The Flower World in Material Culture: An Iconographic Complex in the Southwest and Mesoamerica

The Flower World in Material Culture: An Iconographic Complex in the Southwest and Mesoamerica Author(s): Kelley Hays-Gilpin and Jane H. Hill Source: Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Spring, 1999), pp. 1-37 Published by: University of New Mexico Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630976 . Accessed: 02/05/2011 21:01 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=unm. . Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

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THE FLOWERWORLD IN MATERIALCULTURE: AN ICONOGRAPHICCOMPLEXIN THE SOUTHWEST AND MESOAMERICA Kelley Hays-Gilpin NorthernArizonaUniversity,P.O.Box 15200, Departmentof Anthropology, Flagstaff,AZ86011-5200 JaneH. Hill of Department Anthropology, Universityof Arizona,P.O.Box 210030, Tucson,AZ85721-0030 Uto-Aztecanpeoples of Mesoamericaand the U.S. Southwest, togetherwith neighboring Puebloand Mayangroups, share a systemof verbalimageryevokinga floweryspirit world. This study traces Flower Worldimagery in visual arts in the prehistoricSouthwestand explorespossible contextsand chronologyfor visual expressionsof the Flower Worldand possiblelinks to Mesoamerica.Flower Worldimageryappearsmost coherentlyin the twelfth century,in Mimbresmortuaryceramicsandpaintedwoodenritualregaliafrom theMimbres and Chaco Canyon areas, in thirteenth-centuryKayentaAnasazi wooden ritual regalia, and in fifteenth-centuryHopi and Rio Grandekiva murals. We argue that Flower World imageryplayedan importantrolein theemergenceof thePuebloanKachina religionand the broadericonographiccomplexwhich Crown terms the "SouthwestRegional Cult."Flower imagerymay representrecruitmentof a female symbol into an increasinglyformal maledominatedritual system.

THE FLOWERWORLDHYPOTHESIS HILL(1992) PROPOSED the presence in the Southwestand Mesoamericaof a of and metaphorabouta "FlowerWorld."Hill'swork concomplex imagery centrated on verbal art, where the Flower World is invoked by mentioning specific flowers, by metaphors where flowers stand for the life force, and by labeling objects and beings as "flowery."She found that Flower Worldimagery Research,vol. 55, 1999 Journalof Anthropological Copyright@by The Universityof New Mexico 1

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is restrictedin its distributionamongthe variousgenres of verbalart. It is particularlyassociatedwith the genre of song, is rare in oratory,and is not foundin narratives(exceptin the so-calledrecitatives[Sapir1910]:songs that punctuatethe recitationof narrativesin the fullwinter-seasonperformances). The specificFlowerWorldcomplexincludesthe followingelements, all attested in song in the SouthwestandMesoamerica: 1. The "FlowerWorld"is the spiritland,the landwherethe deadgo, and the landwhere livingbeingshave their spiritualdimension. 2. The spiritlandis a beautifulchromaticworldthat includesnot only flowersbut also colorfulbirds,butterflies,andrainbows. 3. The spiritualdimensionoflivingbeingsandritualobjectscanbe evoked by associatingthem with flowers. 4. Flowersare metaphorsfor the soul andthe heart. 5. Flowersare associatedwithfire. 6. Whileflowersare associatedwithfemalebeautyandfertilitythroughoutthe Americas,as wellas in mostofthe rest of the world,the Flower Worldcomplexspecificallyis often associatedwith male ritualpractice (as in the Kachinareligion)or maledomains(suchas AztecwarfareandYaquiandPimanhunting). Hill'sfindingswere basedalmostentirelyon evidencefromverbalartof the historicperiod.The presentarticlereportsan assessmentby Hays-Gilpinof the evidencefor the FlowerWorldin the prehistoricmaterialcultureof the Southwest.1Whilewe havefoundno previousinvestigationsof the flowermotif or elements commonlyassociatedwith it in materialculture,severalrecent contexts.These includeCrown(1994)on studiesexplorerelatediconographic a "SouthwestRegionalCult"manifestin Saladopolychromepotteryof the fourteenth and earlyfifteenthcenturiesandMoulard(1984) on ClassicMimbres conceptsof the Underworldas manifestedin potteryfromthe late eleventh andearlytwelfthcenturies.An importantquestionis, howarethe ideologiesof MimbresUnderthe FlowerWorld,Crown'sSouthwestRegionalCult,Moulard's world,andthe Kachinareligion(see Adams1991;Schaafsma1994)relatedto how are these ideologiesrelatedto ritualpractices one another?Furthermore, involvingthe invocationof FlowerWorldimageryevidentin Mesoamerican wallpaintings(Pasztory1988;see Freidl,Schele, materials,as intheTeotihuacan andParker1993:183-84for discussionof Mayaconceptsof the WhiteFlower andMcCafferty 1991foran analysisof genderideologyand SoulandMcCafferty flowerson spindlewhorlsin ancientCholula)? We argue that Flower Worldideologyis ancientamongthe Uto-Aztecan peoples. The system may have originatedwhen the flower,widely attested around the world as a symbol of female progenitive power (Goody 1993), was recruited to male ritualpractice. Since such cross-gender recruitments of symbolic materials have been identified in ritual practice around the world, this process could have taken place independentlyin Mesoamericaand in the South-

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west. We suggest that periodic efflorescences of these images in material culture give evidence of struggles over the control of Flower World imagery that may have intensified during periods of heightened economic stress and social tension. We return to these issues in the conclusion.

