other inhabitants of the island, but he would not have presumed to deny the Picts, the Scotti and the Brettoms their place. 1

See Bede, HE, ed. Plummer (text and commentary); Bede, HE, ed. Colgrave and Mynors (text and trans.); and Wallace-Hadrill (1988) (commentary). See also Campbell (1986); Wormald (1983); Goffart (1988). 18

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The general pattern of political development during the eighth and ninth centuries could be reduced to a struggle for supremacy in which success was dependent on the ability of one king or another to harness the resources at his disposal in pursuit of a preconceived political end. Such a view would depend, however, on the tacit espousal of certain concepts which have long been central to the study of Anglo-Saxon history, but which may distort the perceptions of political power current in the period itself. One is the concept of the Anglo-Saxon 'Heptarchy', which proceeds from an observed distinction between the three 'Anglian' kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia, the three 'Saxon' kingdoms of Wessex, Sussex and Essex, and the 'Jutish' kingdom of Kent, and which appears to provide the framework within which political development took place. It invites the supposition that each of the kingdoms should be understood in similar terms, and it creates the impression that the kingdoms were the constituent parts of an identifiable whole; yet the concept of the 'Heptarchy' is, of course, no more than a sixteenth-century refinement of a twelfth-century rationalisation of Bede's incidental remarks on the political complexion of England in his own day. A second pervasive concept is that of the 'Bretwalda', or overlord of the southern English kingdoms. It springs from Bede's famous list of seven kings who had ruled 'all the southern kingdoms' (HE 11. 5), as extended by a late ninth-century chronicler who added an extra name to the list, stating that he was the 'eighth king who was BretwalaW. The implication is that there was a particular form of overlordship designated by a specific title (which would appear to mean 'ruler of Britain'), and that it was the struggle for this distinction which provided the organising principle of interaction between kings in the eighth and ninth centuries. The concepts of the 'Heptarchy' and of the 'Bretwalda' are so deeply engrained in the historiography of early Anglo-Saxon England that they could never be removed from any discussion of the subject; but it is questionable whether either concept would have had much meaning in the eighth or the ninth century, and it must be said that there are other ways of approaching the complexities of political history in this period, which proceed from different assumptions and which promise to explain developments in somewhat different terms. The nature of the available evidence creates immediate and unavoidable difficulties. We are largely dependent for our understanding of the general course of events on the annals in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which present a view of the past as seen from the West Saxon court towards the end of the ninth century;2 a rather different perspective is provided by a set of annals which covers events in Northumbria,3 and one can only regret the lack of 2 Trans. Whitelock, EHD, no. 1

3

Trans. EHD, no. 3.

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comparable material for other parts of the country. Information on aspects of the relationship which developed between the powers of church and state can be derived from the corpus of charters, which at this period were generally drawn up by churchmen acting on their own behalf as the beneficiaries of royal grants of land or privileges, or on behalf of the lay beneficiaries of royal largesse; but the various circumstances affecting the production and subsequent preservation of charters did not apply equally from one region to another, with the result that the coverage provided by this type of evidence is far from even. Further information on the development of royal power is available in the form of the law-codes issued in the names of Kentish and West Saxon kings; and analysis of the coinage reveals much about the nature of economic activity, suggesting where activity was concentrated and how kings brought it under control.4 It is inevitably the case that the sources for one kingdom are rarely on a par with the sources for another, and of course it is true to say that fortuitous disparities of evidence should not be confused with actual disparities of substance. For example, the fact that we do not have charters or law-codes from Northumbria or East Anglia impedes the historian in any attempt to maintain a balanced view; but while it would be presumptuous to imagine that the 'quality' of government necessarily depended on the use of the written word, it would be mistaken to suppose that such records were not produced outside those areas in which they have chanced to survive. At the same time, however, the failure of evidence should not become a pretext for reducing each of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms to a hypothetical norm. There is no reason why we should expect uniformity of structure among the kingdoms, or consistency of practice among the kings. It might be possible to observe in one kingdom a process of territorial consolidation, complemented by the development of certain administrative procedures, by the effective exploitation of natural resources, and by the emergence of a hierarchical and well-regulated society; but it would be a mistake to assume that one pattern of development would necessarily have been repeated elsewhere. Some 'kingdoms' may have existed only as a particular configuration of peoples united in their recognition of a common ruler, and might have dissolved at the time of his death, to be superseded (if at all) by alliances of a different kind; some local peoples may have retained a sense of their own identity for longer than others, and might have proved the more resistant to the imposition of the will of a distant king; and indeed, in some parts of the country the people may not have known much of the rule of any king, and might have placed their trust in a local church, or in the agents of a quite 4

See Blackburn, in Grierson and Blackburn (1986), pp. 155—89 and 267-32J.

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different power. It is arguable, moreover, that the sources which do survive are capable of obscuring the real differences which might have existed between the kingdoms, and which might help to account for their respective fortunes in the eighth and ninth centuries. Bede himself was not concerned to dwell on the finer points of secular affairs, and doubtless conceals a rich variety of royal and social behaviour beneath his chosen examples; similarly, the various ecclesiastics who drafted charters in different parts of the country were liable to cast the actions of kings in deceptively uniform ways, just as moneyers would strike the same types of coin in the names of kings who were themselves quite different from each other. In short, it may be that received conceptions of political development are too simplistic, or anachronistic, and that any explanation of events in this period should proceed from an assessment of the situation which is more sympathetic to the variety of conditions which might have prevailed in each of the kingdoms principally involved. The most instructive point of departure for a review of political developments in the eighth and ninth centuries is the document known to modern scholarship as the 'Tribal Hidage'. 5 It is a short text of uncertain origin, compiled at an unknown date for a purpose which remains obscure; but it has assumed such great importance in so many respects that it cannot be ignored. The Tribal Hidage is a survey of all the land south of the river Humber, presented in the form of a list of thirty-four 'tribal' territories. Each item in the list relates to a particular group of people, giving the assessment of their land in numbers of hides. The survey begins with the land 'first called that of the Mercians', assessed at 30,000 hides; the reference is presumably to the Mercian heartland in the middle Trent valley, extending to the north and south of the river itself and including such places as Tamworth and Lichfield in Staffordshire, and Repton in Derbyshire (Map 1). From this starting-point the survey proceeds to cover the territories of the various peoples living to the west, north, east and south of the Mercian heartland, most of whom were subjected at one time or another to the authority of the Mercian kings; few of the peoples in question can be located with any degree of precision, and many cannot be identified at all. Four of the twenty-eight entries in this part of the survey relate to the substantial territories of the W[r]ocen satna (in the Wrekin, Shropshire), the Westerna (the 'Westerners', probably in the vicinity of Hereford), the Lindesfarona (in Lindsey, with Hatfield Chase), and the 'Hivinca' (presumably the Hwicce, in the Severn valley), assessed at 7000 hides apiece. Eight entries relate to 5

For the text, see Dumville (1989b). For discussion, see Stenton (1971), pp. 295-7; Russell (1947); Hart (1971); Davies and Vierck (1974); Sawyer (1978), pp. 110—13; Campbell (1982), pp. 59—61; Loyn (1984), pp. 34-9; Brooks (1989), pp. 159-61.

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100 miles

Jarrow Uonkwearmouth

Repton MIDDLE Peterborough ANG~LES

Tamworth. M E R C I A

•Canterbury Glastonbury* W

E

Winchester S

S

E

X

KENT

SUSSEX

Isle of Wight

•T-s

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territories with assessments in the range of 900 to 5000 hides, including the lands of the Pecsestna (1200 hides, in the Peak District of Derbyshire) and the Ciltern satna (4000 hides, in the Chilterns); the lands of the Wigesta (900 hides), the Herefinna (1200 hides), the Noxgaga (5000 hides), the Ohtgaga (2.000 hides), the Hendrica (3 500 hides) and the Unecungga (1200 hides) cannot be so easily identified. The remaining sixteen entries in this part of the survey relate to relatively small territories assessed at 300 or 600 hides apiece, comprising the lands of the Elmedseetna ('Elmet-dwellers', to the east of Leeds), the Sutb Gyrwa and the North Gyrwa (in the fenland around Peterborough), the East Wixna and the West Wixna, the Spalda (around Spalding in Lincolnshire), the Sweordora (around 'Sword Point' in Whittlesea Mere, Cambridgeshire), the Gifla (of the Ivel valley, Bedfordshire), the Hicca (around Hitchen in Hertfordshire), the Wihtgara, the Arosaitna (by the river Arrow, Warwickshire), the Farpinga (in the land of the Middle Angles), the Bilmiga, the Widerigga (around Wittering in Northamptonshire), and the East Willa and the West Willa; needless to say, the identification of many of these mysterious peoples can be no more than a matter of informed speculation, or wishful thought. The last five entries in the survey sweep rapidly through the lands of the East Angles (30,000 hides), the East Saxons (7000 hides), the people of Kent (15,000 hides), the South Saxons (7000 hides) and the West Saxons (100,000 hides). It is possible that the compiler of the Tribal Hidage was ignorant of the subdivisions which must have existed among these other peoples, or that it was not his business to provide a more detailed account; alternatively, one might draw the analogy between these peoples and those of the Mercian heartland, with the implication that the peoples who gave their names to kingdoms were considered for the compiler's purposes to have been identifiable blocs, leaving the various inhabitants of the midlands in a form of political limbo. The survey ends with a grand total, given as 242,700 hides; in fact the correct sum of the figures as transmitted is 244,100. The significance of the Tribal Hidage depends on our judgement of its origin, date and intended purpose. The text is transmitted in one manuscript of the eleventh century, and in a post-Conquest Latin translation; but since the document itself evidently dates from a period before the Scandinavian settlements in the late ninth century, the evidence of its transmission cannot be brought to bear usefully on the circumstances of its composition. The matter must turn, therefore, on the internal evidence of the text (always assuming that the received text is a faithful copy of the lost original). It seems clear that the Tribal Hidage is in some sense a 'Mercian' document, if only because the survey proceeds from Mercia itself. It is also clear that the Tribal Hidage dates from a period when 'the land of the Mercians' would

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have been understood to apply to a territory more extensive than the original Mercian heartland, and in that sense it must represent a situation achieved after a process of Mercian expansion, or during a period of wider Mercian 'supremacy'. On this argument, the Tribal Hidage might be assigned to almost any point in the period from the mid-seventh century to the mid-ninth century. Further refinement of its date depends on one's willingness to make certain assumptions about its purpose. The hide was the normal unit of assessment for services due to a king, so it might be supposed that the Tribal Hidage is a form of Mercian 'tribute-list', drawn up for the use of royal officials responsible for ensuring that the king received what was due to him from the various peoples under his sway; and it would follow that the document reflects the scope of the overlordship of the king during whose reign it was compiled. The inclusion of the 'Elmet-dwellers' would suggest that the Tribal Hidage was compiled in the early 670s, during the reign of King Wulfhere, since Elmet seems to have reverted thereafter to Northumbrian control. One might, on the other hand, prefer to allow the possibility that control of Elmet was still contested between the Mercians and the Northumbrians in the eighth century, and to take the view that the Tribal Hidage might thus represent a situation during the reign of King iEthelbald (716—57) or during the reign of King Offa (757—96). Whatever the case, the supposed significance of the Tribal Hidage would not be affected: it would show that, at some stage, the overlordship of a Mercian king had extended throughout England south of the river Humber, embracing not only the numerous peoples of the midlands, but also the East Angles, the East Saxons, the men of Kent, the South Saxons and the West Saxons. There can be no doubt that some Mercian rulers were powerful overlords, that overlords took tribute from the peoples over whom they were set, and that Mercian overlords must have taken tribute from many of the peoples listed in the Tribal Hidage. But it is quite another matter to regard the Tribal Hidage as an administrative document of the Mercian regime, and as a reflection, therefore, of the scope of Mercian overlordship. Bede himself was perfectly familiar with assessments in hides (one hide being the amount of land capable of supporting one 'family', or household),6 using them to convey a sense of the si2e of the various islands which he had occasion to mention (Thanet, Anglesey, Man, Iona, Wight and Ely),7 and also to indicate the size of certain kingdoms: he remarks at one point that the kingdom of the southern Mercians was said to contain 5 000 hides and that the land of the northern Mercians contained 7000 hides (HE in. 24), 6 7

See Wallace-Hadrill (1988), p. 33; see also Verhulst, below, p. 499. HE 1. 2;, 11. 9, in. 4, iv. 16 and iv. 19.

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and elsewhere he states that the kingdom of the South Saxons contained 7000 hides (HE iv. 23). Information of this kind was of general interest, and probably a matter of common report. It is by no means unlikely, therefore, that at some time or another an unknown Mercian scholar was moved to compile a list of the constituent territories of'Southumbrian' England. He may have done so merely for the sake of the exercise, or for some other reason best known to himself; and not unnaturally he chose to specify the size of each of the territories, producing a grand total at the end. It would remain uncertain when the document was compiled, though a date in the later eighth century might help to account for the discrepancy between Bede's figure for the two parts of Mercia on either side of the river Trent (5000 + 7000 = 12,000 hides) and the Tribal Hidage'sfigurefor the Mercian heartland (30,000 hides). If the Tribal Hidage is interpreted in this way, it could no longer be regarded as a reflection of the scope of the overlordship of a Mercian king; but it would retain its distinction as a document of the utmost significance. Above all, the Tribal Hidage serves as an antidote to the received view of the Anglo-Saxon 'Heptarchy'. The document conveys an extraordinary impression of the number of different peoples who, at the time of its compilation, could still be distinguished from each other among the inhabitants of central England; and at the same time it suggests that the social composition of the political organism which historians recognise as the 'kingdom of Mercia' might have been quite distinctive. We cannot hope to understand in detail how the distinctions between these peoples arose, or what they might have entailed in terms of differing social customs and political organisation; but it would be dangerous to underestimate their tenacity, and it is an interesting fact that the terminology of the Tribal Hidage was still employed for at least some of the territories in the later Anglo-Saxon period. We may choose to wonder whether some of these peoples played a more significant role in the unfolding of events than their obscurity would suggest; but it is enough for the moment to recognise their existence. Against this background, we may turn to consider more tangible evidence for political development in the eighth and ninth centuries. It emerges from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that Casdwalla of Wessex, and his brother Mul, had ravaged Kent and the Isle of Wight in 686, and Kent again in 687; but in 694 the people of Kent 'made terms' with Ine, Caedwalla's successor, involving the payment of compensation for the death of Mul, and opening the way, perhaps, for a more lasting settlement. Bede himself says little of Wihtred, king of Kent from the early 690s, beyond remarking that he came to the throne after a period of turmoil, 'and freed his people from external invasion as much by religious devotion as by hard work' (HE iv. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

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26); he has little more to say of Ine, king of Wessex from 688, beyond alluding to his subjection of the South Saxons (HE iv. 15), and to his departure for Rome after ruling the West Saxonsforthirty-seven years (HE v. 7). There can be no doubt, however, that Wihtred and Ine established conditions in their respective kingdoms which lent great stability to England south of the river Thames in the first quarter of the eighth century, and indeed, it would appear that they entered into some kind of alliance which allowed the kingdoms to prosper independently of each other. The law-code promulgated by Wihtred in 695 bears comparison in certain respects with the law-code promulgated at about the same time in the name of King Ine; for example, it is evidently no coincidence that both codes contain a clause stipulating that 'a man from a distance or a foreigner' was to advertise his presence by blowing a horn, should he wander from the beaten path.8 Yet the law-codes of Wihtred and Ine also suggest how the two kingdoms might have differed from each other in more fundamental respects. Wihtred's code projects an image of a kingdom in which ecclesiastics 'spoke in unanimity with the loyal people'. The first clause announced that the church was to be free from taxation, and that churchmen were to pray for the king and to honour him without compulsion. The rest of the code laid down, in effect, how laymen were to conduct their lives in accordance with the rules of a Christian society, and how ecclesiastics were to be accommodated in the new order. Wihtred subsequently reinforced his legislation by issuing a general charter of privileges for the Kentish minsters;9 and given the extraordinary importance of these minsters to the religious, social and economic welfare of the kingdom,10 it is easy to see why any ruler of Kent would have been eager to secure their support and goodwill. The law-code of King Ine, on the other hand, presents a rather different kind of picture. The code is preserved only in the form transmitted as an appendix to the law-code of King Alfred the Great, and it is a matter of some interest in itself that Alfred should have considered it worthwhile to re-issue a much earlier code in this way. The first clause enjoins 'that the servants of God rightly observe their proper rule', and other clauses serve to ensure that all men regulate their lives in the approved Christian manner. Yet the most striking feature of Ine's code is its confident assertion of royal authority. The great bulk of the code consists of provisions which seem to have been calculated to bring order to an unruly society, in ways which had not been attempted before, and to leave no one in any doubt that deviant 8

9 10

Law-code of Wihtred (text, Liebermann (1903—16) 1, pp. 12-14; trans. £ H D , no. 31),ch. 28; lawcode of Ine (text, Liebermann (1903—16) 1, pp. 88-123; trans. EHD, no. 32), ch. 20. Sawyer 20. See Brooks (1984), pp. 183—4 and 195. See Brooks (1984), pp. 183—4 and 206, and Everitt (1986), pp. 187-96.

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behaviour would be punished by the king or by his agents in the localities. Ine was not, however, interested in social order alone. Several of the clauses in his law-code reflect concern for the productivity of land, or for the appropriate value of livestock, and suggest that he and his councillors were well aware of the benefits which would accrue in the longer term from a well-regulated economy. There is nothing remarkable about this in itself; but it accords well with the supposition that it was Ine who promoted the development of Hamwic (Southampton) as a major centre of trade between Wessex and the Continent,11 and one can sense that the West Saxons might have found themselves in a good position at a later date to turn prosperity to their political advantage. It is more difficult to characterise the kingdom of Mercia in the early eighth century. One might suppose that royal power in Mercia had developed along the lines attested in Wessex or Kent, and that it is merely the lack of a Mercian law-code to set beside the law-codes of Ine and Wihtred that prevents us from appreciating the analogy. Yet the very absence of such evidence also permits a different train of thought. We know from Bede that the Mercian heartland lay in the middle Trent valley; and the Tribal Hidage brings home the truth that the "kingdom of Mercia' was not so much a monolithic structure as a loose confederacy of many different peoples. Indeed, the supremacy enjoyed by a sucession of Mercian kings from Penda in the seventh century to Cenwulf in the ninth appears to have depended on the ability of these kings to exploit the resources of manpower in their natural constituency among the various peoples of midland England, thereby to bring other peoples under some form of subjection and so to gain access to the sources of wealth needed to sustain their own position. In other words, the Mercian kings derived their strength from the extension of their control over the peoples around them, and may not in this process have displayed as much concern as others to consolidate the territorial basis of their power. It is arguable, therefore, that the conditions which prevailed in the 'kingdom of Mercia' were not conducive to the emergence of a collective sense of identity which might find expression in loyalty to a particular line of kings, and indeed, that the conditions impeded the development of the institutions of government which might help to ensure continuity from one reign to the next. That is not to demean the importance of any one person styled 'king of the Mercians'. It is merely to suggest that the Mercian rulers moved in a world which suited their predatory instincts, and which brought them success for a while; but they never managed to change their world, and this proved their undoing in the end. 11

See Hodges (1989), pp. 83—92.

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In the last quarter of the seventh century the balance of power among the rulers of the English kingdoms had settled in a way that is best described as stalemate; and it was this state of affairs which persisted into the first quarter of the eighth century. Bede himself appears to have sensed that the kingdom of Northumbria was in a state of decline (HE iv. 26 and v. 23), and that a new order was emerging among the kingdoms in the south. In effect, the centre of gravity had moved from the river Humber to the river Thames: the Northumbrians and the East Angles were marginalised, and attention focused on control of the land stretching from the upper Thames valley downriver to the emporium of London, and thence further south into Surrey, Sussex and Kent. The rulers of Mercia were already developing their interest in the southeastern provinces, but the internal stability of Wessex and Kent seems to have presented a solid front which prevented them from breaking through. In the 720s, however, the position was suddenly transformed. Wihtred of Kent died on 2 3 April 725, leaving his three sons as heirs to the kingdom (HE v. 23); and in the following year Ine of Wessex departed as a pilgrim to Rome, leaving his kingdom in the hands of'younger men' (HE v. 7). The almost simultaneous removal of these two kings, both of whom had held power since c. 690, must have broken the deadlock south of the Thames; and it was presumably at this point that iEthelbald, king of Mercia since 716, began to move to the fore. In the eyes of Bede, surveying the 'state of the whole of Britain' from his Northumbrian vantage point in 731, the situation which prevailed south of the Humber could be expressed in quite straightforward terms: all of the southern kingdoms, together with their various kings, were subject to iEthelbald, king of the Mercians (HE v. 23). Bede's seemingly incontrovertible statement represents the beginning of a period of Mercian supremacy which lasted for a hundred years, from c. 725 to c. 825, and which has long been held to mark a crucial stage in the political unification of England. We may choose to wonder whether the statement can be taken at face value; but Bede was certainly not alone in being mightily impressed by the extent of King ^Ethelbald's rule. The famous charter by which iEthelbald granted land at Ismere in Worcestershire to Ealdorman Cyneberht, in 73 6, shows how the king was perceived by a churchman in the diocese of Worcester.12 At the beginning of the text, iEthelbald is styled 'by the gift of God king not only of the Mercians but also of all the provinces which are called by the general name "South English"'; and in an endorsement added to the charter by a different hand, he is styled 'king of the South English'. It is normally and not unnaturally assumed that the term 'South English' (Sutangli) was here intended to express iEthelbald's 12

Sawyer 89 (trans. EHD, no. 67).

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supremacy over all of the Southumbrian kingdoms, and that the charter thus corroborates the word of Bede. It must be admitted, however, that the formulation 'not only of the Mercians, but also . . . of the South English' is entirely appropriate to the conception of a Mercian king suggested by the Tribal Hidage, as one whose royal power originated in the Mercian heartland but had come to be extended over the 'Anglian' peoples of the midlands ('South English', as opposed to the 'north' English of Northumbria and the 'east' English of East Anglia); and it might be safer, therefore, to interpret the style in this more restricted sense. The feature of the Ismere charter which remains truly remarkable is the description of iEthelbald, in the witness-list, as 'king of Britain'. The term may reflect the grandiose notions of iEthelbald's own entourage, or it may have come into the draftsman's mind as an extension of his reading of Bede; whatever the case, it certainly indicates that iEthelbald was regarded as the master of all he surveyed. In the 740s, Boniface addressed ^Ethelbald as 'wielding the glorious sceptre of imperial rule over the English'; 13 and at about the same time Felix, author of a Life of St Guthlac, felt it appropriate to write of iEthelbald as one who enjoyed ever increasing prosperity from one day to the next.14 King OfFa made no less of a mark. In some charters he is styled 'king of the Mercians and also of the other nations around', which harks back to iEthelbald's style in the Ismere charter; in others, he is styled 'king of the English', or even 'king of the whole country of the English', though since none of the charters in question is preserved in its original form, it is difficult to be sure that they represent genuine contemporary usage. Alcuin, the scholar who had removed himself from Northumbria to the court of Charlemagne but who retained a sensitive and abiding interest in English affairs, heaped praise on OfFa as 'the glory of Britain, the trumpet of proclamation, the sword against foes, the shield against enemies';15 and in much the same vein OfFa is described in a Kentish charter of the late eighth century as 'king and glory of Britain'.16 It is all too easy to get carried away by the hyperbole: to forget that grandiose styles and naturally exaggerated forms of expression are not always reliable indicators of historical truth, and so to imagine that the Mercian overlords were intent upon breaking down political frontiers in order to realise their own vision of a unified kingdom of England. It is also difficult to resist the notion that the Mercian rulers would appear in all the finery which befitted their elevated status if only we were not otherwise so dependent on evidence supplied by those who came into 13

15 16

Boniface, ed. Tangl (1916), no. 7 3 (trans. EHD, no. 177). For Boniface himself, see McKitterick, u below, pp. 72—8. Colgrave (1956), p. 166; see also EHD, no. 156 (p. 775). MGH Epp. iv, no. 64, p. 107; trans. EHD, no. 195. Sawyer 15 5 (trans. EHD, no. 80).

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conflict with them; or, put another way, that it is only the lack of sources emanating from the Mercian court which prevents us from seeing Offa in particular as a king on a par with Alfred the Great. Nothing could diminish our estimation of the extraordinary achievements of the Mercian overlords; the question is whether we should believe their interested admirers, or their disaffected victims. It is essential to base our understanding of the Mercian supremacy on examination of the evidence which bears directly on the nature and extent of Mercian rule. In the case of iEthelbald, it can be shown that he held power over the rulers of the Hwicce, and since he was certainly in a position to exercise some form of control over commercial activity in London it seems likely that he brought the rulers of the East Saxons under his sway. iEthelbald's concern to foster his interests in Kent is also well attested, though it is significant that the charters issued by Kentish kings in the first half of the eighth century do not contain any obvious indication that the kings in question were operating under direct Mercian control. It is otherwise apparent that iEthelbald seized territory from the kingdom of the West Saxons, that he attacked the Welsh on several occasions, and that he even ventured on one occasion into Northumbria. The circumstances of iEthelbald's death ('treacherously killed at night by his bodyguard in shocking fashion'), and the circumstances of Offa's accession (by putting Beornred to flight, and conquering the Mercian kingdom 'with sword and bloodshed'), render it unlikely that there could have been much continuity from the one reign to the next. Charters preserved in the archives of Worcester cathedral afford evidence of Offa's control of the Hwicce, and charters preserved in the archives of Canterbury, Rochester and Selsey afford evidence of his intervention in Kent and Sussex. It emerges that Offa had to build up his power from scratch, and that his overlordship took different forms in each of the areas which came under his sway. Offa soon established his authority over the rulers of the Hwicce, though it was not until the 780s, or thereabouts, that he removed them altogether and took direct control of their realm. In the 760s Offa extended his authority into the kingdom of Kent, initially allowing the local rulers to retain their status as kings; but Kent broke free from Mercian overlordship in 776, and it was only when Offa recovered control of the kingdom, c. 78 5, that he suppressed the local kings, exercising direct rule in Kent for the rest of his reign. In the early 770s Offa brought the kingdom of Sussex under his sway, and in this case it would appear that those who had formerly been kings of the South Saxons were forced from the outset to abandon their royal status, though 17

See Wormald, in Campbell (1982), pp. 110-11.

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they were allowed to retain at least some of their power as 'ealdormen'. The South Saxons may have recovered their independence at the same time as the people of Kent; but if so, they fell back under Offa's control thereafter. Elsewhere, it seems that Offa enjoyed some form of recognition in the kingdom of East Anglia, to judge from the fact that East Anglian moneyers struck coins in his name; but the evidence is too imprecise to show whether local kings were allowed to retain their position during periods of Mercian control, or whether they only emerged in periods when the East Anglians managed to assert their independence. Little is known of the rulers of Essex in the late eighth century; but of the last two kings named in the East Saxon royal genealogy, Sigeric seems to have managed to retain his status (if not necessarily his independence) throughout Offa's reign, leaving his son Sigered to suffer the loss of his kingship under the regime of King Cenwulf. The construction of Offa's Dyke suggests that the Mercians had decided to lay down the course of their frontier with the Welsh, to defend themselves against raids from the west; but elsewhere, as it were, the options remained wide open. The nature of the relationship between the kingdom of Mercia and the kingdom of the West Saxons requires more detailed discussion. It has been said that for most of the period from 726 to 802, 'Wessex was little more than a large, outlying province of the Mercian kingdom'; 18 and if true, the fact would have a significant bearing on our general understanding of political development in the eighth and ninth centuries. Much depends in this connection on the credibility of Bede's description of iEthelbald's power in 731, on the significance to be attached to the more grandiose styles in charters, and on one's willingness to believe that the ability of Mercian rulers to take tribute from the West Saxons is attested by the Tribal Hidage. Much also depends on an observed contrast between the apparent stability of the Mercian regime, under iEthelbald and Offa, and the apparent dynastic confusion which prevailed at the same time in the kingdom of Wessex. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records a sequence of five kings between 726 and 802; yet no details are given of the parentage of any one of them, as if the main dynastic lines had failed, and as if the West Saxons were finding their kings from other branches uf the extended family which they considered to be royal. It is certainly true that the West Saxon kings moved in a world of internal dissension, and were regularly confronted with (presumed) challenges to their rule: King iEthelheard fought the astheling Oswald in 726; a certain Cynric, styled 'astheling of the West Saxons', was slain in 748; King Sigeberht was deprived of his kingdom in 757, 'because of his unjust acts'; 18

Stenton (1971), p. 204.

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King Cynewulf attempted to drive out the aetheling Cyneheard, brother of Sigeberht, in 786, leading to the death of them both; and King Brihtric was instrumental in the expulsion of Egbert in 789. It must be emphasised, however, that there is no particular reason to regard Wessex as a kingdom in a state of debilitating disorder throughout these years. The brief reign of Sigeberht (7 5 6—7) stands apart in a period otherwise marked by the longer reigns of Jithelheard (726—40), Cuthred (740—56), Cynewulf (757—86) and Brihtric (786—802); and while it may be difficult to gain much sense of West Saxon affairs from the small number of surviving charters of the period, there is enough evidence to suggest that the ability of these kings to hold their own against their more powerful Mercian counterparts should not be underestimated. King iEthelheard is associated with King yEthelbald in a charter which purports to record iEthelbald's grant of land in Berkshire to Abingdon abbey, and which purports further to have been issued at Benson, in Oxfordshire, at the outset (it seems) of a joint expedition to attack the British beyond the river Severn;19 it is difficult to judge whether any of this information is genuine, though it is not inappropriate for the apparent date (c. 730). If Bede can be trusted on such matters, iEthelheard was among those kings who recognised the overlordship of King iEthelbald in 731. According to the Chronicle, King iEthelbald took control of Somerton in 733, presumably as the outcome of a Mercian attack from across the river Avon, and perhaps with the implication that the Mercian king exercised power over much of Somerset thereafter. Cuthred of Wessex may initially have had little option but to acknowledge iEthelbald's control of Somerset: iEthelbald is known to have held the abbey of Bath,20 and there is reason to believe that his interests extended to the abbey of Glastonbury in the 740s.21 The Chronicle records that 'iEthelbald and Cuthred fought against the Britons' in 743, which implies a joint expedition curiously reminiscent of the one which had involved iEthelbald and iEthelheard. It was apparently in the 7 5 os that Cuthred earned his reputation as one who (in the chronicler's words) 'fought stoutly against iEthelbald'. According to the annal for 750, Cuthred 'fought against the arrogant ealdorman iEthelhun'. It would be natural to assume that the iEthelhun in question was a West Saxon official who had in some way given cause for offence, and so to regard this statement as further evidence of internal dissension in Wessex. It is tempting, however, to connect the chronicler's statement with the entry for the same year in the set of annals preserved as a 'Continuation' of Bede, to the effect that Cuthred rose against King ^Ethelbald,22 and so to regard iEthelhun as a 19 21 22

Sawyer 95. 2° Sawyer 1257 (trans. EHD, no. 77). Sawyer 238, 257, 1410 and 1679. Bede, HE, ed. Colgrave and Mynors, p. 574; see also EHD, no. 5 (p. 28;).

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representative of the Mercian regime in some part of Wessex, whose overbearing behaviour had precipitated revolt. In 752 Cuthred is said to have fought against King iEthelbald at Beorhford (unidentified), apparently putting him to flight. It may be that Cuthred had resolved in the early 7 5 os to remove the Mercians from Somerset, and elsewhere to drive them from disputed territory along the Thames valley. The West Saxons seem at about this time to have recovered their territory south of the Avon, 23 and to have resumed possession of disputed land in the middle Thames valley;24 but one cannot tell whether this was achieved by Cuthred himself, or by one of his immediate successors. Relations between the West Saxons and the Mercians were no less complex during the reign of King Cynewulf (757—86), and again they seem to have turned on control of various parts of the borderland between the two kingdoms. In 757 King iEthelbald (styled 'king not only of the Mercians but also of the peoples around') granted land apparently at Tockenham, in Wiltshire, to a certain abbot Eanberht, possibly of Malmesbury.25 The charter recording the grant was attested by both iEthelbald and Cynewulf, each accompanied by his own entourage. This may indicate a certain ambiguity about the political affiliation of land in northern Wiltshire, or it may be that Cynewulf was at a disadvantage in the first year of his reign and had been obliged, in effect, to acknowledge iEthelbald's superior power in the area. But iEthelbald's death in the same year must have given Cynewulf the opportunity to recover lost ground. In 758 Cynewulf was himself in a position to grant land in northern Wiltshire to Malmesbury abbey.26 At a council of the Southumbrian church convened at about the same time, Cynewulf granted an estate at North Stoke, on the river Avon, to the abbey of Bath;27 the charter recording the grant was confirmed by King Offa, but the confirmation may well be an addition made on a subsequent occasion. Cynewulf is known to have exercised control over land south of the Avon, at a time when the abbey of Bath was in the hands of the bishop of Worcester;28 but the situation seems to have changed thereafter, perhaps following the transfer of Bath into Offa's hands, since Offa was in a position, towards the end of his reign, to make at least one grant of land in Somerset.29 It is particularly interesting to find that Cynewulf attested a charter by which King Offa granted land at Bexhill in Sussex to the bishop of Selsey, in 772.30 In this case there is no obvious connection between CynewulPs appearance and the nature of the grant itself; rather, it seems that Cynewulf had attended the meeting at which the grant happens to have been made, though one 23 26 28

24 25 Sawyer 1680 and 1257. Sawyer 1258. Sawyer 96. 27 Sawyer 260; see also Sawyer 264. Sawyer 265. Sawyer 1257 (trans. EHD, no. 77); see also Sawyer 261 (trans. EHD, M M EHD, no. 70). Sawyer 1692. Sawyer 108.

no. 71) and 262 (trans.

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cannot tell whether his presence signified his acknowledgement of Offa's overlordship, or whether it was simply a reflection of normal relations between the two kings. The land in the Thames valley remained the principal bone of contention. The chronicler reports that in 779 Cynewulf and Offa 'fought around Bensington [Benson, Oxfordshire], and Offa captured the town', and it emerges from another source that Offa seized the monastery at Cookham, 'and many other towns', from King Cynewulf, 'and brought them under Mercian rule'.31 CynewulPs eventual loss of some territory at Offa's hands does not, however, represent the subjection of his whole kingdom to Mercian rule; and although it is clear that Cynewulf must have been overshadowed by his powerful neighbour in the last years of his reign, the legates who reported to the pope on their visit to England in 786 seem to have regarded the two kings as independent rulers.32 Following his recovery of control of Kent, in the mid-78os, Offa was at the height of his power; and we might expect, therefore, to find more compelling signs of his 'supremacy' over Wessex. King Cynewulf was succeeded in 786 by Brihtric; and in 789 Brihtric married Eadburh, daughter of Offa. This marriage is, in fact, the only evidence for relations between the kingdoms in the last decade of Offa's reign, and it is accordingly a matter of some importance to judge it correctly. The marriage could be interpreted in political terms as an acknowledgement on Brihtric's part of Offa's overlordship, from which he might have gained some guarantee of protection against his rivals and some assurance of peace from Offa himself; alternatively, it could be interpreted as marking the establishment of a bond between the two kingdoms, which symbolised their mutual respect. The choice depends on our interpretation of a remark in the annal for 839 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, made in connection with a record of the death of Brihtric's successor, Egbert: 'Earlier, before he became king, Offa, king of the Mercians, and Brihtric, king of the West Saxons, had driven him from England to France for three years. Brihtric had helped Offa because he had married his daughter.' As a member of the West Saxon royal dynasty, Egbert was evidently a potential threat to Brihtric; and his expulsion from England has been regarded a% a case of the all-powerful Offa helping a threatened Brihtric to secure his own position in Wessex, with the implication that Brihtric ruled thereafter as Offa's 'protected dependant'.33 Yet one should not forget that Egbert was the son of Ealhmund, who had been recognised as a king of Kent towards the end of the period of Kentish independence from Mercia (776—£.785). Egbert might thus have been 31 33

32 Sawyer 1258 (trans. EHD.no. 79). MGHEpp. iv, no. 3 (trans. EHD, no. 191). Stenton (1971), pp- 209—10; see also p. 225.

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perceived as a potential threat t o Offa's position in t h e southeast, a n d Brihtric w o u l d have been in t h e best position to secure his removal from England. O f course a West Saxon chronicler might be expected to p u t the

best construction on the events; but his statement that it was Brihtric who helped Offa (and not vice versa) might reasonably be construed as an indication that, in this instance, the king of the West Saxons was performing a favour for his father-in-law, without any implication of political subordination thereafter. The evidence bearing on relations between Wessex and Mercia in the eighth century thus falls a long way short of showing that the one was an 'outlying province' of the other for any part of the period from 726 to 802; and it is important to emphasise that the successive kings of the West Saxons appear, on the evidence of their charters, to have enjoyed a freedom of action which was denied to their counterparts elsewhere. It would be rash, therefore, to assume that the Mercian overlords entertained any serious pretensions to supremacy throughout southern England. Both iEthelbald and Offa managed to build up unprecedented power from their Mercian base, and both must have dominated their respective political scenes; yet both always remained kings 'of the Mercians'. One has to stress, in this connection, that Mercian overlordship was fundamentally a matter of degree. It meant different things to different people, from one part of the country to another and from one period to another; and it could find expression in a number of different ways. The Mercians might have maintained good relations with a kingdom, and respected its independence; they might have appropriated territory in which they had an interest, and otherwise left the local ruler to his own devices; or they might have demanded payments of tribute in return for peace. In some cases they took matters further, with more direct intervention in the internal affairs of a kingdom. They might have allowed the local ruler to retain his function as king, requiring him to acknowledge Mercian overlordship in other ways; they might have denied royal status to the local ruler, but allowed him to continue to exercise his functions as before, in a more lowly capacity; or they might have suppressed the local ruler altogether, taking direct control of the kingdom but respecting its separate identity. Needless to say, the different forms of Mercian overlordship would have left different marks, some of which are easier to detect than others; but the point remains that however extensive the 'Mercian supremacy' may have been, it should never be visualised as a uniform political system. The heart of Mercian power remained where it always had been, in the middle Trent valley, and it derived its strength from mastery of the numerous peoples of midland England; but although its separate limbs stretched out in different directions

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over various other parts of the country, the firmness of its grip was uneven, and there was no attempt to bring all things in reach within a single embrace. The 'Mercian supremacy' was not, therefore, the realisation of a grand design for the unification of southern England, sustained by the emergence of a sense of collective political identity among the English people; it was simply the product of the extension of Mercian power into areas which could least resist, and so far as one can tell it was sustained essentially by a threat or display of force. Perhaps one should not attach much significance in this connection to Boniface's complaint that iEthelbald's ealdormen and companions offered 'greater violence and oppression to monks and priests than other Christian kings have done before',34 or to Offa's overbearing behaviour in denying the right of a Kentish king to issue charters without his permission;35 for such clashes of interest were commonplace, and could be matched in kind at any other period. Offa himself went to considerable lengths in the late 780s to secure the consecration of his son Ecgfrith as king, and even Alcuin was prepared to indulge Offa in what seems to have been his attempt in this way to put the Mercian regime on a new and more acceptable footing.36 Yet the truth remained that Offa's position depended on the forcible suppression of his political opponents. In 789 Egbert of Wessex was driven into exile in Francia, precipitating (or perhaps compounding) a dispute between Offa and Charlemagne;37 in 794 iEthelberht, king of the East Angles, was beheaded on Offa's orders; at about the same time Charlemagne had occasion to ask Archbishop Jithelheard to intercede with Offa on behalf of some 'miserable exiles' who had left their country with their lord Hringstan, hoping that they would now be allowed 'to return to their native land in peace and without unjust oppression of any kind';38 and in 796, Charlemagne wrote to Offa of the exiles 'who in fear of death have taken refuge under the wings of our protection'.39 These are the victims of Offa's regime whose own stories one should like so much to have. It must suffice, however, to reflect on the testimony of one interested observer, as he came to terms with the brutal realities of Mercian power following the deaths of both Offa and Ecgfrith in 796. Alcuin wrote to a Mercian ealdorman that Ecgfrith 'has not died for his own sins, but the vengeance for the blood shed by the father has reached the son. For you know very well how much blood his father shed to secure the kingdom on his son. This was 34 35 37 38 39

Boniface, cd. Tangl (1916), no. 73 (trans. EHD, no. 177). x S a w y e r 155 (trans. EHD, n o . 8 o ) , 1259 a n d 1264. Keynes (1990). MGH Epp. iv, no. 7 (trans. EHD, no. 192); see also EHD, no. 20. MGH Epp. iv, no. 85 (trans. EHD, no. 196). MGH Epp. iv, no. 100 (trans. EHD, no. 197)

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not a strengthening of his kingdom, but its ruin.'40 He wrote in similar terms to a Mercian bishop: 'You know very well how the illustrious king prepared for his son to inherit his kingdom, as he thought, but as events showed, he took it from him. Hence you can judge worldly wisdom, and how truly the psalmist said: "Unless the Lord builds the house, they labour in vain who guard it." Man proposes, but God disposes.'41 If one accepts the conception of Mercian power outlined above, there ceases to be any reason to suppose that the supremacy of the Mercian kings ended with the death of Offa in 796. Indeed, the reign of Cenwulf (796-821) seems in many respects to epitomise the Mercian regime, and to bring its most distinctive features into their sharpest focus. The extent of Cenwulf s rule was much the same as Offa's had been, and is attested in the same variety of ways; he made terms with the Northumbrians in the early years of his reign, and seems latterly to have adopted a belligerent attitude towards the Welsh; he pursued his ends with all the determination of his predecessors, meeting opposition with repression, and generating much resentment in the process; and like Offa, he may have found that he had sowed the seeds of his own destruction. It is inevitable, given the nature of the surviving sources, that we know most about Cenwulf s rule in Kent. The rebellion of Eadberht Praen had shown yet again how fragile was the power of the Mercian king outside his own kingdom, especially at the beginning of a new reign; and it is typical of the means by which supremacy was enforced that Cenwulf ravaged Kent in 798, seized Eadberht, and 'brought him in fetters into Mercia'. The nature of Mercian interests in Kent is then underlined by Cenwulf's famous dispute with Wulfred, archbishop of Canterbury, about control of the wealthy Kentish minsters;42 yet it is striking that the Mercian king seems always to have conducted his dealings with Kent from a distance, and that he made little attempt to cultivate support among members of the local nobility. The death of Cenwulf in 821 appears to have precipitated considerable upheaval,43 of the kind associated with the sudden release of feelings which had been suppressed during the lifetime of a potent king; and there are indications that for the rest of the 820s Mercia fell into a state of internal discord which spelt its end as a great Southumbrian power. In 823 Ceolwulf'was deprived of his kingdom'; in 824, 'two ealdormen, Burghelm and Muca, were killed'; in 825 the Mercians suffered the military defeat which led to the loss of their control of the southeastern provinces; in 827, 'Ludeca, king of the Mercians, was killed, and his five ealdormen with 40 41 42

MCH Epp. iv, no. 122 (trans. EHD, no. 202). MCH Epp. iv, no. 124 (trans. Allott (1974), no. 160); see also Bullough (1993). 43 See Brooks (1984), pp. 175-206. Sawyer 1435.

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him'; and in 829 the kingdom was 'conquered' (in whatever sense the term may imply) by Egbert of Wessex. There is no particular reason to believe that the discord persisted into the 'second reign' of Wiglaf (830—40), or into the reigns of Berhtwulf (840—5 2) and Burgred (852—74); but a reading of Mercian charters creates an interesting (if necessarily subjective) impression of a kingdom past its glory and now reverting to its former condition. It would appear that the 'kingdom of Mercia' remained an agglomeration of different peoples, each with its own leader, or 'ealdorman'; that the kingship of the Mercians depended on the ability of the leader of one people to gain recognition from the leaders of others; and that while particular kings may (or may not) have tried to establish dynastic rule, none succeeded in doing so. Moreover, if it was true that the Mercians lacked adequate resources of their own, and had once looked elsewhere to satisfy their needs, it may also have been true that their kings, perhaps of their nature, did not have access to land in the quantity required for the support of their men. After 825, the Mercians were obliged to turn in on themselves. The kings seem to have resorted (more so than before) to the seizure of land from some churches, and to the selling of privileges to others;44 at the same time they would have had little option but to resign themselves to the further developments south of the Thames. The course of events in the ninth century could be understood in its simplest terms as a story of the 'rise of Wessex' from foundations laid by King Egbert in thefirstquarter of the century to the achievements of King Alfred the Great in its closing decades. The outlines of the story are told in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, though the modern reader has to make all due allowance for the fact that the annals represent a West Saxon point of view and were cast in their received form by a chronicler who well knew what the outcome would be. On the day of Egbert's succession to the kingdom of Wessex, in 802, a Mercian ealdorman from the province of the Hwicce had crossed the border at Kempsford (on the Thames), presumably with the intention of mounting a raid into northern Wiltshire; the Mercian force was met by the local ealdorman, 'and the people of Wiltshire had the victory'. There is some evidence that a treaty was sworn between the Mercians and the West Saxons at about this time, in a meeting at Colleshyl (? Coleshill in Berkshire, not far from Kempsford);45 and this may have inaugurated a period of peace which lasted for the next twenty years. The chronicler attached particular significance to the achievements of King Egbert in the 820s. In 825 Egbert defeated Beornwulf, king of the Mercians, at the battle 44

45

See, e.g., Sawyer 190 (trans. EHD, no. 85), 192 (trans. EHD, no. 86), 206 (trans. EHD, no. 90) and 207 (trans. EHD, no. 91); see also Wormald, in Campbell (1982), pp. 138-9. Sawyer 154.

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of Ellendun, precipitating the submission to the West Saxons of 'the people of Kent and of Surrey and the South Saxons and the East Saxons', and also precipitating an appeal by the East Angles to the West Saxons 'for peace and protection, because of their fear of the Mercians'. Ellendun (now called Wroughton) is located in that part of northern Wiltshire apparently disputed between Wessex and Mercia in the eighth century; and it is significant that Mercian supremacy in the southeast was undone in this way by a military defeat so much further to the west. In 829 Egbert went on, in the chronicler's words, to conquer 'the kingdom of the Mercians and everything south of the Humber'. It was at this point that the chronicler chose to attach Egbert's name to Bede's list of seven Southumbrian overlords (HE 11. 5), adding that 'he was the eighth king who was Bretivalda'. One could argue at length about the significance of this term, and whether the 'omission' of iEthelbald and Offa from the chronicler's extended list should be construed as a sign of'anti-Mercian bias', or as a sign of his awareness that the rule of the Mercian kings had not actually extended over the whole of Southumbria; and since the Mercians appear to have recovered their independence in 830, one might also suppose that Egbert's glory was in fact short lived. Whatever the case, Egbert is seen on this model to have been the one who began to restore West Saxon strength after the political misfortune of the period from 726 to 802, and whose victory over the Mercians at the battle of Ellendun in 825 enabled him and his successors to stake their own claim to the overlordship of the Southumbrian kingdoms; in short, it was essentially by virtue of Egbert's success that Alfred was able to 'inherit' what Offa had built.46 It is arguable, however, that the unfolding pattern of events should be understood in a rather different way. If Bede's concept of the Southumbrian overlord, and the chronicler's concept of the 'Bretwalda', are to be regarded as artificial constructs, which have no validity outside the context of the literary works in which they appear, we are released from the assumptions about political development which they seem to involve. Thus, while the chronicler in the late ninth century might have considered it appropriate to cast Egbert in the role which had been created in the first instance by Bede, we might ask whether kings in the eighth and ninth centuries were quite so obsessed with the establishment of a pan-Southumbrian state. Other issues were perhaps of more pressing concern. What mattered most to the Mercian kings was the security of their interests along the course of the river Thames, access to the emporium of London, and control of the southeast; and for much of the period from c. 7 2 5 to c. 8 2 5 they certainly had the upper hand. It 46

Wormald, in Campbell (1982), p. 106.

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SIMON KEYNES

seems, however, that Ine's successors in Wessex had managed to maintain their independence, and that the internal affairs of the kingdom developed without much interference from outside; but eventually Egbert broke the Mercian hold on the southeast, and the West Saxons were able thereafter to pursue their own objectives in their own way. It is arguable, on this basis, that the 'rise of Wessex' should be regarded as a longer and more continuous process: Alfred owed much to Egbert, but he owed still more to Ine, and acknowledged the fact by re-issuing Ine's law-code as an appendix to his own. It is also arguable, on the same basis, that to regard the West Saxon kings of the ninth century as in any sense the 'heirs' to the supremacy established by the Mercian kings in the eighth century, or indeed to the supremacies established by other kings in the seventh, is to miss a more fundamental truth. Each supremacy was a thing of its own; and Egbert, far from following a well-trodden path towards a long-established objective, was taking a different path towards something new. King Egbert was essentially intent upon the creation of conditions which would ensure the security and prosperity of England south of the Thames; and if he had any model in mind, it was perhaps a return to the position which had obtained in the late seventh and early eighth centuries, during the reigns of Ine in Wessex and Wihtred in Kent. The West Saxons were no less eager than the Mercians had been to bring Kent within their sphere of control, but analysis of charters suggests that they set about the task in a significantly different way.47 The Mercians appear to have maintained their control from a distance, and succeeded only in antagonising the Kentish people. Egbert, on the other hand, could represent himself as one who had some dynastic interest in Kent (through his father Ealhmund), and as one who had delivered the southeastern provinces from Mercian oppression. But the crucial difference was that Egbert and his successors appear to have been careful to cultivate support in the locality: they visited Kent on what may have been a regular basis; they came to an agreement with the archbishop of Canterbury; and they placed responsibility for local administration in the hands of the local nobility, extending to Kent what may have become a distinctively 'West Saxon' conception of an ealdorman as an official appointed by the king over a designated division of land. It is interesting, however, that both Egbert and his son iEthelwulf appear to have respected the separate identity of Kent and its associated provinces, as if there had been no plan at this stage to absorb the southeast into an enlarged kingdom stretching across the whole of southern England. Nor does it seem to have been the intention of Egbert and his successors to 47

See Keynes(i99j).

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maintain supremacy of any kind over the kingdom of Mercia. Following his 'conquest' of Mercia in 829, Egbert had ruled the kingdom for one year; but in 830, according to the chronicler, 'Wiglaf again obtained the kingdom of the Mercians'. It is quite possible that Egbert had relinquished Mercia of his own volition; and there is no suggestion that any residual antagonism affected relations between the rulers of Wessex and Mercia thereafter. Wessex was clearly in the stronger position from a military point of view, and there is some indication that allegiances in London were already beginning to shift towards the West Saxon kings; but the general impression is one of alliance, symbolised by the two recorded instances of military cooperation and inter-dynastic marriage, in 853 and 868. It follows from this broad view of political development in the eighth and ninth centuries that the positions established by the Mercian overlords, and the supposed 'bretwaldaship' of Egbert, had little to do with each other, and even less to do with the circumstances in which the unification of England was eventually achieved. What truly counted in the ninth century was Egbert's foundation of a 'bipartite' kingdom which stretched across southern England, and the formation of a working alliance between the West Saxon dynasty and the rulers of the Mercians.48 In 860 the eastern and western parts of the southern kingdom were united by agreement between the surviving sons of ifLthelwulf, though the union was not maintained without some opposition from within the dynasty; and in the late 870s King Alfred gained the submission of the Mercians under their ruler iEthelred, who in other circumstances might have been styled a king, but who under the Alfredian regime was regarded as the 'ealdorman' of his people. By this stage the Vikings were assuming ever increasing importance as catalysts of social and political change.49 They constituted the common enemy, making the English the more conscious of a national identity which overrode deeper distinctions; they could be perceived as an instrument of divine punishment for the people's sins, raising awareness of a collective Christian identity; and by 'conquering' the kingdoms of the East Angles, the Northumbrians and the Mercians they created a vacuum in the leadership of the English people which was waiting to be filled. In the 870s King Alfred had been preoccupied with his own struggle for survival in the face of repeated Viking invasions of Wessex; but following his victory over Guthrum at the battle of Edington in 878 he was in a position to implement the programme of reform which he saw as the way to victory in the present and security for the future. There could be no doubt that Alfred's success depended in large measure on his adoption of practices as uncompromising as any seen in the 48

See Kcynes (1995).

m

See Coupland, below, chapter 7.

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days of the Mercian overlords. Pope John VIII had occasion to write to the archbishop of Canterbury in 877—8, encouraging him to resist demands made by the king;50 and if there were some who actually defected to the Danes, 51 there must have been many others who took some persuading that royal policies were in a good cause. Not even Asser made much of an attempt to disguise the fact: For by gently instructing, cajoling, urging, commanding, and (in the end, when his patience was exhausted) by sharply chastising those who were disobedient and by despising popular stupidity and stubbornness in every way, he carefully and cleverly exploited and converted his bishops and ealdormen and nobles, and his thegns most dear to him, and reeves as well (in all of whom, after the Lord and the king, the authority of the entire kingdom is seen to be invested, as is appropriate), to his own will and to the general advantage of the whole realm.52 Yet Alfred's true distinction lies in his determination to rise above his origins as king of the West Saxons, and to present himself as the leader of a new political order. In 886 he occupied London, 'and all the English people that were not under subjection to the Danes submitted to him'. The occupation of London marked Alfred's recognition of the city's crucial importance to the security and to the prosperity of his realm; and the fact that he promptly entrusted it to the control of Ealdorman iEthelred reflects his own faith in the Mercian alliance. Still more important, however, was the submission of the English people. It may well have involved recognition in some sense of the elevated status to which Alfred aspired, and which found more particular expression in his designation (by Asser) as 'king of the Anglo-Saxons'. 53 The title symbolised an awareness in high circles of the common interests which were beginning to bind peoples together, though there was still a long way to go: the 'king of the Anglo-Saxons' was the product of the ninth century, but the 'king of the English' would have to wait for the tenth. 50 52 53

51 The letter is translated in EHD, no. 222. See Sawyer 362 (trans. EHD, no. 100). Asser, ch. 91; trans. Keynes and Lapidge (1983), pp. 101-2. See Keynes and Lapidge (1983), pp. 227-8.

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CHAPTER 2(b)

IRELAND, SCOTLAND AND WALES, f.700 TO THE EARLY ELEVENTH CENTURY Donnchadh 0 Corrdin

Scotland and Wales were all Celtic countries, but their respective medieval populations did not know this and their Celticity (however one may define it) is not the reason for grouping them together (Map 2). They did share certain terms, including elements of a legal vocabulary, that point to common institutions in earlier times but one cannot posit a genetic relationship in any real sense.1 They were different societies, in close geographical contact, that had experiences in common, but reacted diversely. The first of these experiences was the Roman presence: Wales and part of Scotland were within the empire, Ireland and northern Scotland without, but profoundly influenced by it. The insular lands beyond the limes were heavily Romanised in material culture and their politico-military organisation was a reaction to Rome, in splendour and decline. Latin Christianity bound them together and set up close cultural contact between them. Their second shared experience lay in a twofold interaction with the expansionist Germanic world: first the Vikings, second the Anglo-Saxons. What began as Viking raiding opened the way to trade, settlement and urbanisation in varying degrees, tilted centres of power and influence towards the Irish Sea, and shaped the political development of all three. Finally, all experienced English aggression as a decisive force in their history - Wales, Scotland and Ireland in that order - throughout the middle ages.2 IRELAND,

IRELAND

The law tracts of the eighth and ninth centuries describe a hierarchy of kings: rituaithe, the king of the tuath 'petty kingdom'; ruiri, the king of petty kings; and ri ruirech or 'king of overkings', also called ri coicid 'king of a province'. 3 Muirchu in the last quarter of the seventh century lists the 1 3

Thurneysen (1975); 6 Corrain (1986a). Binchy (1970); Wormald (1986).

2

Davies, R.R. (1990).

43

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lisfarne

Limerick

iy.

MUNSTER

"Cashel Eoganacht -LismoreWexford OUa's Dyke LlandeiloFawr St David's J DYFED * GWENT BRYCHEINIOG LYWYSIN

Map 2 Ireland, Wales and Scotland, joo—c. 1000

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hierarchy as: reges, satrapae, duces, principes, optimates populi.* This structure was more complex and less static than the analysis of the lawyers (early or late) might suggest, and was the product of the power politics of competing dynasties. Notions of tribalism, much discussed in the past, are not helpful here.5 In the eighth century and before, the petty kingdoms were going under: over-kings were conquering them and creating new principalities. Often, they took over the name, patron saints and churches of the defeated. Ireland was a land of dynastic kingship where the major dynasties competed for power and resources — and this state of affairs long ante-dated the Viking wars.6 Political power (royal and lordly) was held by an aggressive upper class with a developed ideology of kingship and an historical awareness, both sharpened by the teachings of the clergy. It was distributed territorially but articulated hierarchically, and a learned historical myth, based on Isidore and the Bible, derived rulers and peoples from a single source. There was no monarchy, but the clerical servitors of the paramount dynasty, Ui Neill, refer to their king as 'ruler of the whole of Ireland, ordained by God' and to Tara, their historic seat, as caput Scottorum. The annalists call two of them rex Hiberniae (642, 703). The king of Tara or ardri 'high king' is the highest grade of king, the equal of the triath: 'he goes through the kingdoms of Ireland from wave to wave . . . The five provinces of Ireland, he goes through all their submissions as has been sung of Conchobar.'7 The church rowed in behind rising kingly power. Adomnan talks of royal ordination. The term occurs in the book on kingship ('De regno') in the Hibernensis (compiled c. 700—5 o), where the canon lawyers take their text from 1 Samuel 10: 'Samuel took a flask of oil and poured it over Saul's head and kissed him and said: "Behold, the Lord has anointed you prince over your inheritance."' The annals report instances of royal ordination - 793 (king of Munster), c. 804 (Aed Oirnide, king of the Ui Neill), 993 (when the king of the Northern Ui Neill was given 'the order of king' by the abbot of Armagh). The lawyers favoured strong government and emphasised the king's coercive powers: 'The word of a king is a sword for beheading, a rope for hanging, it casts into prison, it condemns to exile.' Those who disobeyed the king were to be punished by death, exile, confiscation of property or imprisonment. Citing gospel authority, the lawyers demanded that royal taxes be paid and urged capital punishment for grave offences. This heady mixture of exhortation to rule firmly, to be supreme judge, to extend royal power and income, and the constant harping on the potent model of Old Testament kingship will have had a strong 4 6 7

5 Bieler (1979), p. 84. Binchy (19)4); Byrne (1971); 6 Corrain (1978). 0 Corrain (1972a), pp. 28-32. L. Breatnach (1986a); Byrne (1970; 1975), pp. 1-27, 40-69.

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impact on the power-hungry kings of the eighth, ninth and tenth centuries who were then building up the provincial kingship that dominated Irish politics until the twelfth century.8 Native and Christian elements mingled in the concept of kingship — too evident to modern scholars, transparent to contemporaries. The metaphor of the sacred marriage of king and goddess and the notion of the king's righteousness that made the world fruitful were elaborately articulated in the vernacular literature9 and skilfully integrated with Christian concepts of kingship by a learned clergy. The king ensured the good government and defence of his people (as leader, not warrior). He made peace and war, alliances and treaties, and entered into relationships (superior or subordinate) with others. His was the final court of appeal. He presided over the yearly assembly of his notables. He was a great landowner, not the allodial owner of his kingdom, but this changed as imperium and dominium merged and feudalistic institutions developed in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Dynasties were great patrilineages articulated as competing segments. The dynasty was the royal heir: succession was determined by the power play of its segments, and consequently dynasties were often racked by segmentary struggles and weakened by secession. Successful dynasties tended to narrow the succession, and this trend becomes more common in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.10 Ui Neill were the leading dynasty: they had a historical mythography to prove it and a royal model in Cormac mac Airt, the Solomon of Irish kingship. There were two branches: Southern Ui Neill in Meath and the midlands, Northern Ui Neill in Ulster. Sil nAeda Slaine built Southern Ui Neill power in the seventh century (eight were kings of Tara) but their kinsmen-rivals, Clann Cholmain, took the kingship of Tara in 743 and, except for Congalach (944-56), excluded them forever. Northern Ui Neill divided into two main segments, Cenel Conaill and Cenel Eogain. Cenel Conaill was dominant to the middle of the seventh century. Their last king of Tara abdicated in 734. Cenel Eogain had outpaced them by 789 and expanded southeast across Ulster in the eighth and ninth centuries, bringing the great monastic town of Armagh and the mid-Ulster kingdoms under their control — a base for future expansion. By the 740s the over-kingship of the whole dynasty, known as the kingship of Tara, alternated regularly between Cenel Eogain and Clann Cholmain, and the king of Tara was usually the most powerful king in Ireland.11 8

10 11

Wasserschleben(i88s), pp. 76-82 (liber 25); Ci Corrain (1978), pp. 16-18; 6 Corrain, Breatnach 9 and Breen (1984), pp. 390-1. R.A. Breatnach (1953); Mac Cana (1955-8); Dillon (1947). 0 Corrain (1972b), pp. 7-39; Binchy (1976), pp. 37—4s• Byrne (1970); Byrne (1973), pp. 48-105, 254-74; 6 Corrain (1972a), pp. 14-23.

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Leinster was ruled by Ui Dunlainge, settled in the vale of Liffey and the north Leinster plains and linked with the great monastery of Kildare. Their competitors, Ui Chennselaig, dominated south Leinster. Excluded for centuries, they took the kingship in the early eleventh century. Ui Neill warred on Leinster. Donnchadh Midi, king of Tara, defeated the Leinster kings in 780 and sacked their lands and churches. His successor Aed Oirnide attacked Leinster in 804 and again in 805, deposed its king, and divided it. In 818 and 8 3 5 the Ui Neill appointed its kings. The Viking wars interfered with this conquest but conflict on the Ui Neill and Leinster frontier was to shape the history of Dublin. The far-flung Eoganachta ruled Munster. Dynastic legends made them holy kings: God's angels revealed their royal site at Cashel to their founder and they looked back with pride to a forebear baptised there by St Patrick. A ninth-century text contrasts the gentle rule of the Eoganachta with the violence of the Ui Neill, who seize sovereignty by force and win land by the sword. Some were cleric-kings, others hereditary abbots, and they had close relations with the great monastery of Emly. The Eoganachta were divided into two rival groups: the western about Killarney and in south Munster, and the eastern at Cashel, Glanworth and Knockainy. Pressure from Ui Neill, Viking raids and dynastic disorder ruined the Eoganachta. Dal Cais, their supplanters, used their strategic position north and south of the lower Shannon to build up their power. After the 930s their rise was spectacular. They captured Viking Limerick and became the first urban Irish dynasty.12 Ui Briuin of Connacht became prominent in the seventh century and were dominant by 725. They claimed kinship with Ui Neill and with their predecessors, Ui Fiachrach - a signal that they had arrived. They sought Armagh's blessing by proclaiming its church-tax and wooed Clonmacnoise, eventually one of the dynastic churches. Ui Briuin limited the kingship to the immediate royal family. For most of the tenth and eleventh centuries they had a stable lineal succession. They had their reward: in the twelfth century they were kings of Ireland.' 3 The early church domesticated the landscape: holy mountains, holy wells, holy islands, and a mass of toponyms made of Christian elements (cell'cell', mainistir 'monastery', disert 'hermitage', eclats 'church') and saints' names organised the human environment. For the eighth- and ninth-century people Ireland's Christian history began in remote time and St Patrick, St Brigid, Columba and the monastic founders belonged to a distant 'age of the saints', though, as patrons, they were always close to their foundations and attentive to their successors' needs. Foundations and successors were rich '2 KeUeher(i96 7 );6Corrain(i973). 13 Byrne (1973), pp. 230-J3; 6 Corrain (1972a), pp. 9-14, 150-62.

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and closely linked to royalty and nobility, for God was no equal-opportunity employer. Armagh (hereditarily ruled by local nobility)14 and the Ui Neill kings were collaborating closely, if warily, in the late eighth and early ninth centuries. A royal residence and the mausoleum of the Ui Neill stood there. Already, in the seventh century, Kildare was a royal capital and keeper of the king's treasury. In the ninth century, its abbots and abbesses (it was a double monastery) were royal siblings or local nobles. Three or more abbots of Emly were kings of Munster and the Munster king-list was redacted there. High office in church was usually an inheritance and many clerical lineages were cadet branches of royal dynasties that survived as aristocrats in church, and there held on with remarkable tenacity.15 But hereditary succession does not necessarily mean bad government or bad morals. The governors of great monasteries (Cork and Emly, for example) equalled the king of Munster in dignity and the rulers of Armagh, Kildare, Clonard and Clonmacnoise were great political figures, by law and by birth — more Medicis than abbots of monks and singers of matins. Monasteries formed federations in the late seventh and eighth centuries. Property bulks large in the hagiography, its rights well guarded, its possession well justified. Greater houses encroached on the lesser, leading to consolidation and pluralism. Some monastic federations had dependants and estates all over Ireland (Kildare, for example, had far-flung properties in the late seventh century), and even abroad. Wealth brought violence and rivalry led to inter-monastic war (Clonmacnoise and Birr in 760, Clonmacnoise and Durrow in 764, Cork and Clonfert in 807, Kildare and Tallaght in 824) and violence against and amongst church personnel (the murders of the bishops of Seir and Lusk in 744, killings at Armagh in 759, a conflict at Clonard in 77 5 between the community and the king of Tara, a battle at Ferns in 783 between the abbot and the oeconomus). No attacker could ignore his enemy's monasteries and thus the churches were drawn into warfare.16 Lands and services, the offerings of the faithful, bequests, burial dues and relic circuits made the churches wealthy. Some were towns in the late seventh century. Cogitosus describes Kildare as 'a great metropolitan city', though he has to admit that it is not walled (dum nullo murorum ambitu circumdatur)}1 Here is evidence of self-conscious reflection on its urban nature. The community of Taghmon claimed that the layout of their town was inspired by heaven: angels appeared to the founder and said, ' "Your city (civitas) will be in this place". And they marked out in his presence seven places on which afterwards, the principal buildings of the city were 14 16

6 Fiaich (1969). Lucas (1967).

15 6 Corrain (1981; 1973); Hughes (1966), pp. 157-72. " (!) Corrain (1987), pp. 297-8.

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Ireland, Scotland and Wales to the early eleventh century constructed, and Fintanus placed crosses in these places.'18 Here is a conscious corporate personality. This was deepened by reflection on the Old Testament cities of refuge and the measurements of the holy places in Ezekiel 45. The canon lawyers help fill in the picture: There should be two or three enclosures around the sacred place; thefirstinto which we allow no one to enter at all unless of the saints, because laymen do not approach it, nor women, only clerics; the second, into the courtyards of which we allow to enter crowds of rustics not much given to wickedness; the third into which we do not forbid to enter warriors, murderers, adulterers and whores by permission and custom. Hence the first is called most holy, the second more holy and the third holy.19 Evidently a monastic town was much used to a varied mix of humanity: clergy (perhaps a bishop, priests as well as monks), nuns, virgins, holy widows, the devout married laity, monastic tenants, artisans, soldiers, whores and the whole raggle-taggle of medieval life. Monastic towns where kings lived would have royal counsellors, military officers, aristocratic hangers-on and royal mistresses.20 There were worldly prince-abbots with aristocratic wives, great administrators, political clerics, houses of strict observance, rigorist anchorites and poor country parsons. Strongly episcopalian texts show that bishops — and a celibate bishop outranked all clerics — exercised spiritual jurisdiction over this variegated church life. Armagh and Kildare claimed to be seats of metropolitans, the canon lawyers refer to the office, but it is uncertain how developed it was.21 A cultivated clergy maintained high scholarship, and produced fine art22 and a literature of distinction. The great monastery-towns that had deep pockets and high aspirations carried this activity. It was a culture of writing, and expressly so.23 A remarkable achievement of the sixth and seventh centuries was the creation of a literary vernacular with a fixed orthography, not merely a language for homiletic-exegetical discourse but for creative literature in prose and verse. Vernacular treatises on grammar and metrics !S 19

21 22 23

Heist (11)65), p. 203 §19. Wasserschleben (1885), p. 175; 'Sinodus. Duo vel tres termini circa locum sanctum debent fieri: primus, in quem praeter sanctorum nullum introire permittimus omnino, quia in eum laici non accedunt, nee mulieres, nisi clerici; secundus, in cuius plateas plebium rusticorum catervas non multum nequitiae deditas intrare sinimus; tertius, in quem laicos homicidas adulteros metetricesque permissione et consuetudine intra ire non vetamus. Inde vocantur primus sanctissimus, x Doherty (1982; 1985); O Corrain (1987). secundus sanctior, tertius sanctus.' O'Keeffe (1904); Binchy (1978), pp. 588-9 ('Miadshlechta'); L. Breatnach (1989); Sharpe (1984). Henry (1965-70); Henry and Marsh-Micheli (1985); Henry (1974); Ryan (1987). Holtz(i98i); McCone(i99o).

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followed24 and a wide-ranging and original imaginative literature.25 They conceived of the pagan past as the Old Testament of their race and of its kings, queens and warriors as living according to nature in the Pauline sense, and thus fit subjects for Christian writers. This, together with their reading of Isidore, led to the cultivation of vernacular saga as written literature and the construction of a schema of human history linking the dynasties of the present, the heroes of the pagan past, and the revelations of scripture in a unifying perspective of providential history.26 Writing in Latin - especially computistics, exegesis and hagiography — was carried on with vigour.27 Legal texts (Latin and Irish), the work of clerical lawyers devising a Christian law for a Christian community, survive from the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries. The Hibernensis, a compilation of Ruben (t7*5) of Dairinis and Cu Chuimne (f747) of Iona, is a systematic treatise on jurisdictions, church orders, legal procedures, government, property, bequests, theft, deposits, sanctuary, marriage and much else.28 There are vernacular laws from the seventh century. The earliestfirmlydatable is 'Cain Fhuithirbe' (AD 678—83), proclaimed at a mixed synod and dealing with the relationships of the church and kings.29 The largest collection Senchas Mar, eighth-century and from northern Ireland, possibly Armagh, some twentyfive tracts on private distraint, pledges, fosterage, kindred, clientship and relations of lord and dependant, marriage, personal injuries, theft, title to real estate, law of neighbourhood (trespass and liability), honour-price, and the contractual obligations of clergy and laity. Other tracts deal with legal and curial procedure, suretyship, contract, status, the professional classes (clerics, poets, judges and advocates), and much else.30 These tracts offer a contemporary profile of society. Society is seen, from an aristocratic perspective, in class terms: kings, lords and commons. The distinction between noble and commoner was not watertight: one could become noble over three generations by acquiring wealth and dependants, but pressure was usually downwards. What distinguished a lord from a commoner, apart from birth and wealth, was the possession of clients, men bound to him by contract, owing him renders and services in return forfiefs.Commoners were freemen who usually owned 24 25

27

29 30

Ahlqvist (1982); Thurneysen (1891); Murphy (1961). M e y e r , K . (1915; 1919); T h u r n e y s e n (1921); M u r p h y (1956; 1961); Carney (1955; 1966; 1967); C> M C o r r a i n (1989). T h u r n e y s e n (1915); 6 Corrain (1985a; 1986b); Scowcroft ( 1 9 8 7 - 8 ) . K e n n e y , Sources; BCL, p p . 75-162; Walsh a n d 6 C r o i n i n (1988); Kelly (1988-90); Picard (1985); a Wasserschleben (1885); M o r d e k (1975), p p . 2 5 5 - 9 ; F o u r n i e r (1899). Sharpe (1991). L. Breatnach (1986b). Binchy (1978); Kelly (1988); Charles-Edwards (1980); 6 Corrain Breatnach and Breen (1984); L. Breatnach (1984); Charles-Edwards (1986); L. Breatnach (1987).

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land. Their classic representative was the boaire 'cowman', who owed his lord a yearly render of a cow and subsidiary payments. There were others with lesser assets [pgaire). Below them were cottiers and landless men (bothach,fuidir), and serfs {senchleithe) bound to the soil.31 There was slavery, probably extensive in the early period and common when Vikings traded slaves from abroad. Other unfortunates (for example, unwanted children and condemned prisoners released to the church) formed a servile population on monastic estates. The lawyers have a fine-tuned awareness of class precisely because it was the linchpin of the system: it determined one's legal powers and entitlements. Clientship (ce'lsine) bound lord and man in a mutual benefit relationship that favoured the lord. There are two kinds: free clientship (soerrath) and base clientship (giallnae), both contractual but differing in origin. Free clientship, like the comitatus, enabled lords to recruit a military following, ambitious aristocrats and freemen, for raiding and political in-fighting. Their reward: a share of the spoils. Base clientship was the economic basis of lordship. First, the lord made the client a payment equal to his honour price, making him the lord's man. Then the lord gave him a fief (usually of stock, but sometimes of land, chattels or implements) and took an annual render in produce, part delivered to the lord, part consumed when the lord and his retinue made a winter feasting circuit of his clients. The lord took labour services: spring ploughing, harvesting and building. He protected his client. When, for example, his client was wronged by a third party, he helped him pursue his legal rights, though he took part of any compensation received.32 The family, not the individual, was the socio-legal unit in matters of real estate, inheritance and legal liabilities. The legal family was the derbfhine 'certain family': the patrilineal descendants of a common great-grandfather. But people lived their lives in thcgelfhine (descendants of one's grandfather) and, perhaps more usually, in the conjugal family.33 Marriage was virilocal, apart from heiresses, and women had extensive rights. There were two types of marriage: a modified dowry marriage of church origin and an inherited bridewealth marriage. Divorce and remarriage were common, and polygamy (at least serial monogamy) was practised by the upper classes. It assured heirs and aristocratic manpower. This was not so much the survival of pagan custom, though there was some, but the continuation of early Christian and pre-Augustinian attitudes and practices.34 Viking raiders of coastal monasteries appeared abruptly in 795. They swept into the Irish Sea and south along the Atlantic seaboard: to Cork by 822, to Skellig in the remote southwest by 824. From the 830s they attacked 31 33

Binchy (1941); Charles-Edwards (1986). Charles-Edwards (1971); Baumgarten (1985).

32

Thurneysen (1923; 1925; 1926). M Binchy (1956); 6 Corrain (1979; 1985b).

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the immediate hinterland, especially in the northeast. In 832 Armagh was raided three times in a month, and many monasteries of the region were sacked. From c. 795 to c. 835, raids were hit-and-runs by small forces, perhaps two or three shiploads. They attacked coastal settlements, sometimes the surrounding territory, and disappeared promptly. There were no raids farther inland than twenty miles. Local levies hit back, sometimes effectively. The first deep territorial attack, with large-scale taking of prisoners (evident slaving), occurred in 836 in Southern Ui Neill. Vikings sacked Clonmore (in Co. Carlow) on Christmas Eve in 83 5/6 and took many prisoners; raiding and slaving at this time must mean they were overwintering in Ireland, probably on off-shore islands, and had an organisation that could handle large numbers of captives. They over-wintered on Lough Neagh in 840—1, at their base in Dublin in 841—2. Now inland raiding began in earnest. Large fleets arrived on the Liffey and the Boyne, ships were active on the Shannon and the Bann. Churchmen had to defend themselves. The kings turned on the enemy and reported a string of victories to Charles the Bald in 848.35 By mid-century, landed Vikings were an accepted presence, their settlements part of the mosaic of petty jurisdictions, frequent Viking—Irish alliances occurred, and the Vikings feuded amongst themselves. In the second half of the century, they were independent adventurers with fixed bases — Dublin, Waterford, Wexford, St Mullins, Youghal, Cork, Limerick — but these, though formidable, were subject to successful Irish attack. Dublin was riven by dynastic feuds from the 870s and its decisive defeat came in 902: 'The pagans were driven from Ireland, i.e. from the fortress of Dublin . . . and they abandoned a good number of their ships, and escaped half-dead after they had been wounded and broken.'36 The exiled Dublin Viking kings and aristocrats turned to the English littoral from the Dee to Solway Firth, to Galloway, the Western Isles and Man, and rapidly did there what they had failed to do in Ireland: established a powerful Scandinavian kingdom, based on York, and settled widely in the lands west of the Pennines.37 The second Viking attack on Ireland came from here when the exiled kings, Ragnall and Sitric, arrived in Waterford in 917 to reinforce a Viking fleet active there since 915. Sitric defeated the Leinstermen, reoccupied Dublin and killed Niall Glundub, king of Tara, in battle at Islandbridge, near Dublin. Ragnall led his fleet to north Britain, took York in 919, and as king of Northumbria submitted to King Edward of Wessex. A single dynasty now ruled Dublin and York. Sitric succeeded Ragnall in 920/1 and ruled until his death in 927. The Vikings in Ireland 35 37

M Rau (1980) 11, p. 72. Annals of Ulster s.a. 902; Annals of the Four Masters s.a. 897 [ = 902]. Smyth (1975—9) 1, pp. 27—116; ii, pp. 1—30; Baldwin Whyte (1985).

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engaged in an intense campaign to control (and settle) the Irish littoral from Dundalk to Antrim in the 920s and 930s, but this was foiled by Muirchertach, king of the Northern Ui Neill. Godfrid of Dublin tried to take York in 927, but K i n g Athelstan drove him out, and when he returned he was challenged by the independent Viking city of Limerick. His son Olaf, w h o succeeded on his death in 934, crushed Limerick in 937 and was the ringleader at the battle oiBrunanburh, where the kings of Scotland and Strathclyde allied with Dublin to contain the rising power of Athelstan. They were defeated. O n Athelstan's death in 939, Olaf returned to York and was recognised by K i n g E d m u n d as king of York and Danish Mercia. He died in 941, and was succeeded by his first cousin, Olaf Cuaran, w h o lost York and returned to rule Dublin in 945. Here there were n o easy pickings as in York. Congalach, king of Southern Ui Neill, and his allies had mercilessly sacked Dublin in 944: ' T h e destruction brought upon it was this: its houses, house-enclosures, its ships and its other structures were burnt; its women, children and c o m m o n folk were enslaved; its men and warriors were killed; it was altogether destroyed, from four persons to one, by killing and drowning, burning and capture, apart from a small number that fled in a few ships.' 3 8 Olaf Cuaran was n o w a lightweight in Irish power play though he ruled again at York, c. 948 to 95 3. Domnall ua Neill, king of Tara (956—80), attempted with great energy to build up a centralised over-kingdom in the n o r t h and the midlands. Olaf Cuaran sided with his regional enemies, and in the late 970s he felt strong enough to take on the Ui Neill. He was overwhelmed at the battle of Tara in 980 by Mael Sechnaill, king of Southern Ui Neill, w h o followed u p his victory by besieging Dublin and forcing it to humiliating terms. Olaf retired to Iona as a penitent, leaving Dublin under the indirect rule of Mael Sechnaill. Brian Boru, the most able ruler of his day, became king of Munster in 976. He dominated the Viking cities of Limerick and Waterford, and used their revenues, their fleets and their cavalry to make himself king of Ireland. In 997 Brian forced Mael Sechnaill to divide Ireland between them and hand over to him the hostages of Dublin. In 999 Sitric Silkenbeard, king of Dublin, joined with the Leinstermen and revolted. Brian and Mael Sechnaill defeated them at Glenn Mama and Brian followed this up by sacking Dublin and besieging its fortress. Finally, he restored Sitric as a dependent king. He now had Dublin's troops, fleets and taxes at his disposal in his final (and successful) effort to become king of Ireland. T h e Dubliners feared that their prosperous autonomous city-state would be absorbed: Brian was doing to Dublin what Athelstan and his successors had done to York, and they defied 38

Annals of Ulster s.a. 944; Annals of the Four Masters s.a. 94Z [ = 944].

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him. Their revolt really began in 1012 and by spring 1014 they had built up a powerful alliance: Leinster, Sigurd earl of Orkney, and fleets from the Hebrides and Man. The inevitable battle took place at Clontarf on Good Friday 1014: the alliance was heavily defeated but Brian was killed.39 Brian's successors dominated Dublin and, in the struggle for the kingship of Ireland, its possession became an economic and political prize. The tenthcentury Dublin—York axis brought commercial urbanism to Ireland, the eleventh-century kings used its resources to fund their ambition to rule the entire island of Ireland, and this great struggle was the leitmotiv of Irish history until the Norman attack.40 SCOTLAND

In 700 the future kingdom of Scotland was occupied by three peoples - Dal Riata, Britons of Strathclyde and Picts — and under pressure from a fourth, the Northumbrians. Dal Riata, early invaders from northeast Ireland who brought Gaelic speech into Scotland, occupied Argyle and southeastern Inverness (Kintyre, Cowal and Lorn)41 - still on the periphery after two or more centuries of conquest but probably infiltrating Pictland and settling to the north and to the east. Medieval demographic growth was slow and it would have taken time to build up the population needed to occupy central Pictland in the middle of the ninth century, Gaelicise much of mainland Scotland, and re-Gaelicise the Western Isles in the late Viking period. In the seventh century and earlier Dal Riata was ruled by Cenel Gabrain but became so riven with segmentary struggles between 680 and 740 that it is doubtful whether there was a recognised over-king of Dal Riata. Segmentation had gone far by 700 — at least seven competing groups — but this would not have prevented vigorous expansion by its sub-kingdoms. Its dynastic glories lay in the past, its present glory in the monastery of Columba at Iona, the greatest church centre in the north. Iona was ruled by Adomnan (679—704), the biographer of Columba and the most influential churchman in Britain and Ireland.42 The expulsion of the Columban community by Nechtan, king of the Picts, in 717, following his acceptance of the Roman Easter and tonsure c. 710, was only a temporary rift.43 Iona adopted the Roman Easter in 716, the coronal tonsure in 718. British kingdoms had occupied the area between the Cheviot Hills and 39 40 41 42 43

6 Corrain (1972a), pp. 80-110; Ryan (1967); 0 Corrain (1986b). 6 Corrain (1972a), pp. 111-73; O'Gtady (1889); Byrne (1987). Bannerman (1974); Chadwick (1949); Anderson (1973), pp. 119—201; (1982); Smyth (1984). Herbert (1988); Picard (1984); Smyth (1984), pp. 84-140. Dowden (1896); Haddan and Stubbs (1871), pp. 285-94.

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the Forth/Clyde border with the Picts, but their history is obscure. The Northumbrians conquered the eastern half in the seventh century. The southwestern kingdom of Rheged had come under Northumbrian rule well before 700: the Bewcastle and Ruthwell crosses may mark stages of the conquest.44 This broke the continuity between Strathclyde (the North British) and Wales. Strathclyde came under pressure from Dal Riata (battles in 678, 711, 717) and the Picts (battles 744, 750). Eadberht (737—58) conquered most of Ayrshire in 7 5 o and attacked Dumbarton in 7 5 6, leaving Strathclyde the valley of the Clyde and little else.45 The Picts were heterogeneous in origin, Celtic and pre-Celtic, speaking at least two languages, one P-Celtic and one non-Indo-European. 46 Their distinguishing social custom was matrilineal succession to kingship - and one that may have eased the merger with Dal Riata if the Pictish dynasties were a group of patrilineages linked by the matriline.47 They had strong kings, and effective defences (including a large navy). In the eighth century, the Pictish kingdoms were extensive and powerful. Dal Riata apart, the mainland and isles north of the Forth/Clyde were theirs. They held this border against the aggression of Northumbria from the late seventh century. Brude (697—706), who subscribed to Adomnan's 'Law of the Innocents' as ri Cruithintuatbi 'king of Pictland',48 probably ruled over a major kingdom in Pictland (universae Pictorumprovinciae, as Bede puts it). Its divisions are not clear. An origin-legend credits the founder with seven sons, the eponyms of seven provinces — Fib (Fife), Fidach, Fotlaig (Atholl), Fortriu, Caitt (Caithness and Sutherland), Ce, Circinn (Angus) — but there may have been others and the text is of doubtful value.49 Fortriu was the dominant province and the Irish annals use riFortrenn for 'king of the Picts'. The kingdom was powerful under Oengus/Onuist P729—61). In 736 he harried Dal Riata, captured two princes and seized Dunadd. He defeated Dal Riata again in 741. He was fighting the Northumbrians in 740, Strathclyde in 744. He had made Dal Riata subject by 736 and established Pictish rule over it that lasted until the 770s or later. The sources - late and suspect king-lists, synchronisms and difficult annals50 — are not enough to construct a credible account of what followed. There was acculturalisation of Pictland and Dal Riata, so deep that neither history nor linguistics is enough to untangle the dynastic skein. Even the provenance of Cinaed mac Ailpin or Kenneth I, progenitor of the dynasty 44 46 47 48 50

45 S m y t h ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p p . 26—7. D u n c a n (1975), p p . 59—66. O'Rahilly (1946), pp. 353-84; Jackson (195 5). Boyle (1967); Kirby (1976); Miller (1979b; 1982); Sellar (198;). 49 Ni Dhonnchadha (1982), pp. 181, 214. Skene (1867); Chadwick (1949), pp. 1—49. Anderson (1973); Miller (1979a); Jackson (1956; 1957); Skene (1867).

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that dominates medieval Scotland, is debated. His descent from Cenel Gabrain is as plausible as the medieval historians intended.51 After 768, the record of further Dal Riata/Pictish conflict ceases: this may point to a settlement, and subsequently to a union of the kingdoms under one king. Kenneth's segment may have used the disastrous Viking attack of 839 to thrust aside collaterals and sei2e the kingship. It is likely he was king in Dal Riata (841—2), and claimant to Pictland from 842. The Irish annals call him rex Pictorum on his death in 858. He made Dunkeld his new ecclesiastical centre in 848/9 and placed the relics of Columba in the church he had built there. His successor, Domnall I (852—62), enforced Dalriadic laws in Pictland: 'In his time, the Gaels with their king made the laws and ordinances of the kingdom of Aed mac Echach [c. 768—78], in Forteviot.' 52 This probably means that the laws of Dal Riata were imposed on Pictland. Viking raids on Scotland began suddenly:53 'The devastation of all the islands of Britain by the pagans' in 794, Iona and Skye in 795, 'great incursions in Ireland and Scotland' in 798, Iona in 802 and 806 — and then silence about Scotland until the murder of Blathmac of Iona 'by pagans' in 825 and the journey of its abbot to Scotland and Ireland with the relics of Columba (829, 831). These Vikings came from Norway; they probably had already mounted unreported attacks on the Orkneys, Shetlands and Hebrides, and had begun using the islands as transit bases. Given the flurry of Viking activity around the Irish coastline, it is reasonable to think that the Vikings were at least as busy in Scotland. There are no data, for historical recording may have stopped at Iona after 825. In 839 the Vikings invaded Fortriu and won a battle in which very large numbers fell, including kings who may have governed much of Pictland. Insecurity on the west coast may have caused the drive eastwards into Pictland of Kenneth I and his followers.54 In 866 two of the Dublin Viking leaders, Olaf and Audgisl, brought a force of Irish and Scottish Vikings to Fortriu. They attacked Pictland, took its hostages and probably imposed a tribute on it. They were back in Ireland the next year and Audgisl was murdered by his kinsmen. In 870 Olaf went again to Scotland (accompanied by his fellow-king Ivarr). They besieged Dumbarton for four months, took it, plundered it and destroyed it. They returned to Dublin next year with 200 ships and 'a huge prey of English, Britons and Picts whom they brought to Ireland in captivity' for the slave 51

52

54

Anderson (1982), pp. 106-32; Smyth (1984), pp. 179—92; Duncan (1975), pp. 54-7; Sellar (1985), pp. 31-4. Miller (1979b), p . 4 8 ; Skene (1867), p . 8: ' I n hujus t e m p o r e , jura ac leges regni E d i filii E c d a c h

fecerunt Goedeli cum rege suo i Fochiurthabaicth.' B.E. Crawford (1987), pp. 38-62.

53

I.A. Crawford (1981).

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trade. This opened up the Clyde and central Scotland to Viking tributetaking, if not rule. And that may be reflected in Ivarr's death notice in the Annals where he is called 'king of the Northmen of all Ireland and Britannia', the last term perhaps referring to his power over Strathclyde.55 Ivarr's successors in Dublin were riven with feuds between at least three rival families and they came under too much pressure from the Irish kings to attempt anything significant in Scotland. The threat came rather from the Danes in Northumbria who inflicted a heavy slaughter on the Picts in 875. It is likely that there was by now a settled Viking population in the Scottish islands, and the Gall-Goidil ('Foreigner-Gaels') who appear in Ireland as mercenaries in the 850s may be from there. Muirchertach mac Neill ravaged the Hebrides in 941: their Vikings must have posed a threat to him. A generation later Magnus son of Harold and his brother Godfrid were installed in the Hebrides and Man, and raided widely in Wales (971,972,980, 982, 987) and Ireland (974, 984). Vikings from the Hebrides fought on the side of Olaf Cuaran of Dublin at Tara in 980. Danes (possibly freebooters led by the earl of Orkney) landed on the coast of Dal Riata in 986,56 raided Iona and the Western Isles on Christmas Eve 986, and killed the abbot and fifteen of the community. In 987 the son of Harold (probably Godfrid) and the Danes won a victory at Man where 1000 fell. Soon after, 360 of the Danes who had raided Iona were killed 'through the miracles of God and Columba'. Godfrid ended his career as king of the Hebrides by being killed in Dal Riata in 989. His son, Ragnall, also king of the Hebrides, died in 1005. When and how the Orkneys were settled is unknown, the circumstantial narratives of the sagas notwithstanding. 57 These are good for the twelfth century or later, but poor before then, and the conquest of the Orkneys is a matter for pre-history and saga. The first firmly dated earl of Orkney is Sigurd son of Hlodver who fell fighting King Brian at Clontarf in 1014. If the 'Danair' raiding in the Hebrides in the 980s were really from the Orkneys, this may not have been Sigurd's first time in Ireland. The northern monastery of Derry was raided by Danair in 990 and there were Danair amongst the Viking and Leinster forces that ravaged the Southern Ui Neill seat at Loch Ennell in the same year. His son Einar may have been defeated in a coastal raid on Lame (Co. Antrim) c. 1018 by Conchobar, the petty king of Dal nAraide. 58 Place-names studies point up regional differences in Viking Scotland.59 55 56

58

Annals of Ulster s.a. 875: 'Imhar rex Nordmannorum totius Hiberniae 7 Brittanie uitam finiuit.' Annals ofUlster use the term Danair literally 'Danes', secondary meaning 'Vikings in general' (this is the first example of the term in these annals); Annals oflnisfallen use the generic Gaill 'Vikings, 57 ESSH i, pp. 313—34, 346—63. foreigners'. 59 ESSH 1, p. 550. Fellows-Jensen (1984; 1985); Crawford (1987), pp. 92-115.

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Place-names in the Northern Isles and in the farmlands of northeast Caithness are almost totally Norse, remarkably so because there had been a flourishing Pictish community in this area, and this was totally overwhelmed. In the Western Isles and the west coast the situation is made complex by later re-Gaelicisation of a layer of Norse names laid on previous layers of Gaelic and Pictish toponymy. There is a marked difference between the Northern and the Southern Hebrides, the one attracted by the northern Scandinavian world, the other influenced by Ireland and mainland Scotland. Nevertheless, the percentage of Scandinavian names here is significantly higher (20% and more) than in any part of the English Danelaw and points to conquest, occupation of the soil, subjection and perhaps to partextirpation of the indigenes. Settlement is far less intense on the mainland littoral. In 902, as stated above, the Irish kings captured Dublin and expelled its rulers from Ireland. This had an immediate impact on Scotland: it gave an impetus to the settlement of Vikings on the west coast of Britain from the Dee to the Solway and beyond and a leadership to exploit it. Here and in south Scotland, the exiled and aggressive Dublin leaders took control. In 904 two 'grandsons of Ivarr' killed the king of Pictland. In the same year, Ivarr grandson of Ivarr (who had been king of Dublin) was killed at Strathearn, warring on Pictland. Another dynast, Ragnall grandson of Ivarr, won a victory over the English and the Scots at Corbridge in 914, and was able to grant land to his followers.60 In 917 Ragnall and his kinsman Sitric attacked southern Ireland: Sitric re-took Dublin and Ragnall returned to North Britain. He sacked Dunblane and defeated the English and Constantine II, king of the Scots, at Tynemouth. In 919 he took York and made his submission next year to Edward, king of Wessex. The York—Dublin axis made the Viking rulers significant players in Northern politics. By 926 Athelstan was a threat to the independent kings on his periphery: Constantine II and Owain king of Strathclyde submitted to him. In 934 his fleet sailed as far north as Caithness, his land forces marched to Dunottar. Constantine and Owain joined in an alliance led by Olaf, king of Dublin, to contain Athelstan, but they were defeated at Brunanburh in 957. This was a setback but not a disaster for Scotland and in 945 King Edmund offered Constantine IPs successor, Malcolm I, Strathclyde and more, to detach him from the Dublin alliance. Soon Strathclyde had become a dynastic dependency. From 954 to the late tenth century the kingship alternated between two segments, but this system broke down in violent feuding and dynastic 60

Smyth (1975-9) 1, pp. 62-3, 100-13.