SURVEYOF FLOWERWORLDIMAGERYIN SOUTHWESTMATERIALCULTURE Media examined include rock art, pottery, murals, textiles, wood carvings, shell, and baskets. Hays-Gilpin looked for representations of flowers, birds, butterflies, and rainbows, because these are mentioned in the songs studied by Hill (1992). A summary of the distributionaldata on representational figuresflowers, birds, butterflies, and rainbows-is presented in Appendix A. Appendixes B-E present more detailed informationon these icons and include references to at least one example of each icon in each medium, area, and time period listed in Appendix A. The references listed supply examples from both primary sources and more accessible secondary sources such as recently published compendia of Indian art. RecognizingFlower Images We note the problem of recognizing images of flowers in Southwestern iconography. Flowers with leaves and stems, or seedy centers like sunflowers, are easy to recognize as vegetal (Figure ib). Moulard (1984:xxi) has pointed out that the cross-hatched element that constitutes the center of "sunflower"im-

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Figure1. Flowerson Pottery a. Possibleflowerson Anasazipotterypriorto A.D.1300:Puercoor ShowlowBlack-onredbowlfromKiatuthlanna, easternArizona(afterRoberts1931:Plate16b);b. Hohokam Red-on-buff flowerpattern(afterGregonisandReinhard1979:40). platewithunequivocal Drawingsby RonaldBeckwith.

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ages may also have celestialsignificance,specificallyrepresentingthe Milky Way.Manycircularrayedfiguresin pottery,rock art, andjewelry mightbe flowersor celestialobjectssuchas the sun, stars,Venus,or, in materialsfrom Chaco and Mimbres (circa A.D.1000-1150), even the supernova of A.D.1054.

forinstance,has clearly Ambiguitymightwell be intentional.The "sunflower," been bothfloralandcelestialfor Europeans,due to its round,rayedshapeand motionas attestedinits Englishname,inthe Spanishnamegirasol, sun-following andin the LinneannameHelianthus.Since allusionsbetweencelestialbodies andshieldsare frequentin Pueblointerpretations of iconography, some circularfigureswithrays couldrepresentshields.2In this survey,rayedcirclesare presentedas possibleflowers (Figurela). However,where we indicatethat flowersare present,we have identifiedat least one unequivocalflowerdepiction (Figureib). and Geographic Distributionof FlowerWorldImagery Temporal This section summarizesoccurrencesof FlowerWorldimages,organized by geographyandtime.This summaryrevealsthat,just as FlowerWorldimagery is very limitedin its distributionin verbalculture(Hill1992),its distribution is similarlylimitedin materialculture.Limitationsin time, space, and mediumare quitestriking,especiallygiven the ubiquitousrepresentationsof flowersin materialculturein the OldWorld(Goody1993). HohokamRegion. Realisticsunflowerswithrayedpetalsandseedy centers appearon Hohokampotteryof centralandsouthernArizonaperhapsas early as the A.D.500s (see Haury1976:Fig.12.85;GregonisandReinhard1979:40; ASM [ArizonaState Museum]catalogno. 94-34-272),but examples(Figure ib) are rare.The birdsdepictedon Hohokampotteryare waterbirds,suchas pelicansandcranes,andquail,ratherthanthe colorfulbirdsofthe FlowerWorld complex.Similarthemesappearin rockart,andbirdsandsunburstshapesare frequentin shell jewelry.In the collectionsexamined,however,flowersand birdsnever appearon the same object.The onlyexampleof a rainbowis very late, on a paintedprayerstick fromDoubleButte Cave,a 1300s-eraSalado shrinenearTempe (Haury1945).Prayersticks there also bore depictionsof stars,snakes,centipedes,anda kachina.A probablebirdwingfroma composite woodenobjectresemblesa woodenbirdfromHough'sUpperGilacaves in the Mogollonarea,describedbelow.Thus,even thoughPimanpeoples,among the probabledescendantsofthe Hohokam,haveFlowerWorldsongs(Hill1992), Hohokampeopledo not appearto haverepresentedthis complexin theirsurvivingvisualarts untilafterA.D.1300,if at all. AnasaziandMogollonRegions,A.D.1 to 1300.Rayedfiguresappearin rock art of this era sporadically throughoutthe Southwest.These figuresare never associatedwith otherFlowerWorldelements.Duringthe same period,rayed circles that might be flowers, celestial objects, or nonrepresentationalmotifs appear in ceramics in the Upper San Juan, Mesa Verde, Puerco Valley of the West, and Zuni areas (Figure la; Appendix B). Birds appear much earlier than flowers in these regions and have a wide

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distribution.They are frequentin Basketmakerrock art, perhapsdatingas earlyas A.D.1, andare infrequentbut presentin the BasketmakerIIIpottery andbasketsdatingaroundA.D.600. Birdeffigyvessels appearas earlyas A.D. 200 in the PetrifiedForest (Wendorf1953),andelaboratelypaintedbirdeffigies are frequentin PuebloIII and IV periodpotteryassemblages(see, for example,Smith1971:414-16).A wide varietyof birdscanbe identifiedin pottery and rock art, includingwadingbirds,ducks,turkeys,and raptors.Birds remaina populartopicfor Pueblopotterydecorationeven today. Rainbowsare especiallydifficultto recognizein monochromatic mediasuch as petroglyphs.Parallelarcedlines are frequentin Fremontrockart of Utah (Castleton1984).These are not well dated,but Basketmakerones in the Four Cornersarea probablydate to aboutthe sixth to eighth centuries.Probable rainbowimagesdo not appearin directassociationwithflowersandbirdsuntil well after A.D.1300.

Evidenceforthe FlowerWorldcomplexpriorto A.D.1300is weakto nonexistent in the regionwith the followingexceptions:flowersandbirdsappearin MimbrespotteryandMimbresandChacoCanyonpaintedwoodenritualregalia no earlierthanA.D.1000 (Brody1977;Moulard1984;Vivian,Dodgen,and Hartmann1978;Cosgrove1947;Hough1914).These complexes,whichlast untilA.D.1150 andpossiblylater,provideour strongestcases for the expression of the FlowerWorldcomplexin prehistoricmaterialculturepriorto A.D. 1300. MimbresCeramics.Flowers, birds, butterflies,and rainbowsappearon Mimbresmortuaryceramics(Figure2), butthese iconsare not regularlyassociatedwith each other in this medium.One Mimbresceramicvessel bears rainbowson its exterior(Moulard1984:131).Flowersare just as likelyto appearwithbatsandrabbitsas withbirds.For example,in the GalazRuinwhole vessel assemblage(Anyonand LeBlanc1984),of about821 vessels, 27 have singleradialfiguresthatfill the wholedesignfieldandmayrepresenta single flower(butcouldalsorepresentthe sun, a featheredshield,or somethingelse. Note thatTewa potterMariaMartinez'srevivalof one versionof this design, paintedby her husband,JulianMartinez,is oftencalleda "feather"design;cf. Peterson1977:117,Fig. 298). Two bowlsfromGalazshowmultiple,recognizablyvegetalflowerswithgeometricelements.Two designsshowflowerswith rabbits,andone each shows flowerswith a frog,a bat,andbirds.Thereare at least 36 representationsof birdswithoutflowersat Galaz.These includemacaws,but also turkeys,raptors,waterbirds,andothers.Birdsandflowersdo not dominatethe life-formrepertoire.There are, in addition,27 representations of fish, 17 humans,43 quadrupeds, 3 bats, 19 insects (onlya few of them butterflies),and22 frogs,turtles,andlizards.Butterfliesappearon Mimbres potteryfromsites otherthanGalazandare depictedin Brody(1977:Fig.168) andDavis(1995:156,193);see Figure2e. The context of Flower World imagery is probablymortuaryin the Mimbres area, at least in ceramics. Although many pots have use wear, showing that they were not made only to be buriedwith the dead (Bray 1982), most Mimbres

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Figure 2. Flowers, Birds, Butterflies, and a Bat on Mimbres Black-on-White Bowls Drawings by Hattie Cosgrove from Davis 1995, courtesy of C. Burton Cosgrove, Jr.; except upper right drawing by Ronald Beckwith after Brody 1977:164.

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Black-on-white bowlswith the representational imagesdiscussedhere apparwere found inverted over the heads of deceased individuals.Moulard ently that these bowls the UnderworldSky (1984) persuasivelyargues represent and that the images on them representthe SpiritWorld.Flowers are fairly frequentin Mimbrespotteryif the single field-fillingradialdesignsdescribed aboveare countedas flowers.One such designhas two crossed,handledobjects-probablyrattles-superpositionedacrossa seedy-centeredflower(Figure 2d;Davis 1995:184).Fish, turtle,frog,andwaterbirddepictionsare more frequentthanflowers,at least at the GalazRuin(Anyonand LeBlanc1984), suggestingthatthe MimbresSpiritWorldmighthavebeen morewaterythan flowery.This is consistentwith Zuniviews (Bunzel1932;Dutton1963:185). An abundanceof quadrupeds suchas mountainsheep andantelope(Figure2b) mightindicatea concernwith huntingin the SpiritWorldor with SpiritHelpers in these guises. Nonetheless, flowers are present sometimes. One bowl shows humans wearingflowers(Davis1995:190).Somebowlshaveflowersandanimals(rabbits,birds,rodents)inset intogeometricbands,andsome haveanimals(frogs, bats) emblazonedwith flowers (Anyonand LeBlanc1984). A flying bat has flowers on his wings, representingone of our strong cases of "unequivocal flowers"andprobablymarkinghim as a spiritbat, perhapsa messenger between worlds (Moulard1984:Plate37; Davis 1995:156depicts a second instance,reproducedhere in Figure2a). Moulard(1984:124)observesthatbats are associatedwith deathand the Underworld(we note that bats can easily be observed exiting caves at sundown,a powerfulimage of mediationbetween earthandsky, lightanddarkness)andthatthe representationsof flowers on bat wings may have been intendedto "temper"the associationof the batwithdeath,convertingthis imageto one of resurrection.Hill(1992)found, however,that in verbalart no evidencefor much"tempering"appears.The appellation"flowery"marksthe spiritaspect of animals,as opposedto their everydaymaterialnature. Macawsare presentin the MimbresUnderworldas well, sometimesinteractingwithhumans,butrarelyif ever associatedwithflowers.Moulard(1996) notes thatmacawsenjoyhangingupsidedown,andartistsoftendepictedthem in this pose-perhaps a sign thatmacawstranscend,or at least playwith,the boundariesbetweenthis worldandthe Underworld. Macawsandparrotswere the most colorfulbirdsknownto Puebloanpeople. Depictionsof them, and actualmacawremains, some almost certainlyimportedas live birds from Mesoamerica,appearin the eleventhcenturyin the Chaco,PuercoValleyof the West, andMimbresareas.Representationsof macawsapparentlyappear somewhatlater, in the A.D.1200s and 1300s, in the Mesa Verde, Kayenta, MogollonRim,LittleColorado,andSinaguaareas(see Thompson1994:103for a brief review and references). Painted Wood. Painted wood items appear in contexts, such as caves and storerooms, that suggest storage or "retirement" of ritual items. While it is possible that the items were used in contexts of a mortuary nature, painted