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killings and in 997 one of the royal segments was permanently excluded. This time of troubles did not end until the accession of Malcolm II (100534). Yet Scotland survived as a stable kingdom and stamped unity of a sort on its diverse peoples and landscapes. 61

WALES

In Wales rex is the universal term for 'king', in literature and epigraphy. As in Ireland, there are gradations: greater (rex magnus, rex inter omnes reges) and lesser (reguli) kings and lords (duces, seniores, optimates), but there are no sociolegal sources that give a finer calibration. The vernacular terms, notably brenhin and rhi (cf. Irish ri), are difficult to date. Royal power was linked to well-delimited territorial kingdoms: in Wales, unlike Ireland, Scotland and England, populations took their name from the area they inhabited, not the area from the population, and this appears to be a sub-Roman inheritance.62 From the early sixth century. Welsh politics centres on kings of large kingdoms; Gwynedd in the northwest, Powys in the northeast, Dyfed in the southwest, Glywysing in the southeast. Somewhat later, there is evidence for lesser kingdoms like Gwent and Gower, and later still for others (Brycheiniog and Ceredigion), but there may have been more (like Rhufoniog, first mentioned in the annals in 816). Dynastic origins are unclear: the genealogists of the ninth and tenth centuries give dark-age heroic and imperial Roman descents. Here there may be an element of inheritance from the late provincial Roman administration, but fifth- and sixth-century discontinuities make for uncertainty. The kings of Gwynedd, with its island fortress of Anglesey, claimed precedence: that special position is expressed in the Historia Brittonum and in genealogies that trace them to the conquering Cunedda. The obit of King Rhodri describes him as rex Brittonum in 7 5 4 and the Irish annals give the same title to his son Cynan in 816. Intense conflict between the brotherkings led to a change of line when Merfyn, grandson of Cynan through his daughter Esyllt, succeeded. But Merfyn (^844), is called 'glorious king of the Britons' in the Bamberg cryptogram and the dynasty still boasted its Cuneddan descent. In the later ninth century Gwynedd tried to realise its claims by attacking the southern kingdoms, Dyfed and Brycheiniog — driving them into a protective alliance with King Alfred of Wessex. The southeast stood apart until the eleventh century. Ithel (c. 715—45) ruled as sole king of Glywysing but it and its sub-kingdoms were later shared as a dynastic possession.63 61 63

Smyth, (1984), pp. 175-238; Duncan (1975), pp. 79—116. W. Davies (1982), pp. 8 ; - n o .

62

W. Davies (1990), pp. 9-31.

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As in Ireland, the king gave his clients 'fiefs' (stock, chattels, sometimes land and weapons); they fought for him. Such noble clients might be lords and have their own clients. The tie was breakable. Lower down in the social scale were lords' dependants who paid their dues in produce, who lacked powers of suretyship, and whose relationship was not terminable. Slavery was extensive and, as in Ireland, there was penal slavery.64 Property-owning families, for law and inheritance, were patrilineages, usually four generations in depth.65 The Welsh church is Romano-British of unbroken tradition, but the evidence is thin. Thirty-five to forty pre-Conquest churches can be identified from non-charter material. These are on the coastal plain and in the fertile river valleys. Four have bishops — Llandaff, Llandeilo Fawr, St David's, Bangor — and there may have been more. Evidently, bishops lived in monasteries, had territorial jurisdiction if not well-defined dioceses, and there was no metropolitan structure. The charter evidence reveals an impressive density of church foundations, especially in the valley of the Wye and in the plains to the west, but it is unknown how general this was. Of the monasteries, little is known about the size of the sites or the communities, but they were significant concentrations of wealth: the Vikings found Tywyn, Clynnog and others worth raiding, though these were not the premier sites. Monasteries were landlords and had dependent monasteries (often a local bloc of churches and lands), to which the abbot appointed and from which he drew revenue. Gildas says the clergy were married: this is supported by epigraphic and documentary evidence, and the Welsh church was largely hereditary; evidence for this occurs in the seventh century, continues into the ninth and tenth, and the practice was a headache for the twelfth-century reformers. The church was the maker of written record, from the impressive corpus of epigraphy to the charters,66 including Gildas' De Excidio Britanniae (sixthcentury)67 and the Historia Brittonum, compiled in 829 and redolent of clerical learning.68 The Annales Cambriae were kept at St David's from the late eighth century,filledout with Irish annals and royal genealogies of the tenth century.69 Ecclesiastical learning has close affinities in the ninth and tenth centuries with Hiberno-Latin exegesis; Irish influence is strong, but Wales has a long tradition of highly conservative indigenous scholarship.70 The dating, localisation and transmission of the outstanding vernacular 64 65 W. Davies (1982), pp. 59-84; (1990), pp. 22-31. Charles-Edwards (1971; 1972). 6S <* W. Davies (1979). " Lapidge and Dumville (1984). Dumville (1975—6). 69 Hughes (1974). ™ Lapidge (1986); Breen (1992).

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literature — in particular Canu Aneirin, Canu Taliesin and Canu Llywarch Hen are problematic.7' Like Ireland, Wales was raided from the Irish Sea. There are some terse annalistic records of raids between 851 and iji-12 Anglesey was ravaged by Vikings from Ireland in 85 3/4 and Rhodri, king of Gwynedd, killed Horm their leader in 856. The Irish annalist noted these events, and particularly Rhodri's flight to Ireland from the Vikings. They wintered in Dyfed in 878, often the prelude to setting up a base. It would be surprising if Wales escaped the intense coastal raiding Ireland suffered earlier and later. There may have been some settlement in Anglesey and elsewhere, as in Ireland. The attack came overland from England in the late ninth and tenth centuries. A Danish army reached Buttington in 893 but it was driven off by South Welsh and English forces. Within the year it was back in Chester and raided North Wales in 894. Haesten's army of Danes ravaged South Wales in 895 and evidently did much damage. But overland attacks were never as significant as those from the Irish Sea. The next two known Viking actions involve their departure from, and return to, Ireland. When the Irish kings drove the Dubliners out of Ireland in 902 the immediate Welsh reflex was the arrival of Ingimund and his followers in Anglesey in 903. But they were driven from Wales and settled in Mercia.73 In 914 a great fleet arrived at the Severn estuary from Brittany, ravaged Wales, and captured Bishop Cyfeiliog (who was ransomed). Local levies drove them off and King Edward took precautions to protect the estuary. Finally, they moved to Dyfed and sailed for Waterford in the autumn. It is uncertain whether they were originally bound for Ireland and took a side-swipe at Wales, but it seems likely. Reported Viking raids increased in the second half of the tenth century while the dynasties of North and South Wales were busy with segmentary struggles. Very probably, the Vikings made stable kingdoms impossible: they intervened in dynastic disputes and milked the regions for resources. Dublin, ruled by Olaf Cuaran, mounted raids. In 961 his sons hit at Wales and Anglesey from Ireland's Eye, raiding Holyhead and the Lleyn peninsula. Magnus son of Harold, of the Western Isles, attacked Penmon in 971 and brought a great fleet from the Isles around the east of Ireland to the Shannon estuary in 974. In 972 his brother Godfrid captured Anglesey, in 980 he despoiled it and the Lleyn peninsula, in 982 Dyfed, and in 987 he ravaged Anglesey and took 2000 prisoners (and this will mean slaving). In 71 73

72 Dumville (1977); Charles-Edwards (1978); Dumville (1988). Phillimore (1888). Radner (1978), pp. 168-72; Phillimore (1888), p. 167; Wainwright (1948).

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989 Maredudd ab Owain, king of Dyfed, paid a poll-tax of a penny to the Vikings. Wales and Ireland, then, shared the attentions of these all-purpose Irish-Sea Vikings and suffered the same monastic plundering. This was fund-raising, and a matter of course: Holyhead (961), Tywyn (963), Penmon (971), Clynnog (978), St David's (982, 988, 999 when its bishop was killed), and Llanbadarn Fawr, Llanilltud and Llancarfan in 988.74 The literary record shows the breakers: the flows and surges of raiders, settlers, petty lords, merchants, traders and craftfolk must be sought elsewhere. There is enough 'high' evidence to expect the archaeological and place-name record to be significant. And so it is, especially in the foci of extensive raiding, Anglesey (with outliers in Flint) — hoards, graves and sculpted stones.75 The onomastic evidence from South Wales is impressive. From Fishguard to Swansea there are some forty Scandinavian names — more than the whole of the Irish coastline — and long ago Bugge showed how twelfth-century settlers in Dublin from Cardiff, Swansea, Cardigan and Haverfordwest bore Scandinavian names.76 Broadly, the border with England stabilised in the seventh century, though Wales remained under English pressure. In the late ninth century, Welsh kings accepted the dominium of King Alfred, and formal submissions of the Welsh kings — Hywel Dda amongst them — continued from the 880s to the 9 5 os. The powerful English kings used intimidation to secure the Welsh front and to compel resources (money and military levies) while Viking York was a menace. They tended to lose interest when that threat receded after mid-century. Segmentary conflict is evident in Gwynedd in the early ninth century. It determined the political life of the tenth and the eleventh centuries, and probably earlier. The dynasty of Rhodri Mawr is a model of this process, an epitome of political history. His rise to power is obscure, and from the beginning his dynasty was under external threat. King of Gwynedd from 844 to his death in 878, he came under attack from the Vikings of the Irish Sea and from the English. It was assumed that the new Gwynedd dynasty had established itself and gained control of Powys to the east and Ceredigion to the south by the 870s, but this is uncertain and the Viking attack suggests otherwise. His son Anarawd was a power in Anglesey, the presumed dynastic centre, in the early tenth century. His grandson Hywel Dda was dominant in South Wales in the second quarter of the tenth century, but how and when that came about is not known.77 Within two or three generations the dynasty had spread widely in Gwynedd and Dyfed, mopping up local kingdoms and loyalties. This seems 74 76

W. Davies (1982), pp. 116-20. Loyn (1976), map 2; Bugge (1900).

75

W. Davies (1990), pp. 51-6. " Dumville (1982).

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Ireland, Scotland and Wales to the early eleventh century reflected in the terminology: there are kings and dynasties, but king and kingdom are divorced in the records, and by the eleventh century there are new terms for areas of political power. The regionalism of the late seventh to the middle of the ninth century disappears. Power is mobile. As rulers and military leaders, kings range widely: from the middle of the tenth century to the early eleventh over all Wales except the southeast, later over the whole country and into the Marches. Kings compete along segmentary lines for hegemony, as Irish kings, but the rules are looser. The segmentary struggles of the tenth and eleventh centuries show the Welsh kingdoms falling apart under the double stress of English pressure and Scandinavian attack. In a sense, there was dynastic decay, complicated by political succession in right of mother in a patrilineal society, the intrusion of dynastic outsiders, and alienation of a militarised ruling cadre from the regional communities subject to it. The higher ambitions and belligerence of the greater kings called for large resources and the means to gather them in, but English and, latterly, Scandinavian exploitation competed for these resources, and drew them off as levies and tribute, and the administrative infrastructure remained underdeveloped. In the eleventh century, Wales became an unstable land of unresolved segmentary struggles and quick-moving dynastic warfare.78 78

W. Davies (1990), pp. 48-91.

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CHAPTER 2(c)

ENGLAND AND THE CONTINENT Rosamond McKitterick

THE first reliable evidence for links between Gaul and Anglo-Saxon England is the marriage of Bertha, a Frankish princess, to ^Ethelberht, king of Kent. The cordial reception given Augustine of Canterbury by ^Ethelberht, moreover, marks the beginnings of the distinctive English relationship with the church of Rome. Thus from the end of the sixth century the two main Continental associates of the Anglo-Saxons make their appearance; it is primarily within the context of relations between England, the Franks and Rome that English-Continental connections in the eighth and ninth centuries are to be observed. Both the Kentish marriage alliance and the ecclesiastical initiative from the pope and Gaul presuppose political and religious contacts before that, quite apart from the manceuvrings thereafter. The archaeological evidence, for instance, supports the assumption of the presence of some Franks, or contacts with Francia, south of the Thames in the early Anglo-Saxon period. There is much to be said, in fact, for Ian Wood's hypothesis that the Franks held some kind of hegemony over southern England in the sixth and early seventh centuries, while there are indications of sustained contact on the part of the Merovingians with the kingdom of Kent in particular.1 Other fragments of information, such as the coin evidence, add to the sense of sustained contacts of which we now have no more than a faint echo. As is evident from the monetary system they adopted,forexample, the Anglo-Saxons learnt the use of coinage from their Continental neighbours. Atfirstforeign coins were used, apparently only as ornaments, but gradually they also began to play a limited monetary role before the Anglo-Saxons began to strike coins of their own.2 Silver monometallism in the eighth century is apparent on both sides of the Channel. Innovations towards the end of the eighth century, such as the 1 2

Leeds (1913; 1970); Evison (1965); Lohaus (1974); Myers (1986); Wood (1983). Grierson and Blackburn (1986).

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coinage reforms of Offa, appear to have been inspired by Frankish example. 3 Although Frankish deniers are rarely found outside their country of origin, there appear to have been both a circulation of Anglo-Saxon sceattas on the Continent 4 and the penetration of both Frisian and Anglo-Saxon coins into Frankish Gaul. 5 The coin evidence backs up that from other sources. There is a suggestion, for example, of Frankish methods having some bearing on the production of early English charters; linguistic links have also been proposed. 6 Certainly the recent work on the main points of contact across the Channel and N o r t h Sea indicates extensive exchanges of some kind, mostly commercial, with a marked increase in traffic and the development of emporia on both sides of the Channel, at Hamwic (Southampton), Ipswich, London, Rouen, Boulogne, Dorestad and Quentovic in particular. 7 The literary evidence for such commercial contact has been thoroughly surveyed by Levison 8 but we can add to it the work of the numismatists, and archaeologists such as Richard Hodges and Stephane Lebecq, w h o have been able to discern the beginnings of cross-Channel traffic and the importance of the Frisian middlemen in commerce by the eighth century. 9 Generally at first there was more movement eastwards than westwards, but ecclesiastical connections in the seventh century, epitomised by the activities of Bishop Wilfrid of Hexham in Frankish Gaul and Burgundy and of Bishop Agilbert of Paris in England, may well have been far closer than we can now determine with any certainty. T h u s examination of the range of evidence for cross-Channel communication suggests a far more extensive, varied and influential network than has been suspected hitherto. The historiography of relations between England and the Continent between 700 and 900 has been dominated by accounts of the activities of the English missionaries, Willibrord of Utrecht and Echternach, Boniface of Mainz, and their associates. In his classic and pioneering exposition of these activities, Levison proposed as his main theme the English contribution to the spiritual foundations and unity of western civilisation in the early middle ages. 10 He drew on the great mass of literary evidence, in particular that provided by the Lives of saints of the seventh and eighth centuries from the Rhine and Meuse region, many of which Levison had himself edited for the Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Levison's approach to the relations between England and the Continent, the topics he chose to discuss and the sources on 3 6 8 9 10

4 5 Blackburn, chapter 20 below. Callmer (1984). Le Gentilhomme (1938). 7 Bruckner (1967); Derolez (1974). Hodges and Hobley (1988). Levison (1946); see also Kelly (1992). Hodges (1989); Lebecq (1983); see also Ellmers (1990); McGrail (1990). Levison (1946), the first full treatment of the subject, though Hauck (1912), Dawson (1932), Crawford (1933) and Grierson (1941) had touched upon it.

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which he placed emphasis have provided the agenda for subsequent accounts.11 More recent archaeological, art historical, numismatic and palaeographical research, however, has substantially modified the picture Levison presented of the impact of the Anglo-Saxon missionaries. Not only has the overriding emphasis on the English contribution been lifted to make room for the Franks.12 It is also clear that the work of the missionaries analysed by Levison has to be seen in the wider context of the political, diplomatic, religious, cultural and economic relations across the Channel throughout the eighth and ninth centuries. In particular, the missionaries' work was closely associated with the political development of the Frankish kingdoms. Their connections extended as far as Rome. It is this new understanding of England and the Continent in the eighth and ninth centuries that this chapter aims to present. Nevertheless the main focus of attention will still be, owing to the concentration of the evidence, the context for and activities of the Anglo-Saxon missionaries on the Continent, the establishment of new religious foundations in Hesse, Thuringia and Franconia, the Anglo-Saxons' contributions to the Frankish church, their interaction with Frankish rulers and bishops, and their legacy for subsequent connections across the Channel in the ninth century and afterwards. The eighth century in both England and Francia was a period of rapid political change.13 It saw the emergence in England of Mercia, and in Francia of the Carolingian family whose wealth and interests were focused in the Rhine, Moselle and Meuse region, that is, precisely the region where the English missionaries were initially most active. Information about the early life of the first of these missionaries, Willibrord, is meagre. He was born 667—8 in Northumbria and was offered up to the religious life at an early stage, where he came under the authority of Bishop Wilfrid. Possibly at the time of Wilfrid's removal from his see in 678, Willibrord departed for Ireland where, as Bede tells us, he spent twelve years as a member of the English community at Rath Maelsigi, presided over by the Northumbrian exile Egbert.14 Nothing is known but much conjectured about this community. Bede records Egbert's own wish to evangelise Germany, the ways in which he was miraculously prevented from departing, how another companion did go for two years to Frisia and how, finally, Egbert sent Willibrord. In his calendar, BN lat. 10837, f°'- 39V> Willibrord dates his departure from Ireland to 690. Despite this long Irish sojourn, and his departure for the Continent from Ireland, Willibrord's connections thereafter appear to have been retained with his native Northumbria, though there have been valiant, and in some respects successful, efforts to provide a 11 13

12 Schieffer (1954); Reuter (1980b). Saint Chrodegang (1967); Angenendt (1972). H Keynes, chapter 2a above and Fouracre, chapter 3 below. 6 Croinin (1984).

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greater Irish component in the initial stages of Willibrord's mission to the Frisians and monastic settlement at Echternach.15 Wilfrid and Acca apparently stayed with Willibrord on their way to Rome in 703, St Oswald of Northumbria figures in Willibrord's calendar and a member of Willibrord's familia came to Lindisfarne and regained his health at the tomb of St Cuthbert.16 Willibrord himself had many English helpers and followers: Suitberht, who preached in southern Westfalia and founded the monastery of Kaiserswerth, the martyrs Black Hewald and White Hewald, Adalbert, who went to Egmond in northern Holland, Werenfrid, who served Elst in Gelderland, and the great uncles of Liudger, who were the first Frisian priests. The gift of the castle and the church of Utrecht to the bishopric of Cologne by Dagobert I, on the condition that the bishop of Cologne convert the Frisians to the Christian faith, suggests that the Franks, both Merovingian kings and Carolingian mayors, had clearly been aware of the need to preach to the pagan Frisians for some time. Their object was perhaps that of neutralising potentially hostile forces by making them observe the same religion as their own.17 Eddius Stephanus records Wilfrid of Hexham's brief success some years before,18 and the Frankish missionary Amandus had worked briefly in the east Scheldt river region. He was bishop of Maastricht and ventured northwards from there.19 He had a base at Antwerp and built a church there dedicated to Saints Peter and Paul. Eligius, bishop of Noyon, also preached in Flanders, Antwerp and among the Frisians,20 and in about 690 Wulframn of Sens, abbot of St Wandrille, went on a mission to Frisia, which appears to be linked to Pippin IPs expansionist policies towards Frisia.21 Utrecht itself appears to have had a church dedicated to St Martin, built under Clothar I or Theudebert I or II, who granted it immunity.22 That the Frisians had long been an object of political interest on the part of the Franks is also indicated by a poem of Venantius Fortunatus which talks of Chilperic I (561-84) as not only trying to impose his authority on the Frisians but also to govern them.23 The Carolingian mayors who encouraged Willibrord, therefore, appear to have been making the most of an opportunity unexpectedly offered by Willibrord's arrival and exploiting his own religious aspirations to serve established Frankish ends. It is possible, given the vulnerable political position of the Carolingian mayors at the end of the seventh century, that a relative outsider such as Willibrord, dependent 15 17 19 21 22

16 6 Croinin (1984; 1989). Bede, Vita Cuthberti, C. 44. 18 Boniface, Epp., Tangl no. 100, Talbot no. 47. Vita Sancti Wilfridi, c. 26. Vita Sancti Amandi, MGH SKMv, pp. 428-49. 2° Vita Sancti Eligii, MGH 5RMiv. Vita Sancti Wulframni, MGHSRMv, pp. 657—73; see also Gauthier (1980).

MGH Dip. Kar. 1, no. 5.

^ Carmina, IX.1.75, in Venantius Fortunatus, Opera Poetica.

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on the Frankish ruler in a special way, was a much better prospect than any Frankish bishop might have been, for it enabled Pippin to establish an independent church, free from Cologne in particular, as well as being in an area he could be sure of politically. Indeed, it was on the close involvement with and support from the Carolingian family that the material success and physical safety of the missionaries depended. In return, the Christianisation of pagan regions carried out by the missionaries and their Frankish and Frisian helpers did much in some areas to prepare the way for, and in others to consolidate, Frankish political aggrandisement. Bede gives us some inkling of this in a comment made in passing on Willibrord's enterprise in Frisia; he tells us that Pippin II took Willibrord under his wing and sent him to Pope Sergius I to be consecrated. As Pippin had just driven King Radbod of the Frisians out of Frisia citerior (presumably southern Frisia) Pippin sent Willibrord there, gave him and his followers the support of his royal authority 'and bestowed many beneficia on those who were willing to receive the faith'.24 The word beneficia in this context is to be understood in its technical sense of land in return for political submission rather than in the general one of 'favours'; Christianity and political conquest went hand in hand. After his arrival in Frisia and successful expedition to Rome to seek papal blessing, where he was consecrated on 21 November 695, Willibrord established his see at Utrecht and built a church in the castellum there. Bede tells us that Pippin also made over certain localities in his own realm (that is, Austrasia) to Willibrord where he could uproot idolatrous practices and teach the newly converted people. This is probably an allusion to the establishment of Echtemach, given not by Pippin (though he gave lands later) but by Pippin's mother-in-law Irmina of Oeren. Echternach not only provided a haven during the difficult period 715—19 after Pippin's death and before Charles Martel had secured his position, but was the main centre of Willibrord's activities in the latter part of his career. The early charters of Echternach witness to the extent of support and the provision of a material base Willibrord gained from the local Frankish and Frisian magnates, as well as providing evidence of missionary work. The lands granted extended from the mouth of the Scheldt, northern Brabant, Toxandria, the lower Rhine, Echternach and Trier regions into Thuringia and Franconia. The early grants in Thuringia, moreover, made in 704 and 714,25 are the gifts of the independent duke of Thuringia over a period of thirteen years and suggest that this might have been an essential foundation for Boniface's later work in Thuringia. There are six charters recording gifts in Toxandria 24

Bede, HE v. 11.

2S

Wampach (19Z9-30), nos. 8 and z6.

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where there appears to have been a mixed population of Frisians and Franks.26 In the area previously evangelised by Amandus, gifts from Rohingus, count under Pippin II, are recorded, which provided Willibrord with an Antwerp base, operating in the same area as his Frankish predecessor. Later charters refer to many small churches established in Frisia whose origins date from Willibrord's time. These provide some hint of the spread of Christianity in Frisia. By far the greater proportion of the grants, however, were of land in the Trier diocese and Moselle region, and these can be discussed in two main contexts, material wealth and piety. The first is indicated by Alcuin in his Life of Willibrord when he said that many began in their zeal for the faith to make over to the man of God their hereditary properties. The second is the degree to which the charters reveal personal relationships established by Willibrord and thus the inspiration he provided. To some extent he may have reinvigorated a movement towards the ascetic life on the part of many members of the aristocracy, begun in the wake of Columbanus in Gaul.27 Werner, for example, has stressed the decisive role of the 'aristocracy', that is, the free landowners with surplus wealth, in the Christianisation of northern Gaul.28 These prior developments in the Frankish church were what ensured the sympathetic reception of the Anglo-Saxon missionaries. Willibrord was able to harness latent religious zeal. It was a church promoted by the efforts and contributions of the lay landowners. The connection Willibrord established with Oeren, presided over by Irmina, is of particular importance, for it was a Pippinid family monastery enjoying close links with many other houses, such as Nivelles, Andenne, Priim and Weissenburg, where Irmina was buried.29 The foundation of Echternach was on land given by Irmina, where she already had churches dedicated to the Holy Trinity and Saints Mary, Peter and Paul, and a little monastery for peregrini. The gift was augmented a few years later in 706 by one from Plectrude and Pippin II. The text of this grant indicates that Willibrord had already built a monastery and church. Willibrord's church, a rectangular building 21m long with a nave 7.6 m wide, with a square choir, was uncovered by a bomb in 1944. It is thought that the church may have had a baptistery as well, which has crucial implications for Willibrord's role vis-a-vis the surrounding population. Echternach is thus both a manifestation of local piety and a mark of Willibrord's success in winning the confidence and devotion of those inclined towards the religious life in northern Austrasia. The first grant 26 27 28 29

Costambeys (1994). K.-F. Werner (1976); Wood (1981); Wallace-Hadrill (1983); Prinz (196;; 1988); Dierkens (1989). K.-F. Werner (1976). Werner, M. (1982); Vita Sanctae Geretrudis, MGH SKM11, pp. 447-74 and van der Essen (1907).

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from Irmina, clearly a well-organised, well-connected and wealthy woman, was the outcome of her own personal piety. After her death Plectrude took an interest in her mother's religious associations and expanded them. Because she was married to Pippin, who had already been using Willibrord to 'soften up' the Frisians for his own political purposes, Echternach came within the Pippinid sphere of influence. This was maintained in particular by Charles Martel once he had secured his position in Austrasia and in relation to the Neustrians. The abbot of Echternach, moreover, stayed loyal to the Carolingian family and the charters record many subsequent generous grants made by various members of the Carolingian family.30 Echternach became a royal monastery in 751 on Pippin Ill's accession to the kingship and Carolingian interest in the house was maintained thereafter.31 Echternach thus assumes political importance and continued lay support acquires the flavour of nobles simultaneously caring for their own souls and remaining in the good graces of the ascendant Carolingians. There does not appear to be any hint that they were rivals to the Carolingians for control of Echternach. The manuscripts can add to our knowledge of texts available to and used by the English missionaries and their Frankish and Frisian helpers in Frisia and northern Austrasia, possible connections and contacts formed by the missionaries, the identity and nationality of Willibrord's followers, and whether or not a scriptorium can be associated with Willibrord and the level of competence it achieved. It is clear that while connections were maintained with England and to a lesser degree with Ireland, the main points of contact were with other Frankish regions, particularly the see of Cologne. Franks and Frisians appear to have joined Willibrord's original familia. The scriptorium of Echternach shows the work of both insular and Frankish scribes. It furnished Willibrord with the essential texts needed by a pastoral bishop concerned with ecclesiastical discipline and correct doctrine, drawing on his insular experience and contacts but with few intellectual pretensions.32 Although the evidence for Willibrord's career is relatively meagre, it nevertheless witnesses to a remarkable unity of purpose and similarity of method in the promotion of the Christian religion on both sides of the Channel. The same is true of the activities of Boniface and his followers, though here the evidence is far more abundant and explicit. Not only do we have Lives of Boniface, and of his followers Sturm, Lioba and Willibald; we 30

31

L e v i s o n (1940); H e i d r i c h (1965/6); W a m p a c h (1929—30), n o s . 2, 5, 4, 5, 7, 9, 1 0 , 1 2 , 14, 15, 17, 18,

19, 22. Wampach (1929—30), nos. 68, 93, 112, 138, 139. See also Bange and Weiler (1990) and Kiesel and 32 Schroeder (1989). 6 Croinin (1984); McKitterick (1985; 1989a); Netzer (1994).

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also have the copious correspondence of Boniface himself to friends, acquaintances, pupils, opponents and patrons in England, Francia and Rome as well as many different kinds of Frankish documents to set against the account, inevitably partisan, provided by Boniface and his biographer. Assessments of the contribution of both Willibrord and Boniface, however, have to be made within a realistic appraisal of the English church from which both they and their English followers came. Hitherto the assumption has tended to be of a strong and highly cultured and organised English church contributing in every way to a sadly decadent, down-at-heel and intellectually impoverished Frankish church. Bede's persuasive account has much to do with this, for he has seduced many generations of historians with his eloquence and circumstantial detail. Yet it is Bede himself who gives us the vital clues to the actual state of affairs in the English church in his letter to Egbert, archbishop of York, lamenting the shortage of ecclesiastical personnel, the weakness of the monasteries, the abuses already in evidence and the need for concerted effort and leadership. The letter to Egbert can be augmented by the clear indications in such texts as ^Ethelwold's De Abbatibus, the anonymous Life of St Cuthbert, the Vita Sancti Wilfridi, the Vita Sancti Guthlaci, Aldhelm's letters and poems, Pope Paul's letter to Eadberht and the records of English synods in the eighth and ninth centuries concerning the efforts to establish monasticism, the role of the secular church, and its relations with the secular world. It is essential to remember that England at the time of Boniface's departure was a country in which Christianity was only gradually gaining a hold. When Bishop Wilfrid converted Frisians in c. Gjc) the English people itself was still being converted, for it was Wilfrid, no less, who preached the Gospel to the South Saxons in the 680s and the Isle of Wight was not officially Christian until 686. Missionaries departing for the Continent, therefore, came from a church in which the organisation and institutions, rules of conduct and worship, were still being defined. English society was one in which monasticism, with its diverse forms, was by no means fully established. The differing political development and the lack of direct continuity with Rome that are such marked factors in early Anglo-Saxon history are also to be borne in mind. By contrast, the English came to regions on the Continent which were rarely wholly pagan; more commonly the field of enterprise was one in which the church had been established for some time within the context of the GalloRoman and Merovingian church, or in which Christianity, although present, was weak or had even lapsed somewhat. Boniface gives us far too prejudiced an account of the Frankish church, and he was in any case totally ignorant about whole regions. It is, furthermore, far from being the case

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that all Englishmen and Englishwomen who journeyed to the Continent in the eighth century were associated with Boniface, and thus it cannot be said that his work is to be understood as a concerted or co-ordinated effort by the English to preach the Gospel to pagans east of the Rhine. Recruitment for the missions was probably done not so much within an institutional framework as within the context of the personal connections of the individuals concerned.33 Boniface, born Wynfrith in c. 675 near Exeter, rose to considerable prominence in the church in Wessex before deciding to act on a desire to convert pagans. After an abortive missionary expedition he made on his own to Frisia in 716 (it was bad timing on his part in light of the political situation) Wynfrith embarked for Rome and there he not only had his new name, Boniface, bestowed upon him by Pope Gregory II, but succeeded in persuading the pope to send him on a fact-finding mission to the north in Hesse and Thuringia, being charged by Gregory II to 'teach the heathen'. Such a mission might be thought to corroborate the idea that it was virgin pagan territory that was to be conquered by Boniface, but this is very far from being the case. Why should the pope have been ready to send a completely strange Englishman to Germany?34 What could the pope offer to anyone venturing northwards other than blessing and authorisation, for it is clear that he had no precise information? It is important in this context to note the visit to Rome in 716 by Duke Theodo of Bavaria who sought the help of Pope Gregory II to reorganise the church in Bavaria.35 Bavaria had strong links with the rulers of the Lombard kingdom. The pope may well have been deciding how to help without compromising his political interests when Boniface arrived fortuitously, prepared to go, if not necessarily to Bavaria, then at least to Germany. We may note, moreover, that Bavaria had a church, albeit one in disarray. Further, a number of Rhineland bishops and monasteries had already been sending expeditions into the region east of the Rhine and attempting to consolidate Christianity by establishing churches with priests to serve them, and monasteries, notably in Bavaria. Duke Theodo himself worked through Rupert to promote Bavarian jurisdiction by evangelising the Slavs in Carinthia.36 Irish missionaries had also been active in the Wiirzburg and Salzburg areas, and Christianising activity out from Burgundy, Metz, Worms and Mainz is attested by the end of the seventh century.37 Similarly, in Bavaria, some revival in the seventh century is evident and the St Gall monks had begun to 33 35 37

M McKitterick (1991). See Noble, chapter 22 below. LP I. 598; Noble (1984), pp. 61-5. » Ces/a Hrodperti, MGHSKM; Wolfram (1972). VitaArnulfi, MGHSRMv,pp. 426-46; Wolfram (1979); Biittner(196;); J>Kilian(1989); Reuter (1980b); Prinz (1965; 1988); Ewig (1954; 1962); M. Werner (1982); Zwink (1983).

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establish outposts at Fussen, Kempten and elsewhere in the first half of the eighth century, where clear links with northern Italy, especially Aquileia, can be discerned.38 We have, therefore, a picture of a precariously maintained and sparsely distributed church outside the Prankish heartlands, of huge areas not served by bishops, and of some gradual expansion. After preaching the Gospel in Thuringia and Frisia (where he rendered valuable assistance to Willibrord), Boniface made a second visit to Rome in 722 and was consecrated bishop, but without a fixed see. He returned to Thuringia to exhort the people to return to Christian ways and forsake their pagan gods. In a direct attack on paganism he felled the famous oak of Donau at Geismar. In 732 Boniface was granted the pallium as archbishop by Pope Gregory III and from then until 741 he was active in Hesse, Thuringia and, between 736 and 739, Bavaria, where he at last carried out the reorganisation requested by Duke Theodo so long before. Boniface divided Bavaria into four districts 'so that each bishop could have his own diocese'; this seems to have resulted in the appointment of bishops at least to Salzburg, Eichstatt, Regensburg and Passau, but there were changes subsequently as-well as bishops at Freising and Augsburg; Boniface may only have been active in part of Bavaria rather than the whole duchy. Whatever the case, Boniface's account of his success in Bavaria seems to have been a considerable exaggeration. If we think only of the career of Virgil of Salzburg who collided with Boniface head on,39 it is clear that Boniface's contribution might even be counted as interference rather than satisfactory reorganisation.40 The reorganisation of the church east of the Rhine was complete by the early 740s.41 Many monasteries, notably Fulda, Fritzlar, Tauberbischofsheim, Ochsenfurt, Hersfeld, Karlburg and Holzkirchen, were established in these regions, staffed with Englishmen and women, who came out to assist Boniface, as well as with native Franks, Bavarians and Thuringians (Map 3). Sturm the Bavarian, for example, became the first abbot of Fulda.42 The establishment of monasteries and bishoprics can be seen as part of Boniface's missionary strategy. The campaign against the Saxons by Charles Martel prompted the creation of the short-lived bishopric of Erfurt, and we may observe in this the necessity for political expansion to precede or accompany evangelisation, just as it did in Frisia. The vulnerability of the missionaries is implied not only by Boniface's acknowledgement of the protection the Carolingian mayors afforded him but also by the fact that all the new monastic foundations were established on the sites of old hill forts and 38 41

39 m Reindel(i964). H. Lowe (19; i). H. Lowe (195s). 42 Boniface, Epp., ed. Tangl, nos. 48, 50, J I , 103, 113. See de Jong, chapter 23 below.

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elevated and fortified places, often commanding river crossings.43 Among the Englishmen and women who contributed substantially to the AngloSaxon monastic endeavour in Germany was Lioba, possibly from Wessex, trained in grammar and the liberal arts, who became abbess of Tauberbischofsheim. She ruled her nuns, the daughters and widows of local noble families, with a rod of iron and practised hypnopedia in order not to waste time while asleep. Burchard, who became bishop of Wiirzburg, Denehard, who often acted as courier to England, and Lull, who succeeded Boniface at Mainz, came from Mercia. Lebuin, possibly from Northumbria, was trained by Bishop Gregory of Utrecht before going to preach to the Saxons. The brothers Willibald and Wynnebald with their sister Walpurga worked closely with Boniface in Hesse. Certainly the houses Boniface and his followers established, notably Fulda, became prominent religious and cultural centres in the Carolingian period. Much of their activity is manifest in the extant manuscripts.44 It is clear, for example, that Boniface possessed books of his own which Schiilung has characterised as the 'travelling reference library of a missionary'.45 The libraries of Fulda and Wiirzburg in the eighth century possessed a fairly orthodox and narrow range of texts, with scripts and glosses in Old High German, Old English and Old Irish indicating the different nationalities represented in their communities as well as the fact that some books were sent out from England.46 Canon law, books of the Bible and basic theology (by such authors as Gregory the Great, Augustine and Jerome) predominate. In 741, however, Boniface's activities came far more closely within the orbit of the Carolingian mayors. Hitherto he had enjoyed the protection of Charles Martel, but the fact that Boniface had been accorded the title papal legate in 739 with a theoretical jurisdiction over the Rhineland bishoprics of Cologne, Trier, Mainz and Strasbourg, meant that friction with the doughty aristocratic warrior bishops of those sees, supporters of Charles Martel, was inevitable and relations with Charles Martel himself no doubt rendered fraught. Boniface found these bishops, Milo and his ilk, distinctly uncongenial, and worried about whether his contact with them would contaminate him with sin.47 With the accession to the mayoralty of Austrasia and Neustria by Carloman and Pippin respectively, however, the situation changed dramatically. We can observe thereafter how closely the fortunes of the church in Austrasia and Neustria and the progress of Boniface's reforms were related to the power of particular groups of nobles and the integral part 43 45 46

47

Parsons (1983). ^Bischoff and Hofmann (1952); Spilling (1978); McKitterick (1989b). S c h i i l u n g (1961—3). Lull, Epp., ed. Tangl, nos. 116, 124, 125 (Lull); Brown (1974); Whitelock (i960); McKitterick (1989a and b; 1992). Boniface, Epp., ed. Tangl, no. 87; Ewig (1954); Wallace-Hadrill (197;)-

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played by the church in the gaining and exercise of power. Carloman was deeply committed to church reform and called on Boniface to assist him. The consequence was the famous Concilium Germanicum, which set out all the main aspects of the church that Boniface thought required remedial attention. Clerical celibacy, becoming conduct, dress, the need to desist from hunting and bearing arms and the proper definition and maintenance of Christian marriage were all discussed. The incidence of paganism was deplored. Monasteries and the nature of the religious life for monks and nuns were addressed. Pippin in Neustria was not slow to follow suit with his own synod at Soissons in 744, reinforcing the Austrasian council's decisions, though it would seem that Boniface had very little to do with Pippin. There is evidence indeed that Pippin was independently seeking advice from the Pope and bypassing Boniface.48 After 7 5 o Boniface seems to have had little access to the Frankish ruler and little influence and it is certainly very unlikely that he played any role in the consecration of Pippin III as king in 7 51. This may have contributed to his decision to return to the mission field. Consequently, he journeyed to northern Frisia and was murdered by brigands near Dokkum in 754. In 742 Boniface had been granted a special concession by Zacharias to designate his successor. The choice had fallen on Lull. Thus on Boniface's death it was Lull who succeeded as bishop of Mainz, though the papal legateship went to the Frank, Chrodegang, bishop of Metz, a staunch adviser of Pippin III. At stake in the early Carolingian reforms were not only matters of internal discipline and the morality of the church but also the church's structure and organisation, the role of the monasteries vis-a-vis the bishops and that of the bishops vis-a-vis the priests. Many of the decisions made in the mid-eighth century were taken up, reiterated, developed and in large part acted upon in the course of the ninth century.49 Synods are the outward and visible sign of the church being managed properly. Boniface, indeed, took the lack of synods in Francia for the eighty or so years before his advent as a sign of malaise. The decrees stress the principle of accountability with reports from priests to bishops and from bishops to synods. The synods were to be held regularly as a means of inspection. Canon law and its authority was insisted upon and, because of the involvement of the ruler in convening these synods, canon law was in effect endorsed by the rulers. These mid-eighth-century Frankish synods to some degree reflect the end of the first stage of the reform of the Frankish church. Indications in the sphere of liturgy and canon law,50 and the work of Chrodegang of Metz and 48 50

49 Rau (1968), pp. 414-36. Levison (1946); McKitterick (1977). See Reynolds, chapter 22 below.

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Pirmin of Murbach in separate spheres from those in which Boniface operated,51 point to a groundswell for reform within the Frankish church from the end of the seventh century onwards. Chrodegang certainly reinforced the alignment to Rome so dear to the Anglo-Saxons, and was active in the restoration of episcopal authority, ecclesiastical discipline, the reorganisation of ecclesiastical provinces, marriage law according to the Christian church and the confraternities of prayer. It is very likely that Chrodegang (possibly supported by Pippin III and Bertrada) introduced Roman usage independently of Boniface and that it represents a general policy within the mid-eighth-century Frankish church that happened to coincide with Boniface's English predilections. Boniface, naturally, was inclined to exaggerate the degree of laxness he encountered, but it should also be remembered that reforms do not self-evidently improve what has gone before; they merely impose their own strong conception of what should be done in contrast to existing practice. It is striking how soon the Frankish decisions were reported to the English bishops. The motive may have been to secure greater uniformity within the churches on either side of the Channel. Many of Boniface's letters to the pope seek guidance on matters of policy, action, ecclesiastical discipline and the interpretation of canon law. Roman and Frankish practice were sometimes at odds with English ways, particularly in the matter of episcopal succession and marriage. Thus Frankish decisions may well have played a major role in the English synods oiCloveshoe in 747 in that Cuthbert, to whom Boniface reported his work, stressing the necessity of maintaining the Catholic faith and unity and subjection to the Roman church, may have registered the relevance of Boniface's work to the situation prevailing in England. It remains a possibility, nevertheless, that Cuthbert informed Boniface of English proposals for reform and these gave Boniface ideas for dealing with the Frankish clergy.52 Whatever the case, an essential question is the degree to which the move to reform in Francia is a response to prevailing conditions rather than a consequence of Boniface's individual zealous sense of what was and was not acceptable in light of his understanding of canon law. Boniface's vehement criticisms of the English clergy, for example, are those of a man who had been away from his native land for almost thirty years. How well informed was he in formulating his proposals for reform for either England or Francia? His sources of information are clearly indicated in his letters. There is frequent reference to messengers and his own priests are sent to England to fetch and bring various items. Yet it may be that his information was not 51 52

Saint Chrodegang (1967); Oexle and Schmid (1974); Angenendt (1972). Cubitt (1995).

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only patchy but partial. Boniface heard what he wanted to hear, and told us in his letters what he wanted us to believe. If the account he provides of the abuses within the Frankish church can now be shown to be demonstrably distorted, the same may well go for the English church.53 It is not only in terms of missionary enterprise that the connections between England and the Continent are to be viewed. A lurid light, for example, is cast on connections with the Continent in Boniface's complaint that English female pilgrims were a cause for anxiety because of the danger of their being led astray, from poverty or innocence, and becoming prostitutes. That the pilgrim traffic was considerable, and not always as disreputable as Boniface implies, is suggested by many accounts, the most vivid of which is the Hodoeporicon of Willibald, written by Hugeburc the nun of Heidenheim (Map 4). Willibald, dedicated to the religious life by his parents and brought up in the monastery of Bishops Waltham, set out from Hamwic with his brother Wynnebald and their father, travelled across the Channel on a boat clearly accustomed to taking passengers, disembarked near Rouen and proceeded by land across France, visiting the shrines of various saints on the way. Once over the Alps, their father fell sick, died and was buried at Lucca. Thereafter Willibald 'with his relatives and company' journeyed to Rome, the usual goal of English pilgrims. Willibald, however, only spent the winter there before continuing to Jerusalem. He and two companions took ship and sailed, with many stops on the way — at Naples, Mount Etna, Syracuse, Monemvasia and Chios — to Ephesus. They visited Cyprus, and thereafter many cities in Asia Minor, were kidnapped by Saracens and, once they had escaped, made their way to Damascus and thence to the itinerary of Christ's ministry. In all these places they visited sacred sites and holy shrines and churches, and participated in the liturgical rites of the communities who supported them. On the journey home Willibald managed to smuggle balsam through the customs at Tyre by means of topping up a bamboo reed full of the precious oil with petroleum to disguise the smell. He sailed north, visited the site of the Synod of Nicaea and spent two years in Constantinople before returning on a ship with papal envoys, probably in 728. After making a detour to see again the wonders of the volcano at Mount Etna, Willibald settled for ten years at the monastery of Monte Cassino learning the observance of the Rule of Benedict. He then returned to Germany to assist Boniface, becoming in due course bishop of Eichstatt. It was an extraordinary journey but, to a considerable extent, Willibald was following the well-worn paths of pilgrims before him. Pilgrims were 53

For important new assessments see Brooks (1984); Cubitt (1995); Foot (forthcoming).

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able to take advantage of normal trading activity, of entrepreneurs who seem to have made a living (arranging transport, keeping hostelries) from the pilgrim traffic and the occasional journeys of political envoys, religious legates and messengers in order to further their travels. Certainly, Carolingian links with England within the ecclesiastical sphere are the most obvious in our sources. Alcuin, for example, originally encountered Charlemagne at Pavia when he was a member of an English group of clergy visiting Italy. His subsequent career at the Carolingian court and retirement to Tours indicate how easily an Englishman, like many others whom we classify as 'foreigners', could be absorbed into and contribute to the mainstream of Frankish religious, political and cultural life.54 Nor is the contribution all one sided. Papal legates, for example, attended the famous synods of 786 in Northumbria and Mercia, but they were accompanied by the Frankish envoy Wigbod and appear to have played a political as well as an ecclesiastical role, while the political context of the legatine synods in England, dated according to Charlemagne's regnal year, was crucial.55 One outcome of the synod was the creation of a new ecclesiastical province and archbishopric of Lichfield. This is usually interpreted as an instance of Offa's presumptuous aggrandisement in relation to the church, but it might be seen more plausibly in the context of ecclesiastical reform and an emulation of the reorganisation of ecclesiastical provinces carried out under Pippin and Charlemagne. The speed with which the decrees of Aachen in 816 were transmitted to Canterbury to figure in the records of the Synod of Chelsea in 816 is also impressive. Although thereafter the records are very scanty until the connections of Grimbald of St Bertin with King Alfred's Court, it seems likely that some political communications were sustained throughout the period. Pippin III, for example, sentpresents to King Eadberht (737—5 8) of Northumbria, Alchred of Northumbria sent envoys to Charlemagne and Offa, Charlemagne exchanged letters on the matter of trading concessions and a marriage alliance between the two houses; and Charlemagne also received a number of English political exiles at Aachen or is said to have intervened in their political fortunes in England. 56 The contacts underlying the visit made by iEthelwulf of Wessex to the court of Charles the Bald, king of the West Franks, in 857 and the subsequent marriage of iEthelwulf to Charles' thirteen-year-old daughter Judith, and the whole spate of marriages between the daughters of Edward the Elder and various Continental rulers, not least Charles the Simple, king of the West Franks, and Otto I, king of the

54

Bullough (1991). Compare the career of Theodulf of Orleans or that of Lombard Paul the 55 M Deacon: Dahlhaus-Berg (1981). Brooks (1984). MGH EPP iv, no. 100.

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East Franks, are not to be gainsaid. Certainly the reception of Homiliary and penitential material,57 the transmission of the Rule of Benedict and of Chrodegang's Rule in its old English version, the familiarity with Einhard's Vita Karoli implied by Asser, and the knowledge of early ninth-century Carolingian church reforms within the ninth-century English church, indicate a maintenance of contacts to some degree. I have argued elsewhere, moreover, that the manuscript evidence from the Anglo-Saxon missionary areas in northern Germany suggests a continued influx of English religious well into the ninth century.58 In the sphere of music and liturgical chant, the strongest influence on English liturgical practice until the mid-eighth century was from Rome. All information concerning English chant and its knowledge of Continental practice before the earliest extant chant books of the late tenth century that can be taken into account, however, comes from the narrative sources, such as Bede. Although the late tenth-century books reflect clear evidence of influence of both north Frankish and Lotharingian chant, we have no idea what repertory of Mass and office chants was in use in English centres between the seventh and the early tenth centuries. It is possible that the major developments of the ninth and early tenth century in Francia were known59 but no notation survives in either English or Roman liturgical manuscripts in this period. Cantors, from both Rome and Carolingian Francia, taught music orally; chant was committed to memory. John the Cantor taught in Northumbria and Alfred brought the cantor Grimbald from St Bertin. Only in the context of the late tenth-century reforms was musical notation established in England as an indigenous practice and recognised as a means of communicating and recording the chant repertory.60 The manuscript evidence for links between England and the Continent in the ninth century is as ambiguous as the musical evidence. Although there are many ninth-century Carolingian manuscripts known in England before the Conquest, it is for the most part impossible to pin down the date of their arrival with any certainty.61 It has been customary to associate their introduction with the tenth-century reform movement and the links established between such houses as Ramsey and Fleury. Yet it is a possibility that texts such as Smaragdus' Diadema Monachorum, copied in the late tenth century at Canterbury (CUL Ff.4.43), ninth-century copies of Martianus Capella (CCCC 15 3 and CCCC 3 30) and a volume of Boethius (CCCC 3 5 2) were available in England before that time and nearer to the date of the original compilation. Some of the texts and manuscripts can no doubt be 57 59

Frantzen (1983) and Galch (1977). Rankin (1994). « Rankin (1985)-

is

McKitterick (1989b). 61 Gneuss (1981).

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accounted for by the links between Brittany and England. Julian of Toledo (CCCC 399) and other school books such as Remigius (Cambridge, Gonville and Caius College 144), Jerome In Isaiam (Cambridge, Pembroke College 17), Lathcen (Pembroke 88) and Hraban Maur's biblical exegesis (Pembroke 308) may have reached England in the ninth century. Future work in the spheres of liturgy and canon law in particular may well establish a tighter network than seems at present discernible. The very fact that Alfred knew whom to ask and where to go for advice is an indication that we should regard the silence of the sources with caution. Further, the texts Alfred chose to have translated, and the whole tenor of his rulership, show that he was aware, to put it no more strongly, of what was going on elsewhere.62 In the sphere of administration, however, there seems to be little mileage in a close investigation of the possible influence of Frankish administrative practice in England. In her classic exposition of the analogies and resemblances in methods of local government in Francia and England, Helen Cam offered many suggestions and rejected many possibilities for there being any strong influence of Frankish governmental practice on the Anglo-Saxon rulers of Wessex, even though there is sufficient fragmentary evidence of constant contact between England and Francia from the eighth to the tenth centuries, with the church acting as the main channel of communication. 63 Archaeological excavation, after all, has established the maintenance of trading links and the export of goods from and into England and the mainland. The similarities of purpose observed in the eighth-century sources are not contradicted by the little that remains for the ninth century. How then can the contribution of the English to the Continent be defined? There are many elements common to the English and Frankish churches and to the Anglo-Saxon missionary areas on the Continent. Political and ecclesiastical expansion went hand in hand; the relationship with Rome was becoming increasingly close; there was a move towards greater coherence and uniformity in ecclesiastical organisation, monastic observance, clerical behaviour, the interpretation of canon law, liturgical practice and intellectual culture; the material base afforded the church by lay supporters was all important. Yet the distinctiveness of the Anglo-Saxon contribution at a general level remains in question, even if it can be shown on many smaller matters, such as the introduction of particular texts and methods of teaching, the conviction of the importance of papal authority, the emphasis on synodal authority, the foundation of influential monasteries and the energy devoted to establishing a coherent diocesan structure, that the English contribution was of crucial significance. 62

Bullough (1972); Keynes and Lapidge (1983).

63

Cam(i9i2).

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The sources highlight, however, how much was due to particular individuals, how large a role chance played in the establishing of certain connections and how little modern national distinctions appear to have mattered. Further, a Frankish enterprise gathering momentum had the good fortune to coincide with the advent of some eager Anglo-Saxons on the Continent who created the necessary conditions for learning and religious culture to flourish east of the Rhine. It is impossible to define insular religious culture in terms of specific texts, customs and institutions beyond the few precarious instances cited above.64 Apart from the visit of the legates in 786, the treaty between Charlemagne and Offa, the small indications of political intervention in English affairs, and the marriage of Charles the Bald's daughter Judith to iEthelwulf of Wessex, there appears to be no sign of institutional or official connection on matters regarded as of general policy. These exceptions may nevertheless constitute a warning not to assume that there was no such official link, at least from the 780s, even if it is clear that Boniface's mission to the Continent was in no respects promoted by the English ecclesiastical establishment. Certainly, various hints in the sources concerning Louis the Pious' policies towards his neighbours could be interpreted as part of a wider vision on the part of that ruler, but this remains to be explored. Ultimately, in the later tenth and eleventh centuries, political interests were to play a larger role, but even in the context of the late tenth-century monastic reforms we see contributions made by Franks to English monasticism very much dependent on individual initiative and invitation. Then, moreover, rather than English connections being formed with the originally Anglo-Saxon foundations on the Continent, the links were with houses of the Frankish heartlands, such as Fleury, St Bertin and Gorze. Again, as throughout the eighth- and ninth-century relations between England and the Continent, it was personal connections and local influences that were predominant.65 64

See also McKitterick (1989a and b).

65

McKitterick (1991).

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CHAPTER 3

FRANKISH GAUL TO 814 Paul ¥ ouracre

THE central theme in the history of eighth-century Francia is the rising power of its Carolingian rulers, above all of Charles Martel (715—41), Pippin III (741—68) and Charlemagne (768-814). Not only was the whole of Francia convulsed by the Carolingians' fight for domination; their success also made them the focal point of a tradition of historical writing which was king centred and increasingly court sponsored. The three principal sources for this history are the Continuations of the Chronicle of Fredegar, the Prior Met^ Annals and Einhard's Life of Charlemagne. Given the partisan nature of these works, we must naturally guard against distortion in their view of the 'rise of the Carolingians'. It is clear, for instance, that by the early ninth century, writers of history were reordering the Merovingian past in order to date Carolingian domination back into the seventh century and so present their seizure of the throne from the Merovingians in 751 as the overdue recognition of a long-established supremacy. The clearest statement of this view is in the Prior Met% Annals, written c, 806.' This work took the victory of Charlemagne's great-grandfather Pippin II over the hitherto dominant Neustrians at the battle of Tertry in 687 to mark the inception of Carolingian rule, and so it has remained in many a history textbook down to this day. In reality, however, in 687 Pippin did not so much overturn the Neustrian regime of the Merovingians as join it. Although he was able to establish himself in prime position at the royal court, Pippin's power-base remained in Austrasia and his influence over the Neustrian heartlands of the SeineOise area was visibly limited. By the time of Pippin II in the late seventh century, Francia, that is, the lands broadly defined as those subject to the Frankish kings since the early sixth century, comprising the regions of Neustria, Austrasia, Burgundy, 1

Annales Mettenses Priores, p. 12. Fouracre (1984) for discussion of the Carolingian view of this period of Merovingian history.

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Provence and Aquitaine, had evolved into a kingdom which was massive in size and relatively stable, despite its meagre resources and the rudimentary nature of its government. Its stability and ultimate territorial integrity were the fruits of a basically conservative political culture in which public authority lay in the hands of magnates who exercised their power more or less on behalf of the kings. What we would term the 'state' was in this period a rather loose collection of persons and institutions exercising power perceived to be derived from royal authority, an arrangement in which (at least to our eyes) the boundary between the 'public' and the 'private' uses of power was blurred. An association with royal government in turn added legitimacy to the power the magnates had over those below them. Binding people further into a single political community were shared religious beliefs and practices. Intermarriage between the most powerful families also helped break down regional differences and identities. The stability of this political entity was marked by its failure to disintegrate during the several periods of child kingship which occurred in the later seventh and early eighth centuries. On the other hand, the magnates tended to withdraw cooperation when the profits of power were perceived to be unjustly shared out, and at such times, as in the relatively well-documented 670s, the Frankish state seemed to collapse as the consensus upon which it was based disappeared and the leaders in the provinces, such as Lupus, duke of Aquitaine, ignored the government at the centre. Yet the conservative attitude of such leaders meant that they did not then go on to create new political entities and eventually they or their successors could be drawn (or forced) back into a political community focused on the palace. Pippin entered into government in the wash of this kind of political behaviour. From 688 to his death in 714, Pippin II can be identified with the reestablishment of political consensus in Francia. Documents from the reign of Childebert III (695-711) show leaders from as far away as Provence attending the royal court in Neustria, and according to the earliest Carolingian Annals, Pippin in 709 began the slow process of bringing the 'Sueves' or Alemans back into the Frankish orbit. Though, as we shall see, the Frankish leaders fought each other again after Pippin II's death, over the next three generations the growing solidarity of the ruling elite, inspired by success in war under Carolingian leadership, raised Francia to a position of dominance in western Europe unprecedented for a single state in the postRoman period. Of the parallels between their power and that of the Romans the Franks were well aware. Under Charlemagne's leadership there was a certain Romanisation of Frankish culture: Charlemagne even assumed the imperial title in 800 AD. Despite the novelty of their own kingship and the recent extension of Frankish power, the Carolingians themselves high-

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lighted the ancient and customary basis of royal authority, especially at the annual assemblies of king and magnates. On these occasions not only was royal authority ritually affirmed, the basic direction of government was determined. At a local level too, in the county court or mallus, a recognition of custom played a large part in what was regarded as legitimate, and customary legal practice, for instance the use of amateur local worthies to decide cases, continued to operate through and in favour of a local balance of power. In most areas of government, and locally in cultural and religious life, there was therefore much continuity between Merovingian and Carolingian Francia. Nevertheless, over this period there were certainly some major changes. Above all, the German-speaking lands east of the Rhine became for the first time fully integrated into the Frankish kingdom. New impetus was given to central government, and stronger ties between king and magnates, for instance in demands for the affirmation of loyalty and for performance of military service, made it more and more difficult for regional leaders such as dukes to go their own way. All this allowed the rulers for the first time to make clear statements about the nature and purpose of public authority, beginning with calls by the sons of Charles Martel for military support, and culminating with Charlemagne's review of government following his coronation as emperor. A discussion of eighthcentury history requires one first to explain how Francia became so much more powerful at this time, and secondly to consider whether the subsequent changes in political life and in its ideological reflection add up to the point at which the Carolingian state should be seen as objectively different from its Merovingian predecessor. In 714 Francia entered into a prolonged period of political and military turmoil. In that year a crisis was provoked by the deaths of both Pippin II and his son Grimoald. Leadership of the family passed to Pippin's widow Plectrude, who had control of the family's treasure (the latter being the key to power in the short term) and ruled on behalf of Grimoald's young son Theudoald who had been designated the 'mayor of the palace' to the Merovingian king Dagobert III (711—15). This arrangement was rejected by the Neustrian Franks who drove Theudoald out, elected one Ragamfred as their own 'mayor', and then allied with the Frisians to attack the weakened Pippinid family in their Austrasian homelands. The next year King Dagobert died and was replaced by Chilperic II, a former cleric, but the only adult Merovingian available. Chilperic, Ragamfred of Neustria and Radbod, leader of the Frisians, then attacked Pippin's family again. This time the Frisian contingent was met by Charles, later to be known as Charles Martel. He was Pippin's son by a second wife from the Liege area. In 714 Charles had been imprisoned by Plectrude. He managed to escape, however, and in 715

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marshalled his family's defences around the river Meuse only to suffer what was almost certainly his sole defeat in battle. The next year, 716, the Neustrian and Frisian forces penetrated to Cologne, withdrawing only after receiving treasure from Plectrude. Charles nevertheless mounted a successful ambush against the returning forces in the Ardennes. By 717 Charles had built up sufficient forces to counter-attack. He defeated the Neustrians at Vinchy near Cambrai, and then moved back to Cologne where he ousted Plectrude, secured his father's treasure and became undisputed leader of Austrasia, raising his own king, Clothar IV, to the throne of Austrasia which had been vacant for the previous forty years. Kings, it is clear, were necessary for the raising of large military forces. In 718 Charles defeated Radbod, who died the next year. He then fought again against Ragamfred and Chilperic who had allied themselves with the duke of Aquitaine, Eudo. Ragamfred fled to his base at Angers, Eudo and Chilperic retreated into Aquitaine, before Eudo came to terms with Charles, returning Chilperic to him along with the royal treasure. Charles' Austrasian king now died and from this point in 719 Charles appears as 'mayor' of a single palace claiming hegemony over all of Francia. Victory in that year brought Chilperic II and the royal treasure into Martel's hands, and the separate Austrasian kingship was allowed to lapse: Clothar IV was said to have died and he was not replaced. Charles had now created a power bloc and concentration of treasure which was stronger than any other single unit inside or on the borders of Francia, and he was able to take on the other areas of the country one by one. The next twenty years were spent enforcing his claim to hegemony. In the early Carolingian Annals and in the Continuations of the Chronicle of Fredegar,2 Charles Martel is seen to consolidate his rule in Francia through a series of military campaigns. Indeed, in contrast to the relatively peaceful seventh century, the sources for this period seem to have thought it remarkable if there was no fighting in any given year. Besides one further campaign against Ragamfred in 724, Charles fought against the Saxons in 718, in 720 and in 724. In 725 he campaigned in Alemannia and in Bavaria, again in Bavaria in 728 and in Alemannia in 730. In 731 he turned his attention to Eudo, still independent in Aquitaine. Eudo in 73 2 wasforcedto call upon the help of his erstwhile enemy Charles against Arab invaders from Spain who had raided as far north as Poitiers. Charles' response culminated in the famous battle of Poitiers (actually fought somewhere between Tours and Poitiers). Though not quite of the importance often still accorded to it, this Frankish victory did force the Arabs to retreat southwards and, partly as 2

Annales Sancti Amandi, Tiliani, Laubacemes, Petiavini, Laureshamenses s.a. 719—41; Continuations of the Chronicle of Fredegar, chs. n—21.

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a result of victory at Poitiers in the following year, Charles was able to stamp his authority on south Burgundy. In 733 and again in 734 he also fought the Frisians. On Eudo's death in 73 5 and again in 736 he returned to Aquitaine and also brought southern Burgundy and Provence under his control. In 737 he was in Provence and Septimania fighting both against Franks who had rejected the order imposed upon them in the previous year and against the Arabs with whom they had allied. The year 738 saw Charles in Saxony again, and 739 back in Provence; 740 was without a campaign and in 741 Charles died. One can now see why he would be remembered as 'Martel', or 'the Hammer'. 3 It is far easier to list Charles Mattel's successes like this than to explain why he was so successful, or indeed to say what was really happening in Francia at this time. The key to any explanation may lie in the extent to which the Frankish political community had disintegrated after 714; the need to rally against threats from outside helped that community reintegrate around Carolingian leadership. In 714— 15 the Neustrians, who had for much of the seventh century dominated Francia, recovered some of their strength thanks to Pippinid weakness, and they were plainly strong enough to oust the Pippinid family from their midst and with Frisian help to raid deep into Austrasia. Power-sharing with the Austrasians in the previous generation, however, had left them too weak to exercise much influence outside the Neustrian heartlands of the Seine-Oise area.4 In Austrasia no other family was strong enough to replace that of Pippin as leaders, and the political crisis in Austrasia has been aptly described as a 'succession crisis' within that one family.5 Once the succession had been resolved, Austrasia seems to have been fairly united behind Charles Martel. His emergence as leader is to be explained by the key position of his mother's family in the Liege area and hence in the front line in defence against the Frisians. Charles' successful ambush against the returning Neustro-Frisian forces in 716 brought nobles from elsewhere in Austrasia (from the Moselle, for example) into his following, and with this advantage he achieved victory against Ragamfred in 717. This in turn allowed him to get hold of his father's treasure, and he could then consolidate his position in Austrasia by raising his own king. A need for effective leadership against Saxon invaders might also have helped Charles establish his authority in Austrasia. Martel with treasure, a king and the bulk of the Austrasian forces behind him was stronger than the combined forces of Neustria and Aquitaine ranged against him in 719. 3

4

On how Charles Mattel was portrayed in the eighth and ninth centuries, see Norm (i 970), pp. 70137, esp. pp. 124— }6 for the history of his nickname 'Martel'. Gerberding (1987), pp. 92—145 is a good guide to relations between the Neustrians and 5 Austrasians. Semmler (1977), p. 1.

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Outside the Neustrian and Austrasian heartlands there was a high level of political fragmentation, except in Aquitaine where Eudo's rule was apparently generally accepted, although we can say very little about the nature of that rule.6 Elsewhere, especially in the lands between the Seine and Loire and in mid and south Burgundy, there are gaps in the surviving lists of bishops which suggest that many sees either fell vacant or were occupied by laymen, and this has been taken to indicate a state of disorder.7 Some notorious cases illustrate this disorder: Savaric bishop of Auxerre in Burgundy, for instance, took advantage of the righting in the north in 714— 15 to subjugate 'by military means' the surrounding towns of Orleans, Nevers, Avallon and Tonnerre, and was on the march against Lyons when he died of a stroke in 718 or 719.8 He was followed as bishop in Auxerre by one Hainmar who was almost certainly a layman; his name appears in the list of Auxerre bishops with the qualification, 'called bishop'. Such opportunistic warlords were no match for Charles Martel when eventually he took them on with the much greater resources of Neustria and Austrasia behind him. At the same time, it is clear that in Burgundy and Provence elements of the aristocracy were quite prepared to join forces with the northerners. As we have seen, the pressure of Arab attacks, most notably in Aquitaine, was one factor in bringing southerners into Mattel's orbit. Another was the fact that the memory of a single political community was far from dead, and recent work has re-emphasised the way in which family ties between north and south remained in place.9 Abbo, ruler of Provence, for instance, had links with other magnates in the lower Seine area and actively aided Charles Martel when he moved into Provence. For this help he was well rewarded. Finally one detail in the will which Abbo drew up leaving his property to the monastery of Novalesa suggests that political disorder and Arab invasion might have had subversive social consequences: Abbo invited Novalesa to track down and recall to subjugation those of his freedmen and servants who had dispersed during the troubles.10 A fear that the social order was in danger may have been an added spur to the regional magnates' acceptance of a new regime. At the level of political and military history, the growth of Carolingian power may therefore be understood in terms of an initial military success which allowed Charles Martel to take advantage of a balance of power operating progressively in his favour. Further explanations for this success 6

8 10

Vita Pardulfi is one source which does give some idea of life in Aquitaine in the first half of the 7 eighth century. The lists are to be found in Duchesne (1907—15). 9 Gesta Pontificum Autissiodorensium, ch. 26. Geary (198;), pp. 138-43. Abbo's will is translated in Geary (1985), pp. 39-79.

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have been drawn out of the reputation for despoiling the church of its lands which Charles Martel acquired in the ninth century. It was at one time suggested that he settled warriors on that land and so built up his military strength. From the small amount of evidence available to us there is no reason at all to separate Charles Martel from his peers either in the use he made of land or in the use he made of technology.11 The argument that Charles Martel systematically exploited church lands is not supported by eighth-century sources. This was certainly a time in which many bishoprics (such as that of Rheims) and monasteries (St Wandrille for example) lost control of a significant proportion of their very extensive estates, and, as we have seen, one in which the ecclesiastical hierarchy admitted warriors, like the notorious Savaric, into its ranks. Indeed, the Anglo-Saxon missionary Boniface complained about the falling standards of the Frankish church in terms which became famous,12 but the loss of church lands and the increasing prominence of warrior bishops were symptoms of the general political and military turmoils of the time rather than particular causes of Martel's success. The way for this had been prepared in the seventh century which saw the growth of great ecclesiastical lordships and the entry of bishops into central politics.13 In the eighth century, establishing control over all of Francia meant reducing the independence of such lords, driving them out where they resisted, confiscating their resources and replacing them with trusted allies. The bestdocumented example of this process is Martel's treatment of Eucherius bishop of Orleans who was probably a nephew of the Savaric mentioned earlier. After his victory over the Arabs in 732, when Charles consolidated his hold over Burgundy, he turned on his one-time ally Eucherius, drove him out along with his kinsmen and seized their lands to distribute to his own followers. This was not a straightforward case of 'secularisation' but rather the confiscation of the resources of a great family based on an episcopal lordship. The memory of Eucherius' treatment, preserved in the account in his Life,14 was one of the reasons why the bishop was later venerated as a saint, and as his reputation grew, so did that of Charles Martel as a despoiler of church lands. As a result, when in the ninth century various churches drew up detailed inventories of their property, they tended to assume that what they had lost to laymen in this period had been taken away by a Charles greedy for land with which to reward his followers. It is the frequency with which this assumption was made which lends the impression 11 12 13

See Goetz, below, pp. 473—6, and Verhulst, below, pp. 488—92. See McKitterick, pp. 75-7 above. Ewig (1953). PP- 4 I 2 ~3° describes the rise of episcopal power and provides the context for 14 Vita Eucberii, chs. 7—9. Boniface's strictures.

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that church lands were systematically turned over to lay warriors in benefice, although in fact there survives not a single contemporary document recording the granting out of land in this way. Paradoxically, it was in the next two generations that this practice really evolved, but the blame for it attached to Charles simply because, whereas his sons and grandsons were known as keen to reform the morals of the church, Charles himself was presumed to have been unconcerned about that decline in standards to which Boniface had referred. Yet it was in part precisely by voicing their concern for the church that later rulers acquired the moral authority to use its lands as their own, in order to fund a state charged with the protection of Christians. This connection was first articulated by Charles Mattel's son Carloman at the council of Estinnes held at Boniface's behest in 744.15 As we have just seen in north Burgundy, Charles Martel consolidated his authority by installing his followers in positions of power. Another example would be Godobald who was made abbot of St Denis, the premier Neustrian monastery: Godobald was from the Liege area and closely connected with Martel's family.16 Throughout Francia there was a sweeping change in the personnel who filled the key positions of count, bishop and abbot. At one time this was thought to have resulted in the creation of a new aristocracy made up of persons drawn, like Godobald, from the Carolingian homelands, a so-called 'imperial aristocracy' the installation of which introduced a genuinely new regime. Closer studies of individual families have now revealed greater continuities between the Merovingian and the Carolingian aristocracies.17 Personnel change there certainly was, but also, as Abbo's behaviour demonstrates, collaboration, and intermarriage, between Martel's newcomers and families long established in each area. With the possible exception of Alemannia, this pattern would be repeated in every region into which the Carolingians expanded over the next century, for rulers naturally worked with the grain of the existing social structure. Similarly, a radical departure from traditional forms of government was inconceivable. By insisting on direct ties of loyalty between himself and the magnates in the field, Charles Martel could, in political terms, bypass the Merovingian kings to whom he was in theory subservient, but his word was not law unless it passed through a Merovingian mouthpiece.18 Abbo's will provides an example of this: though we can be certain that it was through service to Charles that Abbo was rewarded, he still spoke of receiving that reward from 15 16

17

MCHCap. 1, no. 11, p. 28. M. Werner (1980), pp. 126-7 f ° r t n e relationship between Godobald and the family of Charles Martel. The dearest statement of this is K.-F. Werner (1965), pp. 83—142, trans, in Reuter (1978), pp. ls See Nelson, below pp. 398-406. 137—202.

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the king, Theuderic IV (721—37), and no doubt it had been through a royal document that Abbo had received legitimate title to the land involved.19 We should in fact take the Carolingian sources such as the Prior Met% Annals at their word when they suggest that eventually logic prevailed and people accepted that he who wielded the real power should become king, but, by the same token, it took the Carolingians a whole generation to prove their worth, which shows that the notion that only the descendants of Clovis could be kings of the Franks was deeply ingrained into Frankish custom. Charles Martel and his sons proved themselves above all by success in war against other peoples and, increasingly related to the latter, by demonstrating their religious zeal. Arabs, Frisians and Saxons were all non-Christian invaders of Francia in the eighth century, and Charles Martel gained great prestige by leading forces against them. At first these wars were defensive or punitive, but they soon led to the acquisition of new territory for the Franks, in Frisia in 734—5 and in Gothia or Septimania, the formerly Visigothic province which extended from the Pyrenees east to the Rhone, in 737—8. In Frisia and east of the Rhine a rather slower process of Christianisation, largely directed by Anglo-Saxon missionaries, accompanied the establishment of Frankish control.20 Charles Martel's father Pippin had begun the patronage of Anglo-Saxon missionaries, helping Willibrord restore the church in Utrecht, but this first effort had been bowled over in the Frisian invasions following Pippin's death in 714. In the 720s attention switched to central Germany under the leadership of Boniface. Association with this missionary in particular did a very great deal to establish the religious credentials of the Carolingians. Interestingly, the region in which Boniface worked, Hesse, had always been under Frankish control. Indeed, the Franks had since the mid-sixth century also ruled Thuringia which lay to the east of Hesse, but about the latter we know almost nothing prior to the arrival of Boniface. In fact, between the late sixth and mid-eighth centuries Hesse is mentioned only once, and this reference simply tells of an army crossing it on the way to Thuringia.21 Such silence, and the fact that the inhabitants of the area remained largely pagan into the eighth century, reminds us that up to this point the old Rhine-Danube frontier of the Romans had remained a remarkably effective cultural and religious boundary despite the fact that Frankish power straddled it. Events east of the Rhine begin to appear more frequently in our narrative sources only after the organisation of the Christian church in the area had led to a dissemination of written culture. Equally striking is the speed at which that culture took hold. In 744 Boniface

19

Geary (1985), pp. 74-5.

21

Chronicle o/Fredegar iv, ch. 87.

a

For further details, McKitterick, pp. 68 and 75-; above.

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founded the monastery of Fulda in a sparsely inhabited part of Hesse. Copies of the earliest charters from Fulda show that within a decade of its foundation the local aristocracy was participating in written culture in just the same way as their counterparts who inhabited regions where habits of recording property transactions in writing had survived from Roman times.22 In 741, shortly before he died, Charles Martel drew up a charter which we may use briefly to indicate the position the Carolingians had reached at the end of his tumultuous career.23 In this document Charles granted the villa of Clichy to the monastery of St Denis, thereby granting what had once been one of the Merovingians' favourite residences to St Denis which had once been their premier monastery. Yet though Charles Martel seemed here free to dispose of royal property as his own, and to call upon the special protection of St Denis, formerly reserved for the kings, and, as the dating clause of this charter shows, he was in the lastfiveyears of his career able to rule without a king, he nevertheless made this grant in the form of a private charter. He remained, ultimately, the most important non-royal person in the land, and, as we shall see, it was not a foregone conclusion that what he had acquired by conquest should pass to his sons. After his death there was another 'succession crisis', not as profound as the one in 714, but one which had a similar effect in drawing potential rivals into open conflict. Before his death Charles Martel divided the Frankish territories between his sons Carloman and Pippin III, but Grifo, a third son by a later wife, contested the division and would, over the next ten years, be a focus of opposition to his half-brothers (Map 5). Another cause of conflict was that leaders who had been coerced into supporting Charles Martel renounced their allegiance on his death. In 742-3 there was a concerted effort by the dukes of Aquitaine, Alemannia and Bavaria to throw off Carolingian authority. At one moment Carloman and Pippin faced an Aleman, Bavarian, Slav and Saxon coalition to the east, whilst in the west Hunoald, son of Duke Eudo (died 735), broke out of Aquitaine and sacked the town of Chartres. At this time of crisis another Merovingian, Childeric III (743-51), was raised to the throne, presumably to disarm those who challenged the legitimacy of Carolingian authority on the basis of loyalty to the old line of kings. This Childeric, the last Merovingian king, is known only from a handful of charters, for the narrative sources are solely concerned with the seven campaigns which Pippin and Carloman mounted between the years 741—6 to break the opposition to their rule. The narratives do not mention the church councils which were held in 22 23

The Fulda charters are discussed in McKitterick (1989), pp. 126—9. MGH Dip. Kar. 1, no. 14, pp. 101—2.

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Jrte.

AQUITAINE Blaye Bordeaux

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Map 5 The Frankish kingdoms, 714—40

742 or 743 and in 744, councils which addressed the lapses in clerical discipline about which Boniface had complained. These first attempts to reform the church should perhaps be seen as another aspect of the response to military pressure, to which the Council of Estinnes actually referred. Reestablishing basic order in the church was closely linked to curbing the independence of the bishops, in effect doing by the book what Charles Martel had done by force. A public commitment to reform also amounted to a call for support from church leaders. At the same time, the Carolingians reserved the right to use church lands at a time of military crisis, and the reforms did nothing to stop them taking over monasteries for their own use. Hence Pippin and Carloman could be seen as reformers whilst continuing to strip wealth from the church.24 24

The Council of Estinnes, 3, 2 explicitly demanded the use of church property at a time of military crisis: '... propter inminentia bella et persecutiones ceterarum gentium quae in circuitu nostro sunt, ut sub precario et censu aliquam partem ecclesialis pecuniae in adiutorium exercitus nostri cum indulgentia Dei aliquanto tempore retineamus', MGH Cap. 1, no. 11, p. z8.

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Amongst the rebels east of the Rhine it was the Alemans who held out longest and were hit hardest. Carlomanfinallydefeated them at the battle of Canstatt (near modern Stuttgart) in 746 and was said to have put several thousand to the sword afterwards. One historian, Reuter, has even argued that Canstatt was a disasterforthe Alemans comparable in magnitude to that suffered at Hastings by the Anglo-Saxons, though for the former, unlike the latter, we lack the kind of evidence which could show the extent to which native landowners were dispossessed after the battle.25 According to the Annales Petaviani, Carloman was so full of remorse for what he had done to the Alemans that he decided to go into a monastery.26 Whether or not this was the real reason, Carloman did retire the next year, eventually joining the monastery of Monte Cassino in Italy. On Carloman's departure, Pippin III released his half-brother Grifo who promptly fled to the Saxons. A campaign against the Saxons was mounted, in which Pippin, as his son Charlemagne was to do several times, struck deep into eastern Saxony from Thuringia in alliance with Slav forces. Grifo then fled to Bavaria where he tried to make himself duke, but in 748 Pippin came after him again. Capturing Grifo, he gave him lands between the Seine and the Loire to rule, but from here Grifo fled to Aquitaine, where he was sheltered by the duke Waiofar until he wasfinallykilled in 7 5 3 whilst on his way to Italy. This last phase of the struggle led to a firmer Frankish hold over Bavaria which received a new duke, Tassilo, who was both related to Pippin (his mother was Chiltrude, the latter's sister) and was under Carolingian tutelage. Another result of these events was a renewal of the tribute paid by the Saxons. They also led to a deepening of enmity between Pippin and Waiofar duke of Aquitaine. Pippin III would devote the last years of his life to destroying Aquitainian independence. First, however, he would make himself king. Perhaps no event in early medieval history has been more comprehensively 'explained' than Pippin Ill's consecration in 751. We have already seen the growth of Carolingian military power which by 7 51 had made it impossible to resist Pippin, noting too how the Carolingians strengthened their qualifications for kingship by associating themselves with reform of the church. Yet to break with the very custom which legitimised the formal power they desired, the Carolingians had to call upon the pope to sanction their action with a divine authority which could overrule human tradition. That they should have turned to the pope in this way is put down to the influence of Boniface who in person built and cemented links between the Franks and the papacy. That the papacy responded favourably to Carol25 Reuter (1991), p. 60.

a

Annaks Petaviani s.a. 747.

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ingians' call for backing is explained partly by the pope's respect for Boniface and awareness that Pippin was an active reformer, but mainly by his desire for a political and military alliance with the Franks in the light of increasing Lombard pressure on Rome and the papal patrimony. Byzantium, the papacy's traditional protector, was no longer able or willing to offer much help, and the papacy had anyway long wanted to be free of interference from the east. In the main these explanations hold good, but they do require some qualification.27 Boniface, for instance, was not quite the go-between who introduced the papacy and the Franks to each other. For there is a long history of Franco-papal relations quite separate from Boniface, whose influence anyway seems to have been much reduced after Carloman's retirement in 747. Nor are the strategic considerations of the papacy as straightforward as they first appear, for the Franks and Lombards were long-time allies with common non-Christian enemies in both Avars and Arabs. As late as 75 2 the papacy was still appealing for Byzantine help, and the actual agreement that the Franks should help the pope was made only in 7 5 4. In 7 51 itself it seems that the decision to depose Childeric III and raise Pippin to the throne was made by the Franks, carried through by the bishops who anointed him king, and endorsed, rather than enabled, by the papacy. Anointing by the bishops (Boniface may or may not have been present) was a new practice amongst the Franks. It suggested the religious function of the king, an aspect of royalty which henceforth would be progressively emphasised. Contemporary commentators such as the author of the Prior Met% Annals, though they did not ignore this side of things, chiefly highlighted the glaring difference in power between Merovingian king and Carolingian mayor, and their immediate concern was with the problem of the annual spring assemblies, occasions which traditionally saw a ritual expression of obedience from subjects to king and which were at the heart of Frankish custom. It was necessary to argue that people had for some time made what was only a show of obedience to the Merovingians, and that in reality they had already been obeying the Carolingians. Passages in the Prior Met^ Annals and in Einhard's Life oj Charlemagne, both works of the ninth century, advance this argument, but it is interesting to see it laid out in strikingly similar terms in a Byzantine source, the Chronicle of Theophanes.28 This may suggest that the argument was what we might term an 'official line' formulated at the time of Pippin Ill's coronation and taken to Byzantium by a Frankish embassy in about 757. 27

N o b l e (1984), p p . 6 2 - 7 3 i s useful for t h e F r a n c o - p a p a l b a c k g r o u n d t o t h e e v e n t s o f 7 5 1 . See also

McKitterick, p. 76 above. 28

Annales

Mettenses

Priores,

p . 14; E i n h a r d , Vita

Karoli 1, c h . 1; Chronicle

of Theophanes

trans. Turtledove (1982), pp. 94—5.

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After 7 51 Pippin Ill's behaviour did not change much: he continued making war each year. His enemies were the Saxons and the Aquitainians, and, after 754, the Lombards. In 753 Pope Stephen II had crossed the Alps and wintered amongst the Franks whilst lobbying them to come to the aid of the papacy against the Lombards. At their annual assembly of 754 the Franks agreed, apparently reluctantly, to campaign in Italy should the Lombard leader Aistulf refuse to withdraw from papal territory. Later that year Stephen anointed Pippin's family and stated publicly that in future the kings of the Franks should be chosen from that family alone. This gesture was not simply the quid pro quoforCarolingian help in Italy. It involved ties of spiritual compaternity between the 'family' of St Peter and that of Pippin, forming an alliance which was not only pragmatic but also eternal. Henceforth the Franks would (in theory) always fight to protect papal interests, and prayers for the welfare of the Carolingian family would be incorporated into the Roman liturgy. In 75 5 and 756 the Franks mounted what were in effect two fairly low-key campaigns against Aistulf, punishing and warning him rather than trying to conquer Lombard territory. From their very arrival in Italy in the late sixth century, the Lombards had never been able to withstand determined pressure from their much more numerous and powerful northern neighbour. Once the Franks had put their military power at the disposal of the papacy it would only be a matter of time before the Lombards would commit sufficient offence for their independence to be crushed. This eventually came about in 774. In 753 and in 758 Pippin fought against the Saxons, continuing the 'titfor-tat' campaigning which had been going on since the Saxons had begun encroaching upon Frankish territory around the lower Lippe and in northern Hesse at the end of the seventh century. Whilst it was possible for the Franks to raid deep in almost any part of Saxony from many points along a frontier which ran for about 400 km between the rivers Saale and Rhine, conquest was beyond them at this stage. This was partly due to the decentralised structure of Saxon society. Unlike Bavaria or Alemannia or even Frisia, in Saxony there was no paramount chief to deal with, and even the mass of warriors did not seem to be bound by any agreement made by their overlords. The difficulty also lay in terrain, for in Saxony there were no Roman roads, and communication was along river courses which were strongly defended. The Saxons were also pagans and, at least amongst the non-noble elements in society, fiercely resistant to the penetration of the Frankish religion. As we shall see, when the conquest of Saxony was eventually undertaken, it took a generation to succeed and was secured only

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by genocide and mass deportations. Nor could it be attempted until Aquitainian independence had been crushed. Until the late seventh century Aquitaine had been an integral part of Frankish Gaul. Since then it had been ruled by three generations of independent dukes, but retained a political structure based on counts, counties, fiscal properties, and of course the church. Reducing Aquitainian independence meant getting the church there to accept reform and forcing the counts to pledge loyalty to Pippin rather than to the descendants of Eudo who were the dukes. Into the 760s Eudo's family still commanded enough support to marshal a formidable military force capable of raiding deep into Burgundy, and the fortifications of the towns of Aquitaine, Roman in origin, remained effective, in addition to which there were numerous 'castella' or forts at strategic points throughout the region. A further military resource was the availability of Basque troops from the lands beyond the river Garonne. Aquitaine was therefore hard to conquer: it took nearly a decade of campaigning, from 759 to 768, to subdue the duchy. The post-conquest settlement in Aquitaine meant literally going back to old ways, that is, it involved recovering royal property, securing the loyalty of counts and bishops, reinstituting ecclesiastical immunities, and installing Frankish garrisons. Pippin, however, died in 768, soon after his hard-won conquest. His two sons Charles and Carloman had already been designated kings and anointed by Pope Stephen fourteen years earlier, and Pippin was careful to secure an agreed division of the kingdom between them (Map 6). This time there would be no Carolingian succession crisis. Under the leadership of Pippin III, the first Carolingian king, Francia was more powerful than it had ever been. Though its boundaries did not stretch much beyond those established in the sixth century, Pippin exercised far stronger control over its outlying areas than had Clovis and his descendants. In particular, Hesse, Thuringia, Alemannia and Bavaria now had a diocesan structure to match that west of the Rhine. Only Bavaria retained a native leader, and he, Tassilo, had in 757 undergone what was, according to Frankish sources, a humiliating ritual submission to Pippin. Of the German lands only Saxony remained independent, although Frisia, said to have been conquered by Charles Mattel, also remained largely untouched by Frankish influence because its marshy terrain made it impenetrable. In fact it was in Frisia that Boniface was killed in 754, having returned at the end of his career to the northern part of Frisia, still largely pagan. In the south of Frankish Gaul, the old Visigothic province of Septimania had been added to Frankish territory and, as we have seen, the Franks were able to intervene in Italy at will. The basis of Frankish power had actually changed little since the sixth Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

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j Lands of Charlemagne in 768 I Lands of Carloman in 768

200miles 3&OkrT

Map6 The Frankish kingdoms, 751-68

century. That power rested ultimately on the fact that Francia was formed out of a massive conglomeration of territories and confederation of peoples which no other west European grouping could match. In Francia there was never any shortage of warriors, even at times of apparent weakness. The incessant fighting of the first half of the eighth century seems to have strengthened the military element in society and, from the middle of the century onwards, rulers spoke of dedicating resources to the military in a way they had never done before. What gave Francia a cutting edge against its unfortunate neighbours was the assertion of central control over military organisation, for this diverted martial energies away from internal conflict towards profitable aggression on its borders. As in the military sphere, in other areas too the Carolingian rulers of the middle of the eighth century rebuilt the effective power of government through the palace. It was at this level that there had been disruption in the first half of the century, but government had continued in traditional form at local level in the hands of

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counts and bishops. Rebuilding the power of the palace meant reasserting influence over such people. Yet though it is fair to describe the structure of Carolingian government as basically unchanged, it is also true that from this time onwards there is evidence of an upsurge in activity at all levels. Quite simply, the amount of written evidence (and evidence of writing), increases rapidly from the 740s onwards. There are more charters, there are more books, there are more legislative texts, government orders and the copying of old laws.29 In the ecclesiastical sphere too reform spread beyond the desire for clerical discipline into a review of the liturgy and into a consideration of the moral welfare of the world at large.30 Military power, government activity and church reform all became points of marked growth in the Frankish polity once civil war died out and consensus and the co-ordination of resources returned. The leader to benefit from this development, and the one with the logistic genius to make the very most of it, was Pippin Ill's son Charles, or Charlemagne. Charlemagne reigned for forty-six years, for the first three of which he ruled jointly, and unhappily it seems, with his brother Carloman until the latter's death in 771. Even a glance at the various 'annals' and 'capitularies', that is, at the narrative and normative sources for this long reign, indicates just how much it was packed with military activity and with reform of the church and of government. 31 Here there is not the space to discuss these matters in any detail; it will be possible only to make a few illustrative points. Charlemagne began his career as king by finishing off Pippin's pacification of Aquitaine. It is a measure of his success that after one season's campaigning he returned only once more to the region, in 778 when he was en route for Spain. Western Gaul north of the Loire, the old Merovingian stamping-ground of Neustria, also saw him rarely; he went there only once in the last thirty years of his reign. Generally his favoured residences were in the eastern part of Francia which contained the frontier zones in which there was most military activity. Roughly speaking, his itineraries were determined by military priorities. These, as Einhard stressed, lay above all in Saxony, where a campaign of pacification lasted a whole generation.32 Richer pickings were more easily to be had in Italy, where in 774 Charlemagne responded in force to a request from Pope Hadrian I for help against the Lombards. Desiderius the Lombard king, Charlemagne's onetime ally and father-in-law, was soundly defeated and Charlemagne made M

30 31 32

McKitterick(i98<)), pp. 23-52; Nelson (1990), pp. 261-2 for recent emphasis on the increased use of writing from the mid-eighth century onwards. See Reynolds, chapter 21 below, and McKitterick (1977). See Nelson, chapter 15 and de Jong, chapter 23 below. Einhard, Vita Karoli n, ch. 7.