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Figure 3. Painted Wood Flowers and Birds a. From Chetro Ketl, Chaco Canyon (after Vivian, Dodgen, and Hartmann 1978); b. wooden flower petals and bird from the Mimbres area caves in the Upper Gila drainage (after Cosgrove 1947). Drawings by Ronald Beckwith.

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woodobjectsare not attestedas gravegoodsin the Southwestexceptas occasionalprayersticks with markingsthat do not clearlydepictlife-forms.For example,the birdsandflowerson paintedwoodenobjectsin DoolittleandBear Creek Caves in the UpperGilaarea (Cosgrove1947;Hough1914) are nonatleast,theyarenotgravegoods.Thesecavesmayhavebeenshrines mortuary; for the offering,temporarystorage,or permanentretirementof ritualitems. ChacoandMogollonPaintedWood.A cacheof woodenritualitems in Room 93 at ChetroKetlin ChacoCanyon(Figure3a)datingto A.D.1052-1120(Vivian, Dodgen,andHartmann1978;DeanandWarren1983)containeddepictionsin paintedwoodof flowers,a macaw,andanotherbird.The contextis not mortuary but is more likely one of storageor "retirement"of ritualitems. It is, of course,possiblethat the items were used in performancesof a mortuarynaturebutwerereturnedto storageafteruse ratherthanbeingdepositedingraves. Carvedandpaintedwoodenbirdsalso appearin caves of the Mimbresarea, sometimeswith probableflowerpetals fromcompositepaintedwoodobjects and sometimeswith smallcoiled basketswith flowerlikedesigns (Cosgrove 1947;Hough1914);see Figure3b. These caches of ritualregaliaare poorly dated.They all likely date to sometimebetween A.D.900 and 1300, but one (Doolittle Cave) was associatedwith MimbresBlack-on-white(A.D. 10001150) sherds (Cosgrove 1947); so at least some of these caches could be attributedto the MimbresMogollonculture (A.D. 1000-1150). Provenience data do not meet contemporaryarchaeologicalstandards,however, so this date must remainquestionable.The Bear Creek cache (Hough 1914) was associatedwith brownware sherds,andlackingany furtherdescriptivedata, these couldhavebeen madeas late as the A.D.1300s. FeatherCave,a northernJornadaMogollonritualcave nearLincolnandCapitan,New Mexico,containeda woodenbird,but no recognizableflowers,andis also poorlydatedits investigatorspresent a date rangeof A.D. 900-1300 (Ellis and Hammack 1968).The cave containedarrows,crooks,prayersticks, andpictographsof a face (identifiedas a Sun Face), a ladderlikeobjectperhapsidentifiableas a rainbow,concentriccircles identifiedas the sun, andhandprints,in addition to the aforementionedwoodenbird(Ellis and Hammack1968). Drawingon Puebloanethnography,Ellis and HammackidentifyFeather Cave as a Sun and Earthshrine that would have been used twice a year at the solstices. Since this site is so poorlydated,there is no reasonto concludethat all the artifactsandrock art are contemporaneous. KayentaandMesaVerdeAnasaziPaintedWood.Inmostof the Anasaziarea, northof the Mimbrescountry,exceptingChaco,flowersare virtuallyabsent untilthe middleor late PuebloIII period(ca. A.D.1200-1300).Flowersthen appear,togetherwith birdimages,in paintedritualregaliain SunflowerCave in the Kayentaarea(KidderandGuernsey1919)andothernorthernsites. The cache of painted wood and leather sunflowers (Figure 4a) at Sunflower Cave near Kayenta was stored in a Pueblo III period ceramic jar (Kidder and Guernsey 1919). A carved bird, painted blue, yellow, and red with white spots, also was present, together with wooden cones that may also represent flowers

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Figure 4. Kayenta Anasazi Wood, Leather, and Gourd Flowers and Birds a. The Sunflower Cave cache (after Kidder and Guernsey 1919:Plate 61); b. birds from the Montezuma Creek cache (after Cummings 1915:280 and 1953); c. flowers from the Bonita Creek cache (after Wasley 1962). Drawings by Ronald Beckwith.