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himself king of the Lombards. After a second campaign to put down a rebellion two years later, Frankish counts began to be appointed in Italy and the region became an increasingly rich source of patronage with which to reward clients of the Carolingians. Manuscripts and holy relics from Italy also began to travel northwards into Francia. The conquest moreover drew the Franks further into papal politics and brought them into direct contact, and conflict, with the Byzantine empire. Throughout this period the horizons of the Franks were being lifted, for expansion required them to seek out new allies amongst their enemies' neighbours. In this way contact was established with the cAbbasid caliphate in Baghdad and alliances were made with the Slavs who lived beyond the Saxons. Conflict with the Saxons had become all-out war by 772 when Charlemagne sacked Irminsul, their most important religious centre, which probably lay near the source of the river Lippe. The Saxons took revenge by ravaging in Hesse whilst the Frankish army was away in Italy in 774. It would happen repeatedly that whilst the main Frankish force was off on campaign there would be rebellion or invasion in some other distant part of the kingdom. Each time Charlemagne would have to move very quickly over great distances to tackle the problem. In 778, for example, he had to rush back from Spain to stem a Saxon invasion of the Rhineland. This rather dramatic behaviour shows how, despite the steadily increasing range of military activity, the main force of the Frankish army retained its traditional form as the king's ownfollowingwhich he led in person, just as Clovis had led the forces of invading Franks nearly three centuries earlier. In this respect, the size of the empire was the measure of the king's energy. What we see in Charlemagne is a leader with phenomenal energy and with the ability to mobilise all the resources available to him in this already regicentric political culture. In contemporary terms this meant insisting on loyalty at all levels in society, for loyalty meant agreement to carry out orders without which government was inconceivable. On the one hand there was a barrage of legislation demanding loyalty and good behaviour in increasingly sophisticated ideological and theological terms; on the other hand Charlemagne inculcated loyalty amongst his magnate supporters by leading them on successful military campaigns, thereby reinforcing the group solidarity always inherent in customary aularian conviviality. Rivalry between magnates tended to be expressed through competition for royal favour and this made them eager to fight for the king. An incident in the Saxon wars, reported in the Annals, illustrates the point: in 782 there was a military disaster for the Franks in the Siintel hills as an assorted group of young nobles made an uncoordinated charge into battle against a well-organised Saxon force. Wanting too badly to claim glory for themselves, and Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

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unwilling to let a cousin of the king have the credit for victory, they raced each other towards the enemy and were cut down. 33 The sequel to this affair was that Charlemagne showed the worth of his fallen men in a terrible act of revenge, decapitating over 4000 Saxon prisoners in a single day. Despite, or perhaps because of, this bloody episode Saxon resistance continued. Pacification was temporarily achieved with the surrender of the Saxon leader Widukind in 785. Thereafter Saxons attended the annual assemblies and fought on behalf of the Franks against other peoples, but in 792 they took advantage of a revolt by Charlemagne's son Pippin the Hunchback and of the discord within Francia which followed, and rebelled. Fear of war with the Avars fuelled political uncertainty. In 793 Frisians and Slavs joined in the revolt and the Arabs from Spain also saw an opportunity to invade. In this period of political and military crisis it is important to note the response of the regime. First Charlemagne ended the discord by putting down Pippin the Hunchback's revolt with some force, executing many of those judged to have sworn themselves into a conspiracy against him. This capital punishment reminds us that a regime based on consensus could still punish harshly, as long as the majority of the magnates could be persuaded to agree to such action. Significantly, judgement against the conspirators of 792 was made before a full assembly of magnates, and those who had stayed loyal were richly rewarded. The military response in 793 underlines both Charlemagne's genius for logistic planning, and the ability of the regime to mobilise very large amounts of labour. One instance of this is that the Franks tried to link the rivers Rednitz and Altmuhl, and ultimately through them the Danube and Main, via a canal of about 3 km length. Had it succeeded, the link would have enabled the regime to deal much more easily with a war on two fronts, against both the Saxons and the Avars. In the event, the Avar threat never materialised: just as well, for the canal project failed (in fact the same project defeated Napoleon, and it is only recently, and with the aid of modern technology, that a link between the two rivers has been successfully constructed). A further response to the crisis, preceding military action against the Saxons, was the holding of a church council, the Synod of Frankfurt, at Easter 794. Here the regime reaffirmed its orthodoxy and in effect restated its commitment to Christian government. 34 Though the legislation produced from this (and other) meetings is to our eyes bafflingly jumbled and full of formulae and copying from earlier 'capitularies' (that is, royal orders and edicts organised under chapter headings 'capitula'), it does seem to indicate the regime's sense of priorities at a time of crisis. It also shows how deeply the church had been drawn into govern33

Revised Annals of the Kingdom of the Franks s.a. 782, MGH Cap. 1, no. 28, trans. King (1987), pp. M 116—17. MGH Cap. 1, no. 28, trans. King (1987), pp. 224-30.

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ment. Finally, after the Synod of Frankfurt, Charlemagne invaded Saxony. After campaigns in two successive years resistance amongst the South Saxons came to an end. Thefightingthen moved on to the lower Weser and lower Elbe regions, hitherto scarcely touched by the Franks. Eventually pacification was achieved here by mass deportations and by the use of the Saxons' enemies the Abodrite Slavs who were encouraged to occupy the lands east of the Elbe. From 803—4 onwards there was no more fighting between Franks and Saxons, and incorporation of Saxony into the Frankish political and ecclesiastical order proceeded without hindrance. The protracted Saxon wars remind us that Frankish expansion did have its setbacks, perhaps the most famous of which was the military disaster at Roncesvalles in the Pyrenees in 778. Mostly, however, aggression towards neighbours paid off handsomely as we saw in the case of Lombard Italy. In 787 Tassilo was deprived of Bavaria in an apparently bloodless campaign, but what struck contemporaries as the greatest coup of all was the destruction and plundering of the Avar kingdom or khaganate. As the dominant force in central Europe for two hundred years, the Avars had an awesome reputation, and since the early seventh century they had posed a military threat on the eastern borders of Frankish territory. Bavaria and the Italian border region of Friuli could not be secure until that threat had been eliminated. In 791, after careful preparation, Charlemagne invaded Avar territory along the Danube with a massive army of Franks, Saxons, Frisians and Bavarians. To their surprise, the Avars offered little resistance, and the armies withdrew after reaching the confluence of the rivers Raba and Danube. The expected retaliation never came, and in fact Avar power now disintegrated, first in civil war and then through the escape of other peoples subject to them, perhaps most decisively with the departure of a large group of Bulgars who migrated to join others of their race in the Balkans.35 In 795 and 796 Frankish forces plundered the Avar 'ring', a central complex of fortifications where a treasure of fabulous proportions was stored. According to Einhard, the influx of this treasure massively increased the wealth of the Franks.36 The political dividend of this success was also rich. As a letter of 796 to the Anglo-Saxon King Offa suggests, items from the Avar spoil were soon sent to impress neighbours, and they apparently did so.37 By this time Charlemagne had already begun to take on some of the style of the Roman emperors. When he commissioned a Frankish definition of orthodoxy in relation to the vexed question of the use of images in worship, or when he presided over the condemnation of the Adoptionist heresy, moreover, 35 37

x See Shepard, chapter 9 below. Einhard, Vita Karoli II, ch. 13. MGH Epp. iv, no. 100, trans. King (1987), pp. j 12-14.

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Charlemagne put himself forward as the leader of western Christendom. He had also had a new capital residence built, the palace complex at Aachen, with its baths and architecture Roman in inspiration.38 It is against this background that we see Charlemagne being crowned emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day in 800. In view of the history of his rule in Italy since 774, and in the context of his close relations with the papacy, any explanation of Charlemagne's acquisition of a new title to match his unprecedented stature as ruler of many peoples would seem to require little historical imagination. The Lorsch annalist even provides the further justification in that there was currently no male emperor in Byzantium. However, largely because Einhard suggested that Charlemagne did not really want to be thus crowned, and since the imperial title was not mentioned in the proposal drawn up in 806 for the division of Charlemagne's realm after his death, there has been a great deal of speculation about the sequence and the meaning of the events in 800.39 Einhard was in fact employing the age-old literary convention of humility in the great and good, when he said that Charlemagne was reluctant to be crowned. There is no doubt that in reality the king arranged for it to be done, but what has tended to confuse historians is that he then did not seem to attach anything like as much significance to the title as later rulers and commentators would do. The great reforming capitulary issued in 802 is often said to have reflected Charlemagne's awareness of his new imperial status and responsibilities, but there is actually little in this document which cannot be found in earlier legislation.40 As Charlemagne grew older, he became less active and his three sons became more prominent as military leaders. Further advances were made in Spain in 801 and against the Bohemian Slavs in 805—6. The Byzantines, though ousting the Franks from Dalmatia, in 812 made peace and recognised Charlemagne as western emperor. Despite these continuing successes, legislation towards the end of the reign was increasingly concerned with getting people to perform their military service. It may be that magnates with an eye to the future were less and less willing to fight for an ageing leader far from home as the spoils of war dried up. The last campaigns, against the Danes, were hardly profitable, for the Danes could raid into Saxony and mount coastal raids into Frisia. They were in addition well protected in the Jutland peninsula, the base of which they fortified in 808 by building up an earlier earthwork. Interestingly, the apparently much more 38 39

40

See Nees, p. 813 below. Einhard, Vita Karoli in, ch. 28; the proposed division of 806 is in MGH Cap. 1, no. 45, trans. King (1987), pp. 251-;. For a full discussion of Charlemagne's coronation, see Folz (1974). MGH Cap. 1, no. 33, trans. King (1987), pp. 233-42, see McKitterick (1983), pp. 93-4.

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primitive Danish kingdom could mobilise labour on a scale to equal that of the Franks, as could, of course, Offa's Anglo-Saxons. By 811 Charlemagne's youngest son Louis was left as sole heir, Thus the Frankish empire was not divided as envisaged in 806. Charlemagne himself crowned Louis at Aachen in 813, a ceremony in which the pope had neither a role nor a presence, and the empire passed in its entirety to Louis when Charlemagne died in 814.41 As we saw earlier, the work of Charlemagne's grandfather and father in destroying rivals to their power prepared the ground for the spectacular successes of the Franks in the late eighth century. Rather as in Arabia in the seventh century, the military dynamic generated by prolonged civil war was, and had to be, directed against other peoples, for the Carolingians never quite mastered the art of living at peace. The Frankish empire created byforcewas held together in thefirstinstance by Charlemagne and his army, and one cannot but be impressed by the vigour with which this was done: in just over a year in 786—7,forinstance, Charlemagne travelled over 3,5 00 km, surely a recordforany pre-modern European ruler. Over and above such prodigious feats, did the growth of territory under a single authority lead to a more systematic and cerebral approach to government? Opinion on this important question is sharply divided. The promulgation of an increasing number of capitularies or government edicts from the time of Pippin onwards has been taken to indicate the growing importance of written government. Extrapolation from the capitulary evidence allows one to build up an impressive list of Carolingian government institutions and intentions, which, if treated as innovations, certainly suggest a thorough reform of the way Francia was ruled. Two institutions in particular are often used to illustrate this notion of progress: first the missi dominki, who were what we might term high-powered ombudsmen directed to check up on the work of local government, and secondly the scabini, experts in law directed to supplement the 'amateur' worthies in local courts and so to encourage a more 'scientific' process of judgement. In this optimistic view of Carolingian government, attention is also focused on the obligations which lords placed on their men when the latter formally swore loyalty to them. Out of these institutions and obligations, and out of the religious backing given to royal authority, it is argued, arose a political structure which went some way to reconstituting the public authority of the Roman world, the culture and titles of which it also imitated.42 In this view, though the Carolingian state clearly did not and could not reinstitute the direct taxation upon which the later Roman state had been based, it compensated for this with its ties of loyalty and religious 41

Classen (1972) for discussion of the succession to Charlemagne; see also Nelson, p. n o 42 below. For an example of this optimistic assessment, see Boussard (1968), pp. 24—42.

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mandate, for bound by these its officers could be persuaded to do their public duty. There is in contrast a more pessimistic view of Carolingian government which questions how far the good intentions expressed in the capitularies were actually put into practice.43 There are, for instance, no case records to show that the missi dontinici really did report on the shortcomings of local government. Where there are records, of cases heard in the courts, they do not provide evidence of a reform of the judicial process, which was, as ever, basically pragmatic in the way it operated, scabini or no scabini.,44 In this view no substantial new structure of government evolved as the Carolingian power grew.45 What sustained that growth was instead the plunder and tribute which flowed in the wake of military success. When the empire stopped expanding the lack of structure was exposed, and the magnates who had helped build it by fighting together so profitably then began to destroy it as they fought each other in lieu of outsiders to plunder.46 This argument has much to recommend it, in that it rests on evidence of performance rather than intention. It is, however, scarcely possible to calculate the profitability of war in the early middle ages. The bulk of fighting in Charlemagne's reign was against the relatively poor and pre-monetary Saxons, and their pacification was in the nature of a long-term investment. War, moreover, was not just the preserve of the elite, for the narrative sources also tell of armies composed of different peoples participating in very large-scale campaigns far from their homelands, requiring, in fact, the kind of logistic support which the capitularies prescribed. The canal-digging exercise in 793, for example, was rather more than an aristocratic 'work-out'. A more equivocal approach to the development of Carolingian government allows for a more subtle treatment of sources, which are often not as straightforward as they seem. Capitularies, for instance, include a wide range of documents produced in different conditions and for different purposes.47 Some of them expressed idealistic intentions, but others did convey real government orders, and some seem to have been drawn up in response to requests from the localities. What these documents in general reflect (and the key to their highly variegated content) is the revival of intellectual and religious activity in conjunction with the growth in power of the rulers. Revival, reform and expansion went hand in hand, promoted by an elite which benefited from them. The declared aim here was to create a justly governed society which would have the collective wisdom to live in 43 44 45 46

For the 'pessimistic' view, Reuter (1985; 1990). Hiibner (1891) for an inventory of records of court cases. See Mordek (1986), pp. 25-50. 47 A view expressed most clearly by Reuter (1990). Nelson (1990), pp. 272—96.

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accordance with scriptural norms and be thus ensured of divine support. As Charlemagne's mandate, De Litteris Colendis {On Cultivating Letters), and the reforming legislation of 779, 789 and 802 made clear, the ruler was seriously interested in these ideas, even if they were not put forward very systematically, coherently or practically.48 Though it is right to seek concrete evidence for the implementation of reform, it is also true that, in theory at least, this cleansing of the Christian community strengthened the hands of the rulers at every turn. The reform of the church was directed at the moral welfare of the subject, with the effect of widening the brief for the state's intervention in the subject's life. The reformers did not, however, make much effort to stop the king using church property as his own, or to prevent him making gifts of monasteries to his supporters. The reform of government implied tighter control over subordinates, but the idea of just rule never remotely threatened the status quo, nor did judicial reform interfere with the exercise of power. Education taught the understanding of commands as well as of Scripture, and the scholars gathered at the court helped glorify the ruler as well as articulate his aims. In short, a standardisation and co-ordination of religious and cultural life worked to strengthen the hegemony of the state over these areas. In 794 the Synod of Frankfurt decreed that no new saints were to be venerated, so confining the cult of saints in effect to an officially approved list. What a contrast this is with the beginning of our period when great families, like the Carolingians themselves, sought to reinforce their identities and local independence by the establishment of new cults based on institutions under their exclusive control. In these respects Francia in 814 seemed to have changed a great deal since the death of Charlemagne's great-grandfather a century earlier (Map 4). A single authority had replaced the disintegrating confederation of the later Merovingian period, and the strands of a common Christian culture had been gathered together in a single enterprise which was theocratic in intention. Yet the basically conservative nature of that culture, and the unmoving social order it represented, meant that on balance custom outweighed innovation when it came to putting into practice any intention to reform the kingdom. In 814 as in 714, power on the ground lay in the hands of counts and bishops who preserved the social order by protecting property. Though society could not be reformed, nor basic structures of government changed, eighth-century history demonstrates again that when the Franks pulled together they could mobilise massive power, and as long 48

MGHCap. 1, nos. 20, 22,33, trans. King (1987), pp. 203—;, 209-20, 233—42. See also Contreni, p. 726 below.

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as Carolingian government was part of the consensus which underlay that mobilisation, it too was powerful, but not permanently so. Less spectacular, though for the future perhaps of more moment, were the changes taking place on the large estates owned by the church and by the king. The inventories of church lands, which later served as the basis for accusing Charles Martel of having plundered the church, were produced as part of a developing process of estate management which stretched back into the seventh century, but which was much stimulated by the increasing use of written records from the mid-eighth century onwards.49 As Charlemagne's orders for his own estates demonstrate, efforts were made to maximise production to provide greater landed revenue.50 An increase in production would slowly help to revive the depressed economy of early medieval Europe, and a greater landed revenue would help fill the gap when warfare became less profitable for the Carolingians. It would also provide local lords with more of what they needed without necessarily participating in politics at palace level. Who would benefit most from this turn in the evolution of the political economy becomes one of the most important questions of subsequent European history. 49 50

See Verhulst, pp. 490-1 below. MGH Cap. 1, n o . 32, trans. L o y n a n d Percival (1975), p p . 65—73.

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CHAPTER 4

THE FRANKISH KINGDOMS, 814-898: THE WEST Janet L. Nelson

T H E problem of the succession was always paramount and often painful for an ageing medieval ruler.1 Charlemagne wept over the deaths of his two elder sons. 2 By 813 he had only one legitimate son left: Louis, king of Aquitaine since 781. Charlemagne summoned Louis north to a large assembly at Aachen, and 'asked everyone, from the greatest to the least, if it pleased them that he should hand over his imperial dignity to his son Louis, and they all replied enthusiastically that it was God's choice.' The following Sunday in the chapel at Aachen Charlemagne gave his son some fatherly precepts: Love God; govern and defend God's churches from wicked men; be merciful to your sisters, and to your younger brothers, and to your nephews and nieces and all your relatives; appoint loyal and Godfearing servants who will not take bribes; do not throw anyone out of his honor without good grounds for the decision.3 Was Louis willing to follow these precepts? Yes. Then, and only then, did Charlemagne tell his son to take the crown from the altar and place it on his own head 'as a reminder of all that his father had commanded'. Charlemagne foresaw three potential areas of conflict: churches would be assailed by wicked men; there would be dispute within the royal family; and honores might be wrongly given or unfairly withdrawn. Charlemagne himself had built his regime on the collaboration of churches well endowed from the forfeited resources of the Carolingians' rivals; he had given his sons sub-kingdoms to rule, and put the threads of patronage at court in the capable hands of his unmarried daughters; he had granted honores to a cadre of loyal servants, of whom the next best things to a list are the witnesses of his will in 811: six archbishops, including those of Cologne, Mainz, Rheims and Lyons; five bishops, including Theodulf of Orleans; the four abbots of 1

Schieffer (1990).

2

Einhard, Vita Karoli, c. 19.

3

Thegan, c. 6, pp. 591—2.

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St Martin, Tours, Lorsch, in the Rhineland, St Riquier near Amiens and St Germain-des-Pres, Paris; and fifteen counts, headed by Wala, Charlemagne's cousin.4 On all three criteria he set his son — church patronage, family management and the distribution of high office - Charlemagne seemed to have excelled. But an old regime's solutions can pose problems for its successor. In 814 Louis the Pious inherited an empire that was nominally a unit. The reality was a conglomeration of regna — regions, formerly independent kingdoms, and sub-kingdoms created for Charlemagne's sons (the same word served for whole and part) all of which had a great deal of autonomy. In the west, that is, the lands that lay westwards of the river Meuse and the Alpine massif, there were other regna-} Provence, Septimania and Burgundy,6 which bordered the heartlands of Francia; Brittany; the western part of Francia - that is, the area between the Loire and the Charbonniere forest; and Aquitaine, where Louis had been born, 7 and had mostly lived since the age of three. Louis clearly planned to continue his father's system of familial devolution: immediately after his accession he sent his own second son Pippin, then aged fourteen, to rule Aquitaine and his eldest son Lothar to Bavaria.8 Italy was not Louis' to bestow. It had been ruled since 781 by Charlemagne's son Pippin, who died in 810. In 813, just as he established Louis as his imperial successor, Charlemagne confirmed the succession to Italy of Pippin's son Bernard - despite the fact that the young man had been born to a concubine, not a wife.9 Churchmen were now insisting on legitimacy as a qualification for kingship. This meant upsetting hitherto reasonable expectations. It was a recipe for trouble. Louis firmly established his patriarchal position as head of the family and in the Frankish heartlands. Aachen would remain the sedes regni, where Louis usually wintered and often held assemblies. But Louis also looked further west — where so much of the later politics of the reign were to focus. In 816, and again in the 820s, Compiegne appeared on his itinerary as both residence and assembly site. Louis had a strong sense of continuity with the Frankish past, and with the Merovingians whose power base had lain in the Seine basin. In 816, he organised his own recoronation at Rheims as emperor, by Pope Stephen IV (816-17). At the same time his wife Irmengard was crowned empress: an echo of the papal consecration of the first Carolingian queen, Bertrada, in 754, and a declaration of intent to privilege Louis' own 4 7 8 9

5 6 Vita Karoli, c. 33. Sec Map 4. Compare s.a. 778, p. jo, trans. King, p. 79. Astronomer, cc. 2 and 3, trans. King, pp. 167-8. ARF s.a. 814, p. 141, trans. King, p. 107. Thegan, c. 22, p. 596; Werner (1990), p. 34. For the name Bernard, apparently associated with illegitimate Carolingian birth, see p. 403 below.

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descent line as against that of his deceased brother.10 Louis had already grasped the levers of power and patronage at the court, sending his sisters to West Frankish convents, his kinsman Wala, tonsured, to Corbie, and Wala's brother Adalhard, ertstwhile abbot of Corbie, into monastic exile at Noirmoutier on an island off the coast of Aquitaine. Nearly all Charlemagne's old guard were removed from positions of influence (Einhard was a rare exception11), and replaced with men from Louis' own entourage, a number of them from Aquitaine. When the archiepiscopal see of Rheims fell vacant, Louis appointed Ebbo, a former royal serf whose mother had been Louis' wet-nurse, and whom Charlemagne, spotting his intelligence, had freed and educated:12 a striking (and resented) demonstration of imperial power in a society dominated by nobles.13 Perhaps Louis saw intimations of mortality — and divine intervention when he was nearly killed by a collapsing beam as he processed through a wooden arcade at Aachen on Maundy Thursday 817.14 Three months later, at the summer assembly, he announced new arrangements for the succession — which there is no reason to doubt were his own initiative.15 The plan was not original: the idea of passing the whole of the Frankish heartlands, undivided, to his eldest son was a direct borrowing from the unimplemented Divisio which Charlemagne had drawn up in 806 (Maps 7 and 8).16 Like that earlier document, this was a project to be fully implemented only on the father's death. Meanwhile, though, Pippin was confirmed as sub-king in Aquitaine; the youngest son Louis was assigned Bavaria. As for Lothar, there was a significant difference between Charlemagne's succession plan and that of Louis: in 817 not only was the eldest son promised the whole of the Frankish heartlands in the fullness of time, but explicit provision was made for the continuance of an empire, after the father's death, as a fraternal coalition under the authority of the senior brother; furthermore, Lothar was immediately made co-emperor. Though these arrangements privileged all Irmengard's sons over other Carolingian kin, their most obvious implication was that Lothar, and a faction supporting him, had gained influence at court. His imperial title, especially after the papal involvement in the rituals of 816, suggested that Lothar was destined to rule in Italy. Certainly Louis' nephew Bernard, unmentioned in the 817 Ordinatio, feared total disinheritance.17 He rebelled. And because 10 12

13 14 15 17

Thegan, c. 17, p. 594. " Walahfrid, preface to Vita Karoli. McKeon (1974). Pace Werner (1990), p. ;; n. 193, the story about Ebbo's mother, though recorded only in later sources, need not conflict with Charlemagne's promotion of Ebbo. Thegan, c. 44. See Martindale (1977), pp. 5-6, 16; Airlie (1990), pp. 200-2. AKF (2) s.a. 817, p. 146, trans. Scholz, p. 102; McKeon (1978). Ordinatio Imperil, MGH Cap. 1, no. 136, pp. 270-3. ' 6 Classen (1972). Werner (1990), pp. 40-2.

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The Frankish kingdoms, 814-898: the West E S 3 Charles Louis the Pious Pippin of Italy

Map 7 Divisio regnorum, 806

aristocrats depended on kings, or would-be kings, for the securing of their interests, including honores, and hence conflict within the royal family always became the focus of other rivalries in the regions and at court, Bernard's rebellion, though it originated in Italy, had repercussions in Rhaetia, and at first sight improbably — in the Loire valley.18 This is how it came about. Among those who had been prominent in the entourage of Charlemagne and for whom Louis' new regime had signalled an eclipse, was Bishop Theodulf of Orleans. Soon after 814, the countship of Orleans was given to Matfrid, a noble from the Rhineland and one of Louis' 'new men'. At Orleans, ex officio, Matfrid inevitably began to impose his potestas on neighbouring churches: the monasteries of St Aignan and St Benoit (Fleury), and, of course, the episcopal church of Orleans itself. Comital potestas meant demands for hospitality, for cash payments, for 18

Noble (1974); Borgolte (1986), p. 19.

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4

DHUD Lothar Lou is the German Pippin I of Aquitaine

Map 8 Ordinatio imperil, 817

troops, for lands to distribute to the count's nominees. Theodulf of Orleans, as a courtier out of favour, and as one whose local interests were threatened by Matfrid, was accused, perhaps rightly, of supporting Bernard of Italy. He was condemned by a secular, not an ecclesiastical court, and flung into a monastic prison where he died soon after (rumour said, poisoned by those who had benefited from his absence to plunder his goods). In Theodulf s fate, we can see how Charlemagne's three strands of government ecclesiastical patronage, royal family-management and distribution of secular offices — were enmeshed in practice.19 Bernard still hoped to negotiate terms with his uncle; he travelled north to meet him at Chalon. Louis had him seized, taken to Aachen, tried, condemned and blinded. Bernard died two days later. His supporters in Italy 19

Compare Dahlhaus-Berg (1975), pp. 16-21.

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and elsewhere were harshly punished — the lay leaders blinded, the clerics (like Theodulf) deposed and imprisoned. All lost their honores and lands.20 To ensure there would be no more claimants to regna from rival descent lines of Charlemagne's offspring, Louis had his young illegitimate half-brothers Drogo and Hugh tonsured and sent to monasteries:21 Luxeuil and Charroux — both in the western part of Louis' empire, where royal control of honores was firmest and where Lothar's mother Irmengard, daughter of a western Frankish magnate, probably had inherited influence.22 Lothar and his mother, along with aristocrats in their circle, were now in the ascendant at court. Irmengard died a few months after Bernard's execution (there were those who saw divine vengeance there23); and when Louis sought a new bride, he looked not west but east. Judith's family connections lay in Bavaria, Alemannia and Saxony, and Louis certainly hoped to exploit them to meet Slav attacks on the frontier, and strengthen his political hand east of the Rhine.24 This second marriage inevitably challenged the positions of Louis' sons by his first wife, and especially Lothar, who now wanted for his own, at once, the regnum assigned in the past two generations to the eldest son of the ruling Carolingian: Neustria and the Loire valley, where royal estates lay thick on the ground, and the ground was fertile. Visitors admiring today the chateaux of that region glimpse something of what made it a magnet for rulers of the Franks and later the French. There were further royal assets here in the ninth century: well-endowed monasteries, and countships with potestas. Not least of those countships was Tours: Charlemagne had bestowed it on Hugh, a noble whose ancestors hailed from Alsace. Hugh's career prospered. When in 821, at the age of twenty-eight, Lothar sought marriage, signifying an independent household (as well as a regnum) of his own, the obvious choice was Hugh's daughter Ermengard. 25 The following year, Louis organised a grand family reconciliation: there was an amnesty for the rebels of 818; Wala and Adalard were restored to favour;26 Louis' half-brothers were soon to be given ecclesiastical honores. Drogo, now in his early twenties, received the bishopric of Metz and the slightly younger Hugh the abbacy of St Quentin; even Louis' half-sister Bertha reappeared at court.27 At the summer assembly of Attigny in August 822, Louis staged a collective ritual of repentance and renewal, with himself 20 22

23 24 26

21 Astronomer, c. 30, p. 623. Compare Werner (1990), p. 46. Nithard 1, 2. Werner (1965a), p. 119; (1990), p. 49. For queens' political influence in general, see pp. 401—2 below. Houben (1976), pp. 31—42. Irmengard's critics, significantly, were in Alemannia. 25 Ward (1990a). Vollmer (1957), pp. 163-5. 27 ARF (2) s.a. 822, p. 158, trans. Scholz, p. m . Werner (1967), p. 444.

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as a new Theodosius at the centre of it.28 Immediately after Attigny, Louis 'sent Lothar to Italy' to claim it as ruler. He also arranged the marriage of Pippin of Aquitaine to the daughter of a Frankish magnate, and despatched the newly-weds back 'to the west'.29 It was in the west, in the largest sense, that Louis, though he resided in the 820s most frequently in the lands between Meuse and Rhine,30 repeatedly showed his concern to remain in overall control: in western Francia, where in 8 29 he summoned an assembly to Paris to elaborate a great programme of reform; in Neustria, where he gave his archchancellor Theoto the abbacy of St Martin, Tours; in Brittany where he personally led a successful campaign in 8 24; in Aquitaine, where as former ruler he could still pull strings and still, despite his son Pippin's kingship there, intervene to banish the poet Ermold from Pippin's entourage;31 on the Spanish March, where he had won his spurs as a youth, and which could lure him still further west. In 826 an outbreak of rebellion against the Muslim regime in Cordoba inspired Louis to write to the people of Merida encouraging them to rebel and promising to co-ordinate with them the move westwards of a Frankish army.32 Only hindsight persuades us to dismiss this as fantasy: in the 820s, Cordoba's star seemed to wane, while Louis' waxed. And only hindsight makes us see the Pyrenees as a barrier between discrete political units. Contemporary perceptions of real prospects for Frankish expansion, plunder and tribute here help to explain the bitterness of Louis' disappointment when in 827 a Frankish army led by Counts Hugh and Matfrid, with orders to collaborate with Pippin of Aquitaine and Count Bernard of Barcelona against the 'Saracens', arrived 'too late, owing to the negligence of its leaders'.33 Hugh (thereafter nicknamed 'the fearful') and Matfrid lost their Neustrian bonores because of this failure. They also lost their positions of influence at court. Their chief supplanters were Bernard, who became chamberlain (that is, in charge of the imperial treasure) in 828, and Bernard's kinsman Odo, the new count of Orleans. Thus the roots of the crisis of Louis' reign lay in the west: where Louis himself had most to give and most to lose; where the interests of Louis and his sons most clearly collided - Lothar hankering after Neustria, Pippin resentful of his father's interference in Aquitaine; where rivalries between 28 29 30

31

33

W e r n e r (1990), p . 58. C o m p a r e d e J o n g (1992). ARF (2) s.a. 822, p. 159, trans. Scholz, p. m . I t w a s p e r h a p s t h e r e , at t h e Aachen assembly of A u g u s t 8 2 ; , that L o u i s issued his great Ordinatio:

Guillot (1990), p. 461; see further, p. 426 below. Ermold, In Honorem iv, 11. 2628—49, e^- F a r a l. P- 200, Epistola n, 11. 201—4, P- 232; see Godman 32 (1987), pp. 106-11. MGHEpp. v, i, pp. 115—16. ARF (2) s.a. 827, p. 173 (ducum desidia), trans, p. 121. Cf. Thegan, c. 28, p. 597.

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Carolingians would coincide with the fissures of factional conflict between magnates; and where in 830 Hugh and Matfrid sought revenge through rebellion against Louis. Hugh and Matfrid began the revolt, and then because only a Carolingian leader could make rebellion viable - called in Pippin, angered and shamed by his father's intervention in the government of Aquitaine.34 Lothar's involvement was only slightly less predictable. The Empressjudith had given birth in 823 to a boy-child, Charles — the future Charles the Bald; the baby's parents had foreseen and tried to forestall trouble by enrolling Lothar as Charles' godfather and special protector. 35 In creating a regnum for Charles in 8 29, Louis had offended Lothar, granting not only Alemannia but Alsace and Chur and part of Burgundy — lands Lothar expected and which formed a strategic corridor between Francia and Italy.36 Most of all, Lothar, who had been 'sent to Italy', resented his exclusion from Francia, and from his father's court where Judith and Bernard were in the ascendant — and their rivals responded with rumours of adultery and witchcraft.37 The rebels' vengeance was sharp: they blinded Bernard's brother (Bernard himself escaped), and imprisoned Judith in an Aquitainian convent, her two brothers in Aquitainian monasteries.38 But when Louis stood firm, and when his son Louis of Bavaria stood by him, the rebels were reconciled. Bernard lost his court office, and never regained Louis' confidence. It turned out, however, that 830 had been only a dress rehearsal. Pippin's reconciliation was unreal. He insulted his father in 831 by failing to attend an assembly when summoned; at Christmas-time when he appeared at Aachen his father withheld the usual rituals of welcome, and Pippin stormed back to Aquitaine where he found a natural supporter in Bernard.39 Louis deprived Pippin of his realm of Aquitaine and gave it instead to Charles. There, Louis hoped he could count on long-standing personal loyalties. Unfortunately for Louis, Pippin and his brothers joined forces, and outbid him in Francia: at a place in Alsace which soon became known as the Field of Lies, Louis was deserted by enough supporters to make resistance impossible. Lothar had brought Pope Gregory IV from Italy to stiffen fainthearts.40 He now deposed his father from his imperial office in an episcopally staged ritual (with Archbishop Ebbo of Rheims playing the leading role), and assumed sole power himself. Louis, held in rough conditions at Aachen, showed true grit, refusing to accept monastic retirement. Soon many people had second thoughts. The crucial defection from the rebel alliance was Pippin's. An Aquitainian army advanced 34 36 38

3S AB (j) s.a. 830, p. 21. Nithard, 1, 3; 11, 1. 37 AX s.a. 829, p. 7. Compare Boshof (1990), p. 183. See Map 8. Astronomer, c. 44. 39 AB ()) s.a. 830, p. 22. Astronomer, c. 47. * Fried (1990), pp. 266-70.

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northwards to release Louis. Lothar, moving west to confront them, realised he was outmanoeuvred. He left Louis to be reinstated by 'faithful' bishops at St Denis, and withdrew to the Rhone valley, where his supporters held firm. So far, inter-Carolingian conflict had consisted of ritual confrontations. It now became a war — and a war focused in the west: when Lothar took Chalon from Louis' men, he killed three counts, and had Bernard's sister drowned in the Saone as a witch. Bloodier still was the battle for control of the Loire valley, where Hugh and Matfrid clung to their honores: Louis' army was routed, and several counts, including Odo of Orleans and Louis' chancellor, Theoto abbot of St Martin, Tours, were all killed.41 Nevertheless Louis recovered control in the end. This was the scene at Blois in September 834: The emperor sat in his pavilion which was set up on a hill where the whole army could see him, and his faithful sons [Pippin and Louis] stood beside him. Lothar came and fell at his father's feet. His father-in-law Hugh the Fearful followed him, then Matfrid and the other ringleaders in crime. They all confessed their great wrongdoings.42 Lothar was sent back to Italy, Hugh and Matfrid along with him. Ebbo was deposed from office. In the Loire valley region, honores were redistributed to men handpicked by Louis. The local Franks, who apparently resented Louis' use of armies of transrhenani (men from across the Rhine) to defeat his opponents in this region,43 may well have resented the appointment of the transrhenan Richwin as count of Nantes. Another 'outsider', in the traditional Carolingian mould, was Adalhard, from Middle Francia, who now became lay abbot of St Martin, Tours, and perhaps count of Tours as well.44 But after (as before) 834 Louis also used local men as well: Rainald was count of Herbauge in northern Aquitaine, Rorigo remained a key figure in Maine, and the Breton Nominoe was formally recognised as imperial missus in Brittany.45 Bishops, as ever, played a key role in stabilising political authority: Aldric of Le Mans and Jonas of Orleans were mainstays of Louis' regional control. 46 The impulse to assert that control came from Louis' determination to settle the succession question securely, and to provide Charles with a substantial regnum. In 837, Louis granted him Frisia and the lands of the Meuse valley and the Seine basin, then in 838 Neustria between Seine and Loire; and when Pippin died in December 838, his sons were disinherited by their grandfather, and Aquitaine assigned to Charles. Technically, it was Louis' right to do this, but many thought it unfair and some nobles in 41 44

42 43 AB (j) s.a. 834, p. 30; Nithard, I, 4. Thegan, c. 5 5. Adrevald, c. 27. 45 w Nelson (1990), p. 153. Smith (1992). Compare Kaiser (1981).

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Aquitaine acknowledged Pippin's son and namesake as their king (there was no argument over his legitimacy). The last year or so of Louis' reign was spent trying to enforce his decision against Pippin II; and when Louis was deflected to the Rhineland to quell another rebellion by his namesake, Louis the German, Charles, helped by his mother Judith, took up the struggle on his own behalf. His forces had made a good deal of headway — though Pippin II remained at large - when on 26 June 840 came news of the emperor's death. How far had Louis' regime, and in the longer run Frankish monarchy in general, been weakened by the events of 83 3? Louis' deposition was widely noticed by ecclesiastical chroniclers throughout the empire; and the absence of any capitularies for the years 834—40 has been taken to show loss of imperial authority.47 On the other hand Louis' prestige remained high in the eyes of neighbours and foreigners (Slavs, Danes, Byzantines); and numismatic evidence shows that he recovered control of minting throughout the empire, and that coinage high in quality and quantity was produced in the latter years of the reign, as earlier.48 If the upheavals of 8 3 3-4 had attracted the attentions of Northmen, hence the annual raids on Dorestad in 834—7, Louis met the challenge reactively, with improved defences, and proactively, by making allies among the Danes. Louis scored well on his father's three criteria. He protested vigorously against spoliations of church property in (characteristically) his sons' regna of Italy and in Aquitaine. He distributed honores skilfully, withholding from former rebels, and granting to men he could trust, often his own kinsmen. He imposed his will in the key area of family politics: disinheriting his grandsons in Charles' favour; ruthlessly suppressing Louis the German when he rebelled in response to his father's increased pressure on East Frankish resources (a shift eastwards necessitated by Charles' promotion in the West); and, most vital of all, keeping Lothar in Italy, except when summoned north in 839 to agree a prospective two-way division of the entire empire (except for Bavaria) with Charles. The West, where the conflicts of 833—4 had been fiercest fought, was where Louis intended Charles to have his inheritance: by the terms of 839 Charles was to get, on his father's death, the heartlands westwards from the Meuse valley, plus Neustria and Aquitaine (including Septimania), Burgundy and Provence. 'The best-laid schemes of mice — and men - gang aft agley.' Louis' death abruptly reopened the whole question of the empire's future. Lothar, throwing aside the 839 agreement, came north to reassert his claims to the whole of the Frankish heartlands, on the 817 model.49 To offset the 47 48

Forcefully restating this view: Depreux (1992). For an alternative view, see Nelson (1990). 49 Coupland (1990). Ah (}) s.a. 840, p. 36: Lothar breaks the iura naturae.

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inevitable hostility of his two brothers, Louis the German and Charles, he sought an ally: Pippin II. Thus on 25 June 841, at Fontenoy in Burgundy, Carolingian rivals were pitted two against two. Even after Charles and Louis won the battle, peace was a long time coming. Like all civil conflicts, this one exposed especially clearly, and cruelly, the latent internal strains of the society it tore apart. Contemporaries struggled to make sense of painful experiences. It is not coincidental that the years 840-3 are the best documented of any in the early middle ages.50 Nithard, a participantobserver and himself an illegitimate Carolingian, wrote the fullest record. He had joined Charles' camp in 840 — and probably stayed there because Lothar promptly took away his honores.51 Despite this personal stake and a personal military role, Nithard says much less about the battle than about efforts to avert it, and about post-bellum reconciliation. Only after Charles and Louis the German had sworn to remain united against Lothar, and their men had sworn to hold them to it — these were the famous Strasbourg Oaths of February 842 — did Lothar open negotiations. Nithard exposes the mechanics of Carolingian diplomacy: the choosing of teams of noble negotiators by each king, and the play of two intersecting factors affecting kings and nobles alike: affinity, that is, ties and obligations of kinship and clientship, and congruence, that is, a sense of what was fair and fitting.52 Nithard saw himself as a good example of the way affinity and congruence should have worked. He had attached his fortunes to Adalhard, the dominant figure in Charles' entourage, and at Fontenoy Nithard (as he himself stresses) had given crucial help to Adalhard.53 In December 842 Charles chose as his bride Ermentrude, Adalhard's niece: Charles married her, according to Nithard, so that Adalhard could bring over the 'majority of the fi/ebs'.54 Nithard is identifying here, as in his account of the Strasbourg Oaths, a distinct class of lesser aristocrats dependent on, but also themselves making claims on, magnates. Nithard too, though himself of Charles' inner circle and Charles' cousin, still depended on Adalhard, and by this time was thoroughly disenchanted, since Adalhard, as Charles' envoy in June 842, had negotiated away to Lothar the area west of the Meuse where, it seems, Nithard's honores lay. Nithard's portrayal rings true: when kings fought, selfinterested aristocrats were seldom certain of how to pursue their interests successfully; sometimes treacherous, they believed that noble conduct meant loyalty unto death; violent but vulnerable, in the end they anxiously prodded their lords towards a peace settlement. They got there after a year's diplomacy — and many months' laborious assessing by noble missi of royal resources — for it was from those (as Lothar frankly put it) that kings got 'the 50 53

Nelson (1993). Nithard 11. 10.

51 M

Nelson (1986), pp. 222-3. Nithard iv. 6.

52

Nithard iv. 1.

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wherewithal to reward the men who followed them loyally'.55 In July 843, the Treaty of Verdun was agreed between Lothar, Louis and Charles (Map 9): it was a trade-off between the competing interests of those Carolingians and also of their men.56 Despite the timelag, Fontenoy decisively affected Verdun: the unitary 'imperial' model of 817, which had favoured Lothar, was abandoned, and the Frankish heartlands were divided three ways with Louis and Charles getting shares alongside Lothar, and Pippin II excluded altogether. In the short run, however, Verdun itself seemed far from decisive. On the one hand, there was a continuing quest for imperial unity. Lothar tried to make good his rights as family head and as protector of an empire-wide church and, after his death in 855, first his son Louis II, then other Carolingians, aspired to maintain that imperial tradition. On the other hand, the three-way split of 843 gave way to further divisions and mergers. The Middle Kingdom was itself split three ways between Lothar's three sons, then that part of it which lay north of the Alps was redivided in 869 into two parts which were absorbed into the kingdoms of Louis and Charles respectively. These changes produced a series of ephemeral maps of the Carolingian regna from 843 to 879, with further redivisions down to 888 (Maps 10 and 11). How was the frontier of the Western kingdom drawn at Verdun? The details of the boundary line between the kingdoms of Charles and Lothar, with its abrupt shifts of direction, can sometimes be attributed to particular magnates' interests: for instance it was probably personal choice and personal loyalty that kept Abbot Hugh's St Quentin and Warin's county of Chalon in Charles' kingdom rather than Lothar's. 57 The prime interest of the kings themselves was in the Frankish heartlands. Even though Lothar kept the lion's share, Charles acquired numerous royal estates there and in Burgundy, also major churches both episcopal and monastic, and important central places like markets and mints. Lothar, however, only slowly reconciled himself to their loss and continued during the later 840s to 'solicit'58 the loyalty of aristocrats in those areas, with some success. For Charles, possibilities of plunder and tribute seemed to remain open on the Spanish March and in Brittany: the drawback was that these frontiers lay open to external aggression — as did the long coastline and river estuaries to sea-raiders. In Poitou, the silver mines at Melle had unique value; but Charles was not yet fully in control of Aquitaine. Verdun was soon more honoured in the breach than in the observance. In Aquitaine, an unexpected defeat of Charles' troops (in his absence) in 844 gave the cause of Pippin II a new lease of life. Lothar resumed active 55 58

M Nithard iv. 6; cf. iv. 3. AF (j) s.a. 843, p. 22. Nithard's term: cf. Leyser (1994).

57

Classen (1963), p. 10.

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200miles ~3&0km

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Map 9 Partition of 843 (Treaty of Verdun)

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• Linguistic frontier between'Romance'and 'Germanic' ] West Frankish Kingdom (Charles the Bald) I Kingdom of Italy (Emperor Louis II) 1 East Frankish Kingdom (Louis the German)

Map io Partition of 870 (Treaty of Meersen)

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support; and so did the Bretons. Between 845 and 848 Pippin issued coins and charters in his own name as king of the Aquitainians. Charles had to work hard to eliminate him all over again —firstby tonsuring, 59 then by trying to buy him off, and in the end by life-imprisonment. In the early 8 5 os, Lothar became more conciliatory: he was anxious to arrange his own succession. Now Charles' realm was threatened from more distant Carolingian rivals; first another nephew, Louis the Younger, son of Louis the German, in 854, then Louis the German himself in 858. Charles was already planning his own internal redivision of the realm — into regna for his sons: for the eldest, Louis, born 846, Neustria; for the second son, Charles, born 848/9, Aquitaine. The younger sons, significantly, Charles the Bald had tonsured, thus aiming to remove them from the pool of potential heirs. He paid them off with rich ecclesiastical honores — For strategies to narrow the circle of eligible candidates, see Goody (1966); and p. 402 below.

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none more richly than his third son Carloman, w h o amassed several of the prime abbacies in Francia. N e w problems arose in the early 860s when the two elder sons rebelled. Each was supported by aristocrats in his o w n regnum, and the aim, apparently, was greater autonomy. Even though Charles' sons were nominally kings in their o w n regna, Charles kept them on a short rein, denying them the right t o issue coins or grant charters, as the sons of Louis the Pious had done in their regna, and thus inhibiting their construction of aristocratic 'constituencies' of their own. Charles was in fact returning to the patriarchal style of Charlemagne. He crushed the rebellions; he humiliated his sons as Charlemagne had humiliated Pippin the Hunchback. Charles of Aquitaine died in 866. In 867 Louis, nicknamed the Stammerer, 6 0 was sent to Aquitaine as king with household officers chosen by Charles from his o w n palace. 61 By then Louis' mother had been formally consecrated queen in a ritual that explicitly requested more, and better, offspring. 62 N o w there were prospects of acquiring new regna t h r o u g h redistribution within the larger Carolingian regnum. Lothar's son Louis II of Italy had no son of his own. Lothar II's wife Theutberga was childless while his only son was by a woman w h o m many refused to acknowledge as his wife (the boy's name, H u g h , was indeed commonly chosen for Carolingian bastards). T h e refusers included Lothar's uncles Louis the German and Charles the Bald. Lothar used every argument to justify divorcing Theutberga and marrying H u g h ' s mother: in vain. H e died, still undivorced, in 869, just when, coincidentally, Louis the German lay desperately ill. Charles made a grab for Lothar's kingdom: he was consecrated in September at Metz, 6 3 and celebrated Christmas 869 at Aachen. But Louis recovered and pressed counter-claims. In 870 Lothar's uncles divided his kingdom between them (Map 10). M Charles failed to hold Aachen or Metz; and even his acquisitions proved a mixed blessing, since they provoked Carloman to rebel, in pursuit of a kingdom of his own. For Charles this filial rebellion was uniquely dangerous: its location, and goal, lay in Francia, with key royal resources at stake, and the aristocrats w h o supported Carloman were drawn from Charles' o w n heartlands; further, it confirmed what Pippin II's career had already intimated, that tonsuring was not an infallible strategy for excluding surplus members of the royal family; worse still, Louis the German once more threatened to intervene. This combination of threats explains why Charles put d o w n Carloman's rebellion with particular ferocity, and had his

60 62 63

Compare p. 420 below. « AB(j),p. 138. Ordo o f 866; MGHCap. 11, n o . 301, p p . 453—;. AB (3), p p . 133—4. M AB ()), p p . 158—62. A t M e e r s e n : AB (j), p p . 1 6 8 - 5 ; MGH Cap. 11, n o . 2 5 1 , p p . 193-5-

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own son blinded.65 At the same time he retaliated by supporting Louis' sons in rebellion against their father. Carolingian family politics might have evoked from a Victorian matron the same reaction as a performance of Antony and Cleopatra: 'How very different from the homelife of our own dear queen!' After 873 Charles had only one son left: Louis the Stammerer. But Charles continued to hope for more. Ermentrude had died, coincidentally, in 869, and Charles was able to choose a second bride, with what some saw as indecent haste, who could bring him the support of her kin (they included her aunt Theutberga) in Lothar's kingdom. From now on Charles hoped for further progeny — and threatened Louis the Stammerer with disinheritance. In the case of the Stammerer's own sons there was more than a threat: Charles, imitating his father's treatment of his grandsons but with a slightly different strategy, forced the Stammerer to repudiate his wife: this opened the possibility of disinheriting his sons, Charles' grandsons. At the same time Charles made his son remarry a wife of Charles' choosing — again to win the short-term political advantage of support from the bride's kin.66 Charles was a ruthless paterfamilias. But there was no revolt from Louis, at least. Meanwhile Charles made the most of his own second wife's family as political supporters: notably his brother-in-law Boso who played a series of important roles, first in Charles' annexation of western Lotharingia in 869, when Boso used his local influence, second in Charles' acquisition of the Rhone valley and Provence in 870, where Boso was given the key position of dux of Vienne, and third in reconstructing the government of Aquitaine in 872, when Charles appointed Boso chamberlain to Louis the Stammerer.67 In 875, Louis II of Italy died. Charles had long set his sights on the imperial title, and leaving Richildis and Louis the Stammerer to guard Francia, quickly made for Italy, where he was accepted by most of the aristocracy of the Italian regnum, and anointed and crowned emperor at Rome by the pope on Christmas Day 875. Meanwhile Louis the German and his son Louis the Younger raided Charles' kingdom, meeting no effectual resistance. It was not really an invasion, since there was no plan to take over - only to ravage and cause maximum aristocratic dissatisfaction: but Louis' real aim was 'to make Charles leave Italy' where Louis hoped to install his own eldest son Karlmann. That hope was disappointed: Charles held on to Italy. But he did not spend long there. He arranged the marriage of Boso to Louis II's daughter, and left him as viceroy in Lombardy;68 then he himself went back to Francia to restore his regime. In August 876 Louis the German 65 67 68

w Nelson (1988). Regino, 878, p. 114; Nelson (1992a), p. 232. See Airlie, pp. 448-9 below. Regino s.a. 877 (recte 876), p. 113. See AB (j), pp. 189-90 nn. 3 and 5.

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died, and again Charles moved fast. His aim was not to disinherit his nephews — that would have been totally unrealistic, since Louis the Younger already had solid aristocratic support in Francia and Saxony — but to acquire the lands west of the Rhine which Louis the German had acquired, against all Lothar's efforts in 843. These lands included many royal estates, the key archbishoprics of Cologne and Mainz and the sees of Worms and Speyer. Charles was thwarted: at the battle of Andernach, having failed to benefit from a planned surprise attack because the archbishop of Cologne had sent warning to Louis the Younger, Charles was heavily defeated and withdrew westwards, leaving his nephew in control of all the lands his father had held west of the Rhine before and since 870.69 Charles lost no territory, but neither did he gain any. He lost men, and treasure and equipment; and he lost face. Aachen was beyond his reach. Charles was nothing if not resilient. In 877 he was arranging for Compiegne to become a substitute for Aachen as his imperial palace and church.70 He also planned a return visit to Italy to help the pope against Saracen, and Italian, enemies. At an assembly at Quierzy immediately before his departure, Charles and his faithful men agreed the conditions on which the realm would be governed in Charles' absence. Louis the Stammerer was left in charge, but he would be under the surveillance of his father's faithful men; and his rule would be temporary — terminable on Charles' return.71 There was to be no return. In September, in Italy, when Charles waited in vain for reinforcements from Francia, he got news instead that his leading magnates — including Boso — had rebelled. It seems that their aim was to get rid of the Stammerer and to recall Charles from Italy. The rebellion, paradoxically, was for rather than against Charles' rule — but rule based firmly in Francia, not Italy. His imperial policy would have to be reconsidered. As he hastened back across the Alps he fell violently ill: he barely had time to bequeath his realm to his son, along with 'the sword known as St Peter's sword' — a clear reminder of imperial duty — before he died, on 6 October 877.72

SCANDINAVIANS AND OTHERS

Thus far, Carolingian family politics have predominated. They provide the context in which other themes can now be considered. The first is the impact of the Northmen.73 Charlemagne had harboured Danish exiles, and late in 69 71 73

70 AB (3), pp. 196—7. Tessier (1952), no. 425. 71 MGHCap. 11, no. 281, pp. 355-61. AB (3), pp. 202—3. Ninth-century Frankish writers commonly use this term (never 'Vikings'). Also common is 'Danes', indicating the origin of most of the Scandinavians whom the Franks encountered.

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his reign fought, and negotiated, to contain Danish expansion in the area now known as Schleswig-Holstein. In the 820s, Louis the Pious added a missionary strategy to his interventions in Danish dynastic disputes, welcoming the Danish prince Harald to Mainz and standing godfather to him at his baptism.74 In the 830s, Louis allied with the Danish king Horik, using him to exert control over other more unruly Danes. Louis' eventual solution to the problem of defending Dorestad was to hand it over to a Danish prince named Rorik (perhaps a member of a rival branch of the Danish royal family). Meanwhile (probably in 833-4) Lothar had allied with Harald on his own account, and he exploited this alliance again in 841 against his brothers. Charles too sought a Danish ally, Ragnar, and gave him land in Flanders, which he later withdrew when Ragnar 'earned his wrath'. On one reading of the evidence, it was this Ragnar who attacked Paris in 845, and was bought off for 7000 pounds of silver, after having hanged 111 Frankish prisoners on the west bank of the Seine in a grisly display for the benefit of Charles and his men across the river.75 That episode is by far the nastiest reported Scandinavian atrocity on the Continent. It shows the Northmen's violent face. But the Franks needed no lessons in violence; and they understood very well what the Northmen had come for - loot and/or a warrior's wages. In the 8 50s Scandinavian attacks on the Loire and then the Seine became frequent: theflightof peasants soon caused disruption to normal services and local lords began to suffer. Scandinavian demands for payment were costly to both peasants and lords. Charles attempted to meet the challenge, with varied success. On the whole, the raids increased. Eventually, Charles found a twofold strategy: he targeted particular Scandinavian leaders and recruited them to his own service; and he constructed fortifications, especially on rivers.76 By the mid8605 he had the situation on the Seine under control; and although Scandinavians remained on the Loire, they were contained in the area of Nantes. The regnum where their raids had been notably severe was Aquitaine; and here it was only in the 860s that Charles co-ordinated local efforts and mounted effective resistance. Churches were the main victims - as they had long been of acquisitive local aristocrats. At Bordeaux, for instance, the episcopal sequence is broken from c. 860 until the late tenth century. Ecclesiastical dislocation meant that written records were no longer maintained: hence virtually nothing is known of Bordeaux after 860 until the eleventh century. It would be unsafe to infer, though, that the place was 'ruined': what can be said is that if any people prospered there, they were not 74 75

Angenendt (1984), pp. 215-25; Hauck (1990), pp. 289—94. Nelson (1992a), p. 151; for Ragnar see Vita Anskarii, cc. 21, 36, 38, pp. 46, 71, 73. Compare 76 Coupland (1987); Gillmor (1989). Wood (1987).

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churchmen.77 There is a little more information for Nantes, where Scandinavian raids began in earnest in 843, and where Scandinavians are more or less continuously attested throughout the ninth century. In the late 860s, the bishop sought a transfer, as the archbishop of Bordeaux had already successfully done, on the grounds that the devastation of the Northmen had made life impossible. Another Frankish prelate opposed the move however (he was, admittedly, a personal enemy of the bishop of Nantes), asserting that plenty of Christian laypeople remained at Nantes, living alongside the Northmen, and that the bishop must stay with his flock.78 The bishop got his transfer: his move to the metropolitan see of Tours was approved by the pope, thanks to Charles' intervention. From the king's point of view, the Scandinavians' impact was serious. It depleted the royal treasury — not least when Charles bore the brunt of Ragnar's 7000 pounds in 845 — the largest single payment of the reign. There was damage to prestige when the king seemed unable to protect his own. Charles' anguish in 845 is perfectly credible — though he redeemed, eventually, his vow to protect St Denis.79 There were also severe problems of regional control, visible in diminishing royal interventions in Neustria (forty-six charter beneficiaries there in 840—59, only seventeen in 860-77). Yet Scandinavian activity was not unequivocally harmful to royal interests. In 8 5 9, when Danish attacks caused the peasantry between the Seine and the Loire to take up arms in self-protection, the local aristocrats (potentiores), fearing social disorder, slew the peasants.80 Such attitudes tended to rally the aristocracy around the king as the unique source of legitimate force and bastion of social control. At the same time, the king wanted to harness peasant military effort in the defence against a common external enemy, and he acknowledged his own obligation to protect peasants from landlordly oppression: the Edict of Pitres was a symptom of those converging concerns precisely in the region of the lower Seine. Then, Scandinavian demands for tribute meant that Charles was able to impose generalised taxation in town and countryside: a striking manifestation of royal authority. There was a broader impact on the economy too: it was not only cash that Northmen wanted, but Frankish food and horses and weapons, for which they were prepared to pay. The volume of transactions certainly rose in the Seine and Loire valleys especially and, as more coin was needed, debasement became widespread. In 864 Charles was able to undertake a realm-wide coinage reform, essentially a revaluation. Hoard evidence shows that it was effective, and that millions of silver coins circulated fairly rapidly within, 77

For a different interpretation, see Wallace-Hadrill (1976), pp. 217-56. 79 H i n c m a r , Ep. 3 1 , PL, 126, c o l s . 2 1 0 - 5 0 , a t 2 2 1 , 2 2 5 , 228. N e l s o n ( 1 9 9 2 a ) , p p . 152, 2 1 9 . a> AB s.a., p . 89. 78

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and to some extent between, regions after 864.81 The king, of course, was by no means the only one to benefit: so did the aristocracy, but so too did peasant participants in markets. R£GN[/MAND REGNA

Clearly enmeshed with Carolingian family politics is the history of the regna within Charles the Bald's realm. Charles' realm was just that: the regnum Karoli. It had no other name. It had had no existence as a political entity before 843. Modern notions of an institutionally centralised, more or less homogeneous, or ethnic, state may be misleading here. Instead, borrowing a ninth-century term, we should consider how well 'composed' was Charles' regnum, howfirmlyits parts held together, and whether they tended to grow more or less separate during Charles' reign. We also need to ask if Charles himself can be seen addressing this issue, and if so, how successfully. Aquitaine was the largest and politically most important of the component regna.*2 Charles' treatment of it represented a new departure, certainly compared with his father's reign. It evolved in response to changing circumstances: in the 8 5 os Aquitaine looked as if it might become as much of an independent regnum as it had been earlier in the ninth century. This had been implied when he had his son and namesake consecrated at Limoges in 855. In the 860s and 870s, after the Young Charles had rebelled, and submitted, Charles the Bald tried a different tack. Now Aquitaine was run from Francia. When the Young Charles died and Louis the Stammerer took his place, there was no consecration for him. Nominally king, Louis carried out no more of the key functions of rulership than his brother had done — in particular he issued no charters and, as Charles the Bald himself no longer visited Aquitaine, Aquitainian nobles and churchmen seeking royal favours had to journey to Francia. The result, it has been argued, was that the sinews of royal exploitation began to atrophy and the contacts between king and regional aristocracy gradually ceased to be fully operational. When the king never visited, there was no one to guard the guardians of royal estates.83 Such problems of control were no new development, however: even when a king did reside in Aquitaine royal estates had a tendency to slip out of the king's hands; counts tended to use their comital lands (and church lands too) to reward their clients. On the other hand, the story in Charles the Bald's reign was not all one of waning royal control. Some Aquitainians still did attend Charles' assemblies in Francia; the king continued, into the 870s, to take a hand in appointments to key Aquitainian honores, for instance the 81 83

Metcalf (1990). Compare Blackburn, ch. 20 below. Martindale (1985).

s2

Martindale (1990).

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counties of Angouleme c. 867 and of Bourges in 872; and Aquitainian beneficiaries figured slightly more frequently among recipients of Charles' charters in the 860s and 870s than earlier — sixteen of them between 844 and 859 but nineteen between 860 and 877. Royal government in Aquitaine never had been very intensive; it worked as before, through remote control. The coinage evidence confirms this. Aquitaine was different. Though there was overall direction, the 'new money' of 864 and after did not apply to Aquitaine. It did apply to Brittany. Whereas earlier in his reign Charles issued no coins from Nantes and Rennes, those mints did issue his reformed coinage after 864, under Breton management but with weights and dies to the standard operating in Charles' mints elsewhere.84 Breton distinctiveness, embedded in its Celtic history, language and institutions, became more visible in the ninth century, yet at the same time there was growing strength in the ties that bound Breton leaders to the Carolingians, and, after 840, to the realm of Charles. At first, Charles tried, as his ancestors had done, to crush the Bretons militarily, and, like his ancestors, failed. As Breton princes responded to Frankish pressure, and as the Franks adjusted, power crystallised at distinct levels. At the top one, Charles' developing imperial style of government lent credibility to his overlordship: Charles bound the Breton leaders to himself and his family by a variety of ties, notably the ritual bonds of spiritual kinship.85 Successive Breton princes came to Francia to acknowledge Charles' authority, and so legitimise theirs. From 858 to 863, and again in 8 6 6 - 7 , t n e Breton prince Salomon allied with Neustrian rebels and/or with Scandinavians to deny Charles effective control of the Loire valley, while Charles sought allies among disaffected Bretons. Thereafter, with Charles having conceded the counties, but not the bishoprics, of Avranches and Coutances, Salomon stayed loyal, co-ordinating with Charles the defence of the Loire valley against Scandinavians. During the inter-Breton conflict that followed Salomon's assassination in 874, Charles contemplated the recovery of counties transferred earlier to Breton control.86 At levels below this, Bretons ran their own affairs. This was equally true of the inhabitants of Gothia, which had a prehistory as Visigothic, then Frankish, Septimania, but took shape as a marcher region in the ninth century. It included the Midi from Nimes and southwestwards to Barcelona, with, as a hinterland, the Pyrenean counties from Ampurias westwards to Ribagorza. Though the aristocrats of this region sometimes made tactical alliances with Muslim lords (frequently in rebellion against the amirs of Cordoba) across the Pyrenees, their overriding 84 86

Smith (1992), pp. 142—3. 85 See also p. 429 below. Capitulary of Quierzy (877), c. 23, MGH Cap. n, p. 360.

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strategic concern was to defend their lands against Muslim raids. This helps explain their striking loyalty to the Carolingians.87 Charles was appropriately depicted in a famous throne-portrait flanked by twin female personifications of Francia and Gothia.88 Royal authority, based as it was in Francia, inevitably was exercised in more indirect and intermittent ways in Gothia; and in practice royal estates here were even likelier than in Aquitaine to fall under local control. Nevertheless one such beneficiary, Count Oliba of Carcassonne, thought it worth travelling to Francia to secure royal authorisation, and Charles' power to confiscate and reassign the lands of rebels gave him a still more effective pull on Oliba's loyalty.89 Further, Charles kept the capacity to intervene by maintaining links with a range of local magnates, and switching between locals and outsiders in appointments to countships. Of the Frankish appointees, Hunfrid joined the rebellion of Charles of Aquitaine and was brusquely expelled from Charles the Bald's realm, while his replacement, Marchio Bernard, another outsider, remained loyal until 877. While in office, both Hunfrid and Bernard visited Francia from time to time, and sometimes attended Charles' assemblies. With Burgundy Charles was in much closer and more consistent touch. Not far from Fontenoy was Auxerre, where the bishopric, and the monastery of St Germain, had both been closely linked with the Carolingian dynasty since the eighth century. Charles was able to exploit these ties to the full, and kept episcopal and abbatial appointments in his own hands throughout his reign.90 The schools and scriptoria of Auxerre flourished under royal patronage. In the winter of 8 5 8—9 it was at Auxerre that Charles found military and spiritual reinforcement. Countships were equally crucial here: at Auxerre, Charles gave his cousin the post, while at Autun, his choice alternated between outsiders and members of magnate families with local connections. Though Eccard by the early 870s held the three countships of Autun, Chalon and Macon, when he died childless that bloc was dismembered to the benefit of new outsiders, one of them Charles' brother-in-law Boso. In the 870s, Boso's main interests came to lie further south in the Rhone valley (around Vienne) and Provence, regions acquired by Charles from the dismemberment of Lothar II's kingdom. When Charles moved into Italy to take up Louis IPs imperial inheritance, Boso followed: marriage to Louis' daughter presaged a long-term Italian future, but Boso stayed only briefly, instead returning to consolidate his honores in Provence.91 Charles throughout his reign ruled most intensively in Francia: nearly half the beneficiaries of his charters were based in the lands between the 87 89

M Collins (1990b). Bible of San Paolo fuori le Mura, Rome, fol. it. 91 Tessier (1952), nos. 341, 428. *> Sassier (1991). Airlie (1985).

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Seine and the Meuse.92 Contemporaries regarded this as 'the best part of the regnum Francorum'n — that is, fullest of royal resources. Of thirty-four men named as royal benefice-holders in Charles' charters, twenty-two were in Francia.94 His control of episcopal appointments, and ecclesiastical benefices, is much better attested there than elsewhere. His itinerary was largely, and increasingly, based there. This is where assemblies were summoned and important decisions were made. It was the secure core-area where suspects and condemned men were held in captivity. The metropolitan sees of Rheims and Sens were central props of the regime, providing administrative skills, and the wherewithal, in the form of benefices on church lands, to maintain troops for the king's military service.95 Francia was also the heart of the realm, containing the cult sites where the relics of saintly patrons were kept and revered and the ancestors of Frankish kings and nobles lay buried. Most important of all for Charles personally was the monastery of St Denis: the heart of the heart. Here Charles arranged for the liturgical commemoration of his parents, and of himself.96 But he spread his favour among several churches. It was a monk of St Germain-des-Pres whom he commissioned to produce a comprehensive martyrology 'for the utility of the catholic faithful'.97 And it was the new palatine church of St Mary that Charles chose as his Aachen-substitute in 877, with the palace of Compiegne itself designated his capital - his Carlopolis.98 To rule these regna, to collaborate with his sons, and often enough to offset their ambitions, Charles needed his aristocracy — his faithful men. In 843, immediately after Verdun, his realm riven by dissidence and factional dispute, Charles set about rebuilding consensus. At Coulaines in November, he credited his aristocracy with the initiative in forming a pact, and joined it himself. A working partnership needed a basis of mutual respect. The church, in principle all-embracing, provided a prime rallying-point: all swore to respect its honor. All thcfideles then swore to observe the honor of the king. Last, and equally significant, Charles swore to preserve the honor of eachfidelis— and in this case honor was spelled out as 'law and justice'. The notion of the king as guarantor of individual rights was not new but given a new precision, and set in a context of collective interests: a societas.^ Constant effort was needed to maintain it. There were homoeostatic mechanisms in the Carolingian body politic: assemblies and oath-takings, processions and receptions at court. In all these, ritual was a key element. 92

94

97

For the period 840-5 9, there were eighty-three such beneficiaries; for 860-77, there were eighty93 five. Nelson (1992a), p. 95. Kienast (1990), pp. 58—85. Kienast classes all these as 'Vassallen', though very few are thus % identified in the sources. ' 5 Compare pp. 388-90 below. Brown (1989). Nelson (1993). » Lohrmann (1976). " Nelson (1992b).

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Political crimes could be construed as sins, or their perpetrators accused of sexual offences: churchmen stepped in to prescribe penance or apply ordeals. While none of this was peculiar to the kingdom of Charles the Bald, nowhere was any of it more conspicuous. And the West Frankish kingdom was distinctive, largely thanks to Hincmar, in developing royal consecration rites: those for Charles, his daughter, wife and son, were to prove seminal for all future royal ordines. As far as ninth-century realities are concerned, Hincmar's dominance of our source materials may mislead, and so may the iconography of monarchy in West Frankish manuscripts. For Hincmar's preoccupation with anointing rites was exceptional; and few saw the manuscripts' depictions of majesty. Instead, at their assemblies and oathswearings, the Franks saw monarchy's familiar, pragmatic face. This did not mean the king was weak. Contemporary critics diagnosed excessive force, not weakness, as the problem about both Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald. While Charles at Coulaines wooed aristocratic consensus, he was capable of violence and victimisation. Carolingian rivals were sometimes conciliated, but sometimes incarcerated, and in Carloman's case blinded; several aristocratic rebels were judicially (but perhaps judiciously) murdered. Charles's court remained a magnet: for every man deprived of an honor, there was another ready to replace him. The so-called imperial aristocracy which arguably played a key role in holding Charlemagne's empire together functioned rather differently in the mid-ninth century. Their descendants were to be found all over the Carolingian world — but they did not pull together politically.100 The splitting of the Carolingian family (which split the empire) was paralleled in many other families. Divisions hardened as one generation succeeded another. As patrimonies passed to eldest sons, surplus siblings were shed. They had to move, and looked to kings for advancement. The mobility, spatial and political, of such ambitious individuals is a striking feature of Charles' reign. For the flow was generally from east to west, towards Charles' kingdom: witness the cases of Adalhard, already a beneficiary of Louis the Pious' largesse, then of Charles' too, in Neustria, then Francia; Robert, in Neustria, but also in Burgundy and Francia; Hugh, in Burgundy and then Neustria; Hunfrid, in Burgundy and in Gothia; Boso, in Provence and Aquitaine. Not all these men remained in the West: voluntarily or otherwise, several left for other Carolingian realms. But most stayed. Their careers suggest that the power structure in Charles' kingdom was at once more open, and more tightly controlled, than further east: that Charles had more 'wherewithal' to dispose of than had other Carolingian kings elsewhere and, as important, 100

Compare Airlie, chapter 16 below.

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more freedom of manoeuvre in allocating power and resources at magnate level. Beneath that level (and alongside too), an indigenous aristocracy was firmly ensconced: from it the incoming magnate would recruit his clients and subordinates. Robert, later nicknamed 'the Strong', is a well-researched case in point. Robert was an incomer to the West. Of Rhineland origin, he was granted a succession oihonores by Charles, beginning with benefices on the lands of the church of Rheims, and proceeding to the countship of Angers in 8 5 2 where he 'inherited' some of the local network of clients assembled by the previous count, who happened to be Robert's political ally (they may have married each other's sisters). 101 Later in the 850s Robert saw his regional position threatened by the setting-up of Louis the Stammerer in Neustria with the Breton prince Erispoe, not Robert, as his father-in-law and protector. Robert rebelled, and was one of those responsible for inviting Louis the German into Charles' kingdom in 858. Only in 861 did Charles win back Robert's loyalty and the price was his restoration in the Loire valley. But his roots there were not so deep that he refused a transfer in 864, when Charles made him count of Autun. Only when he failed to establish himself there did Robert return to Angers; and he died fighting Northmen near there in 866. Robert has sometimes been cast in the role of dynast: founder of a Neustrian principality. Charles had n o such intention; and was indeed able to prevent any such development occurring in his o w n lifetime by denying Robert's young sons succession to Robert's honores, and after 866 making Tours (not Angers) the focus of a reconstructed defence system in the Loire valley. Significantly, it was not in the West but in the Rhineland that Robert's death was registered as heroic. 102 In his Western kingdom, Charles had one further special asset: churches that were not only wealthy, long established and endowed with social power, but also firmly built into the structure of the realm. In ecclesiastical personnel, the king found versatile, strenuous and generally loyal agents. Archbishops served at court as counsellors and in their provinces as missi and supervisors of counts. Hincmar of Rheims is the outstanding example. Bishops helped repress crime and organised the military support owed by churches to the state. Abbots in particular could be surprisingly mobile: surprisingly, that is, by the standards of monastic rules. But these abbots were not regular. Some were in minor orders, hence clerici, unable to marry, but otherwise living like secular lords, with their o w n military followings: Hugh, Charles' cousin, as abbot of St Martin served in effect as Charles' deputy in the Loire valley; and Fulk, a former palace clerk, as abbot of St 101

Werner (1958).

102

AXs.a. 867, p. 25.

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Bertin was one of those left in charge by Charles when he departed for Italy in 877. Others were full-blown lay abbots - given lordship of the temporal goods of monasteries and responsible for granting benefices to the warriors who would serve their monastic lords and perform military service to the king. Such abbacies were luxuriant new growths of the ninth century, especially in Charles' kingdom. They were uncanonical, and in the wrong hands they could lead to depredation, but that was equally true of canonical abbacies. Even from an ecclesiastical viewpoint, lay abbots could equally bring welcome leadership and protection — as Count Vivian did to the community of St Martin, Tours, in the 840s.103 From the king's standpoint, lay abbacies offered a ready method of granting favour without cost to royal lands. After 867, Charles himself was lay abbot of the most prestigious monastery of all: St Denis. There, appropriately, he was remembered for centuries as a major benefactor. AFTER CHARLES THE BALD

Hindsight shows that the decade or so after Charles' death was momentous for the West. For contemporaries, change came stealthily, bit by bit. At first it seemed that there would be continuity. Charles' kingdom passed to his son Louis; and Pope John VIII wanted Louis for emperor. Louis was energetic: collaborating with Abbot Hugh against the Northmen on the Loire, acting as conciliator in aristocratic disputes, and making as much capital as possible out of the pope's visit to Francia in the summer of 878. There was nothing unusual in Louis' having begun his reign by making concessions, 'granting abbacies, countships and estates, according to what each demanded'.104 But Hincmar when he wrote these words, perhaps as late as 882, knew what Louis could not know in 877: that Gauzlin, who received the abbacy of St Denis, and Conrad who (probably) received the countship of Paris, were to threaten the survival of Louis' realm after his death. In 877 the magnates were split into rival factions, centred on Abbots Hugh and Gauzlin, and they remained at loggerheads throughout Louis' reign.105 It soon became clear that that reign was likely to be short: within months of his accession Louis, aged only 31, was a very sick man. Already therefore in 878 the succession problem loomed. In the summer he failed in his efforts to persuade the pope to crown his second wife Adelaide: this would have enlarged the questionmark over the legitimacy of Louis' two sons — and heirs — by his first wife Ansgard. In the autumn Louis met his cousin and namesake, Louis the Younger, at Fouron. The site was not far from Aachen; but their agreement made no mention of the imperial title except as a thing 103 Kessler (1992).

'<« AB (3) s.a. 877, p. 203.

•<» Werner (1979).

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of the past. Two separate regna now existed, those created by Charles the Bald and Louis the German, and they would persist into the next generation, as Louis the Younger and Louis the Stammerer mutually guaranteed to help their respective sons succeed them 'by hereditary right'.106 On the Stammerer's side, two sons were named in the Fouron agreement: Louis [III] and Carloman. Five months later, as Louis lay dying, he bequeathed his regalia and his realm to his namesake alone. Louis III had the support of Abbot Hugh and his allies. Gauzlin and his allies, Count Conrad chief among them, foresaw political extinction. At the court of Louis the Younger and his queen, Gauzlin already had contacts, made when he had been held a prisoner after Andernach in 876.107 Now was the time to activate them by inviting the East Frankish king to intervene in the West. Perhaps Gauzlin had only wanted to encourage his opponents to divide the Western realm so that each faction had 'its' king: this indeed was the outcome. Louis III and Carloman II were both consecrated kings in September 879, and in February 880 a division of the western kingdom was agreed, Gauzlin having switched horses meanwhile: Louis got Francia and Neustria, where Gauzlin and Conrad were naturally the dominant figures, while Carloman (now supported by Hugh) got Burgundy and Aquitaine (Map 11). The new reigns started under further clouds: Louis the Younger had to be bought off with the Lotharingian lands which Charles the Bald had acquired in 870. Meanwhile, Northmen, attracted by 'news of discord', came in large numbers from England to over-winter in Francia in 879—8o;108 and Boso, perhaps after making a bid of his own for the whole Western kingdom, claiming that the Stammerer's sons were illegitimate, had himself consecrated king of Provence in October 879.109 Louis III and Carloman faced up to these challenges: in November 879 they defeated Northmen south of the Loire and then in 880 turned on Boso and besieged him in Vienne; in August 881 Louis defeated a Scandinavian force at Saucourt in Vimeu — a victory celebrated in a vernacular German poem, the Ludwigs/ied, apparently written at St Amand where the abbacy was held (along with several others) by Gauzlin.110 In 882 Carloman too showed that he could beat bands of Northmen plundering in the neighbourhood of Rheims. But by then Louis had died, in August 882, of injuries incurred while 'chasing a young woman on his horse for a joke (for he was a young man) while she fled into her father's house'. Scarcely two years later, Carloman too died in a hunting accident.111 Both died without heirs. Only a tiny child remained of 106

108 110

AB (j) s.a. 878, pp. 213-1;. Louis the Stammerer reserved his claims to Italy, the imperial realm, 107 but envisaged that it too might be divided. AB ()) s.a. 879, pp. 216-17. AV s.a. 879, p. 44. 109 AB (3) s.a. 879, p. 219. Fouracre (1985); Yeandle (1989). "• AV s.a. 882, p. 52; 884, p. ;6.

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the descent line of Charles the Bald: Charles, later nicknamed simplex, the 'straightforward', or 'openhearted'. He had been born to Queen Adelaide on 17 September 879, six months after the Stammerer's death. He was passed over in 882, and in 884. In the 890s this was explained in terms of his extreme youth and the urgency of the Scandinavian threat to Francia.112 There may have been some doubt over his paternity. But an urgent threat there certainly was. The able Louis the Younger had died leaving no son in 882. Thus the whole empire was reunited by 884 in the hands of Louis the German's youngest son Charles, known later as 'the Fat'. In the next three years the new emperor proved incapable of imposing his authority directly in the West — where he lacked roots, resources and political friends of his own. Instead he picked Odo, son of that Robert who had been killed fighting the Northmen near Angers twenty years before. The deaths of Gauzlin and Hugh within a few weeks of each other (April and May 886) left a power vacuum which Odo filled. He recovered his father's Neustrian honores from the emperor, and probably at the same time was made count of Paris where he now mounted a vigorous defence against Scandinavian attackers.113 In 8 8 7 Charles the Fat became seriously ill, and East Frankish rebels led by Arnulf, illegitimate son of Louis the German's son Karlmann, plotted his deposition. Arnulf became king of the East Franks. What would become of the West? The author of the contemporary Annals of St Vaast says that the 'Lower [i.e. West] Franks' (he distinguishes them from Arnulf s australes Francf)n4 were divided: only some favoured Odo, while others, headed by Archbishop Fulk of Rheims but including some prominent men in Burgundy, invited Duke Wido of Spoleto (a kinsman of Fulk's: his paternal ancestors were Franks) from Italy. Wido was actually consecrated at Langres by the local bishop; Odo at Compiegne by the archbishop of Sens. Wido, outplayed, returned to Italy, and his former supporters, after a brief flirtation with Arnulf who rejected their overtures, rallied to Odo. The St Vaast annalist thought that whatfinallyturned opinion in Odo's favour was an 'unexpected victory' over the Northmen, 'through the mercy of God'. Thus, unsteadily, as it seemed unpredictably, did the kingdom of the West Franks get reconstituted in 888 — separate from other regna, and a single entity. At first sight this outcome seems fortuitous. In 888 after all, several regna were, as Regino put it, 'detached from their structure into separate parts on the grounds that they lacked a legitimate heir, and now did not await their 112

Flodoard, Historia Rtmensis Ecclesiae IV.J, p. 563. See Schneider (1973), p. 39Celebrated in the 890s by Abbo of St Germain-des-Pres in a famous poem. »" AVs.a. p. 64.

113

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natural lord but each regnum decided to create a king for itself out of its own guts' — in other words, from its indigenous nobility.115 In Regino's view, the one 'natural lord', legitimate or no, was Arnulf, and his rejection — the rejection of a dynastic filter — opened the floodgates of conflict between more or less equally qualified Frankish magnates. Regino's diagnosis was faulty. In the minds of some contemporaries, at least, an empire survived and Arnulf held a vague hegemony over the kings. The story that Arnulf sent a crown for Odo's coronation hails from St Vaast, not Bavaria.116 Further, the process of'detachment' did not go far. None of the regna of 888 was new, for 'Burgundy' probably began as an attempt to reconstitute that Middle Kingdom 117 which since 85 5 had undergone so many changes and dismemberments. Italy and the East and West Frankish kingdoms had by contrast had continuous histories since 843. They did not fragment further in 888. In the West Frankish case, we can reject a Bavarian annalist's suggestion that Ramnulf, count of Poitiers, set up a separate kingdom of Aquitaine: this is belied by the evidence of Ramnulf s own charters, where no royal title is claimed, and of the annalist of St Vaast, near the heart of West Frankish affairs, that Ramnulf was acting as guardian of the eight-yearold Charles the Straightforward.118 Ramnulf, then, acknowledged Odo belatedly because his first plan had been to promote Charles as the legitimate Carolingian heir. Neither in 888 nor in 889 did Ramnulf aim at secession.119 His brother Ebles, abbot of St Denis since 886, already served Odo as his chancellor. Odo's succession to the whole of what had been Charles the Bald's kingdom was therefore not really so fortuitous. What survived in the west was a political entity: a community neither linguistic, since the victory at Saucourt had been celebrated in German not Romance, nor ethnic, since its members were Aquitainians and Burgundians as well as Franks. This diversity in fact contributed to the realm's identity and viability in contemporary eyes. It was a kind of imperial realm: a kingdom of many kingdoms - as implied in the praise-song composed for Odo's consecration in 888: Amen resultet Gallia Amen cantent Burgundia Bigorni regni spacia Wasconia et Teutonia.i20 115 117 118 119 120

Regino, p. 129. " 6 A V s.a. p. 67. Hlawitschka (1968), pp. 70, 79. Compare chapter 5 below. AVs.a. 889, p. 67, against AF (j) s.a. 888, p. 116. For the myth of Ramnulf s Carolingian descent, see Martindale (1995). S c h r a m m ( i 9 6 8 ) n , p p . 214—IJ. ' " A m e n " , resounds G a u l ; a n d B u r g u n d y , t h e a r e a o f t h e r ^ n a / w

of Bigorre, Gascony and German-speaking lands sing "Amen"'; see further, Werner (1965).

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In East Francia, the deposition of Charles the Fat resulted from uncertainties over the succession and the play of faction. In the west Charles was abandonedforother reasons. These same reasons underlay the choice of the non-Carolingian Odo. The Scandinavian threat had changed in the 880s — quantitatively but also qualitatively. Francia itself, the core of Charles the Bald's realm, was not just burdened, but menaced at its very heart. Large coordinated Scandinavian war-bands ravaged at will. They took Rouen (885), then penetrated the river Oise (885). Paris was besieged for eight months (885-6). Odo's success against the Scandinavians was crucial in winning the support that put him on the throne in 888. The defence of Paris brought only temporary respite, however: Scandinavians remained on the Seine, and later in 886 their ships moved up the Yonne as far as Sens; in 888 up the Marne to Meaux; in 890 up the Oise to Noyon. No wonder the notables of these parts persuaded Odo to winter in 892—3 in Aquitaine 'so that Francia, afflicted for so many years, might recuperate a little'.121 Odo had his own good reasons to comply. He had received recognition from a number of leading Aquitainians in 889; and in 892, when Ramnulf died, Odo assigned the countship of Poitiers to his own brother Robert, disregarding the claims of RamnulPs young son. Ebles of St Denis promptly defected from Odo and went to Aquitaine. In pursuing him southwards, therefore, Odo was struggling to keep his position in Francia. Unfortunately for him, Archbishop Fulk of Rheims re-formed the coalition of 888. They had a rival candidate to hand: Charles the Straightforward, whom Fulk consecrated king at Rheims on 28 January 893. Although Odo had the upper hand in the ensuing struggle, he lacked a direct heir: by the peace agreement of 897, he seems to have agreed that Charles should succeed him, which he did a year later. How far had structural change occurred in the west by 898? Odo's royal government in some ways contrasts starkly with Charles the Bald's. Odo confronted new obstacles to his authority: secular principalities well on the way to becoming hereditary and territorial,122 gobbling up lay abbacies, for instance, as Count Baldwin of Flanders did St Vaast, and ecclesiastical principalities, equally territorial and only a little less dynastic, exploiting and sometimes flouting royal authority, as Fulk of Rheims did rather than bolstering it as his predecessor Hincmar had done.123 Odo's power base of fisclands in Francia seems drastically diminished by comparison with Charles the Bald's. Odo is hardly ever documented as residing in a palace.124 No capitularies of his are known. Absence of reference to royal missi in his reign could suggest the removal of the linchpin of Carolingian administ121 AVs.a. 892, p. 72. 123 Schneider (1973).

122 124

Dhondt (1948); Dunbabin (1985). Bruhl (1968), pp. 48-9.

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ration. Last but not least, Odo's non-Carolingian royal person marks a break with the Carolingian past. Some of these trends proved reversible. Full-blown ecclesiastical principalities never materialised in France: instead ecclesiastical resources remained firmly under secular control, and in the Frankish heartlands especially that control was very often royal. Hereditary secular power was conspicuous, but it was no novelty; and while principalities proved a permanent feature in general terms, particular concentrations of regional power were precarious, often ephemeral, and as subject as the kingdom itself to vagaries of dynastic accident. In the Loire valley where Odo's brother dominated the scene from his comital base of Tours, a clear distinction between comital and royal authority was not lost sight of.125 Odo was still able to assemble magnates from the regions even if he seemed to 'ally with' them now, rather than to rule them.126 Although royal fisclands in Francia had been alienated or damaged, Odo with his multiple lay abbacies (he had acquired those of Gauzlin after 886) vigorously exploited church resources and so was able to 'prepare himself manfully for war'.127 After 892, the Scandinavian burden on Francia was considerably lightened. Odo's successor was able to stay frequently again in the Oise valley, and notably at Compiegne. Odo made up for his lack of Carolingian blood by imitating the Carolingians through symbolism and rituals which, thanks to the church, remained a royal monopoly. Here Odo looked ahead to the Capetians as well as back to Charles the Bald.128 Most important of all, Odo maintained a presence in every part of his composite realm, through visiting, in the case of Aquitaine, or through receiving leading men, in the cases of Gothia and Burgundy. Royal charters were still worth travelling for. The right to issue coinage remained, as yet, a royal one. In 893—7, the years of Odo's struggle with Charles the Straightforward, no division of the realm was mooted: the object of struggle was the realm as a whole. Charles the Bald had promoted the use of the written word, which memorialised the present (as well as the past) for the future. He had firmly locked the church into the state. He had understood the significance of rituals, and of ideology. The respublica he had nurtured survived the shocks of the later ninth century. The realm of 843 in the sense of a territory — 'the realm of Charles', 'the realm of the West Franks' — was preserved in the minds of men, and hence, however attenuated its institutions, in the world of politics. 125 127

See p. 415 below. Regino s.a. 893, p. 141.

126

AV s.a. 888, 889, 892, pp. 6;, 67, 72. 128 Schneidmiiller (1979), pp. 105-21.

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CHAPTER 5

THE FRANKISH KINGDOMS, 817-911: THE EAST AND MIDDLE KINGDOMS Johannes Fried

LOUIS the Pious had hurt himself, but his wounds were not worth talking about.1 Only three weeks later he was hunting again. Four months after this accident, the imperial council met. 'Suddenly, through divine inspiration', the emperor admitted, 'our faithful lieges admonished us that while we were still in good health, and God granted universal peace, we should confer on the state of the whole empire and the position of our sons, as our ancestors had done.'2 However, the political order the emperor and 'those who know what is most salutary' came up with was revolutionary, and led to civil war. Contrary to all precedent, the empire was no longer to be divided equally among the emperor's sons (Map 8); on the contrary, the eldest son, Lothar, was to receive the imperial crown immediately and exclusively while his brothers Pippin and Louis (the German) who were both minors had to be content, the former with Aquitaine, the latter with Bavaria and its adjacent territories. All other parts of the huge Frankish realm were to fall to Lothar; his brothers were to act as viceroys 'under' him. Lothar really received the imperial crown in 817, while his brothers were made kings. They seemed in a fair way to bring about the new order, but there was resistance from the majority of nobles. What was more, the Empress Irmengard died, and Louis took a new wife, Judith, a Welf, who feared for the inheritance of her children. She found some powerful supporters. Every time the young empress became pregnant, resistance to the new imperial order of 817 grew a little stronger; after the birth of Charles (the Bald) it came to a head. Schemes for the partition of the empire were soon put forward in rapid succession. After 829 an open struggle broke out, each son demanding his own share of Francia. Lothar was the only one to 1 2

BM6 4 } a. MGH Cap. i, no. 136, p. 270: 'ut nos fideles nostri ammonerent, quatenus manente nostra incolomitate et pace undique a deo concessa de statu totius regni et de filiorum nostrorum causa more parentum nostrorum tractaremus'. 142

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cling to the settlement of 817. His brothers, Pippin and Louis, were no longer content with a subordinate role; they insisted on their full inheritance and found supporters among the nobility, as Judith did for her own son, Charles. One ominous sign was that Einhard, Charlemagne's famous counsellor, withdrew from Louis' court to retire to his estates in the Maingau region. At the assembly held at Aachen in 828, the counts Hugh of Tours and Matfrid of Orleans fell from grace after military defeats at the hands of the Saracens, to the advantage of Judith's favourite, Bernard of Septimania. Louis also deprived the margrave Baldric of Friuli of his office for military failure; after this, Baldric's fate is unknown. However, Hugh, an Etichonid, was father-in-law to the Emperor Lothar; any move against him was really aimed at his daughter's husband. Matfrid sided with the young emperor, too, whose power was to be confined to Italy alone in the following year. An opposition gathered round him against his father which was led by Wala, abbot of Corbie, Agobard, archibishop of Lyons and Ebbo of Rheims (830) and which also had the support of Pope Gregory IV. However, its only achievement was to keep the merry-go-round of partition schemes moving. For all that, in 831 all the lands east of the Rhine were for the first time assigned to the emperor's older son (who was of the same name) to form his future kingdom. When Lothar was reconciled to his father, Pippin and the younger Louis put up resistance against them; they won over their elder brother and, together with him, pitted themselves against the emperor on the 'Rotfeld' near Colmar in 833. The pope was present, too. He was among the supporters of the younger emperor, and it was thanks to him that Louis' own army defected to his sons (833). This apparent victory was regarded as the outcome of an ordeal; the abandoned emperor was relegated to a monastery, but Lothar threw away the advantage when, by virtue of the settlement of 817, he began to lord it over his brothers. Louis the German, former king of Bavaria, had not the slightest intention of giving in, and from that time he dated his documents according to the length of his reign in orientali Francia. In 834 he joined with Pippin to restore their father to the throne. Louis the Pious, however, after the death of Pippin in 838, tried to confine Louis the German once again to Bavaria (839) in order to promote the interests of Charles. When Louis the Pious died in 840, the whirlwind of territorial partition had by no means been stilled. It drove the Carolingians ever deeper into war and eventually culminated in major bloodshed at Fontenoy in 841. It is, in fact, not always easy to discern the factions of nobles backing one of the Carolingians. Among Louis the Pious' supporters in East Francia were the Poppones, the Hattones (one of whom was his biographer, Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

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Thegan); Gebhardt, count of the Lahngau, who may have been related to the Hattones; the Robertines, founding family of the monastery at Lorsch, and also Archbishop Otgar of Mainz and Hraban Maur, archbishop of Fulda. After 840, all of them were shown some (at least temporary) disfavour by Louis the German. Without too much of an effort, his father was able to overcome him in 832 and again in 838—40. The Alemanni also remained largely faithful to the emperor: he was, therefore, able to earmark this province temporarily as a sub-kingdom for the younger Charles (829). In Saxony, the Hattone count Banzleib was loyal to Louis the Pious; the Cobbones, from the same region, presumably also belonged to the party of Louis and his son Charles, while the descendants of Widukind supported Lothar.3 Hugh the Etichonid and his companion, Matfrid, together with those who favoured a unified realm, declared for Lothar, as did many of the great noble families of the West and in Italy. Our sources tell us nothing about the force which supported Louis the German before 840: the only name known is that of Count Ruadker of Linz and Argengau, whom Louis the Pious demoted in favour of his wife's brother, Conrad the Welf, in 839. Only after Louis' death did this situation change: the Eastern Franks, Alemannians, Saxons and Thuringians now swore allegiance to the younger Louis. On the other hand, Archbishop Otgar of Mainz and Count Adalbert of Metz decided for Lothar and became rallying points for his supporters, albeit briefly, for Adalbert fell in battle near the river Wornitz, in the Ries region, in 841. It was of no avail that Lothar hatched a conspiracy in Saxony, the 'Stellinga',4 an alliance of petty freemen and semi-freemen which eventually drove the local nobility over to the side of Louis the German once and for all. It was only the Bavarians whose loyalty to Louis remained unwavering. None of the other 'Germanic' peoples had a centralised organisation of its own; only the Bavarians were united by having an archbishopric of their own and being led by a king. It was from Bavaria that the East Frankish kingdom was created. Although 'Transrhenania' was not a poor region, it was not a rich one either; it certainly did not compare favourably with the territories west of the Rhine. Its regions were culturally very diverse, as they comprised territories south of the Danube, the upper Rhine and the Frankish Main area, the woodlands of central Germany, the Harz region of Saxony and Thuringia and the Low German heaths and marshlands. In no way could it be considered a political or administrative unit. Except for the former Roman provinces, towns were virtually non-existent; bishops' sees were 3

Fried (1994).

4

Compare Goetz below, p. 460.

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few and far between and, with a few exceptions, comparatively poor; the most important archbishops resided west of the Rhine. Monasteries remarkable for economic strength, political importance and intellectual superiority were comparatively rare. The royal estates were scattered unevenly throughout 'Germania', with the thickest cluster in the Franconian Rhine and Main regions, around Kassel and around Regensburg; in Saxony they were mostly ranged along the Helliveg, the major strategic route from Duisburg to Corvey. This had considerable influence on Carolingian politics. Charlemagne spent a good deal of time in 'Germania', but only when he had to fight or to pacify the Saxons, Bavarians and Avars. His strongholds definitely lay west of the Rhine, around Worms and Aachen; as emperor he resided almost exclusively at Aachen. Louis the Pious also lived chiefly in the capital, with regular spells at Ingelheim and Worms. He hardly ever visited his eastern lands unless the demands of war — especially the younger Louis' revolts — required it. Only in Frankfurt was the emperor seen frequently, and it was here that Charles the Bald was born in 823. Apart from Aachen, the Rhine—Main area was generally the centre of his power. Furthermore, the emperor's love of hunting often drew him to Salz on the Franconian river Saale. Nor did an imperial synod meet in any of the 'Germanic' bishoprics. The provinces east of the Rhine were peripheral to royal rule. The outcome of the battle of Fontenoy, in which Lothar was defeated by Louis and Charles, had made a division of the kingdom among the three brothers inevitable. The idea that one of the emperor's sons should rule alone, on the analogy with the monarchy of God and the unity of the indivisible church, had proved to be a failure. The independent disposition of the nobility - obscured by Charlemagne's successes, and apparently never overcome — manifested itself again with a vengeance. The political order was now determined by personal forces, ties of kinship and friendship, associations of vassals and sworn leagues and groups of nobles in support of, or in opposition to, the crown. All of these factors by means of mutual interaction eventually brought about the emergence of new unions and peoples. The bloody battle did nothing to shift the barriers of mistrust even between the former partners. Owing to a lack of objectives, there was no such thing as a coherent concept of policy. From time to time there were ineffectual appeals to the doctrine of unity. What was most convincing as an aim was an increase of power. 'Love and peace' as it should prevail among kinsfolk could occasionally be displayed for a brief moment. By means of entering into an alliance with each other, Louis and Charles made a great display of mutual love. At Strasbourg and before their armies, they confirmed this with an oath sworn by Louis in the Romance tongue and by

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Charles in Teudisca lingua (842).5 The kingdoms' boundaries could now be seen as language barriers. A committee appointed to handle a territorial partition, consisting of fortyfidelesfor each king, established the boundaries in November 842. In deference to his dignity, the emperor was given first choice. The fraternal strife was ended, at least for the moment, by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. However, the form of the oath setting down the division of lands has not come down to us: only the general outcome is known6 (Map 9). Louis received everything east of the Riiine, with the cities of Speyer, Worms and Mainz; Charles got the West, and Lothar the Middle Kingdom with Aachen and Rome. The three kings swore brotherly love, peace and friendship to one another. The brothers wanted to tackle their great tasks together, and to this end they agreed to hold regular meetings. They made common declarations and issued statutes concerning ecclesiastical and secular government, defence against the Vikings, the persecution of criminals and the problem of how to deal with refugees. But reality lagged far behind such proclamations. Especially when it came to repelling enemies from outside such as Vikings, Saracens, Slavs and Magyars, each king was left to his own resources. The Carolingians did not stand by one another, although some of the Saxons occasionally came to Charles the Bald's aid, as in 860 and 863. For a time the meetings did at least keep up the fiction of a united Carolingian kingship. About a hundred of these meetings are known to have taken place in the period under discussion; however, the successive mutually acknowledged treaties which ensued actually accelerated the independent development of the individual kingdoms rather than restraining it. As the century drew to a close, these meetings became less frequent anyway. Lothar never completely buried his hopes of restoring the empire to its former glory. But he could not even gain a foothold. His brother Louis did not have the slightest intention of contenting himself with what the Treaty of Verdun had dealt out to him; and Charles was soon of like mind with his brothers. Up to 840—3 the emperor dwelt mostly in Italy; after that he remained almost exclusively north of the Alps, mostly around Aachen. This was his major stronghold. His policy of gradualism aimed at letting the defeat of 841 slowly sink into oblivion did not get him far. He had one success in 844, when Pope Gregory IV made Drogo, archbishop of Metz, the papal vicar for the whole Frankish kingdom. This was an obvious attempt to weaken the Treaty of Verdun. But the measure proved ineffective, and after Drogo's death in 8 5 5 it was not repeated. Lothar strove in 5

Nithardm.5 and McKitterick, above, pp. 11—12.

6

BM 1103a.

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vain to undermine the goodwill between his brothers; it did indeed turn to open enmity, with Louis waging war against Charles, but this did not in the least increase Lothar's power. Far from it! The Carolingian brothers' mutual hostility encouraged the Vikings to redouble their attacks on the Frankish kingdoms, which affected especially Lothar's territory. They repeatedly set fire to Dorestad, one of the most important ports and trading centres on the lower Rhine, in 847, and the place was permanently occupied by Rorik the Viking in 850. The emperor was no longer able to subdue the Northmen.7 Lothar's royal authority was also on the wane in his southern domains. Provence remained peripheral to his power. He did nothing to repel Saracen attacks. They even had the audacity to attack Rome and to loot the tombs of the apostles.8 Then, at long last, and for the last time, Lothar hastened into Italy to set an army going against the Muslims. At Pavia he met his son Louis II (April/May 847); however, he pressed for a speedy return in February of the same year, fearing Charles' machinations in spite of the peace accord he had so recently signed with his brothers.He did at least devote some effort to a plan for a grand alliance which was to involve Pope Leo IV, the dukes of Benevento and Naples and even the Doge of Venice. In 847, the emperor summoned a synod 'in Francia' which obliged the bishops to give military support to the 'Italians', and, above all, resolved to raise a special tax throughout Lothar's kingdom tofinancethe construction of defences round St Peter's in Rome (also known as 'Leo's Town'). Meanwhile, all power in Italy came into the hands of Lothar's eldest son, soon to be crowned emperor by Leo IV in 850. But it was under the same pope that the papacy began to free itself from Frankish domination. It was only the person of the king that gave some unity to the East Frankish kingdom; it did not have any tradition of its own. The army consisted of contingents from individual peoples; when the court was summoned the nobility turned up more or less in tribal groups. The areas inhabited by them and subject to their own particular laws were regularly seen as their own patria; the idea that the whole East Frankish kingdom should be considered as the supreme patria of all the peoples together remained inchoate. Neither the lay nobility nor the clergy considered themselves in any way bound by the frontiers drawn up in 842/3 nor did they (unlike the West Frankish nobility after the Treaty of Coulaines in 843) ever form a genuine union of their own. The fear was rather of renewed disintegration. The twofold process of 'internal' and 'external' consolidation was a slow one which was to be completed only in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. 7

Compare Coupland, pp. 193-6.

8

Compare Kennedy, p. 254.

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Louis' reign was more or less free from major feuds among the nobility; after his death they became more frequent. Even after 843, Bavaria still remained Louis' most important power base. He repeatedly held court at Regensburg and it was from there that he addressed documents to recipients throughout his whole realm. After the Treaty of Verdun the Frankish Rhineland assumed a comparable importance; the Upper Franconia area around Forchheim was soon to play an important role for Louis while the significance of the other Frankish regions continued to decline. What expansionism Louis indulged in was directed outwards from Bavaria. The 'true' frontier was not pushed any further eastward, but Bavarian missionaries and settlers did advance steadily down the Danube into Pannonia and pushed the 'German' frontier continually further towards the southeast. Charlemagne himself had encouraged his subjects to 'take possession of the lands in Pannonia and acquire estates there' so as to increase the property of the church; thus the province increasingly came to be part of the territory under Carolingian rule.9 Saxony and Alemannia were remote from the centre of royal power and Louis' appearances there were few and far between. He went only three times to Saxony, in 845, 8 51 and 8 5 2, and he spent only a few weeks there out of the whole of his 33-year reign after 843; each time it was in response to some threatening development.10 Otherwise Louis left the province more and more to itself, or rather to the ecclesiastical and lay nobility. Alemannia was not nearly as marginal to the East Frankish king's itineraries as was Saxony. It formed, as it were, a convenient bridge between Bavaria and Francia, and it was actually too close to the west and the south of the kingdom to be neglected. From 8 50 to 860 Louis methodically consolidated his position there, particularly by means of monasteries. The convent for ladies of rank at Zurich, founded in 85 3, was headed by two of his daughters in turn; one was Hildegard, who died in 856, and the other was Berta, who died in 877.u Louis paid frequent visits to the imperial palace at Ulm. He was successful in increasing his influence in this territory; nevertheless, in about 8 5 9 he resigned his position there to his youngest son, Charles. The clergy of the kingdom of East Francia had by now lost the dominant influence they had had under Louis the Pious. Of the twenty-five documents which the younger Louis is known to have issued before 840, however, ten were addressed to Bavarian bishops; another nine were added up till 876.12 The rest of the episcopate received only seventeen royal missives between 840/3 and 876. The bishops' influence was obviously declining everywhere except for Bavaria. National synods which might have done something to 9 11

10 MGH Dip. Germ. 1, no. 109. BM 1386a; 1398b; 1402C-1403C. 12 Werner (1967). Compare MGH Dip. Germ. 1.

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counter this development were very seldom convened by Louis. Only when Hraban Maur (847—56) acceded to the see of Mainz did the East Frankish synod become active, but under his successor Charles (856—63) it soon lost this impulse, and under Liutbert (863—89) it died away altogether.13 None of this prevented individual prelates from exerting considerable influence on the king; they did this as representatives of their own kin groups rather than of their institutions. Bishops such as Hraban Maur, Charles or Liutbert of Mainz, or Ermenrich of Passau (who died in 874) played a prominent part as counsellors or royal fideles. Some abbots and monasteries were more important than most of the cathedrals and bishops; however, bishops were put in charge of the major royal monasteries. Lay abbots, on the other hand, were of little importance in Louis' kingdom. Louis was predominantly concerned with acquiring the West and the Middle Kingdom. Any sign of weakness on the part of Charles the Bald, as in 8 5 4, 8 5 8 and after 870, was an opportunity for Louis to gain a foothold in the far West.14 Influential groups of nobles such as the Robertines and the Rorgonids sought his help and invited him to take over the throne then. First Louis sent his son Louis to Aquitaine; however, he had to withdraw without having achieved anything; in 858 Louis the German himself appeared in his brother's kingdom at the head of an army. Nevertheless, Louis was not able to do any better than his son. Hincmar of Rheims called for resistance among the West Franks, for as metropolitan archbishop he had profited most from a division which had made him the most important ecclesiastic in the kingdom.15 In 859, Louis had to retreat precipitately. A policy of aggressive conquest beyond the old boundaries of the realm was virtually unthinkable; it was hard enough to repel enemies coming in from outside. Louis, too, pursued a generally defensive policy in the north and northeast of his kingdom, and even the active interest he took in Bavaria seemed rather less than what many of its inhabitants would have expected it to be. When Lothar I died in 8 5 6 his Middle Kingdom was divided among his sons. Louis received Italy and the imperial crown, Lothar II the lands up to the North Sea, and Charles Burgundy and Provence. However, none of these was to be succeeded by his son, and all their reigns were constantly overshadowed by the relentless envy of their two uncles. Lothar II, whose kingdom was to bear his own name as regnum Hlotharii or Lotharingia, soon lost all his freedom of action. His marriage to Theutberga remained childless, and while he had a number of children by Waldrada, this liaison, blessed with offspring, bore the stigma of ecclesiastical disapproval. A king 13

Hartmann (1989).

H

Compare Nelson, pp. 124-6 above.

ls

BM 1435a; k; n.

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without a son was ipso facto a weak ruler, and to change this situation, the barren queen had to be removed from his side. A Lotharingian synod of the realm was convened which granted a divorce on the grounds that Theutberga had been unfaithful.16 The unfortunate lady and her influential family turned to Charles the Bald (who was advised by his learned bishops) for help; thence they appealed to the pope. In vain Lothar tried to win one or the other uncle over to his side. In vain he lured his East Frankish relative with a promise to cede Alsace. Both Charles and Louis immediately seized their opportunity to attempt to get hold of Lothar's inheritance. Pope Nicholas I went over to their side: he excommunicated Lothar's concubine for her 'obstinate determination to remain wallowing in the mire of fornication',17 and at a synod in Rome in 865 he deprived Bishops Gunthar of Cologne and Thietgaud of Trier of their offices for having supported their king. Nicholas' successor, Hadrian II, remained equally adamant. These incidents do not only expose the personal character of political alliances; they also point to a persistent influence on the part of the papacy during the formative period of both Germany and France. A kingdom's chances of survival were crucially diminished by papal interference making use of the law. Lothar II's kingdom was further shaken by danger from outside: Viking raids were becoming more numerous and also more efficient. The Vikings were acting, certainly in effect if not in name, as allies of the West and East Frankish kings. When Lothar II died in 869, Charles II immediately invaded the Middle Kingdom while his brother was detained at Regensburg by sickness and warring Wends. Charles issued a stern summons to the Lotharingian nobles: whoever did not hasten to his aid was to be stripped of all his royalfiefsand personal estates. In 870 he had himself anointed and crowned in Metz, ignoring Pope Hadrian's protests at this violation of the Treaty of Verdun; his threats of excommunication (870) were also disregarded. The pope's attempts to defend the claims of Louis II proved unavailing, for Louis — who had no son — was another emperor without a future. As soon as Louis recovered, Charles gave way, and 'Lotharingia' was partitioned from north to south, a division which failed to take the linguistic boundary into account. The Treaty of Meersen (870) confirmed the arrangement (Map 10). Aachen became the third centre of the East Frankish kingdom, alongside Regensburg and Frankfurt.18 Every year Louis paid a visit to Charlemagne's former capital, while the south of Lothar's old kingdom dwindled into a peripheral zone of the realm. « BM 1282a. 17 Regino s.a. 866, pp. 87—8: 'nisi, obstinate* animo in moechiae volutabro perenniter permanere 18 proposuisset'. Compare the itineraries of Louis the German and Louis the Younger.

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Louis' kingdom continued to escape serious threats from without, though in 845 the Vikings attacked Hamburg, a flourishing trading centre which was about to become the metropolis of an archbishopric. Archbishop Ansgar (who died in 865) withdrew to Bremen. This was the beginning of the future archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen eventually reorganised by Pope Nicholas I in 864.19 It was, however, saved by a fortunate chance: in 8 5 4 an epidemic was brought in from the west and curbed the warlike spirit of the Northmen so that they took an oath to hold peace. This they really did for several decades up to 880. In return, Louis refrained from encouraging the Saxons to make small attacks against the Danes which might relieve the pressure on the Western and Middle kingdoms. Missionary endeavours in Scandinavia also came to a standstill despite a further visit by Ansgar, for the king's support for them was less than enthusiastic. The danger from over the Elbe was also slight. Louis' 'pious' father had skilfully protected the eastern frontier by setting up a buffer zone (839).20 The Slav peoples who had settled in (he region were kept in check by occasional military campaigns. Neither in Bohemia nor in the central Elbe valley was there any outstanding sovereign ducal power. The church's missionary activity was making good progress: in 845 fourteen Bohemian duces were baptised in Regensburg. 21 Ten years later troops from Bavaria under Count Ernst (in 855) and the king himself (in 8 5 6) forced the Bohemians to pay tribute (Map 12).22 The only borderlands demanding constant attention were those close to the Moravians, Carinthians and Pannonians. Repeated expeditions under Louis, his son Carloman and the Bavarians (from 846 onwards) proved powerless to eliminate the Moravian duchy. The chief architects of Moravian power were Pribina, Mojmir and especially Rastislav (846-70) and Sventopolk (870—94).23 They represented an ever-increasing danger to the Bavarians. Rastislav and Svatopluk even maintained contacts with a few Bavarian counts, as the former probably had a hand in the rebellion of Radbod (854), the long-serving prefect of the Bavarian frontier (he had first been appointed in 833). Rastislav even managed to win over Prince Carloman (858). But it does not appear that Louis the German ever planned to conquer Slav territories outside the established frontiers; at most he sought a kind of suzerainty over Moravia and Bohemia. Missionary work in the southeast marches of the realm was the responsibility of the bishops of Passau, Regensburg and Salzburg. Rastislav aspired to independence from his neighbours, and therefore he made overtures to the Byzantine emperor Michael and asked him to send Greek missionaries 19 22

21 SchiefferandSeegriin(i98i). ™ BlV^jb. BM 1380a. 23 BM 1411b. Compare Shepard, pp. 242-3 below.

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^

WEST

Strasbour

FRANKISH

f SUABIA

KINGDOM

KINGDOM R0r

OF

300 km

Map 12 The East Frankish kingdom in the ninth century

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(862). The basileus promptly dispatched Cyril and Methodius to the Moravians. The Bavarian bishops were furious. At the same time, Boris, khan of the Bulgars, was aiming to build up a national church independent of Constantinople. Therefore, he sought support from the East Frankish king (866) with whom he had already established relations. A Bulgarian church established under the auspices of Bavaria would also have settled the ecclesiastical future of Moravia. Ermenrich of Passau was to lead the enterprise. In reality it was beyond the scope of the Bavarian and even the East Frankish episcopate. Even the very basics were lacking: liturgical vessels, vestments and books had to be cadged from the bishops of Charles the Bald.24 When Ermenrich eventually arrived among the Bulgars he had come too late: missionaries from Rome were already preaching and baptising throughout the country so that the only thing left to do for the bishop of Passau was to go home again. The failure had an adverse effect on the mission to the Moravians and caused all the more ire at the Bavarian court. In 869 Louis the German sent three bodies of troops, each led by one of his sons, against the Slavs. In 870 Rastislav finally fell victim to his treacherous nephew, Sventopolk, and was sent as a prisoner to Louis; he died in captivity. Not long afterwards, Methodius fell into the hands of the Bavarian bishops and was exiled to the innermost part of Alemannia where he spent three years before Pope John VIII intervened to free him. Meanwhile an Alemannian, Wiching by name, had become bishop of Nitra; he was later to become the most embittered enemy of Methodius. Discontent first came to a head among the Bavarian nobility. From 854 onwards, there was increasing resistance; at that time there was an uprising after which Radbod, Prefect of the Eastern Marches, was deposed. Soon the whole eastern frontier zone boiled over. The royal house itself contributed to the turmoil. Louis, like his father, had three legitimate sons, Carloman, Louis (the Younger) and Charles (Charles III, the Fat), each of whom was to become a king in his own right. Carloman was the first to make a move. In 8 5 6 Louis put him in charge of the marches of the Bavarian east, but he put Carinthia under a count of its own. If this measure was intended to avoid the danger of revolt, it did not succeed, as Carloman married — probably without his father's permission — the daughter of Ernst, count of the Nordgau, who was the most influential of the Bavarian magnates. Immediately Carloman began to build up his own power at his father's expense. Instead of marching against the Moravians as Louis had wished, he made peace and entered into an alliance with Rastislav (8 5 8).25 At that time Louis' 2« BM I 4 6 2 f.

25 BM 1445a.

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military activities detained him in the west of his kingdom. Only in 860 did he take action. Now the archbishopric of Salzburg was granted extensive royal estates in Pannonia and Carinthia: by strengthening the prelate Louis hoped to mitigate the danger from the lay nobility.26 In the following year, Ernst was removed from office. His fall also brought down his nephews, Berengar, Udo and Abbot Waldo who belonged to the powerful Conradin family. They were exiled and lost all their possessions. Making a countermove, Carloman subdued all Bavaria as far as the Inn. An undisguised struggle for power broke out between father and son in which Carloman eventually had to give in. In 863 he was accused of high treason and arrested. In 864 he managed to escape, but in the end he felt compelled to make peace with his father so that the latter eventually forgave him. Louis was well aware of the threat his sons would pose to his kingdom as they grew to manhood. He tried to counter this by making preparations for the partition of his realm. As early as 859-65 he granted his sons powers less than those of a king, but greater than those of a noble, making them principes, 'governors' of separate tribal areas whose coherence they were bound to strengthen.27 The king's sons thus became the predecessors and models of future dukes. In taking these measures Louis broadly followed the old tribal boundaries. Bavaria, which included Carinthia as well as (from 874) the claim to Italy and thus the imperial dignity, was to go to Carloman; Franconia and Saxony to Louis the Younger, who was also designated to receive the expected inheritance in Lotharingia and his father's hoped-for gains in West Francia. Alemannia was to go to Charles III. Carloman, however, was the favourite of the queen, Emma. The background to this relationship is obscure, as is the exact role played by Louis' wife. Emma, who was sister to the Welf princess Judith, on whose account the imperial agreement of 817 had been abrogated, enticed her husband into machinations on her eldest son's behalf — or at least her younger offspring feared this was so. This drove the younger Louis into revolt in 865—6. Without having consulted his father, he betrothed himself to the daughter of Adalhard, whose influence in the West and Middle kingdoms was enormous, whose possessions were scattered all over the three parts of the realm and who thus represented that section of the nobility whose interests still extended over the entire Frankish realm. Together with his relatives, the Robertines, he had invited Louis the German to join his illfated invasion of the West kingdom in 8 5 8. Thus Louis' son was following a path which must have seemed to his father suspicious, if nothing more, while the West Frankish king could only see it as dangerous. Once again, 26

MGHDip. Germ. 1, no. 102.

" Borgolte (1984).

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Charles hastened to reconcile his brother and nephew. The younger Louis had to renounce his betrothal to Adalhard's daughter and marry the Saxon wife his father had chosen for him. The peace remained precarious; several times Louis the Younger, deeply mistrustful of Carloman, quarrelled with his father, but each time harmony was restored. To have prevented open war among his sons was probably Louis the German's greatest achievement. He was ever willing to forgive them, and after each revolt he increased their share of power. All in all, Louis the German's reign was a period of remarkable stability; only in the marches of eastern Bavaria was there some dangerous unrest. 'Germania' was still less developed and poorer than the West and Middle kingdoms. It was mainly for this reason, among others, that it was less troubled by over-mighty Frankish noble families who made life so difficult for Charles the Bald, and by the two Lothars. Only a handful of isolated nobles rebelled against the king; there was not a trace of any alliances (coniurationes) among the noble families. Louis' opponents never developed any form of organisation independent of himself or his sons; the royal court was the only place where the nobility ever appeared in a body. This made it easier for Louis to restrain the individual magnates who rebelled against him. The power of the nobles was still extensive rather than intensive. Certainly the monarchy would have needed to tighten its grip to resist the growing pressure from the nobility in the future: that Louis failed in this is revealed by the astonishing weakness of royal power after his death. Louis was in fact resting on his predecessors' laurels; he was not an innovator. His government was, as it were, backward-looking. He put most of his energy into grabbing ever larger chunks of his ancestors' original estate in which he, too, was subject to the primitive notion that it was the size of the realm which determined one's standing as a ruler. The death of the 'great' Louis aroused the avarice of 'bald' Charles. Perhaps he had been invited in by some Lotharingians, perhaps he came of his own accord, haloed by the glory of his recent successes, for he had just taken possession of Italy (875) and of the imperial crown.28 He had (as he claimed) entered into the Treaty of Verdun with Louis only and not with his sons; Charles' nephews were either to submit or to be blinded; their followers were to be deprived of their possessions or sent into exile unless they did him homage immediately. Near Andernach, on the Rhine, Louis the Younger inflicted a defeat on his uncle which consolidated his new kingship. Louis the German's sons divided the realm amongst themselves in 28

Compare Nelson, pp. 126-7 above.

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accordance with the order of succession. They met in the Nordlinger Ries in November 876 to swear mutual loyalty. The nobility's conception of themselves must surely have been affected by this as the peoples conquered by the Franks now appeared with the same rights as their former vanquishers; the future history of East Francia was to be profoundly affected by this. The brothers came to a similar arrangement for dividing the eastern half of Lotharingia between Louis and Charles, while Carloman received Italy (877). When Carloman surrendered his claim to Lotharingia he for thefirsttime abandoned his policy directed towards 'Francia' and the west which his son, Arnulf, was to resume and which proved to have a future. All of his attention was focused on the east and south. The claim to Italy which Carloman had recently (874) obtained from the Emperor Louis had of course first to be asserted against Pope John VIII and Charles the Bald (875);29 only after his uncle's death in 877 did Carloman gain a real hold on the Lombard kingdom. The pope was not amused: a king from Bavaria could more easily reach Rome than one from northern Gaul. He set out to prevent Carloman's coronation in Rome and tried to persuade Louis the Stammerer to take the imperial crown instead (878). But Louis refused. However, this did little good to Carloman the Bavarian as he was struck down by disease and died without fulfilling the hopes which had been placed in him. Seen in the context of further developments in German history, the kingdom of Louis the Younger deserves particular attention. Louis alone still ruled as king 'in Eastern Francia' while his brothers ruled 'in Bavaria' or 'in Italy'. This was when the name formerly used for the whole realm began to be confined to the narrower ethnic territory of the German Franks. The archbishop of Mainz had his see, his diocese and most of his province within Louis' kingdom. Archbishop Liutbert was also Louis the Younger's chancellor, and Louis' marriage into the Liudolfing dynasty raised it above the generality of the Saxon nobility. Louis' realm united the peoples who, to the Ottonians, were the pillars of the kingdom, that is, the Franks and the Saxons, to which could be added the Lotharingians. He was married to Liutgard, of the Liudolfing family, kept close contacts with the Babenbergers and also received the Conradins, whom his father had stripped of power, at his court. By gathering these three noble houses around himself, Louis was conciliating not only his father's enemies, but also, more importantly, the representatives of the most respected noble families in the East who, through their West Frankish relations, had enormous influence 29

Fried (198 z).

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throughout the whole realm. Thus it was at the court of the younger Louis that the configuration first arose which was to govern the fate of Eastern Francia at the beginning of the tenth century. The West of his realm, together with Lotharingia, was the object of Louis' closest attention. The Treaty of Fouron which he made with his cousin Louis the Stammerer in 878 guaranteed the integrity of both kingdoms even in the case of their sons' succession.30 The West Frankish nobility's loyalties were divided, of course, and when Charles' son died, some great West Frankish nobles invited the East Frankish king, Louis, to come over even though their own king had left two sons. Louis the Younger paid scant regard to the treaty to which he had just sworn and accepted the invitation. Once again Hincmar of Rheims organised the resistance and compelled Louis to abandon the enterprise in return for the transfer of the Lotharingian West. For the first time the western frontier of Lotharingia appeared as the frontier of the East Frankish kingdom; the Treaty of Ribemont (880) sealed the agreement. The inheritance of Lotharingia altered the demands on the East Frankish king, for now he had to beat back the Vikings. What is more, Hugh, the bastard son of Lothar II, was in league with them and was busy doing his foul work there. Atfirst(873) the Vikings were driven back, but three years later the next band of pirates was bivouacking and wreaking havoc in Frisia, and from 879 onwards a 'great host' led by a number of 'kings' made an attempt to settle permanently on the lower Rhine. Louis' moves against them were unsuccessful. In 880 he had to abandon his siege of Nijmegen prematurely and let the besieged Vikings escape. In the same year the Northmen annihilated a Saxon force led by the Liudolfing Brun. Louis' West Frankish cousin and namesake had better luck: in 881 he defeated the Vikings at Saucourt. The 'great host' shifted its sphere of operations to Lotharingia and thus into the kingdom of Louis the Younger. The whole area between the Rhine and the Meuse was ravaged; the Vikings kept their horses in the lady chapel at Aachen. Cologne and Bonn were burned down; Trier lost its Roman character which it had hitherto managed to preserve (881—2).31 After his uncle had died and his brother Carloman had fallen ill in 878, Louis was the oldest legitimate Carolingian who enjoyed full freedom of action. Opposition groups in Bavaria turned to him. In order to steal a march on his brother Charles, therefore, he accepted the succession in Bavaria and its adjoining lands while ceding his claims to Italy to Charles (879—80). This settlement did not, however, prove to be a lasting one. Louis died prematurely of disease in 882 while the Vikings were still wreaking havoc in Lotharingia. 30

MGH Cap. 11, no. 246, pp. 168—70.

31

Anton (1987).

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Louis had been a man who stood, as it were, at the intersection of two major conflicting trends causing a good deal of polarised tension. He regarded neither the East Frankish kingdom of his father nor the part of the realm he himself had inherited as a self-contained unit. However, Louis was the nucleus of a grouping of nobles who insisted on the validity of the partition of 843 and thus became instrumental in the transition from Frankish to German history. Louis' inheritance passed to his youngest brother, Charles. He seemed to have attained what every Carolingian king aimed at: a united empire well under his control. Italy (879), the imperial crown (881) andfinallythe West (885) also fell to him without any effort on his part; only Burgundy and Provence, where Boso had made himself king in 879 in defiance of the Carolingians, escaped his suzerainty. Yet since 843 the nobles of the various sub-kingdoms had been going their separate ways. The sub-kingdoms did not simply disappear after the reunification, as is shown by the royal documents which continued to be dated according to Charles' reign 'in Italy' (from 882), 'in Gaul' (from 885) and 'in Francia' (in the East Frankish kingdom), indicating that the former royal chanceries still existed.32 However, this was of little significance, as the reunification lasted for barely three years, that is until 887-8. A more successful emperor might have made a good many changes. For a short time, there was renewed hope for a restoration of the empire's unity. However Charles achieved very little; worst of all, he could not shake off his Alemannian past; most of his counsellors were Alemannians. This was a source of discontent, and it alienated the Franks, who gathered around Liutbert of Mainz.33 This archbishop, who could easily have become instrumental in bringing about the unity of the East Frankish kingdom, had been royal chaplain since 870. As soon as Charles had succeeded his brother in 882, he deprived Liutbert of that office and gave it to Liutward who had already been made bishop of Vercelli in 8 80. Bavaria also did badly out of the change of rulers, and under Charles it eventually came to share Saxony's role as a neglected territory. The Bavarian nobility were more divided among themselves than ever; Charles, indeed, had no intention of allowing the province to be ruled by one man, not even by his nephew Arnulf. Further east, the change of rulers proved equally disastrous. Under Svatopluk, Moravia's unabated rise to the status of a powerful kingdom continued. Soon there was open war between Bavarians and Moravians. Charles proved unequal to his initial good fortune. Having just succeeded his brother, he led an attack on the Vikings. They were besieged at Asselt, 32 Bruhl (1990), pp. 90-4.

« Keller (1966).

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on the Meuse, in 882, and seemed on the brink of annihilation when Charles made peace with them, accepted their king Godfrid as his vassal and marched off again. The annalist of Fulda (who was closely associated with Liutbert of Mainz) was fuming with impotent rage as he recorded the events of that year. There were also disputes over policy as Liutward thought it better to negotiate rather than fight: instead of attempting to drive out the Vikings, they should be given fiefs in the threatened regions so that they owed a duty to the king and could be burdened with the defence of the territory. However, the Alemannian was not to have his way. The Franks held open war in higher esteem, and Charles' reputation was shaken and rapidly diminished. Eventually he had to part with Liutward, who was replaced in 887 by his most inveterate enemy, Archbishop Liutbert. Although the latter hastened to change sides and became a supporter of Charles while the disgraced Liutward went over to Arnulf of Carinthia, the new archbishop of Mainz was unable to undo the harm that had already been done. The Viking incursions were worse than ever: the 'great host' was back, and this time it meant to stay. In 884 and 885 the Northmen appeared again in Saxony, but were driven back; when they entrenched themselves at Duisburg, the most convenient of the Rhine ports, for several winters, the menace could be contained. The defence was organised by Heinrich, an early 'Babenberger', the former princeps militiae of Louis the Younger. But he was killed trying to relieve Paris, which was besieged by the Vikings, in 886. The gap he left was filled by his brothers-in-law, the Liudolfings, in Saxony. Fresh dangers were also brewing in the East. A murderous struggle for powerflaredup in Thuringia among the leading families: the 'Babenberger Feud' was in its early stages. Unrest was growing in Bavaria, stirred up by both the native nobility and the prince of Moravia. And even in Alemannia rivalry was growing amongst factions of nobles who alternated between supporting and opposing the king; Liutward fell victim to them in 887. All in all, there was mounting discontent with the unsuccessful emperor. Charles strove to put his house in order. Although Richardis had borne him no children, he did have a son, one Bernard, by a concubine, to whom he planned to bequeath his realm. He did his best to safeguard this arrangement, but it was all in vain. The nobility were little inclined to submit to a minor. Bernard did not succeed his father. Apparently, the long series of disasters forced Charles the Fat into the greatest concession that could be wrung from a Carolingian: he had to relinquish the restored unity and consent to a new partition of the realm. It is probable, however, that this split into a number of regna, some not even ruled by Carolingians, had

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already been planned during Charles' reign in the form which it actually took after the emperor's downfall. Arnulf, for his part, was not going to be satisfied with a subordinate position. He had every reason to be angry with his uncle. Under Louis the Younger he had occupied a prominent position in Bavaria, but Charles had confined him to Carinthia and Pannonia and had kept him 'short of estates and within narrow bounds'.34 This really amounted to a considerable comedown for Charles' nephew. Arnulf accordingly began to gather his uncle's enemies around himself. When power began to slip between the ailing emperor's fingers, Arnulf knew that his time had come. He came inforceto an assembly near Tribur in 887, ousted his uncle and went to nearby Frankfurt to receive the homage of the nobles who were present, and who may have been in collusion with him. Soon afterwards, probably at Forchheim, he had himself formally elected as king by all the tribes and was eventually crowned at Regensburg. Charles survived this humiliation for about eight weeks before succumbing to his illness. His son Bernard was killed three years later (891) when he rebelled against the upstart Arnulf. The new king was an usurper. After the premature death of his father he had no overriding claim to the throne, and he unscrupulously exploited his uncle's sickness to elbow him out and forestall the superior claims of other Carolingian magnates and pretenders to the throne. Nearer to the throne than he, or at least as near, were two minors, Bernard and Charles the Simple; however, Lothar IFs son Hugh was ineligible as he had been blinded. There was no noble family in Eastern Francia, apart from the royal line, which had come to be prominent enough to aspire to the throne, as happened in the West and in Italy. There were not many obstacles to Arnulf s recognition. Although he did have some opponents, he did not have to fear a rival. The West Franks did not participate in this upheaval, and neither did the 'Italians'; nevertheless the event was of considerable significance. Everywhere, new kings were appearing: January 888 saw the rise in Italy of the Unruoching Berengar of Friuli, and in Upper Burgundy of the Welf Rudolf, who had his eye on Alemannia and Lotharingia. In Gaul there was the Robertine Odo who stole a march on Wido of Spoleto; in Provence, there was Louis, the grandson of a Carolingian; and in Aquitaine, there was Ramnulf, the only one to give in prematurely (in 888). Here, decisive action was taken without questions of law having been settled in advance. Arnulf could do nothing about it because he had no better title to his kingship than the others had to theirs, although as king of the whole East Frankish realm 34

Notker, Gesta Karoli n. 34.

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he was powerful enough to exercise a kind of hegemony over the other 'petty kings'.35 In the first years after he had seized the throne, Arnulf made an appearance in all the provinces of his realm. Yet he made no attempt to fight for the whole empire even when in 890, after Odo's uprising, Fulk of Rheims offered him the crown of the West Frankish kingdom, and Pope Stephen V that of Rome. Arnulf bowed to the inevitable, recognised Odo (888—98), acknowledged Berengar as king of Italy and, for the time being, Rudolf as king of Upper Burgundy (888), while confirming Louis' claim by presenting him with a sceptre (889). Thus, Arnulf sanctioned Charles the Fat's plan for a partition of the empire - if there really had been such a plan with only one exception: he took Bernard's place for himself. As a token of 'friendship' Arnulf sent the Robertian a crown, with which Odo did in fact have himself crowned by the metropolitan bishop of Rheims. Only Wido, whose appearance had disturbed the partition of the realm which may already have been planned under Charles III, and who even seemed to be striving for the hegemony over the whole of the Frankish realm, remained unrecognised by Arnulf. Arnulf's defence of his kingdom was put to its most severe test by the Vikings. He gave battle to them on the Dyle near Leuven in 892: this was one of the last combats against the Vikings within what was to become the 'German' empire. For the Vikings were of course no longer entering the Frankish kingdom only to plunder it: now they wanted to stay there. They were ferociously driven back. Then, at last, the 'great host' turned back to England, overrunning the east of that country, which became the Danelaw.36 The pressure on the Frankish kingdom was substantially reduced. The church proved to be the strongest support to the late Carolingian king: there existed a relationship characterised by mutual dependence. While sections of the lay nobility often rebelled, the bishops remained loyal. Bishops and abbots from all over the realm regularly attended the royal assemblies in large numbers. Arnulf allowed them greatly to influence his decisions. The synods, especially, gained an importance which was unprecedented in the East Frankish realm; this is all the more surprising in that in the West, after the death of the great Hincmar in 882, a contrary tendency had been perceptible. It was also on Frankish soil that the most important assembly of this era met: this was at Tribur, southwest of Frankfurt, in 895.37 Twenty-six bishops from all the provinces of the realm assembled under the leadership of Hatto of Mainz, Heriman of Cologne and Ratbod of Trier, and 35

37

Regino/.a. 888, p. 129: 'Multos enim idoneos principesad regnigubernaculamoderanda Francia M genuisset'. Compare Keynes, p. 42 above. MGHCap. ii, no. 252, pp. 196—249.

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almost sixty canons were promulgated. The reforms they agreed on formed a coherent programme. However, it was not granted to Arnulf to implement this programme. He was remarkably generous in his frequent endowments from which the bishops benefited: monasteries, forests, rights of coinage, the right to hold markets and to exact customs dues were granted to them in unprecedented measure. In return, the bishops took on increased military responsibilities and were both expected and able to create their own followings of vassals as the lay nobility had already been doing for some time. While Arnulf favoured the bishops, this did not mean that he neglected the laity. Notable regional differences can be discerned. Alongside Franconia, Bavaria once again became the centre of royal power: most of the recipients and interveners of Arnulf s documents lived there. It was this regnum that was Arnulfs power base, and it was in its palaces that he preferred to reside. He seldom held assemblies there, however, and the documents he issued in Bavaria (apart from Regensburg) were normally intended for Bavarian recipients only and seldom for those who lived in other parts of the realm. The latter tended to go to Franconia, especially the Rhine—Main area, in order to meet the king there. It was there that he had won his kingdom, and it was mainly from there that he ruled it. Bavaria was exceptionally important to Arnulf. Probably as early as 876, Carloman had entrusted the defence of his eastern frontier to his son; here he had risen to prominence; all his past bound him to the East of his realm. The duke of Carinthia had already turned his whole attention to the continuing disputes with the Slavs of Moravia. He had soon clashed with Svatopluk Moravia. In 884 and 885 Arnulf was compelled to make peace, surrendering Bohemia and maybe even parts of Pannonia to Svatopluk, but as soon as he became king he tried to wipe off this disgrace. He immediately started to build fortified refuges, thus preparing for a military confrontation. In vain did the margrave Aribo try to convince him that the Moravians desired only peace. From 892 onwards he made war on them, even calling on the Magyars for aid. After Svatopluk's death in 894 when his sons, Mojmir II and Svatopluk II, quarrelled over the succession, Arnulf began to do much better. The Bohemians at once (895) did homage to the Frankish king, but again some of the Bavarian nobles had sided with the Moravians, which made it difficult, and eventually impossible, to make radical changes here. Arnulfs conflicts with the nobility became more and more embittered, and they were not confined to Bavaria. The 'Babenberger' Poppo, the 'duke of the Thuringians', rather surprisingly lost hisfiefsand allodia in 892; at the same time, the Conradin Rudolf received the bishopric of Wiirzburg, whereby his family extended its influence to the East Frankish border and Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

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brought it to bear on the Babenbergers. This step had certainly been brought about by the queen, Uta, who was also a Conradin. The emperor realised his mistake, but it was too late: the 'Babenberger Feud' which turned Babenbergers and Conradins into irreconcilable enemies, and in which the Liutpoldings of Bavaria became involved as well, continued to run its course and laid an unendurable burden on the reign of his son, Louis.38 Other nobles also felt the weight of Arnulfs anger. It seems odd, in this context, that the margrave Aribo had scarcely been demoted when he was again restored to his 'prefecture'; only his son continued to be out of favour and did not become reconciled until later, with Louis the Child.39 Evidently Arnulf had no such thing as a clear-cut policy. The king was especially perturbed by an alliance between Hildegard, a legitimate daughter of Louis the Younger, and Engildeo, count of the Northern Gau of Bavaria, who had clashed with Arnulf when he had merely been a duke. Arnulf deposed the count and, 'according to the counsel and judgement of the Franks, Bavarians, Saxons and Alemanni' stripped his cousin of all her possessions and banished her to a nunnery at Frauenchiemsee (895).40 Hildegard was soon free again; however, the noble Liutpold took over the role of Engildeo. Legal proceedings in the royal court deserve particular attention. The princess was judged by a royal court of justice whose members were drawn from all the peoples who had elected Arnulf as king. This was new at the time, but it was to become ever more common. It was not the constitution of law courts that had changed, but the ideology of kingship. It now embraced more than the narrow circle around the ruler: the nobility also had a part in it. This pointed to a hitherto unknown unity between king and nobles which was henceforth to represent the realm. In 889 the king paid another visit to Saxony in the course of an expedition against the Obodrites. He had not been there for a long time. However, all he did there was to acknowledge the status quo which had been emerging during the last thirty years. He only renewed his influence over the royal monasteries of Corvey and Herford,41 and his relationship with the nobility was made clearer than it had been under his predecessors: he obviously made considerable efforts to win them over. The cathedrals also received rich gifts. This relationship had been inverted since the beginning of the century: then, the Saxon nobility had attained to power and influence by cultivating connections with the Frankish king, but now the Carolingian was strengthening his support in the province through the power which the nobility had gained there. The Liudolfings kept on good terms with the royal house, as the marriage mentioned above amply demonstrates;42 in the borderlands 38 40

39 Diimmler (1887—8) in, pp. 521—45. Schwarzmeier(i972). 41 n Arnulf, DDArn 132. DDArrt 28; 60; 105; 15 5. Compare p. 156.

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of Saxony, Thuringia and Franconia they were competing more and more with the Conradins. Other families, such as the Ekbertines, were generously endowed with royal lands, perhaps in order to strengthen them against the Liudolfings. The constellation which was to dominate the early years of the next century was already in preparation: it was to be Conradins and Ekbertines versus Liudolfings and Babenbergers. Alemannia, where the nobility had offered some opposition to the coup of 887, became a marginal zone seldom visited by the king, who nevertheless did make his influence felt by means of documents. For this region, which bordered on Burgundy and with whose king, a Welf, Arnulf had been at war shortly after he had recognised him (888), could distress him. Once again it was to the monasteries of St Gall and Reichenau that the king showed the greatest favour. His chancellor Salomo, Bishop of Constance since 890, was an Alemannian; in 891 he received the monastery of St Gall. The abbot of Reichenau, Hatto, was made archbishop of Mainz in 891. While Arnulf kept a steady interest in the East of his realm, he was content to leave the West largely to its own devices. His attention was very unevenly distributed. He focused on what had been the kingdom of Louis the German, including Italy. His attitude towards Lotharingia, and to the West in general, was somewhat ambiguous. Having subdued these regions in the campaigns of 891 and 893, he then handed them over to his incompetent and illegitimate son Zwentibold in 895.43 The latter never managed to bridle the local nobility and frittered away his strength in useless campaigns, in the last of which (900) he was killed. The Lotharingians then sided with his brother Louis. The Western Kingdom was even more divorced from ArnulPs immediate concerns than was Lotharingia. He was content with a suzerainty which he exercised only once, when Fulk of Rheims rescued Charles, the last remaining agnatic nephew of Arnulf, from the oblivion into which he had sunk. Fulk had never been a friend to the Robertines, having previously (888) given his support to his kinsman, Wido of Spoleto; he reluctantly did homage to Odo, but on the first opportunity (893) presented him with a rival. He anointed the young Charles the Simple,44 who eventually, hard pressed by Odo, asked Arnulf to confirm his title to his 'paternal kingdom' (894). Arnulf accepted his newphew's title, but he did not break with Odo. Evidently he was toying with the idea of a further partition of the West Frankish kingdom, but he left the execution to the kings most directly involved (895). When, in 898, Odo died without a male heir, Charles' claim was generally accepted. 43

BM 1908a.

•" Dummler (1887-8) in, p. 383.

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Arnulf was no more willing to lose his grip on Italy than his father had been. That country came to be entirely at the mercy of the nobles: Berengar of Friuli, the Widones and Adalbert of Tuscany were competing for the Carolingian inheritance and, even during Arnulf s lifetime (in 898), Louis of Provence also reached for the imperial crown. Earlier, in 890, Pope Stephen had sought help from Arnulf, but then the latter had turned him down. Therefore Wido and his son Lambert were crowned emperors (891). Only in 896 did Arnulf come to Rome. The Romans opposed this foreign master, however, and when the Carolingian appeared, they barred their gates against him. Arnulf had to break the gates down before he could be crowned by the pope — a prophetic scene. He then compelled the Romans to swear allegiance to him, but to little effect: they swore the oath only to abjure it immediately afterwards. Moreover, Wido's son, the Emperor Lambert, was still alive (he died in 898): he was a youth of sixteen and he had no intention of resigning the crown. So when Arnulf was crowned in St Peter's, he was merely a rival emperor. The end of Arnulf s reign was as paralysed as its beginning had been , confident. Soon after he had assumed the Roman crown he had a stroke. He became a sick man, and royal power declined with him. This decline was heralded by gloomy auspices. Arnulf eventually died in 900 while a new enemy, the Magyars, laid waste Pannonia and Bavaria. Arnulf had called them in himself years before, when, in 892, he had been campaigning against the Moravians. Although the first defeats of 862 and 881, and raids on Bulgaria, Carinthia and Moravia (889), ought to have warned him, the king evidently underestimated the danger from the Magyars; at least he strengthened his eastern borders, built castles and reorganised his border defences. It was then (893) that Luitpold was made margrave of Carinthia and Upper Pannonia. Just when the danger seemed to have been averted, the Magyars suddenly appeared in northern Italy and annihilated a Lombard army on the Brenta. Very soon after Arnulf s death they were invading Bavaria (900); they advanced over the Enns, and year after year they kept coming back. The Moravian kingdom against which both Carolingians and Bavarians had struggled in vain succumbed to their attacks in 905/6, as did the Slav principality of Lower Pannonia with its centre Moosburg-Zalavar on Lake Balaton. The main field for the emergence of Slav power shifted to the Prague basin and thus to the court of the Premyslids. The local defence contingents were too clumsy for intercepting these swift warriors of the steppes; what is more, the Magyars' weaponry and tactics were unfamiliar to mail-clad horsemen. In 907 a Bavarian force suffered a crushing defeat on the Marchfeld near Pressburg, where margrave Luitpold and many other nobles were slain. Wreaking havoc all the way, the

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Magyars reached the far west. This situation called for self-help. Bishop Thietlach of Worms (891—914), for example, issued regulations concerning the building of town walls which had some influence on bringing the concept of town life back into higher esteem. Elsewhere, manors and villages were fortified as well. People like Arnulf of Bavaria, the son of Luitpold who had fallen in 907, who proved their worth under these circumstances thus established their own right to exert power. Several times (in 909, 910 and 913) he triumphed over Magyars as they hastened to get home and, subduing Bavaria, secured for himself a ducal power verging on kingship. This involved seizures of royal and church property. Arnulf imposed himself as defacto ruler, tolerated at best by the king, but not formally recognised. Similar developments took place elsewhere both before and after this. A notable case is Saxony where Otto the Illustrious, father of the later King Henry, founded a Saxon duchy. A basically similar development took place in Alemannia. In all these regna the king's influence dwindled almost to nothing, except for the occasional church which preferred the lordship of a distant king to that of a nearby duke. Arnulf s son, Louis the Child, ascended the throne in 900 at the age of six. Great hopes were vested in the boy who was expected to reach out for the imperial crown, but he died ingloriously, at just seventeen years old. The obvious consequences were to follow. 'Few are peaceably inclined, all are quarrelling, the bishop, the count and their retainers; fellow townsmen and kinsmen fight among themselves; the townsfolk grumble, and unrest is rife in the towns, too.' The poet, an Alemannian, probably Salomo of Constance,45 was no doubt not only thinking of the notorious 'Babenberger Feud' into which the infant king had been drawn by his mother's relations: violence was rife everywhere. The feud just mentioned was ended when Hatto of Mainz intervened and Adalbert of Babenberg was executed. It had almost looked as if the whole family had been doomed to extinction. Again, decisive steps such as the confiscation of the Babenbergers' property (903), were approved by jurors from all the peoples of the East Frankish kingdom: the nobility of the entire kingdom were to appear jointly responsible for the king's actions. Others were ready to step into the king's shoes: his godfather and tutor Adalbero of Augsburg; Salomo III of Constance; the most important, Hatto of Mainz, also godfather to the child; and, last but not least, the Conradins, who had their eye on Lotharingia. The boy king was brought up mainly in 45

MGHPoet. iv, p. 301, vv. 116—19: 'Rari sint nostrum quorum mens tendat in unum/Discordant omnes, praesul, comes atque phalanges,/Pugnant inter se concives contribulesque./Urbica turba strepit, machinantur et oppida bellum.'

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Franconia and also in Alemannia, that is, in Hatto's and the Conradins' sphere of influence, but less in Bavaria (especially after the battle of Pressburg); there, his family had enjoyed the strongest support from 817. Louis almost completely avoided going to the remaining regions of his kingdom. However, all the noble families were still represented at his court and mentioned in his documents, and nobody invited a foreign king to help himself to the East Frankish throne. Lotharingia, too, was seldom visited by Louis. Trusting in the boy king's authority, the Conradin Gebhard tried to seize the ducal power there; the nobility, headed by the Matfridings, resisted these attempts. When he fell in battle against the Magyars in 910, the Lotharingians abandoned the child king (910) and, immediately after his death, paid homage to the West Frankish king Charles III, the Simple. When young Louis died, the stirps regia, to which the East Franks had remained more faithful than others, died with him. There, after all — in contrast to the Lotharingians — nobody seemed inclined to accept the only remaining scion of the old ruling house, the undisputed ruler of the West, Charles the Simple.46 The later Carolingians had proved less and less able to control the nobility because they had nothing left to offer. Their resources were exhausted, but their kingly duty of generosity still remained. Charlemagne's successors had given away so much that they had eroded the substance of their power. Charles the Fat saw the results, as did his rebellious cousin Arnulf. The nobles were no longer prepared to bow to these kings; their demands increased, and more and more they came to pursue aims of their own. There was nothing 'fearful' any more about this outworn monarchy. Instead, the slow agony of the ruling house led to a kind of shadow kingship, ever more hotly contested by the leaders of the lay nobility with their pretensions to ducal status; they no longer derived their power from the king. No longer were the raising of armies, the keeping of the peace and the right of judgement over freemen royal prerogatives; the nobility even usurped the control over churches. Nevertheless the uniqueness of the name of king outlived the Carolingians themselves — more a chance than a reality, but as such it did become the basis for the reestablishment of kingship by the Ottonians. Bishops and monks, menaced by the local nobility, fell back on the king and continued, being literate men and thus guardians of the collective memory, to develop the concept of a suprapersonal kingship. The ninth century was an extremely troubled and eventful period. Everything was changing. This does not necessarily imply that new impulses came to the fore; however, old ones grew stronger. Memories of 46

Compare Nelson, pp. 138-41 above.

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the old Carolingian unity grew faint; the cohesiveness of the Eastern realm, united under one king, increased; the nobility strengthened its position, and the Saxon north gained in importance. The different peoples made the East Frankish, or German, kingdom a multiracial state, a jigsaw of many patriae whose sole visible element of unity was the royal court. Only the basic acceptance of the king by the nobles of all the 'peoples' safeguarded the links which allowed royal power to penetrate, albeit with widely varying intensity, into every part of the realm. There still was no such thing as a sense of national identity common to all the 'peoples'. The nobles of each people established themselves in its own territory, there aspiring to earldoms and seigneurial power; there they sought consolidation of power and property, there they were busy building up a network of relationships, marriage alliances and vassals; there they put their relatives in cathedral chapters and on bishops' thrones and founded monasteries. It was mainly in the regions peripheral to royal rule that the nobility could strengthen its position, and it was in Saxony that royal power was reborn, a royal power both going back to Carolingian tradition and, at the same time, assuming a new shape.

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CHAPTER 6

FINES IMPERIL

THE MARCHES

Julia M.H. Smith

'Have a Frank as a friend, not as a neighbour.' Byzantine proverb. Einhard, Vita Karoli, 16

historiographical tradition tells the story of the Frankish kingdoms from the perspective of the royal court. Viewed from this angle, the expansion of the Carolingian realm and the establishment of its frontiers offer a straightforward narrative of military success, interspersed with the occasional setback. Celebrated by Einhard, such a view reduces the frontiers of the Carolingian empire to insignificance, of moment only when invasion or revolt drew royal attention to them.1 This chapter offers an inverse picture of the Carolingian polity. It takes the reader from royal capitals and palaces to the cliffs of Brittany, the high plateaux of the Pyrenees, the mountains of southern Italy and of the eastern Alps, and the arterial waterways of the Danube and the Elbe (see Map 4). By concentrating on these outlying regions, it asks questions about the limits and limitations of Carolingian power. In studying the interaction of centre and periphery, it provides a cross-section of the Carolingian empire. By analysing ways of securing borders, asserting influence and manipulating neighbours, it highlights vital administrative and political skills. Since all political entities define themselves in part through the nature of their boundaries, 'peripheral vision' may assist in focusing our images of the centre.2 A VENERABLE

CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE

Exploration of frontier regions must begin by noting where the outer limits of the Carolingian empire lay, and by ascertaining why they were located 1

Compare Fouracre, Nelson and Fried, chapters 3—5 above. For complementary approaches to two of the regions to be discussed in this chapter, see Shepherd and Collins, chapters 9 and 11 2 below. Cf. Eadie (1977).

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where they were. The crucial question underlying both points, why Frankish expansion under Charlemagne halted where it did, has received little attention from historians, who have preferred to contemplate why it ceased when it did. Rather than assuming (as so often has been done) a thwarted Carolingian urge towards constant aggrandisement, we should credit Charlemagne with a clear sense of the appropriate and attainable bounds of his power. A propagandist at work very shortly after Charlemagne's imperial coronation offers an explanation of what those bounds were. For the author of the Annales Mettenses Priores, Charlemagne completed the task begun by Pippin II of reconstituting under direct Carolingian rule all those territories which had once either acknowledged direct Merovingian rule or submitted to Merovingian hegemony.3 Even including the Lombard kingdom, sei2ed in 774 as the logical culmination of the Franco-papal entente, there was 'something profoundly conservative and definitive in early Carolingian conquests'.4 In its essentials, the Carolingian empire renewed the Merovingian sphere of influence, but substituted direct rule for overlordship wherever possible. Certainly Theudebert I's boast to Justinian I in c. 5 3 5 that he ruled 'from the Danube and the frontiers of Pannonia to the Ocean' is also an apt description of the extent of Carolingian rule by the end of the eighth century.5 For the most part then, Carolingian frontiers were not established by deliberate strategic choice: they were inherited from the outlying regna newly subjected to Frankish rule. Where pre-existing limits were extended, local circumstances governed their advance. In Saxony, arguably, the exigencies of security necessitated the extension of Carolingian rule to the Elbe and even the establishment of fortifications on the right bank. Charlemagne moved into Istria in the wake of the Lombard Desiderius.6 In Bavaria, he inherited from Tassilo in 788 the Agilolfing duke's claims to hegemony over the Slavs of Carentania, where Bavarian churches were already busy colonising and converting. These activities pulled direct Frankish rule ever further eastwards; one century later, by the death of Louis the German (876), East Frankish counts were established some 200 km further east and south, in Pannonia, Carniola and Carentania.7 By contrast, the gradual extension of new settlement down the southernflanksof the eastern Pyrenees in the course of the ninth century led to the expansion of Carolingian administrative structures but no direct extension of royal authority, for by 88 5, when the colonisers were incorporated into the new county of Vich, direct West Frankish intervention in the affairs of this area had already ceased.8 3 5 6 8

4 Annales Mettenses Priores, pp. 12-13; Werner (1973). Noble (1990), p. 339. Epistolae Austrasiacae 20, MGH Epp. m, p. 133; Wood (1985); James (1988), pp. 91—108. 7 Cessi (1940). Reindel (196)); Mitterauer (1963), pp. 1—7, 85-90, 160-9. D'Abadal i de Vinyals (19)8), pp. 73—114; Freedman (1991), pp. 57-61.

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At its fullest extent, Charlemagne's empire comprised an essentially Frankish 'heartland' in Austrasia and Neustria, surrounded by a ring ofnonFrankish regna. Preferred royal haunts tended to be in the interior region where family ties and landholdings were concentrated. Two implications of this for an analysis of peripheral regions are immediately apparent. In the first instance, Austrasia/Neustria only abutted the outer margin of the empire in two adjacent stretches. The sea coast from the Rhine delta south to the Bay of Mont-Saint-Michel formed the only maritime frontier. Immediately south of this, a short border across the neck of the Armorican peninsula separated western Neustria from the Bretons. Everywhere else, a shield of conquered regna insulated the Frankish Kerngebiet from the ravages of raiding by exterae gentes and from the need for special defensive organisation. Secondly, all frontier regions lay far from the areas that enjoyed close royal government. Only in the later ninth century, when Louis the German and his successors began to spend significant amounts of time in the Bavarian palace at Regensburg, did royal government move to the frontier. This East Frankish fusion of centre with periphery became one of the crucial distinctions between the ailing Carolingian West Frankish kingdom and the nascent Ottonian Reich of the tenth century. But for the period under discussion here, frontier regions generally lay far from the centre, with such conquered regna as Aquitaine, Bavaria or Thuringia forming mediating buffers. Exploration of peripheral regions therefore inevitably becomes a study both of the ethnic pluralism of the Carolingian empire and of the means by which Carolingian government transcended huge distances in maintaining its rule. Landward or maritime, inherited with or without adjustment, the geographical limits of Carolingian power fall into no tidy pattern. Each frontier region established a compromise with local circumstances, taking into account the particular nature of the political and social situation beyond the frontier.9 In exercising the royal prerogative of defining and defending the frontiers of empire, Charlemagne (and his successors likewise) maintained a careful, panoramic concern with the entire periphery of the territory under his rule. A brief glance at one year towards the end of his reign highlights the need for constant alert, stresses the uniqueness of each sector of the frontier and draws attention to some common strategies. The year in question is the twelve months from October 810. Three peaces engaged Charlemagne's attention during the autumn and winter; three campaigns marked the spring of 811. In October 810, Charlemagne reached agreements with both al-Hakam I, amir of Cordoba, and the Byzantine emperor, Nicephorus. Muslim support for Pippin Ill's Aquitainian 9

Cf. Reuter(i99i), p. 78.

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opponents in the 740-50s had pulled Carolingian power into Septimania; appeals from independent-minded Muslim governors of the cities of the Ebro valley had drawn Charlemagne even further south, most famously in the disastrous expedition of 778. In the depopulated eastern flanks of the Pyrenees (the area known to the Franks as Gotbia or Hispania, not until the twelfth century to emerge as Catalonia) there rapidly emerged a pattern of shifting local alliances, cutting across the grain of the religious cleavage, and further complicated by the participation of the Basques at the western end of the Pyrenean chain. Appeals to the amir or emperor for help forced both distant rulers to pay attention to 'la pre-Catalunya'. Just such a situation had arisen in 810 when the governor of Zaragoza, cAmrus b. Yusuf, made overtures to the Franks. The affirmation of peace between Charlemagne and al-Hakam indicated the successful resolution of the situation, and also secured the return of a noble Frankish hostage.10 As for the simultaneous negotiations with the Emperor Nicephorus, their substance was not dissimilar. It concerned the status of Venice. Nominally Byzantine, effectively independent and of growing economic significance, the lagoon community originated as a place of refuge during the fifth-century invasions. Although competing Roman and Greek claims to ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the lands around the head of the Adriatic remained unresolved throughout the ninth century, the efforts of the Venetian doge in 810 to play the Franks off against the Byzantines terminated when Charlemagne recognised Byzantine lordship over the city that October; in return, when a formal peace was concluded with Nicephorus' successor, Michael I, in 812, Charlemagne secured recognition of his claims to Istria and the Dalmatian hinterland.11 The winter of 810—11 saw Charlemagne concerned with the northern perimeter of his empire. In much the same manner as the Byzantines secured their frontiers, the Frankish emperor attempted wherever possible to establish a ring of friendly client rulers in the immediate periphery of his territory. Sound in theory, delicate to execute in practice, the strategy indicated a balancing-act between protecting Frankish interests and provoking an anti-Carolingian backlash. Along the middle and lower reaches of the Elbe, Germanic settlement shaded off into the Slavic lands of the Sorbs (beyond Thuringia), Obodrites (from Holstein east to the river Havel) and beyond them, controlling the Baltic coast and its hinterland as far east as the 10

11

Wolff (196;), p. 281; Levi-Provencal (19 jo), p. 156. Collins (1986) assesses what little we know of the Basques in the early middle ages; Nelson (1992), pp. 150-1, 161-2 demonstrates the persistence of this pattern of alliances into the later ninth century. AKF s.a. 812; Einhard, Vita Karoli, 15. Norwich (1982), pp. 15-25; Krahwinkler (1991), pp. 179-83; Classen (1981), pp. 933-5.

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river Oder, the Wilzi. Further north still, and secure behind the formidable earthwork thrown up in 737 across the neck of the Jutish peninsula, lived the Danes.12 Traditional patterns of relationships between Saxons, Slavs and Danes were upset by the Frankish conquest of Saxony, concluded by securing the northern bank of the Elbe with friendly Obodrite settlers in1. 804; they were further distorted by the beginning of Danish raiding enterprises along the Baltic and North Sea coasts. Throughout the second half of the eighth century, the Danes had helped the Saxons against the Franks, who had relied on the support of the Obodrites to offset the Danes. The death of the Danish king Godfrid in 810 gave Charlemagne the opportunity to exert some influence over the Danes, which he did by immediately recognising the succession of Godfrid's brother Hemming and by sending twelve Frankish counts to swear a formal peace with the Danes on their border, the river Eider. However, Hemming's death in 812 inaugurated fifteen years of rivalry for the Danish throne, in which Charlemagne and then Louis the Pious found that to favour one claimant was to promote aggression from another. By 817, the Obodrites had been sucked in, and had deserted their traditional Frankish allies in favour of Danish protection for their trading centres. Thereafter, the Franks could never again rely upon a friendly neighbour in the trans-Elbe regions, and not even the skilful Ostpolitik of Louis the German would neutralise the persistent threat of revolt in the northeast.13 Having concluded three different peace negotiations in the autumn and winter of 810, in the spring of 811 Charlemagne sent out three armies, each to deal with an unruly tributary people: the Linones, the Avars and the Bretons. The Linones, a Slav people on the right bank of the middle Elbe, were caught in the tensions between the Danes and the Obodrites. The Carolingian army contented itself with ravaging their land and rebuilding a Frankish fortification on the right bank of the Elbe, at Hohbeck which the Wilzi had recently razed. The second army marched down the Danube into Pannonia, that region where, more than anywhere else, Frankish expansion precipitated fundamental changes in the political geography of the later eighth and ninth centuries. Avar support for opponents of the Carolingian takeover of Bavaria and the Lombard kingdom had led to the virtual annihilation of the powerful Avar khaghanate of the middle Danube basin in 795—6. The remnants, established as a tributary principality under a Christian Avar ruler, offered an easy prey to the neighbouring Slav peoples recently released from Avar hegemony. Charlemagne's army seems to have been sent on a peace-keeping exercise: after fighting between Slavs and 12 13

For the Danevirke, see Roesdahl (1982), pp. 141-6. Kotzschke (1920); Jankuhn (1965); Ernst (1974; 1977); Friedmann (1986).

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Avars had been terminated, leaders of both groups were brought back to Aachen. Although the Avar lands were not fully incorporated into the Frankish empire until 828, the power vacuum left by the collapse of the khaghanate had repercussions long after the unrest of 811. In place of the Avar empire, there emerged in the middle years of the ninth century a vigorous and expansionist Slav principality whose centre, Velehrad, is usually, though not indisputably, located in the valley of the northern river Morava, some distance north of Bratislava and south of Olomouc. The wide-ranging coalition of Slav peoples who fell under Moravian hegemony was to become the focus of attention throughout the long reign of Louis the German, his son Karlmann and grandson Arnulf of Carinthia.14 As for the third army dispatched in 811, it marched against the Bretons, the Christian, Celtic inhabitants of the Armorican peninsula of westernmost Gaul whose conquest had been proclaimed twelve years earlier. Their revolt in 811 betokened the reluctance with which they had accepted the imposition of Frankish rule; by the third quarter of the ninth century the Bretons would become as formidable an opponent and as crucial an ally for Charles the Bald as the Moravians were for his brother, Louis the German.15 Our survey of the year concludes in October 811, at Boulogne. In response to the Viking raids which were already beginning to hit Francia, Charlemagne had in the previous summer ordered the construction of a fleet, to assist in the defence of the shoreline along the North Sea and English Channel. Whilst inspecting the new ships at Boulogne he took further measures to institute coastal watches, and also issued a detailed ordinance regulating frontier defence and military service throughout the empire.16 The maritime frontier always posed particular problems for the Carolingians. Whether the challenge came from the increasingly persistent Viking attacks along the Atlantic seaboard or the ninth-century Saracen raids on the coasts of Provence and Italy, the Carolingians were rarely in a position to take the offensive. Details of the defensive provisions for seaward watches and the levying of ships remain generally elusive. The events of 810—11 offer a synoptic view of the major trouble-spots along the Carolingian periphery. Two further regions also deserve mention, Frisia and southern Italy. Although tranquil throughout 810—11, they both manifested significantly different problems and opportunities from those encountered elsewhere. Frisia had been brought under Carolingian control in piecemeal fashion by Pippin II, Charles Martel and Charlemagne, but its 14

16

Wolfram (1987), esp. pp. 259-60; Bosl (1966); Poulik (1982); Pohl (1988). For the arguments for the location of Greater Moravia in the valley of the southern, Serbian Morava, see Boba (1971) 15 and Bowlus (1987). Brunterc'h (1989); Smith (1992). no MGH Cap. 1, pp. 166—7, - 74'

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conquest was not completed until the final submission of the Saxons, the Frisians' close allies. Consisting largely of coastal islands and isolated villages rising on terpen above the dunes and fens of the coast between the Scheldt and the mouth of the Weser, Frisia remained largely inaccessible by land throughout the early middle ages and therefore of restricted political significance. Its importance for the Carolingians lay rather in access to the wealth generated by the immense trading network centred on Dorestad and Domburg, and in the ease with which Vikings preyed upon these trading centres. Indeed, it had been the devastating Danish raid on Frisia in 810 and the exaction of a heavy tribute which had prompted Charlemagne to take in hand the defences of the North Sea coast.17 As to southern Italy, Charlemagne's conquest of the Lombard kingdom in 774 had left the swathe of papal lands across the centre of Italy formally under a Frankish protectorate, but in practice a buffer zone between the northern core of the regnum Langobardorum and the turbulent politics of the southern half of the peninsula.18 South of Rome, the two duchies of Spoleto and Benevento had been associated with the old Lombard kingdom. Although Spoleto did pass under direct Carolingian control, the duchy of Benevento eluded anything more stringent than nominal overlordship, only prompting brief intervention from Charlemagne in 787. Much later Louis II renewed the interest, managing in 849 to end the civil war which had rent the duchy apart, and returning rather later (86 5—71) as emperor to wrest Bari from the Saracens.19 But in general, southern Italy held limited interest for the Carolingians. Neither Louis the Pious nor Lothar I could be bothered with it. After Charlemagne's treaty with Michael I in 812, the Lombards constituted no great threat, preferring to turn on each other rather than on papal lands. The distinctiveness of southern Italian politics anyway made Carolingian influence harder and harder to achieve. In the middle years of the ninth century, an inexorable process of redistribution of power began: it created such a mosaic of competing Lombard, Greek and Saracen authorities that imperial overlordship could not operate effectively in the face of the rapid privatisation and fragmentation of authority. 20 As Louis II discovered in 871 in the wake of recapturing Bari, Carolingian imperial overlordship brought no prestige, only humiliation. This brief survey of all the frontier regions of the Carolingian empire reveals some persistent themes in Carolingian frontier policy which transcend the individuality of each peripheral region. In the first place, negotiation combined with a readiness to use force to prosecute Carolingian 17 19 20

Reuter (1991), p. 69; Lebecq(i978); Blok(i979). Kreutz (1991), pp. 40-6; Cilento (1966), pp. 106-9. Wickham (1981); von Falkenhausen (1983).

18

Noble (1984), pp. 138-83.

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interests always characterised Frankish strategy. Secondly, the Carolingians participated in the common early medieval diplomatic practices of receiving, entertaining and dismissing envoys; royal gift-exchange; demanding hostages to keep at court; extracting tribute and oaths of loyalty; welcoming and sheltering political exiles from other kingdoms; concluding truces and treaties. Such strategies expressed the relative status of the parties involved. Only with the Byzantine emperor and the amir of Cordoba did negotiations proceed on equal terms: all other rulers of peripheral kingdoms, pagan or Christian, were expected to defer to Carolingian superiority and recognise Frankish overlordship. Thirdly, the Carolingian imperial rhetoric of a Christian, Latin empire broke down at the frontier. It was not simply that Beneventans, Bretons and Basques - all Christian - only reluctantly admitted Carolingian suzerainty; rather that shifting alliances of Christian with non-Christian were a normal part of frontier politics. In addition to Muslim walls, pagan Slav princes or Danish warlords all at one time or another served as valuable allies. Fourthly, Charlemagne, and his successors after him, saw the specific issues of security along each frontier as interlocking facets of a single puzzle of immense complexity. Because they did so, we may discern certain patterns in the administrative arrangements made for frontier zones, in the connections between the centre and the periphery of the empire, and in the implications for the surrounding peoples of having the Franks as their neighbours. These three themes occupy the remainder of this chapter. DEFINING THE FRONTIER

What constituted the outer limits of the Carolingian empire? An older generation of constitutional historians saw in the term marca (a word of vernacular derivation) an institution specifically created by Charlemagne to organise Carolingian power at the periphery.21 In practice, however, the word occurs interchangeably with the classical terms limites, confinia, termini and fines. These words do not correspond to the modern categories commonly used by geographers and anthropologists, who distinguish between a boundary (linear) and a frontier (zonal). All could refer to either a particular line or a swathe of land at the margin of the empire. In their linear sense, they might also refer to the boundary of either a piece of property, or a village, pagus, civitas or diocese: Carolingian Latin had no vocabulary specific to the farthest reaches of imperial power. Behind the words lies the fact that most Carolingian frontiers were both 21

Lipp(i 892); Hofmeister(i 907); Klebel (1958; 1963); Werner (1980) cf.Cessi (1940); Wolff (1965); Brunterc'h (1989); Zibermayr (1956), p. 278.

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linear and zonal. In their zonal sense, Carolingian frontiers were sometimes only loosely associated with the political and administrative structures of the empire. Hence the distinction between action 'both within the kingdom and outside it in our marches' came easily to Lothar I.22 From a local perspective, the marca was 'a relative idea . . . the region where the danger was greater than elsewhere . . . a zone of ill-defined or undefined domination'.23 Characteristically, these zones constituted regions where defensive organisation was concentrated in the hands of a count, prefect, duke or marquis: the internal boundary of these regions was clear, even if the outer edge was sometimes indeterminate. In the linear sense, the marca,finesor terminus might be either the internal boundary of the frontier region, or a clearly designated external boundary. In the former sense, Carolingian armies were expected to refrain from plundering until they reached the frontier.24 Here too began the threemonth period for which they had brought rations: for troops recruited on the right bank of the Rhine, the border was the Elbe, and for those sent from Aquitaine into Spain, the Pyrenees formed the equivalent demarcation.25 As a precise external boundary, the same terms referred to a line which was known to parties on both sides, might be designated by mutual negotiation, or breached as an act of provocation. Such boundaries were precisely known, if often contested. In Italy, where the Roman administrative heritage remained strong, frontiers achieved a degree of specificity unprecedented elsewhere: 'Let the border between Benevento and Capua be from Sanctus Angelus ad Cerros, proceeding along the ridge of Mons Virginis to the place called Feneste/Ia.'26 Defining the frontier by means of boundarymarkers — definitio per signa — could be an imperial responsibility.27 Whether designated boundaries or marginal zones of militarised living, Carolingian frontiers were varied and complex. Throughout European history, political demarcations have rarely conformed neatly to geographic features (the mis-named 'natural' frontiers), or to ethnic and linguistic distinctions. Carolingian frontiers were no exception. The political frontier along the Elbe did not follow the linguistic divide between German and Slav, any more than the boundary between Brittany and Neustria conformed to that between Breton and the emerging Romance vernacular. Istria and Dalmatia may have been a polyglot region of Latin, Greek and 22 23 24 26

MGH Cap. 11, p. 74, no. 20;: 'et infra regnum et extra regnum per marchas nostras'. Zimmermann (1983), p. 14, note 35 quoting Pierre Bonnassie. 25 MGH Cap. 1, p. 305, no. 150, c. 16. MGH Cap. 1, p. 167, no. 74, c. 8. Divisio between Radelgisus of Benevento and Siginulf of Salerno, MGH Leges iv, p. 222, c. 10: 'Inter Beneventum et Capuam sit finis ad Sanctum Angelum ad Cerros, perexiens per serram montis Virginis usque ad locum qui dicitur Fenestella.' " Toubert (1973), n, pp. 942-3.

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Slav. Nor were Carolingian frontiers clear-cut in religious terms. The situation along the Spanish frontier may be adduced here,forthe division between Christian and Muslim applied only at the level of the ruling elites: the Muslim garrisons controlled a Mozarab population which remained largely Christian until well into the tenth century.29 As for the northern and eastern circumference, conversion to Christianity preceded extension of political control in some places, though in others conquest leapfrogged ahead of conversion.30 Understanding of the frontier requires instead a look at administrative and judicial procedures. At its most fundamental, crossing the frontier meant escaping beyond the reach of the Carolingian state. A Lombard opponent of Charlemagne's who sought out the Avars; a palatine cleric who converted to Judaism and fled to Zaragoza; a wife-snatcher who removed himself to Moravia; and a distressed monk who had run into theological trouble and sought refuge in Dalmatia: all had in common a search for a bolt-hole beyond the reach of reprisals.31 Even Louis the German had to escape beyond the frontiers to avoid his father's wrath, and his brother Lothar contemplated a similar flight after his defeat at Fontenoy in 841.32 It is not surprising, then, that extant pacta regulating Italian borders (notably between Naples and Benevento in 836, or between Lothar I and Venice in 840) make a prominent concern out of the fate of fugitives escaping across the border.33 In defining a frontier, we define the state which it encompassed. Other people crossed frontiers legitimately, however. Merchants were chief among these. Their greatest concern was the fiscal aspect of the Carolingian frontier. Legislation restricted legal tender to the coins minted at official mints: on entering Carolingian territory, a trader's first encounter with a royal agent probably came with a visit to an official money-changer. Paying a special toll on departure formed his last obligation. Traders who passed from East Francia into Moravia in the reign of Louis the Child owed 28

29 30

31

On Germanic and Slav settlements, see Herrmann (1985); Nitz (1988). On the limits of Breton speech, Chedeville and Guillotel (1984), pp. 89-112; Smith (1992), pp. 35-6. On Istria and Dalmatia, Obolensky (1988); Vlasto (1970), pp. 187-97; Krahwinkler (1991), pp. 199-24}. B o n n a s s i e (1975—6) 1, p p . 119—20. Frisia provides a case study of the complex interaction of conquest and conversion. Lebecq (1986); Wood (199}). For the Lombard Aio, see MGH Dip. Kar. 1, p. 251, no. 187. For the Deacon Bodo, see AB s.a. 839. On Albgis, who had eloped with Patrichus' wife, see the Council of Mainz (8; 2), c. 11, MGH Cone, in, pp. 248—9. For Gottschalk's own account of his activities among the Slavs and Bulgars, s e e CEuvres tbe'ologiques etgrammatical^

de Godescalc d'Orbais,

pp. 163,325, and o nthe chronology of

his exile, the comments of L. Traube, MGH Poet, in, pp. 711-13. 33

32

AF s.a. 840, 841.

MGH Leges rv, pp. 216-21; MGH Cap. 11, pp. 130-5, no. 233.

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one denarius per ship at Mautern on their outward journey, though nothing on their return.34 But fiscal regulation was concentrated in specified places which lay well within the reach of the Carolingian administration, not at its extreme limits. Of the nine trading checkpoints on the eastern periphery listed in the capitulary of Thionville (805), the southernmost one - Lorch, near the confluence of the Enns and the Danube — was the command centre of the new prefect of the Bavarian plaga orientalis, but it lay on the border between Bavaria and the marcher region, far up the Danube from the furthest reach of the prefect's operations.35 Except where precise boundaries demarcated the limits of Carolingian administrative powers, the authority of officials on the periphery probably petered out rather than terminated abruptly. Where new secular and ecclesiastical units of administration were created in the Pyrenees in the later ninth and tenth centuries, they embraced regions never totally depopulated, but only for the first time brought under comital control. In the years before Count Wifred the Hairy undertook the resettlement and organisation of the plain of Vich we must envisage small, scattered settlements where the judicial, fiscal and military control of Carolingian counts rarely, if ever, penetrated, a no-man's land equally beyond the reach of Muslim control. 36 Similar zones of uncertain allegiance doubtless marked the long eastern periphery as well, especially in such heavily forested areas as the Bohmerwald, or the forests between the Elbe and the Eider. The zonal nature of Carolingian frontiers — especially those in Spain, Pannonia and along the Elbe — thus becomes clearer. The reach of Carolingian justice was not coterminous with the fiscal border. Neither represented the limits of military operation. With the exception of the precisely demarcated borders of Italy (perhaps too the Breton border) and the sea coasts, the Carolingian empire simply shaded off at the outer edges into ill-defined territoriality.

THE POLITICS OF THE PERIPHERY

It would be easy to write a political history of the Carolingian centuries in terms of a grim narrative of revolts and rebellions. Two strands run through this catalogue of conflict. The competing claims to power of the adult males of the Arnulfing dynasty provide one thread, present even before the acquisition of royal title in 7 51. The second theme consists of the frequent 34

35 36

Inquisitio de Theloneis Raffehtetensis (903 x 9 0 6 ) , MOH Cap. 11, p p . 250—2, n o . 2 5 3 , r e f l e c t i n g regulations in place since the reign of Louis the German; Mitterauer (1964). MGH Cap. 1, p. 123, no. 44, c. 7; Wolfram (1987), p. 263. Freedman (1991), p. 59; Bonnassie (1975-6) 1, pp. 120-1.

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revolts around the margin of the empire, whether the unrest of Frankish magnates in border regions, or the uprisings against Carolingian overlordship of neighbouring^/tfw. Both strands, that of the dynastic centre and that of the far-flung periphery, intertwine so closely for much of the time that they are not easily separable. Tracing the recurring patterns in this braid enables us to discern the vital role which the periphery played in the politics of the centre. Perhaps the most obvious motif is the ease with which those members of the stirps regia who felt themselves denied access to adequate power could find support and succour in peripheral regions. Neighbouring rulers, on the watch for an opportunity to elude Carolingian overlordship, might be relied on to provide help. The earliest clear example of this is the career of Grifo, son of Charles Martel by Swanahild, his second, Bavarian wife. Half-brother of Pippin III and Carloman, Grifo had made a bid for a share of their father's power in 741, and after Carloman had withdrawn to the religious life in 747, Grifo challenged Pippin's position as sole mayor of the palace. His efforts to secure support took him to those places where Carolingian claims were least secure: Saxony then Bavaria then Gascony, whose Basque ruler took him in. For two years, Pippin gave chase; only after Grifo had been killed in 7 5 3 was his rule secured.37 This pattern features especially clearly in the ninth century, when Charlemagne's skilful maintenance of a harmonious family had given way to much more overt dynastic rivalries.38 Rumours of Breton unrest at the same time as the first revolt against Louis the Pious (830) may be a case in point.39 But it is during the reigns of Louis' sons and grandsons that this theme recurs with insistence. Charles the Bald's nephew, Pippin II of Aquitaine, sought help from the Basques in his efforts to recover his father's inheritance.40 As for Charles the Bald's eldest son, Louis the Stammerer, his impatience for a stake in his father's kingdom led him to make common cause with the rebellious Breton ruler, Salomon, in 862.41 Only the previous year, Charles' half-brother Louis the German had faced an identical revolt from his eldest son, in the course of which Karlmann had turned to the Moravian prince Rastislav.42 The situation was symptomatic of royal longevity: if sons grew to adulthood and political maturity long before their father's death, challenges were almost inevitable. When, by the turn of the century, the dynastic imperative became to produce any adult, legitimate 37

40 41 42

ARFs.a. 741 (revised entry),747,748,753; ArmalesMettensesPrioress.a. 741,749. Reindel(i965), 39 pp. 220—1; Mikoletsky (1952). & Cf. Nelson (1991). AB s.a. 830. AB s.a. 852; Nelson (1992), p. 162. AB s.a. 862, pp. 89—90; Smith (1992), pp. 104—5; Nelson (1992), p. 204. AF s.a. 861; ABs.a. 861.

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and competent heir, this particular threat to the peace diminished commensurately. Alliances between restive prince and rebellious client ruler often grew out of mutual interests in a common border zone. Again dating back to the 740s, outlying regions had frequently been set aside as sub-kingdoms for young princes, especially eldest sons. Pippin III had briefly invested Grifo with the outlying western countries of Neustria which faced towards Brittany, but the most important precedent was set when Charlemagne gave the future Louis the Pious the sub-kingdom of Aquitaine in 781. The eastern periphery of Bavaria became the region where Karlmann first established his own court and government in 8 5 6 (a sub-kingdom which passed to his own son, Arnulf of Carinthia); Charles the Bald had likewise hoped to create a subkingdom in western Neustria for Louis the Stammerer in 856. Frontier apanages gave young heirs the opportunity to hone their military skills in a tough environment, obliged them to learn to mediate disputes involving client rulers or marcher magnates, and familiarised them with the ritual displays of power that accompanied hegemony over subordinate princes. In addition, they brought royal presence into distant regions of the kingdom, but thereby created alternative foci of patronage and loyalty. A Carolingian prince and the ruler of a neighbouring gens had a common cause in their remoteness from the political centre — remoteness not merely in terms of a long journey, but also in terms of the check which subordination to the king placed upon their own appetite for power. In these circumstances, the equilibrium between royal and aristocratic interests could be at risk. Where Frankish counts had been sent from court to secure and govern border areas, their initial position owed much to royal patronage, but their continued enjoyment of it depended upon a combination of military aptitude and the ability to balance local needs with those of the palace. An effective frontier commander was one like Thaculf, who, as commander of the frontier against the Sorbs, 'had knowledge of the laws and customs of the Slavic people'. 43 An ineffective one, either, like Cadolah, prefect of the Friuli frontier, provoked accusations of'high-handed cruelty' or, like Bernard of Septimania, simply exported palace intrigue to the frontier.44 The introduction of a young sub-king to a peripheral region might upset frontier counts who had grown habituated to the self-reliance which distance from the centre made inevitable. Certainly the establishment of Louis the Stammerer and Karlmann as sub-kings in 8 5 6 precipitated serious aristocratic unrest both in western Neustria and on the eastern 43 44

AF s.a. 849. Cadolah: AKF s.a. 818. Bernard: Collins (1990b); Nelson (1992), pp. 80-1, 102—5, ' 39~4°-

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periphery.45 Local aristocratic rivalries for influence and benefices could have an equally destabilising effect, especially when neighbouring rulers were drawn in. The involvement of Svatopluk of Moravia in a feud over the countships from the Traungau to the rivers Drava and Raba culminated in 884 in horrendous devastation and cruel mutilations perpetrated on both sides of the dispute, a devastating blow to Charles the Fat.46 Exceptional only in its ferocity, this episode serves as a sharp reminder of the fragility of Carolingian control at the periphery. The interweaving of dynastic and peripheral politics was more intricate still. Little surprise attends the observation that frontier revolt also punctuated the line of succession to the Carolingian throne. Behind laconic references to Pippin and Carloman's campaigns in Aquitaine and Alemannia in 742 we may suspect tumult caused by the death of Charles Martel the previous year.47 Certainly, when Pippin himself died in 768, having just celebrated in triumph the apparent completion of his conquest of Aquitaine, Charlemagne and his brother's very first task became to resubjugate the same province.48 Charlemagne's 46-year reign kept the lidfirmlyon the pot: his death in January 814 gave the signalforrevolts or the renegotiation of borders along virtually the entire length of the imperial periphery.49 The pattern recurs throughout the ninth century: in 877 Louis the Younger inaugurated his reign by suppressing the efforts of the Linones and Siusli (Slavs of the middle Elbe) to overthrow Carolingian hegemony, and in 878 his cousin, Louis the Stammerer, inaugurated his by dealing with a revolt which included the Bretons.50 Customary though it was for each new ruler to have to reassert his own lordship at the periphery of his kingdom, the unrest of 840 deserves particular mention, because it introduces a new twist to the pattern. Peripheral gentes now had to choose between the claims to hegemony of competing Carolingian kings. For the sons of Louis the Pious, this meant the opportunity to stab each other in the back by fomenting unrest along the borders. Lothar I quickly adopted this tactic, which he used to considerable effect in 840—3. Exploiting his position as emperor and as ruler of the Middle Kingdom, he not only turned Danes and Slavs against Louis the German but also Bretons against Charles the Bald.51 Others followed where Lothar had led: when relations between Charles the Bald and Louis the German reached their nadir in 8 5}, Charles incited the Slavs and Bulgars to make 45 46 47 49 51

S m i t h ( 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 102—3; W o l f r a m (1987), p p . 283—5. AF s.a. 884 (Regensburg recension); Reuter(i99i), pp. 116, 124; Wolfram (1987), pp. 284-92. 48 A R F s . a . 1 4 1 ; Continuations*Yredegarii, I } . ARFs.a. 768, 769; Einhard, VitaKaroli, 5. Smith (1992), pp. 64-;. 5° AF s.a. 877; AB s.a. 878. Smith (1992) pp. 94-9 for all details.

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trouble for his brother, thus effectively pinning down the East Frankish army as far away as possible.52 In the rough-and-tumble of the fraternal wrestling bouts of the 840s—50s, the deliberate creation of border unrest was an effective ploy. The close interlocking of dynastic and peripheral politics presumes an environment where the rituals of overlordship were integral to politics. To the traditional means of asserting their superiority over neighbouring peoples, such as demanding tribute, taking hostages, requiring military service, the Carolingians added two further expressions of overlordship. One (reflecting Anglo-Saxon and Byzantine precedents) involved the sponsorship at baptism of pagan rulers, whose conversion to Christianity was itself an act of submission. First mobilised by Charlemagne when he stood godfather to the Saxon leaders Widukind and Abbi in 785, baptism created bonds of spiritual kinship (compaternity) which effectively replicated the relationship of son to father. Avars, Danes, Moravians and Bohemians all encountered Christianity in this way; Bretons and Venetians, though already Christian, were also pulled into the network of political kinship.53 The second addition to these rituals comprised the granting of benefices on the margin of the Carolingian realm. Louis the Pious set the precedent here, when he endowed the Danish prince Harald with the Frisian county of Riistringen (at the mouth of the Weser) at the same time as he stood godfather to him in 826. Such lands were held strictly at the king's will: Charles the Bald installed but soon dismissed another Dane, Ragnar, in Flanders in the early 840s, whilst Louis the German granted lands between the rivers Raba and Drava, centring on Lake Balaton, to the Slav prince Pribina in 838/40, converting this benefice into an allod in 847.54 Baptism and benefices, separately or together, completed the ritual expressions of overlordship. Here too dynastic ambitions and peripheral politics intertwined, providing the final motif in this complex embroidery. Before 840, the rituals of overlordship were a natural expression of imperial power. But after 840, hegemony over peripheral peoples became another arena for competition as brothers, sons and nephews vied with each other for status, influence, resources and, ultimately, the imperial crown. Louis the Pious' sons all played this game with vigour. Lothar lost no time in affirming that 52 53

54

Ahs.a.%-,',. For baptismal sponsorship in the context of conversion to Christianity, see Angenendt (1984). On the Bretons and Venetians, see, respectively, Smith (1992), pp. 108-15 and La Cronaca Venn;iana del diacono Giovanni, p . 116. Ragnar: Nelson (1992), p. 151. Pribina: Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum, 11-12; MGHDip. Ger. 1, pp. 62-3, no. 46; Wolfram (1987), p. 276.

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overlordship over the periphery of his Middle Kingdom accompanied the imperial title. In 841 he gave the Frisian island of Walcheren to the Danish prince Harald as a benefice; he had already reached a pactum with Venice which confirmed the city's self-government but put Lothar's name on Venetian coins. At his installation as rex lMngobardorum in 844, his son Louis II received recognition from Siconulf of Benevento, and when he intervened to end civil war between Benevento and Salerno in 849, Louis was the first Carolingian since 801 to take an interest in southern Italian affairs. By 8 5 2, the Croatian ruler Trpimir may have become a client of Lothar's too.55 Charles the Bald followed suit. Almost nothing is known of the Basques during his reign - except that he was occasionally able to bring influence, however ephemeral, to bear on their ruler. Although the Muslim frontier of the Ebro valley was not suited to conventional expressions of overlordship, he nevertheless exploited its local rivalries in such a way as to encourage rich conciliatory gifts from the amir of Cordoba. But the frontier most able to provide Charles with the trappings of overlordship was Brittany. He installed the native Breton princes Erispoe (8 51—7) and Salomon (8 5 7—74) as dependent kings holding Frankish benefices in moves which brought only modest tribute but much prestige.56 In this fraternal contest for overlordship Louis the German far outbid his brothers, however. To him fell responsibility for the long, open East Frankish frontier stretching all the way from Schleswig to Szombathely. Danes, Obodrites, Sorbs, Bohemians, Moravians and Pannonian Slavs all had to be played off against each other, and all admitted their dependence at some point during Louis' reign. To achieve this, Louis adroitly manipulated the full range of hegemonic rituals: he baptised fourteen Bohemian princes in 845; he installed Rastislav as ruler of the Moravians in 846 (though of uncertain loyalty, both Rastislav (846— 70) and his nephew Zwentibald (=Svatopluk, Zwentopulk) (870—94) conducted a politics predicated upon Frankish overlordship); he created a Pannonian client principality for Pribina; he accepted the submission of the Danish kings Sigfrid and Halfdan who placed themselves under him as sons to a father.57 Even as the Carolingian empire gradually lost its internal political coherence in the third quarter of the ninth century, the external

55

56 57

Frisia: AB s.a. 841. Venice: Vactum Hlotharil, MGH Cap. 11, pp. 130-5, no. 233; Grierson and Blackburn (1986), p. 196. Louis II and Benevento: Cilento (1966), pp. 90-1; Kreutz (1991), pp. 28-30. Croatia: Krahwinkler (1991), pp. 253-4. Basques: Collins (1986). Muslim Spain: N e l s o n (1993). Brittany: Smith (1992), p p . 108—115. General: Reuter (1991), pp. 77-84. Bohemia: AF s.a. 845; Angenendt (1984), pp. 237-8. Rastislav: AF s.a. 846; Bosl (1966); Wolfram (1987), pp. 359-69; Graus (1980), pp. 41—51. Pribina: as note 54 above. Danes: AF s.a. 873.