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(cf. cone-shapedflowers used on historic-periodHopi altars [Geertz 1987]). ByronCummingscollectedan identical,but isolated,carvedandpaintedsunflowerin a cavein the BubblingSpringbranchof Tsegi Canyon,west of Kayenta (ASMcatalogno. 1131). A cachefoundin a cave on BonitaCreekin southernArizona,in a Maverick MountainPolychromejardatingbetweenA.D.1280and1310,haswoodenflowers (Figure4c) paintedturquoiseanddarkblue,woodencones, stringsof very smallcoiledbaskets,anda turquoise-painted woodencruciform pendantclaimed byWasley(1962)to representa bird.Wasleyarguesconvincinglythatthe cache was depositedby migrantKayentans;MaverickMountainPolychromeis identical in style to the Kayentantype Kiet Siel Polychromebut is madeof local, southernArizonamaterials. A thirdcacheof woodenbirdsandpossibleflowerdepictionsmadeof gourds (Figure4b) was foundin the MontezumaCreekareaof southernUtah,in the westernMesaVerdeculturearea(Cummings1953:205-9).It remainsundated. This cache lackswoodencones, but it does containsmallperforatedwooden cylindersandslit perforatedcylindersCummingscalls"tinklers."These items were in a plainwarejarthatCummingsdatedto the BasketmakerIIIor Pueblo I perioddueto its crudity.However,morerecentstudiesof ceramicsjust south of the MontezumaCreekareasuggestthatlate PuebloIIIperiodutilitywareis far"cruder" thanearliertypes (FairleyandCallahan1985).Allof these Kayenta area woodenbirdsare very similarto historicHopiand Zunipieces (Geertz 1987:Plate10; Stevenson1904:Plates58, 59, 116, 127). These carvedwoodenitems almostcertainlywere partof ritualregalialike thatworntodayby kachinasandotherritualfigures,suchas HopiFlutepriests. Because these objectsare perishableand were only preservedin caves and otherunusualconditions,we donothavea clearnotionof theiroriginaldistribution in space and time. Nonetheless,the dates, contexts,and associationsof these objectssuggestthatmanyof the cave cachesare closelyrelatedandthat the contentsof some,notablythe threeKayentaAnasazisites (SunflowerCave, MontezumaCreek,and BonitaCreek)andat least two of the Mogollonsites (BearCreekandDoolittleCaves),indicatethe presenceof the FlowerWorld complex. PuebloIIIFlowersin PotteryandMurals.Possibleflowersappearon Mesa Verde Black-on-white(Brody 1990) and Santa Fe Black-on-white(Pippin 1987:Fig.19j)potterydatingto the A.D.1200s, as well as on the late White MountainRedWaretype PinedalePolychromeof the northernMogollonarea. Most of these depictionsare rayedcircles or triangle-rayed circlesthatcould also representthe sun or stars;none are unequivocally vegetal. Wallpaintingsin kivas and other rooms remainedmostly geometricuntil sometimein the late A.D.1200s,a trendnotedalso in ceramics.Even so, muralsarerare,andlife-formseven rarer,in this period.Muralsapparently dating to the A.D.1200sdepictingbirdsandflowerswere exposedby Hibben(citedin Smith1952:Fig.7, pp.65-66) in the Gallinaareaof northernNew Mexico(Figure 5a).Flowersshownin these muralsare manypetalledandemanatefroma

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Figure5. KivaMurals a. PuebloII periodkivamuralsfromthe Gallinaareashowingplantsandflyingbirds (leftandcenter)andfromthe MesaVerdeareashowingmacaws(right)(Smith1952:Fig. animalsat Awatovi(Smith1952:Fig. 7);b. muralwithfloweredbasebandandburrowing 71) (figuresfromSmith1952reprintedcourtesyof the PeabodyMuseumof American ArchaeologyandEthnology,HarvardUniversity);c. kivamuralwithbutterfliesat PotandFrankHibben). tery Mound(fromHibben1975:15,courtesyof KCPublications

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verticalstalk,like sunflowersor yucca.Macaws,like those in Figure5a,butno flowers,appearin PuebloIII periodmuralsnear McElmoCanyon,Colorado, andin MesaVerdecliffdwellings(Smith1952:Fig.7). Unlessothershavefaded awaywith time, colorsare limitedto red,white,andblack. PuebloIVPottery,KivaMurals,andOtherMedia.Unequivocal highlynaturalistic flowers,as well as rayedcircles,appearon manykindsof potteryin the fourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesin the Hopi,LittleColorado,MogollonRim, andCentralBasinareas,as well as CasasGrandesin northernMexico(Appendix B). Birdsappearfrequently,especiallymacaws,but also turkeys,raptors, are often menpossibleducks,and at least one Stellar'sjay. Hummingbirds tioned in FlowerWorldsongs (Hill 1992), but their depictionis rare in the Southwest:one possiblehummingbird depictionappearson a fourteenth-centuryJedditoYellowWarepotsherdfromthe Homol'oviarea (Homol'oviResearchProgramslide collection,ArizonaState Museum).Butterfliesappear on severalkindsof potteryin the fourteenthcentury(AppendixD). Rockart depictionsof butterfliesare probablyalso fourteenthcenturyor later,andkiva muraldepictionsare probablyfifteenthcentury. Kivamuralsof the A.D.1400s(orpossiblyearly1500s)provideourstrongest case for depictionof a flowerySpiritWorld.A muralat PotteryMoundshows giantbutterfliescarryingflowersby theirstems (Hibben1975:Fig.8); see Figure 5c. Arcs above their heads may representclouds. Kiva 10 has a mural (Hibben1975:Fig.44) showingthree macawseatingcorn (or emittingrudimentaryspeech scrolls!),rainbowbands,andan arc of featherssimilarto the paintedwood"plumearc"fromthe ChetroKetlRoom93 assemblageofwooden items (Vivian,Dodgen,andHartmann1978:Fig.2.8). Macaws,a butterfly-humanfigure,anddragonfliescavortarounda maidenon a panelwith a rainbow base band(Hibben1975:Fig.45). At Awatovi,flowers,burrowinganimals(skunk,black-footedferret),anda possiblebirdappearon rainbowbase bands(Smith1952:Figs.61, 71, for example);see Figure5b. Manyof the flowershaveunequivocalpetalsandseedy centers, but some base bandelements are simplyquarteredcircles. Similar quarteredcirclesappearstackedin bowls or basketsset on the rainbowbase bandat bothAwatoviandKawaika-a(Smith1952:Figs.49, 60, 66, 71, 79, 86). These may representfood offeringsratherthanflowers.Depictionsof nineteenth-centuryHopialtars,however,sometimesincludestackedhalf-gourds withsimilarquartereddesignspaintedon theirinteriorsurfaces,andthese are saidto representflowers(Geertz1987). andPotteryMoundmurals TherainbowbasebandsintheAwatovi,Kawaika-a, and the SpiritWorld.Figures this world interface between the mayrepresent andobjectsstandingon the base bandare in the SpiritWorld,while we stand on the floorof the kiva,in this world,observingthe otherworldlyscene that would have formed a backdropfor altars and ritual performances. These Spirit World scenes include Flower World images of flowers, butterflies, macaws, and other birds, as well as celestial objects, animals, insects, ritual paraphernalia, corn, clouds, and probabledeities. The appearanceof burrowinganimals on