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expression of lordship became ever more crucial in the competition for the imperial title. THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE PERIPHERY

Carolingian hegemony over peripheral peoples entailed far more than rituals of subordination or demands for loyalty. The pressures to conform to the Carolingian will led gradually but inexorably to the creation of new political systems. If unrest and revolt induced repeated tremors and seismic shocks all around the rim of the empire, they registered a fault line whose other manifestation was the formation of new polities. This transformation had least effect in regions characterised by ancient traditions of Christian worship combined with a sophisticated and literate territorial administration, notably southern Italy and the former Visigothic counties of Septimania together with northeastern Spain. Its scale may also have been modest in places too unstable to permit the development of hereditary, territorial lordships, such as the secluded Basque lands of the western Pyrenees or the Slav lands in the valleys of the Raba, Drava and Sava rivers, buffeted between Bulgars and Moravians. But by 900, all other peripheral gentes had been changed beyond recognition. In the first instance, Carolingian policy consistently preferred dealings with a single, relatively powerful prince to a competing medley of claimants. Louis the Pious intervened repeatedly in the succession disputes of both Danes and Obodrites, clearly hoping in both cases to promote a stable, hereditary dynasty.58 In Brittany, the princely dynasty which emerged after 831 as rulers of the entire peninsula owed everything to Carolingian initiative. Here princely hostages found their calling. In 788 Charlemagne released a Beneventan prince to return home to rule his own people.59 There is every reason to suspect that the Breton and Moravian princes who participated so skilfully in Frankish political intrigue in the 8jos-6os were exploiting lessons learned and contacts made as hostages.60 But Carolingian intevention to mould the political systems of client kingdoms did not stop with the choice of ruler - or even with the show trials of dissident princes staged at Aachen for public appreciation.61 Other strategies carried Carolingian influence far afield, supreme among them being the acquisition and control of landed resources. Merovingian kings 58 59

ARFs.a. 814, 817, 819, 821, 8*6.

E r c h e m p e r t , Historia Langobardorum «> Cf. B o s l (1966), p . 17. 61

Bentventanorum,

4 , MGH SRL, p . 2 3 6 .

ARF s.a. 819 describes the removal of both the Abodrite Sclaomir and the Basque Lupus Centulli.

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had had the prudence to reserve for the royal fisc or for loyal monasteries lands in such strategic locations as the Alpine passes or the Breton border area. The Agilolfing dukes of Bavaria had done likewise, notably in the eastern Alps.62 Heirs to both, the Carolingians emulated and surpassed them. Though evident everywhere, nowhere was their land hunger greater than on the eastern periphery.63 In the wake of the annihilation of the Avar khaghanate, Charlemagne permitted Bavarian monasteries to 'seize and possess' whatever lands they could, and did not trouble himself to provide them with legal, written title.64 Other lands, absorbed into the royal rise, can be traced when later alienated. Even private individuals took advantage of this opportunity to grab land. Much of the property acquired in this way initially lay beyond the limits of effective Carolingian policing: on the eastern frontier, landowners were the earliest representatives of the Carolingian state.65 Land implies jurisdiction. In this too, Carolingian practices eroded the autonomy of peripheral communities. Cathedrals and monasteries undertook the economic and administrative regulation of their Slav properties and their native tenants, often entitled to collect from them a proportion of the tribute owed to the king.66 Elsewhere, when conquest pulled oldestablished monasteries into the Carolingian sphere of influence, the judicial privilege of immunity might tie these communities closely to the royal court. Such grants followed upon Charlemagne's conquest of Brittany, his 787 expedition to pacify Benevento and his organisation of Carolingian authority in Septimania and the eastern Pyrenees.67 Immunity created islands where (in theory, at least) all local jurisdictions were set aside in favour of the king's. On this basis, the Beneventan houses of Monte Cassino and San Vincenizo al Volturno could appeal to Louis II for help against the Saracens.68 In Benevento, where the Carolingians encountered an administrative and 62 64

65

66

67 68

63 St6rmer(i987). Dopsch (1962) 1, pp. 194-; stresses the long-term significance of this. Louis the German's diploma for Niederaltaich makes clear that Charlemagne had given the monastery verbal permission carpere acpossidere hereditatem: MGHDip. Ger. 1, pp. 15 6-8, no. 109. See also AiGH Dip. Ger. 1, pp. 2—4, nos. 2—3. See the convenient, though error-ridden, listing of charters in Kuhar (1962) and the texts assembled by Herrmann (1965). Examples include: Tassilo's foundation charter for Kremsmunster (reproduced in Herrmann (1965), pp. 60—1); Charlemagne's confirmation of Fulda's immunity (MGH Dip. Kar. 1, pp. 123, no. 85); charters of Pippin III, Carloman and Louis the Pious for Wiirzburg, as confirmed by Arnulf of Carinthia in 889 (MGH Dip. Ger. in, pp. 103—4, no. 69); Louis the German's grant of 860 to Salzburg {MGH Dip. Ger. 1, pp. 147—8, no. 102).

M o r i c e , Preuves, 1, p p . 2 2 5 - 6 ; MGH Dip. Kar. 1, p p . 2 1 1 - 1 7 , 231—3, n o s . 156-9, 173. Cilento (1966), pp. 106, 164.

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legal system comparable to their own, additional judicial expressions of overlordship accompanied grants of immunity. Charlemagne stipulated that his own name must replace that of Grimoald III on Beneventan coins and charters. (At the same time, he ordered the Beneventans to abandon their Greek haircut in favour of a Frankish coiffure.) Coins bearing the name of Carolingian rulers from Benevento, and also from Rome and from Venice, survive to witness the impact of Carolingian power in these virtually autonomous places.69 Carolingian influence in Brittany found similar conduits. Charles the Bald continued to mint in cities under Breton rule, and the local princes manifested their recognition of his overlordship by modelling their own charters on those of the West Frankish king.70 As Grimoald knew, injunctions to adopt Carolingian charter or coin forms were unlikely to be enforced with insistence. A quite different situation arose when Carolingian judicial officers intervened. The Frankish appointees to border countships exercised surveillance over the dependent client rulers beyond; that surveillance might extend to jurisdictional intervention. Instances could be adduced from Brittany or Moravia, but the best example of the impact of Carolingian justice upon local practices comes from Istria. In c. 804, local residents of Pula, Koper, Novigrad and other towns arraigned dux Iohannes before the representatives of Pippin, sub-king of Italy. There ensued detailed allegations that he had abused his powers, ridden rough-shod over traditional local procedures and rights, made extortionate demands and seized local properties.71 We do not know whether Iohannes lived up to his undertaking to mend his ways, but the case serves as a reminder of the Carolingian readiness to intervene judicially in the affairs of neighbouring gentes. Land acquisition, judicial obligations and administrative supervision all helped mould the periphery in the image of the Carolingian state. The Carolingian church offered a complementary contribution. Not merely as a landowner — in Frisia, beyond the Elbe, in the Pyrenees and Brittany as well as in the Danubian basin — but as the carrier of Carolingian cultural norms and as an organising, administering body in its own right, the church left its imprint too. We may note the extension of Benedictine monasticism, that form of monastic life promoted by Louis the Pious as the defining motif of his religious policies. From the Atlantic coast of Brittany to the high valleys of the Pyrenees, the introduction of the Benedictine Rule entailed

69 70 71

Erchempert, 4; Grierson and Blackburn (1986), pp. 195-6; Martin (1980), pp. 558-9. Smith (1992), pp. 116-46. Edited by Manaresi (19; 5-60) 1, pp. 48—56, no. 17 and commented upon by Krahwinkler (1991), pp. 199-243-

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membership of the imperial church and recognition of Carolingian lordship.72 Even more significant, however, were the activities of Carolingian missionaries. Anskar undertook his work among the Danes at Louis the Pious' behest; a generation later, German missionaries vied with the Greek brothers, Cyril and Methodius, for the souls of the Moravians.73 Carolingian churchmen made clear that they expected Christians round the imperial periphery to be incorporated within the jurisdiction of the Frankish church. Their views sometimes clashed with the papacy, however. Nicholas I and his successors did support the West Frankish bishops in their fight to prevent the Breton bishops, led by the church of Dol, from breaking away to establish their own independent province. But at the other end of the empire, the popes were not prepared to yield their own plans for a metropolitan see for the Moravians and Pannonian Slavs to the claims of the archbishopric of Salzburg. Despite heated interchange with the papacy, the Bavarian bishops persisted in promoting their own missionary priests, and in fighting attempts to establish a liturgy in Old Church Slavonic for the fledgling Christian communities in Pribina's Pannonian principality and in Moravia.74 The Christian religion, Carolingian schemes of ecclesiastical administration and Benedictine monasticism all contributed to political transformation, and might be as corrosive of older ways as were the administrative and judicial agents of Carolingian kings. Whatever its particular tint, Carolingian influence almost always stained indelibly. The map of Europe in c. 11 oo reveals the trace of the Carolingian periphery in a ring of polities whose origins lie in our period: Brittany, Catalonia, Carinthia, Bohemia, Denmark. Normandy deserves a place on this list, for though its formal establishment only dates from 911, it was simply the last in the long series of peripheral fiefs entrusted to Viking warlords. Moravia is absent only because effectively annihilated by 907 in the Hungarian onslaught, and by c. 1100 the Normans had mopped up all the fragments of the southern Italian landscape. It takes but a glance at the historiography of European state formation to reveal this legacy at its most pervasive. The outer reaches of Carolingian influence extended through the territories of eleven present-day states (as of 1995): Germany, the Czech Republic, Austria, Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia, Italy, Spain, France, Belgium and the Netherlands. The development of 72

74

Brittany: Smith (1986); Smith (1992), p. 72. Pyrenees: Wolff (1965), pp. 297-300; Collins (1983), p. 263. " Anskar: VA 7. Cyril and Methodius: Vlasto (1970), pp. 26—85. Archbishop of Dol: Smith (1982), Smith (1992), pp. 1 J I - 6 I . Archbishop of Moravia: Angenendt (1984), pp. 238—47 offers the clearest account of the textual and political controversies; also Dopsch (1986), Lowe (1982).

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ideas of national identity in some of these nations or their constitutent ethnic groups has been profoundly affected by the fact of Carolingian conquest. In the high and later middle ages, Catalans hailed Charlemagne as the liberator with whom their history began; Bretons identified the struggle against Carolingian overlordship as crucial in the formation of their nation. All West- and South-Slavic languages derive their word for 'king' from the name Carolus. The nineteenth-century efforts by the French and the Germans each to appropriate Charlemagne for themselves contributed to their respective efforts to build the historiography of the nation-state. Until recently, issues of the interaction of German and Slav along the Elbe were polarised by the existence of the Iron Curtain, in one further twist to the sensitive issues raised by the long history of German Ostbewegung.15 The historiography of the Carolingian frontier is disputed territory — the inevitable legacy of early medieval imperialism. 75

Catalonia: Freedman (1988). Brittany: Kerherve (1980). Slav peoples: Graus (1980), pp. 17—37; Ernst (1974), pp. 20-33. French and German historiography of Charlemagne: Borst (1965).

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CHAPTER 7

THE VIKINGS IN FRANCIA AND ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND TO 911 Simon Coupland

EVEN though Scandinavian coastal raids on England and the Continent were recorded long before the eighth century, the attacks which began in the 790s were perceived by contemporaries as something new in their nature, scope and extent. Over the next 120 years these Scandinavian incursions would increase to such a pitch that they would threaten to overwhelm the Anglo-Saxon and West Frankish kingdoms, and ultimately leave an enduring mark in the form of the settlement of Normandy and the Danelaw.

The first wave of attacks offered only a hint of what was to come. From the first raids in the 790s until 840, the sources record only small Viking fleets making hit-and-run attacks along the coast. The Viking longships with their shallow draught were ideally suited to surprise raids on coastal locations, being uniquely able to land raiding parties close to poorly defended monasteries or trading centres, then to row away as swiftly as they had come. Against this new form of warfare the Franks and Anglo-Saxons had little defence. Two areas of the Carolingian empire came under attack at this time: Frisia, where the culprits were Danes, making their way south along the Frankish coast, and Aquitaine, where the raiders were probably Norwegians coming from Ireland, which suffered a wave of Norse invasions in the early ninth century (Map 13). Information about the raids on Aquitaine is sparse, primarily because most of the longer annals were written in the north of the empire. Nonetheless, local sources reveal a continuing Scandinavian menace throughout the early years of the ninth century. The most notable is an account of theflightof the monks of the island monastery of Noirmoutier which was written soon after the event by Ermentarius, himself a member of the community. Ermentarius describes how at first the brothers spent only the summers on the mainland, returning to the monastery when the rough autumn seas ended the threat of Viking attack. In the 830s, however, the 190

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raids became so frequent that the community decided that the island was no longer safe, and abandoned it, taking the body of their patron with them.1 Various defensive measures were undertaken in the region, including the construction of afleet,the stationing of coast guards, and the fortification of Noirmoutier, but they appear to have been ineffectual. In Frisia the Vikings' principal targets were trading centres, particularly the prosperous market of Dorestad, which was first sacked in 834. The Annals of St Bertin report that 'they ravaged everything, killed some of the men, carried others off as captives, and burned down part of the emporium'.2 The port was pillaged again in each of the following three years, along with other Frisian markets, and it was apparently only a storm which saved the region from further attack in 838, wrecking a Viking fleet as it sailed south (AB s.a. 835, 836, 837, 838). Here, too, Louis the Pious made strenuous efforts to protect the coast by stationing garrisons, building a fleet, and constructing small ring fortresses, but again his endeavours were largely ineffectual, most probably because of the unwillingness of local counts to obey his orders. The timing of this upsurge in raiding in Frisia was evidently not accidental. The year 834, when Dorestad was first pillaged, marked the failure of a revolt by Lothar I and his exile to Italy, while 839, when the attacks subsided, witnessed his return to favour. That this was not mere coincidence was suggested by several West Frankish authors, who claimed that Lothar had actively encouraged certain Danish leaders to make the raids in order to harm his father Louis the Pious, and rewarded them with grants of land on his accession in 840.3 Unfortunately, Lothar's actions were tantamount to sowing the wind, for the return of the successful raiders, their ships laden with captives and loot, undoubtedly encouraged others to follow in their footsteps. The wide range of Continental sources, which include annals, chronicles, letters, capitularies, charters, miracle texts, and even hymns and prayers referring to the Viking raids, is unfortunately not matched on the other side of the Channel, where the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle provides nearly all our information about the raids. At this early stage, they seem to have been few and sporadic, and after the initial shock caused by the sack of Lindisfarne in 793 and Monkwearmouth in 794, little Scandinavian activity was reported until the late 830s. Then Sheppey was attacked in 8 3 5, and Egbert of Wessex fought the invaders at Carhampton in 836 and Hingston Down in 838. 1 2

3

De Translationibus et MiraculisSancti Filiberti, Preface to Book 1, in Poupardin (1905), pp. 23—5. 'Omnia diripuerunt, homines autem quosdam occiderunt, quosdam captivatos abduxerunt partemque eius igni cremavcrunt.' AB s.a. 834, p. 14. AB s.a. 841, p. 39; Nithard, H/rfo/vanww Libri IIII,iv.z,p. 122.

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Although the Chronicle referred to all the raiders as 'Danes', it seems that, even if this was true of those who pillaged Sheppey, those who were active in the west are more likely to have been Norwegians from Ireland. The second phase of Scandinavian activity, from 841 to 875, was characterised by a marked increase in the number, scope and scale of the raids. At first it was a kind of Blitzkrieg, with the Vikings arriving unexpectedly, plundering, burning and killing or enslaving the inhabitants, then leaving as swiftly as they had come. The contemporary description of an incursion on the Seine in 841 is typical: The Northmen appeared on 12 May, led by Oskar. They set fire to the city of Rouen on 14 May and left on 16 May. On 24 May they burned down the monastery of Jumieges, on 2 5 May the abbey of St Wandrille was ransomed for 6 pounds [of silver], and on 28 May monks arrived from St Denis and redeemed sixty-eight captives for 26 pounds. On 31 May the pagans made for the sea, and although Vulfard, a royal vassal, opposed them with an army, the pagans were not at all prepared to fight.4

As this account suggests, one of the main reasons for the Vikings' success was the surprise and speed of their attacks. They fell upon unprepared and often defenceless settlements, plundered whatever they could find, then withdrew before the locals could muster sufficient force to resist them. Raids of this type were reported on both sides of the Channel in the early 840s, with London, Rochester, Hamwic (Southampton), Quentovic, Nantes, Hamburg and Paris among the many victims. As time went by, the profitability of such raids and the lack of effective resistance led to a change in the Vikings' tactics, as they began to winter on foreign soil instead of returning to Scandinavia each autumn. The first reported instance of this was in 843, when a fleet landed on an island off southern Aquitaine, 'brought houses from the mainland, and decided to spend the winter there as if in a permanent settlement'.5 From this date onwards Aquitaine was hardly ever free of a Viking presence, with fleets camped on the Loire almost every year, and other incursions on the Garonne and the Charente. It was likewise a fleet coming from Aquitaine 4

5

'Quarto Idus Mail venerunt Nortmanni, Oscheri quoque dux. Pridie Idus Mail incensa est ab eis urbs Rotomagus; 17 Kal. Iunii egressi sunt a Rothomago; 9 Kal. Iunii Gemmeticum monasterium igne cremarunt; 8 Kal. Iunii redemptum est Fontinella coenobium libris 6; ; Kal. Iunii venerunt monachi de sancto Dyonisio, redemeruntque capita sexaginta octo libris viginti sex. Pridie Kal. Iunii pagani mare petiemnt. Obviusque illis factus est Vulfardus regis homo cum populo, sed pagani minime ad pugnam se praeparaverunt.' Chronicon Fontanellense s.a. 841, ed. Laporte(i95i), p. 7;. 'Insulam quandam ingressi, convectis a continenti domibus, hiemare velut perpetuis sedibus statuerunt.' A.h s.a. 843, p. 44.

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which first wintered on the Seine, in 851, and although that particular band was persuaded to leave the river by the payment of a tribute in 8 5 3, another fleet which entered the river in 856 remained for fully six years, until 862. That the Seine was not permanently occupied, like the Loire, was due largely to Charles the Bald's determination to expel the invaders from the Frankish heartlands; distant (and unruly) Aquitaine does not seem to have concerned him as much. Thus a fleet which entered the Seine in 865 was swiftly bought off with a tribute, and departed the following year. Meanwhile, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle had reported a similar change of Viking tactics in England in 850. One version of the Chronicle recorded the location, Thanet, while the other noted the significance of the event, when 'The heathen for the first time remained over the winter' (s.a. 851). That fleet does not appear to have stayed long in England, but it started a trend which others subsequently followed. In particular, the army which arrived in 865 remained over many winters, and part of it later settled what became known as the Danelaw. This was the 'Great Army', a name by which it was described on both sides of the Channel (the term was used by the Chronicle in England and by Adrevald of Fleury on the Continent). The formation of the 'Great Army' highlights another new factor in this second phase of the Scandinavian attacks, namely the increased size of the Viking war-bands. Before 840, relatively small Scandinavian fleets are recorded in contemporary sources, but thereafter the numbers increase. Thus three ships were reported s.a. 789 (ASC), nine in 83 5,6 thirteen in 820 (ARF), and twenty-five or thirty-five in 836 (ASC). By contrast, the fleet which sacked Nantes in 843 numbered sixty-three ships,7 Ragnar's fleet on the Seine in 845 contained 120 ships (AB), the fleet which stormed Canterbury and London in 8 51 reportedly numbered 350 ships (ASC), and 260 ships were said to make up the two fleets which occupied the Seine in 861 (AB). If each ship could transport some thirty to forty men, as archaeological discoveries suggest, then these Viking armies probably numbered in their thousands, but not tens of thousands. Although Sawyer has cited a text of 1142 as evidence that even the 'Great Army' consisted of no more than a thousand men,8 he fails to take several important points into account. First, it is unclear whether the ships used by the ninth-century Viking armies were identical to those employed three centuries later. Secondly, although the presence of horses on board the Viking longships would have reduced the number of men they could carry (as would indeed the presence of captives and plunder), it must be recalled that Viking armies 6 7 8

De Miraculis Sancti Filiberti 11. 11, in Poupardin (190 5), pp. 66-7. De Miraculis Sancti Filiberti, Preface to Book n, in Poupardin (1905), p. 59. Sawyer (1971), p. 128.

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are never said to have consisted of cavalry alone: on the contrary, mounted forces are mentioned alongside footsoldiers. Thirdly, as Brooks has observed, the si2es of Viking fleets and the numbers of casualties reported in contemporary sources both suggest that the armies contained thousands, rather than hundreds, of men.9 In this context it is significant that two raiding parties sent out by the Vikings on the Seine in 86 5 numbered 200 and 500 men respectively (AB s.a. 865), while a similar force which raided St Omer in 891 reportedly consisted of 5 5 o men.10 Bearing in mind that in each case a sizeable contingent must have been left to guard the fleet, the Viking armies in question probably both contained upwards of a thousand men. Not only were the Scandinavian armies of this period larger, there were also more of them on campaign. In 845, for instance, one fleet attacked Hamburg in the East Frankish kingdom, another fought in Frisia in the Middle Kingdom, yet another sacked Paris in Charles the Bald's kingdom, while a fourth raided Saintes in Aquitaine. This was admittedly an exceptional year, but it highlights an observable trend, with more fleets attacking ever more widely. To cite another example, towards the end of 8 5 o a large Danish fleet in Frisia divided into three, with one group occupying Dorestad, another attacking Flanders, and a third wintering on Thanet in Kent. The next year another large fleet stormed London and Canterbury, while yet another army entered the Seine, in this instance from Aquitaine. This brings out the point that Viking armies were continually changing in their composition, leadership and location. New elements arrived as old elements left, and the theatre of operations could change from year to year. It is therefore misleading to speak of'the Seine Vikings', 'the Loire Vikings' or even 'the Great Army', except with reference to a specific army at a particular time. Similarly, it is important to recognise that there was no plan or co-ordination behind the raids, no concerted assault on western Europe. Each war-band fought for itself, and on occasion Viking armies fought each other, as for instance on the Loire in 8 5 3, when one fleet blockaded another Viking war-band and forced it to hand over a large amount of booty. A third development which can be discerned during this second phase of the Viking incursions was that the invading fleets travelled ever further in their search for fresh targets. The most striking examples of this are the two Scandinavian expeditions into the Mediterranean. The first took place in 844, when Frankish and Arab sources reported that a fleet which had previously sacked Nantes and Toulouse attacked Gijon, Lisbon and Seville before being defeated by an Umayyad army, whereupon they left the Guadalquivir and returned to Aquitaine. The second expedition lasted 9

Brooks (1979), pp. 4-11.

10

Miracula Saudi Bertini, c. 6: MGH SS xv: i, p. 512.

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longer and travelled considerably further. After leaving the Loire in 8 5 8, the fleet raided the coasts of Spain and North Africa before wintering in the Camargue. They subsequently sacked Nimes and Aries, travelled up the Rhone as far as Valence, and, after suffering defeat at the hands of the count of Vienne, set sail for Italy, where they looted Pisa and other towns. Later medieval accounts of how Hasting captured the town of Luna by trickery, then put the inhabitants to the sword when he discovered that the town was not Rome as he had thought, are, sadly, unsubstantiated by contemporary sources, and almost certainly legend. The fleet finally returned to the Atlantic coast in 862, having plundered the shores of southern France and Spain en route. As this account has indicated, the Viking armies also penetrated further upriver than before, threatening areas which had previously been unscathed. This was a gradual development, so that on the Loire, for instance, offshore islands are the only known targets before 840, Nantes was sacked in 843, Tours in 85 3, Orleans in 856, and Fleury in 865. Similarly, in the southeast of England only the Isle of Sheppey was raided before 840, then Romney Marsh in 841, Rochester and London in 842, and Canterbury in 851. At the same time, the Northmen also began to leave their ships and travel across country, either on foot or on horseback. At first, the Vikings' base camps were almost always their ships, moored in the rivers, or islands in midstream. For instance, Adrevald of Fleury, writing in the 870s, described how 'The Northmen meanwhile made an anchorage for their ships and a refuge from all dangers on an island below the monastery of St Florent, putting up huts in a sort of village in which to keep their gangs of prisoners in irons, and to rest their bodies from their labours for a time, ready to serve on campaign.'11 Because the Franks and Anglo-Saxons did not have suitable ships with which to attack these island bases, they were virtually impregnable. On the one occasion when Charles the Bald tried to assemble a river fleet to assault an island base, at Oissel, near Rouen, the campaign ended disastrously, with the entire fleet falling into enemy hands.12 As time went by, however, the Vikings became emboldened by success and greedy for new targets, and so began to venture away from the rivers, building fortified camps or occupying existing strongholds. The 'Great Army' was thefirstto adopt this strategy, initially in England, and then on the Continent after its passage there in 879. 11

'Interea stationem navium suarum acsi asylum omnium periculorum in insula quadam coenobio Sancti Florentii subposita conponentes, mappalia quoque instar exaedificavere burgi, quo captivorum greges catenis asstrictos adservarent ipsique pro tempore corpora a labore reficerent, expeditioni ilico servitura.' Adrevald, Miracula Sancti Benedict!, c. 33: MGH SS xv:i, p. 494. 12 Vita Faronis, c. 125; MGHSRMv, p. 201.

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The fact that Viking armies were now remaining for ever longer periods on foreign soil meant that they posed an increased political threat to the local rulers, and this brings us to a final development which can be observed during the period in question, namely the Vikings' increasing entanglement in internal politics. One form which this took was the Vikings' exploitation of internal political disputes to their own ends, either independently or in collusion with local rebel factions. Thus in the Frankish kingdoms they capitalised on the internecine struggles between the Carolingian rulers by attacking while the royal host was elsewhere, or by joining forces with the king's enemies, whether the Bretons or the Aquitainian pretender, Pippin II. In Anglo-Saxon England the invaders' influence was considerably greater, for they were able not only to exploit the feuds between and within the various kingdoms, as on the Continent, but even to appoint puppet kings, Ceolwulf in Mercia in 873, 'a foolish king's thane' (ASC), and perhaps others in Northumbria in 867 and East Anglia in 870. The other side of the coin was that the Anglo-Saxon and Frankish rulers absorbed a number of Viking leaders into the internal political scene by buying them off with cash, or lands, or both. It is true that some of these poachers-turned-gamekeepers appear to have been less than reliable, such as a certain Rodulf, who 'though he had been baptised, ended his dog's life with a fitting death' in Frisia in 873.13 Others were successfully integrated into the local political milieu, however, including a former king of Denmark, Hemming, 'a most Christian leader', who died defending the island of Walcheren from Viking attack in 837.14 This offers a timely reminder that the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons alike vigorously resisted the Viking armies, albeit with limited success. Coastal defence has already been mentioned, and coast guards or coastal fleets did on occasion repel Scandinavian raiders, as for example when Frankish shore guards prevented a fleet of thirteen ships from plundering the Flemish coast and the mouth of the Seine in 820 (ARF), or when the men of Dorset and Somerset defeated a Viking fleet at the mouth of the Parret in 845 (ASC). On land, too, the Vikings suffered a number of defeats, a fact which has often been overlooked. For example, Charles the Bald captured nine longships on the Dordogne in 848, and won a resounding victory near Chartres in 856,15 while the 'Great Army' was defeated twice in 871, at Englefield by ealdorman iEthelwulf and at Ashdown by Alfred (ASC s.a. 871). Such defeats rarely seem to have deterred the Northmen, however. They simply regrouped, perhaps retreated, and turned their attentions elsewhere. 13

'Quamvis baptizatus esset, caninam vitamdigna mortefinivit.' AnnalesXanttnses s.a. 873, p. 33. 14 'Dux christianissimus.' Thegan, Vita Hludowici Imperatoris, Appendix; MGH SS 11, p. 604. 15 Chronicon Vontanelleme s.a. 848, 8 j ; ; Laporte (1951), pp. 81, 91.

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Carolingian and Anglo-Saxon rulers alike therefore frequently resorted to the payment of tribute, a time-honoured method of buying off one's opponent. Although this practice has been much vilified by contemporaries and modern historians, it does appear to have been the most effective means of removing the Vikings. Contrary to popular opinion, the Scandinavian leaders who took tributes did normally keep their side of the agreement and leave the kingdom which paid them, while there is no indication that such payments encouraged others to seek similar deals. What is more, the written and numismatic evidence suggests that the Anglo-Saxon and Frankish kingdoms were able to afford the sums paid, even if they did sometimes prove difficult to raise in a short time. The odium with which the practice has been regarded can in fact largely be attributed to the barbed comments of the ninth-century Frankish ecclesiastics who wrote virtually all of the surviving Continental texts. They saw the defence of the realm as the responsibility of the secular nobility, not the church, and therefore deeply resented having to dig into their coffers to buy off the invaders. It is instructive to compare the expression which is consistently used by the more sympathetic writer of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: 'they made peace'. Historians have all too often accepted the highly negative reports of the Frankish clerics without recognising the self-interest which coloured them. The other successful tactic adopted on both sides of the Channel to oppose the Vikings was that of fortification, including the fortification of strategically located bridges. In 862 Charles the Bald fortuitously discovered that closing a river by blocking the span of a bridge could prevent the passage of Viking fleets, and even force them to leave the kingdom. He therefore ordered the fortification of the bridge nearest the mouth of the Seine, at Pont-de-1'Arche near Pitres, in order to be able to close the river in the case of future incursions. When the upper Loire was finally clear of Vikings in 873, the king seems to have followed a similar strategy there, fortifying the bridge at Les Ponts-de-Ce near Angers to perform the same function.16 It is unclear how successful these bridges were, in that there is no record of them having actually stopped any Vikingfleets,but they appear to have been judged worthy of imitation by later monarchs, including Alfred in England in the 880s. Charles the Bald also encouraged a limited programme of urban fortification against the Vikings in the late 860s, when Tours, Le Mans, Orleans, St Denis and probably also Angouleme were fortified. It is therefore clear that the Vikings were offered stout resistance on both sides of the Channel during this second wave of invasions, but that their increased numbers, increased mobility and increased political influence 16

Coupland (1991a).

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made them extremely difficult and dangerous enemies. In the third phase of the attacks, from 876 to 911, the Scandinavians capitalised on this position of strength to colonise areas of England and Francia. In 876 the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle contained the significant report: 'In this year Halfdan shared out the lands of the Northumbrians, and they proceeded to plough and to support themselves.' Although Scandinavian chieftains had previously ruled fiefdoms in Frisia, with the most famous of them, Rorik, holding a large area around Dorestad for nearly all of the period between 840 and 875, there does not appear to have been any attempt by the Danes to settle the region.17 It is precisely this aspect of Scandinavian activity on both sides of the Channel, namely the settlement of occupied territory, which distinguishes the third phase of the Viking invasions, from 876 to 911. Before going on to examine in more detail the events of that period, it is appropriate at this point to consider the aims of the invasions. Were the Vikings seeking political conquest? Were they engaged on a pagan crusade, as some have claimed? Or were they simply after loot? We are hampered by the fact that the Vikings themselves left no contemporary record of their intentions, so that all accounts of their activities were compiled by their victims, who may have been ill informed or even malicious in their reports. Even so, there is broad agreement among commentators that the quest for loot was the principal, if not the only motivation behind the raids. With regard to the first possibility, political conquest, there is little sign that this was ever the deliberate intent of the invaders, even if at times it seemed to their victims that they threatened to overrun the kingdom. We have already noted that Scandinavian chiefs ruled large tracts of Frisia for long periods without any apparent attempt by their followers to colonise the region, and until the mid-87os the armies which occupied Frankish or Anglo-Saxon territory over many years likewise gave no indication of wishing to take political control. Furthermore, when Viking leaders 'made peace' with Carolingian or Anglo-Saxon rulers, they consistently sought tributes rather than political power, and even after the establishment of the Danelaw and Normandy the primary concern of the settlers appears to have been colonisation, not conquest. As for the second possibility, that the raids were motivated by militant paganism, there is equally little support for this in contemporary sources. Although the idea was revived by Wallace-Hadrill,18 the texts which he cited are evidence not so much of any pagan zeal on the part of the Vikings, as of the militant Christianity of the ecclesiastical Carolingian writers.19 The thirst for loot is, by contrast, clearly attested in all contemporary " Blok (1978), pp. 37-47.

18 Wallace-Hadrill (1975).

19

Coupland (1991b).

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descriptions of the Scandinavian incursions. It accounts for their choice of targets, their avoidance of battle wherever possible, and their willingness, even eagerness, to accept tributes and ransoms. This motivation is also just as evident in the third phase of the invasions, the era of settlement, as it was from the 790s to 875. The 'Great Army' went wherever it could find the richest pickings, crossing the Channel when faced with resolute opposition, as in England in 878, or with famine, as on the Continent in 892. As time went by, however, others emulated the example of Halfdan and his followers, settling in Mercia in 877, and East Anglia in 879— 80 and 896. The rest of the army meanwhile continued to harry and plunder on both sides of the Channel, with new recruits evidently arriving to swell its ranks, for it clearly continued to be a formidable fighting force. One contemporary cleric testified to the terror the 'Great Army' inspired: The Northmen never stopped enslaving and killing the Christian people, pulling down churches, demolishing fortifications and burning towns. And on every road lay the corpses of clergy and laity, noblemen and commoners, women, youngsters and babies. Indeed there was no village or highway where the dead did not lie, and all were filled with grief and torment as they saw the Christian populace being destroyed to the point of extinction.20 This was, it is true, the reaction of a local man written by a monk from Arras, which lay at the heart of the area of the operations of the 'Great Army' on the Continent, between the Seine and the Rhine. It is nonetheless an eloquent testimony to the panic engendered by the Viking raids, which led to many monastic communities fleeing with the relics of their patron saints, and seeking refuge in safer regions. The monks of Noirmoutier, who had left their island monastery so many years earlier, ended up in Tournus in Burgundy, while the community of St Vaast fled Arras for less distant Beauvais. A similar reaction was also reported on the other side of the Channel, so that for instance the monks of Lindisfarne removed the relics of St Cuthbert from his tomb in 875, and wandered with the body until they found a safe resting place at Chester-le-Street in 883, apparently after making a deal with the local Danes. Meanwhile the military response to the 'Great Army' varied markedly from one ruler to another. In England, Alfred needed several years to devise an effective strategy of resistance, but after a decisive victory at Edington in 878 offered vigorous opposition. Whereas he had previously been forced to 20

'Nortmanni vero non cessant captivari atque interfici populum Christianum atque ecclesias subrui, destructis moeniis et villis igne crematis. Per omnes enim plateas iacebant cadavera dericorum, laicorum nobilium atque aliorum, mulierum, iuvenum et lactentium. Non enim erat via vel locus, quo non iacerent mortui, et erat tribulatio omnibus et dolor, videntes populum Christianum usque ad internitionem devastari.' Annales Vedastinis.a. 884, pp. 54—5.

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offer repeated tribute payments, after 878 he established a chain of fortresses across the south of England, reorganised the army, 'so that always half its men were at home, and half out on service, except for those men who were to garrison the burhs' (A.SC s.a. 893), and in 896 ordered a new type of craft to be built which could oppose the Viking longships in shallow coastal waters. When the Vikings returned from the Continent in 892 they found that they could no longer roam the country at will, for wherever they went they were opposed by a local army. After four years the Scandinavians therefore separated, some to settle in Northumbria and East Anglia, the remainder to try their luck again on the Continent. On the other side of the Channel, the memory of the presence of the 'Great Army' between 879 and 892 was still strong, and Charles the Simple was doubtless aware that his grip on the kingdom depended on the strength of his opposition to the invaders. Only nine years earlier Charles the Fat had been deposed because he had apparently let the Vikings off the hook at Elsloo in 882 and before Paris in 886, while the choice of Odo, Count of Paris, to replace him as West Frankish king had evidently been prompted by his successful defence of his besieged city in 885—6. So Charles the Simple opposed the newly arrived army with the twin approaches of tribute and attack, and although contemporary sources are frustratingly silent during the decade after 900, in 911 Charles' army won a significant victory over the Vikings at Chartres. It is likely that some of them had already started to settle around the mouth of the Seine, and in a treaty with their leader Rollo, Charles recognised his control over the area and his followers' right to colonise the region, in return for Rollo's baptism and pledge of allegiance to Charles. Many comparable agreements had previously been made, but hindsight affords this one particular significance. For it was by this treaty that the Vikings became Normans, the pagans became Christians, and thereby, in the eyes of contemporaries, the barbarians joined civilisation.

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CHAPTER 8

SCANDINAVIA, c. 700-1066 Niels Lund

AT the beginning of the eighth century Scandinavia was politically amorphous. By the end of the three and a half centuries surveyed in this chapter three independent kingdoms and one 'republic' had formed in this part of Europe (Map 14). The political structure of Scandinavia before the eighth century eludes us. The claims made for a dark-age kingdom of the Svear controlling all Sweden and large parts of the Baltic area are no doubt exaggerated. The Gotar are not mentioned in ninth-century sources and this has led some scholars to assume that at some point between 500 and 900 they had been absorbed by the Svear. Later evidence, however, shows conclusively that the Gotar were recognised as an independent people well into the twelfth century. Foreign observers often give a misleading impression because they were familiar only with the Svear. At the beginning of the eighth century Sweden was divided into several regions effectively separated from each other by natural obstacles, mainly thick and trackless forests (Map 15). In Norway geographical conditions similarly determined the limits for any concentration of power. Most communication was by sea. Naval forces therefore were prerequisitesforanyone aspiring to power over larger tracts of Norway. Distances were vast; the distance between the southern and northern limits of Scandinavia matches that from York to Gibraltar. Southeast Norway therefore came as naturally into the sphere of interest of Danish princes as into that of princes based in western or northern Norway, and there is nothing to suggest that Norway was ever united under one ruler or even regarded as a separate territorial or national entity before the Viking period. This is reflected in Norwegian graves well into the Viking period. Centres of princely or aristocratic burial are found in several parts of Norway. In Denmark the geography is much more favourable to the exercise of power: a larger population is concentrated within a much smaller area. It is 202

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n>

Bergei

V>% 3: / Osebergw. 4 Scavenger ^ GokstadJV% Kaupang

Map 14 Scandinavia, 700—1050

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1O0 miles UiOkm Areas with no known graves H H H Areas with few graves I Areas with more than 30 graves I or four gravef ields per 25 km 2

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understandable, therefore, that the first concentration of power emerges in Denmark. The first signs of this are manifest in the first quarter of the eighth century. Between 704 and 710 a centre for commerce was created at Ribe in southwest Jutland and there are several indications of a royal hand in this. By 720 coins may have been struck in Ribe. In 726 the Kanhave canal was dug across the island of Samso in the Kattegat, enabling ships to be dragged from one side of the island to the other. This suggests that some king was trying to exercise control over traffic in both the Great and the Little Belt, and in 737 another earthwork which certainly presupposes a royal or other authority capable of organising great resources was put up, namely, the first Danevirke, an earthwork extending over 10 km for the protection of the southern Danish frontier. There is no certainty that Ribe, the Kanhave canal and the oldest Danevirke were all due to the same king, or that he is identical with the only Danish king of this period known from written sources. It seems unlikely, however, that such a limited area could offer scope for more than one king able to wield the resources required for each of these ventures. Ribe's contacts were very much with Frisia and England, and before 714 Willibrord, the Anglo-Saxon missionary to the Frisians, tried to extend his mission to Scandinavia but found the Danish king Ongendus inaccessible to the truth. 1 It is this Ongendus who is the only known Danish king of the first half of the eighth century. Thus he or his dynasty is likely to be behind this first manifestation of central power in Denmark. It has been suggested that this Danish kingdom was able to take over the maritime hegemony of the North Sea exercised by the early Merovingians and maintain peaceful conditions for the trade in the region.2 For the best idea of what Scandinavian society was like before kingship developed one must go to Iceland. This island was populated largely from Scandinavia and therefore may be expected to differ from the rest of Scandinavia mainly in having no king. Authority in Iceland was exercised 1

Alcuin, Life of Willibrord, ch.9.

2

Wood (1983), p. 19.

Map 15 Sweden, distribution of prehistoric burial sites. This shows the extent to which Uppland was separated from Vastergotland and, to a lesser extent, from Ostergotland, and also illustrates why Skane and Halland came naturally to belong to Denmark. From Ake Hyenstrand, Fasta fornlamningar och arkeologiska regioner (Riksantikvarieambetet 1984:7) Stockholm, 1984.

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by chieftains called godar. Their power was personal, not territorial; their jurisdiction, called a gobord, was formed by freemen who had commended themselves to a particular ^ooV. Over two or three centuries the number of gobord was reduced through rivalries between the godar, and larger lordships called rikir were formed; these were territorial. Although the existence of slavery in the Scandinavian societies has been recognised, it has been generally believed that the majority of the population was formed by the free peasantry and that the land was owned and run by freemen and their families. These freemen were thought to have the decisive word at the popular assemblies called 'thing'. However, recent studies have shown not only that agricultural holdings were generally quite large in the Viking period, so large that they required much more than a family to run them; a great number of dependants must have been attached to these large farms. It has also been recognised that much land was owned by magnates whose land was run by tenants. By a recent estimate no more than 3 or 4% of the population were freemen with a say at the assemblies,3 and one should not idealise procedures at these assemblies. They were dominated by the chieftains. Matters were settled by the number of their armed followers rather than by voting. It is no coincidence that decisions were taken by the brandishing of weapons, vapnatak. A process similar to the one found in Iceland no doubt was at work in the rest of Scandinavia but the evidence does not permit us to follow it very closely. Apart from its use in three Danish runic inscriptions the term godi does not occur outside Iceland. In Norway there are suggestions of rikir like Ranrike and Romerike, and in the ninth century Viking bands in western Europe could be traced back to Vestfold, the region on the western banks of Oslo Fjord,4 and to Hordaland in southwest Norway.5 In Denmark Bornholm is described as a separate kingdom towards the end of the ninth century. A king who wanted to control larger parts of Scandinavia would have to secure recognition of his overlordship from the rulers of godord and rikir or similar territorial units, and by the year 800 the Danish king Godfrid appears to be in control of most of the lands surrounding the Kattegat and the Skagerrak. The conquest of Saxony made the Franks neighbours of the Danes; thus the Danes get mentioned more often in Frankish sources. In 782, for example, the Danish king, Sigfrid, sent envoys to a Frankish assembly also attended by the Saxons, except Widukind, the leader of Saxon resistance, 3

4

Porsmose (1988), p. 259; a census taken in 1096 of the Icelandic population recorded 4560 fully free. The total population was probably about 80,000: Sawyer (1982), p. 59. 5 Chronicon Aquitanicum,%^, MGHSS n, p p . 252—3. ASCs.a. 789, D, E, F.

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who had fled to Denmark, and in 798 a Frankish envoy was killed by the Saxons on his way to Denmark to see Sigfrid.6 Nothing more is known about Sigfrid, but his successor, and probably son, Godfrid plays a large role. He seems to have extended his power over most of the Skagerrak and Kattegat area; the princes and people of the Oslo Fjord region refused his successors allegiance in 813:7 by implication they must have accepted Godfrid's overlordship and paid him tribute. In 811 one member of a Danish legation to Charlemagne was a man from Skane;8 while he could have been a noble in Hemming's entourage who just happened to be a native of Skane, it seems more likely that he was there as a representive of that province. Godfrid's imperial ambitions were not confined to Scandinavia. They extended to neighbours like the Obodrites and the Frisians as well and on both fronts his interests clashed with those of Charlemagne. Frisia, of course, was part of the Carolingian empire. When Godfrid began to levy tributes in Frisia, this, from a Frankish point of view, amounted to attempted conquest. The Obodrites had apparently acknowledged the Danes as overlords at some stage before the Frankish subjection of Saxony was complete. Godfrid had received tribute from the Obodrite port of Reric,9 but when Saxony had been subdued but was not yet reliable, the Obodrites became valuable allies of Charlemagne. With this support the Obodrites tried to liberate themselves of the Danish yoke. In 804, when Charlemagne deported the Saxons living north of the Elbe and gave their land to the Obodrites, Godfrid concentrated his fleet and his army at Schleswig, apparently prepared to intervene, and in 808 he invaded the Obodrites to ensure continued payments of tribute from them. He moved the merchants of Reric to Schleswig for the same reason. On this occasion Godfrid is also said to have built a wall to protect his Saxon border. This wall has not been identified with certainty. Godfrid's ambitions even included Saxony which he is said to have regarded as his own province.10 Einhard does not exclude the possibility that Godfrid might attack Charlemagne in Aachen itself. Charlemagne was considering an attack on Denmark when it was reported to him that a Danish fleet of 200 ships had devastated all the Frisian islands, had beaten the mainland Frisians three times and had levied a tribute of 100 pounds of silver.11 This crisis subsided when Godfrid was murdered in 810. It is a distinct possiblity that Charlemagne had a hand in this. Godfrid's successor, his nephew Hemming, immediately sought peace with the emperor. Danish 6 1 8 AKF s.a. 782, 798. ARF s.a. 813. ARF s.a. 811. » ARF s.a. 810. >° Einhard, Vita Karoli 11. 14.

» ARF s.a. 808.

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and Frankish peace delegations met on the Eider in the spring of 811 to conclude a formal peace. Among the members on the Danish side were two of Hemming's brothers but none of Godfrid's sons. Hemming had already died in 812 and the succession was contested between Sigfrid, another nephew of Godfrid, and Anulo, who was the nephew of a former king, Harald; they both lost their lives in the ensuing battle and two of Anulo's brothers, Harald and Reginfrid, were accepted as kings. They sent envoys to the emperor to make their own peace with him and to secure the return of their brother Hemming from Francia. Hemming is likely to have been a hostage. Charlemagne obliged and returned Hemming but Harald and Reginfrid were not there to welcome him. They were in Vestfold, the northwesternmost part of their regnum, to re-establish their authority. The princes and people in these parts had apparently taken the opportunity afforded by the civil wars in Denmark to shake off their tributary obligations.12 These civil wars continued when the sons of Godfrid returned from their exile in Sweden together with a number of Danish magnates. They defeated Harald and Reginfrid in 814; the latter was killed and Harald sought refuge with Louis the Pious. Louis promised to help him but the army which he sent into Jutland in 815 failed to restore Harald to power. Harald was now left in Saxony and continued to harass Godfrid's sons in Denmark, until in 819 Louis had the Obodrites escort his Danish protege back to Denmark. This time the sons of Godfrid, four of whom were coruling, were forced to accept him as joint ruler. In the following years the emperor repeatedly had to sort things out between the Danish kings, very much in the manner he dealt with dissensions among the Slav princes. In 823, for example, Harald appeared before Louis complaining about Godfrid's sons and Louis sent a couple of counts to Denmark to inquire into the matter. In 825 and 826 Godfrid's sons sent envoys to Louis, and in the latter year Harald appeared with numerous followers in Mainz and was baptised, hoping that would make the emperor back him more firmly. On the same occasion he was given Riistringen in north Frisia as afiefand place of refuge and in 827 he wasfinallyexpelled from Denmark. He probably never reentered Denmark after his baptism, and Anskar, a monk from Corbie whom Louis had sent to Denmark with Harald to evangelise, must also have failed to gain access. After 827 one of Godfrid's sons, Horik I, emerged as sole king of Denmark and ruled until his death in 854. Harald apparently soon gave up hope that Louis' support would benefit him; the emperor probably realised that as an exile Harald.was no longer 12 ARFs.a. 813.

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useful to him and began pinning his hopes for the dissemination of the Gospel on Horik. 13 After 828, when Harald impatiently ruined Louis' efforts on his behalf, Harald deserted Louis in favour of his rebellious son Lothar, and in the following years he appears to have been behind the attacks on Dorestad, some of which were timed remarkably to put a spoke in Louis' wheel when he was on his way to Italy to deal with Lothar. In 841 Harald was duly rewarded by Lothar who, once he had succeeded his father, gave Walcheren and some nearby settlements to Harald.14 Louis' change of attitude towards Horik soon showed. Having made an unlucky choice of partner as far as a mission in Denmark was concerned, Anskar turned his efforts to Sweden, and Horik's control of south Scandinavian waters must have been such that the mission to Birka, 829—31, would not have been possible against an unfriendly attitude on Horik's part. Anskar's later mission to Birka took place explicitly with the support of Horik.15 Envoys from Horik repeatedly attended Louis' courts, offering peace and even obedience, and the emperor paid indemnities to Horik for the murder of some of his envoys near Cologne.16 Louis did find, however, that Horik was overreaching himself when in 8 3 8 he demanded the lordship of Frisia as well as of the Obodrites, those very provinces that Godfrid had coveted, in return for the execution of some leaders of Vikings who had attacked the empire.17

EARLY ATTEMPTS TO INTRODUCE CHRISTIANITY

The first recorded attempt to evangelise in Scandinavia took place at the beginning of the eighth century when Willibrord extended his activity into Denmark.18 His seeds fell on stony ground, however, and he does not seem to have had any royal backing. Under Charlemagne, interest in converting the Danes was renewed. Alcuin asked a Saxon abbot whether there was any hope for this goal;19 we do not know the answer but apparently it was regarded as an unenviable task. Charlemagne once asked Paul the Deacon whether he would rather carry heavy chains, be in harsh prison, or go to Denmark to convert King Sigfrid.20 Not until the reign of Louis the Pious, however, was something really done. In 823 Pope Paschal II authorised Ebbo, archbishop of Rheims, to evangelise in partibus aquilonis, and Ebbo soon after actually visited Denmark. One result of his efforts was that Harald Klak was induced to travel to Main2 where he was baptised and paid homage to the emperor. When he 13 16 19

Wood (1987), p. 45. Ah s.a. Ah s.a. 88JJII,, 836. 836. Epp iv, iv no. no 6 MUG Epp. 6.

14 15 Lund (1989), pp. 47-50. VA, 26. 18 " AB s.a. 838. See McKitterick, pp. 68-70 above. AB s.a. 838. 20 MGH Poet Poet. 11,pp.5151

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headed for Denmark two missionaries, Anskar and Autbert, followed him. As Harald was denied entry to Denmark, however, Anskar and Autbert were unable to intensify the work begun by Ebbo. Little more is heard about the mission in Denmark before the middle of the century. After failing to enter Denmark, Anskar was sent to Sweden to evangelise. According to Rimbert's Life of St Anskar the Swedes themselves sent to Louis the Pious in 829 for missionaries to be despatched to Sweden, so a friendly reception was only to be expected. The mission was successful in the sense that in 830—1 a number of converts were won. Although the prefect of Birka built a church on his own land, no permanent community resulted. By the middle of the century, when Anskar returned to Birka, he had to start all over again. In 8 31 /z Pope Gregory IV confirmed the foundation of an archdiocese at Hamburg and conferred a pallium on Anskar. The special responsibility of this see was the mission to the Swedes, the Danes and the Slavs, and while Ebbo was mentioned as co-responsible he vanished from the northern scene after 835 when he fell from favour. In 845 Anskar's metropolis was sacked by a Danish fleet and while Rimbert does not mention Horik as responsible other sources make it clear that he was. The sources do not permit us to follow the vacillations of the Dano-Frankish relationship in these years but a few years later Horik showed himself friendlily disposed towards the missionaries. Anskar was permitted to build churches in Schleswig and Ribe, the king making the land available, and Horik supported the resumption of the mission to the Swedes. There can be little doubt that at this time there were a number of people in Scandinavia interested in Christianity nor that the mission was, in fact, quite successful. Horik's successor, Horik II, even sent presents to the pope and received a letter back thanking him for these gifts and strongly urging him to give up idolatry.21 At this time Anskar felt able to report to his fellow German bishops that the Church of Christ wasfirmlyestablished among the Swedes and the Danes and that the priests could work unhindered.22

END OF THE FIRST DANISH EMPIRE

Another century passed, however, before Christianity took permanent root in Denmark and even longer in Sweden. The reason for this probably is that the political stability gave way to a period of insecurity. Slightly before 800 Scandinavians began to ravage western Europe with Viking raids and by the middle of the ninth century this activity had assumed large proportions. The 21

MGH Epp. vi, no. 27.

a

MGH Epp. vi, no. 116.

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leaders were often members of royal families who had been exiled from Scandinavia,23 and when they had enriched themselves abroad and were able to maintain powerful forces they represented a threat to the rulers back home in Scandinavia. Not rarely one or more of them would return home to assert their claims. In 850 Horik I was forced to share power with two nephews,24 and in 8 5 4 Horik and many others lost their lives in a civil war started by another nephew whom Horik had hitherto denied a share in power, thereby forcing him to live piratico more.25 Little is known about his successor, Horik II 'the Child', except that he apparently maintained the friendly attitude towards Anskar's work that Horik I had adopted towards the end of his reign. The last of him is heard in 864 when he sent presents to the pope. After this the foreign sources that have permitted us at least to outline Danish history dry up for a century or more. In 873 the two Danish kings Halfdan and Sigfrid, apparently coruling, conducted negotiations with Louis the German. Halfdan has been identified with the Halfdan known from England but this is very unlikely; there is a greater possibility that Sigfrid may be identical with the Sigfrid who took part in the siege of Paris, 885-7, but as Abbo describes this Sigfrid as a king without any land he must then in the meantime have lost whatever position he had in Denmark. The next rulers of Denmark that we learn about belong to the so-called Swedish dynasty. According to Adam of Bremen, Denmark was first ruled by one Helgi and after him by Olaf and his sons who came from Sweden. It has been generally believed that this amounted to a conquest of at least southern Denmark by a powerful Swedish dynasty wishing to unite Birka and Hedeby in a commercial empire controlling the assumed west to east trade route via the Baltic and Russia. Neither Adam nor any other source suggests that these kings ruled only part of Denmark, and among the Svear there was at this time no central authority capable of drafting, let alone pursuing, policies on this scale. By the middle of the ninth century, Birka was ruled by a king named Olof, whose power was not great enough to prevent an exiled rival, Anund, from attacking him with a mere eleven ships of his own and twenty-one collected in Denmark. Anskar's second visit to Birka also depended on Danish support. If a Swedish Baltic empire had emerged after 850, it ought to have included Bornholm. This island, however, was an independent kingdom in the last quarter of the ninth century.26 In all probability Olaf and his dynasty were another group of exiles who took a favourable opportunity to return to Denmark.27 We have no clue as to why Danish power crumbled in this period. Adam 23 26

Lund (1989), p. 53. Old English Orosius, p. 16.

24

ABs.a. 27

25 850. AFs.a. 854. Lund (1980); against this, Moltke (1985).

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blamed it on a crushing defeat suffered by a force of Vikings at the hands of Arnulf, king of the eastern Franks, at the Dyle in 891. In reality this battle was a relatively unimportant skirmish. Nevertheless, the very idea that the defeat of a band of Vikings somewhere in Europe could have serious consequences for the kingdom of Denmark does raise the question of the connection between the rulers of the Scandinavian kingdoms and the Viking armies abroad. If, in general, the leaders of the Viking raids were exiles from Denmark and their possible return to Denmark presented a danger to its rulers, then the defeat of a Viking force in Europe ought to be welcomed by the king of Denmark. It is, however, difficult to generalise about this and there are suggestions that the Vikings abroad were not completely beyond the control of the king of Denmark. Horik I, in negotiations with Louis the Pious, claimed to have punished some of those Vikings that visited the empire. The facts that Ragnar, the leader of the Vikings who attacked Paris in 845, was able to return to Denmark with his booty and that Horik entered into negotiations with the Frankish kings and returned some of the booty taken by Ragnar suggest that the Frankish kings were not being entirely unfair when in 847 they sent envoys to Horik threatening to attack him in Denmark if he did not stop his subjects from attacking the Christians.28

HARALD FAIRHAIR IN NORWAY

The decline of Danish power created scope for local rulers in parts of Scandinavia that had hitherto accepted Danish overlordship. What happened in Sweden remains obscure but in Norway the first attempt by a Norwegian king to unite Norway was made. Some time in the last quarter of the ninth century Ottar, a Norwegian chieftain from Halogaland, visited the court of King Alfred of Wessex and gave an account of his travels in Scandinavian waters.29 He described the journey into the White Sea and the journey from his home in north Norway to the ports of Sciringesheal in south Norway and Hedeby in south Denmark, giving us information about the population of the regions and the conditions of communications. Norway was populated by Norwegians, who had permanent settlements mainly in the coastal regions and by nomadic Sami who utilised the vast inland wastes. From Ottar's account and other information in the Old English Orosius, Denmark emerges as split between south Danes in Jutland and north Danes on the islands and in Skane, Halland and Bohuslen.30 Virtually no political information is given 28

ABs.a. 847.

M

Old English Orosius, ftp. 13—16.

M

Lund (1991a).

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in these texts, only that Bornholm formed a separate kingdom, but Ottar and his contemporaries clearly recognised three separate peoples in Scandinavia: the Norwegians, the Danes and the Swedes. For information about the political conditions of the area we have to rely upon much later evidence. Denmark is covered to some extent by Adam of Bremen, whileforNorway we have to rely on authors writing in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Some tenth- and eleventh-century skaldic poetry was available to these authors but neither medieval nor modern historians could mould a coherent political story on this basis. Skaldic poetry was meant to embroider fact, not record it. It has therefore been very difficult to get away from the picture of Norwegian history drawn up by Snorre in the thirteenth century in his collection of sagas of Norwegian kings known as Heimskringla.

According to Snorre the first successful attempt to unite Norway under a native king was made by Harald Fairhair who is said to have been the son of a petty king in Vestfold. He set out to subdue the rest of Norway, one kingdom or chieftaincy after another, crowning his efforts in the legendary battle in Hafrsfjord. Snorre's account obviously bears little relation to reality. In fact, Harald Fairhair was probably a king of Rogaland or Hordaland in western Norway, and his power in the rest of Norway never extended beyond an overlordship. Claims that he founded the unified kingdom of Norway and that afterwards the kingship was recognised as the paternal heritage of his descendants are baseless31 and it is very doubtful that later kings like Olav Tryggvesson and Olav Haraldsson were in fact his descendants. Harald Hardrada based his claim to legitimacy on being the uterine brother of St Olav, not a descendant from Harald Fairhair. The idea that the throne of Norway was hereditary and the dynasty very old was very much in the interest of King Sverrir and his descendants in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries and was cultivated by historians of that period. Harald Fairhair allegedly had many wives but one of them, Ragnhild, was the daughter of a Danish king called Erik of Jutland, presumably Horik II. Ragnhild was treated with such respect that almost a dozen other wives are said to have been rejected because of her.32 In spite of thefictitiouscharacter of much genealogy in Snorre this does suggest that Harald Fairhair began his career as a vassal of the Danish king but made himself independent when the Danes could no longer assert their authority in Norway. The chronology of Harald's reign is very uncertain. Traditionally, the 31 Krag (1989). 32 Saga of Harald Fairhair, ch. 21, quoting the skald Torbjorn Hornklo ve; see Sturluson (1941 -51).

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battle of Hafrsfjord was dated 872, but Halfdan Koht put it as late as c. 900. He also put Harald's death c. 9 5 o while tradition places it two decades earlier. ICELAND

In very much this same period the settlement of Iceland took place. Beginning c. 870 it was explained as a consequence of Harald Fairhair's harsh rule in Norway but as the battle of Hafrsfjord was probably somewhat later in the century the validity of this explanation is more than doubtful. According to Are Thorgilsson's hkndingabok, 'Book of the Icelanders',33 from which it comes, the settlement was complete c. 930, and in this year an all-Iceland assembly, the Althing, was instituted at Thingvellir near Reykjavik. The settlement is described in Landndmabok, which names over 400 original colonists, l^andndmabok was, however, drawn up in the first half of the twelfth century to legitimise contemporary landholding and many names are demonstrably invented on the basis of place-names. It is therefore no reliable guide to the original settlement. Most of the settlers came from western Norway but a contingent also came from the Celtic parts of the British Isles. In Ireland the Scandinavians suffered considerable setbacks in the late ninth century. Many Scandinavians with Irish wives, some of them perhaps themselves the offspring of mixed marriages, therefore left Ireland, and while some of them settled in England others found their way to Iceland. The Celtic element in Iceland is traceable in the personal names used and in the composition of blood-types found in the Icelandic population.34 The first settlers carved out huge lumps of land, rather like little principalities, and within these they settled their family and retainers. When the Althing was instituted thirty-six godar emerged as the men in power in Iceland and as those able to control the Althing. In 965 Iceland was divided into quarters for which law assemblies were held twice a year, presided over by three godar. As the ninth century drew to a close Viking attacks on western Europe practically came to an end. England had its last serious visit 892-6 but defended itself well, and in thefirstdecades of the tenth century Edward the Elder, king of Wessex, was able to conquer those parts of England where the Danes had settled, except for Northumbria. This did not imply any expulsion of the Danes from eastern and northern England and therefore had no traceable consequences in the Scandinavian homelands or in other 33

hlendingabok, ed. Anne Holtsmark.

M

Constandse-Westermann (1972).

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settlement areas, although the Danish earl Thurketil of Bedford and his followers left for Normandy.35 In France little is heard of fresh attacks after 911 when Normandy was ceded to Rollo, who undertook to stop compatriots from entering the Seine.36 DANISH RECOVERY: THE JELLINGE DYNASTY

The recovery of Danish royal power began some time in the first quarter of the tenth century when, according to Adam, one Hardegon, the son of Svein, came from Nortmannia, which could be either Normandy or Norway, and evicted Sigtryg, the last member of the Olaf dynasty. Very little is known about his reign. When Archbishop Unni of Hamburg-Bremen visited Denmark in 936 Hardegon had been succeeded by Gorm, apparently his son. If we are to believe Widukind, very little scope is left for Hardegon. Widukind claims that in 934 Henry the Fowler defeated the Danes and their king Chnuba, who was the father of Sigtryg,37 and forced them to pay tribute and to accept Christianity. Widukind's information should, however, probably be rejected. His source, the annals of Corvey, mentions neither the name of the Danish king nor any tribute nor baptism. Tribute and baptism are Widukind's own inferences, not necessarily wrong, from defeat. We are better informed about Gorm's death than about his life. He was buried in 958 in the north mound at Jelling, where he had put up a runic monument in memory of his queen Thyre. Gorm himself was commemorated together with Thyre in another inscription by his son Harald Bluetooth. Later he was transferred to a Christian grave in the church at Jelling built by his son after his conversion in 965. Gorm described Thyre as tanmarkar but, 'the pride of Denmark', and this is probably thefirstinstance of the name 'Denmark' in Danish. It had appeared before 900 in Old English, in Ottar's account of his voyage from Sciringesheal to Hedeby. The Old English Orosius, as suggested above, gives the impression that the territory inhabited by the Danes was divided between south Danes and north Danes. Apparently the name 'Denmark' covered the territory of the North Danes, that is, the Danish islands and Skane, Halland and Bohuslen on the Scandinavian mainland. It is possible, therefore, that Gorm's marriage was an attempt to unite the Danes and that it paved the way for his son who makes the claim for himself that he won all Denmark: 'King Harald 35

ASC s.a. 916. Lucien Musset (1959) has suggested that the English flavour of many Scandinavian place-names in Normandy may be due to immigration of Scandinavians who had spent a number of years in England. ^ See Coupland, above, p. 201.

37

Danmarks Runeindskrifter, nos. 2 and 4.

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had these kumbl [memorial complexes] made in memory of Gorm, his father, and Thyre, his mother, that Harald who won for himself all Denmark, and Norway, and Christianised the Danes.'38 The dynasty to which Gorm and Harald belonged is generally called the Jellinge dynasty because of its association with the monuments there. By the end of the century, however, the centre of power had moved to Roskilde and this does suggest that the achievement Harald boasted was indeed the unification of his own south Danish Jutland with the north Danish islands and parts of the Scandinavian mainland. The four orfivecircular fortresses found in Denmark should possibly be understood in the context of his conquest of Denmark. They were built 980—1 and may have functioned as royal strongholds in newly subdued provinces. It has also been suggested, but this is less probable, that Harald was referring to his reconquest of parts of southern Jutland from the Germans. During most of the tenth century the Germans exerted pressure on their eastern and northern neighbours. This gave Danes and Slavs common interests. Harald indeed married an Obodrite princess, no doubt for political reasons.39 The second claim that Harald made for himself was that he won Norway. The presence of Hakon, earl of Lade, on Harald's side against the Germans in 974 lends substance to this claim. In spite of the decline of Danish power Danish influence in Norway does not seem to have faded completely. Harald Fairhair was married to a Danish princess, and so was his oldest son and immediate successor, Erik Bloodaxe, whose wife was a sister of Harald Bluetooth. By 948 Erik Bloodaxe had been ousted by Hakon the Good, another son of Harald Fairhair who had been brought up in England at the court of King Athelstan.40 His return to Norway was probably backed by the English and 38

39

40

'Haraltr k u n u k R bab kaurua kubl bausi aft kurm fabur sin auk aft baurui m u b u r sina sa haraltr ias saR uan t a n m a u r k ala auk nuruiak auk tani karbi kristna': Danmarks Rumindskrifter, n o . 42. She had a runic inscription, now in the church of Sdr. Vissing in n o r t h Jutland, carved in memory of her mother, without naming her: tufa let kaurua kubl mistiuis tutir uft mupur sina kuna harats bins kupa sunar kurms; ' T o v e , daughter of Mistivoi, wife of Harald the G o o d G o r m s s o n , had these k u m b l made in m e m o r y of her mother': Danmarks Runeindskrifter, n o . 5;. Harald and Mistivoi attacked G e r m a n y jointly in 983, and links were maintained when a daughter of Svein Forkbeard married a g r a n d s o n of Mistivoi. Their son Gotskalk spent some time with K n u t the Great in England a n d later married a daughter of Svein Estridson. Another indication of Slav—Danish connections is the presence at Knut's court of one Wrytsleofdux, w h o signed a charter of 1026P): Sawyer 962. Snorre Sturluson, Saga of Harald Fairbair, chs. 59—41; Saga of Hakon the Good, ch. 1. Snorre's account of how Hakon came to be brought up at the court of Athelstan is untrustworthy. Probably the arrangement was part of an alliance between Athelstan and Harald Fairhair against

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Erik Bloodaxe was now welcomed as a king in York by the Northumbrians, still resisting south English attempts to incorporate them in the English kingdom. Hakon the Good based his power, like his father, on western Norway but he secured the submission to his lordship of Sigurd, earl of Lade, and thus controlled considerable parts of Norway. He returned from England a Christian but his attempts to promote Christianity were unsuccessful. Harald Bluetooth involved himself in Norwegian politics on the side of his nephews, the sons of Erik Bloodaxe, and supported Harald Greycloak. In about 960 they managed to kill Hakon. Harald Greycloak, however, soon developed policies more independent than Harald Bluetooth liked, trying to take over control not only of western and northern Norway but of Viken as well, and the Danish king therefore transferred his support to the new earl of Lade, Hakon, whose father, Sigurd, Harald Greycloak had killed. Hakon defeated Harald Greycloak in a naval battle in Danish waters. As Hakon afterwards acknowledged Harald Bluetooth as his overlord and was the most powerful chieftain in Norway, the Danish king was justified in claiming that he had won Norway. He had restored traditional Danish overlordship. Harald's third claim on the Jellinge stone is that he Christianised the Danes. This was a matter of organising a church more than of converting the Danes. Indeed, Widukind claims that they were Christians of old.41 Almost a century after Anskar was allowed to build churches in Schleswig and Ribe, however, Denmark had no organised church, and the archbishop in Hamburg had no suffragans. In 948 three bishops were appointed to sees in Denmark: Hored to Schleswig, Liafdag to Ribe and Reginbrand to Arhus.42 These bishops probably never set foot in Denmark but their appointment was a warning to the king of Denmark that Otto intended to promote the church in Denmark much as he was promoting it among the Slavs. This implied annexation to Germany. The only way Harald could forestall a similar process in Denmark was by adopting Christianity and thereby making himself acceptable as the protector of the church within his kingdom. There are suggestions that Harald tried to evade the influence of Hamburg, which as part of the imperial German church would still be an agent of the empire. Poppo, the missionary who is reported to have convinced the Danes through ordeal of hot iron, certainly was not brought

41 42

the Danes and possibly against the Northumbrians. According to William of Malmesbury many foreign kings sought the friendship of Athelstan, and Harald did so by presenting him a magnificent ship (Cesta Kegum 1, 149). Widukind, Rerum Gestarum Saxonicarum nt. 65. MGH Leges, sectio 4: Constitutions et Ada Imperatorum et Kegum 1, pp. 13-14.

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in from Hamburg. Harald soon established friendly relations with the archbishop, however, and was remembered as a great friend of Hamburg; there is even a hint of plans to sanctify him.43 Otto the Great quickly acknowledged Harald as head of the Danish church, probably because he wanted to concentrate on his Slav frontier. In 965 he issued a charter formally relinquishing all imperial rights over the church in Denmark.44 However formal these rights may have been, and there is no evidence that Otto exercised any real power in Denmark before 96 5, the way the Germans saw it and the perspectives it would hold to the Danish king are probably well enough expressed by Adam of Bremen: the Danish kingdom was in Otto's power to such an extent that he even gave away the bishoprics.45 However much the Christianisation of the Danes may have done to alleviate German pressure on the kingdom it did not remove it. Three years later Harald fortified his German border with extensive works on the Danevirke, linking the very recent semicircular fortifications at Hedeby with the old main wall of the Danevirke from 737. In 968, indeed, the Saxons expected a war with Denmark.46 Nothing, as far as we know, came of this but when news of the death of Otto the Great in 973 reached Denmark, Harald himself invaded the land south of the Eider. The following year, however, a German counter-attack was successful; Harald lost Hedeby and the Danevirke and possibly larger parts of south Jutland. This situation persisted until 983 when Harald as well as the Obodrite prince Mistivoi, Harald's father-in-law, took the opportunity provided by the defeat of Otto II at the hands of the Saracens at Capo Colonne to repair their losses. Harald Bluetooth was a great builder. At Jelling he built the north mound, in which his father was first buried, the south mound, empty and completed after his adoption of Christianity, and a large wooden church to which he transferred the remains of Gorm, and he put up a runic stone there; he fortified the Danevirke, repairing old parts of it and adding new; and he built five circular fortresses, a fifth one having been discovered recently in Trelleborg in Skane in addition to the four long-familiar ones. Bridges and roads, too, were built on a large scale. We have no direct evidence that Harald demanded bridgework, roadwork or the building of fortifications from his subjects like contemporary west European rulers, but a building activity on this scale would hardly have been possible without them. Such demands are a possible reason, therefore, for the rebellion staged by 43

44 46

Adam of Bremen 11, p. 28: 'at ille noster Haraldus, q u i . . . ille, inquam, innocens vulneratus et pro Christo expulsus martyrii palma, ut spero, non carebit'. 45 MGH Diplomata Repim et Impiratorum I, n o . 294. A d a m o f B r e m e n 11. 3. W i d u k i n d i n . 70.

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Harald's son Svein in the 980s. Another possible reason is that Svein and the party supporting him disapproved of Harald's concessionary policy towards Hamburg-Bremen. There is no suggestion, however, of opposition to Christianity as such. Heathen practices disappeared quietly within a generation of the adoption of Christianity. Harald Bluetooth died on 1 November 987 from the wounds he incurred when Svein rebelled against him. After the battle he fled to the Wends and died there but was allegedly buried in Denmark.47 An immediate sequel to Svein's victory was the expulsion of the German bishops from Denmark; in 988 Adaldag, archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen, solicited a charter from Otto III permitting Danish ecclesiastics to acquire privileged lands within the empire.48 This hostility of Svein's towards prelates loyal to Hamburg gave him a very bad name in the records of the church. To Adam of Bremen it amounted to apostasy and he treated Svein as a heathen until shortly before the battle of Svold in which the Lord turned out to be on Svein's side; Adam could then no longer be against him. This attitude has led to a severely distorted account of Svein's early career in Adam's Gesta as well as in Thietmar who hated Svein for family reasons. According to these authors Svein spent his early years in captivity, from which he had to be ransomed more than once, and in exile, driven from his country by foreign enemies. In fact Svein turned his interests against England soon after his accession to the throne. Viking raids on England had been resumed on a modest scale in about 980 but when Svein entered the business in the 990s they increased dramatically. Svein is first mentioned by name in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle under 994 but he very probably also took part in the campaign in 991 which involved the famous battle of Maldon.49 One of Svein's companions in the 994 campaign was Olav Tryggvesson, a Norwegian chieftain of obscure lineage. According to Snorre his father was Tryggve Olavsson, a petty king in Vestfold and a grandson of Harald Fairhair,50 but this genealogy, as well as Snorre's account of Olav's youth, is fictitious.51 What their partnership was like is uncertain but there is little reason to doubt that Svein regarded himself as the overlord of Norway much as his father had been. Nor can there be any doubt that a Norwegian prince would take any opportunity afforded to break loose from Danish 47

49 51

According to the oldest source, the Encomium Emmae Reginae, Harald fled to the Wends. In later sources, like Adam of Bremen, he is made to escape to Jumne, which has been identified with Wollin on an island near the Oder estuary, and in still later sources, like the legendary Jomsvikinga Saga, this becomes a stronghold which Harald had founded himself. The likeliest place for Harald to seek refuge was with his father-in-law, Mistivoi, with whom he had recently campaigned 4S MGH Diplomata Regum et Imperatorum 11, no. 4 1 . against the Germans. M Lund (1991b), pp. 132-3. Sagaof Harald Fairbair, ch. 42; Saga ofOlav Tryggvesson, ch. 1. Krag(i99i).

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domination. Olav was given one such opportunity by iEthelred the Unready, king of England, when, after the 994 campaign, he accepted a peace offer from iEthelred. They concluded a treaty by which peace was to obtain between the parties.52 Olav undertook never to return to England with hostile intentions, a promise that he fulfilled, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle confirms. In 995 he returned to Norway, apparently, like Hakon the Good almost half a century earlier, with Englishfinancialsupport. jEthelred was playing off two enemies against each other, hoping to give Svein worries at home that would keep him away from England.53 OLAV TRYGGVESSON IN NORWAY

In Norway Olav managed to secure recognition of his rule in Trondelag after the murder of Earl Hakon by his slave. Hakon's government appears to have grown increasingly unpopular with the Norwegians but a direct link between his murder and Olav's return from England cannot be demonstrated. Olav's rule was brief and, though he was thefirstking of all Norway to rule Trondelag directly, it left no permanent traces. Some 200 years later he was depicted as a great missionary king to whose influence the adoption of Christianity also in Iceland was due, and in the nineteenth century he became the great national hero of Norway.54 This all tells us more about those centuries than about Olav himself. In 999 or 1000 he faced a coalition of the Danish and Swedish kings, Svein Forkbeard and Olof Skotkonung, and Erik Earl Hakonsson; although the Jomsvikings are reported to have come to his assistance, Olav lost his life in the battle of Svold. There can be little doubt that a showdown with Olav must have been on Svein's agenda since 99 5 and this battle restored his control of Norway. He seems to have assumed direct control of Viken while the government of the remoter parts of the country was left in the hands of the sons of Earl Hakon, Erik and Svein, as it had been in those of Hakon himself. The appearance of the Swedish king on the Danish side reflects Svein's influence in Sweden. We have no reliable information about kings of the Svear between the middle of the ninth century and the end of the tenth. Svealand did not have any central authority and such attempts as there were to establish authority over larger parts of Sweden seem to have originated in east Gotaland, west Gotaland being too exposed to Danish influence. About 970 Sigtuna was founded, apparently by a king connected with Gotaland, conceivably Erik, known as 'the Victorious', father of Olof Skotkonung. Little else is known about this Erik except that he was married to a Polish 52 53

11 jEthelred; Whitelock, EHD, no. 43; Leibermann (1903) 1, pp. 220-5. M Andersson (1987); Sawyer (1987). Bagge(i992).

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princess who after Erik's death married Svein Forkbeard and became the mother of Harald, king of Denmark 1014-18, and of Knut the Great. Svein's marriage to Erik's widow indicates a superiority over the Swedes and it made him the stepfather of Erik's successor Olof. OloPs epithet, Skotkonung, designates him as a tributary king, and that must have been to the Danes. Thietmar of Merseburg depicted Svein as a king who ravaged his own country but the little that is known about the domestic side of Svein's reign suggests that Denmark was thriving. To replace the German bishops, Svein brought in ecclesiastics from England. In his lifetime churches were built in new towns like Roskilde and Lund. The latter was previously thought to have been founded by Knut the Great but its first church has now been dated c. 990; it was soon followed by more, and Roskilde grew to be a remarkably big place in a short time. It seems to have replaced a local centre of power at Lejre. Svein also began, as the first king of Denmark, to strike coins with his name on them, after the English pattern. Coins had, of course, been struck in Ribe and Hedeby in the eighth and ninth centuries and Harald Bluetooth had struck an ostensibly Christian coinage after his conversion. Svein's coins are imitations of coins of iEthelred and on the surface of it his moneyer was also English. Coins with the same moneyer's name on them were also struck in Norway for Olav Tryggvesson and at Sigtuna for Olof Skotkonung at much the same time. There are such technical differences between these coins, however, that they could not have been struck by one moneyer travelling from one Scandinavian court to another; they are rather independent imitations. While Svein's coinage was emphemeral, minting went on in Sigtuna. A coinage of considerable volume, largely consisting of imitations of English coins, was minted in the reigns of Olof Skotkonung and his successor Anund Jacob (1022-50). This coinage suggests that Swedish kings were experimenting with the exercise of royal power but did not really know how to run a coinage.55

THE DANISH CONQUEST OF ENGLAND

In 1013 Svein embarked on the conquest of England. He had already raided England several times but does not seem to have intended any conquest before. What changed his mind may have been the achievements of Thorkell the Tall. This chieftain had set out on a raid in 1009 and had had great success. He accumulated much gold and silver, and when the fleet dispersed 5S

See Blackburn, p. 5 5 8 below.

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in i o 12, he himself with a number of ships took service with iEthelred, king of England. Thorkell's relationship with Svein is ambiguous. According to the Encomium Emmae Regime he was one of Svein's military leaders who had now deserted with part of Svein's army; Svein therefore invaded England to discipline him. Thorkell was connected with the legendary Jomsvikings based somewhere in the Baltic, and if there is any truth in the legends collected in the Jomsvikinga Saga this band ought to have been Svein's enemies. They were on Olav Tryggvesson's side in iooo at Svold. It is likely, however, that after this defeat they had been forced to acknowledge Svein's overlordship. In that sense Thorkell could therefore be regarded as one of Svein's captains. From Thorkell's point of view, however, it was a question of an allegiance that he chose to break and replace with an allegiance to iEthelred. This was dangerous for Svein. iEthelred depended so much on his forces that Thorkell might very well achieve a dominant position in England. Should that happen Thorkell would become a very dangerous rival for Svein, commanding much greater resources than Svein himself. In a swift campaign Svein managed to drive iEthelred from his country and secure recognition as king of England himself. He died soon after, however, on 3 February 1014, unmourned by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which refers to 'the happy event of Svein's death'. This created a very unstable situation in England and in Scandinavia. With Svein in England was his younger son Knut. When the Danish fleet elected Knut king, the English witan chose to recall iEthelred from his exile in Normandy and the English managed to drive out Knut's forces. In Denmark Svein had been succeeded by his elder son Harald, who had presumably been left in charge while Svein was away in England. Knut therefore had to start all over again, collecting fresh forces and launching a new attack on England. Thorkell the Tall remained faithful to iEthelred and helped him defend England against the new Danish onslaught. With him was Olav Haraldsson, a Norwegian chieftain who had fought many of Thorkell's battles and also been away on his own campaigns on the Continent. With the riches he had collected, and apparently with more supplied by iEthelred, who once more tried to give his Danish enemies trouble in Scandinavia, he now turned towards Norway, taking the opportunity offered by Svein's death and the heavy demands on the resources of Denmark made by the campaigns in England. In Norway Olav Haraldsson came across Svein Earl Hakonsson and defeated him in the battle of Nesjar, 26 March 1016. Svein's brother Erik had joined Knut in England. It has been suggested that there was a deal between Knut and Olav, to the effect that Olav was given Norway in return for giving up his support for Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

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^Ethelred. But Knut was in no position to give away Norway at this time, and it was hardly in the interest of his brother Harald to do so. The Danish hegemony of Scandinavia was badly shaken after the death of Svein Forkbeard. Olof Skotkonung in Sweden took advantage of the situation as well. The Danes did not reverse their policy towards Hamburg-Bremen until the mid-twenties when Knut came to terms with the German emperor, but Olof immediately sent to Hamburg for a bishop to come to Sweden.56 He also married off one of his daughters to Olav Haraldsson. Both these acts amount to a clear defiance of his Danish overlord and an attempt to ally with the enemies of the Danes. In spite of stiff resistance Knut succeeded in making himself lord of England.57 In 1019, having consolidated his hold on that country, he travelled to Denmark to succeed his brother Harald. The main problem facing Knut in Denmark was apparently that his dismissal of his fleet had created a great number of redundant Vikings in Scandinavia. Although some found employment in Russia and Byzantium and on raids in the east, there was a great danger that someone might rally them for fresh attacks on England. How Knut solved this problem we cannot tell but in a letter written from Denmark to his English subjects he claims to have done so.58 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle^ informs us that in 1023 Knut entrusted Denmark to Thorkell whom he had outlawed two years before but with whom he was now reconciled. This is unlikely. Although Thorkell, who had only joined Knut at a late stage, had been given a very high position in England in Knut's first years, he seems to disappear from history after his outlawry. Denmark is more likely to have been entrusted to Knut's brotherin-law Ulf. Nothing is heard of his appointment but he emerges as regent of Denmark in 1026 when he joined Knut's enemies. Little is known about the government of Denmark in Knut's time. He attempted twice to introduce a coinage modelled on the English coinage, thefirsttime imitating English types, the second introducing a series of local types. Knut continued his father's policy against Hamburg-Bremen; he brought in bishops from England, and it is even possible that he intended to organise the Danish church as an ecclesiastical province with the metropolitan see at Roskilde, under the primacy of Canterbury. If so, his plans were thwarted when the archbishop of Hamburg intercepted Gerbrand, bishop of Roskilde, and kept him a prisoner until he promised to submit to Hamburg-Bremen.60 These problems were probably finally settled in 1027 when Knut met Conrad II and attended his coronation. 56

57 Adam of Bremen 11, 5 8. See vol. i n , chapter by S.D. Keynes. 59 ASC M S c *< Whitelock, EHD, no. 48; Keynes (1986), pp. 81-99. , 60 Adam of Bremen 11. 55.

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Olav Haraldsson did not bring large forces back to Norway from England so much as substantial means. He relied on these to buy the loyalty of the Norwegian chieftains. After Nesjar he co-operated with the old aristocracy in so far as they were willing, but he tried to balance their power in regions where they were dominant by placing lesser vassals among them. Rather than outright battle against the established chieftains his device was Divide et impera. He introduced reeves, armenn, on the royal estates and used these as local representatives of royal authority. His government was, however, based on personal links and allegiances. A government apparatus independent of the person of the king only developed in Norway in the twelfth century. Olav's attempts to introduce centralised government were unacceptable to some of the magnates, not least those in control of the trade and taxation in Finnmark and Biarmia, and by 1026 they had rebelled against Olav. Olav has a name as a champion of Christianity in Norway. Christianity had already gained a footing in Norway, especially in the western parts, since the mid-tenth century; Olav concentrated his efforts in the Opplands and other places where the old faith was still strong and they were to some extent violent. It is difficult, however, to distinguish missionary zeal from political ambition. Olav brought in a bishop from England, Grimkell, and, significantly, immediately had him seek recognition from Hamburg-Bremen.61 Later sources ascribe to Olav and Grimkell the introduction of certain ecclesiastical laws but this is highly dubious. The provisions ascribed to them, particularly those regarding consanguinity, are likely to be later. There is also, therefore, no basis for regarding Olav as the organiser of the Norwegian church. His bishop was a member of his household and permanent sees were not created in Norway until c. 1100. Posterity has made Olav Haraldsson the great national king of Norway, the real unifier of Norway and 'the eternal king of Norway'. However, as little of his efforts had any lasting effect, his reign was, realistically, little more than 'an episode in an era during which Danish kings were overlords over greater or lesser parts of Norway, particularly neighbouring Viken'.62 KNUT, KING OF NORWAY AND PART OF THE SWEDES

In 1026 Olav and the king of the Swedes, Anund, who had succeeded Olof Skotkonung c. 1022, attacked Denmark and this brought Knut over from 61

Adam of Bremen n. 57, iv. 34.

62

Helle (1991), p. 29.

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England with an army. On his arrival he apparently found that Ulf had joined his enemies. The location as well as the outcome of the ensuing battle is very much debated. The location is given as Helgea or 'Holy River'.63 This was traditionally thought to be in Skane but a persuasive case has been made for its location in Uppland.64 According to Scandinavian sources Knut was victorious but the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle claims that the Swedes had control of the battlefield. This discrepancy can only be resolved by recourse to the aftermath of the battle which clearly suggests that whichever party may have been able to claim a victory was unable to exploit it. Knut, at least, suffered so little from his enemies that he was able in early 1027 to travel to Rome. In a letter to his English subjects written on his way home Knut informs the English that he is going to Denmark to conclude 'peace and a firm treaty with those nations and peoples who wished, if it had been possible for them, to deprive us of both kingdom and life, but could not'. 65 Knut apparently was in no position to dictate a settlement to his opponents. When Olav Haraldsson had alienated the Norwegian magnates Knut stepped in and persuaded many of them to shift their allegiance to him. He styled himself'king of Norway' already in 1027. His means of persuasion were the traditional ones, also used by Olav on his return from England in 1014: gold and silver. So many turned to Knut that Olav gave up and sought refuge in Russia in 1028. Knut appointed Hakon Earl Eriksson, son of Earl Erik of Northumbria, ruler of Norway, but when Hakon died before he had taken up office Knut made an appointment which seems to have helped change Norwegian attitudes to Danish overlordship fundamentally. On hearing about Hakon's death in 1029, Olav attempted a return but the Norwegians were still loyal to Knut and defeated and killed Olav in the battle of Stiklestad. Yet, when after this Knut sent an alien, his son Svein, backed up by his mother ^Elfgifu of Northampton, he alienated the Norwegians. Svein's and iElfgifu's rule, apparently based on English ideas of kingship, was very unpopular. On Knut's death in 103 5 they were driven out and the Norwegians recalled from exile in Russia Magnus, the young son of Olav, and made him king. Olav himself began to be treated as a saint. He was recognised as one within a year of his death, largely owing to the efforts of Grimkell, and churches were dedicated to him in York and in Novgorod, among other places, remarkably soon afterwards. In his letter of 1027, Knut also styles himself'king of part of the Swedes'. This probably means that he had secured the allegiance of a number of Swedish chieftains and may have been on his way to do what he had done in 63 65

M ASC MS E: 'to [jam holme set ea J>a;re halgan'. Graslund (1986). Whitelock, EHD, no. 49; Liebermann (1903) 1, 276-7.

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Norway with his gold and silver. A group of runic inscriptions including the titles 'thegn' and 'dreng' may be evidence of Knut's influence in Sweden.66 A number of coins with the legend CNUT REX SW struck in Sigtuna have also been taken as corroboration of Knut's claim to Sweden but they have now been shown to be imitations; they are all struck from one pair of dies and form only a small part of a coinage struck around 1030 by Anund.67 Knut's son Svein died soon after his father. His mother's interests now lay in England with her other son Harold. By Knut's arrangement with Emma, their son Harthaknut was designated Knut's successor in England. But he was held up in Denmark and before he was able to come to England, iElfgifu, backed by her powerful northern English family, had secured the recognition of Harold Harefoot. Harold remained in power until his death in 1040 and the invasion that Harthaknut was preparing to unseat him proved unnecessary. MAGNUS THE GOOD AND HARALD HARDRADA IN NORWAY

In Norway, Magnus took up the idea of a North Sea empire and after Harthaknut's death secured power in Denmark. His claim was contested by Svein Estridson, a son of Knut's sister Estrid and Ulf, the regent of Denmark killed after the battle of the Holy River. Svein may, or may not, have ruled Denmark on behalf of Harthaknut after 1040 and now asked for English support against Magnus. He was a natural ally of Edward the Confessor in so far as Magnus seems to have had aggressive intentions against England as well, but his request was apparently turned down. Towards the end of his reign, Magnus was forced to share power with his nephew Harald, later known as 'Hardrada', who returned from Byzantium and Russia, having served the Byzantine emperor for ten years. Harald Hardrada was recognised as sole king on Magnus' death in 1047 and his most important achievement was that he managed to complete what his half-brother had begun, namely the establishment of direct control over all Norway. He killed or exiled the most important members of the old aristocracy, notably those who had wielded the greatest influence during Magnus' minority, and subordinated the rest. Harald carried on Magnus' foreign policy. He is reported to have sought recognition as king of Denmark in Viborg but failed. He fought endless wars with Svein Estridson. According to skaldic poetry he won a crushing victory over Svein in 1062 in the battle of Nisi but was unable to exploit it because of a rebellion in a Norwegian province;68 one may doubt the 66

Lofving (1991).

67

Sawyer (1989), p. 92.

** Saga of Harald Hardrada, chs. 61 ff.

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character of his victory if it did not discourage the people of Oppland. In any case, he soon gave up his Danish plans to concentrate on the conquest of England after the death of Edward the Confessor, a venture that ended in disaster at Stamford Bridge.

SVEIN ESTRIDSON IN DENMARK

In Denmark, Svein Estridson managed to establish himself as king. Although a reconciliation was effected with Knut, for the first time since the reign of Harald Bluetooth a Danish king entered into friendly relations with Hamburg-Bremen. This friendship was severely tested when the archbishop forced Svein to repudiate his wife because of consanguinity. Nevertheless it survived this strain and in Svein's reign Denmark was properly organised into eight dioceses. In Iceland a diocese was created in 1056 at Skalholt. Towards the end of his reign Svein also negotiated with the pope for recognition of an autonomous Danish ecclesiastical province, but this was not achieved until I I O J .

Sweden seems, after the death of Knut, to have enjoyed relief from external pressure. It was hardly to be counted as united under one king, however, and there seems to have been no idea as yet of Sweden as one nation or one people. Indeed, in the late eleventh century Pope Gregory VII was taught to distinguish between rex sueonum and the reges wisigothorum.69 A peace treaty between Denmark and Sweden purporting to have been concluded in the mid-eleventh century has been regarded as evidence that Sweden had by then been united through the subjection by the Svear of the Gautar. Such serious doubts about the authenticity and date of this treaty have now been raised, however, that its validity in this context can no longer be accepted.70 The most powerful factor in the unification of Sweden seems to have been the creation of the archdiocese of Uppsala in 1164, at a time when Frederick Barbarossa looked like increasing his influence in Denmark and the pope wanted to keep imperial influence out of as much of Scandinavia as possible. 69

Sawyer (1988a), p. 17.

70

Sawyer (1988b), pp. 165-70.

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CHAPTER 9

SLAVS AND BULGARS Jonathan Shepard

A T the beginning of the eighth century only three political structures of substance impinged upon the Balkans. Two of them belonged to quite recent arrivals from the Eurasian steppes, the Avars and the Bulgars, while the third comprised the remnants of the eastern Roman empire which had, until the sixth century, encompassed the entire peninsula. It must be emphasised that the empire never unreservedly gave up its claim to ultimate authority over the whole area south of the lower or middle Danube, for all the treaties which it had perforce to ratify with the more formidable of the intruders. Equally, the most numerous immigration — of the Slavs — was also, by and large, the least systematically violent, leaving intact many visible symbols of the empire, for example, governors' residences and churches. The Byzantine government's periodic assertions of its rights of proprietorship were therefore not wholly lacking in physical corroboration, while the presence of Greek-speaking and, presumably, largely Christian communities was a further reminder of a past order. Not all Greek-speakers, however, necessarily regarded themselves as owing service to the remote and apparently ineffectual emperor on the Bosphorus. The secession of Greek Christian and other groups from the Avar khanate1 points to the strains which a federation of steppe nomads and subject peoples was liable to undergo, as the momentum of campaigning and plundering gradually gave way to a sedentary, less martial way of life. This tendency was already pronounced by the late seventh century and continued through the eighth. The majority of the population engaged in agriculture, as the many finds of sickles in burial grounds attest, although some Avars may have maintained a degree of pastoral nomadism. The Avars' stance was essentially defensive and the strongpoints indicated by the 1

See Lemerle (1979) 1, pp. 222-4; Lemerle (1981) 11, pp. 142-52. The descendants of the Greekspeaking captives of the Avars who appeared near Thessalonica in the 680s were, whether justly or not, viewed with some suspicion by the imperial authorities. 228

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concentration of warrior graves in their southeastern quarter, near modern Belgrade, served primarily to block Bulgar forays up the Danube. Nonetheless, they remained, with their bows and arrows, sabres and horsemanship, a far from negligible military power and could be described by a Frankish writer in the mid-eighth century as robusta gens Avarorum.1 They probably acted as a check upon the westwards adventurism of their Bulgar neighbours. The exact ethnic origins of the Danubian Bulgars is controversial. It is in any case most probable that they had enveloped groupings of diverse origins during their migration westwards across the Eurasian steppes,3 and they undoubtedly spoke a form of Turkic as their main language. The Bulgars long retained many of the customs, military tactics, titles and emblems of a nomadic people of the steppes. They were still carrying into battle horses' tails as banners in the 860s.4 The Bulgars in the eighth and ninth centuries had a pressing practical reason for retaining a military organisation appropriate for the open steppes. The fertile stretch of steppe northeast from the Danube as far as the environs of the Dniester basin was still their gra2ing ground, and it needed guarding against other military formations from further east. The Danubian Bulgars were, in a sense, obliged to remain on a steppe-warfare footing to a much greater extent than were the Avars behind their Carpathian screen: Pliska, the Bulgars' focal point in the plain south of the Danube, formed a colossal encampment and refuge for their families and livestock soon after they crossed the Danube and appropriated the plain to its south in 680—1 (Map 16). They raised an earthen rampart some 3 m high, enclosing an area of approximately 23 sq km; in its middle was a much smaller earthwork, concentric in plan with the outer rampart, containing the khan's residence and the halls of senior nobles.5 These structures were not, in the late seventh or eighth century, of stone but the remains of stone Byzantine churches and public buildings were still extant. One of the main attractions of the area was abundant pastureland and the newly arrived Bulgars created several similar large fortified encampments within a few kilometres of Pliska.6 Another advantage was the protection which the Danube afforded from sudden attacks by other peoples of the steppes. To the south lay the 'Greeks', against whose perfidy and sudden attacks strict vigilance must also be maintained. The tribute or subsidies which Bulgar khans from Asparuch onwards seem to have received from the emperor may have served as an appetiser for further treasure to be had from 2 4 6

3 Arbeo of Freising (1920), p. 33; Deer (1977), p. 328. Dimitrov (1987), pp. 65—70. 5 MGHEpp. vi, p. 580. IB, p. 181; PP iv, pp. 9-12. PP iv, p. 15. On the re-use of spolia in the ninth century, see p. 244 below.

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Pliska> • Preslav Mts

Mesembria Anchialos

MakreLibadaif_LAdrian0P|e ArcadiopoUsVS"^0'1'1 Constantinople

Map 16 The Balkans, 700—900

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raiding, but it could also encourage acceptance of the status quo. It seems to have been principally the readiness of Byzantine contenders for the throne to call for Bulgar military aid that upset this equilibrium. The most notable instance was in 705—6. Justinian II, intent upon recovering power after years in exile north of the Black Sea, enlisted Khan Tervel's support with the promise of'many gifts, and his own daughter as wife',7 and appeared before Constantinople with Tervel and his warriors. The sight of this host failed to cow the city's defenders into surrender, but Justinian managed to slip inside the walls with a few followers and in the ensuing melee he regained the throne. Tervel was rewarded with the almost imperial title of Caesar and, sitting enthroned' beside the emperor, he received the obeisance of the citizenry. He displayed his new trappings on a seal which was perhaps struck for him while he was still in Constantinople.8 Tervel also commissioned a large relief carving (2.6m high, 3.1m wide) high up on a cliff face at Madara, some way south of Pliska. Tervel is depicted on horseback, trampling down a lion which he has speared.9 He was, in the role of triumphant huntsman, appropriating a royal motif. Tervel's stance of wary collusion with the emperor, suggested by a contemporary inscription,10 was not absurd. Byzantine rulers, hard pressed to contain the Arabs' pressure which mounted in the early eighth century, and unsure of their own generals' loyalties, were inclined to treat the Bulgar occupation of the lower Danubian basin as •afait accompli. Probably in 716, and in any case no later than c. 7 5 o, a treaty was concluded between a Bulgarian ruler (probably Tervel) and an emperor, providing for travel between the regions under their respective sway; traders were to be equipped with 'certificates and seals' (sigillion kai sphragidori), and their possessions were to be inviolate; garments and red leather up to a total value of 30 or 5 o pounds of gold could be bought by the Bulgars.11 The treaty gave suppleness and credibility to the khan's military overlordship: in future, he and his agents would have the right to supervise the regular contacts of whoever lived north of the Haemus range with the imperial authorities in Constantinople or the fortified ports which studded the Black Sea coast; the port of Mesembria seems to have been the principal entrepot. 12 One might expect, on analogy with the Avars and other steppe federations, that the Bulgar polity would undergo stress once the momentum of 7

8 9 11 12

'pleista . . . dora kai ten heautou thygatera eis gynaika', Theoph. Chron., p. 374, trans. Turtledove, p. 71; cf. Niceph., pp. 102-3. Zacos and Veglery (1972) 1.3, p. 1441; Besevliev (1979), p. 231; Jurukova (1984), pp. 224—6. 10 BeSevliev (1979), p. 89, 100-1. BeSevliev (1979), p. 91. Theoph. Chron., p. 497, trans. Turtledove, p. 176; IB, p. 115; Oikonomides (1988), pp. 29—30. Oikonomides (1988), p. 31.

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conquest and massive influxes of booty died away and non-nobles engaged to a greater or lesser extent in agriculture. The camp at Pliska contained no equivalent to the Avar Ring's treasure and, in so far as the eighth-century Byzantine economy was preponderantly agrarian, few rich pickings lay within reach in southern Thrace, even in such towns as Philippopolis. Such tribute as was exacted from the Slavs must have been in kind, and agrarian produce, wax and skins were not the aptest cogs for a durable political mechanism of rewards and patronage. Nor does the tribute rendered, at uncertain intervals, by Byzantium seem to have been really substantial. These speculations, which must needs be highly tentative, have some bearing on the events recorded in the third quarter of the eighth century, when warfare brought the Bulgars back into the Byzantine chronicles' beam. The emperor Constantine V (741—75) was a talented military man, confident in the loyalty of his tagmata. Taking advantage of the turmoil in the Muslim world, he attacked well-populated regions on his eastern frontier and transferred their Syrian and Armenian Christian inhabitants to Thrace. Constantine was also concerned to tighten control over the mainly Slav occupants of the strip of land between the Rhodope range and the Aegean Sea. One expedition - probably essentially punitive and intimidatory — sent against the Bulgars c. 760 came to grief in a mountain pass,13 but subsequent events seemed to vindicate Constantine's dismissive treatment of his northern neighbours. Many Slavs seized the opportunity presented by discord between their overlords tofleeto the emperor, who resettled them in Bithynia. The successive expeditions of Constantine V against the Bulgars in the later years of his reign are mostly depicted in Byzantine chronicles as fatuous and vainglorious affairs.14 He seems, in 773, to have needed only to sail up to Varna for the Bulgars collectively to sue for peace, and when he subsequently routed a Bulgar army that had breached the newly made written agreements, he made much of victory celebrations in Constantinople, and did not pursue the foe far northwards. His expeditions by land and sea may in reality have had the limited aim of overawing the Bulgars and discouraging them from intervening in his efforts to destabilise such Slav political structures as existed to the south of the Haemus range. The empire's urgent requirement, probably aggravated by recurrent plagues, was not so much for pastureland as people, both to garrison the fortresses which Constantine built or refurbished in the borderlands, and to produce the agricultural 13

14

Theoph. Chron., p. 431, trans. Turtledove, p. 120;fora positive version of what could be the same campaign, see Niceph. pp. 144—5, 2 I 9Niceph., pp. 148—5 3, 156—7; Theoph's tone is far more negative: pp. 432—3,436—7,446—8, trans. Turtledove, pp. 122, 125—6, 133—5.

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surpluses upon which such defences had to rest. His concern to keep up, if not expand, the size of the population in Thrace is suggested by the decisiveness of his response to the Bulgars' scheme to transplant the inhabitants of Berzetia to their own country in 774.15 If this interpretation of Constantine's aims is sound, it tempers the scale of the Bulgars' achievement in weathering the blows his armies dealt them. In Constantine's reign, they had their first hostile encounter with a firmly based and undistracted soldier emperor, and the effect of their repeated reverses was to exacerbate the political instability which was already astir. The numerous 'secret friends' who kept Constantine informed about Bulgar plans perhaps bear witness to the politico-cultural magnetism of the imperial court rather than simply to the efficacy of Byzantine bribery and intelligence-gathering. In 776 Khan Telerig, following in the footsteps of at least one predecessor, sought asylum in Constantinople, was baptised and wedded a cousin of the emperor's wife. But it would be wrong to infer from the volatility at the top that the entire ruling elite was demoralised or culturally bankrupt. Distrust of 'the Greeks' is a motif of the so-called 'Protobulgar' inscriptions and it may, paradoxically, have helped maintain cohesion among the warrior class, in that a high degree of military alertness was imperative. The 'council' (kombentori) which denounced Khan Sabinos in 763 is supposed to have declared: 'Thanks to you, the Romans will enslave Bulgaria!'16 This utterance foreshadows other, indubitably historical, expressions of Bulgar fear and distrust of the Byzantine state. The turn of the eighth and the ninth centuries is celebrated for a series of invasions and counter invasions on the part of Byzantines and Bulgars. Lurid as some of these clashes were, they did not, in themselves, alter the balance between the two powers. They were, however, symptoms of more fundamental developments which the virulent early ninth-century conflicts probably accelerated. First, and most dramatically, the collapse of the Avar khaganate must be noted. In 796 the khagan submitted to Charlemagne and in 803 the last significant Avar resistance gave out.17 The Bulgars under their new khan, Krum, were quick to exploit the Avars' predicament. Around 804 they launched a devastating raid, prompting one group of Avars to request permission to migrate westwards into the territory of their Frankish overlords. 18 A second fundamental development c. 800 was the tightening of the links 15

16

18

Theoph. Chron., p. 447, trans. Turtledove, p. 134; Turner (1990a), p. 426; Soustal (1991), pp. 80, 556. 'dia sou he Boulgaria mellei doulousthai tois Romaiois': Theoph. Chron., p. 453, trans. l7 Turtledove, p. 122. Pohl (1989), pp. 321-2. Suidae Lexicon (1928,1), pp. 483-4; Pohl (1989), p. 322.

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between Byzantium and the diverse inhabitants of the Balkan hinterland, and the Bulgars' reaction to this. The imperial government in the late eighth century took spectacular steps to proclaim dominion over the Slav communities to its west and southwest. In 784 Empress Irene celebrated with a triumph in the capital the success of her chief minister, Staurakios, in allegedly 'making tribute-payers' of 'all' the Slav tribes in the regions of Thessalonica and northern Greece,19 and subsequently she herself went on a kind of imperial progress through Thrace, accompanied by a largeforceand taking with her organs and other musical symbols of majesty. Irene's itinerary marked an attempt to establish enclaves centred on fortresses across a broad swathe of the debatable lands looking towards Bulgaria. Irene's journey to a point as far up the Hebros (Maritsa) as Philippopolis (Plovdiv) took her well beyond the previous limits of imperial security. Her foundation of a new theme, 'Macedonia', gave administrative form to Byzantine dominance over the coastal strip west of the Hebros and the choice of name served notice on the Bulgars of imperial claims to Macedonia proper, far to the west. If Irene and her counsellors supposed from the instability among the Bulgar ruling elite that their reclamation work would meet with acquiescence, they were soon to be disillusioned. The Bulgar polity proved far more resilient vis-a-vis the Byzantines than was the Avar khaganate before the Franks. In fact, it was the Byzantine state that now experienced volatility at the top for over two decades, giving the Bulgars the chance to reverse the trend of recent years. The Byzantine chronicles record a few colourful bouts in a largely unrecorded struggle for control not only of forts such as Markellai but also of the entire length of the main river valleys leading down to the Aegean from the Balkan interior.20 The Bulgars may well have felt threatened by the Byzantine shows of force and acts of consolidation outlined above. But they were not devoid of some spirit of adventurism and expansionism, as their assault on the Avars c. 804 shows. The khan who mounted this assault, Krum, had come to power c. 802 and his demarches have left their mark in certain inscriptions. These were set up at his instigation in the borderlands or at strategic points in order to propagate claims and publicise rights. It is noteworthy that strongholds far inland were 19

20

bypopborous epoiese: Theoph. Chron., p. 456, trans. Turtledove, p. 142; Treadgold, p. 73. Imperial authority had been established in larger towns such as Adrianople well to the west of the capital, judging by the attendance list of bishops at the Seventh Oecumenical Council at Nicaea in 787: Soustal (1991), p. 81. Theoph. Chron., pp. 463-4,467-8, 470, trans. Turtledove, pp. 148, 150-1, 1; 3; Treadgold, pp. 91—2, 98—100, 106; Soustal (1991), pp. 82, 348—9.

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n o w at issue, as well as points on eastern Thrace's coastal plain. In 809 K r u m gained entry to Serdica (Sofia) and massacred not only its large garrison b u t also the civilian population; this was, probably, mainly made up of Greekspeakers transplanted there in the recent past. Nicephorus' response was twofold. First, he stepped up the transfer of 'Christians . . . from every theme' (Christianous ... ek pantos thematos) to preponderantly Slav-settled regions over which he claimed dominion. 2 1 Secondly, Nicephorus determined t o inflict a humiliating blow on K h a n K r u m , preventing further disruption of the burgeoning pattern of strongholds. T h e emperor led a huge army up to K r u m ' s seat of authority in the Danubian plain, burning his residence and setting seals and bars o n his 'treasury buildings', thereby proclaiming a change of ownership. 2 2 Within a few days Nicephorus' grand army was withdrawing t h r o u g h the deep mountain passes. Even so, the Bulgars had sufficient time in which to prepare wooden barricades which they threw up at either end of a valley, trapping the Byzantines within it. T h e Bulgars overran the emperor's camp before dawn on Saturday, 26 July 811, killing Nicephorus; panic set in and many more soldiers perished in trying t o break out over the palisades. T h e Byzantine losses have been described as 'immense'. 2 3 K r u m seems t o have proposed peace terms which were more or less a renewal of the treaty of almost a century earlier. A clause concerning the repatriation of runaways, including political refugees, apparently an innovation, proved to be a sticking-point. 2 4 Thereupon K r u m took by means of bombardment the key naval base of Mesembria and harried parts of Thrace. Emperor Michael I (811—15) eventually abandoned his reluctance to d o battle, but his ill-equipped and largely untrained troops were easily routed at Bersinikia on 22 J u n e 813. K r u m ' s forces were considerably fewer than the Byzantines' and he had hitherto shown wariness. N o w he led his men up to Constantinople and demanded that his spear be affixed to the Golden Gate, evidently as a symbol of victory. H e was probably merely posturing, prior to peace talks, and, at his request, a meeting between him and the newly acceded emperor, Leo V, was arranged. It may well have been exasperation after a Byzantine assassination attempt that drove K r u m o n a whirlwind tour of destruction. After sacking the suburbs of the capital, K r u m and his warriors devastated many forts and walled towns along the northern shore of the Sea of Marmara, a prosperous, hitherto secure area. K r u m published on an inscribed stone the hierarchy of commanders of

21 22

24

Theoph. Chron., p. 486, trans. Turtledove, p. 166. toil tameioiy. Theoph. Chron., p. 490, line 24, trans. Turtledove, p. 171. It is in my view unlikely that there had already been a Byzantine expedition into the Danubian plain as far as Pliska in 809; a see, however, Treadgold, p. 158. Treadgold, p. 174. Theoph. Com., pp. 12-13; p. 231 above.

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his newly won border fortresses. He also had the names of more southerly fortified towns, which had been sacked but not occupied, inscribed on marble columns standing in Pliska. Twenty-one examples of these are known.25 Krum now sought to add to the list the name of Constantinople. Weight of numbers and siege equipment were prerequisite for this task, so he set about assembling a huge army, recruiting Avars and many Slavs.26 He prepared an arsenal of enormous catapults and other devices, which were to be drawn by 10,000 oxen. But sudden death cut short the enterprise. Krum died of a cerebral haemorrhage on 13 April 814. Thus ended one of the more martial phases in Byzantino-Bulgarian relations. The various invasions had re-affirmed what was probably obvious already: that neither side could overwhelm the other. The speed of Nicephorus' incursion in 811 was probably dictated by fear for his lines of withdrawal: his response to the news that the passes had been blocked was, reportedly, 'Even were we to grow wings, none could hope to survive.'27 Bulgar incursions continued after Krum's death, but the effective stalemate created by the natural barrier of the Haemus and by the walls of the City were recognised in a peace treaty (probably for thirty years) concluded between Leo V and Krum's son, Omurtag (815—31) in, most probably, 816.28 Its contents were summarised on an inscribed column at Pliska: the border area was specified mainly in terms of various fortresses running inland from Develtos (which seems to have been returned to Byzantium). The inscription is incomplete and very few of the place-names are free from controversy about their form or their present-day location.29 It is on the one hand clear that Konstanteia, strategically situated on the Hebros, and Makre Libada nearby, were well to the south of the Haemus and brought the Bulgars footholds in the fertile river valley. On the other hand, the inscription's provisions also imply a return to coexistence and the removal oicasus belli. The very fact of its erection at the khan's seat suggests as much, and it may well have been at this time that the Bulgars raised a great earthen rampart. The earthwork is still discernible for some 137 km, running from the coast near Develtos to the environs of Konstanteia and rising to a height of up to 1 m.30 The rampart is a mark of considerable powers of organisation and, while evincing distrust of the Greeks, it also suggests an intention to stay put. The khan still accounted the steppe 25 26 27

29 30

BeSevliev (1979), p p . 3 2 - 5 , 143-51, 173-4; cf. Soustal (1991), p p . 8 3 - 4 . Dujtev, MBS 11, p. 42;; Pohl(i989), p. 327. 'k'an pterotoi genometha, medeis elpisoi diaphygein ton olethron', Theoph. Chron., p. 490, a trans. Turtledove, p. 171. Treadgold (1984), pp. 217-18. Be5evliev (1979), p p . 152-63; Soustal (1986), p p . i j o - 4 . BeSevliev (1981a), p p . 4 7 6 - 7 ; Soustal (1991), p p . 261—2.

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northeast of the Danube as his domain and a sizeable colony of Byzantine captives was maintained there, probably in the vicinity of the Dniester. The community was allowed its own leaders and these agriculturalists, who seem to have been armed, served as a buffer against raiders from the east. There exist 'Protobulgar' inscriptions which apparently confirm or supplement the forementioned treaty,31 and in 822—3 Omurtag came to the assistance of Michael II against the rebellion of Thomas the Slav, perhaps in fulfilment of a treaty clause.32 There were, however, serious tensions engrained in the Bulgar polity's relations with the empire. That military preparedness remained a top priority of the khan is indicated in the correspondence between Khan Boris and Pope Nicholas I in 866. Before going to war, the khan sent out an inspector of keen intelligence to scrutinise 'all weapons, horses and things essential for battle . . . and whoever proves to be ill-prepared is punished with death'. Death was also the lot of border-guards who let slip unauthorised freemen or slaves.33 This grim state of constant alert suggests abiding fear of sudden strikes from the Byzantines by land or sea, while the steppes to the northeast swarmed with unpredictable marauders.34 But the Bulgars' energies could find outlets in expansionism when the occasion arose, and the demands of their ninth-century military organisation for materiel as well as manpower probably encouraged them to extend the compass of their exactions from amenable populations. By the mid-820s they were seeking some sort of overlordship over the Slavs and Avars living beyond the Iron Gates to the east of the river Theiss. In 827 a Bulgar fleet sailed up the river Drava and an attempt was made to wrest control of the local Slavs from the Franks.35 Khan Presian (836—52) waged war for three years with the Serbs and although his objectives are not clear, it is likely that, as in the clash with the Franks, rights of overlordship and, ultimately, exactions were at issue. This, in turn, would suggest that towards the middle of the century the khan's sphere of exactions reached far to the west beyond Serdica (Sofia). Where exactly the khan's sway ended and the emperor's began was probably undecided, and in any case the Bulgar rulers did not attempt fully to press home the opportunities which the fragility of Byzantine hegemony over

31

BeSevliev (1979), p p . 1 6 3 - 9 . Treadgold, p. 240 and n. 332 on p. 445. On evidence suggestive of a Bulgar contingent serving with the Byzantines against the Arabs in Asia Minor in 837, see Ditten (1984), pp. 70-9. 33 'cuncta arma et caballos et quae necessaria pugnae existunt... et, apud quern inutiliter praeparata inventa fuerint, capite punitur', MGH Epp. vi, p. 582; cf. ibid., p. 579. 34 E.g. the Magyars who harassed the above-mentioned Byzantine captives upon their flight, apparently during the 830s: GMC, pp. 818-19. 3 * Deer (1977), p. 358; Pohl (1989), p. 327. 32

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certain of its Slaviniai in the 820s and 830s might seem to have offered.36 Krum's successors seem rather to have probed into the mountainous interior of the Balkans and upstream along the Danube, beyond the striking range of the emperor's fleets or armies. • Their eyes, though, were cocked on the basileus and his court. This is the inescapable conclusion to be drawn from the inscriptions which the khans had cut in Greek by employees who may very often themselves have been ethnic Greeks; the inscriptions' language is spoken, not formal literary Greek. Some were essentially functional, but the majority were set up, often on marble columns, at royal residences for purposes of display. The title the 'prince-from-God' is first attested on inscriptions of Omurtag. It can hardly be a coincidence that 'emperor-from-God' (ek theou basileus) was a term in use on contemporary Byzantine coins and seals and, probably, in contemporary acclamations.37 Our sources for the reign of Boris (852—89, 893) are fuller than for the reigns of his predecessors, but they are very difficult to evaluate. Remarks about the political background to Boris' conversion and even about the course of events must therefore be highly tentative. It seems most likely that soon after Boris' accession he ratified a treaty with Byzantium, probably seeking to deal with the pattern of raids and counterraids that appear to have burgeoned in the Byzantino-Bulgar borderlands during the later 840s, after the expiry of the thirty-year treaty.38 Certain Byzantine sources claim that Boris had been deterred from military initiatives by Empress Theodora's firm stance, but the reality may have been a strategic calculation of the khan: being aware of Byzantium's substantial reserves of wealth, military manpower and diplomatic connections, Boris may have sought stability to his south and northeast, in order to extend his overlordship westwards. In 8 5 3 he attacked the territory of Louis the German in Pannonia 'fiercely' (acriter), albeit unsuccessfully.39 It may perhaps have been in the same decade that he 36

37

38 35

O n r o u t i n e b a n d i t r y , a n d a n outright revolt, see D v o r n i k (1926b), p p . 35—6, 54, 6 1 - 2 . T h e part played by the Bulgars in this unrest hinges mainly on the interpretation of an incomplete and much discussed inscription (Karayannopoulos (1986), pp. 14—19, 26-48). Any such involvement as the khan may have had was not sustained. BeSevliev (1979), p. 70; BeSevliev (1987), pp. 58-9; Zacos and Veglery (1972) 1.1, p. 47; Grierson (1973) 1, pp. 366-7, 376—7, 395-6, 412, 430, 432—3. Two inscriptions wish the khan long life in terms virtually identical to Byzantine acclamations while a third's allusion to the ritual trampling in imperial victory celebrations presupposes that its readers will be acquainted with this: BeSevliev (1979), pp. 192—3, 200—1, 209—10; cf. McCormick (1990), pp. 57-8, 144; Schreiner (1989), pp. 53, 57-8. Leo Grammaticus (1842), p. 235; Pseudo-Symeon, p. 657; Theoph. Com., p. 162. ABs.a. 853, p. 68.

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attacked the Serbs and met with humiliating failure.40 An indication of more successful Bulgar expansion westwards comes in the form of an incomplete inscription found at Ballsh, and datable to the year 1 September 865 to 31 August 866, in present-day southern Albania.41 The wording implies that Boris reigned over the area, but it offers no clue as to when Ballsh had come under Bulgar dominion. Probings westwards such as those outlined above made Boris a major figure, of concern to the East Frankish king as well as the basileus. Louis the German did not only have to reckon with the possibility of further Bulgar ventures up the middle Danube; he also had to contend with the emergence of a Slav political structure much closer to his borders, in fact within his sphere of influence, in the form of Moravia. Prince Rastislav had been imposed on the Moravians by Louis himself, but Louis' ineffectual expedition against him in 8 5 5 highlights the intractability of this Slav potentate: Louis' camp was almost overwhelmed during his withdrawal.42 Boris and Louis had a common interest in curbing the power of Rastislav and in the early 860s they achieved some sort of rapprochement, eventually amounting to an alliance. There were exchanges between Boris and Louis concerning conversion to Christianity to the point where Louis felt able to profess optimism that the khan 'might be willing to be converted' (yelit convert!) in a message directed to the papacy in the first half of 864.43 But in the event it was from Byzantium, and not Louis, that Boris received the faith. The Christian name which he assumed was that of the emperor, Michael III, who became his godfather. The precise date of Boris' baptism, 864, 865 or even (implausibly) 863 or 866, remains contentious, as do the circumstances.44 One group of Byzantine chronicles relates that Boris was converted under duress.45 But one must also consider the possibility that the chronicles are relaying the imperial explanation for a decision that was essentially of Boris' making. His 40

41

42 43

44

45

DAI, ch. 32, lines 42—5 3. The date is controversial: VIINJ n, p. 51, n. 163; Jenkins (1962), p. 134; Maksimovic (1979), pp. 69—76; ISN, p. 148; IB, p. 236; SSS vn, p. 510. This mentions 'Boris whose name has been changed to Michael' and 'the people given to him by G o d ' (Bores ho metonomastheis Michael; to ek theou dedomeno auto ethnei): BeSevliev (1979), p. 139; Cankova-Petkova (1973), pp. 3>-2. It was, most probably, cut soon after Boris's conversion. AF s.a. 8 5 5 , p . 4 5 . O n Louis t h e G e r m a n ' s p r o b l e m s with M o r a v i a , see R e u t e r ( i 9 9 i ) , p p . 8 2 - 3 . Louis, as the object of rebukes from Nicholas I at that time, had his reasons for propagating such hopes. Similar caution should be exercised with the statement in AB (j.a. 864, p. 113) that Boris 'had promised that he wished to become a Christian' (christianumfieri vellepromiseraf); this would, even if actually made, have been only the vaguest of undertakings. See,e.g.,Obolensky(i97ia),p.84;Cankova-Petkova(i973),pp. 30-4;Hannick(1978),pp. 3089; SSS VII, p. 510; Gjuzelev (1988), p. 133. GMC, p. 824; Leo Grammaticus (1842), p. 238.

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baptism could represent a proposal which he voluntarily presented to Byzantium in exchange for territorial concessions from Byzantium in Thrace.46 It need not have been determined solely by apprehensions of a Byzantine invasion. If, as is likely, Boris was seriously considering baptism already before the onset of famine, apparent abandonment by the gods and strategic vulnerability, he was at least partly motivated by a desire to come to terms with a religion whose magnetic force was evident. Some of Boris' subjects were Christians, and not all of them were Greek-born. Boris' own sister is said to have been converted while living (as a hostage) in Constantinople and, supposedly, upon her return home she urged the faith upon him. In fact, nunneries, as well as monasteries, seem to have been in existence among the Bulgars for some time before Boris' conversion,47 and Orthodox religious often made the most dedicated proselytisers. This could have a demeaning, if not downright disruptive, effect upon the rites, such as sacrifices, over which the khan presided. On the other hand, the cohesiveness, order and written learning of Christian worship, together with the energies of its practitioners, might be harnessed to Boris' rule, lending credibility to his title 'prince-from-God'. A cult which might predispose the Slavs, Vlachs and other autochthonous inhabitants of his lands to accept that they belonged to 'the people given to him from God' would be of obvious advantage to Boris.48 It may well have been considerations such as these, and not just diplomatic manoeuvring, which raised the question of Boris' conversion during his exchanges with Louis the German. Not dissimilar considerations may have underlain his acceptance of Christianity from Michael III, whether or not this was preceded by serious imperial sabre-rattling. Imperial propaganda inclined to treat the adoption of the Orthodox creed by the Bulgar khan as a triumph for the Byzantine state: Boris and his people had now submitted to the emperor. Boris' subsequent conduct suggests that subservience to an external ruler was precisely what he was seeking to avert. Having made the decision to convert, he committed himself wholeheartedly to mastering the intricacies of the new religion's ritual and discipline, and to inculcating Christian behavioural norms in his people in a characteristically thorough way. But his stance was still exploratory, in the 46

48

Theoph. Cont., p. 165; GMC, p. 824; Leo Grammaticus (1842), p. 238; Soustal (1986), pp. 149, 47 153—5. Florja and Litavrin (1988), pp. 187-8. O n archaeological attestation of long-lasting differences in burial and cremation ritual between Bulgars and Slavs, see Georgiev et al. (1975), p- 87; V'zharova(i976), pp. 424—6,435-6. O n the non-Slav population, see Schramm (1981), pp. 134-7, 178-9, 399; Winnifrith (1987), pp. 88—100; Risos (1990), pp. 202—3.

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sense that he sought information from more than one ecclesiastical authority. His strategic position soon recovered from such temporary dislocation as the famine of the early 860s may have induced, and his internal position was greatly strengthened in 866 by his defeat in battle of a major uprising of nobles opposed to his adoption of the new religion; they may have regarded Boris' demarche with the same disfavour that their predecessors had greeted Sabinos' conciliatory policy towards Constantine V a century earlier. 'All their leaders' (omnes primates eorum) are said to have been executed by Boris.49 Within a year or two of baptism Boris felt able to risk Byzantine outrage by seeking clergy from Louis the German, and counsel and a patriarch from Pope Nicholas I. The pope's answers, dated 13 November 866, match the detail of Boris' enquiries as to how to implant the new religion into everyday life.50 Nicholas sent a high-ranking delegation, together with numerous junior clergy, to see through what he envisaged as the incorporation of the barbarian occupants of the old ecclesiastical province of Illyricum into the mother church. Boris seems, throughout his negotiations with the papal representatives and the papacy, to have acted on the assumption that the new cult's priests should be answerable to him and that their hierarchy should correspond with his own status as a wholly independent ruler: hence his desire for a patriarch as his high priest.51 He was most probably well aware of, and perhaps not uninfluenced by, the efforts which the chief prince of Moravia had been making in the early 860s to acquire a hierarchy independent of the Frankish church hierarchy. Rastislav's aim was much more modest than Boris', in that he seems merely to have been seeking a bishop and clergy to form a diocese coterminous with his dominions. But his rationale was comparable. Upon failing to procure a bishop from Nicholas I, Rastislav put a similar request to the emperor of Byzantium, and may also have sought general recognition of his right to rule over the Moravians.52 Rastislav received not a full-blown mission but two brothers, Constantine and Methodius. Both were pious and Slav-speakers, and Constantine was a supremely gifted linguist who seems already to have experimented with designing an alphabet for the Slavic language, perhaps even translating some Gospel readings.53 The Byzantine government may well have intended the mission to be exploratory rather than permanent, and in any case Rastislav's bid for institutionalized autonomy suffered a major setback 49 50

51 53

MGHEpp. vi, p. 577; Abs.a. 866, p. 133. MGHEpp.

v i , p p . 5 6 8 - 6 0 0 ; S u l l i v a n ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 53—139. B o r i s h a d a l r e a d y r e c e i v e d a l e t t e r f r o m

Patriarch Photius, prescribing the duties of a Christian prince: Photius (1983) 1, pp. 1—39. 52 MGHEpp. vi, pp. 592-3; Gjuzelev (1988), p. 147. VC, ch. 14; Richter (198;), p. 283. Vavfinek and Zasterova (1982), p. 174.

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in 864, soon after the arrival of Constantine and Methodius in Moravia. Surprised in his stronghold of Devin, he was obliged to surrender to Louis the German and sworefidesto the king; thereupon Frankish churchmen were able to resume their pastoral work. Constantine and Methodius left Rastislav's lands at the end of 866 or the beginning of 867.M Nonetheless, the repercussions of the brothers' activities were wide ranging. Constantine, acting with his brother and apparently at their own initiative, translated during their stay in Moravia several lengthy texts fundamental to the liturgy. The four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles and, apparently, the entire Book of Psalms were elegantly rendered and written down in the script that Constantine had devised, almost certainly Glagolitic.55 The papacy, at odds with Byzantium concerning jurisdiction over the church in Bulgaria (as falling within Illyricum, to which the Constantinopolitan patriarchate, too, laid claim),56 began to show interest in the brothers. Constantine and Methodius, who were in the summer of 867 lodged in Venice, received an invitation to Rome, where Pope Hadrian II accorded them a ceremonial welcome.57 Pope Hadrian's manifest sympathy and respect for the translation work of Constantine and Methodius was not, however, without high-placed critics in Rome. Nonetheless, shortly after his brother's death in 869 Methodius was able to return to the middle Danube Slavs as papal legate armed with a papal bull sanctioning the use of the new Slavonic script. Soon afterwards he was ordained in Rome as archbishop of 'the Pannonians'. The nomenclature, reviving the western part of the province of Illyricum, reflected the fact that Methodius enjoyed the active support of Kocel, prince of the Pannonian Slavs, with whom he and his brother had stayed on their way from Moravia to Venice in 867 and who now welcomed the prospect of an archbishopric, as a bar to the archbishop of Salzburg's right to intervene in Pannonian affairs. Nonetheless, Methodius continued to encounter great difficulties, including a period in detention. Upon Kocel's death c. 875 he moved on to Moravia and took charge of church life in the dominions of Svatopluk, the nephew and ouster of Rastislav. Methodius strenuously devoted himself to teaching and translating and, increasingly with the help of his pupils, created a very extensive repertory, including most of the Bible and also excerpts from the Church Fathers, prayers and a work of church 54 55

56

VC, ch. 15; Wolfram (1987), p. 294. VC, ch. 15; VM, ch. 15. It seems, however, that the Gospels and the Acts were not translated in their entirety; those parts read out in church services were translated: Floria (1981), p. 128, n. 14; p. 168, n. 5. D v o r n i k ( i 9 4 8 ) , p p . 91—4, 100—3; H a n n i c k ( i 9 7 8 ) , p p . 311—12; IB, p p . 224—7; D o p m a n n ( 1 9 8 1 ) ,

pp. 62—6; SSS VII, p. 510.

57

VC, ch. 17.

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law, the Synagoge of jo Titles, adapted to conditions in Moravia. Although Svatopluk showed no enthusiasm for a Slavonic liturgy, Methodius in 880 received permission from Pope John VIII to celebrate the liturgy in Slavonic, a concession which the papacy had denied him hitherto. Boris of Bulgaria was, in the late 860s, in a far stronger position than Rastislav, Svatopluk or Kocel, being master of his own land without serious fear of deposition. The Roman clergy had proved to be very active, but he had not reached agreement with the pope on a choice of archbishop: he had fairly rapidly abandoned his quest for a patriarch. For reasons which are not fully clear, he began to contemplate a rapprochement with Byzantium; the recently acceded emperor, Basil I, for his part, may well have been interested in some means of tempering the Bulgarian problem, at a time when his missionaries were making progress among the Serbs and other western neighbours of the Bulgars.58 An occasion for both parties — Boris and Basil — to formalise an arrangement was provided by the dispute between the Roman and the Constantinopolitan churches, which Nicholas I's refusal to recognise Photius as patriarch in lieu of the deposed Ignatius had precipitated. Basil, eager for legitimisation of his recent palace coup and in particular for Rome's recognition of his patriarch (the now-restored Ignatius), convened a Council, attended by heads or representatives of all five patriarchates, from October 869 to March 870. The papacy's own condemnation of Photius was confirmed and he was excommunicated. However, Basil, acting in collusion with Boris, had some hidden agenda for the delegates, concerning Bulgaria; the papacy seems to have suspected as much in advance, but its legates were unable to halt the reconvening of the Council to consider a question posed by the khan's envoys: to which patriarchate did his land belong? The answer of the delegates — the Romans alone dissenting — can have come as no surprise to Basil or to Boris. The judgement was, according to Anastasius Bibliothecarius, that 'the country of the Bulgars which, as we have ascertained, was formerly under Greek rule and had Greek clergy, is now returned through the Christian faith to the holy church of Constantinople, from which it had been removed through paganism'.59 The church in Bulgaria thus gained the ambivalent status of an 'autocephalous' archbishopric: the only other such see encompassed the island of Cyprus. Although owing his status directly to an imperial decision and 58

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DAI,ch. 29/7O-98;Radoji£ic(i952),pp. 255-6; VIINJ11,p.49,n. i52;Dujcev(i96i),pp. 53-;; Hannick (1978), p. 312; ISN, pp. 151-2. 'Quapropter Bulgarum patria ex Grecorum potestate dudum fuisse et Grecos sacerdotes habuisse comperimus, sanctae ecdesiae Constantinopolitanae a qua per paganismum recesserat, nunc per christianismum restitui iudicamus', LP 11, p. 184.

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under the moral aegis of the Constantinopolitan patriarch, who consecrated at least the first incumbent, the archbishop seems in effect to have possessed autonomy. His appointment can only have been made with the approval of the 'prince-from-God' and Basil's agreement on this point may well have been the essence of the settlement.60 Boris could feel confident of obtaining an acceptable high priest. He planned that thefirstarchbishop, named variously in our sources as Stephen or Joseph, should live with him at Pliska, probably in a monastery situated in the fortified outer town; his chambers seem to have been connected by vaulted galleries to the Great Basilica which Boris had caused to be built, or rather, rebuilt. The huge structure, some 29.5 m wide by 99 m long (including its colonnaded atrium), was raised on the foundations of a ruined basilica that is probably datable to the early Byzantine period.61 The church's size and the lavishness of its columns and other ornamentation — much of it spolia from earlier buildings62 — served to display the prince's special relationship with God. The sources for Boris' conduct after hisfinaladoption of the Byzantine rite are mostly ecclesiastical in origin, and it is quite conceivable that the Christian prince engaged in aggressive warfare against the Croats, and possibly against the Serbs.63 It was, however, peaceful promotion of the new cult that served the ruler's interests most systematically, entitling him to intervene legitimately in communities whose dealings with him and his agents had hitherto been mainly in the form of tribute payments and military service. As is apparent in Boris' questions to Nicholas I, he saw it as his duty to enforce correct observance of the cult's rites and disciplines on all his subjects: the severe demands traditionally placed on Bulgar nobles and freemen owing military service were now supplemented, if not supplanted, by the ruler's responsibility to God for their moral and spiritual welfare,64 and his new duties did not stop with Bulgars. Boris seems to have been well aware of the opportunities which Christianity gave him to define his role as ruler and to extend it to the outer reaches of his dominions. The location of the inscription commemorating his conversion is suggestive: Ballsh was over 600 km southwest of Pliska and very few indeed of the local inhabitants can have been ethnic Bulgars. Several of the episcopal sees were also on the 60

61 62 63

See, e.g. Svoboda (1966), pp. 73—8; Dopmann (1967), pp. 803-4; SSS in, p. 495; IB, p. 236; Darrouzes (1981), pp. 93, 153, and n. 1. Mavrodinov (1959), pp. J4ff.; IB, p. 427; Mango (1986), p. 173; Totev (1987), pp. 187-9. PPn, pp. 190-8. The attack on the Croats is related in the DAI, ch. 31/62—4 without clear chronological indicators. The DATs account of Boris' expedition against the Serbs is ambivalent in its clues as M to the date: above, n. 40. A point put to him by Pope Nicholas, MGH Epp. vi, p. ; 8 2.

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fringes of Boris' realm — Belgrade, for example, and the nearby town of Morav-Margus in the northwest; Ochrid and Bregalnitsa in the southwest; and, in Thrace, Philippopolis.65 Boris is described by an eleventh-century churchman as having 'girdled' {peri^psanta) all Bulgaria with metropolitan churches, which he claims numbered seven in all.66 The pattern of Bulgarian sees to some extent registers those areas where Orthodox Christianity was long established. However, Boris' interest in founding bishoprics and building churches probably also sprang from awareness of the benefits to his authority of a network of cult centres which relied upon him for patronage and resources. The southern and western sees of the new archbishopric were mostly in areas which had only come under Bulgar dominion within living memory, and which were not devoid of strategic significance. That Slavic developed as a literary language in Bulgaria seems to have owed much, although by no means everything, to providence or chance. In 885, after Methodius' death Pope Stephen V(VI) re-imposed the ban on worship in Slavic in Moravia. Moravian priests and deacons, approximately two hundred in number, all of them celebrants of the Slavic liturgy, were imprisoned, enslaved or expelled.67 One small group made its way to Bulgaria, where its three leaders were received by Boris. Naum apparently took up residence in Pliska, but Boris assigned Clement to the southwest extremities of his territories. Clement is depicted in his Vita as conducting an extraordinarily active mission, teaching and showing the same zeal for book-learning that his mentors, Constantine-Cyril and Methodius, had done; he gave up much time to the young, whom he drilled vigorously in reading, writing and comprehension.68 Several of the claims made for Clement by his Vita are borne out by independent sources, notably by a sizeable body of works attributed — with varying degrees of plausibility — to him. Panegyrics of saints and at least fifteen sermons can safely be ascribed to him.69 And there is no doubt that his pastoral care encompassed Ochrid, where he soon founded a monastery, Deabolis (Devol), and other recesses of what is now southern Albania. There is no firm evidence that Boris was, in the late 880s, contemplating a wholesale substitution of Slavonic for Greek as the language of worship or of the Scriptures. On the other hand, he seems to have sanctioned some translation work by Bulgarians such as John the Exarch even before the arrival of Methodius' pupils. 65 66

67 69

SSS in, map on p. 495; p. 497; IB, p. 231. Milev (1966), p. 132. The figure of seven metropolitanates for ninth-century Bulgaria may well be an anachronism on the part of the writer, Theophylact of Ochrid. 68 Milev (1966), p. n o . Milev (1966), p. 126. Iliev (1987), pp. 72-5; Obolensky (1988b), pp. 30-1.

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One must, in particular, beware of possible distortion or simplification of the original purpose of Clement's mission, let alone of the lack of clarity concerning Boris' motives, in the longer of his two Vitae. Its author, Theophylact of Ochrid, was writing two centuries afterwards and he had reasons of his own for aggrandising his see as having been the cradle of the young Bulgarian church.70 At any rate, Clement was initially allotted residences and, apparently, instructed to evangelise, in largely pagan regions which had only come under Bulgar dominion quite recently and many of whose inhabitants were not Bulgars or even Slavs, but Albanians and Vlachs.71 Clement'sfluencyin Slavonic would therefore have been of limited impact. It is likely that Boris regarded both individuals such as Clement and institutions — monasteries and sees — as important means of demarcating the zones of his legitimate rule. Together, they constituted a sort of dynamo offixedbases and mobile individuals which could bring a measure of order to the disparate communities of the region, at least in the valleys. There was, then, a profoundly political dimension to Boris' furtherance of Christianity and patronage of such cults as that of the Fifteen Martyrs of Tiberioupolis.72 But if in earlier days his preoccupation was with a welldrilled series of rituals, new means of underpinning his rule through social control, he came to cherish the faith as the pathway to his own spiritual improvement and redemption. A German chronicler, Regino of Priim, whose evident admiration for Boris was based on factual information, recounts that by night he would don 'sackcloth and, entering the basilica secretly, he would prostrate himself on a goat's hair covering spread directly on the church pavement, and lie there in prayer'.73 This portrayal gains some substance from the fact that in 889 Boris abdicated, exchanging earthly power for the cloister. Several of his close relatives were already monks or nuns. Munificence towards the church, strict personal piety and thirst for learning may well have appeared ingrained in the new political culture of Bulgaria, and Boris was presumably confident, upon abdicating, that things would continue thus under his eldest son and heir Vladimir. 70

71

72

73

Nonetheless, the detailed and at least partly verifiable information, together with occasional phraseology befitting a pupil of Clement, suggests that Theophylact was drawing on an early source, such as a Vita. Cf. Obolensky (1988b), p. 63. Milev (1966), p. 124. One of the properties was at Ballsh, where stood the Greek inscription commemorating the conversion of Boris and his 'people': above, n. 41. Intensive Slav settlement of this area is, however, propounded by Gjuzelev (1991), pp. 79-82. Theophylact of Ochrid, Martyrium, cols. 201-6; SSSin, p. 495; SSS v, p. 440; Obolensky (1988b), PP-7J-5'sacco vestitus latenter ecdesiam intrans super pavimentum ipsius basilicae substrato sibi tantum cilicio prostratus in oratione iaceret': Regino of Priim (1890), p. 96.

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In the event, Vladimir attempted a pagan reaction in which blood was spilt.74 Vladimir's failure suggests that Christian statehood was a now irreversible trend in Bulgaria, as nearly everywhere else in southeastern Europe, even though Boris, at the time of his abdication, had left unresolved major questions as to the relative merits and uses of Greek and Slavonic in worship, religious instruction and secular administration. Cognate with this was the wider issue of Bulgaria's relationship with Byzantium. Notionally, in the eyes of senior Byzantine churchmen at least, the Bulgarian people were the 'spiritual children' of the Byzantines,75 and Boris was willing to disseminate an image of piety and submission to Constantinopolitan authority on his lead seals. Some earlier khans had issued seals or medallions, notably Tervel and Omurtag; they were portrayed with vestments and regalia largely of Byzantine cut. Boris, in contrast, eschewed portrayal of himself on his seals. On their face is a bust of Christ; on their reverse is a bust of the Mother of God with her arms raised in prayer.76 To all appearances, then, the Byzantines and the Bulgarians were united in the body of Christ. The fact remained that the khan's dominions now included a far broader swathe of the Balkans than those of his predecessors had done. Boris' adoption of Christianity as a state religion provided him with an array of new means for the ordering of his subjects. The lower Danube area remained his base.77 At the same time, a high proportion of Boris' bishoprics lay in the vicinity of his borders with Byzantium. Boris' main concern may have been with the inculcation of his authority among the heterogeneous inhabitants of his southern and western borderlands. It may well be that Boris was partly seeking to counter the religious, cultural and ultimately political gravitational field which centres such as Dyrrachium, Thessalonica and Constantinople itself inevitably exerted. Such measures of Boris as this had no direct military purpose, but the imperial government cannot have failed to note the potential strategic problems which an enlarged, better-ordered Bulgaria under an interventionist Christian monarch might pose. Even during the later part of Boris' reign, when his Christian piety was manifest, the Byzantine state took 74 76

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75 See New Cambridge Medieval History m , forthcoming. Dolger (1959), p. 227, n. 17. The face and the reverse of Boris' seals respectively invoke, in a standard Byzantine formula, the aid of Christ and the Mother of God for 'Michael, prince of Bulgaria' (Michael arcbonta Boulgarias): Jurukova(i98i), pp. 3-4,5-6; Jurukova(i984), pp. 226-8; Jurukova (1985), p. 17. For Tervel's seal, see above, n. 8; for Omurtag's medallions, see BeSevliev (1979), p. 234; Jurukova (1984), p. 226; BeSevliev (1987), p. 62.

Fortuitous as are the finds of such objects as seals, it is significant that at least eight examples of Boris' seals are known, whereas no lead, 'functional' seals of his ninth-century predecessors are known; equally significantly, most of Boris's seals have been found in the lower Danube area: BeSevliev (1979), pp. 232-4; Jordanov (1984), pp. 89-90.

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precautions in the form of the rebuilding of fortifications at their key naval base of Mesembria.78 Photius in 886 tried to impress upon Boris the continuity of policy which Basil's sons and heirs would maintain, urging him to reciprocate their desire for concord; the word 'peace' (eirene) occurs four times in this relatively brief letter.79 Photius' very preoccupation with this theme may well betray unease. The lengthy spell of peace between Byzantines and Bulgarians had owed much to the congruence of interests and policies between Boris and Basil I which had been expressed in the ecclesiastical arrangement of 870 of which, unfortunately, no textual evidence survives. The question remained open: would a new generation of Byzantine rulers willingly concede to their Bulgarian counterpart the fellowship, paternal solicitude and consideration which their rhetoric professed and which Christian teaching gave him the right to expect? 78

79

BeSevliev (i960), pp. 291—3; Venedikov (1969a), pp. 143—4; Venedikov (1969b), pp. 159-60; Velkov (1969), pp. 214—16; Oikonomides (1981,1984—;), pp. 271-2; Soustal (1991), p. 356. The date of Byzantium's recovery of Mesembria is uncertain: this could have formed part of the arrangement between Basil and Boris in 870. P h o t i u s (1985) i n , p p . 113—14, lines 36, 39, 4 3 , 4 7 .

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CHAPTER IO

THE

MUSLIMS IN EUROPE Hugh Kennedy

THE MUSLIMS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN

THE confrontation and interaction between Muslin and Christian worlds spread throughout the Mediterranean from east to west. In the east, the conflict was essentially between the Islamic states, notably the Umayyads and cAbbasids in the eighth century and the cAbbasids and Tulunids in the ninth, on the one hand, and the Byzantines on the other. This conflict was played out on the long land frontier which ran roughly along the southeastern borders of the Anatolian plateau. It was also played out at sea where, by the beginning of the eighth century, the Muslims had shown themselves adept at naval warfare. The city of Constantinople was able to defend itself, but many of the coastlines and islands of the empire were subject to raids, and some islands, notably Crete, were occupied (Map 4). This struggle lies outside the scope of this volume (for further reading see the bibliography for this chapter). In the western half of the Mediterranean, however, the Muslims were able to establish sustainable states on the European shores and it is with these states that this chapter is concerned.

THE MUSLIMS IN SICILY AND SOUTHERN ITALY

Sicily, with its ancient Greek and Latin legacies, had long been a half-way house between two cultures. While in Gregory the Great's time, Latin influence, and especially ecclesiastical connections, remained strong, it seems that the seventh and eighth centuries saw the island becoming increasingly Greek in language, administration and religion. The loss of Syria and Egypt to the Muslims appears to have increased the importance of Sicily to Byzantium. In the eighth century, the island had no imperial pretensions, but it remained an integral part of the Byzantine empire, governed by the strategos of Syracuse. 249

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Sicily was no more immune from Arab attacks than any other part of the Mediterranean coastline. The first raid was sent by the governor of Syria, Mucawiyah, later to be the first Umayyad caliph, in 642. In 667 a more extensive raid led to the capture of booty, some of which was forwarded to the caliph. In 693—4 the Muslims took Carthage and established their rule over the province they called Ifrlqiyyah (from the Latin Africa: essentially modern Tunisia) with its capital at Qayrawan. This meant that Sicily was now in the front line and the early seventh century saw numerous raids cross the straits. At first these were simply forays in search of booty but in 740 it seems that Hablb b. Abl cUbayda was attempting an attack on Syracuse and a more permanent occupation. The Arab assaults on Sicily were brought to a halt by the great Berber rebellion of 741. This resulted in a complete breakdown of Umayyad control in Africa and the absorption of Arab and Berber alike in internecine strife. The coming of the cAbbasids did not immediately put an end to this: Berbers, mostly giving their allegiance to the Kharijite sect of Islam, continued to dominate the province. In 761 a large army of mostly Khurasan! soldiers (Khurasanis, from northeast Iran, formed the backbone of the early cAbbasid armies) was sent to Ifrlqiyyah under the command of Muhammad b. al-Ashcath al-KhuzacI. They eventually defeated the Berbers and re-established government in Qayrawan. Soon afterwards, however, the cAbbasid administration was challenged by the jund, the soldiers of the Khurasan! army; the governor was expelled and in 76 5 power was seized by the leaders of the military. Thereafter, while governors continued to be appointed from Baghdad, thejund exercised an effective veto over appointments since only they could protect Ifrlqiyyah from the Berber Kharijites, now usually confined to the Aures mountains of modern Algeria and the Zab to the south and west. In 800 the power of the jund was formalised when Harun al-Rashid accepted Ibrahim b. al-Aghlab, son of a Persian officer who had arrived in the province in 761, as governor. In practice, therefore, the caliph gave up his right to interfere in appointments. The pill was sweetened by the fact that the defence of Ifrlqiyyah had been a constant drain on central government finances, some 100,000 dirhams per year being forwarded from Egypt for this purpose. The governor Ibrahim actually agreed to send taxes east, though it is not clear that this was ever done. He attempted to consolidate his personal power by importing black slave soldiers as a private guard. This naturally alienated the jund who rebelled and were only pacified with difficulty. When Ibrahim died in 812, the Caliph al-Amin was embroiled in a bitter civil war with his brother al-Ma'mun. He was thus in no position to challenge the right of Ibrahim's son cAbd Allah to succeed him. Similarly

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c

Abd Allah's brother, Ziyadat Allah, succeeded him in 817 without interference and the independence of the Aghlabid amirate from the c Abbasid caliphate was effectively established.1 This did not, however, solve the problem of finding a role for the expensive and demanding_/««^ at a time when Berber opposition was steadily declining. Sicily was rich, near and inviting. Since the great Berber rebellion of 740, Muslim raids on Sicily had largely ceased. Ziyadat Allah (817—38) was faced by continuous unrest among the jund but, according to the traditional story, it was an invitation from Sicily and the naval commander Euphemios which was the immediate cause of the first major expedition. In response Ziyadat Allah decided to send an expedition and appointed Asad b. al-Furat as its leader. Asad's background was similar to many members of thejund. He had been brought up in Tunis and had studied Islamic law in the east before being made qadi. The history of the Muslim conquest of Sicily in the ninth century is largely based on much later Arabic chronicles, notably the compilations of Ibn al-Athir (d. 1234) and Ibn Idhari (fl. c. 1300). The only near-contemporary Sicilian source to have survived is the so-called Cambridge Chronicle.2 It exists in both Arabic and Greek texts and covers the years 827 to 965. It is useful for establishing chronologies but is otherwise very brief and uninformative. Both Ibn al-Athir and Ibn Idhari are precise and careful about names and dates but are rather austere in their approach: there is little circumstantial detail or anecdote which we can use to reconstruct patterns of administrative or social life. Muslim Sicily, unlike Muslim Spain, never developed an intellectual milieu in which people collected and elaborated their early history. As Amari and, more recently, Ahmad 3 have found moreover, the material we have does not enable us to go much further than a bare narrative of the incidents of conquest. In June 827 Asad led a force said to have consisted of 10,000 men of whom only 900 were horsemen. Contrary, perhaps, to the popular image, most Muslim armies before the mid-ninth century were composed largely of footsoldiers. In the first campaign, the Muslims took Mazara in the southwest. Syracuse, however, was stoutly defended by the governor. The next winter saw the Muslim army reduced by disease, and the death of Asad himself, who was replaced by one Muhammad b. Abi'l-Jawari. By March 829, the Muslims only held the bridgehead at Mazara and were under siege in the small fortress of Mineo in the southwest from the new Byzantine commander Theodotus. The history of Muslim Sicily might have ended at this point but for the 1 3

2 Kennedy (1981), pp. 187-95. Lagumina (1892). Amari (1933-9) 1, pp. 368-677; Ahmad (197;), pp. 6-24.

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arrival of reinforcements in the shape of a fleet from Spain led by a Berber chief Asbagh b. Wansus al-Hawwarl. After a year-long siege, the Muslim forces took Palermo at the beginning of September 831. Thereafter the Muslims consolidated their power in the Val di Mazara and made a number of unsuccessful sorties against Castrogiovanni (Enna) and other Byzantine strongholds. The Aghlabid rulers of Ifriqiyyah attempted to establish their control by appointing members of the ruling dynasty as amirs (governors). None of the family seems to have participated in the original invasion and their attempt to take over power aroused opposition which sometimes erupted in violence. Much of the hostility between jund and dynasty which characterised the politics of Ifriqiyyah seems to have been transmitted to Sicily. In 832 Ziyadat Allah appointed his cousin Muhammad b. cAbd Allah who remained governor until he was killed in a mutiny in 835. Ziyadatallah sent al-Fadl b. Yacqiib as a stop gap replacement, and in the few months he was in charge al-Fadl led two expeditions against the Sicilian Christians. Although his power was short lived, al-Fadl was the founder of a family which was to provide leaders of the Muslims of Sicily for the next three-quarters of a century. During most of this period, the internal politics of the Muslims of Sicily were dominated by the struggle between the Aghlabids of Qayrawan and the family of al-Fadl b. Yacqiib and their Sicilian Muslim supporters to control the office of amir. This time, however, Ziyadat Allah soon replaced al-Fadl with the dead amir's brother Ibrahim who remained immovably in post in Palermo until his death sixteen years later in 851. From 841 onwards the Muslims began to make further conquests in the Val di Noto and raided increasingly close to Syracuse and Catania. This phase culminated in the conquest of the powerful fortress at Castrogiovanni in January 859. After 842 the Muslims enjoyed the benefits of their alliance, begun in 837, with Naples which enabled them to conquer some of the northern coastal towns, including Messina. This left only the east coast and the Val Demone in Byzantine hands and even here the Muslims were able to raid the countryside almost at will. When Ibrahim b. cAbd Allah died in 8 51, the Muslims of Sicily chose as his successor a soldier who had frequently led them on campaign, al-cAbbas b. al-Fadl b. Yacqiib. This choice was then accepted by the Aghlabid Amir Muhammad (841—56). The choice of a governor by the Muslim inhabitants of a province was rare in the Islamic world, although no doubt local opinion was sometimes taken into account. It is likely that the remote and precarious nature of these Muslim settlements encouraged the locals to take matters into their own hands. Al-cAbbas extended his power by constant campaigns and by appointing both his brother CA1I and his uncle al-Rabah b. Yacqub to military commands.

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T h e fall of Castrogiovanni was by n o means the end of Byzantine resistance. In response to the fall of the city, the Emperor Michael III (842— 67) sent a fleet of 300 ships to encourage resistance. Although they were defeated by the Muslims, the period from 8 5 9 onwards saw bitter fighting in the east of the island. Final Muslim victory was also postponed by almost continuous conflict within the Muslim camp between the Aghlabids and local leaders from the family of al-Fadl b. Ya c qub. In 878 Syracuse finally fell to the Muslims, half a century after they had first attacked it. Alone of all the military campaigns of the time, we have a contemporary description of this from the surviving letter of the monk Theodosius, 4 written while he was a captive in Palermo. He makes it clear that this was a very hard-fought siege, that the Arabs were skilful in the use of siege engines and that the defenders endured terrible hardships and maintained a stout defence. Despite this success, civil strife a m o n g the Muslims continued. Aghlabid governors were constantly opposed by the jund and other Sicilian Muslims w h o were quite prepared to make alliances with local Christian leaders; local autonomy was a more pressing preoccupation than Holy War. In these circumstances little progress was made in the conquests and it was not until 902 that Taormina and the rest of the Val D e m o n e were taken. In that year the Aghlabid Amir Ibrahim b. Ahmad (875—902) resigned and, leaving his throne to his son, decided to devote himself to the Holy War. He thereupon succeeded in destroying the city and the last vestiges of Christian rule in the island. The conquest took more than three-quarters of a century. D u r i n g that time most of western Sicily was comparatively peaceful under Muslim rule. We must assume that some rudimentary administration was set up: certainly coins were minted and we hear of a qacp; a mosque is said to have been built in Castrogiovanni and we must suppose that there was one in Palermo. O u r sources, however, give us very little indication of the extent of Muslim settlement or the development of governmental and fiscal structures and it would be rash to project later developments back to the ninth century. It is more likely that the Muslims remained a permanent raiding band based in Palermo, living off booty as much as from the collection of taxes or the cultivation of fields. Only in the next century did this predatory society begin to change and the beginnings of state organisation emerge. The main arena for Arab raids was mainland southern Italy. Here the incessant rivalries between the Byzantine authorities in Apulia and Calabria, Lombard princes in Benevento and cities such as Naples meant that there were many opportunities for raiding. As in Sicily and Spain, the first Muslim 4

See Lavagnini (1959-60), pp. 267-79.

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intervention is said to have occurred when they acted as allies of one party in inter-Christian disputes. In this case they assisted Naples in 837 to preserve its independence from the advancing Lombard Prince Sicard of Benevento. Neither the Byzantines nor the Venetians could match them at sea. In 840 the Muslims established a permanent presence for the first time at Taranto and the next year they took Bari and Brindisi as allies of one Lombard prince against another, building up their power in a way curiously similar to that used by the Normans two centuries later. Thereafter emphasis shifted from the Adriatic to the more accessible west coast. The most spectacular result of this was the attack on Rome in 846 when the Vatican was pillaged, though the city itself was saved. Both east and west coasts were subject to continuing attack and only the repeated efforts of the Emperor Louis II (d. 875), sometimes in alliance with the Byzantines, prevented the Muslims from occupying the whole of southern Italy. His efforts were partially successful when he reconquered Bari in 871 with naval support from the Byzantines. From the 870s the Byzantines began to dominate Apulia, the Adriatic was secured and the Muslims were eventually defeated at sea at Milazzo and driven out of Taranto in 880. The Byzantines meanwhile moved on to take most of Calabria over the next decade. On the west coast, however, the Muslims established a permanent raiding camp on the Garigliano river in the late 870s which they continued to use as a base until they were finally expelled in 915. Ironically the year of victory at Taormina in 902 also saw their final defeat in mainland Italy. From the end of the ninth century until the mid-eleventh Calabria and Apulia were under Byzantine hegemony and Sicily was under Muslim rule. The Muslims did occupy some Italian towns for considerable periods — Bari from 841 to 871 and Taranto from 840 to 880 — but they founded no sort of state. Like the early conquerors of Sicily and Spain, they sought to live off booty and when this dried up or became too dangerous, their raids ceased. It is not clear how closely they were connected with the Muslims of Sicily and it is likely that many of those who invaded the Adriatic coast were from Crete and other areas of the eastern Mediterranean. One Mufarraj b. Sallam, of unknown origin, proclaimed his independence at Bari. The west-coast Arabs were probably Sicilian. In 871 the Aghlabids seem to have tried to seize the initiative by appointing cAbd Allah b. Yacqiib of the well-known Sicilian military family as governor of southern Italy. He was sent to Taranto but died soon after his arrival and there is no evidence that he was replaced. Despite the impermanence of their presence, there can be no doubt that the half-century of their raids had a major effect on the society of central and southern Italy, destroying Carolingian patterns and the wealth and independence of the papacy and forcing people to retreat to mountain

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strongholds: incastallamento (the concentration of the population in fortified hill-top sites) had begun.

THE MUSLIM WEST: THE CONQUEST AND ESTABLISHMENT OF ALANDALUS (7II—912)

The earliest phases of Arabic historical literature from Muslim Spain, known as al-Andalus in the Arabic sources, are represented by akhbar, or individual anecdotes. These often seem to have been preserved orally to keep fresh the memory of great men and deeds. These akhbar offer detailed circumstantial accounts of particular instances but the collections usually lack any overall chronological or thematic structure. Akhbar literature is most clearly represented by two surviving texts. The anonymous early eleventh-century Akhbar al-Majmif ah (Collected Anecdotes)5 is arranged roughly chronologically with the latest, rather thin, material dating from the early tenth century. The second akhbar text is the Ta'rikh Iftitah al-Andalus (History of the Conquest of Spain)6 which again takes the story down to the early tenth century. This vivid and gossipy collection is attributed to Ibn alQutiyyah (839-926). Originally from Seville he claimed descent from the Visigothic royal family (his name means 'son of the Gothic woman') but the work was compiled at the court of the Amir cAbd al-Rahman III (912—61) in Cordoba. Again there is a roughly chronological framework and Ibn alQutiyyah is especially interesting on the politics of the court under the early Umayyad amirs. The arranging of this material more strictly into chronological order as Ta'rikh or history was the achievement of the RazI family, Ahmad b. Muhammad (d. 955) and his son cIsa (d. 989) from Iran via North Africa. They brought with them an understanding of the historical techniques developed in the east by such writers as al-Mada'ini (d. 839). Their work does not survive in its original form but it is the basis for the surviving portions of the great history of Ibn Hayyan (d. 1076); all later compilers like Ibn Idhari (fl. c. 1300) and al-Makkari (d. 1632) were ultimately dependent on it. The reliability of this material is variable. There can be little doubt that the basic chronology developed by the Razis was more or less correct. On the other hand some at least of the akhbar have been shown to be eastern Islamic stories attached to figures in Andalusi history. The material is not 'biased' in a pro-Muslim anti-Christian sense except that the unbelievers are treated to conventional curses and Muslim victories stressed; in general it is 5

Anonymous (1867).

6

Ibn al-Qufiyyah (1926).

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not concerned with Muslim—Christian relations. The writings do, however, suffer from the fact that they represent a limited, Cordoban viewpoint of a restricted social group. Ibn al-Qiitiyyah and Ahmad al-Razi were both members of the court circle in the early days of cAbd al-Rahman III and they reflected the opinions and interests of the Umayyad house and the courtiers. Even when dealing with much earlier history, they tend to concentrate on the doings of the amirs and ancestors of their friends and colleagues.7 With the exception of the historical geography of Ahmad b. cUmar al-cUdhri (d. 1 o 8 5) of Almeria,8 which deals with the Levante and the Ebro valley in some detail, no source gives a non-C6rdoban perspective. This is especially misleading when trying to assess the effectiveness of the Umayyad amirs who are always treated as if they held sway over all of al-Andalus when in fact their power was confined to the capital and the south. Despite these limitations, however, the Arabic sources for the early history of al-Andalus are relatively full and reliable. The Muslim conquest of the Iberian peninsula from 711 to 716 was a logical extension of the conquest of North Africa. Muslim troops had reached Tangier in 703 and it was natural that their leaders should look beyond the narrow straits of Gibraltar to the richer and more fertile lands of southern Spain. The conquest of North Africa had been a rolling process: as the Muslim armies moved west, they recruited Berbers to swell their numbers and these new converts were anxious to enjoy the material, as well as the spiritual, advantages of belonging to a conquering army. A continuous supply of booty was required to satisfy the troops and prevent its disintegration into warring factions. The Iberian peninsula had been ruled from Toledo by Visigothic kings. In the early eighth century there was a succession crisis, as was all too common in Visigothic politics. When Witiza died in 710, Roderick, a member of the nobility, was elected to succeed him. His accession aroused widespread opposition. Arabic sources suggest that some important members of the nobility, including the sons of Witiza, actively encouraged the Muslims to invade, intending, no doubt, that the Muslims should defeat the new monarch and then return, or be sent back, across the straits. Thus in 711 Tariq b. Ziyad, a Berber chief who had been made governor of Tangier, led the first Muslim invasion. The numbers involved are very difficult to estimate but Tariq's army was probably no more than 7000, of whom the largest part were Berbers. They crossed the straits at Gibraltar and moved north, presumably heading for Seville. Roderick had been leading the Visigothic army against the Basques in the north of the country but, hearing 7

See Manzano Moreno (1991), pp. 11—218.

8

Ed. Al-Ahwani, (196)).

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of the invasion, he hurried south to face it. Towards the end of July 711, a battle was fought in the extreme south of Spain near Medina Sidonia. Roderick's army was decisively defeated, the king himself being killed in the battle or shortly after. Tariq followed up his victory with rapid conquests; Cordoba was taken after some resistance but his men encountered little opposition elsewhere in the south. He then pushed on to Toledo, which he found largely deserted. He was able to spend the winter of 711—12 in the old capital. Tariq's superior, Musa b. Nusayr, governor of Qayrawan, set out the next year with an army of perhaps 18,000, including a large number of Arabs, to ensure that he and his men received a share of the profits of conquest. H e did not join Tariq immediately but went first to Seville and then to Merida, which fell after a brief siege in July 713. Only then did the two leaders meet and in spring 714 they launched an extensive campaign in the north, taking Zaragoza and the upper E b r o , Leon and Astorga. If they had hopes of permanent power in the land they had conquered, these were shattered when in September 714 they were both summoned by the Caliph al-Walld (705—15) to Damascus and left, never to return. Musa left his son c Abd al-cAziz in charge. H e continued the conquests. In his period of office (714—16), Santarem and Coimbra in the west, Pamplona in the north, Barcelona, Girona and Narbonne in the northeast all fell to Muslim commanders. c Abd al-cAziz himself led an expedition to the Murcia area where he concluded an agreement with the local Visigothic commander, Theodemir, which allowed the Christians to retain their possessions and their religion in exchange for a modest tribute. By 716 virtually all the peninsula had been conquered by, or at least received an unopposed visit from, the Muslim troops. Leading men of the Visigothic state actively and rapidly sought incorporation into the new elite. T h e sons of Witiza retained a vast amount of their personal wealth and are found advising the Muslim governors. According to later tradition, the Banu Qasi of the upper E b r o valley sprang from one Fortun, a Visigothic noble w h o embraced Islam in 714 when the Muslim armies first appeared. Only in the Asturias, where Pelayo led an embryo resistance movement, among the Basques w h o had never really accepted Visigothic control, and in the isolated valleys on the southern flanks of the Pyrenees, was there real opposition. Muslim settlement was widely dispersed t h r o u g h o u t the peninsula with the exception of the northern mountains. In general the centres of Arab settlement were the fertile river valleys of the Guadalquivir and the E b r o and cities like Cordoba, Seville and Zaragoza. Most of the Arabs w h o settled in Spain at this time came originally not from Bedouin backgrounds but

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from the Yemen where their ancestors had always been farmers; they seem to have adapted easily to the agricultural life. The Berbers, many of whom were pastoralists and who may have crossed the straits with their flocks, occupied the southern uplands and the central plateau of the Meseta (later, of course, the centre of the great Castilian sheep-rearing economy). No attempt seems to have been made to establish garrison cities like Kufah and Basra in Iraq or Fustat in Egypt and the settlers mingled with the local people without arousing great opposition. The settlement was largely unplanned. That the settlers lived so close to the land from which they made their living may have contributed to the fact that, in contrast to the Muslim east, no elaborate bureaucratic structure emerged to collect taxes from the conquered people and redistribute them as salaries. The period from 714 to 741 saw a succession of governors ruling alAndalus from Cordoba, which became the capital from early on. They were usually appointed by the governor of Qayrawan or by his superior, the governor of Egypt; with few exceptions, they did not have local roots and their spell of office was too short for them to build up any local power base. Links with the Umayyad government in Damascus must always have been tenuous and it is not clear that any revenue was exported from the new province to the capital after the first wave of conquests. Conquest and expansion remained very important. The governors led frequent raids, not on the hard and poverty-stricken mountains of northern Spain but into southern France. Their route was either up the Rhone valley reaching as far as Langres and Sens in 72 5, or through Pamplona and Bordeaux. This last was the route taken by cAbd al-Rahman al-Ghafiqi in 73 2 when he led the illfated expedition defeated by Charles Martel at the battle of Poitiers.9 Thereafter, large-scale raids were suspended. Conquest and booty had been a major, possibly the major, source of revenue for the government and an outlet for the energies of ambitious or dissatisfied Muslims. When the chance of easy pickings dried up, competition for resources within al-Andalus and North Africa intensified and gave rise to open civil war. The most dangerous of these was the great Berber rebellion of 741 which spread throughout North Africa and Spain. The Caliph Hisham sent a large army, mostly recruited in Syria and al-jazlrah to deal with it. They were defeated and a large body of them, perhaps 10,000, led by Balj b. Bishr al-Qushayri, was cut off by the Berbers in the western Maghreb. Meanwhile the Arabs of al-Andalus were also faced by a Muslim uprising in the central plateau which they were unable to put down. 9

See Collins (1989), pp. 90—1 for further discussion of the date.

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Desperate for help, they invited Balj's ragged and starving army across the straits to help them. With these reinforcements, the Berbers were soon defeated but the problems for the Arab settlers were only beginning. Seeing the prosperity of the country and the wealth of the Arabs established there, the newly arrived Syrians, despite their original agreement, refused to leave; civil war developed again. For the next fifteen years there were continuous struggles between the original settlers (the Baladiyiin) and the Syrians {Shamiyuri) and their Berber allies for control of the governorate. Soon after they had arrived, in an effort at compromise, the Syrians had been systematically settled in Andalucia. Each of the ajnad (sing: jund; essentially regiments recruited from the same district of Syria) were settled in different areas from Elvira (Granada) in the east to Sidonia in the west. In exchange for land they were obliged to perform military service when the amir requested. The establishment of these ajnad'gave an important impetus to the Arabisation of southern Spain. In the short term, civil strife remained acute and it was exacerbated by the hostility between the Qays-Mudar and Yemen parties. This conflict originated in Syria and Iraq where it had polarised the Arab tribes. By the time it reached Spain, its origins were as obscure and irrelevant as those of the Welf-Ghibelline dispute in late medieval Italy. The early Arab settlers mostly came from the Yemeni tribal bloc, from both Yemen and Syria, and there was no friction between them and the comparatively small number of Qaysis. Most of the Syrians, by contrast, came from the Qays group and brought with them memories of the bitter disputes then raging in their homelands. Both sides attempted to use tribal solidarity to win recruits in the other party. This led to confusions of alliance and rapidly shifting balances of power, compounded by events in the east where, between 747 and 750, the Umayyad caliphate was overthrown by the cAbbasids. There was now no outside authority to appoint governors. Nevertheless, it had become clear that control of Cordoba and the title of amir were the major prizes and the only possible means of political control. Secondly, no group was powerful enough to seize and retain this power on a stable basis. It was into this scorpions' nest that the emissaries of cAbd al-Rahman b. Mucawiyah the Umayyad first arrived. By 756 the governor in Cordoba was Yiisuf b. cAbd al-Rahman al-Fihri, a direct descendant of the famous c Uqbah b. Nafic, hero of the Muslim conquest of North Africa. He was, despite his illustrious ancestor, aged and ineffective and the real power behind him was al-Sumayl b. Hatim al-Kilabi, a Syrian Qaysi of modest origins but of great determination and ruthlessness. Predictably there was widespread

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opposition from early settlers and Yemenis. cAbd al-Rahman b. Mucawiyah was the grandson of the last great Umayyad Caliph Hisham (724—43). He had escaped the massacre of most of his family by the cAbbasids, and by a series of hair-breadth escapes, graphically recounted in the Arab sources,10 had made his way to North Africa where he took refuge with his mother's Berber relations. From this sanctuary he sent his trusted envoy Badr to alAndalus to see if there were any political opportunities. Receiving favourable reports he arrived in person at Almufiecar on the south coast in August 755. From there he began to tour the southern uplands, recruiting supporters, mostly among the Yemenis and the Berbers, until he was strong enough to challenge the governor. In May 7 5 6 his forces defeated Yusuf and al-Sumayl just outside Cordoba; he took the city and the palace and was proclaimed amir. His descendants were to rule there until 1031. The fugitive scion of a dispossessed dynasty, cAbd al-Rahman had few obvious advantages. He was only twenty-six years old, had no experience of government and no significant financial resources, and neither he nor any member of his family had ever visited al-Andalus before. Apart from his own ability and longevity, however, cAbd al-Rahman did have a number of crucial political assets. His ancestors had been caliphs of the entire Muslim world; he himself came from the prestigious Prophet's tribe of Quraysh, and Qurashis were felt to be above and somewhat separate from the Qays/ Yemen dispute, able to attract support from both sides. There was also the Syrian connection: the Umayyads had ruled the Islamic world from Syria with Syrian support and a large number of the Arabs in al-Andalus boasted Syrian origins. Many of these people had a tradition of loyalty to the Umayyad house and would have vigorously rejected the claims of the rival c Abbasid dynasty. cAbd al-Rahman, therefore, was the only leader who could appeal across and above tribal loyalties to a wide cross-section of Arab society in Spain. Perhaps the most important asset he had, however, was a group of Umayyad mawati on whose absolute loyalty he could count. The mawati (sing, mawla) were clients of Arab families. When members of conquered populations, whether Syrian, Aramaean, Greek, Persian or Berber, wished to convert to Islam and share the privileges of the ruling group, they attached themselves to an individual or family who became, so to speak, their godfather. Many of these were ex-prisoners of war or ex-slaves and, while they were now freemen, they had no tribal connections and owed their loyalty to their sponsors. Tariq b. Ziyad, governor of Tangier and first 10

Anonymous (1867), pp. 46—56.

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Muslim invader of Spain, and probably an important Berber chief in his own right, was one such mawla. No family had more mawaii than the ruling Umayyads and many of them came from Syria with the Syrian troops of Balj or fled there after the cAbbasid revolution. They had little status or power in the tribal elites which fought for control in pre-Umayyad al-Andalus and were happy to offer their support to cAbd al-Rahman's messenger, himself a mawla. After cAbd al-Rahman took power, more Umayyad mawaii continued to arrive from the east. Thus, alone of all the contenders for power, cAbd alRahman could count on the devotion of a coherent group of supporters whose loyalty extended beyond the bounds of tribal solidarity. These mawaii and their descendants, families like the Banu Shuhayd and the Banu Abi c Abda, were the backbone of the Umayyad state and provided generals and bureaucrats for the Umayyads for the next three centuries, as well as both authors and patrons for the golden age of Andalusi literature in the tenth and eleventh centuries. c Abd al-Rahman b. Mucawiyah ruled as amir from 756 to 788. We have little beyond brief annals of his reign but it is clear that he faced a number of rivals for power, such as the Fihris, finally defeated in 785, and the c Abbasids. Soon after his accession, cAbd al-Rahman dropped the name of the cAbbasid caliph from the khutbah (the sermon in the mosque on Friday) and the last formal ties with the eastern caliphate were broken. The determined cAbbasid Caliph al-Mansur (7 5 4—7 5) tried to foment an insurrection in al-Andalus by subsidising an Arab chief from Beja, al-cAla b. Mughith al-Yahsubi, to raise a revolt in 763. The cAbbasids sent money and moral support but no troops and the attempt was defeated. The cAbbasids could not count on any significant body of support in al-Andalus, and after this setback they confined themselves to sending abusive letters. By his death in October 788, cAbd al-Rahman had firmly established his status as amir and his control over much of Cordoba and the south. He had built a palace near the city and begun the first stage of the great mosque, parts of which can still be seen today. He had established a rudimentary administration which differed somewhat from eastern models: rather than the wa^tr (vizier) being the main official, this role was filled in al-Andalus by the hajib (chamberlain) who was both a civil and military commander, assisted by about half a dozen wa^Jrs. As far as we can tell, almost all his wa^trs and military commanders were members of the Umayyad family or mawati: Arab chiefs were almost entirely excluded from positions of power. c Abd al-Rahman was far from being an absolute ruler of al-Andalus. The amir's authority did not extend to Merida, Toledo or Zaragoza and the Ebro valley, where occasional punitive raids were the only sign of Umayyad

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authority. The Berber tribes of the Meseta were kept in check in the same way. He also had to contend with Christian pressures on the frontier (see below). c Abd al-Rahman died without naming a successor. The Umayyad family had a strong hereditary tradition and there could be no doubt that one of his sons should succeed him, but in a political culture which did not believe in primogeniture, it was difficult to know which one it was to be. The dispute soon developed into open warfare between the eldest son Sulayman and his younger brother Hisham. Sulayman seems to have appealed to the Berber and Arab tribal constituencies who had supported the Fihris. Hisham had the backing of the maivali and probably the other members of the Umayyad family. Sulayman was defeated near Jaen and retreated to Toledo whence he was forced to leave for North Africa, albeit with a large pension. The chronicle tradition11 gives the next two amirs, Hisham I (788-96) and al-Hakam I (796-822) distinctive characters, Hisham modest and pious, alHakam, choleric and violent, fond of poetry and wine. The evidence for their reigns amounts to little more than brief annals interspersed with anecdotes more picturesque than reliable. It does seent, however, that Hisham's reign saw the arrival in al-Andalus of the MalikI school of Islamic law. Malik b. Anas himself died in Madinah in 795 and his writings bequeathed to the Islamic world a system of law based on the practice of Madinah, clear and concise but somewhat rigid and restricting. As a result there was little academic debate of legal issues but it did mean that alAndalus was spared the often violent disputes which disturbed the eastern Islamic world in the ninth and tenth centuries. It also gave great status and prestige to the qadis who interpreted and taught the law. Almost all qadis claimed Arab descent, were practically an hereditary profession, and were recruited from difFerent groups than were the bureaucrats or military men. Throughout the Umayyad period, the Amirs seem to have retained the right to appoint qadis in the whole of al-Andalus, even in towns like Zaragoza and Toledo where amirs seldom enjoyed any other political powers. Many of these qadis were educated in Cordoba. This system may well have encouraged a sense of religious and cultural unity which would otherwise have been lacking. Before he died in 796, Hisham was careful to designate his son al-Hakam as his heir. Nevertheless al-Hakam's rights were challenged by his uncle Sulayman, who was notfinallycaptured and executed until 800. Sulayman's younger brother cAbd Allah went to Aachen with the intention of seeking Carolingian support against his nephew but returned empty handed. In the 11

Ibn Idhari (1948-51) 11, pp. 65-6, 78-80.

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end cAbd Allah established himself in the Valencia region where he was given what amounted to an independent appanage. His arrival here inaugurated a new wave of Muslim naval activity in the western Mediterranean. In 798 cAbd Allah's Berber followers launched a major raid on the Balearic Islands and this was followed by a series of raids between 805 and 813 on Corsica and Sardinia. Carolingian sources also mention attacks on Nice and Civitavecchia. The marked lull after 813 coincides with the appearance of the Andalusian pirates who took over Alexandria in 815-16. Al-Hakam's reign was marked by two major insurrections in Cordoba itself. These revolts were supported both by members of the elite and by ordinary Muslims. The underlying motive was, apparently, resentment at al-Hakam's employment of professional soldiers. Rather than rely on the ajnad, he built up a guard of slave-soldiers, cabld, commanded by a Christian officer, al-Rabic. It is likely that, instead of being asked to do military service, the members of the ajnadwere required to pay taxes to support this new army. No doubt al-Hakam saw this development as an essential stage in the construction of a stable regime but inevitably it aroused fear and hostility among many Arabs who felt that they were being excluded from power and saw the amir's actions as heavy handed and dictatorial. The first outbreak came in 805 and in 818 there was a mass uprising in Secunda, the suburb of Cordoba which lay to the south of the river. The rebels attempted to cross and take the town but were defeated by loyal troops led by the hajib, cAbd Allah b. al-Mughlth and members of the Umayyad family. The amir's vengeance was terrible. He ordered mass executions, and that the suburb be ra2ed to the ground and any surviving inhabitants sent into exile. After this there was no more open opposition to the Umayyads in the city. Indeed, the loyalty of Cordoba to the dynasty was a striking feature of the Umayyad state right down to the abolition of the caliphate in 1031. The amir, moreover, now had the power to push ahead with building a standing army and a bureaucratic apparatus, not to speak of a large and luxurious court, without effective opposition from the Muslim Arab leaders, many of whose families had been in al-Andalus much longer than the Umayyads. Many of the exiles went to Morocco where they settled near the newly established colony of people from Qayrawan (Qarawiyln) at Fes. Here, on the opposite side of the river, they established their own quarter of the Andalusiyln. Some went further afield and sailed to the east, where they occupied first Alexandria, and then Crete which they won from the Byzantines in 826. Crete remained a Muslim possession until 961. The development of an apparatus of government begun under al-Hakam was extended by his son cAbd al-Rahman II (822—52). His accession was

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itself an indication of the enhanced status of the amirate. During his father's last illness, the leading members of the court swore the oath of allegiance (baycah) to him. When al-Hakam died, cAbd al-Rahman sent his brother alMughirah to receive in public in the mosque in Cordoba the oaths of the leading Cordobans. This formal installation ceremony was based on the one used by cAbbasid caliphs in Baghdad. It is evidence both of the aspirations of the new amir and of his reliance on eastern models. The new amir began to recruit supporters from many quarters. The old mawalifamilies continued to be important, cIsa b. Shuhayd, for example, was made a iva^jr and then hajib, but there were new sources of recruits as well. c Abd al-Rahman rejected his father's policy of employing Christian guards. Two of hisfirstacts were to execute al-Rabic, head of the guard, and to close down the wine market in Cordoba. Instead of turning to local Arabs to replace the Christian guards, cAbd al-Rahman engaged two Berber princes from the ruling dynasty of Tahert in North Africa, cAbd al-Rahman and Muhammad b. Rustam, as military commanders presumably with their followers. Towards the end of the reign, cAbd al-Rahman increasingly relied on Nasr, a eunuch of unknown origin; the growing importance of eunuchs was another sign of the increasing eastern Islamic influence at the Umayyad court. Both Berber princes and eunuchs, often of northern European origin, had the advantages of being without local contacts and were completely reliant on the ruler. The recruitment of this new military, not to speak of an increasingly elaborate and luxurious court, complete with barim and poets recruited from the Islamic east, necessitated afiscalsystem to support it. We have virtually no information about taxation from the time of the early amirs and it seems likely that, with the Muslims dispersed and living off the land, only the most rudimentary fiscal structures were required. Poll-tax (ji^yati) paid by Christians and Jews probably formed an important part of the amir's income. From the time of al-Hakam we have details of a more developed system. It appears that a major source of income was payment, presumably by the jund, to be excused military service, a sort of scutage, as well as general, unspecified taxes and dues for the right toflyfalcons; none of these taxes has parallels in eastern Islamic fiscal practice. There is mention of substantial quantities of goods in kind, wheat and barley, but the bulk of the income was raised in, or at least accounted in, gold dinars. In one recorded assessment, Cordoba provided 142,000, Seville 35,000. Sidonia, 50,600, Moron, 21,000 and Niebla in the far west, 15,600 dinars. Cordoba and its district thus provided more than all the other areas put together and only the southern areas where the Syrian ajnad were settled made contributions. It may be that the fragmentary record leaves out important areas but it is more

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likely that this reflects the heavy reliance of the Umayyads on the Guadalquivir valley and areas to the west and south for their income. The gross income of the amirate is said to have increased from 600,000 dinars under al-Hakam to 1,000,000 under cAbd al-Rahman II. It was the latter who appointed treasurers {khusgari) as specifically financial officials. With new military and fiscal resources to support him, cAbd al-Rahman II made a determined effort to assert Umayyad rule over the whole of Muslim Spain. While the authority of Cordoba may have been more or less effective in the south, it did not extend to the three areas known as the Marches (thughur), namely the Lower March in the west based on Merida, the Middle March based on Toledo in the centre and the Upper March based on Zaragoza and the Ebro valley in the north and northeast. Each of these had different characteristics. Apart from the old Roman centre at Merida itself, the Lower March was largely pastoral country, with villages and castles few and far between. Not many Arabs had settled in these harsh, wide-open landscapes, and the Muslim population were largely Berbers or muwallads, that is, native Spanish converts. The Berbers lived a pastoral life and tribal structures and tribal leaders remained powerful among them throughout the early middle ages. The muwallads, on the other hand, were probably the inhabitants of the villages and river valley settlements. It was very difficult country to control and the early amirs could do little more than make alliances with the most powerful chiefs in the area. Only after 828 did cAbd al-Rahman II assert the power of Cordoba by sending a governor and a garrison to Merida and building a citadel, dated by inscription to 83 5, u whose walls still survive above the Guadiana river. Despite this show of strength, it is doubtful that Umayyad authority extended much beyond the city itself. The situation in the Middle March was very similar. Toledo itself, more than any other city in al-Andalus, was dominated by muwallads who formed the elite of the city and frequently asserted their independence. To the east and south lay the upland plains of the central Meseta rising in the east to the desolate slopes of the Montes Universales and the Sierra de Cuenca. These were Berber lands where direct rule from Cordoba was virtually impossible and where a fragile peace depended on diplomacy and punitive raids. Toledo itself had a vigorous tradition of political independence but the sources are too fragmentary for us to know how the government of the city was organised. There is some indication that al-Hakam attempted to use a muwalladally of his, cAmrus b. Yusuf, to govern the city. It was not until the 830s that real control was established and then only as a response to the 12

Levi-Provenfal (1932), nos. 59, 40, pp. jo-i; Creswell (1940), pp. 197—205.

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aggression of the Toledans. In 836-7 the city was finally occupied by Umayyad troops and, as at Merida, a governor was installed and a citadel was constructed on the site of the present, much rebuilt, Alcazar. Although the Murcia area was not technically part of the Marches, it too was outside the scope of Umayyad power. The agreement with Theodemir seems to have broken down by the early ninth century, if not before, and many Arabs settled in the district. At the beginning of cAbd al-Rahman's reign, this was the scene of the last major outbreak of Qays—Yemen conflict in al-Andalus. Typically, cAbd al-Rahman combined diplomacy with force to bring this bloody civil war to an end in 828—9. After the Umayyad forces were victorious, the dominant Yemeni leader, Abu'l-Shammakh Muhammad b. Ibrahim, was given a military command in the amir's forces (one of the few Arabs to be so honoured). Further, a new fortress and administrative centre was founded in 831 at Murcia; it became the seat of government and the most important city in the area. The history of the Upper March in the Ebro valley is complex. The city of Zaragoza itself was dominated by Arabs, mostly of Yemeni origin, but the other cities and much of the country were ruled by powerful muwallad families, the Banu Qasi of Tudela and the upper Ebro area and cAmrus b. Yiisuf and his family in Huesca. Al-Hakam had used his alliance with cAmrus to try to exert some influence in the region but after his death in 812 the Banu Qasi under Musa b. Musa became the dominant force. Not only were they powerful in their own lands around Tudela but they also had close relations with the Basque kings of Pamplona into whose family they had married. In addition, it is possible that they recruited Basque soldiers for their forces. Musa b. Musa generally remained on good terms with cAbd alRahman II and in 844 Musa gave cAbd al-Rahman valuable military support against the Vikings who had attacked Seville. Nevertheless he continued to act as an independent power and called himself the 'third king of Spain'.13 The city of Zaragoza itself was conquered by the amir in 844 and entrusted to his son Muhammad. By the end of cAbd al-Rahman's reign, Murcia, Zaragoza, Toledo and Merida all had Umayyad governors, usually members of mawatifamilies and garrisons. Events after cAbd al-Rahman's death in 8 5 2 were to show how precarious this assertion of central control was. Beyond the Marches lay the Christian lands (below, pp. 272-89). The frontier fell into two distinct sectors, west and east. In the west, roughly from the headwaters of the Duero to the Atlantic, the Muslims had briefly occupied outposts as far north as Galicia and Oviedo. The occupation must have been very transitory and the Berber revolt in 741 (most of the Muslims 13

Chronicle of Alfonso III, c a p . 2 j .