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the rainbowbasebandsmaybe due to the abilityof skunks,ferrets,andothers to movebetweenthis worldandthe Underworld. Flowersarefrequentin fifteenth-century muralsat the Hopisites of Awatovi and Kawaika-a(Smith 1952) and at the Rio Grandesite of Pottery Mound (Hibben1975). BerthaDuttonnotes a few possibleflowersat Kuaua,a Rio Grandesite nearAlbuquerque (CoronadoState Monument).Dutton,who believed that Kuauawas settled by Zunimigrantssometimein the A.D.1300s, consulteda Zunispeaker,Zna'ote,who identifiedthe figurein the muralsas the Corn-EarthMother.This figurewears a floweron her head,a Sky-Sun Fathermaskon herface,anda birdlikedress (Dutton1963:Fig.54). The malefemale dualityin this identificationfits very well with argumentspresented belowaboutgendersymbolismin FlowerWorldiconography. AnotherKuaua a holds stalk with that Dutton first identifiesas ears figure leafy protuberances of corn.Duttonthen notes thather Zuniconsultantidentifiedthese imagesas daturablossoms,probablybecauseotherfeaturesof the figureled himto identify it with a Zunipersonagewho usuallycarriesdatura,a sacredplantthat causes dreamsand visions (Dutton1963:Fig.96 and pp. 69-70; we think it looks like cornstalks). Rainbowsreappearin muralsandpaintedaltarstones of the fifteenthcentury in the Hopi,Canyonde Chelly,and Little ColoradoRiverareasandare frequentin modernPuebloregaliaandaltars(see AppendixE). Rainbowsare not directlyassociatedwith flowerandbirdimagesuntilthe fifteenth-century murals.Rainbows,like flowers,can be difficultto recognize.Hays-Gilpinfocused on arcs of parallellines in bichromemediaandarcs of differentcolored lines in coloredmedia.Rainbowsneed not be representedas arcs. For exoften includeshort sets of parallelcoloredlines ample,Navajosandpaintings the rainbow often seen connectingthe earthandlow cloudsdurrepresenting desert In rainstorms. ing describingthe rock art of FeatherCave,Ellis and Hammack(1968:35),citingParsons(1939:310),note thatsome Pueblopeople representbothrainbowsandthe MilkyWayas ladderlikefigures,becausethey are laddersto the UpperWorld.Ellis thereforesuggests that the ladderlike figurenext to the Sun Face pictographin FeatherCaverepresentsa rainbow. ExceptforEllis'sexample,laddersare not includedhere as rainbows,because we do not knowif this attributionhas time depth(sometimesa ladderis probablyjust a ladder).Althoughnot tabulated,laddersare not frequentin the materialexamined.Moulard(1996)notes that some Pueblotraditionsview rainbows andthe MilkyWayas pathwaysbetweenworlds;rainbowsare daytime checkerboard paths,andthe MilkyWay,often depictedas a black-and-white band,is a nighttimepath. HistoricPueblos.Hopialtarsof the nineteenthcenturysometimesincluded woodenbirds,gourdflowers,andcarvedwoodenflowers,andthese elements are also found as part of the regalia of kachinas and other supernaturals(see, for example, Geertz 1987; Wright 1973; Fox 1988; Stevenson 1904:Plate 103). Flowers are prominent on the Hopi Flute Society altar. Flute dancers wear fresh sunflowers andplace flowers along their path (Stephen 1936:789-90, 809).

THEFLOWER CULTURE WORLDIN MATERIAL

15

Flowersalso appearin kivawallpaintings(Dutton1963;Hibben1975;Smith 1952).Some Hopialtarsincludedrypaintings,andthese are oftenboundedby a rainbow(Geertz1987).Birdsare frequenton Zunialtars(Stevenson1904), butflowersare muchrarerthanat Hopi;this is consistentwiththe absenceof flowerimageryfromZuniprayersrecordedby Bunzel(1932).Flowerimagery does appearin Zunideer songs, however(Tedlock1992:123).Butterfliesand flowers also appearin modem Pueblo blanketsworn in the Hopi Butterfly Dance,3a social dance.In contrastto the prehistoricperiod,flowersappear ubiquitouslyin historicpotteryandbasketry(AppendixB); we take this to be at least partlythe result of Europeaninfluence.Flowerson manyhistoricRio Grande(e.g.,ZiaandAcoma-Laguna) vessels, forexample,are oftenveryrealisticandresembleSpanishcolchaembroiderydesigns(see, forexample,Fisher 1979).4

SummaryandDiscussion Hill's(1992)systematicstudyof verbaltexts revealeda complexof imagery describinga colorful,flowerySpiritWorldin songs.The searchforflowersand otherimagesmentionedin these songs, particularly colorfulbirds,butterflies, andrainbows,in materialcultureitems of the Southwestshowedstrongpatterns in time, space,andmedium,as well as contextualparallelswiththe verbal data.Althoughperhapsalwaysexpressedand transmittedacross generations in songs, strongexpressionof the FlowerWorldin materialcultureis limitedto certaintimes, places,andconditions. Ourstrongest cases for the presence of the FlowerWorldcomplexin the prehistoricSouthwest-Mimbres potteryandwoodenartifacts,ChacoCanyon and Kayentanwooden artifacts,and Pueblo IV periodmuralsand, to a lesser extent, ceramics-are made by examiningtwo aspects of the context of flower depictions:the associationof flowers with the other Flower Worldicons andthe context of use of flower-bearingartifacts.The expected ,FlowerWorldimages(flowers,birds,butterflies,andrainbows)are not regularlyrepresentedtogether in the same tableauxuntil the fifteenth-century kiva muralsof Awatovi,Kawaika-a,and Pottery Mound,and they continue to appeartogether in contemporaryPuebloanregaliaandin Hopialtars.All four icons begin to appearin the same media and areas in the A.D.1200s, albeit rarely on the same object (i.e., there are altar slabs with birds and altarslabs with rainbows,but no slabs with both;butterflies,macaws,and flowers appearon vessels, but not together on the same pots). The regular associationsof flowers with coloredbirdsbegan earlier,however.Material culture evidence suggests that the MimbresMogollonand ChacoAnasazi expressed Flower Worldimagery in ritual regalia duringthe eleventh to twelfth centuries, while the Mimbresalso placed Flower Worldimagery with the deadon ceramics.KayentaAnasazipeople producedsimilaritems of ritualregaliadepictingflowers andbirdsin the late thirteenthcentury.A very widespreadexpression of Flower Worldimagery burgeonedover a wide region and several media in the fourteenthcentury, culminatingin

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OFANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH JOURNAL

fifteenth-centurykiva muralsandhistoricPuebloanrituallyassociatedregalia, altars,andmurals. or "cult" The FlowerWorldcomplexshouldnotbe interpretedas a "religion" in its own right.Instead,the complexconstitutedone of several"partideologies" or a set of symbolictools thatremainedavailable,eitherseparatelyor in to the ritualpracticeandthoughtof Southwesternpeopleover a combination, longperiodof time. Whenthe complexwas activated,as in the Mimbresor in PuebloIV,it was probablya partof some largerideologicaldevelopment.For instance,FlowerWorldimagerycan be used to contemplatethe contrastbetween this worldandthe flowerySpiritWorld.Sucha use of these imagesis clearin verbalart(Hill1992)andis stronglysuggestedby some of the material cultureevidence. Severalproposalsaboutmajorideologicaldevelopmentsin which Flower Worldimageryis deployedappearin the literature.These includeShafer's (1995)proposalforincreasingemphasisonthe layeringofthe universeinSouthwest (especiallyMimbres)cosmology,Crown's(1994) proposalof a "Southwest RegionalCult,"andMoulard's(1984)accountof the meaningof Mimbres mortuarypractice.All of these proposalsare complicatedby the problemof possiblediffusionof ideologicaldevelopmentsfromMesoamericato the Southwest. We turnnow to a discussionof the questionof diffusionandideological developmentsassociatedwiththe periodicefflorescencesof the FlowerWorld iconographiccomplex. DIFFUSION OF THE FLOWERWORLDIN SPACEAND TIME? The associationbetweenflowersandsong is quiteancientin Mesoamerica, consistentwiththe strongtendencythroughoutthe FlowerWorldcomplexin the Uto-Aztecanlanguagesforflowersto be mentionedin songs farmorethan in any othergenre.WallpaintingsfromTeotihuacandatingfrombetweenA.D. 500 and750 (Pasztory1988)havemanyexamplesof "speechscrolls"emanating fromthe mouthsof bothhumansandbirdsthatare embellishedwith flowers (Figure6); Marcus(1992)suggeststhatthe embellishmentsof scrollssuggest the type of speechandthatflowerembellishmentsindicatethatthe figure is singing. In materialculture,there are also strikingparallelsbetween the two regions. In Mesoamerica,as in the Southwest,flowersoccurin wall paintings andritualregalia.Mostnotableare the depictionsof floweryparadises,including multiplerepresentationsof floweringtrees, birds,butterflies,manysymbols of water,andimagesof divinitiesfoundat Teotihuacan.The Teotihuacan muralsshow an uncannystructuralsimilaritywith kivamurals.For instance, they show a band of flowery and watery elements bearing up images of a flowery other world (cf. Pasztory 1988:66, Figs. III.18 and III.19). Flower World imagery appears in Mesoamerica at an earlier date than any attested in the Southwest, however. A direct diffusion is very unlikely, due to the probable A.D.500-700 date for the Teotihuacanmurals and the probableA.D.1450-1600

THEFLOWER INMATERIAL CULTURE WORLD

p. -

17

.