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in this area were Berbers) and the famines of the 7 5 os, when many Berbers returned to North Africa, led to the abandonment of this area. From this point the northern boundary of Muslim settlement was marked by the Cordillera Central, and Coimbra, Coria, Talavera, Toledo and Madinaceli were the frontier towns. North of the mountains lay the plains of the Duero, a vast no-man's land with little if any permanent settlement, which only ended at the southern Christian outposts like Leon and Astorga. The western sector of the frontier region changed little between 750 and 912, the only difference being the slow advance of Christian settlement into the noman's land. The frontier in the Ebro valley was a very different matter. Here there were no empty spaces and Christians and Muslims fought to control the towns and fertile plains. The rise of Carolingian power led to a gradual but sustained Christian advance, aided by the willingness of dissident Muslims in the provinces to appeal for Christian help against their Muslim neighbours. In 798 Pamplona fell and the nucleus of the Basque Kingdom of Navarre was established. Girona was taken in 785 and Barcelona in 801; both were later incorporated into the Spanish March of the Carolingian empire. The plains of the Ebro valley remained in Muslim hands and attempts to take Zaragoza (by Charlemagne in 778) and Tortosa (by Louis the Pious between 804 and 809) were unsuccessful. The Muslims regularly took the offensive against the Christians in raids known as sawa'if (sing, sa'ifah). They were directed at all points of the Christian-held lands. Galicia, the Asturias and Pamplona were regularly attacked, but the lands of the Alava and Old Castile were the most common objectives. These raids do not seem to have been an attempt to conquer Christian territory. When the Muslims did capture a city, such as Leon in 846, they simply made breaches in the walls and abandoned it. It is a significant contrast with Christian advances; when the Christians took a town like Girona or Barcelona they installed a garrison and fortified it and the Muslims never regained it. Leon, in contrast, was resettled by the Christians as soon as the Muslim armies were out of sight. The purpose of these raids was to assert the power and status of the amir and his family by demonstrating that they were leaders of the Muslims against the infidel. They had the added advantages of bringing in booty, though this was unlikely to have been vast, and enabling the amir to make contact with magnates of the outlying parts of al-Andalus. Yet the raids never threatened the existence of the Christian states. The Christian community in Al-Andalus was not, so far as we can tell, actively persecuted by the Umayyad authorities. Christians had to pay the h, there were restrictions on processions and the use of church bells, and

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they played a much smaller part in administration than their co-religionists in, say, Fatimid Egypt. Nonetheless, an ecclesiastical hierarchy of sorts seems to have been maintained and some monasteries existed. The bulk of the Christian population began to take on the language and dress of their Muslim masters, being referred to as Mozarabs (from an Arabic word meaning 'one who seeks to become an Arab'). It was possibly in protest against this easy acceptance that a group of Christians, led by the priest Elogius and centred on the small monastery of Tabanos outside Cordoba, began to seek a confrontation with the Muslim state. They did this by publicly insulting the Prophet and encouraging converts to Islam to apostasise: both crimes, as they knew well, were punishable by death under Islamic law. After all attempts to make them recant had failed, thirteen were executed before Elogius left for the Christian north. In 8 5 3 he returned and the martyrdoms resumed and there were fourteen more executions until in 859 Elogius himself, now bishop of Cordoba, was executed and the movement came to an end. Attempts to portray this as a proto-nationalist movement have not been convincing. It seems more probable that this selfsacrifice was a product of the intense devotion and cult of martyrdom in the small group which gathered round the charismatic figure of Elogius.14 c Abd al-Rahman II died in 8 5 2 and was succeeded by his son Muhammad, who seems to have been a capable if unexceptional ruler. He continued at first in the tradition of his father, but power gradually slipped out of his hands. Personal failings aside, the major underlying problem came, ironically, from the very success of Islam. The circumstantial evidence suggests that the second half of the ninth century was a period of very rapid conversion to Islam,15 with large numbers, rather than a few elite individuals like the Banii Qasi of earlier generations, converting. The likelihood is that this happened most rapidly in the areas where Muslim settlement had been densest, that is, in the area of the Guadalquivir valley and the southern mountains. The new converts sought to participate in the political life of the Muslim community they had just joined and they supported leaders like Ibn Marwan al-Jilllqi and Ibn Hafsun who attempted to secure places in the military elite for themselves and their followers. This in turn aroused the resentment of the older established military elements, the mawali, Arabs and Berbers, who found a leader in Hashim b. cAbd al-cAz!z, and led to both Ibn Marwan and Ibn Hafsun being obliged to leave Cordoba for their homelands whence they defied the government. This change also undermined the fiscal basis of the government. The ji^yah (poll-tax) was an important source of revenue and clearly the more 14

For the best recent discussion see Wolf (1988).

15

Bulliet (1979), pp. 114-27.

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people who converted to Islam and were consequently exempt from the ji^yab, the less money was collected. The new converts, moreover, now enjoyed a more favourable tax position than members of theJund who were obliged to pay the hashd as a substitute for military service. It was probably pressure from them which persuaded Muhammad to abolish their obligation to military service, thus freeing them from this tax burden. In times of famine in 865—8 and 873—4 further fiscal problems arose when the collection of the Qushur (the tithes all Muslims are required to pay) had to be abandoned. The Umayyad government in consequence became increasingly weak and impoverished. It was not long before the separatist tendencies, superficially restrained in the final years of cAbd al-Rahman IFs reign, manifested themselves once more. In Merida and the Lower March the initiative was taken by cAbd al-Rahman b. Marwan al-Jilllql, son of the muwallad leader who had dominated the area in the early years of the ninth century. He was persuaded to come to Cordoba and given an honoured position at court. In 875, however, he was driven out by the hostility of Hashim b. cAbd al-cAz!z. He returned to the Lower March. Here from his newly developed centre at Badajoz cAbd al-Rahman b. Marwan al-Jilllql and his family ruled what was essentially an independent state. The Toledans were actively aggressive and the amir was again obliged to fortify Calatrava to block their access to the south. In 8 54 the amir won a notable victory over them and their Asturian allies but the city was not really brought back under Umayyad control. The eventual agreement in 873 allowed a large measure of autonomy to the city including the right of the people to choose their own governor. Muhammad's only effective response was to seek an alliance with the Berber chiefs of the areas east and south of the city who were as hostile to the muwallad Toledans as he was. It was in this way that Muhammad first built up the power of the Banu Zannun (Arabised to Banu' 1-Dhii' 1-Nun) who were to dominate the area in the tenth century and took over Toledo itself in the eleventh. Zaragoza and the Upper March escaped Cordoban control as early as 8 5 6 when Musa b. Musa b. QasT asserted his independence again. With one brief interval, the Banu QasT asserted their independent control over the city and the Ebro area and were effectively independent monarchs until driven out of the city by the rival Arab Tujlbi family in 890. After this, the power of the Banu Qasi was confined to the Tudela region whence they had sprung and was finally eclipsed in the first decade of the tenth century by the Tujlbis and other local dynasts. The loss of power in the Marches was a blow to prestige but it did not challenge Umayyad power in the southern heartlands. The rebellion of Ibn Hafsun was much more dangerous in this respect. Ibn Hafsun was a

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muwallad landowner of some means with estates in the mountains to the east of Ronda, who gradually acquired a considerable following among muwallads and Mozarabs alike, and a permanent base at the mountain stronghold of Bobastro. In 883 Hashim b. cAbd al-cAziz led a military expedition against Ibn Hafsun and he agreed to come to Cordoba where he was given a military command and joined the sa'ifah against Alava. Despite this demonstration of loyalty, Ibn Hafsun was not accepted by the Cordoban elite. After a quarrel with the governor of the city, he retreated to his mountain fastness and began a revolt which soon spread throughout the southern mountains. Not only was this area now outside Umayyad control but the power of this muwallad had the effect or rousing Arab notables, especially in the Elvira (Granada) area, to protect themselves against him by building castles and raising their own war-bands. By Muhammad's death in 886 the disintegration of the amirate was far advanced. It was only in the Guadalquivir valley and the area immediately around the city itself that the Umayyad amir had any real power but he lacked the resources to expand it significantly. Elsewhere local political forces had taken over. Muhammad was succeeded for two years by his able son al-Mundhir, who, although he made a determined effort to reduce Bobastro and put an end to the power of Ibn Hafsun, died in mysterious circumstances while on campaign. In 888 he was succeeded by his brother cAbd Allah, whose reign marks the nadir of Cordoban power. The new amir seems to have been indolent, possibly clinically depressed, and capable of taking little initiative apart from occasional bursts of murderous cruelty against members of his family, including his own sons. He seldom left Cordoba, except to go on hunting expeditions in the immediate vicinity, and made little effort to restore the fortunes of the amirate. In addition, areas which had not hitherto shown signs of separatist tendencies began to go their own way. The province of Elvira (Granada) was torn apart byfiercehostility between Arabs and muwallads and the latter, having appealed in vain to the amir for protection, threw in their lot with Ibn Hafsun. In the city of Seville, probably the largest in al-Andalus after Cordoba itself, there was a vicious feud between Arab patrician families (the Banu Hajjaj and the Banu Khaldun) and those of muwallad origin (Banu Angelino and Banu Savarico) whichfinallyleft Ibrahim b. al-Hajjaj as ruler of an independent city-state. c Abd Allah remained as amir until his death in 912. The Umayyad amirate survived less because of his abilities than because of the divisions amongst its enemies, more intent onfightingeach other than attacking Cordoba. No rival magnate attempted to take the title of amir or to capture the capital city

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and many, like the muwallads in both Elvira and Seville, looked to the Umayyads for support against their local rivals. The conflicts were the expression of widespread social and ethnic tensions rather than a determination to end Umayyad rule. The amir was still able to count on the loyalty of the people of Cordoba and despite his poverty he never seems to have increased the taxes on them. He could rely also on the support of the mawatt families who had always been the mainstay of the dynasty; both the Banu Shuhayd and the Banu Abl cAbda figured prominently in his rudimentary administration. He maintained an army of sorts. In the absence of tax revenues, this army existed mostly by plundering neighbouring areas which had rejected the amir's authority, setting out at harvest time and returning with supplies or with cash given to them to induce them to go away. It was left to cAbd Allah's grandson, who became amir as cAbd al-Rahman III on c Abd Allah's death in 912, to create on this modest foundation what was to be the most powerful state in tenth-century western Europe.

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CHAPTER II

SPAIN: THE NORTHERN KINGDOMS AND THE BASQUES, 711-910

Roger Collins

THE KINGDOM OF THE ASTURIAS, 718-910

THE disintegration of the unitary Visigothic kingdom in the Iberian peninsula in the years 710—12, as a consequence of civil war and military defeat at the hands of the invading Arab armies, was both sudden and unforeseen. The actual course of events cannot easily be recovered, owing to the limitations of the extant sources. Arab texts, upon which historians have placed the greatest reliance, are in no case datable to any period earlier than the late tenth century, and even ones that may have originated then are only transmitted in fragmentary form in later works, or show serious indications of interpolation. This and similar evidential problems, together with the inevitable growth of ideologically slanted interpretations of the key episodes, makes it very difficult to assess the immediate consequences of the collapse of the Visigothic kingdom, not least the emergence c. 720 in the north of the peninsula of a minute but independent Christian kingdom in the Asturias (Map 17). That this was the product of the northwards flight of refugees from the other regions of the former Visigothic realm is highly unlikely, as the Arab conquerors made treaties with the regional authorities, the Visigothic counts in most cases, that guaranteed local autonomy in matters of law, administration and religion in return for the payment of fixed capitation and other taxes. For the first half-century or so of Arab domination in Spain local conditions were probably very little affected by changes in central authority. One effect of this was to limit the perspectives of the Latin historiography of this period. Thus the author of the only substantial contemporary Latin chronicle written in the peninsula, probably in Toledo c. 754, records nothing of the events that led to the creation of the Asturian monarchy. For that, reliance has to be placed exclusively on the indigenous historiographical tradition of the kingdom, and this presents its own particular problems.1 1

Collins (1989b), pp. 23-36. 272

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Oviedo. • Santiago de Compostela. ' \GALICI

Covadonga^.

A,s t u r i a s

The mora. V-—

ATLANTIC

Meseta Salamanca OCEAN

Land over 500metres

Map 17 The Iberian peninsula, 700-900

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Any political narrative derives from the two brief chronicles initially written in the 88os. Thefirstof these, the Chronicle of Albelda, was composed in 883/4, and received a brief continuation in the Riojan monastery of Albelda around the year 976. The second Asturian chronicle, known from the presumed author of its original version as the Chronicle ofAlfonso III, was probably composed at the Asturian court, but now survives only in two slightly later recensions, completed in the reigns of Alfonso's sons Garcia (910—913/14) and Ordofio II (913 /14-924), thefirstkings of Leon. Considerable uncertainty exists as to how much, if any, of the original text may be the work of Alfonso III (866—910), and as to the identity of the compilers of the two extant recensions. It has been suggested that the original core text may be no more than the section concerning the reign of Alfonso's father Ordono I (8 5 0-66).2 In all respects, though, it is clear that the only available historiographical perspective on the 200-year history of the Asturian kingdom is one that comes from a very late period in its existence and is strongly influenced by the ideological perspectives and political conditions of that time. Attempts to argue that the initial sections of the chronicles depend on a lost earlier text, perhaps dating to the reign of Alfonso II (791— 842), have not attracted much support.3 The outline narrative that may be derived from the Asturian chronicles can be supplemented on occasion by the works of Arab historians. These refer primarily to military and diplomatic encounters, and can make entirely contradictory statements as to their outcome in comparison with those of the Asturian chronicles. By and large, however, such Arab sources are of relatively late date, the earliest extant being fragments of a compilation made in the last quarter of the eleventh century. Although they give greater grounds for confidence in the validity of their information bearing on the ninth century, especially the later part, their veracity can be seriously impugned in respect of the eighth. More exactly contemporary information can be expected from the small corpus of charters that survives from the Asturian kingdom.4 The earliest of these documents dates to 775, but it is one of the few of the eighth-century texts that has not been suspected of being forged or severely interpolated. The problems of authenticity improve as far as the charters of the second half of the ninth century are concerned, but their testimony is still very restricted in what it can offer. Largely, such texts record the making of sales and exchanges of land, or the foundations of monasteries. Very few of them are royal documents, and little evidence survives for the practical functioning of the administration of the Asturian kings. 2 3

Gil, Moralejo and Ruiz de la Pena (1985), pp. 88—105. 4 Sanchez-Albomoz (1967), pp. 111-60. Floriano (1949/51).

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Problems of evidence and its interpretation are probably most concentrated in the materials relating to the foundation of the kingdom and the reign of its first monarch, Pelagius (718/22—737). His successful revolt against the authority of the recently installed Arab governors of Spain marked both the creation of the independent kingdom and the establishment of its ruling dynasty. Hence, it is not surprising to find considerable contradiction in the sources, and that their narratives of the events are quite disproportionate to the scale of the treatment afforded other, subsequent episodes in Asturian history. Pelagius' origins and the reasons for his taking refuge in the Asturias are differently explained in each of the chronicles. By the time of the revisions of the Alfonsine chronicle the royal court had moved south to Leon, and there was less reason to make the dynastic founder a primarily Asturian leader. Similarly, the second version of that of Alfonso III, which is known either from the dedicatory letter at the head of it as the Ad Sebastianum (Bishop Sebastian of Orense), or from its more literary character as the 'erudite' recension, claims that Pelagius was a member of an unspecified Visigothic royal family. This is typical of the way that the Asturian and Leonese kings from the ninth century onwards tried to present themselves as the natural heirs to the Visigothic kingdom that had embraced the whole Iberian peninsula. Pelagius' revolt, which is normally dated on the basis of ninth-century king-lists to 718, is variously presented as being motivated by the desire to restore liberty to the Christians living in the Asturias or the need to defend the honour of his sister from the advances of the Arab governor of Leon or Gijon. Although this Arab governor features as the leader of the Arab forces in all of the chronicles, a role of greater infamy is ascribed to a Bishop Oppa, who is erroneously presented as being a son of the former Visigothic king Witiza, and whose see is said to be Toledo and Seville by the Kotensis and 'erudite' versions respectively.5 In both texts of the Chronicle of Alfonso III this Oppa, who has accompanied the Arab army sent to crush Pelagius, engages in a lengthy dialogue with the rebel leader prior to the battle on 'Mount Auseva', later known as Covadonga, in which the Asturian forces would emerge triumphant. It has been suggested that this, clearly fictional, exchange has been taken from an otherwise lost oral epic.6 Other legendary accretions relating to the battle of Covadonga include the miraculous swallowing up by the mountain of 63,000 of the Arab and Berber troops. Despite the obviously tendentious and contradictory nature of the accounts of the revolt and of the defeat of an Arab punitive expedition, it is 5 6

Collins (1989), pp. 145-9 shows the impossibility of this claim. Sanchez-Albornoz (1967), pp. 161-202.

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clear that the rising led by Pelagius in the eastern Asturias did lead to the establishment of a tiny independent kingdom in that region. Further Arab and Berber attempts to suppress it were not forthcoming, largely because the governors of al-Andalus had little interest in maintaining their authority in the remote northern mountain regions of the peninsula.7 This was accentuated by the period of Berber revolts and conflicts between Arab factions that affected all of southern Spain and North Africa in the 730s and 740s.8 The seizure of power in Cordoba by the Umayyad cAbd al-Rahman I (756—88) in 756 further protected the nascent Christian kingdom, in that it took him over twenty years to impose his authority effectively over the southern and central regions of the peninsula and over the Ebro valley. Thus, it was not until the last decade of the eighth century that serious military conflict ensued between the Asturian kingdom and the Umayyad amirate of Cordoba. The intervening years had been spent very effectively by the Asturian kings in enlarging their realm, largely at the expense of their fellow Christian inhabitants of the northern mountains and the Meseta. Inevitably, in the ideologically charged perspective of the late ninth- and early tenth-century chronicles the process of aggressive conquest and assimilation is obscured. Wars of conquest were thus presented as the repression of rebellions on the part of the inhabitants of Galicia in the west and by the Basques in the east, over both of whom the Asturian kings had no prior title to authority. The process of expansion was initiated in the reign of the third of these monarchs, Alfonso I (739—57). Of the founder of the kingdom, Pelagius, little is recorded after his success over the Arabs in 718 (or 722 as has been argued).9 His only son Fafila (737—9) was killed by a bear, but is otherwise known to have founded a church dedicated to the Holy Cross at Cangas de Onis, which appears to have been the centre of the kingdom at this time.10 He was succeeded by his brother-in-law, Alfonso, the son of a Duke Peter of Cantabria. The latter may have exercised authority in the period following the Arab invasion over a region to the east of the Asturias, and the merging of the two dynasties through the marriage of Alfonso to Pelagius' daughter Ermosinda represents the first territorial expansion of the kingdom. Under Alfonso I, later known as 'the Catholic', and his son Fruela I the Cruel (757—68), the authority of the Asturian monarchy was extended westwards into Galicia as far as the valley of the Miiio. In the same period, a series of raids were conducted into the lower valley of the Duero and across the Meseta, leading to the capture of a number of the major towns in these 7 8 10

See above, Kennedy, p. 257. Collins (1989b), pp. 141—51. ' Sanchez-Albornoz (1972—j) 11, pp. 97-135. For the now lost inscription: Vigil (1887) 1, pp. 304—5; 11, plate jv.

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Spain: the northern kingdoms and the Basques, /n—pro regions. These settlements were said by the late ninth-century chroniclers to include Braga, Oporto, Astorga, Leon, Zamora, Simancas, Osma, Avila and Segovia, amongst others. The Christian sources attribute primary responsibility to Alfonso: the Arab ones to Fruela. These expeditions across the Meseta and south of the Mino were not, however, intended to promote a further territorial extension of the Asturian kingdom in these directions, as the Christian inhabitants of these settlements are reported to have been carried off northwards by their captors. The process thus laconically described in the chronicles has generated much controversy, though few of the questions that need to be posed can be answered. Were these mid-eighth-century Asturian kings seeking to depopulate a broad swathe of territory running from the Atlantic to the upper Duero and from the Sierra de Guadarrama to the Asturian and Cantabrian mountains, and if so how effectively could they have achieved it?11 Equally uncertain are both the size and nature of the captured settlements, and what if any was the need for a resettling of population in the northern mountains and Galicia, areas not known otherwise to have been deprived of inhabitants. No mention is made of these processes of depopulation and transportation in the Arab sources, and there exists a real danger that the Asturian chronicles were validating the subsequent imposition of royal authority over most of the Meseta and southern Galicia in the ninth century. In other words, the imposition of lordship and regalian rights in the later period was being justified by a supposed prior period of Asturian rule over these areas. The murder of Fruela I in 768, possibly in a vendetta initiated by his own killing of his brother Vimara, marked the end of this period of raiding the Arab-ruled towns of the Meseta. Fruela's infant son Alfonso was passed over in favour of a cousin of the late king called Aurelius (768-74). Unlike the preceding Visigothic kingdom, the Asturian monarchy was able to maintain dynastic continuity, largely by adopting a flexible approach to the rules of succession and avoiding strict adherence to primogeniture. Thus, when Aurelius died the palace nobility, who seem normally to have been the determining force in the selecting of a new king, chose Silo (774-83), the husband of Alfonso I's daughter Adosinda. On his death his widow, required by canonical regulations of the Visigothic period to enter a convent, tried to secure the succession for her nephew Alfonso.12 Here, however, the palace nobility were thwarted by a coup led by Mauregatus (783-8), an illegitimate son of Alfonso I. He in turn was succeeded by 11 12

Sanchez-Albornoz (1966). For the survival of Visigothic rules relating to royal widows see Orlandis (1962), pp. 117—23.

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Vermudo I (788—91), the brother of the former King Aurelius. Only a crushing defeat of the new king at the hands of an Arab army led to the longpostponed succession of Fruela I's son Alfonso II (791—842): whether voluntarily or otherwise, the military disaster led Vermudo to retire into a monastery.13 The seizure of the kingdom by Mauregatus in 783 represents the first manifestation of a phenomenon that would increasingly dominate the political life of the Asturian monarchy and also of its Leonese successor (910—1037). This was the power of the frontier nobility to defy or on occasion to overturn the central authority of the kings. The conquests of Galicia and of territory of the later Basque provinces of Alava and Vizcaya had depended on and were reinforced by the establishment of territorial lordships, both lay and ecclesiastical, in these regions. Although the lack of survival of charters makes it impossible to document individual cases before the later ninth century, it is possible to detect the building up of substantial marcher lordships in the eighth.14 By the end of this century, what had been an Asturian domination of peripheral territories to the east and to the west of its heartlands had been transformed into an almost equal partnership of the three principal components of the kingdom: the Asturian palatine nobility and the marcher lords of Galicia and of the western Basque regions. Individual monarchs depended for the maintenance of their practical authority, or in cases of disputed successions for their claim to the throne, on securing the backing of at least one or more of these groups. Thus, Mauregatus and also Vermudo I depended primarily on the support of the Galicians, and were able to expel and keep in exile the young Alfonso. The latter, on the other hand, because of his father's marriage to the Basque Muna, was able to call upon elements of his mother's people. He took refuge amongst them in 788. He himself never married, and apparently earned his later sobriquet of 'the Chaste'. This created a disputed succession on his death. After Alfonso's long reign his designated heir and nephew, Nepotian (842), was rapidly overthrown by the Galician-backed Ramiro I (842—50), the son of Vermudo I. His grandson, Alfonso III (866-910), was himself briefly expelled in 867 by a Galician coup, and in due course was to be deposed by his own sons with the support of the Leonese frontier aristocracy. In the later ninth century the southward expansion of the frontiers of the Asturian kingdom created new marcher regions in the north of what would eventually become the kingdom of Portugal and in Castile. The leading landowners and office holders of these regions became in their 13

Collins (1989b), pp. 160-7.

14

Balifias (1989); Barreiro Somoza (1987), pp. 61-70.

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turn in the tenth century the principal arbiters of the political stability of the kingdom, replacing their predecessors in Galicia and Alava. Other social groups in the Asturian kingdom are much harder to delineate, again largely thanks to the limited nature of the evidence. In the reign of Aurelius (768-74) a servile revolt broke out. The chronicles make the briefest of mention of this, stating only that 'When he was reigning the slaves {sent) who were in revolt against their lords were captured by his zeal and returned to their previous servitude.'15 The nature of the revolt and of the servi themselves is not easily defined. It has usually been assumed that they were slaves, entirely lacking in any form of personal liberty.16 However, documents from the ninth century indicate that such men could own property, which might be transmitted to their sons with their lords' consent. Unfortunately, such texts give no further information as to the other ties of dependency between the lords and servi. The revolt under Aurelius is the only instance of such an uprising in the Asturian period, and the chronicles fail to give it any precise geographical location. Under the relatively short-reigned kings from Aurelius to Vermudo I the southern frontiers of the kingdom were generally tranquil. However, the establishment in power of the second Umayyad amir, Hisham I (788-96) led, not least for reasons concerned with the internal stability of the Arab state in al-Andalus, to the launch of almost biannual campaigns against the Christian populations of northern Spain. The defeat of Vermudo I at the battle of Burbia in 791 was one consequence of this, and his successor, Alfonso II, routed an Arab army at Lutos in 794. The latter was presented as a victory by the Arab chronicles, but the Asturian accounts are probably more credible.17 Less intensive campaigning followed the accession of alHakam I (796—822), and in general no serious effort was ever made by the Arab rulers to destroy the Asturian kingdom. One consequence of the fighting in the 790s was the establishment of diplomatic contacts between Alfonso II and Charlemagne. In 797 the Asturian king, taking advantage of the disorder in the south following the premature death of Hisham I, launched a raid on Lisbon, that was probably intended to co-ordinate with a Frankish offensive in the Ebro valley. The latter failed to materialise, owing to difficulties with the Saxons, but some of the loot from Alfonso's raid was sent to Charlemagne.18 However, no such Asturian co-operation is recorded when the Franks finally did capture Barcelona in 801. This may well have been a product of the brief overthrow 15

17

Chronica Albeldensia xv 5: 'Eo regnante serbi dominis suis contradicentes eius industria capti in 16 pristina sunt serbitute redacti.' Sanchez-Albornoz (1972-j) 11, pp. 209-10. 18 Sanchez-Albornoz (1972—5) 11, pp. 483-90. AKF s.a. 798.

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of Alfonso II in that year and his imprisonment in the monastery of Ablafia. The name of his supplanter is not recorded, and he was restored in a countercoup led by a certain Teuda.19 Most of the latter part of the reign of Alfonso II appears to have been peaceful, and from 812 onwards he is recorded in the chronicles as having devoted himself to the construction of a series of churches in Oviedo, which he had made his capital. By the time of Silo (774—83) the principal royal residence had moved from Cangas de Onis to Pravia, and early in his reign Alfonso established himself at Oviedo, which had also once been patronised by his father Fruela. None of these places had been towns in the Roman period, and it would be misleading to think of them as such at this time either. They were little more than ceremonial centres, housing a royal palace and one or more churches, together with small populations serving the court. The kings themselves may be assumed to have been largely peripatetic for much of the year, but Alfonso II seems deliberately to have built up Oviedo to mimic the role of Toledo in the Visigothic kingdom.20 Several of the extant buildings of ninth-century date in Oviedo have been dated to the reign of Alfonso II on the basis of attributions in the chronicles. However, a number of significant discrepancies can be detected within the literary texts and also between them and the existing structures. Greater caution is probably needed in stating that any of the latter actually date from this reign. Furthermore, the frequently made claim that Alfonso's principal architect can be named as a certain Tioda is entirely without foundation, in that it depends upon a spurious interpolation in a late copy of a charter. It is likely that the name derives from a confusion, deliberate or otherwise, with the Teuda who rescued Alfonso from captivity in 801/2.21 The same kinds of problems are to be encountered in the study of the buildings attributed to Alfonso's successor, Ramiro I (842—50), who is recorded in the chronicles as having built a palace, a bath house and a church on Monte Naranco, immediately to the north of Oviedo. The buildings now to be found on this site are so fundamentally different in both their architecture and their decoration from other churches of the Asturian period that a distinctive artistic style has been ascribed to the period of the reigns of Ramiro I and his son, Ordono I (850-66), known as the 'estilo ramirense'. Once again, however, the evidence of the literary texts can be found not to tally with the material remains. An inscription in the church of Sta Maria de Naranco, for example, indicates that Ramiro restored rather than founded the building, and the commonly held view that this was originally created by the king as the audience hall of his palace has no 19 21

Chronica Albtldensia xv 9. Collins (1989a), pp. 3-12.

2° Sanchez-Albornoz (1972-5) 11, pp. 625-39.

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foundation.22 Only with the churches of the reign of his grandson, Alfonso III the Great (866-910), can anything like certainty be achieved, largely because these can be dated exclusively on the basis of inscriptions, and do not feature in chronicle texts. Although a more stable modus vivendi was reached with the Umayyad amirate in the second part of the reign of Alfonso II, the growing weakness of the central authority of that state in the course of the ninth century led to the development of more localised conflicts and problems for the Asturian kingdom. Thus for example, in 833, under the Amir cAbd al-Rahman II (822—5 2), Mahmud ibn cAbd al-Djabbar, an Arab leader who had failed in a bid to establish an independent realm for himself in the city of Merida, fled north and sought the protection of Alfonso II. The latter established him and his followers on the Galician frontier. But within seven years he was treating the Asturian king in the same way as he had the amir, by trying to carve an independent regional base for himself out of his overlord's territories. In 840 Alfonso attacked him with the royal army and destroyed him.23 Under Ramiro I, although a Cordoban army sacked Leon in 846, the most dramatic military threat to the Asturian kingdom came in the form of the first Viking attack on Spain. The Danish fleet that had previously based itself in the Garonne came along the Bay of Biscay in the summer of 844 and descended on the Galician coast.24 The Vikings were successfully driven off by Ramiro, and continued south to sack both Lisbon and Seville. As well as having to face these periodic external difficulties, the brief reign of Ramiro was more seriously beset by internal disorders. Although the chronicles written in the time of his grandson present him as having the natural right to the throne, he had in fact deposed, following a successful invasion of the Asturias, the designated heir of Alfonso II the Chaste. This short-lived ruler, Nepotian, is treated as a legitimate king in some Asturian regnal lists, although mendaciously portrayed as a usurper by the chroniclers.25 After his overthrow he was blinded and confined to a monastery. Such a seizure of the throne led to a period of internal instability, and Ramiro is recorded as having to face the revolts of two of the Asturian palatine nobility. One of these, Piniolus, held the rank of Count of the Palace, the principal officer of the royal court. Overall, the reign of Ramiro was marked by a defensive stance, imposed by such combinations of external and internal threats. In general, the territorial expansion of the kingdom, that had been such a 22 23 24 25

Collins (1989a), p p . 1 2 — 1 8 . Adtfonsi Tertii Cbronica, Kotcnsis a n d Ad Sebastianum v e r s i o n s , 22; I b n a l - A t h i r s.a. 2 1 3 - 2 5 . AB trans. Nelson, p. 60; ed. Rau, p. 64 and see Coupland, above, pp. 195-6. Casariego (1969).

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marked feature of its history in the mid-eighth century, does not seem to have been renewed before the 850s. For Ramiro I's son Ordono I (850-66), on the other hand, greater opportunities existed in the increasingly disturbed state of the Umayyad amirate. The rebellion of Toledo against the new ruler of Cordoba, Muhammad I (852—86), led to its inhabitants appealing to Ordorio for aid, and this enabled him to launch the first Asturian expedition south of the Sierra de Guadarrama in 854. In the ensuing battle the Toledans and their Asturian allies were defeated by the amir's army, though probably not as seriously as the Arab sources imply.26 The city remained in revolt until 8 5 9, and the whole episode initiated a new and dynamic period of expansion on the part of the northern kingdom. In 8 5 9 Ordofio launched an attack on Musa ibn Musa (d. 862), the patriarch of the Banu Qasi, a muwallad dynasty of ultimately Visigothic origin, who had built up a dominant position for themselves in the upper Ebro valley, and had recently gained control of Tudela and Zaragoza.27 Ordono destroyed the fortress that Musa had been building at Albelda, and routed his army in a battle fought on Mount Laturce. Although Musa, who had been in almost continuous revolt against Cordoba since 840, had achieved such a regional dominance as to be known as 'the third king of Spain', this disaster broke his power, and even his son Lubb (Lope), who had recently been installed as governor of Toledo, temporarily submitted to the authority of Ordono.28 Although this Asturian ascendancy over the former Visigothic capital was short lived, once the Amir Muhammad I (852—86) was able to reassert himself, the reign of Ordono's son Alfonso the Great (866-910) marked the re-establishment of Christian control over most of the Meseta and the valley of the Duero. Regrettably, the chronicle that bears the king's name ends with his accession, but the Chronicle of Albelda becomes uncharacteristically detailed for the period 866—83. This was a time marked by expectations of the collapse of Arab power in Spain, as indicated by the so-called Prophetic Chronicle, a text that became attached to the Albeldan chronicle collection, and which calculated on the basis of pseudo-biblical prophecies that Islamic domination in the peninsula would come to an end in 884. Heartened by such hopes or by the more positive military achievements of the previous reign, a more aggressive stance on the part of the Asturian kingdom was linked to an intensive repopulation and development of the southern frontier districts. Most notable here was the expansion of settlements in Castile and in the north of what was to become Portugal.29 The latter included Braga, Oporto, 26 28

27 Porres Martin-Cleto (198;), pp. 31-4. Canada Juste (1980). w Sanchez-Albornoz (1969). Merea (1949).

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Viseo and Lamego, which were given new Christian populations, as was the newly created town of Zamora, which was said to have been occupied by refugees from Toledo. At the same time raids were directed into Muslim territory, reaching as far to the south as Merida in 881. In Castile, where the process of repopulation was under way by the 860s, an entirely new settlement was founded at Burgos in 883 by Count Diego (873-90), to provide the administrative centre of the recently created county. These processes were facilitated by the increasing fragmentation of the Umayyad state in the last years of Muhammad. Cordoban expeditions launched against the Asturian kingdom achieved little, and in 882 the amir negotiated a truce with Alfonso III, part of the consequences of which were the translation to Oviedo of the relics of the Cordoban martyr Eulogius (executed 8 5 9) and with them a corpus of literary and poetic texts.30 The origins of the Asturian kingdom, in the northern mountains and far removed from the cultural centres of the previous Visigothic period, together with its subsequent essentially military character, made it a less than flourishing abode of learning. Few monasteries existed in the kingdom prior to the ninth century, and there are no traces of anything that could be called a 'court school' to be found in it. No extant manuscripts can be ascribed to Asturian scriptoria. Even so, some traces of the intellectual culture of the Asturian period can be detected in the few new works that were produced at this time. Of the latter the Commentary on the Apocalypse, probably though not certainly written by the monk Beatus in 786, is by far the most substantial, and, although offering nothing original in itself, is testimony to the existence of a rich collection of exegetical texts in late eighth-century Asturias. Beatus quoted from, amongst others, the works of Apringius, the Donatist Tyconius, Augustine, Gregory the Great and Isidore. A different kind of erudition was displayed by the late ninth-century anonymous author who put together the collection of chronological texts that accompanied the Chronicle of Albelda. This included regnal lists, not only of the Roman emperors and the Austurian and Visigothic kings, but also of the governors and amirs of al-Andalus. Although a small number of monastic communities is recorded as having come into existence, especially in Galicia, in the Asturian period none of them achieved any great size or significance at this time. On the other hand, it did see the discovery of the supposed body of the Apostle St James, and the subsequent rapid development of a cult based on the relic and its place of burial.31 The discovery was made in a late Roman cemetery at Compostela during the episcopate of Bishop Theodemir of Iria Flavia (c. 818-47), who 30

Collins (1983b).

31

Barreiro Somoza (1987), pp. 59-78.

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erected the first church on the site. This was replaced by a more substantial basilica in 899, built by Alfonso III and Bishop Sisnando of Iria (c. 880— c. 920). Little evidence exists for royal interest in the cult before this reign, but Alfonso made substantial donations of land and treasure to the church, as well as adopting St James as one of his patron saints. It is possible that pilgrimage to the shrine of Santiago from outside the Asturian kingdom was already under way by the end of the ninth century.32 The ending of the chronicle itself in 883 has meant that the second half of the reign of Alfonso III is much less well recorded than the first. However, the Arab sources confirm that this was a relatively peaceful period for the Asturian kingdom, not least owing to the problems that the Amir cAbd Allah (888—912) had to face in the south, notably the escalating revolt of Umar ibn Hafsun. For Alfonso III the main concern may have been maintaining royal authority over expanding and increasingly independent frontiers. In 910 he was deposed in a conspiracy led by his eldest son Garcia, who had the backing of the Leonese frontier nobility, and he seems to have died soon afterwards. The claim that he retired to the monastery of San Salvador de Valedios, that he himself had founded in 892, is based only on late medieval chronicle accounts. The deposition of Alfonso was followed by the moving of the capital of the kingdom from Oviedo to Leon, south of the Cantabrian mountains: a change that was symbolic of the greater security that was then felt and of the enhanced importance of the southern frontier regions, now firmly established along the line of the Duero. Although this process may not have been completed until the reign of Alfonso's second son, Ordono II (913/14—24), 910 is always taken as marking the transition between the Asturian and Leonese kingdoms. THE KINGDOM OF PAMPLONA, 799-905

While the mountainous southern fringes of the Bay of Biscay, Cantabria, the Asturias and Galicia broke free of the domination of the Arab and Berber conquerors by the middle of the eighth century, the western Pyrenees remained longer under their rule. However, many of the problems of maintaining order in this region that had faced the Visigothic kings from the late sixth century onwards remained for the successors. Raids into the upper Ebro valley by the Basques posed a substantial military threat, and Yusuf ibn cAbd al-Rahman, the last of the governors or, arguably, thefirstof the independent Arab rulers of al-Andalus, lost a detachment of his army to the

32

Fletcher (1984), p p . 5 3—77.

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Basques in 756. 33 His overthrow in the same year at the hands of the Umayyad c Abd al-Rahman was blamed on the loss of these forces in one Arab account. It took the new ruler of Cordoba over twenty years to impose his authority on the E b r o valley and, in the meantime, power passed into the hands of a series of local potentates, of mixed Arab and muwallad origin. Their reluctance to accept the authority of c Abd al-Rahman led to an appeal for help from Charlemagne, and the latter's fruitless intervention in the Ebro valley in 778. 34 O n e consequence of this had been the Frankish conquest of Pamplona, but the city, whose walls were then destroyed, had to be given up in the course of the subsequent retreat across the Pyrenees. By 799 Pamplona was in the hands of Mutarrif ibn Musa, a member of the Banii Qasi, w h o was murdered by the citizens in that year. A restoration of Frankish rule over Pamplona and the western Pyrenees took place in 806, matching the recent establishment of Frankish control over Barcelona and the formation of a march that was centred o n it. However, the western Pyrenean region was less enthusiastic for Frankish rule than the eastern, and in 812 and 819 revolts occurred that had to be suppressed by K i n g Louis of Aquitaine and his son Pippin I. In 824, in the course of a further revolt, a Frankish army led by t w o counts was ambushed and routed by the Basques in the second battle of Roncesvalles. As a probable result of this, a small kingdom came into being in Pamplona, and Frankish control over the area was never restored. The history of the kingdom of Pamplona has to be reconstructed on a far smaller evidential basis than that of the neighbouring Asturian realm. N o chronicles at all were produced, and few genuine charters originating in the kingdom can be found dating from earlier than the late tenth century. T h e principal indigenous historical text is a collection of royal and comital genealogies, which were probably compiled in Najera, then a royal centre, in the later tenth century. 3 5 Otherwise, recourse has to be made to the occasional notices afforded the kingdom in Asturian and Arab historiography. This makes the history of the Pamplonan monarchy, especially in the ninth century, both very obscure and highly controversial. 3 6 Much scholarly argument has been devoted to problems of the geographical extent of the kingdom, its regnal dating, and the identification of individuals briefly mentioned in the genealogical and other sources. It is accepted on the basis of the king-list, and confirmed by Arab narratives, that the first king of Pamplona was a certain Ifiigo Arista. It may be assumed, though it is not provable, that he came to power in the 33 36

M 3S Collins (1989b), pp. 119-26. Collins (1989b), pp. 168-82. Lacarra (1945). Levi-Provenjal (1953); Perez de Urbel (1954); Sanchez-Albornoz (1957); Collins (1986), pp. 123-63.

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aftermath of the second battle of Roncesvalles in 824. His death in 851 is recorded in a fragment of the Arab historian Ibn Hayyan. Few other chronological statements concerning his dynasty can be made with anything like such assurance. His son Garcia Iniguez seems to have succeeded him without interruption, but his date of death is not known. It has been suggested that, as his eldest son Fortun Garces was still possibly a captive in Cordoba following an earlier military defeat, a regency occurred on the death of King Garcia. This may have been exercised by one of his other sons.37 Fortun Garces probably began his own personal reign in the early 880s, and is thought to have died in 905. Although the genealogies record him as having sons, he proved to be the last member of the founding line of the kings of Pamplona, as he was succeeded by Sancho Garces I (905-25), the son of a certain Garcia Jimenez and thus the representative of a different dynasty.38 One of the distinguishing features of the early history of the kingdom of Pamplona is the close relationship that existed between its ruling dynasty and the mmvallad Banu Qasl. The mother of Musa ibn Musa (d. 862), the most powerful of the latter, was the sister of Ifiigo Arista. The tiny Basque kingdom was faced by predatory enemies in several directions. Although never realised, the threat of Frankish attempts to regain control over the western Pyrenees was a real one. In practice even more menacing was the gradual eastwards expansion of the Asturian kingdom; while in the south lay the amirate of Cordoba, ever anxious to impose its authority over the frontier regions, not least the Upper March, which embraced the Ebro valley. For such reasons the alliance of Pamplona and the Muslim Banu Qasl offered significant mutual benefits, if also shared dangers. Thus, Must and Ifiigo joined forces to ambush and capture one of cAbd al-Rahman II's commanders in 843, but the consequence was a massive military response from Cordoba, led by the amir in person, which led to the defeat of the allies and much destruction and the taking of slaves in the vicinity of Pamplona. A second retaliatory expedition in 844 inflicted a further defeat, in which one of King Ifiigo's brothers was killed. Even so, the Pamplonans are found acting together with the Banu Qasi in defiance of Cordoba again in 847 and in 8 50. The defeat of Musa ibn Musa by Ordofio I in 8 5 9, however, left the kingdom of Pamplona peculiarly exposed to threats from the south. In 860 an expedition led by the Amir Muhammad I entered the kingdom and captured Fortun Garces, the heir to the throne, who was taken to Cordoba and kept there as a hostage, probablyforthe next twenty years.39 37 38 39

Sanchez-Albornoz (1971). Ubieto Arteta (i960); Sanchez-Albornoz (1961). See Kennedy above, pp. 268-9; Al-Makkari, vi.4.

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Although the events of 8 5 9-60 left both the Banu QasI and the rulers of Pamplona weakened during the course of the ensuing decade, their alliance was resumed in the early 870s. In 872 the four sons of Musa ibn Musa succeeded in seizing power in all of the major towns of the Upper March: Zaragoza, Tarazona, Huesca, Lerida and Tudela. Although Huesca was regained for the amir in 873, the Banu QasI could not be dislodged from their hold over the rest of the region. In consequence almost annual expeditions were launched into the Ebro valley from Cordoba, and these normally included the ravaging of the districts around Pamplona in their programme. However, neither the Christian city nor any of the strongholds of the Banu QasI fell to the amir's forces. Close relations, based on mutual reaction to a common threat, were also established with the kingdom of the Asturias, whose king Alfonso III married a Pamplonan wife called Jimena; one of his sons, the future Ordofio II, was sent to be brought up in one of the courts of the Banu Qasi, probably that of Muhammad b. Lubb ibn Musa, who became the dominant member of that dynasty in the mid-8705.40 This long-established pattern of relationships was broken in the 880s. Muhammad ibn Lubb found it expedient to renew his allegiance to the amir, and return Zaragoza to Umayyad control, while being recognised as the Umayyad ruler's governor of Tudela and Tarazona. The emergence of another rival local dynasty, the Tujibids, to whom the Umayyads then entrusted Zaragoza and Calatayud, led to a fragmentation of Banu Qasi power in the Ebro valley and increasing conflict with all of their neighbours. This could include raids on both Pamplonan and Asturian lands. Muhammad ibn Lubb was killed in 898 in the course of a protracted siege of Zaragoza, and the Christian monarchs, whose ties to the Banu Qasi had been broken in the course of the previous decade, attempted unsuccessfully to annexe his territories. Alfonso III, possibly acting in concert with Fortun Garces of Pamplona, was defeated in the vicinity of Tarazona in 899 by Muhammad's son Lubb. Another Asturian invasion of the upper Ebro valley was driven back in 904, but Lubbibn Muhammad's raid on Pamplona in 907 proved fatal to his brief restoration of Banu QasI dominance in the Ebro. He fell into an ambush prepared by Sancho Garces I, the first king of the second Pamplonan dynasty, and was killed. The events surrounding the replacement of the line of Ifiigo Arista as kings of Pamplona are peculiarly impenetrable, because of the lack of narrative sources. The story that King Fortun Garces abdicated c. 905 to become a monk seems to be a later rationalisation of what may have been a disputed succession or even a coup d'etat. The last of the Arista kings was 40

Canada Juste (1980), p. 57.

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buried, as possibly had been his predecessors, in the monastery of Leyre. This was one of a small number of monastic houses known to have existed in Pamplona in the ninth century. It is probable that some may have owed their foundation to Frankish influence and patronage in the period 806-24.41 By 848, when the Cordoban priest Eulogius visited the kingdom of Pamplona, a number of these monasteries, notably Leyre and the Aragonese house of Siresa, wereflourishing.In another of them called St Zacharias, the precise location of which is now unknown, Eulogius found a corpus of poetic and other texts, including the De Civitate Dei of Augustine, which were then unavailable in Cordoba. From the copies that he took back with him sprang a brief renaissance of Latin metrical composition in al-Andalus.42 The lack of documentary evidence makes it impossible to determine how far in the ninth century the authority of the kings of Pamplona extended northwards into such regions as the later Basque provinces of Vizcaya and Guipuzcoa. Across the Pyrenees, the Basque-settled areas south of the Garonne were controlled by a line of dukes, theoretically subject to the West Frankish kings, but from the 8 30s onwards in practice independent rulers of the region. Not before the eleventh century would the authority of the kings of Pamplona extend northwards across the mountains. Similarly, to the south of Pamplona the power of the Banu QasT and other local dynasts in the upper Ebro valley, together with the military threats from Cordoba, made territorial expansion of the realm in this direction almost impossible at this time. No southern conquests were to be achieved before the reign of Sancho Garces I. To the west the Asturian monarchy had pre-empted its smaller Pamplonan counterpart in establishing its authority over the primarily Basque-speaking inhabitants of Alava. However, possibilities existed for the aggrandisement of the kingdom in an eastwards direction, along the line of the Pyrenees. Here the neighbour of the Pamplonan monarchy was the county established by the Franks in the valley of the river Aragon. As with other central Pyrenean counties, formal loyalty to the Frankish crown was preserved in Aragon after the second battle of Roncesvalles. One of the two Frankish commanders taken prisoner by the Basques in that victory was probably Count Aznar of Aragon, who was released because he was of the same race as his captors. At some point probably soon after, if the brief statements in the Genealogies of Roda be followed, this Aznar was overthrown by his son-in-law, Garcia the Bad, who transferred his allegiance from the Frankish ruler to King Inigo of Pamplona. Even after Aznar's son Galindo regained the county some time after 842/3, he too 41

Collins (1990).

« Collins (1983b).

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Spain: the northern kingdoms and the Basques, 711—910 found it expedient to maintain this new relationship, and he married his son Aznar Galindez to a daughter of Garcia Iniguez of Pamplona. A line of counts of this dynasty continued to rule the upper valley of the Aragon until the late tenth century, but under the suzerainty of the kings of Pamplona. The other Pyrenean counties, such as Pallars and Ribagorza to the west of Aragon, remained throughout this period under at least formal Frankish rule. By the later ninth century some of the distinctive ideology of the later 'Reconquista' had come into being. Christian writers, such as the anonymous author of the so-called 'Prophetic Chronicle' of 883/4, could look forward to the expulsion of the Arabs from Spain, and a sense of both an ethnic and a religious-cultural divide between the inhabitants of the small northern kingdoms and the dominant elite in the south was marked in the writings of both sides. On the other hand, it is unwise to be too linear in the approach to the origins of the 'Reconquista', as tended to be the way with Spanish historiography in the earlier part of the twentieth century. Periods of peaceful co-existence or of limited and localised frontier disturbances were more frequent than ones of all-out military conflict between alAndalus and the Christian kingdoms. As has been mentioned, the former never made any serious effort to eliminate the latter. Moreover, as in the case of relations between the Arista dynasty in Pamplona and the Banu QasI, mutual interest could be a stronger bond than ideological divisions based on antagonistic creeds. These tendencies were, if anything, to be reinforced in the tenth century.

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LOMBARD AND CAROLINGIAN ITALY Paolo Delogu

THE LOMBARD STATE

THE laws which were promulgated by the Lombard king Liutprand (712— 744) depict the model of an ideal state, based on elevated political ideas, peculiar to that prince and his age. One basic principle was the solidarity of the king with the freemen who constituted the political body of the kingdom. This was in part a heritage of the ancient Germanic idea of the people participating in national sovereignty. This concept had not weakened after the Lombards established themselves in Italy. Under Liutprand it could be found in the recognition, implicit in his legislation, that it was the body of the free Lombards that ensured the two basic expressions of national sovereignty: military activity, and the ability to provide themselves with legal regulations. Thus the laws of Liutprand were promulgated in assemblies consisting of judges and royal fideles from all the partes of the kingdom, representing the entire Lombard people, who could no longer physically gather together. As for military activity, it should be noted that in Liutprand's laws the free Lombard is usually identified with the exercitalis — the man who performs military service for the public authority. The traditional nature of this concept was stressed through the use of the ancient Lombard term arimannus as a synonym for exercitalis. Taking an active part in public military service was considered as the most complete and honourable form of freedom, whereby the free-born cooperated in maintaining both order and justice within the kingdom, and its independence or superiority with respect to other peoples. It was also an indication of economic independence, since military service was performed at the private expense of the exercitalis. As a recognition of all this, the king declared his concern for the free, and safeguarded their needs and interests (Liutprandi Leges, cc. 1—4). The solidarity of the king with the freemen seems 290

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to have been reinforced at the time by a personal oath of fidelity sworn by all the arimanni (Notitia de Actoribus Regis, c. 5). On the other hand, the kingdom was described in Liutprand's laws as an orderly structure made out of judicial districts — the iudkiariae — with a hierarchy of powers which ensured the administration of justice at increasing levels of authority. Within each iudiciaria, corresponding as a rule to the territory of a city, every settlement was supervised in its legal affairs by a public official, called a decanus or a saltarius. The decani and saltarii depended on a sculdhais, who was the lowest official permitted to administer justice to the free. The jurisdiction of the sculdhais was, however, limited. If the case rose above a certain level of importance, the sculdhais was supposed to pass it on to a superior authority, the iudex of the iudiciaria. Whenever the case could not be settled by the iudex, he was to pass the matter on to the highest level of jurisdiction, the royal court in the city of Pa via, then the capital of the kingdom. The king, too, received appeals against allegedly unjust sentences. The administration of justice was the primary aim of public authority and was subordinated to, and made dependent on, the king, who presented himself as the supreme judge and the surety for justice for all Lombards (Liutprandi Leges, cc. 25—27, 44, 85). Power within the kingdom was thus thought of as jurisdiction, and made dependent on the king's authority. It was given the legal nature of a public function exerted in the interests of the community. Roman and Christian influences are apparent in this complex idea of the state which manifests how refined the political culture was at the Lombard court in the first decades of the eighth century. Nonetheless, King Liutprand's concepts were more aims to attain through royal government, than objective reflections of the institutional machinery for the time being. In reality, political and jurisdictional powers were not as evenly ordered as the iudiciaria system might suggest. Not all of the Lombard territories, for instance, were equally subject to royal authority. This extended over the greater part of northern Italy, comprising the Po valley, Trentino and Friuli; in that part of Italy only the provinces of the Byzantine empire — Venetiae, the Exarchate and the Pentapolis - escaped royal control. South of the Apennines, Tuscia, approximately corresponding to modern Tuscany, was also subject to the king, perhaps in a looser form. Further east and south, the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento, two vast regions named after the seats of the Lombard dukes who presided over them, did not fully recognise the authority of the king, even though they shared the laws and customs of the kingdom. This was possible because of the complex nature of the Lombard state. All over Lombard Italy, the dukes were the titular holders of local power, but

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their ties with the kings had different degrees of intensity and subordination. Only in northern Italy were the dukes really bound to the kingdom and the kings. This was the result of bitter struggles that had been fought out after the Lombard conquest of Italy, during the last decades of the sixth century. The kings had then managed to impose themselves over the dukes, who had led the conquest with them and had settled in the cities. Nonetheless, the Lombard dukes had not simply been transformed into royal officials. They usually belonged to families of ancient origin which formed a sort of national nobility, or else were war-leaders renowned for their deeds. Their authority derived from their family or their prestige, as well as from royal consent; they were not totally dependent on the kings, although they certainly co-operated with them. Kings for instance could appoint dukes in vacant duchies, but found it very difficult to remove them; this happened only in extreme cases and usually by force. Indeed, the kings themselves originated from ducal families, because among the Lombards, unlike among the Franks or the Anglo-Saxons, there was no stirps regia, though family links between successive kings and the handing down of royal power from father to son were frequent. Still in the eighth century, kings could overcome individual dukes because the kings had a wider political consensus behind them, and had access to administrative, fiscal and military resources which were greater than those of each duke; but the constitutional ties between kings and dukes were more like an alliance than a relationship of service. The bigger and the further away a duchy was, the weaker the duke's subordination to the kings. This explains not only the autonomy of Spoleto and Benevento, but also the special status of border dukes even in northern Italy, such as the dukes of Friuli and Trento. The political and administrative organisation of the Lombard kingdom at the beginning of the eighth century did not, however, consist exclusively of a complex of duchies of various sizes variously related to the authority of the king. Alongside this, there was a network of public officials, the gastaldii, who were the administrators of thefiscalproperty distributed throughout the kingdom, which constituted the economic basis for the monarchy. The gastaldii also collected the proceeds of justice reserved for the kings, and held military commands similar to those of the dukes; they even governed a number of cities which had no dukes. Unlike the dukes, the gastaldii were strictly dependent on the royal authority. They usually belonged to the upper social stratum of the area in which they were to govern, but not to the national aristocracy. The kings could remove them from their office without the military actions which were often necessary to get rid of a duke. The office of the.gastaldius was not necessarily antagonistic to the authority of the

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duke, but it was an important administrative tool by which the royal authority could make itself effective throughout the whole kingdom, without depending on the intermediation of the dukes; for this reason, royal gastaldii did not exist in the autonomous duchies of Spoleto and Benevento. It now becomes evident that the indices of Liutprand's laws represent both a unification of the offices of duke and gastaldius and the idealisation of their subjection to royal authority. The king traced a new model of the state, simple and rational, which he endeavoured to make effective throughout his reign. In fact, other forces were also active within the kingdom and had a growing political importance, even though they were not recognised as having an official role in the state's organisation. In the Po valley and in Tuscia, the cities, by the end of the seventh century, had once again become central settlement places, which dominated the countryside around them because they were the residences of the public authorities and of many landowners. Commerce and crafts were also carried on in them. Commerce in this case meant the exchange not only of goods produced within the city and its territory, but also of food and other commodities brought from further away. Salt, for example, was imported all over the Po valley from the lagoons of Comacchio, together with less indispensable seasonings, such as pepper and garum; silver came from as far afield as England and Frisia; and silk cloth probably came from southern Italy, as well as, sometimes, from the eastern Mediterranean (CDL 1, no. 50). The inhabitants of the towns constituted active political bodies which could collectively guard and protect their own interests, take part in the internal political events of the kingdom, or raise an army. They could even oppose the local holders of public authority, the indices of the royal administration. The Liutprandine model of the state also did not take into account the clienteles gathered around powerful personages, whether or not they exercised public functions. The clientele was an early Germanic tradition, originally linked to the military activity of the migrant peoples; King Rothari had made reference to it in his Edict of 643. At the beginning of the eighth century such clienteles had lost their primary military functions, but still constituted political and social groupings, held together by bonds of interest, collaboration and honour. Although they were different from the ties of vassalage which were at that time spreading through the kingdom of the Franks, they had a similar influence on the social structure of the Lombard people. The kings also had their own followings oifideles, known as theirgasindii, distributed throughout the whole kingdom. They helped to support the king's authority in political ways, though they had no institutional role.

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Finally, ecclesiastical institutions, too, were gaining greater importance in the organisation of society. The conversion of the Lombards to Christianity having been completed, the territorial organisation of the church gained a secular role as well. Both thepkbes, the rural churches where baptism and other religious services were performed for the local population, and the cathedrals, which carried out the same functions for the people of the cities and which exercised control over the plebes of their dioceses, became centres of social cohesion for the inhabitants of the kingdom. In addition, the churches as landowners exercised influence, patronage and authority over local society and thus also acquired influence in political and administrative affairs. The bishops were not granted a definite function within the Lombard state. They did, however, enjoy a de facto influence, which consolidated itself in the course of the eighth century, when they sometimes supported the public indices in the administration of justice, and were also obliged to provide military service on the basis of their landed property.

THE KINGS AND ITALY

After the conquests of Byzantine territory by King Rothari in the 640s, the Lombard kings for a long time limited their military activity to internal affairs and to occasional defence against invasions, by the Franks to the west and the Avars to the east. In c. 680 a peace treaty with the Byzantine empire made the political borders within Italy definitive, thus removing the justification for further military undertakings. Only the dukes of Benevento still launched a few expeditions against the Byzantine lands, annexing some small territories as a result. This static situation suddenly came to an end during the reign of Liutprand. The external cause for this was the crisis of Byzantine imperial authority in Italy. From the first years of the eighth century, the Byzantine provinces openly showed their discontent with and intolerance of the imperial administration. A series of rebellions culminated in 727 in the assassination of the imperial governor, the exarch Paul. It was in this context that Lombard expansion into Byzantine territory began again: in that year Sutri in the Roman duchy was conquered directly; and the cities of Bologna, Imola and Osimo, as well as the inhabitants of some rural districts in Emilia, the Frignano and Persiceta, offered their submission, apparently spontaneously, to Liutprand (Map 18). These events, although mostly not provoked by the king, may also have suggested to him the possibility that he might profit from the disturbances of the political order in Italy, so as to affirm royal authority over the duchies Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

EXARCHATE OF

RAVENNA DUCHY OF SPOLETD

Turin Tortona Bobbio Parma

SARDINIA (autonomous fromlhe8lhcentury) J

GAETA CAPUA (fram8G1> , NAPLES AMALFI HKiMLri PRINCIPAUTY OF SALERNO Ifrom 849)

SICIlYllostto Arabs from 827)

* Norcia \

IMIII Undereffective Byzantine rule c.680 Undereffective Byzantine rule c. 750 Recovered by Byzantines c. 876-885

-Rieti Chieti Rome Isernia

Map 18 (a) Italy, 700-900; (b) territories under Byzantine rule

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of Spoleto and Benevento. This programme was not in itself aimed against the Byzantine empire; indeed, in order to carry it out, Liutprand originally came to an agreement with the new exarch, Eutychius, in exchange for a promise of aid to bring back order to the imperial provinces. The plan is likely to have depended on Liutprand's strong idea of royal authority, which had already caused him to reaffirm hegemony over the duke of Friuli. Liutprand probably intended to impose a systematic institutional hierarchy throughout the Lombard world, along the lines of the model expressed in his law-code. Given that every political institution in the Lombard world was supposed to be placed inside a hierarchy dependent on the king, it would have been right and proper that the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento, too, should be fully subject to him. This certainly fits with a law of 727, in which Spoleto and Benevento were mentioned for the first time, alongside the other parts of the kingdom, as areas where the royal law applied {Liutprandi Leges, c. 88). The achievement of this plan proved difficult, however, because it conflicted with the interests of the other powers in Italy. The dukes and the leading political groups of the two southern duchies transformed their de facto autonomy into a programme of resistance to the king. This was particularly true in the duchy of Spoleto, where Duke Trasamund II not only opposed the Lombard king, but also aimed at playing a part in the crisis which the imperial authority was experiencing in Italy. He endeavoured to form an alliance with the papacy and the Exarchate in order to create a Romano-Lombard political area in central Italy, which could protect itself both from abuses of power on the part of the empire and from extensions of Lombard royal authority. As a result, the Spoleto area began to gravitate towards Rome from the 750s onwards. This was to remain a constant feature of Italian political geography for at least the next two centuries. The political situation in Benevento was less clear-cut. It would seem, however, that the local aristocracy was divided into two parties, of which one, opposed to royal authority, was keen to maintain the autonomy of the duchy, whilst the other was perhaps more prepared to reach an understanding with the king. Notwithstanding local resistance, Liutprand achieved considerable successes in his policy towards the peripheral duchies. In 729 he entered the duchy of Spoleto and forced Duke Trasamund and the duke of Benevento, Romuald II, to swear fealty to him. A few years later, in 732, he went again with the royal army to Benevento, where he prevented Romuald IPs son from succeeding to the duchy on the grounds of his still being a minor; he entrusted the duchy for the time being to his own nephew Gregory, duke of Chiusi.

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Outside the Lombard world, Liutprand now had to face the opposition of the exarch Eutychius and of Pope Gregory II (731—41). These two had formed an alliance aimed at re-establishing order in the Byzantine provinces by means of a curious form of joint control, in which the pope extended his jurisdiction over the Roman duchy (the area depending on the city of Rome), while the exarch restricted himself to the Exarchate and the Pentapolis. The exarch also renounced the imposition of iconoclasm — the imperial law forbidding the veneration of holy images, which had given rise to opposition from the Italian subjects of the empire and condemnation from the popes — in return for the moral and political protection of the papacy. An additional aim of this arrangement was to prevent the expansion of the Lombard king, by supporting the resistance of the southern Lombard duchies and by direct military action on the part of the exarch. As a result, Liutprand's policies became increasingly hostile to the Exarchate and eventually led to repeated invasions of imperial territory, including attacks on the exarchal capital at Ravenna. In these wars with the Byzantines, it is possible to pick out a guiding thread: Liutprand's aim was not the conquest of the Exarchate, but the control of a strategic route between the Po region and the duchy of Spoleto, which was essential for the exercise of royal authority over the southern duchies. (Once having arrived in the district of Spoleto, it was possible for the king to reach Benevento without having to cross any further Byzantine territory.) Liutprand's conquests in imperial territory were in fact limited to the cities of Faenza, Cesena, Ancona and Numana along the way to Spoleto; other castles which were temporarily occupied by the king in the duchy of Rome, such as Amelia, Orte and Bomarzo, also controlled access from Lombard Tuscia to the duchy of Spoleto. The attacks on Ravenna itself, which occurred twice under Liutprand, were only undertaken in response to the hostile activities of the exarch. It seems, furthermore, that Liutprand recognised the special administrative powers assumed by the popes in the Roman duchy, which were confirmed in his eyes by the religious authority of the head of all the Catholic churches. So it was that after the death of Gregory III, a Syrian who seems to have nourished a violent hatred for the Lombards, Liutprand agreed to give back to his successor Zacharias (7415 2) the castles in the duchy of Rome and even, at the request of the pope, to return Cesena to the exarch. Notwithstanding this dual opposition, Liutprand's policies with regard to the outlying Lombard duchies produced lasting successes. In 742, the duchy of Spoleto was once and for all made subject to the kingdom, with the deposition of Duke Trasamund II and the nomination in his place of a nephew of the king, Agiprand. In the course of the same military campaign,

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Liutprand reached Benevento, where heforcedthe new Duke Godeschalk, who was a supporter of local autonomy, to flee, and restored the ducal power to Romuald IPs son Gisulf (another nephew of the king, through his mother), whom Liutprand had previously removed from the duchy and had brought up in Pavia. Once established, the subjection of the southern dukes was kept up under Liutprand's successors, Ratchis, Aistulf and Desiderius, who were the last independent Lombard kings. Spoleto was fully united to the kingdom: the kings continued to impose men from among their own followers as dukes and indeed on occasion ruled the duchy directly. In the duchy of Benevento, which was larger and further away, royal hegemony showed itself principally in the protection given to the ducal family of Gisulf II, who, thanks to renewed intervention by the kings, retained power after Gisulf s death, in spite of his son being again a minor. Nevertheless, aspirations to selfgovernment continued to be felt by the aristocracy and the inhabitants of the duchies, and reappeared when royal power weakened. Liutprand's successors also inherited from him the difficult relationship with the complex system of powers which ruled and protected the imperial provinces. Ratchis (744-9), who succeeded after the very brief reign of Liutprand's nephew, Hildeprand, tried to follow the direction of Liutprand's policies; he made a peace with the pope which would have left him free to confront the exarch militarily. But when in 749 he invaded the Pentapolis and besieged Perugia — another key to overland communications between Tuscia and Spoleto, as well as between the Exarchate and Rome he was forced to realise that the pope in fact considered even the lands subject to the exarch untouchable. Indeed, Zacharias used all his religious authority to force the king to abandon his undertaking, as he had already done in the past with Liutprand. It was by now clear that it was not possible to separate the cause of the pope from that of the exarch. The reasons, however, which led Ratchis to wage war must have been very pressing; for, after his capitulation before the pope, the king was forced to abdicate and royal power passed to his brother Aistulf (749—5 6), a man already known for his aggressiveness and daring. Aistulf immediately resumed hostilities against the Exarchate and in 750, in the course of a lucky expedition, conquered Ravenna and all the provinces subject to the Exarchate, proclaiming himself king of the 'Romans' — in other words the subjects of the empire in Italy - 'by the grace of God'. Having thus taken over the imperial power, he apparently next intended to impose his authority over the Roman populace and the duchy of Rome as well; in fact, he demanded that every inhabitant should pay him a golden solidus as tribute. He offered the pope, Stephen II, who succeeded Zacharias in 75 2, peace and

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recognition of his religious authority, and probably also a limited independence for the Roman duchy, under the hegemony of the Lombard kingdom. Aistulf probably thought that he had finally found a permanent solution to the problems of the security of the kingdom and the territorial connection with the outlying duchies — indeed, after the conquest of Ravenna, he placed Spoleto under direct royal control without nominating a duke. In fact, however, this radical and revolutionary undertaking had the consequence — which was also revolutionary — of extending the pope's politico-religious protection, which he already exercised over the Roman duchy, to include the populations of the Exarchate and the Pentapolis as well, thus making the pope both the victim and the opponent of every action undertaken by the king to confirm his dominion over the lands which had previously belonged to the empire. The authority of the pope to act against Lombard rule was officially confirmed by the Emperor Constantine V (741—75), who, considering the pope to be the only surviving representative of imperial authority in Italy, charged him with obtaining the restitution of the Exarchate and the Pentapolis. Since Aistulf considered that the supremacy of the empire in Italy was henceforth extinct, Stephen II was not able to exercise over him the same pastoral diplomacy that Zacharias had successfully put into operation with Liutprand and Ratchis. On the contrary, Aistulf increased both his threats and his military pressure, so as to force the Romans to submit. Realising that he could not count on any military aid from the empire, the pope appealed to the new king of the Franks, Pippin, who had only recently (751), with the moral support of the papacy, deposed the last king of the Merovingian dynasty, thus completing the political ascent of the Carolingians. The pope's appeal to the Franks had probably been agreed in advance with the Byzantine emperor. The aim was to force Aistulf to return his conquests 'to those who had a right to them' (LP, 246; I, p. 449). But Stephen II must have made it quite clear to the Franks that it was the Roman church that exercised a religious, moral and political authority over all the lands which had previously belonged to the empire. This enabled the pope to act in their defence, but also established his right to receive them back from the Franks. Furthermore, the pope honoured Pippin and his sons with the title 'Patricians of the Romans'; this was a term with no precise institutional meaning, but was sufficient to make Pippin antagonistic to Aistulf s claims to sovereignty over the Romans. Pippin's military campaign in Italy in the summer of 754 fulfilled papal expectations. Aistulf, defeated in a battle on the borders of the kingdom, was forced to promise Pippin that he would return Ravenna and the other cities which he had conquered. The restitutions were probably to be

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received by the pope, who to some extent still acted as the representative of constitutional legitimacy within the imperial territories. What remained uncertain and ambiguous in this situation was largely resolved by the events of this same year and the following one. Once the Frankish army had withdrawn, Aistulf refused to hand over the stipulated territory; moreover, considering the pope to be his declared enemy, he tried to take possession of Rome itself in order to complete his plans and put an end to papal political activities. Meanwhile, Stephen II's attitude to the empire changed after the end of 754. In that year, Emperor Constantine V summoned a council at Constantinople which greatly intensified the iconoclastic movement, declaring the worship of images heretical. In 756, at the anxious request of the pope, Pippin returned to Italy with the Frankish army, again defeated the Lombards on the border of the kingdom, besieged Aistulf at Pavia and forced him to surrender. This time, the terms were stiffer: envoys from the king of the Franks would directly supervise the return of the lands in question. The beneficiary was now explicitly the Church of Rome, represented by the pope; indeed, when approached by the Byzantine ambassador, Pippin refused to recognise any imperial claim to the liberated provinces {LP, 251; 1, p. 45 3). Thus the royal plan to substitute Lombard for Byzantine domination in Italy suffered afinalblow; and so did all hope of unifying all the Lombard territories, since the demand for self-government soon regained strength in the outlying duchies. Furthermore, the Lombard kingdom was henceforth bound to pay an annual tribute to the Franks; this meant virtual political subjection. The order thus achieved still rested on a fragile basis. The Lombard kingdom was not completely subjugated, and the political and military alliance between the Franks and the papacy was not solid enough to allow the latter to act very effectively against the Lombards. Desiderius, who succeeded Aistulf in 756, was able to re-establish royal control over the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento, and to maintain strategic strongholds in Emilia and the Pentapolis. He managed to put offor to avoid part of the land restitutions, and cleverly took advantage of the difficulty encountered by the papacy in having its authority recognised by the populace and the local authorities of the Exarchate, now grouped around the archbishop of Ravenna. The popes who succeeded Stephen II could no longer count on the Byzantine empire for support, whilst Pippin was reluctant to undertake further military operation in Italy. They were further weakened by the struggles for political and economic control of Rome between various factions within the city. On the death of Pippin in 768, the Frankish kingdom was divided between the king's two sons, who were in conflict with each other. For some

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Lombard and Carolingian Italy years Desiderius succeeded in presenting himself as an important point of reference on the international scene, and even as a protector for Pope Stephen III and Pippin's widow Bertrada. The latter in 770 came to Pavia to arrange for the marriage of her son Charles (the future Charlemagne) to one of the daughters of the Lombard king. Desiderius took advantage of this to reconquer lands in the former Byzantine provinces, although he now aimed only to seize strategic points along the borders. One has, however, the impression that Desiderius' successes depended more on the temporary weakening of the opponents of the Lombards than on any real strength on his own part. When, between the end of 771 and the beginning of 772, Charlemagne became the sole king of the Franks, and the new pope, Hadrian I, succeeded in restoring peace among the various factions in Rome, Desiderius was immediately driven into a critical position. Charlemagne broke off the marriage alliance by repudiating his Lombard wife; Hadrian, for his part, demanded the return of conquests old and new. Desiderius' attempts to exercise military pressure on the pope, and to raise up a Frankish faction against Charlemagne in support of the hereditary rights of the latter's nephews, only resulted in a revival of Frankish hostility to the Lombards, and hastened a new agreement between the pope and the king of the Franks. In the spring of 773, Charlemagne, now defending his own interests, appeared on the borders of Italy, routed the Lombard army without difficulty and besieged Desiderius at Pavia, forcing him to yield in 774. Charlemagne's attitude after the victory was very different from that of his father. He wanted to eliminate the roots of what he felt to be a permanent threat to the new political order that he was planning, based on the hegemony of the Frankish kingdom over the Christian society of western Europe. For this reason, he exiled Desiderius to Francia, took the title of king of the Lombards for himself, and forced the Lombards to swear an oath of fealty. The failure of the Lombard kingdom against the Franks raises many questions. Above all, the fact throws doubt on the political cohesion and moral determination of the Lombards at a moment at which they should have been defending their own survival as a sovereign people. A number of hypotheses have been brought forward to explain this. In general, they focus on the social complexity and the loose political organisation of Lombard society, a complexity that the kings never fully managed to dominate. The existence of an aristocratic opposition to King Desiderius has been pointed out: Lombard nobles had indeed fled to Francia, seeking hospitality from Charlemagne. Other explanations have stressed the symptoms of a moral unease, revealed for instance by the longing for monastic life

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which spread throughout Lombard society at the time of the clashes with Pippin.1 A sort of renunciation of Lombard national identity which reached an extreme of treachery occurred when the people of Spoleto, in an attempt to obtain papal protection when Charlemagne was besieging Pavia, actually submitted themselves to the pope's authority, asking to have their hair cut after the Roman fashion (LP, 311; 1, p. 495). It has also been argued that, two hundred years after their settlement in Italy, the Lombards had lost their taste for war, in favour of the civilised values of urban life. Although all these circumstances undoubtedly characterise the cultural development of the eighth century, none of them seems to have gone so far as to make the collapse of the kingdom inevitable. Feeling for the national tradition remained alive among the Lombard nobility, and there were still moments of rebellion against Frankish dominion after 774. Lombard national consciousness was also expressed very clearly in the 'History' which the Friulan Paul the Deacon composed, some ten years after the end of the Lombard kingdom, in praise of his people. In it, the dignity and power of the Lombards were expressed through their warlike deeds and military virtues thus showing that these values were still held in honour by the Lombards up to 774 and after. Christianity did not militate against them; rather it was integrated into them, much as in the case of the Franks, given that faith was perceived as a confirmation and support for the excellence of the race. Certainly, Christianity raised the question of the legality of war, which should only be waged against the enemies of the faith. The Lombard attacks on the papacy may wellforthis reason have raised doubts and unease at the time. But it should be observed that the kings avoided, as far as possible, direct action against Rome. They generally recognised the inviolability of the papacy and its territory. As for the opposition of the nobility to the king at the time of Desiderius, this was probably motivated by personal rivalries, perhaps depending on the social origins of the king; it is very doubtful that Desiderius' opponents meant to favour the establishment of Frankish sovereignty in Italy. Supplementary explanations for the failure of the Lombard kingdom can be found in the new political determination of the Franks under Charlemagne, and in the frailty of the Lombard military apparatus. This last deserves a few comments. The Lombard national army was quite possibly unsuited for the mounting of a major co-ordinated effort. It would seem that the Lombard exercitales, although they were defined in institutional terms as warriors, practised only a very limited military activity in normal circumstances. This consisted above all in the caballtcatio in the retinue of the local judge for 1

See Schmid (1972).

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police operations, and in the safeguard of their local territories (Ratchis, Leges, c. 4). Occasionally, disputes between neighbouring communities could result in violence as well. These activities could be carried out with very limited military training, and without the fighters concerned being fully armed. Furthermore, the exercitalis was normally a small- or mediumscale landowner, directly involved in the running of country estates with the help of serfs and other dependants. Hence, there was a tendency for them to obtain exemption from military duties. This could fit with the interest that indices had in profiting by illicit favouritism, given that they relied mostly on their personal adherents in the exercise of their authority. The normal military activities of the exercitales took place, therefore, within a local framework and were of limited commitment and duration, so as not to interfere seriously with the management of their economic interests. The royal wars, by contrast, were waged on the frontiers of the kingdom; good equipment and training were required, and the risks were greater. The kings imposed by law the minimum equipment of weapons that each economic level had to possess, but they could not affect the military training of the freemen. Furthermore, it seems that the recruitment and the military service of the arimanni were organised on a local basis. The contingent from each city went to war together and took joint decisions on how they were to act. Loyalty towards the king and national solidarity were balanced against local political and economic interests. There are in fact examples of whole groups from one city or region taking the decision to defect in the course of individual wars (Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum v, cc. 39, 41). It is probable that the kings and the most powerful aristocrats had groups of trained warriors who made up their entourage and were rewarded by gifts and favours; these were not sufficient, however, to fight full-scale battles, and had to be supplemented by the local contingents, so as to form what the sources call the exercitumgenerate (LP 303; 1, p. 491). An army composed of independent groups and largely made up of untrained soldiers could be held together when the tasks were easy and the hope for booty high, as was the case under Liutprand and Aistulf. But in the pitched battles against the expert military organisation of the Franks, the general army of the Lombards found itself at a disadvantage. After a defeat in the field, each component group among the Lombards retreated whence it came, looking only to its own safety.

THE DOMINATION OF THE FRANKS

After the Frankish conquest, the Lombard kingdom survived as a distinct state, but at the price of losing its national foundation. Despite Pope

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Hadrian's attempt to dismember the kingdom and place a major portion of it under his own authority (LP 319; 1, p. 498), Charlemagne did not carry out the pope's request, and indeed in 781 he had the pope anoint his son Pippin as king of the Lombards, although the child was then only four years old. Since Charlemagne kept the Lombard royal title for himself as well, his son was a sub-king: at first, a simplefigureheadfor the Frankish administration in Italy. Later, however, as an adult, Pippin was an alert and energetic executor of instructions which came nevertheless from his father. The subordination of the Lombard kingdom to the convenience of Frankish politics and strategic considerations was so firmly entrenched that in the Divisio regnorum of 806 Charlemagne decreed that, should Pippin die, the kingdom was to be divided between his two other sons (MGH Cap. 1, no. 4 5, c.4). In fact, the kingdom was not divided up. By 813 only one of Charlemagne's sons, Louis, was still alive, and in that year his father shared the imperial title with him, in preparation for his own succession. At the same time, however, Charlemagne conferred the royal title for Italy on Pippin's son Bernard. The separate identity of the former Lombard kingdom was thus confirmed, although it took some decades for it to recover autonomous government. After his succession in 814, Louis the Pious allowed Bernard to keep the title of king, but proclaimed the kingdom dependent on the imperial authority. A rebellion from Bernard in 817 was soon repressed, and Louis entrusted the control of the kingdom to his elder son Lothar, whom he had already associated with himself in the rule of the empire. Lothar exercised his authority over Italy for more than ten years without living there, and without even adopting the title of king, purely on the strength of his imperial dignity.2 Paradoxically enough, however, it was his political career which afterwards led to the confirmation of the independent existence of the kingdom of Italy. Having come into conflict with his father over the unity of the empire and the hereditary rights of his brothers, Lothar was forced to live in Italy more or less permanently for ten years, from 829 onwards. Although he did not, even then, identify himself with the royal Lombard tradition, nevertheless the continuous presence of a sovereign whose sphere of activity was defacto limited to the kingdom gave back to it a life of its own. The resolution, in 839, of Lothar's quarrel with his father marked a new confirmation of Italian autonomy,for,probably as part of the settlement, Lothar's first-born son, Louis II, was appointed king for Italy. In 844 Louis was sent to Rome to be anointed, and to receive the crown of 2

Contra Jarnut (1991), p. 354; but the reference in ARF to a corona regiti conferred by the pope on Lothar is generic, and does not indicate with any certainty the crown of the Lombards.

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the Lombards from the pope. Although Lothar maintained control of Italy through his imperial authority, the existence of the kingdom as a separate entity was never again called into question. The events of the reign of Louis II definitively confirmed this. Many aspects of the Carolingian government of Italy up to Lothar depended on the role the kingdom played within the empire. On several fronts the boundaries of the kingdom coincided with those of the empire. The ancient enmity between the Lombards and their eastern neighbours, the Avars, was inherited by the Carolingians, who had a common border with the Avars, in Bavaria as well. In southern Italy, the duke of Benevento, Arichis, the son-in-law of King Desiderius, having escaped the Frankish invasion thanks to the sheer distance of the duchy from the theatre of military operations, assumed the rank of an independent prince in 774 and severed the old links between the duchy and the kingdom. Charlemagne succeeded in making Arichis recognise his hegemony, but was not able to exercise any effective authority over the principality. Soon, the Beneventans sought the support of the Byzantine empire and fought the Franks along the border (Erchempert, Historia Langobardorum Beneventanorum, cc. 2, 3; Leo Ostiensis, Chronica Monasterii Casinensis 1, c. 9). The Tyrrhenian coast also gradually acquired the characteristics of a frontier, because of the attacks carried out by the Saracens from the beginning of the ninth century, first against Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica (this latter a dependency of Tuscia), and afterwards against the Italian mainland as well. The defence of the borders of the kingdom was thus essential not only for the maintenance of control in Italy, but also to confront forces which were essentially hostile to the empire. The Carolingians therefore preserved the regional structure of the Lombard duchies of Friuli and Spoleto, and they increased the authority and lands of the duke of Lucca, so as to create a substantial duchy in Tuscia too. These border districts took on the nature and functions of the marches of the Frankish political system. The Carolingian emperors chose their dukes from among the nobles they trusted most, and kept them under direct control, regardless of the presence of a sub-king in Italy. Inefficient dukes were replaced by other nominees; and efforts were made to provide them with adequate troops for campaigns beyond the border (MGH Cap. 1, no. 99). A king was not therefore strictly necessary in Italy, as the country's strategic position could be secured by the keepers of the marches. The duke of Spoleto was also made a permanent representative of the emperors for the protection of the popes in Rome. When kings were appointed for Italy, therefore, as under Charlemagne, this happened more for dynastic than for strategic reasons, even though local kings helped to control the activity of the public officials and to gain

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consensus from the local populace, as a Carolingian king was ideologically bound to keep justice and to protect the feeble in his kingdom. As regards military activity, Pippin's role basically consisted in supporting the frontier wars of the dukes in the marches. Louis II at first performed the same duty under Lothar. One problem for the Carolingians was the role that the Lombards themselves would have in the kingdom. It would not have been possible for the Franks to obliterate the identity of the Lombards, who, after all, were the majority of the population in the country. As king of the Lombards, Charlemagne to some extent took on the duty of acting as their protector; indeed he allowed them, for instance, to preserve their national law. But the Lombard ruling class was gradually removed from public positions; their places were taken by members of the Frankish, Alemannic and Burgundian aristocracy who had come in with the Carolingian conquest. These were appointed to the judicial districts of the kingdom, with the titles of counts, dukes and marMoms (marquises). Others were settled as royal vassals to control strategic points in the kingdom and to provide the counts with armed support. The replacement of Lombard officials was almost complete by 800, but the influx of Frankish vassals, officials and ecclesiastics continued after Charlemagne's death in 814. The last substantial wave occurred in 834, when many Frankish nobles, supporters of Lothar, followed him into exile and were rewarded by him with possessions and positions in Italy. The imposition of the Franks as the governing class went with the elimination of Lombard tradition as the political ideology of the kingdom. Although Pippin and Louis II bore the official title of 'kings of the Lombards', in fact the Frankish sources normally refer to them as 'kings of Italy'. Even in a capitulary promulgated by Charlemagne in 801, reference was made to the 'provinces of Italy' (MGH Cap. 1, no. 98). This usage derived from the Carolingian custom of indicating the various parts of the empire by geographical rather than ethnic names, but it effectively served the purpose of stressing the newness of the regime in Italy and of masking the Lombard roots of the kingdom. It is significant that, from the reign of Lothar onwards, it also became customary for notaries to date documents according to the regnal years of the sovereigns 'in Italy'. The prominence of Lombard law was also reduced. The Carolingian rulers promulgated special laws for the kingdom of Italy, sometimes presenting them as the continuation and completion of the Lombard legislation. But, in general, these laws were intended to regulate a new situation, in which people of different origins lived together in Italy and all had the right to call upon their own national law. Such legislation was still

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aimed at the free, but these were no longer qualified as Lombards or arimanni: under Lothar they were described as 'the whole populace living in the kingdom of Italy' (MGH Cap. 1, no. 201). Even the basis of legislative authority was new. Only in the earliest capitulary of Pippin is there any trace of the Lombard custom of promulgation in front of an assembly, in which Franks already took part (MGH Cap. 1, no. 91). After this, the Italian capitularies were prepared on the basis of written instructions which arrived from across the Alps or else were simply extensions to Italy of decisions already taken in Francia (MGH Cap. 1, no. 94). On one occasion, Charlemagne imposed Frankish customs to supplement the Lombard law (MGH Cap. 1, no. 98). Carolingian legislation was royal, supranational; the use of the Lombard law was allowed in so far as it did not conflict with the perspectives of the new sovereignty.3 The institutional organisation of the kingdom was altered as well. The Frankish government aimed at unifying and rationalising the Lombard administrative system through the office of the count. The counts, who took over the functions and frequently the districts of the Lombard dukes, formed an aristocracy of officials who derived their position from royal appointment, and had no organic ties with the society they governed. Thus the complexity of the duke-gastaldius structure was reduced. The gastaldii retained their original function as administrators of royal fiscal estates (MGH Cap. 1, no. 15 9, c. 4), but they no longer formed an alternative system of representatives of royal authority inside the kingdom. Towards the middle of the ninth century, many gastaldii were assimilated to Frankish viscounts, and were quite simply subordinated to the counts. All other local officials with jurisdictional powers were considered from the very beginning of the Frankish domination as ministri of the counts (MGH Cap. 1, nos. 98, 102).

This administrative reorganisation was not, however, so coherent as to eliminate all conflict. The Carolingians brought the church into the running of the state, making churchmen into supporters and advisers of the kings, and collaborators with and controllers of the counts. The relationship with the church was essential for the Carolingians, whose policy was supposed to have religious ends. In addition, the church in Italy already exercised influence over lay society, both in political and in economic terms. With its bishoprics and plebes it also offered a complete and systematic network of territorial districts, which could be useful in establishing control over the lay population. Thus the bishops were quickly absorbed into the governing 3

Compare also MGH Cap. 1, no. 158, cc. 13, 14 (of Lothar), which validated Lombard legal customs by imperial authority.

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class of the kingdom, and received jurisdictional powers similar in nature to those of the counts with whom they were urged to collaborate. Many bishops were sent to the Italian dioceses from Francia, but in general the foreign presence was less notable in ecclesiastical positions than in lay ones: ecclesiastical careers were generally the product of local recruitment. On the other hand, the religious and moral ideology of the Carolingian state implied the consent and collaboration of the church. Hence, the clergy, even those of Lombard origin, did not become spokesmen for a specifically Lombard politics. If they held to their own indigenous traditions, this basically occurred in the ecclesiastical field and at a local level. Within the structure of the kingdom as a whole, the bishops came increasingly to form a political body, loyal to the kings and endowed with remarkable influence over them. As far as their relationship with the counts was concerned, collaboration on the local level could easily evolve into competition. Quite apart from these legal and institutional changes, Frankish domination was accompanied by a radical transformation of the social organisation of Italy, caused by the imposition - often by force - of seigneurial powers over the ranks of the free, which considerably weakened the common liberties of the Lombard tradition. The representatives of the new order, above all the counts themselves, used their powers of coercion to acquire for themselves huge landed estates. They exploited the subject population in every possible way with no regard for the rights of the free. Immediately after the conquest, a serious famine — and, probably, the uncertainty of the political situation — compelled many people to sell their estates for less than their worth, or make them over to powerful lords and to ecclesiastical institutions. Some of the free even sold themselves into servitude together with their families, in exchange for money or security (MGHCap. i, no. 88). Subsequently, Charlemagne and Pippin more than once complained that the counts, supported by armed bands in their service, were forcing freemen to work on their lands, makeover part of the harvest, construct buildings, and give them hospitality at their own expense. Justice itself in the hands of the counts was frequently neglected, bent to suit personal interests, or else used as a means of blackmailing or coercing the free-born. Even the movement of people and goods was affected by the imposition of arbitrary tolls. The counts also oppressed the churches on their landed property as they unlawfully burdened the farmers, free or servile, who worked on it with both private and public services (MGH Cap. i, nos. 90, c. 8; 91, cc. 7, 10; 93, cc. 5, 6; 102, c. 12; 103).

The most immediate result was the impoverishment of the weakest and, in extreme cases, theflightof the peasants from the land (MGH Cap. 1, no. 93, c. 6). In the longer term, the state too was damaged. Since the free owed

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public service in so far as they possessed landed properties, many freemen gave up their lands and even their freedom, agreeing to be the dependants of richer landowners in legally binding contracts, and then leasing back the same lands, which were now encumbered with rents and services; in this way, thanks to the spread of immunities from public obligations on the lands of the powerful, they at least escaped from the control of the counts, and in particular from the three services imposed on the free, which by now they often considered oppressive: the army, attendance at courts of justice, and the maintenance of public buildings, bridges and roads. The class of freemen was thus consistently diminished, while the rural seigneurie took on an increasing importance as a means of social organisation. Not even the ecclesiastical world escaped this process. Bishops began to change their long-established right of disposal over dependent churches into landlordship. They treated the plebes as estates from which they took rents and tolls over and above the canonical norms, and they appointed rectors to these churches on the basis of friendship and private interest (MGH Cap. 1, nos. 92. J5 7)The kings' attempts to change this situation were ineffectual, whether because they were only occasional, or because they went against the interests of the kings' own supporters. Charlemagne and Pippin probably succeeded in exercising a certain degree of control, but later the situation degenerated further. The abuses inflicted on the weak by the administrators of the kingdom gave rise to scandal even in Francia (Paschasius Radbertus, Vita Walae 1, c. 26). Nonetheless, the laws by Lothar in the first years of his reign were concerned neither with administrative fairness nor with the protection of his subjects, but only with the prerogatives of the state. All that Lothar did was ordain that whosoever made over a landed estate to another while preserving the use of it was still bound to public service; to this effect he simply cancelled the immunity. Thus the powerful continued to act as they wished. At the beginning of his reign, Louis II had an enquiry made into the activities of the counts and their subordinates, which still listed the wellknown abuses: arbitrary exercise of justice, violence, the misappropriation of landed estates and the oppression of the weak (MGH Cap. n, nos. 209, 210, 212). This predatory and oppressive aspect of the public authorities led not only to the weakening and shrinking of the social stratum of freemen, but also to a widespread sense of alienation from the state, which appeared as a structure offering advantages only to those who held power. The cities provide a partial exception to this. During the Carolingian period, city-dwellers no longer had the political importance they had enjoyed under the Lombards. They did, however, preserve a certain capacity to act as organised bodies, which they exercised in the defence of

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their common economic interests, in the fulfilment of their obligations to maintain and restore public buildings, and in the administration of their collectively owned property. Besides the solidarity produced by these common interests, other elements gave rise to conditions favourable for preserving the freedom, both legal and economic, of the citizens. Individuals and groups in urban society had privileged relations with the holders of power, who often had their residence in the city, and, through them, they could protect their positions. Judges and notaries, the urban elite, collaborated in the administration of justice; merchants and artisans provided essential services; their own family membersfilledthe various ecclesiastical offices within the cities. Even the landowners, who probably made up the largest sector of city-dwellers, were more protected from the oppressions which burdened the rural population through the mere fact of living in a city. The ties of vassalage which also existed among them did not involve a decline in freedom. The peculiar character of the cities was probably recognised and sanctioned by the state through the practice of appointing gasta/dii to administer the cities under the supervision of the counts. But the citizens felt that their individuality and their aspirations to local self-government were better represented by the bishop. Not only was the bishop separate from the authority of the count and able to act as a counterweight to the latter's oppressive tendencies, but he was also bound to the local traditions of the city, which to a large extent were expressed in ecclesiastical ritual. Foreign origins were less common among the bishops than among the counts. The episcopal church was also an economic focus for the city, in that it bought goods and services and leased out lands. It also offered career possibilities. Relations between bishops and city-dwellers were not always harmonious — there is evidence of conflicts in which bishops pursued the advantage of their churches without any regard for their city. Nevertheless, in the course of the ninth century there was an increasing convergence of interest between the economic expansion of the cities and the ambition of the bishops to play an ever more important political role. This process, on the other hand, did nothing to consolidate the body of the state, or to provide it with widely based consensus. The cities were concerned with their own independence, and saw the bishop above all as a local power capable of understanding their own needs, and of representing them before the king.

THE AUTONOMOUS KINGDOM

The political configuration of the kingdom of Italy took on a new character during the reign of Louis II (850—75). Following the division between

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Lothar's sons, Louis II, although inheriting the imperial title, exercised real power only over the kingdom of Italy. As a result, the kingdom ceased to be an appendix to the empire, and became the privileged and indeed the sole sphere of imperial activity. This resulted in a weakening of the imperial dignity, but was a favourable opportunity for the kingdom itself. Louis II asserted the kingdom's hegemony over the whole of Italy, in a way reminiscent of Lombard royal policy during the eighth century. The relationship with the papacy took on a particular importance. In 824 Louis' father, Lothar, had intervened authoritatively in Rome to put an end to the violent internal conflicts which were involving the papacy. He had compelled Pope Eugenius IV (8 24—7) to sign an agreement whereby both the election of the popes and their political and administrative activities were placed under imperial control, which was to be exercised by a permanent representative, living in Rome. Lothar also imposed on the pope and on the Romans the swearing of an oath of loyalty to the emperor (MGH Cap. 1, no. 161).

Louis II clung to these prerogatives. He intervened, sometimes with force, in all the papal elections that occurred during his reign, to ensure that his preferred candidate won. Through his authority as emperor, he exercised strong control over the internal politics of Rome, favouring those groups of powerful people, whether lay or clerical, who supported the amalgamation of the Roman state within the body of the empire. He also made imperial prerogatives felt in the Exarchate, overriding the papal jurisdiction which had been instituted there by Pippin. He installed imperial vassals in the Pentapolis. Furthermore, he upheld the claims to autonomy of Archbishop John of Ravenna against Pope Nicholas I (8 5 8-67), although he was aware that the archbishop, with the help of his brother, planned to establish temporal domination over the whole ecclesiastical province of Ravenna. Louis II also re-established a more effective royal control over the duchy of Spoleto. Lothar had preserved the duchy's function as a frontier region, establishing there in 842 Guy, son of his supporter Lambert, formerly count of Nantes, who had followed him into exile in Italy. As was the custom, Lothar committed to Guy the defence of Rome and responsibility for frontier relations with the Lombard principality of Benevento. Guy interpreted his function in very much his own way. He intervened in the struggles of the Lombard aristocracy after the murder of Prince Sicard in 839. In about 843 Guy married the late prince's sister and supported her brother Siconulf as a contestant for the princely power against Sicard's successor in Benevento. He thus opened the way for a political event of great consequence: the division of the state of Benevento into two independent

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principalities, one with its capital at Benevento and the other at Salerno. This was sanctioned in 849 by the young Louis II, on the orders of Lothar. Among other troubles, the fighting among the factions of the Beneventan aristocracy had favoured the spread of the Muslims in the south; they had begun the conquest of Sicily in 827, and now appeared in the Lombard lands, offering themselves as mercenaries to the various warring parties. The Carolingian government could no longer remain indifferent. Nowhere was royal intervention sufficient to stabilise the political situation in southern Italy. So in 858, Guy of Spoleto took further advantage of the lasting troubles of the Lombard principalities, and annexed a large complex of border lands to his duchy (Erchempert, Historia, c. 25). Although his activities increased the influence of the Frankish empire in southern Italy, they also reinforced the duke's personal power: Guy could now call on a network of alliances outside the Frankish world, and could turn himself into a prince capable of independent policy-making in the heart of central Italy. This represented a risk for royal authority. In 860, Guy's son Lambert, who had succeeded to Spoleto, rebelled against Louis II and, when faced with the latter's prompt military reaction, fled to Benevento, where he received hospitality from Prince Adelchis. A typical situation of the Lombard period, the alliance of the duchy of Spoleto with that of Benevento, was now recurring, and threatened Carolingian authority in central Italy. Louis II was, however, able to cope with this situation. He entered Spoleto with his army in that same year, 860, and went as far as the northern territories of the principality of Benevento, conquering a number of cities. Prince Adelchis came to terms with him, and succeeded in having Lambert taken back into favour and re-installed in his position as duke. From that time on, however, Louis limited the duke (or, by now, usually marquis) of Spoleto's mandate with respect to the Lombard south. Instead, he made the assertion of his own direct hegemony over these far territories a major aim of his policy. Through it, Louis' imperial role regained its identity. A new understanding was reached with the papacy, which redefined the origin, nature and function of Carolingian imperial power. The Beneventan division of 849 had not solved the problem of the Muslim presence in the south of Italy. On the contrary, the Muslims had settled in various cities, in particular Bari, escaping the control of the Lombard princes, and waging war and practising piracy on their own account. The religious establishments of the south, including the monasteries of Monte Cassino and San Vincenzo al Volturno, together with the papacy, urged Louis to fulfil the imperial mission, which to them consisted of the defence of Christianity and of the church. War against the Muslims, which was to confirm his imperial

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role and demonstrate his power, and, if possible, widen his dominions, became his dominant preoccupation. In 865, Louis II proclaimed a levy of all the freemen of the kingdom, according to Lombard tradition, and in May 866 he entered southern Italy. There he stayed for the next five years, hunting down the Muslims, settling his supporters in cities and castles, and imposing his sovereignty on the local potentates. The great southern expedition marked the summit, but also the limits, of Louis IPs imperial policies. In fact, the general army was only mustered for a year, and was later reduced to vassal forces alone. In spite of Louis' numerous successes, including the taking of Bari, a lasting Lombard resentment against the Franks prompted the rebellion of the Beneventan prince Adelchis. He took the emperor captive and refused to free him until he had sworn neither to revenge himself nor to re-enter the principality. Thus, once again, the Beneventan region confirmed its autonomy versus the kingdom of the north. This defeat did not mark the end of Louis' career. On his return to the kingdom, he prepared for a new expedition to the south, again at the request of the pope and the southern clergy, but his death in 875 prevented any further developments. A new sort of problem then emerged. For the first time since the Carolingian conquest, an emperor had left no male heirs. Under these circumstances, the far-reaching consequences of Louis IPs reign became apparent. Throughout the period, the Franco-Italian ruling class, composed of the counts, the bishops and the royal vassals, had changed in both role and prospects. They were no longer put in charge of a subject province by an external ruler, but had become collaborators and participators in a local political system, which not only bestowed advantages and honours on those who ran it, but also in some sense involved them in the exercise of sovereignty, through their military and decision-making functions. Moreover, the survival of the autonomous kingdom was essential for them to maintain their power and prestige. During the second half of the ninth century, it had become difficult for members of the aristocracy to hold lands and wield political influence in widely separated regions of the empire. The kingdoms which emerged from the divisions among Louis the Pious' descendants of the empire were based on pacts between the bearers of the royal title and the aristocracy of a limited area. Whoever did not take part in these pacts was deprived of any real political participation. In Italy, likewise, the descendants of the immigrants from across the Alps had by this time taken root, and their chances of political action and influence lay within the kingdom. Thus, at the death of Louis II, the holders of public positions, both lay and ecclesiastical, acted as the collective upholders of Italian

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sovereignty. They gathered in an assembly to elect a ruler who would be able to ensure the continuance of the kingdom and to guarantee their new political role. The reign of Louis II left one more legacy, however: the close relationship between the kingdom of Italy, the imperial title and the papacy. To some extent this conflicted with the desire of the nobility for self-rule. The kings of the Lombards had never been chosen by the papacy, even if their Carolingian successors had been anointed by the popes in Rome. Nonetheless, Pope John VIII (872-82) drew thefinalconclusion from the association of the Italian kingdom with the imperial dignity. He maintained that since the essential purpose of the emperor was the military defence of the papacy, the pope had the right not only to choose the emperor from among the various candidates, but also to impose him as king of Italy given that the experience of Louis II had shown that the emperor could only effectively defend Rome against pagans and wicked Christians when he had Italy as his base. In choosing its new king, the Italian aristocracy was also limited by the prerogative of the Carolingian family, who were still recognised to have the right to take for themselves any royal post within the empire's boundaries. As a consequence, for the twelve years between the death of Louis II and the deposition of Charles the Fat, with whom the Carolingian domination came to an end, the Italian aristocracy was obliged to confer the royal title upon sovereigns who were not of local origin, and who had no intention of moving permanently to Italy. These were Charles the Bald, king of the West Franks (875—7) a n d t w o Carolingians of the German branch; Carloman (877-80) and Charles the Fat (880-7). Nonetheless, the influence of the aristocracy in the kingdom continued to rise. Not only was the choice formally expressed by their assembly recognised as the way royal power was constituted; but the foreign kings also needed support, collaboration and representation in Italy, and were willing to remunerate the help received from Italian aristocrats by conferring upon them titles and powers. To some extent all this modified the administrative organisation of the kingdom. There were no institutional reforms in this period, but only individual concessions, depending on particular circumstances and personal relationships, which bound only the sovereign who conferred them. Charles the Bald gave the bishops of the kingdom the function of imperial missi within their bishoprics, and tried to create a new duchy in the Po region of Italy to control the kingdom in his absence. Carloman granted the bishop of Parma the districtus, that is, the public right of command and constraint, over his own city, as well as other fiscal advantages. Charles the Fat was lavish in granting the bishops exemptions from the jurisdictional powers of the

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counts, and extended these exemptions to all free inhabitants of church lands. Some among the lay lords were able to establish special relationships with the king, expressed in the title consiliarius, and were on occasion endowed with special powers, delegated directly by the king. All this strengthened the tendency of the aristocracy to extend its authority, and to take advantage of the administration of the state. It explains the ever more frequent succession of son to father in the offices of count and marquis. The illegal practice of acquiring lands and services at the expense of ecclesiastical bodies and of the weak also revived again. Even the public services of the surviving arimanni were exploited for private ends. The longing for increased power on the part of the aristocracy did not take place regardless of any interest in the preservation of the kingdom or in plans for its government. Underneath the fluid shifts of alignments and interests among the ruling classes, two distinct and stable positions may be distinguished with regard to the choice of the sovereign. All of northeastern Italy, including Friuli, the Veneto and the county of Verona, as well as almost all the bishops of the province of Aquileia, tended to support the position consistently and tenaciously held by the duke-marquis of Friuli, Berengar. This meant that they supported the candidature of the German Carolingians as heirs to the kingdom and as continuators of the policies of Louis II, who in fact had designated a German Carolingian his successor. The ideological background for this choice appears to have been a preference for a strong royal power and for the prospect of making the kingdom of Italy part of the constellation of states that the German kings were then creating north of the Alps and in Lotharingia. A different orientation was pursued in northwestern Italy: its most conscious exponents were the bishops of the province of Milan, coordinated and led by their archbishop, Anspert, who had taken for himself the role of keeper of the royal tradition in Italy, by burying Louis II beside Kings Pippin and Bernard in the church of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan. These bishops seem to have been concerned as much with the independence of the kingdom as with the assertion of ecclesiastical control over the kings, much as Archbishop Hincmar of Rheims acted in the same period in the kingdom of the western Franks. The Milanese faction supported Charles the Bald for king in Italy, and remained thereafter hostile to Berengar, who tended to loose royal authority from ecclesiastical conditioning. Lay aristocrats who did not favour an authoritarian king grouped themselves around these bishops. Weakened royal power also favoured the tendency towards self-government in the marches of Tuscia and Spoleto. This was particularly evident when, at the beginning of the 88os, new marquises succeeded those who had

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ruled under Louis II. In Spoleto, Guy II carried on the traditional family policies towards southern Italy and the papacy, with such unscrupulousness that he seemed to disdain royal and imperial authority, and was declared a traitor by Charles the Fat. These divisions of groups, geo-political regions and programmes survived and were accentuated after the deposition of Charles the Fat in 887, which gave the Italian aristocracy complete freedom to choose a king, who after a long interval could again originate from and reside in Italy. In fact, this time there was no deliberative assembly, such as had gathered on the occasion of previous successions. Instead, the two most powerful marquises of the time, Berengar of Friuli and Guy of Spoleto, put themselves forward as candidates: the choice between them was from the first dependent on the outcome of armed conflict. Possibly these two represented opposing views of royal authority. Berengar based himself on Carolingian legitimism, since he was the grandson of Louis the Pious through his mother. He probably still aimed at a strong royal power, based on the military resources of the northeastern regions which he ruled as marquis, as well as at freeing the kingdom from its complex connection with the papacy. Certainly Berengar was the first king of Italy after the Carolingian conquest not to be consecrated by the pope. Guy of Spoleto at first made an unsuccessful attempt at having himself made king outside Italy (Annales Vedastinis.a. 888; Liutprand, Antapodosisi, c. 16). This may confirm either the lack of interest in the kingdom which he showed as marquis, or the originality and high level of his political aspirations. Whatever the case, he subsequently transferred his royal plans to Italy. There Guy sought and found supporters in the group of bishops of the province of Milan and in the lay nobility of the saipe region. Adalbert, marquis of Tuscia, a kinsman of Guy, also supported him. Although not a Carolingian, Guy offered his supporters, and in particular the bishops, the restoration of Carolingian principles of government, accepting the concept that the royal office could be conditioned by the other political forces of the kingdom. He restarted the legislative activities interrupted at the death of Louis II, so as to revive the essential principles of good government. As a king he aimed to protect what survived of the free inhabitants of Italy, and to promote the collaboration between bishops and counts in local administration (MGH Cap. 11, nos. 222—4). Guy also took on the defence of the church of Rome as the prime duty connected with his power. This enabled him to have himself anointed emperor in 891 by Pope Stephen V. It is worth noting that neither of the two contestants for the kingdom of Italy referred back to Lombard tradition to give the kingdom an indepen-

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Lombard and Carolingian Italy dent ideological basis. Memories of the Lombard kingdom survived in some sectors of Italian society, thanks to the historical information handed down by Paul the Deacon and to the continued observance of Lombard law. But, judging from the most relevant surviving evidence, the historical summary compiled at the end of the 870s by Andrea, a priest from Bergamo (MGH SRL, pp. 22iff.), these memories were incoherent and had no political implications. Furthermore, the social groups which did cultivate them did not include either the aristocracy, which preserved a very precise memory of its Frankish origins, or the upper clergy, which was linked to the Carolingian tradition of government. For this ruling elite, the autonomy of the kingdom merely implied a new balance of power between the aristocracy and the king within an essentially Carolingian ideological and constitutional framework. The aristocracy quickly took to behaving as if their powers were independent of royal appointment, even though these remained consistent with the institutional structure of the kingdom. As they were now accustomed to consider themselves the co-holders of sovereignty with the kings, they did not intend to admit that their governmental powers were dependent on the authority of one of themselves, even if he now held the royal title. The main exponent of this attitude was Adalbert of Tuscia, who boasted both a dynastic tradition and family connections equal to those of either of the aspirants to the crown. As he controlled enough economic and military resources to allow either faction to prevail, Adalbert throughout his political career used these resources to prevent any strong royal power from asserting itself, by giving and withdrawing his support to and from the conflicting kings, none of whom was ever able to trouble him in his own domains. Nevertheless, he continued formally to recognise the royal authority. Other lay lords adopted similar attitudes, including those who through the fighting between Guy and Berengar had gained dominant positions within the aristocracy. At that time, a new march was created in northwestern Piedmont, with its centre at Ivrea; the counts of Milan and Verona also adopted the title of marquis, and their power grew. Around them gathered less influential counts and vassals. The simultaneous operation of conflicting ambitions and attitudes was responsible for the many uncertainties revealed by the institutional organisation and the political activity of the kingdom during the first decades of re-acquired independence after 887. In spite of a general agreement to maintain the institutional structure of the kingdom, royal power was divided, for neither Guy nor Berengar was able to prevail over the other. Both of them kept the royal title, and exercised their power simultaneously; Berengar in northeastern Italy, Guy in the rest of the kingdom. After Guy's death in 894, an agreement between Lambert,

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his son and successor, and Berengar seemed to ratify this situation. Shortly after the death of Lambert, who had no heirs, in 898, Berengar was able to extend his rule over the whole kingdom, but the opposing aristocrats soon reinstated the system of two kings, by summoning Louis, king of Provence, to Italy in 901; Louis was related to the marquis of Tuscia and descended on his mother's side from the king and emperor Louis II. By this initiative, the aristocracy seems again to have put into question not only the unity of the kingdom, but also its independence. It is true that when in 894—5 the king of Germany, Arnulf, the bastard son of Carloman, had made an attempt to subjugate the kingdom of Italy, he failed more through the resistance of the aristocracy than because of the actions of the titular kings of Italy. Nonetheless, this summoning of a king from Provence makes it clear that, for a solid section of the aristocracy, independence did not necessarily imply an indigenous king, but simply one who would sanction aristocratic independence, formally unifying them by his legal authority. Resistance to Arnulf seems in fact to have been more a matter of that king's aggressiveness and intransigence than of his foreign origins. The institution of the empire offered a partial corrective to these contradictions. There has always been some uncertainty about what the real value of the imperial title was, when it was held by sovereigns whose power was limited to the kingdom of Italy, or indeed only to parts of it. Since the time of Louis II, however, the universal nature of the imperial title depended on the special relationship between the emperor and the pope, rather than on the extent of his political control. In this sense the Italian kings could feel themselves to be true emperors, and were considered as such by the popes, as long as they carried on the essential duty of defending the papacy. Furthermore, again following the tradition of Louis II, the imperial authority in Italy had a wider and deeper role than the regal one. It was recognised not only in Rome, but also in the lands which had made up the Exarchate and the Pentapolis. The emperor could claim papal support and a privileged relationship with the church, even in territories over which he did not exercise authority as king. Within the kingdom, the imperial title at least in theory could resolve paradoxical coexistence of two rulers, by making whichever one was also emperor superior. The aristocracy, too, was prepared to grant greater prerogatives to the emperor than to the king. Hence Guy, Lambert and later Berengar himself did their best to have the popes consecrate them emperors. Hence, also, the aristocracy which was hostile to Berengar hastened to have Louis of Provence anointed emperor. Even after the dramatic failure of this attempt in 90 5, they went to great lengths to prevent Berengar receiving the title. Thanks to this web of symbols and aspirations, the kingdom of Italy Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Lombard and Carolingian Italy continued to exist, in the form that it had acquired during the Carolingian period. Royal power, however, while maintaining its ideal and legal position and much of its traditional economic resources, nevertheless lost its dominance as an institution. It had now to be exercised in a series of political confrontations between the kings on the one hand and, on the other, the holders of public authority, as well as the new forces which arose in northern Italy at the beginning of the tenth century: the expanding cities, and an emerging lower aristocracy, which tended to develop a jurisdictional competence quite alien to the order of the Carolingian state.

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CHAPTER 13

BYZANTINE ITALY, c.6So-e. 876 T.S. Brown

BYZANTINE ITALY IN 680

B Y the last quarter of the seventh century the By2antine areas of Italy had experienced over a century of upheaval. Within decades of their first invasion of Italy in 568 the Lombards had established a powerful kingdom consisting of the territories north of the river Po, Tuscany and the two outlying duchies of Spoleto and Benevento. The empire was confined to the areas of Rome and its duchy, Ravenna and the neighbouring areas of the Exarchate and Pentapolis, approximating to the present-day Romagna and Marche, and a few coastal areas elsewhere. The Byzantines had only been able to hold on to their possessions by initiating a thorough-going militarisation of society, which involved the concentration of land in military hands and the concentration of authority in the hands of the commander-in-chief in Ravenna (the exarch) and his subordinates [duces and magistri militum at a provincial level and tribuni in the localities). In many areas, such as the Roman Campagna, this process was accompanied by a steady shift of population, as settlement became concentrated on military strongholds and refuges, usually located on promontory sites. Although the pressure eased somewhat in the seventh century, Liguria and most of the remaining settlements on the Venetian mainland were lost to the Lombards in the reign of King Rothari (636—52), and the duchy of Benevento made continual encroachments in the south, which accelerated after the unsuccessful expedition of Constans II to southern Italy (663—8). Internal tensions were reflected in a series of revolts, the determined opposition led by the papacy to the Emperor Constans II's monothelite doctrines (which culminated in the exile and death of Pope Martin I in the Crimea in 65 3) and a bitter conflict between the sees of Rome and Ravenna over the same emperor's grant of ecclesiastical autonomy [autocephalid) to the latter in 666.• 1

On Lombard—Byzantine relations Delogu, Guillou and Ortalli (1980). On the Byzantine territories Guillou (1969), Brown (1984) and Ferluga (1991). On the movement of settlement to defensive castra Brown and Christie (1989). 320

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In two letters addressed to his successor, Pope Agatho (678—81) bemoaned the dislocation caused by the 'gentiles' and complained that lack of food forced the clergy to work the land.2 By 680, however, the outlook appeared more hopeful. In that year, or shortly before, the empire had concluded a treaty with the Lombards which seems to have incorporated formal recognition of their kingdom. 3 Constantine IV (668—85) pursued a policy of reconciliation with the papacy which was reflected in his abandonment of support for Rome's ecclesiastical rival, the archbishopric of Ravenna, reduced taxation of papal patrimonies and a renunciation of monotheletism in favour of Chalcedonian orthodoxy at the Sixth Ecumenical Council, held in Constantinople in 680/1.4 The process of absorbing the Lombards into the Roman and Christian mainstream was facilitated when the Arian beliefs which had long served as an anti-Roman rallying point for many Lombard kings and their followers were finally repudiated by King Perctarit (672—88). Complete unity within the catholic ranks was at last achieved when the damaging schism over the 'Three Chapters' was resolved by the Synod of Pavia (698). Byzantine influence was considerable in many respects, as can be seen through the strong presence of eastern clerics and artists not only in imperial territories such as Rome, but also in the kingdom of Italy, and in the Greek, Syrian or Sicilian origin of eight of the nine pontiffs who sat on the throne of St Peter between 676 and Any euphoria was short lived because the situation within the remaining Byzantine enclaves was inherently unstable. Successful resistance to the Lombards had been achieved through the concentration of power in the hands of elites formed locally from the local garrison units (numeri) of the imperial army. Bureaucrats and soldiers of eastern origin had married into native families, accumulated property locally and assumed a dominant hereditary position within their communities. This group, which probably included some more adaptable elements from among the middle-ranking civilian landowners surviving from the late Roman period, came to identify strongly with local interests and traditions, and was in a position to flex its muscles whenever it saw its position threatened by an imperial government which it regarded as remote and alternately impotent or oppressive. As a result of this process, and the empire's preoccupation with more immediate threats from the Arabs, Bulgars and Slavs and its consequent shortage of resources, the position of the exarch and other officials sent out from the east became increasingly marginal. Exarchal power was further limited in the early 690s by the elevation of Sicily into a theme, whose governor {strategos) 2 4

3 PL 87, cols. 1164, 1219, 1220. Dolger (1924), no. 240. The precise date is uncertain. Dolger (1924), no. 238 and references; Dolger (1924), no. 250; Mansi xi.

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was also granted authority over Naples and the other imperial territories in the southern mainland.5 In this context the transformation of the Lombards from barbarian bogeymen to Romanised catholics served to weaken allegiance to the empire further. THE LAST DECADES OF BYZANTINE RULE

The delicate equilibrium was soon destabilised by the autocracy and impetuosity which the youthful Emperor Justinian II displayed in his first reign (685—95). After a brief honeymoon period with the papacy6 the emperor in 691—2 convoked a council in Constantinople, the Quinisextum, or Council in Trullo, which promulgated a number of canons in conflict with the customs of the Roman church. Faced with resistance from Pope Sergius I, Justinian resorted to the same strong-arm tactics which his grandfather had attempted against Martin I. On this occasion, however, military contingents from Ravenna and the Pentapolis intervened to prevent Sergius' arrest by the protospatharius Zacharias.7 The antagonism of Ravenna to Justinian found expression in 69 5, when a number of its citizens resident in Constantinople joined in the emperor's deposition and mutilation.8 Italian hostility to the empire was visible again in 701, when 'the army of all Italy' moved to protect Pope John VI against the newly appointed exarch Theophylact, who had presumably been sent to Rome by Tiberius III to pressurise the pontiff into accepting the Quinisextum decrees.9 The situation deteriorated further when Justinian recovered his throne with Bulgar help in 705. The chronology and motives of imperial policy are far from clear. However it is likely that while he harboured plansforrevenge against Ravenna his approach to Rome was more accommodating. Papal support was seen as crucial to the emperor's desire for political and religious unity and the see of Rome appears to have enjoyed enhanced power as the representative of imperial authority in Rome.10 John VII (705—7), the son of 5 6

7 8

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Oikonomides (1964), pp. 121—30. A continuation of his father's pro-papal policy is demonstrated by a letter of 687 asserting his adherence to Chalcedonian orthodoxy (Dolger (1924), no. 254) and by a reduction of taxation on papal patrimonies in Sicily and southern Italy (Dolger (1924), nos. 25;, 256). L P 1, pp. 373-4. Agnellus, c. 137, p. 367. Although Agnellus' account has many legendary elements, support for this episode is offered by the known presence of Italian troops in Constantinople (Mansi xi, col. 757). ' L P i , p . 383. Llewellyn (1986). Noble (1984) approaches the question from a different perspective (of increasing tension and papal independence), but his interpretation is broadly compatible for the position between t. 680 and the outbreak of iconoclasm.

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a Greek official, was offered a compromise over the Quinisextum decrees, which he refused. The pope then proceeded to establish a papal palace on the previously imperial preserve of the Palatine hill, and carried out a lavish programme of artistic production, best reflected in the superb frescoes of the church of Sta Maria Antiqua.11 The strongly 'Byzantine' character of John's programme lends support to the notion of a positive element to relations between Justinian and the pope. For example, the emperor appears to have sided with Rome in a renewed conflict with its fractious suffragan, Ravenna. At his ordination in 709 the city's archbishop, Felix, refused to offer the traditional pledges of loyalty to the pope, and with the support of the (by now independent-minded) Ravenna officials (indices) submitted his own version. The emperor's despatch of a punitive expedition led by the patrician Theodore, strategos of Sicily, can best be seen as retribution for this snub to papal authority on the part of the new exarch, rather than vengeance for Ravennate opposition to the emperor in 693 or 69 5.12 By a ruse Theodore succeeded in arresting Felix and the leading citizens of Ravenna, who were taken to Constantinople and tortured. 13 In fear of further moves by Justinian the remaining citizens organised an elaborate local defence force under an elected duke named George. 14 It is probable that this new force caused the 'revolting death' suffered by the new exarch John Rizokopos when he sought to take up his post in Ravenna in late 710.15 The whole episode led to a turning point in Ravenna's relations with the empire: the general allegiance associated with benign imperial laissez-faire in the late seventh century turned to marked antipathy and an even more marginal role for the exarchs in the eighth. It is hardly surprising that there was rejoicing in Ravenna when the emperor was deposed and his severed head was transported to Italy.16 Meanwhile a rapprochement between Rome and the empire had finally been 11 12

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Nordhagen (1988), pp. 600-10. My interpretation of this episode differs radically from that of Guillou (1969), pp. 211—18, who argues that the Ravenna indices forced Felix to climb down and places Theodore's expedition after the murder of John Rizokopos. The latter chronology runs counter to the contemporary account in the LP (1, pp. 389—90) and my interpretation of the phrase sedperpotsntiam iudicum [Felix] exposuit ut maluit is supported by the translation of Davis (1989), p. 89. The outlines of the dramatic account in Agnellus, cc. 137-8, pp. 367—9, can probably be accepted because (a) the episode clearly loomed large in Ravenna folk memory and the traditions of Agnellus' family and (b) it is broadly confirmed by the LP account. Agnellus, c. 140, pp. 369-70. George was the son of Iohannicius, a learned secretary at the exarch's court who had served for a time in the capital before becoming one of the unfortunates arrested by Theodore. The account in LP1, p. 390 is vague; suii nefandissimisfactis iudicio Deiillic (sc. Ravennae) turpissima morte occubuit. Agnellus, c. 142, p. 371, and cf. Niceph., p. 47, and Theoph. Chron. s.a. 6203, p. 381.

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achieved in early 711, when Pope Constantine I (708—15) visited Constantinople, was honourably received by Justinian II and accorded privileges. However Justinian appears to have been playing a double game, since in the pope's absence the newly appointed exarch John Rizokopos executed four prominent papal officials, presumably to punish advisers considered antiimperial and to intimidate the pope.17 Justinian was assassinated in December 711 and relations between Rome and Constantinople deteriorated during the short reign of his successor, Philippikos Bardanes (711—13), who was refused recognition in Rome on the grounds of his monophysite sympathies. As the de facto authority in the city Constantine had to make peace between the warring factions.18 An improvement in relations followed Bardanes' deposition in 713, but once again events made this short lived. After years of instability the Lombard kingdom became a potent force under Liutprand (712—44), who adopted a policy of unifying the peninsula under Lombard rule. Meanwhile the empire came under renewed pressure from the Arabs which culminated in a yearlong seige of Constantinople. In Sicily the strategos Sergios, in apparent despair of the empire's survival, rebelled and proclaimed a certain Basil emperor. Leo responded by sending an expedition under a replacement strategos, Paul, and Sergios was forced to seek refuge among the Lombards of southern Italy. More serious was the Lombards' exploitation of the empire's difficulties. In 717 the duke of Benevento seized Cumae, the duke of Spoleto occupied Narni and the king himself invaded the Exarchate and occupied Classe. Although the loss of Narni proved permanent, Liutprand promptly withdrew from Classe and the Roman pontiff Gregory II (715 —31) was able to recover Cumae. Once his position in the east was secure Leo III attempted to reassert the empire's authority in Italy. In 724 or 72 5 the emperor imposed an increase in taxation which hit the papal patrimonies, hitherto exempted from fiscal burdens by a privilege of Constantine IV, particularly hard.19 In the light of Gregory's opposition a plot to kill the pontiff was hatched by imperial duces in collaboration with papal officials. When this failed the exarch Paul sent forces in support of another plot on the pope's life. However the Romans, together with the Lombards of Spoleto and Benevento, rallied to the pope's defence and forced the exarch's troops to withdraw. Stronger resistance arose to Leo Ill's publication of decrees prohibiting the veneration of icons in 727. Gregory IPs vehement reaction is reflected in the words of both the Roman Liberpontificalis ('he took up arms against the 17 19

LP1, p. 390. '» LP1, p. 592. LP 1, p. 402; on the circumstances see Marazzi (1991), pp. 231—46.

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emperor as if against an enemy'20) and the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes ('he removed Rome and all Italy from his [Leo Ill's] rule'21). In areas such as Venetia and the Pentapolis this dispute reinforced existing discontent and prompted local army units to revolt and elect their own dukes. When the notion was mooted of electing a rival emperor and setting him up in Constantinople, however, Gregory refused his support in the hope that Leo could still be won back to orthodoxy, and urged the empire's subjects 'not to renounce their love and loyalty to the Roman empire'.22 Serious divisions soon appeared within the Byzantine provinces. While in Rome the population killed one pro-imperial duke and blinded another, in the duchy of Naples iconoclasm appears to'have attracted widespread support; 23 in the Exarchate there was serious conflict between pro- and anti-Byzantine factions, in which the exarch Paul lost his life.24 Gregory's position reflects not only the durability of the imperial ideal in the absence of any ideological alternative, but also his need to retain a protector against the Lombards, still regarded as barbarians intent on exploiting the situation to dominate the peninsula. In fact, while the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento showed solidarity with the pontiff, King Liutprand seized western portions of the Exarchate. Later in the same year (727) a new exarch, Eutychius, disembarked in Naples but was unable to enter Rome or to enforce his authority there.25 When Liutprand moved south to establish control over Spoleto and Benevento, however, he and Eutychius found it expedient to make a surprising alliance against the pope. However Gregory was able to play upon the king's catholic piety to induce him to leave for the north, and a revolt in Roman Etruria in 728 gave Gregory an opportunity to demonstrate his continuing loyalty to the imperial ideal. The pope encouraged the exarch to defeat and capture the usurper, Tiberius Petasius, and Eutychius then also headed north in order to reimpose imperial control over Ravenna. The empire's position was soon undermined by Leo Ill's promulgation of stronger decrees against icons in 730. After diplomatic remonstrations failed, the new pope, Gregory III (731-41), summoned a council in Rome in December 731 which resolutely upheld the iconodule position. Leo III responded by transferring the papal provinces of southern Italy, Sicily and 20 21 24

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LP I, p . 404: contra imperatorem quasi contra hostem se armavit. a Theoph. Chron. s.a. 6221, p. 409. 22 LP i, p. 407. P. Bertolini (1974). L P 1, 405. the view of Guillou (1969), p. 220, that Leo responded by sending a punitive expedition, is based on a misunderstanding of Agnellus, c. 15 3, p. 377. The expedition referred to was probably intended to recover the city after its capture by the Lombards (cf. Bertolini, O. (1986b)), but Agnellus may also have confused it with the attack of the strategos Theodore in 710. LP 1, p. 406.

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Illyricum to the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Constantinople. However the attitude of the pope and the imperial authorities in Italy was surprisingly conciliatory. While Gregory took a principled stand in opposing iconoclasm and imperial persecution in the east, in practice he co-operated with Eutychius in defending the Italian provinces against the Lombards. In turn the exarch appears to have made no attempt to impose the iconoclast decrees in Italy and even sent the pope a gift of onyx columns for St Peter's. Eutychius' alliance with Liutprand had proved short lived, and imperial forces even attempted to recover some of the Lombard conquests. Lombard forces occupied Ravenna at an uncertain date in the middle or late 730s, forcing Eutychius tofleeto Venice. Possibly after the failure of an imperial expedition to recover the city, Pope Gregory III wrote to the duke of Venetia and the Patriarch of Grado requesting their help in restoring Ravenna 'to the holy republic and the imperial service of our sons Leo [III] and Constantine [V]'.26 A Venetian fleet duly recovered the city. In 739 Duke Trasamund II of Spoleto captured the stronghold of Gallese from the duchy of Rome. Gregory III resorted to negotiation to recover it for 'the holy republic and the Christ-loved Roman army'. The duke then rebelled against King Liutprand and, when ejected from his duchy by royal troops, sought refuge in Rome. In his fury the Lombard king then devastated the area around Rome and seized four strategic strongholds on the Via Flaminia, prompting Gregory to appeal to the Frankish mayor of the palace, Charles Martel. When the king returned northwards Trasamund was able to recover his duchy with Roman support. Gregory's successor, the Greek Zacharias (741—5 2), had to face another period of uncertainty when the more militantly iconoclast Constantine V succeeded his father in 741 and was faced with a revolt by his brother-in-law Artavasdos. Liutprand appeared characteristically opportunistic in applying renewed pressure against both Spoleto and Rome. Zacharias resumed negotiations, obtained the four disputed castra, together with lost papal patrimonies in the Pentapolis and the duchy of Spoleto, and concluded a treaty of twenty years' peace with the Lombard kingdom (742). In the following year Liutprand prepared to attack Ravenna again, and in alarm the exarch and the city's archbishop appealed to the pope to intervene. Zacharias set off for Ravenna, where he was received with great honour by the exarch and population, and then on to Pavia, where he persuaded the exarch to return most of the territories seized from the Exarchate (summer 743). The pope acted independently of the empire, and appears for the first time to have staked the kind of proprietorial claims to the Exarchate which 26

ELC 11, MGHEpp. m, p. 702 ( = Jaffe and Ewald (1885), no. 2177).

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he had to the duchy of Rome. Soon after, in 743, Constantine V granted the pope two estates south of Rome, probably in order to restore the pope's allegiance to his rule (Zacharias had recognised for a time the usurper Artavasdos) and to offer compensation for the loss of papal jurisdiction and property in 732/3. 751 AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

In early 744 Liutprand died, and Zacharias was able to confirm the twentyyear treaty with his successor-but-one, Ratchis. For obscure reasons Ratchis abandoned his pro-Roman policy in 749 and launched a campaign against the Pentapolis. Zacharias met the king and prevailed upon him to renounce his conquests, but within a short time Ratchis became a monk and was succeeded by his brother Aistulf (749-56). Aistulf adopted a more aggressive policy, including attacks on Istria, Ferrara, Comacchio and Ravenna itself, which was in his hands by 4 July 751. The ease with which the capital was finally taken may be explained by Eutychius' realism in surrounding the city in the face of considerable odds and by a pro-Lombard party among the Ravennati hostile to the only viable alternative, papal overlordship. This group may have included the city's archbishop, Sergius, who, according to Agnellus, had aspirations to rule the area 'just like an exarch'.27 Certainly Aistulf showed himself aware of Ravennate sensibilities by observing the forms and titles of Roman rulership, patronising the city's churches and showing deference to its patron, St Apollinaris. Nor did he attempt a military occupation of the Exarchate, relying on control exercised on its border through the foundation of the royal monastery of Nonantola and the foundation of the duchy of Persiceto under a loyal Friulian noble. The long-term consequences of the fall of Ravenna in 751 proved dramatic for the papacy and the Lombard and Frankish kingdoms, especially since the same annus mirabilis saw the deposition of the last Merovingian king with the sanction of Pope Zacharias, and the anointing of Pippin III as king of Franks by the Frankish bishops. Ironically the fall of the capital with more of a whimper than a bang had little direct effect on the remaining territories of Byzantine Italy (Map 18). The process of decentralisation had been under way for decades, with effective power in the hands of local elites led by duces. Nevertheless the history of the surviving provinces is best studied by examining them in three separate blocks, since in each the relatively uniform social structure of the imperial period was gradually transformed by particular local factors. In the north Venetia and Istria 27

Agnellus, c. 159, p. 380.

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retained their imperial allegiance, in the south Sicily and the duchies of Calabria, Otranto and Naples continued to come under the authority of the strategos of the Sicilian theme, and in central Italy the Exarchate, Pentapolis and duchies of Perugia and Rome were the subject of a tug of war between the Lombards, the papacy and entrenched local elites. ROME A N D ITS DUCHY

Zacharias' successor, Pope Stephen II (752—7), was alarmed when Aistulf followed up his conquests by demanding a tribute from the duchy of Rome, and sought help from Constantine V. At the emperor's behest, he entered into frantic negotiations with Pavia, but all to no avail. As Lombard pressure on Rome increased in 75 3, the pope made overtures to Pippin III, paid a fruitless visit to Pavia on imperial orders, and then proceeded over the Alps to meet Pippin at Ponthion (January 754). The upshot was that Stephen granted Pippin the title patricius Romanorum (with its echoes of the rank held by the Byzantine exarch), a Frankish army was sent to beseige Pavia and Aistulf was compelled to hand over to Stephen II territories formerly belonging to the Exarchate. When these promises were broken, the Frankish king returned to Italy in 756 and conceded all the territories of the Exarchate to the pope by the 'Donation' of Pippin. Although this represented a serious snub to imperial claims, a complete break between the papacy and the empire cannot be postulated before at least the 770s, when the pontiffs name replaced that of the emperor on Roman coins and documents. In practice, however, ties became increasingly close between the papacy and the Franks, and it was also to this period (c. 752—71) that most recent scholars would date the forging of the 'Donation of Constantine' (Constitutum Constantini) by a Roman cleric working in the Lateran chancery. Although it is nevertheless doubtful that this document can be seen as an official production intended to legitimise papal claims to Byzantine territory, it appears to reflect the predominant ideology of clerical milieux in Rome who were working towards a wholly independent status for the 'patrimony of St Peter'. The following years were ones of uncertainty. Widespread fears of Byzantine attempts to recover their territory failed to materialise, while the new Lombard king Desiderius (75 7—74) showed himself at first conciliatory, but later hostile, to papal claims. Although after Stephen IPs death in March 757 Desiderius failed to deliver all the areas he had promised and Pippin was too preoccupied with other concerns to intervene, an uneasy modus vivendi was achieved between the Lombard king and Pope Paul I (757—67). Following Paul's death, however, the duchy of Rome sank into bitter

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internal conflicts, whose key element appears to have been a struggle between an elite of military officials with their power base in the country and the clerical bureaucrats of the Lateran palace in the city. One such official, Duke Toto of Nepi, succeeded in having his brother, Coristantine, 'elected' as anti-pope in June 767. Soon the clerical party regained power with Lombard help and had their candidate elected as Pope Stephen III in August 768, but serious difficulties continued, including anti-papal activity in the Exarchate and dissension among the papacy's Frankish allies. A coup staged in 771/2 against the clerical regime of Christopher and his son Sergius led to the rise to power of the pro-Lombard papal chamberlain Paul Afiarta. However, after the death of the vacillating Stephen III, a new pope from a leading Roman family was elected in 772 as Hadrian I, who proved no mere tool in Paul's hands. He had Paul arrested in Ravenna and resisted Desiderius' attempts to enter Rome and to have his proteges, the sons of the Frankish king Carloman, anointed there. When Desiderius proceeded to occupy strategic towns in the Exarchate, Hadrian prevailed upon the new Frankish king Charles to order their return. When Desiderius refused to comply, Charles led an army into Italy, besieged Desiderius in Pavia and took over the Lombard kingdom. In Hadrian's pontificate (772—95) the papacy's alliance with its Frankish protectors grew increasingly close and cordial, especially after Charles conquered the Lombard kingdom in 774 and renewed the grants made by his father. Hadrian went to the length of addressing Charles as a new Constantine in 778.28 Ties with the eastern empire were not formally broken (in 772 criminals were sent to Constantinople for punishment) but in practice turned to hostility. The pope's implicit claim to independence is evident in a letter addressed to Constantine VI in which he wrote of how Charles had 'restored by force to the apostle of God the provinces, cities, strongholds, territories and patrimonies which were held by the perfidious race of the Lombards'. 29 Hadrian's letters reflect his constant fear of a reconquista led by the Greeks in alliance with Duke Arichis of Benevento and Desiderius' exiled son Adelchis. The pope was unable to prevail upon Charles to intervene militarily against Benevento. In Rome and his hinterland the pope established new levels of prosperity and stability, largely as a result of his personal position as a powerful family magnate with influential relatives and allies among both the Lateran bureaucracy and the secular 28

29

CC, no. 6o, MGH, Epp., HI, p. 587. The passage appears to be based on the Actus Sjheslri, the main source of the forged Donation of Constantine. 'Tarn provincias, quam civitates, seu castra et cetera territoria, imo et patrimonia quae a perfida Longobardorum gente detinebantur, brachio forte eidem Dei apostolo restituit': Mansi xn, cols. 1075-6 ( = Jaffe and Ewald (1885), no. 2442).

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aristocracy. The pope also succeeded in strengthening papal authority in the countryside round Rome by setting up six papal estate complexes known as domuscultae such as Sta Cornelia 25 km north of Rome. Here he was continuing a policy initiated by Zacharias, who had set up five such complexes, and more estates were set up by his successor, Leo III. These had a number of purposes, including the more efficient management of land and the securing of food supplies for the city at a time when it had lost its traditional sources of provisions in Sicily and southern Italy. However their primary role was to strengthen papal control in the face of the endemic disorder of the countryside, and to serve as papal strongholds against local warlords such as Duke Toto. The peasant workforce was organised into a loyal familia S. Petri, and furnished militia contingents which were used to suppress a coup d'etat in 824 and to fortify the area around St Peter's in 846.30 Hadrian, however, experienced continuing difficulties in enforcing his authority over the wider complex of cities, villages and patrimonies often anachronistically termed 'the papal state'. These were particularly acute in areas where the papal claim to be heirs of the Roman state was somewhat dubious, such as the Sabine territories around the monastery of Farfa, which had been held by Lombard settlers for generations. Even in the Exarchate and Pentapolis, although opposition to papal rule subsided somewhat with the death of Archbishop Leo of Ravenna in 778, Hadrian complained in 78 3 that lay officials (iudices) from Ravenna had appealed directly to Charles and in 790/1 elements in the city were denying the pope's legal authority {dicio). The pope did however receive additional territories on the occasion of Charles' visit to Italy in 787 when the king made over a grant of part of Lombard Tuscany stretching from Citta di Castello in the north to Viterbo and Orte in the south and a number of towns in the duchy of Benevento (although some, including Capua, remained in practice in Lombard hands). The pope also had problems in establishing his rights to various papal patrimonies in the duchy of Naples, and it was probably to apply pressure for their return as well as to secure the southernflankof the duchy of Rome that papal troops seized Terracina from the Neapolitan duchy in 788.31 Hadrian's successor, Leo III (795—816), was a less powerful character from a non-aristocratic background. As a result his position was much weaker, and his dependence on the Franks for protection even greater. His first action was to treat Charles in the manner that preceding popes had adopted towards their Byzantine sovereigns by sending him the protocol of his election, together with a pledge of loyalty and the keys and banner of the city of Rome. Matters were brought to a head by a coup in 799, when 30

Christie (1991), pp. 6—8.

3I

CC, nos. 61, 64, MGH Epp., in, pp. 588, 591—2.

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aristocratic elements associated with Hadrian I accused Leo of various offences and sought to arrest and mutilate him. Leo first fled to Spoleto and then over the Alps where he met Charles at Paderborn. He then returned in the autumn with an investigating commission of bishops and officials in order to restore his position in Rome. In the following November Charles visited Rome and was crowned emperor in St Peter's on Christmas Day 800. The intentions of the parties involved in this event are the subject of considerable debate, but here it need only be pointed out that the papacy's action represents the culmination of a long process of distancing from the Byzantine empire and that one possible motive for Charles may have been to win support in the 'Roman areas' of Italy such as the Exarchate and Rome by exploiting vestigial nostalgia for the Roman imperial title.32 As a result of the events of 800, Rome burnt its boats with the Byzantine empire on a political level. An alternative ideological model was instituted, clerical control of the government was enhanced, and Frankish influence became more marked. The pope adopted a strongly pro-Frankish policy as long as the Carolingian empire lasted (until 888), and the chronicler Theophanes wrote, 'now Rome is in the hands of the Franks'. 33 Thus in 817 Louis the Pious issued the privilege known as the L.udovirianum in which the grants of his father and grandfather were made more tidy and precise on terms favourable to the papacy.34 In 824, however, a less generous line was taken by the Constitutio Komana, which weakened the papacy's independence by setting up two missi, one papal and one imperial in Rome and in demanding from the Romans an oath of loyalty to the empire.35 Byzantium remained a factor, but only of limited importance, in the first half of the ninth century. Fears were expressed of plans for a Byzantine reconquista, and there may well may have been links between the eastern empire and elements of the secular aristocracy nostalgic for the Byzantine period and eager for an end to the influence of the 'barbarian' Franks. Certainly in 853 a magister militum, Gratian, was accused of accepting Byzantine bribes. The situation changed, however, as a result of the growing threat of Muslim naval power to the coasts of Italy, especially after the sack of St Peter's in 846 and the 32

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35

Classen (19 51). Such a policy certainly appears to have had the desired effect in Ravenna since the normally xenophobic local writer Agnellus accepted the legitimacy of Charles' imperial title: Agnellus, c. 94, p. 338: cf. Brown (1986), pp. 109—10. Theoph. Chron. s.a. 6289, p. 472. Ed. Sickel (1885). Louis promised not to interfere in papal jurisduction or to intervene in papal elections. MGH Cap. 1, no. 161, pp. 322-4. Noble (1984), p. 308, argues that the traditional contrast between the two documents is exaggerated and that the Constitutio was a logical extension of the Ltukvicianum. Useful as this corrective view is, it has to be remembered that from 822 Italy was under the rule of Lothar who in general took a firmer line with the papacy than his father.

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occupation of Bad in the same year. Although the papacy looked primarily to Louis II to deal with the Saracen danger, it supported his attempts to secure Byzantine naval co-operation, and when his efforts in southern Italy proved a failure, John VIII (872—82) resorted increasingly to diplomatic overtures to Byzantium aimed at involving the empire in a Christian 'crusade' against the infidel. These papal efforts were not crowned with success, however, until the successful storming of the Arab base on the river Garigliano by a league of Christian forces assembled by John X in 915.3* On an ecclesiastical level relations with Byzantium were strained by the second wave of iconoclasm in the east (815—43) and even after the restoration of icons contentious issues remained. The transfer of jurisdiction and patrimonies in southern Italy and Illyricum to the patriarchate of Constantinople and the closely associated problem of authority over missions to the Balkans proved sources of conflict, especially during the pontificate of Nicholas I (8 5 8-67). Nevertheless the papacy retained its claims to primacy over the eastern as well as the western churches, and Rome remained a magnet for eastern pilgrims and exiles. In many respects Rome remained within the Byzantine cultural orbit. Eastern artistic influence on the city remained strong, expressed through aflowof liturgical objects and in all probability also an influx of artists. A number of Greek monasteries continued to flourish in the city, and Rome became a major centre of translation activity, best exemplified by the Latin versions of Greek historical and hagiographical texts produced by the papal librarian Anastasius. On an institutional level the extent and durability of the RomanoByzantine inheritance has been a subject of controversy, mainly because of the paucity of evidence for the ninth century. Certain titles from the imperial period continue, such as consul, dux and magister militum, while others, such as tribunus, disappear. There is similar uncertainty over whether the apparently lay judges known as iudices dativi constitute a survival from the Roman period. It is clear that any notion of a strong centralised secular authority on the traditional Byzantine model has to be rejected. This had already broken down in the last decades of the imperial rule, to be replaced by a decentralised power system in the hands of local warlords. On the other hand it is likely that most of the families to which the latter belonged established their position in the Byzantine period, and they remained deeply attached to the old imperial titles, even though these were used in an increasingly vague and debased way. In the city of Rome certain institutions persist which can be traced to the imperial past, such as the local militia units 36

Brown (1988b), p. 38.

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(scholae) and the strong sense of public rights and property, but these were taken over and transformed under papal control. The papal bureaucracy itself modelled its workings and titles on that of the empire. In certain respects the popes themselves can be seen behaving in self-conscious imitation of emperors, as with Gregory's naming of the refortified Ostia as Gregoriopolis and Leo IV's short-lived foundation of Leopolis following the Arab attack on nearby Civitavecchia. In general there appears to have been a striking nostalgia for all those things Byzantine, especially in the sphere of titles, names and dress, and this became if anything stronger as the century progressed as a result of the growing disenchantment with Frankish barbarism and impotence. Northern writers pointed to the resemblance between the Romans and the Greeks, especially in the pejorative sense of their effeminacy and cowardliness.37 The impact of le snobisme byvymtinisanfi* proved more than a passing fashion, since it helped build support for renewed political relations between the Roman elite and Byzantium in the tenth century.

THE EXARCHATE AND THE PENTAPOLIS39

The other major areas within the central bloc of formerly Byzantine territories, the Exarchate and the Pentapolis, was also claimed by the popes after 751 but their authority was always much less effective. The two closely related areas had developed such strong local institutions in the last decades of imperial rule that the area's takeover by Aistulf had little effect. The shortlived Lombard overlordship appears to have been benign, and the king was compelled to hand over both areas to papal authority in 75 5, in accordance with a peace agreement made at Pavia40. This settlement aroused bitter opposition in Ravenna and, when Pope Stephen II decided to visit Ravenna in that year in order to make the necessary administrative arrangements, he was refused admission into the city by the local lay and clerical aristocracy, with the apparent connivance of Archbishop Sergius (744—69). A second Frankish expedition proved necessary to make Aistulf fulfil his promises, and a commission of Frankish officials was sent to the Exarchate led by Abbot Fulrad. Stephen II sent two influential Romans, the priest Philip and Duke Eustachius to assume authority in his name and they succeeded in 37 38 39 40

For references see Toubert (1973) 11, p. 1007. The phrase is that of Toubert (1973) 11, p. 966. The valuable studies in Carile (1991, 1992) deal at length with these areas before and after 751. The tangled history of the early years of papal rule over the Exarchate has been convincingly clarified by Bertolini, O. (195°) and a number of articles published in the collection of Bertolini, O. (1968a).

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sending the leaders of the local opposition to Rome, where they were imprisoned. Papal administrators such as a vestararius were then sent to the area, but it is unclear how much practical power they were able to exercise. Certainly they faced widespread obstruction and hostility from the local population, and considerable de facto power remained in the hands of the archbishop, whom the local writer Agnellus describes as ruling the areas 'just like an exarch' and 'arranging everything as the Romans were accustomed to doing'.41 When Archbishop Sergius entered into negotiations with Aistulf to re-establish Lombard rule, he too was arrested and sent to Rome for trial by a tribunal of judges. At that moment Stephen II died, and his successor as pope, his brother Paul I, considered it expedient to reach a compromise, possibly out of fear of a Byzantine attempt to reconquer the Exarchate. Sergius was therefore sent back to his city with the right to conduct the day-to-day administration while the pope's overall authority was upheld. This arrangement seems to have worked relatively well until Sergius' death. The Lombard king Desiderius then joined forces with local military elements led by Duke Maurice of Rimini to impose a strongly antiRoman cleric named Michael as archbishop, but he was deposed after a year as a result of popular outrage at his avarice and the arrival of Frankish missi. However the next, legitimately elected, archbishop, Leo (771—8), was equally hostile to papal claims and proceeded to send an embassy to Charles, much to the anger of Pope Hadrian I. The pope complained to Charles that Leo had taken over the cities of Faenza, Forli, Cesena, Sarsina, Comacchio and Ferrara and expelled papal officials in them and in Ravenna itself. Charles took no immediate steps against the Ravenna prelate, who went on a personal visit to Francia to defend his position in the spring of 775. Charles' reactions are unclear, but Leo certainly behaved as if he had independent control of the Exarchate. He claimed that the king had granted him Bologna and Imola, prevented papal representatives from obtaining oaths of loyalty to St Peter, expelled papal officials and imprisoned a certain Dominicus, appointed count of Gavello by the pope.42 After the bitter resistance to the papacy led by the archbishops Sergius and Leo, the situation appears to have become more settled for the greater part of Charlemagne's reign, probably as a result of a compromise agreement.43 The popes retained overall political authority, together with extensive but imprecisely known rights and lands. At the same time practical power was largely in the hands of the archbishop by virtue of his vast 41

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Agnellus c. 159, p. 380. 'Iudicavit iste . . .totum Pcntapolim vcluti exarchus... sic omnia dispondebat, ut soliti sunt modo Romani facere.' In general see Fasoli (1979). CC, no. 54. Noble (1984), pp. 172, 2; i, terms this arrangement a 'double dyarchy'.

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patrimonies, his close political and e c o n o m i c ties with the local aristocracy, and his traditional role as focus for the Exarchate's traditions and aspirations. The details of these rights and powers cannot be reconstructed from the very patchy sources, and even the lively and contemporary local writer Agnellus (/?. c. 840) is of little help, since the biographies of most of the bishops of this period are missing in the one surviving manuscript of his work. In addition the presence of the Frankish rulers as kings of Italy complicated matters; even though most of them respected papal claims, they were susceptible to the imperial associations of Ravenna and aware of the strategic importance of the area with its seaports on the Adriatic and its proximity to the Byzantine possessions in Venetia. Frankish missi were also active in the area; Pope Leo III (795— 816) had been receptive to scandalous utterances made by Archbishop Valerius (806-10) and others had seized material from the palace of Ravenna.44 This interest was exploited with some success by the archbishops of Ravenna in order to obtain privileges.45 The rule of Pope Leo III (795—816) appears to have been particularly unpopular in Ravenna and encouraged the archbishops to solicit Frankish support. Charles seems to have turned a deaf ear to such requests, but the strongly anti-Roman Martin (810—17) apparently had success in winning Frankish support against papal claims through a mixture of sycophancy and bribes. The line taken by his successor, Petronax (817-34) was arguably more pro-papal, to judge from critical allusions in Agnellus' work and the privilege which he received from Pope Paschal I in 819. When Louis the Pious' son Lothar took de facto control over Italy in 822 he seems to have built up strong links with major sees such as Ravenna. The next archbishop, George (834—46), attempted to exploit Lothar's poor relations with Rome to undermine the papal position, and his policy may have been to seek a return to the autocephalous status granted by Constans II rather than the more limited autonomy sought by Sergius and Leo.46 Certainly the gradual penetration of Frankish authority continued within the Exarchate, as is demonstrated by a legal case brought about by the advocatus of the archbishop and decided by imperial missi at Rovigo in 838.47 However, he incurred the opposition of his clergy through his personal greed and his costly recourse to bribery of his royal benefactors.48 Even more bitter hostility to papal overlordship broke out under archbishops Deusdedit

44

45 46 48

Leonis HI Episto/ae, nos. 2 and 9, in MGH Epp. v, pp. 91,1 o 1 (the expression used in the former is turpitudo). For details of what follows see Brown (1990). 47 The suggestion is that of Fasoli (1979), p. 102. Manaresi, no. 43, pp. 139—44. George's personal visit to Lothar in 841 ended in fiasco when his imperial patron was defeated at the battle of Fontenoy and the see's treasures were plundered: Agnellus, c. 174, p. 389.

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(846—50) and John VIII (850—78). The latter dominated the Exarchate in conjunction with his brother Duke Gregory and displayed his independence at the time of his consecration by altering the pledges of loyalty to the papacy and empire which new prelates were expected to sign. He co-operated closely with Louis II, who may have been attempting to incorporate the Exarchate within the kingdom of Italy. Unfortunately, like other ambitious Ravenna prelates, he appears to have feathered his own nest and alienated local interests in his opposition to Rome. In February 861 Pope Nicholas I responded to complaints against John by summoning a council in Rome. There the archbishop was excommunicated for heresy, violation of the rights of his clergy, especially his suffragan bishops, and interference with Roman rights in the Exarchate. John's appeals to Louis for help proved fruitless and in a second synod of November 861 John acknowledged his guilt and suffered the humiliation of receiving back his see from the pope on strict conditions. Nevertheless he continued to make trouble for the succeeding popes, Hadrian II and John VIII, and was roundly denounced in the latter's letters for usurpation of papal property.49 The crisis over the succession to the empire which followed the death of Louis II in 875 gave John new opportunities. He sided with the Roman faction of Formosus, bishop of Porto, which supported Louis the German and Charles the Bald, and in 876 armed pro-Formosan elements sacked the property of papal followers, seized the keys of Ravenna from the papal vestararius and handed them over to the archbishop.50 Despite their difficulties the popes had some success in countering this separatist feeling through the backing of their officials and pro-Roman elements in the Exarchate and by holding regular synods in Ravenna, as in 874, 877 and 898. Thus Archbishop Romanus (878—88), was excommunicated for his anti-Roman policy in 8 81 and failed in his attempt to appoint his successor. However an important change in the balance of forces occurred towards the close of the ninth century. The rule of the Carolingian emperors was replaced by that of local Italian monarchs, who visited the Exarchate more frequently and held assemblies representing their whole kingdom in Ravenna. As a result the Exarchate and Pentapolis became more integrated into the kingdom of Italy, as is reflected in the dating system of the Ravenna documents from c. 898. Since royal authority was weak, the main beneficiaries were the archbishops who retained their metropolitan status and great prestige, wealth and patronage networks.51 By the end of the ninth century, « Belletskie(i98o). 50

Fragmenta Kegistri lohannis VIII Papae, no. 62, in MGH Epp. v u , p. 5 5.

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however, the area had lost much of its traditional Romano-Byzantine character since a centralised administration system had been replaced by family and patrimonial ties between the Ravenna elite and local elements, and dynastic links were beginning to be forged with neighbouring Germanic families from Tuscany and the Po valley.52 The nature of the Byzantine legacy in the Exarchate is difficult to assess despite the comparative wealth of evidence, furnished especially by the local writer Agnellus and the papyrus and parchment documents preserved by the church of Ravenna.53 The evidence of the documents reveals remarkable continuity in the Greek and Roman names employed, in the use of RomanoByzantine titles such as magister militum, dux, tribunus and consul, in the division and management of land, and, most significantly, in the close relations of the lay military elite with the see of Ravenna. This nexus was cemented through the leasing out of church land on generous terms and had its origins in an officially encouraged policy of the imperial period.54 Paradoxically clear Greek cultural elements were limited in Ravenna, the residence of the emperor's representative. Although there is some evidence for the continued existence of Greek monasteries after 751, it is very limited compared with Rome and the liturgical or other influence from the east on the see was slight. Nor was there any trace of the translation activity or literary composition in Greek so evident in Rome.55 Although the work of the local writer Agnellus includes a sizeable number of Greek terms, his attitude to the Byzantines is one of contempt, and this view appears to have been shared by most of his compatriots. 56 A letter which the patriarch Photius addressed to the archbishop of Ravenna is likely to have been less a reflection of the traditional links between Rome and the east than a desire to cause difficulties for the pope with a prelate known to be independent minded.57 Even so there may have been a vestigial attachment to the eastern

51

52 53

55

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Fasoli (1979), pp. 106-9. The exact date and significance of the Exarchate's incorporation within the kingdom of Italy is the subject of debate. Some ties with Rome remained, as is shown by Archbishop John IX's election as Pope John X in 914. Fasoli (1979), p p . 110—11; Curradi (1977), p p . 17-64. Agncllus, in AIGH SRL, pp. 273-391. Tjadcr (1954-82) includes documents up to 700. The collection is known as the Codex Bavarus (Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, col. 44; CB, ed. Rabotti, Breviarium) records transactions as early as the seventh century. Most of the parchment documents (rare for the eighth century and before, more numerous for the ninth century) are still M Brown (1979). only available in Fantuzzi (1801-4). Brown (1988a), pp. 148-9; Sansterre (1983), passim. Translation activity, especially of medical works, had of course been common earlier, in the sixth century. E.g. c. 140, MGHSRL, p. 369. Photius, Epistu/ae et Amphilocbia 11, n o . 267, pp. 217—18.

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empire in certain outlying areas of the Exarchate, especially those close to the Byzantine province of Venetia; thus a document from Rovigo near Padua was dated by the regnal years of the Byzantine emperors as late as 8z6.58 VENICE AND ISTRIA

In the early stages of imperial rule in Italy Venetia et Istria constituted a single province but at some stage in the seventh century it was divided into two. Istria embraced most of the peninsula, but its northern limits are uncertain, since it came under continual pressure from the Lombards, Avars and especially the Slavs. Extremely little is known of it during the imperial period, and it fell into Lombard hands for brief periods in or soon after 751 and again between 768 and 772. By 774 it was again in the emperor's possession, but at some stage in the late eighth century it was conquered by the Franks, possibly at the time of Charlemagne's victory over the Byzantines in southern Italy in 788.59 It is all the more ironic that the most informative document on the society of Byzantine Italy survives from this obscure region and from the period immediately after imperial rule. In 804 three Frankish missi met at Rizana with the patriarch of Grado, the duke of Istria, the local bishops and 172 representatives of the local towns to examine the rights and exactions customary in the times of the Greeks. The resulting report, known as the Plea of Rizana or Risano, reveals the considerable local power exercised by the landowners and their leaders {primates), their attachment to their military offices (such as tribune) and to the titles obtained from the empire {hypatos or consul) and the relatively local level of taxes paid to the empire.60 Istria's neighbour to the west, Venetia, remained under Byzantine authority and experienced the most dramatic development in our period. The area also presents serious problems because the evidence is scanty and often late and unreliable. The islands of the lagoon from Chioggia in the southwest to Grado in the northeast had received an influx of refugees at the time of the Lombard invasion of 568 and became the predominant element of the Byzantine province of Venetia when the mainland city of Oderzo fell to the Lombards and the residence of the magister militum or governor was transferred to Eraclea (also known as Cittanova). The area followed the 58 59 60

The document is referred to in a Frankishplacitum of 838: Manaresi, 1, no. 43. Ferluga (1988), pp. 174-5. Edited Manaresi, 1, no. 17, pp. 50-6 and Guillou (1969), pp. 294—307. The tax paid by nine towns amounted to 344 solidi mancosi in addition to levies in kind and labour exacted by the duke and various obligations to the church, over which there was an argument.

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general pattern of Byzantine Italy, with political and economic power concentrated in the hands of a local elite drawn from the ranks of the imperial garrison but increasingly identified with local interests. Within the islands, however, economic activity must have been based on fishing and local trade as much as agriculture. It was probably as a result of its growing trading role that the duchy was able to make an agreement with the Lombard king Liutprand which defined its boundaries on the mainland.61 The area's distinctiveness was fostered by the existence of its ecclesiastical structures separate from the mainland under the authority of the patriarch of Grado. According to later tradition a period of a century and a half of rule by the indigenous nobility of tribuni was followed by the election of the first local doge or duke supposedly in either 697 or c.715.62 In fact this event occurred only in 727,with the election of the Eradean leader Ursus, and was part of a more general process. As we have seen, many provinces elected their own duces that year as a result of the general discontent with the policies of Leo III. Also the step turned out not to denote any decisive break with the empire, since Ursus was soon recognised by the Byzantines as an autonomous dux with the title of hypatos and the area's continued loyalty to the empire was demonstrated by the help given to the exarch Eutychius in recovering Ravenna in the 730s. As elsewhere, the decline of imperial authority and the growing pressure from the Lombards led to an increase in conflict between local factions. The details of these are obscure, but they appear to have stemmed from rivalries between different families and islands, as in 742 when Malamocco revolted against the capital, Eraclea, and elected as duke Deusdedit, the son of Ursus. These internal pressures were exacerbated by the powerful presence of the Franks in the region from the 770s on. Venetia and Istria were not included in the papal claims to former imperial territories expressed in the 'Donations' of Quierzy and Pa via (754 and 756), but they did figure among the lands promised to Pope Hadrian I by Charlemagne in 774. Loyalty to Byzantium nevertheless remained paramount, and was reflected in the use of imperial titles and customs. For example the family of Maurizio Galbaio was probably following imperial practice when the founder's son and later his grandson were co-opted as dukes. Meanwhile Frankish power in the region was further enhanced by Charles' takeover of Friuli and Istria and defeat of the Avars, and certain factions found it expedient to side with the new western empire. Such a proFrankish group seized power in the person of Obelerius in 802. When Charlemagne recognised Venice as a Frankish fief under his son, Pippin, king of Italy, the emperor Nicephorus I retaliated by sending a fleet under 61

Referred to in Pactum Lotbarii, c. 26.

62

Andrea Dandolo, p. 105; John the Deacon, p. 91.

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the command of the patrician Nicetas. A compromise was reached whereby Obelerius' position as doge was confirmed with his accepting the title of spatharios as an imperial official. A truce between the two empires was signed in 807. However hostilities broke out again when Obelerius showed renewed signs of disloyalty to the empire and a second Byzantinefleetcame into conflict with the Franks. Pippin intervened and sacked several of the settlements of Venice shortly before his death in July 810. In the face of this crisis the Venetians sank their differences and established a new centre of settlement and administration at the Rial to under a new doge, Agnello Partecipazio (or Particiaco). Local opinion had shifted decisively in favour of attachment to Byzantium63, and Venetia was recognised as Byzantine territory by the terms of the treaty which was agreed between the Frankish and eastern empires in 812. Venice benefited from its new-found stability to develop into an important emporium, trading in the luxury items of the east, exporting western timber, slaves, salt and fish, and serving as the empire's listening post in the west. The growth and sophistication of Venice's commercial role is reflected in the will of Doge Giustiniano Partecipazio, who died in 829: in addition to extensive property-holdings it lists investments in long-distance trading ventures.64 Venice's relations with Byzantium remained cordial, with widespread use of Byzantine titles and fashions, but in practice the province was increasingly independent. The doges also wished Venice to enjoy ecclesiastical independence, especially after the suffragan sees of the patriarchate of Grado were placed under the patriarch of Aquileia by the Synod of Mantua of 827. In the following year the body of St Mark was seized in Alexandria by Venetian seamen and deposited in a new basilica adjoining the ducal basilica in Rialto. The city's new patron rapidly became a symbol of Byzantine pride and independence. The middle years of the ninth century were a period of both danger and opportunity for Venice. The Byzantine and western missions to the Slavs helped open up new areas to Venetian enterprise, but also led to new tensions which complicated Venice's position as a 'middle-man'. Even more serious was the wave of naval raids launched by the Arabs of North Africa. Venice's growing naval strength was called upon by the Byzantines to help combat these attacks on Sicily in 827 and in the Adriatic in the 8 30s and 840s. In 840 a treaty was signed with the Emperor Lothar which guaranteed Venice's neutrality, boundaries and right to trade freely. The Frankish 63

64

C o n s t a n t i n e P o r p h y r o g e n i t u s , De admmistrando imperio, c. 38, states that t h e Venetians told Pippin that they preferred to be subjects of the emperor of the Romans. 'De laboratoriis solidis, si salva de navigatione reversa fuerint'; ed. Cessi, Document!, 1, pp. 93-9-

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recognition of Venice's power and independence was reflected in confirmations of the agreement in 856 and 880 and by a state visit by Louis II to the city in the former year. At the same time Venice faced new dangers from Slav disorder and piracy within its Istrian and Dalmatian spheres of influence and from the reassertion of Byzantine power in the western Adriatic following the reconquest of Dalmatia in 868 and of southern Italy from 876 onwards. Despite this powerful new presence, Byzantium continued to recognise the need for Venetian naval assistance, especially when a planned alliance with the Franks against the Arabs fell through, and in 879 an imperial embassy travelled to Venice to confer upon Doge Ursus I Partecipazio gifts and the title of protospatbarios. Ursus' dogeship also saw the creation of indices as magistrates and advisers to curb the doge's authority and the establishment of new bishoprics, including Torcello. From the late ninth century, therefore, many of the characteristic features of medieval Venice were in place, including some distinctive constitutional arrangements, a marked independence in outlook and government and wideranging naval and commercial activities, but the city retained its powerful but ambiguous links with the east.

THE DUCHY OF NAPLES

The duchy of Naples included the coast and islands of the Bay of Naples, the Terra di Lavoro inland and the outlying towns of Sorrento, Amalfi and Gaeta. Little is known of its history in the seventh century, and the traditional view that its first local dux was Basilius, confirmed by Constans II around 661, is now rejected. Its institutions followed the usual Italian model, with a concentration of power and property in the military elite of the exercitus, but its loyalty to the empire was consistently greater than the territories to the north, probably because of its maritime links with the east and the need for imperial protection against the constant threat posed by Lombard Benevento. Thus the Neapolitans allowed the exarch Eutychius to disembark in their city in 727, when most of Byzantine Italy was in revolt. The duchy was also sympathetic to the Isaurian policy on images, to the extent that the episcopal see was held by an outright iconoclast, Calvus, between 750 and 762. The duchy was unaffected by the fall of Ravenna in 751, having come under the nominal authority of the strategos of the theme of Sicily for several decades. Nevertheless Naples experienced the same trend towards increased autonomy as other areas, and by 755 it had its first locally elected dux, Stephen. After his election as bishop in 767 Stephen was able to pass on the ducal office to his two sons, Gregory and Caesarius, in succession, and then

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to his son-in-law Theophylact. As in Venice, relations with the empire oscillated considerably, probably as a reflection of the ascendancy of rival factions. While the duchy supported the strategos of Sicily in opposing papal claims to Campania in 779/80, in 812 Duke Anthimus refused to send his fleet to help his nominal superior fend off an Arab raid on Ischia. In 818 the citizens petitioned the strategos to appoint a dux to govern them, but in 821 one such imperial appointee was deposed in favour of a candidate from the family of Stephen. The decisive stage in the detachment of Naples from the empire came, however, with the Arab invasion of Sicily in 827, when the strategos was too preoccupied to intervene in the duchy and Naples was left to its own devices to resist the growing pressure from the Arabs by sea and the Lombards on land. As an example of the delicate balancing act required, Duke Andrew employed Muslin mercenaries in 83 5 against Prince Sicard of Benevento and then gave his allies help in conquering Messina from the empire (842/3). Although Naples attracted considerable criticism for these opportunistic alliances with the infidel, the strengthened position thus attained enabled Andrew to conclude a favourable treaty with the Lombards in 836 (the pactum Sicardt), and in 839 Lombard pressure was for a time alleviated by the civil war which split the Lombard principality into two parts, Benevento and Salerno. Later, in the 840s, Duke Sergius, together with his son, the consul Caesarius, turned against the Arabs and won a series of victories culminating in the battle of Ostia (849). Later, however, the Neapolitans established friendly relations with the Saracens, perhaps in order to prevent raids form the Muslims' strongholds of Benevento and Taranto. Such a policy, while necessary to safeguard the duchy's political survival and commercial interests, drew bitter denunciations from the papacy. Once again outside intervention served to foment internal factional strife. Duke Sergius II was deposed and replaced by his brother, Bishop Athanasius II in 877. Realpolitik however compelled the new duke to make a new deal with the Arabs, thus earning excommunication by his former patron, Pope John VIII. Already in the ninth century Naples began to assume an important role as a centre of translation activity from Greek, although this reached its height in the tenth century. Other evidence also demonstrates that the cultural and economic influence of Byzantium was pervasive. Imports of pottery from the east were numerous, signatures to documents in Greek characters were common and a penchant for Byzantine titles such as consul remained strong.65 To the north Gaeta had become increasingly important as a centre of 65

Luzzati Lagana (1980); Brown (1988b), p. 34.

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communications after Formia was destroyed by the Arabs and its bishopric transferred to the nearby port in the eighth century. It remained nominally part of the Neapolitan duchy until 839, although in practice it often had to align itself with the papacy, whose territories surrounded it. On occasion it acted independently of Naples, as when it responded to a request from a strategos of Sicily for help against Muslim raiding parties.66 From around 839 its greater measure of independence is reflected in the title oihypatos held by city leaders such as Docibilis. Although its continuing ties with the Byzantine empire were reflected in the dating of documents by the regnal years of emperors and by the elite's custom of signing their names in Greek characters, the town was forced to adopt policies favourable to the Muslims. In the 880s Aghlabid raiders were allowed to set up a pirate nest near the mouth of the nearby Garigliano river — a move which provoked bitter denunciation on the part of Pope John VIII. 67 To the south was the non-Roman settlement of Amalfi, first recorded in 596 as a castrum populated by refugees from the Lombards. By the eighth century it was recorded as a naval base used in conflicts with the Lombards, Franks and Arabs and assumed increasing importance as a trading centre, while remaining part of the duchy of Naples, perhaps because of the continual pressure it faced from the Lombards. Although its population was temporarily transferred to Salerno following its sacking by Prince Sicard of Benevento in 839, it soon after achieved independence from Naples under its own leaders {comites and laterpraefecturii). By the late ninth century its tiny territory consisted of a small coastal strip, the Monti Lattari in the hinterland and the island of Capri, and a dynasty was established by the praefecturius Manso which lasted for seventy years. Although the Greek element was never as strong as in Naples and its foreign policy became steadily more independent of the empire, its trading links with the east became increasingly important.68

THE DUCHIES OF CALABRIA AND OTRANTO

The term Calabria was originally applied to a late Roman civilian province corresponding to the Terra d'Otranto. In the mid-seventh century the imperial possessions underwent a severe crisis with their final breakdown of civilian administration and the capture of large areas by the Lombard dukes of Benevento. It is likely that, as a result of an administrative reorganisation in the late seventh century, the name was applied to a duchy ruled from 66

Leo III, Ep. 6, MGH Epp. v, p. 96.

67

Merores (1911), especially p. 15, but cf. the comments of von Falkenhausen (1980), p. 348 and 6S Schwarz (1978), especially pp. 16-17. Skinner (1992), pp. 353—8.

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Reggio and covering both the areas remaining under Byzantine rule, the Terra d'Otranto and southern Calabria (i.e. the areas south of a line running from the Crati to the south of Cosenza to Amentea on the Tyrrhenian coast).69 This period marked an important stage in the hellenisation of both areas, probably largely as a result of immigration from Greece and Sicily rather than settlements of refugees from the Muslim invasions further east or official transfer of soldiers or peasants. In the early eighth century Otranto was lost to the Lombards and the term was confined to the old civilian province of Bruttium in the southwest toe of Italy, which came under the authority of the strategos of Sicily. The duchy is mentioned in a Byzantine rank-list of 842/3 but does not appear in another of 899, presumably because it became the main power base of the strategos of Sicily, when most of the latter island had fallen to the Arabs.70 Disappointingly little is known of the duchy in this period from written sources, but archaeological research has pointed to a move away from settlements on the plains and coast towards hill-top sites and to fairly widespread circulation of eastern goods such as pottery.71 Only after 885—6, when Lombard Calabria was conquered by Basil I's general Nikephoros Phokas, does the position become clearer. Even less is known of Calabria's imperial neighbour on the heel of Italy, the duchy of Otranto. Otranto and Gallipoli remained Byzantine at the time of the Lombard advances of the late seventh century, but some time after 710 Otranto was lost. It was restored to the empire in 758 by King Desiderius in return for Byzantine help against a rebel duke of Benevento. The case for the area's status as a separate duchy depends on a seal of uncertain date, and the 'duchy's' non-appearance in a rank-list of 842/3 suggests that at some stage it was reincorporated in the duchy of Calabria.72 The boundaries of imperial rule are uncertain: the duchy may have been confined to the dioceses which clearly came under the jurisdiction of Constantinople, Gallipoli and Otranto, or it may have included all the Terra d'Otranto including Oria. Excavations have suggested that Otranto was a rich centre, probably as a result of its strategic importance as the main point of entry for imperial troops and officials sent to the west.73 However, following the swift reconquista of Lombard Apulia from 876 the capital became Benevento and later Bari. 69

V o n Falkenhausen (1978), p . 7; the b o u n d a r y with the L o m b a r d s can be reconstructed from the divisio of the principality of Benevento: MGH Leges nat. germ, iv, p . 222.

70

O i k o n o m i d e s (1972), p . 57. a " d cf:- PP- 5 5 ' a n d 35 6 - T h e lists in question are the Taktikon Vspenskij and the Kleterologion of Philotheos. V o n Falkenhausen (1978), p . 7, suggests that after 71 N o y e (1988). 843 Calabria became a I ourma within the theme o f Sicily. 73 Cf. v o n Falkenhausen (1978), p. 9. B r o w n (1992), p p . 27-30.

72

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SICILY

In radical contrast to the separatism evident in most of the Byzantine territories in the Italian peninsula, Sicily assumed a more central place within the imperial orbit from the seventh century. In the first half of the century it appears to have been a prosperous backwater secure from the Lombard assaults which devastated much of the mainland and retaining civil government under a praetor and resilient elements of civilian society. Following the first major raid by the Arabs in 65 2, repulsed by an expedition led by the exarch Olympius, it assumed a more central role on the political stage. After Constans II's decision to abandon Constantinople in 661 and his unsuccessful campaigns against the Lombards of southern Italy, the imperial court moved to Syracuse in 663. Although the emperor was murdered in 668, the island gained new importance as a naval base used to oppose Muslim advances in North Africa, and Justinian II elevated it into a theme in the early 690s. Its governor {strategos) came to assume authority over imperial territory in southern Italy and after the fall of the exarchal government in 751 also came to play a leading role in diplomatic negotiations with the Franks, Lombards and papacy. The effects of these changes were mixed. The influx of officials and soldiers from the east accelerated a wide-scale process of hellenisation. The origins of this are uncertain, but there is evidence that a dual Greek and Latin culture existed in the Roman period and that the Greek substrata were reinforced by immigration, most notably from Greece and the Balkans, by the early seventh century. The church remained under the jurisdiction of the see of Rome, but the hellenisation, reflected in the Greek monks encountered by eastern visitors such as Maximus the Confessor and by the Greeks from Sicily who ascended the papal throne, is in sharp contrast to the impression of Latin predominance given in the letters of Gregory the Great. On the other hand the militarisation and decentralisation involved in theme organisation must have served to strengthen local elements. One reflection of this was the revolt of the strategos Sergios in 717—18, who responded to the Arab seige of Constantinople by crowning one of his subordinates, Basil Onomagoulos, as emperor. However after his defeat of the Arabs, Leo III had no difficulty in quelling the rebellion, executing Basil and forcing Sergios to seek refuge with the Lombards across the Straits of Messina. The new emperor was prompt to recognise the economic as well as political and military value of the island. He ordered that the vast revenues previously paid to the Roman church should be transferred to the imperial fisc, and Sicily was one of the areas transferred from papal jurisdiction to that of the patriarch of Constantinople by his edict of c. 73 3. Partly as a result

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of these moves, the Latin element virtually disappeared and the process of hellenisation continued apace, as is demonstrated by a number of important saints' Lives and the importance of Greek scholars and ecclesiastics from Sicily in the eighth and ninth centuries such as Gregory Asbestas, Joseph the Hymnographer, Constantine the Sicilian and the Patriarch Methodios, whose reign saw the restoration of icons in 843. The dominant Greek culture, with its strong cosmopolitan links with the capital, appears to have been largely confined to elite groups and was limited in its local impact and character. Although several iconodules were sent into exile to Sicily and its neighbouring islands, there appears to have been large-scale migration as a result of iconoclast persecution. In general the iconoclast crisis seems to have had little impact on the island, apart from the execution of the strategos Antiochos together with eighteen other iconodule officials in Constantinople in 766, and the appointment of the strongly iconoclastic Theodore Krithinos as archbishop of Syracuse during the second wave of the movement.74 Rather, the island's attachment to icons and to Greek saints helped to bind it more closely to the empire. Nevertheless, unrest was clearly growing by the eighth century, although the pattern of this was different from the mainland. One likely factor here was economic decline. Although a full picture is only gradually emerging from archaeological surveys75, the island's prosperity was probably adversely affected by the increasing frequency of Arab raids and by a severe plague in 745-6. The island's ties with the centre were so strong that revolts seem to have reflected personal ambition or the political and religious conflicts of the capital rather than purely local separatism. A case in point is the crisis of 781, when the strategos Elpidios was accused by the Empress Irene of conspiring with her brother-in-law and the Sicilian exercitus prevented his arrest. Irene responded by sending an expedition, which defeated Elpidios' forces and compelled him to seek refuge in Africa, where he had himself crowned as emperor with Arab support.76 Unlike the mainland provinces of Italy, Sicily lacked one dominant political and cultural centre analogous to Ravenna, Rome or Naples, or an independent-minded military elite with a strong sense of local collective identity and a tradition of autonomy. As a result the population's reaction to a crisis such as that of the 820s was divided and in some respects passive. Discontent broke out early in the decade, possibly sparked off by the revolt of Thomas the Slav in the east (821-3). An attempt by Michael II to raise taxation from the island led to a rising by an anti-imperial faction. By 74 76

Gouillard (1961), pp. 386-401. For details see Treadgold, pp. 66-7.

75

For a useful survey see Johns (1993).

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826 this faction was led by the ambitious commander of the Sicilian fleet, the turmarch Euphemios, who had led successful raids against North Africa.77 When the strategos Constantine moved to arrest him, probably for his disloyalty rather than as result of the romantic excesses ascribed to him by later legend,78 Euphemios responded by seizing Syracuse, proclaiming himself emperor and then defeating and killing his superior in Catania. However, some of his supporters then switched their loyalty to the imperial government and Euphemios was forced to flee to Africa, where the Aghlabid amir Ziyadat Allah I recognised his title and granted him a fleet to attack the island. In June 827 the predominantly Arab force landed at the western port of Mazara and soon after defeated the Byzantine strategos Plato. Despite fierce resistance and some Byzantine successes the Arabs gradually extended their hold over the island, conquering Palermo in 831, Cefalu in 8 5 7 and Enna (Castrogiovanni) in 8 5 9. A decisive blow was struck when the capital, Syracuse, fell after a nine-month siege in 878 and its population was massacred79, although a few outposts survived into the tenth century.

SARDINIA

The worst-documented Byzantine province in the Italian theatre is Sardinia. In the seventh century it had close administrative ties with the Exarchate of Africa, although ecclesiastically it came under the authority of the see of Rome. It suffered from Lombard naval attacks, but these appear to have been successfully repulsed, to judge from an inscription attributing victories to the emperor (either Constans II or Constantine IV). 80 After the fall of the Exarchate of Carthage in 698 imperial rule over the island became increasingly nominal. However, Byzantine-style institutions and Greek titles apparently survived in the eighth and ninth centuries. By the latter century numerous attacks from the Arabs further weakened links with Constantinople and power became concentrated in the hands of locally appointed officials {iudices).

CONCLUSION

Over the two centuries Byzantium's position in Italy had turned virtually full circle from the outwardly hopeful but in practice precarious position of 77 78

79

Alexander (1973), pp. 9-14. Later accounts claim that Euphemios had abducted his niece from a nunnery and forced her into marriage. For the contemporary but melancholy and impersonal account of Theodosios Monachos see m Mazzarino (1940), pp. 292—313. Zuretti (1910).

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680 to the verge of a new period of power and influence in the late ninth century. Despite, and in some measure because of, the short-lived political and ecclesiastical peace which prevailed at the beginning, discontent and separatist feeling had grown rapidly. As a result of the election of local military leaders as duces the power of the emperor and his representative, the exarch, had become marginal from the late 720s. The fall of Ravenna in 751 was only one stage in the fragmentation of the Byzantine territories, but it did promote distinct development in each area. Only in the theme of Sicily and the associated duchies of Calabria and Otranto was traditional imperial control effective, assisted by a steady process of hellenisation. In Venetia and the various component parts of the duchy of Naples nominal loyalty to the empire survived side by side with growing economic sophistication and political independence under locally chosen leaders from the traditional military elite. Elsewhere, as in the Exarchate, Pentapolis and duchy of Rome, the predominant power came into the hands of high ecclesiastics, but these had to work out a modus vivendi with lay aristocratic families, and with the Frankish rulers of the kingdom of Italy after 774. In each area, however, developments were conditioned by the decentralisation which had got under way as early as the seventh century, and distinctive traditions and institutions, more often Roman than strictly Byzantine, remained powerful, as can be seen in the persistence of titles, names and legal institutions. If Byzantium's power and influence were in decline for most of the period, it still remained a force to be reckoned with, as can be seen in its successful defence of its interests in Venetia, and the preoccupation of both the Franks and the popes with their relations with the empire. In the economic, artistic and literary spheres Byzantium's impact was as considerable as ever, and was channelled through Rome as much as through the nominally Byzantine centres. Byzantine naval power was always a powerful factor, and it is this which especially enabled the empire to come into its own again as a player on the Italian scene in the second half of the ninth century. Byzantium's position was reinforced by the devastation of the Arab raids, by disenchantment with Frankish political and military weakness and by the aggressive yet pragmatic policy pursued by Michael III and Basil I. The conquest of much of the Lombard territories in Apulia, Calabria and Lucania, including Bari and Taranto (conquered in 876 and 880 respectively) ushered in a new era of nearly two centuries of Byzantine domination in southern Italy.

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CHAPTER 14

BYZANTIUM AND THE WEST, 700-900 Michael McCormick

T H E early medieval societies of Byzantium and western Europe that emerged from the late Roman world shared more than a few institutions, traditions and religious experiences. They sometimes rubbed shoulders in ways we overlook. Rome's clerical elite was so hellenised that the pope who reigned at Charlemagne's birth spoke Greek as his mother tongue. Under Charlemagne's grandsons, the entourage of St Methodius, who was born in Thessalonica, was once an imperial official in Macedonia and was later a monk in Bithynia, used Greek majuscules in the memorial book of a German monastery to record their stay. Conversely, Franks served in the Byzantine emperor's military household and figured at palace banquets. 1 Facts like these raise the broader question of how the two main entities of Christendom interacted over the six or seven generations from c. 700 to c. 900. The historical problem is not without snares. 'Influence' can be misleading: interaction between cultures rarely has one society passively undergoing the active influence of another. Once something is available, the borrowing civilisation must take the initiative in appropriating it from the other culture. So when, where and how Byzantium and the west came into direct or indirect contact needs clarifying. Moreover, though these early medieval societies evolved away from their late antique roots, those common roots are everywhere discernible, and it is easy to mistake residual for recent borrowing. 2 Even over seven generations, patterns of interaction changed. And Byzantium took as well as gave. Around 700, a kind of community of imagination preserved lingering mental links where real ones had lapsed. In England, Bede still synchronised his universal chronicle with contemporary Byzantine regnal years.3 And 1 2 3

Verbriidtrungsbuch Keichenau, 53D4—j; compare Zettler (1983); Philotheus, Kleterologion, p. 177. McCormick (1987). Bede, De Temporum Ratione, 591. Compare De Temporibus, 22; Bede gives mainly the eastern, not the western Roman imperial succession.

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Frankish celebrants, eager to use authoritative new Mass texts imported from the Byzantine duchy of Rome, sometimes seem scarcely to have noticed that they were still praying for the Roman emperor.4 Anglo-Saxon missionaries, heirs of a Byzantine missionary who had come to them from Tarsus via Rome, encouraged obedience to St Peter and a fascination with Italy that fostered face-to-face meetings with Byzantine provincial civilisation. Paradoxically, by 900 actual contacts had increased and the old imaginary links were gone. In Byzantine eyes western Europeans' Christianity still created the basis for special relations with the empire. Traditional barbarian stereotypes still prevailed at Constantinople: the Franks were brave but stupid fighters, emotional and undisciplined, and recent experience confirmed their avid corruptibility.5 If eighth-century Byzantines imagined Rome as a typical Byzantine town and the popes as obedient functionaries reverently storing imperial communiques near the tomb of Peter or routinely transmitting them to western barbarians, ninth-century strains induced an angry emperor to brand the pope and his Latin language as 'barbarian'.6 'Byzantines', of course, never existed as such: the empire of Constantinople was known to inhabitants and enemies alike as Roman, a usage into which even a hostile Einhard slips.7 Its subjects might simply identify themselves as 'Christians'.8 Westerners might lump the empire's inhabitants together under the simplistic linguistic heading Graeci, particularly when they wished to ignore the uncomfortable political implications of eastern imperial continuity. Beneath the uniformity of its Greek public language and tax payments to the emperor in Constantinople, the empire was multi-ethnic: Armenians, Syrians, Slavs, Italians, Istrians all swore allegiance to the Roman emperor, and as cultivated a man as Einhard casually identifies a eunuch with a Slavic name as a 'Greek'.9 But the ancient empire had changed since the days of Justinian's reconquests.

EARLY MEDIEVAL BYZANTIUM

The upheavals of the seventh century had transformed Byzantium. The old urban fabric of the Roman empire largely gave way. Though the precise causes and chronology remain controversial, archaeological evidence shows that, in the long run, the cities of Asia Minor and the Balkan peninsula fared 4 5 6

8

Tellenbach (1934/5), pp. 19-21. Leo VI, Taktika, 18, 77; it, 85-9; cf. Dagron (1987), pp. 217-18. Pseudo-Gregory II, Ep. 1; recent arguments assigning these texts to Rome have left me 7 unconvinced. For Michael III on Latin, Nicholas I, Ep. 88. Vita Karo/i, 28. Mango (1980), p. 31. ' Translatio Marcellini et Petri, 4, 1.

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little better than those of western Europe. Starting in 542 and recurring cyclically until 767, the great Justinianic plague and connected infections presided over sharp demographic contraction.10 The provincial towns that limped on served mainly as seats of ecclesiastical and political administration. Despite streams of refugees, even the capital of Constantinople shrank dramatically in population.11 The rise of Islam had violently reduced the empire's geographic scale and institutional structures. Heraclius' (610-41) bitter war to free the wealthy eastern provinces from Persian occupation was wasted by cataclysmic Islamic victories from the Golan Heights (636) to Carthage (698). In 674-8 and 717—18, the Arabs besieged the capital itself. The old Danube frontier and much of the Balkans were overrun by Slavs, Avars and Bulgars, though the imperial government still clung to coastal strongholds like Thessalonica or Monemvasia. Rome and Ravenna hung by a thread as the Lombards expanded their power down Italy's mountainous spine. Emperor Constans IPs (641—68) bold attempt to defend the empire's southern flank by transferring imperial headquarters back to Italy (663—8) collapsed with his murder.12 For a government whose professional bureaucracy and military forces were sustained largely by a land tax levied on the provinces, the fiscal implications of such territorial losses were devastating, amounting to .s much as three-quarters of revenues.13 Defeat and the fiscal crunch forced radical administrative and military reconfigurations in the empire's besieged remnants. And conjugated disaster opened more than a political crisis in a society which lived and breathed its religious sentiment: the challenge of Islam was ideological no less than political and military. Was the sect in whose sign the Roman empire