.N ...

C)

D

o

/

.oo

"Sa

Figure6. FlowerySpeechScrollSignifyingSong,Teotihuacan FromBerrin1988:Fig.VI.21,line drawingby SaburySugiyama,reproducedwith permissionfromthe Fine Arts Museumsof San Francisco.

dates of the Puebloan murals. Intermediate areas and time periods should be examined to address the question of diffusion. Casas Grandes was long thought to have channeled Mesoamerican ideas and objects into the Southwest, but it is an unlikely source for Flower World imagery, simply because the Casas Grandes efflorescence is much later than the first attestations of Flower World images in the Southwest at Chaco and in the Mimbres area. Casas Grandes polychrome pottery includes images of snakes, humans (including possible masked faces), birds (especially macaws), and possible flowers (these are not "unequivocal flowers" and may easily be interpreted as celestial). With the recent redating of the En Medio period to A.D.1200-1450 (Dean and Ravesloot 1988), it is clear that flower andbirdregalia at Chaco Canyonand in the Mimbres area predates flower depictions on Casas Grandes ceramics. In the absence of such intervening evidence, we conclude that the evidence

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OFANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH JOURNAL

frommaterialculturesupportsthe conclusionthat Hill (1992)drewfromher studyof verbalart:i.e., thatit is likelythat the FlowerWorldis very old and very widespreadamongUto-Aztecanspeakersandmanyof theirneighborsin the Southwestand need not have a specificallyMesoamericanorigin.5This ancientcomplexis, however,not alwayssalient.Instead,it was periodically attentionin a restrictedrangeof media. the objectof specialrepresentational The questionformaterialculturedatabecomesone ofwhenandwhythe Flower Worldwas enactedor depictedin mediathathavebeen preserved. The idea of the FlowerWorldas a spiritworldthatparallelsthis worldfits well with the ideaof a layereduniverse,seen in manyhistoricMesoamerican andSouthwestoraltraditions.Forexample,the HopiEmergenceStorydetails passageof the peoplefromsuccessive lowerto upperworlds.As each world nearsdestructiondueto evil deeds,the peoplemustfindan openingin the sky throughwhichthey canpass to the surfaceof the next world.The OldWorld/ Underworldthen becomes the abodeof spirits and the dead.Shafer(1995) finds architecturalevidencefor belief in a layereduniversein the Mimbres areain a shiftfromside-entryto roof-entrypit houses andthe developmentof roof-entrypuebloroomsbetweenA.D.900 and1000.As notedabove,Moulard bowls(ca.A.D.1000-1130)placed (1984)arguesthatMimbresBlack-on-white Scenespainted overthe headsof the deadrepresentthe sky of the Underworld. on suchbowls,then,representlife in the SpiritWorld,repletewithflowersand game animalsamongotherimages. Crown(1994) provides another scenario for the explicit emergence of one probableFlower Worldefflorescence, the "SouthwestRegionalCult," as represented in iconographyon Saladopolychromepottery. Her argument is as follows: the late thirteenth century was a time of frequentand long droughts,followedby populationmovements includingabandonment of many regions, such as Kayentaand Mesa Verde. People gathered into large villages in a few better-wateredareas, such as the MogollonRim, Rio Grande,Verde Valley, Roosevelt Basin, upperandmiddleLittle Colorado areas, and even the Hopi Mesas, where runofffrom the Black Mesa watershedemerges nearthe present-dayHopivillages andnumerousfourteenth-centurysites. Duringthis time of social disruptionand geographic displacement,there occurreda shift in ideology from an emphasis on ancestors, the dead,andperhapsthe associationbetween ancestors andterritory, to a focus on the earth and fertility, coalescing in a suite of images she recognizes as indicatinga shared ideology she calls the Southwestern RegionalCult. Crownobserves that all icons involved,includingflowers, stars, snakes, and kachinas,had been present in the Southwest for varyinglengths of time andwere not a wholesale importof Mesoamerican iconography.Flowers, which are only very rarelydepictedon paintedpottery in the Southwest prior to the historic period, are part of a suite of images on Saladopolychromethat include "the sun, Venus, stars, flowers, the sky, clouds, lightning, precipitation,and the wind-strong evidence that the associated beliefs concernedfertility and weather control.

THEFLOWER WORLDIN MATERIAL CULTURE

19

The icons thus provide evidence for the existence of an earth/fertility cult" (Crown 1994:215). Crownarguesthatthe SouthwesternRegionalCultis not simplya continuationof the Mimbresritualsystem, since not only is there at least a century betweenthe latestattestedMimbrespotteryandthe emergenceof Saladopotfroma mortuarycult to tery but also that imageshave been refunctionalized one associatedwith life andfertility.Crownobservesthat SouthwesternRegionalCultimageryin othercontextsdoes not includeiconicmaterialassociated withpowerfulpeople(includingbirdswith spreadwings andtoads).Like the Kachinareligion,it mayhavebeen a cult appropriate to the ritualpractice of ordinarypeople,emergingin a time of disruptionin supportof a stablesocial thatextendedsolidaritybeyondthe immediatekin groupandvilorganization lage to a regionalsphere.The Mimbresand Saladoexamples,then, are two largelyseparateefflorescencesof the FlowerWorldcomplexin differentcontexts. A POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVETO DIFFUSION: GENDER ASSOCIATIONSOF THE FLOWERWORLD Shafer(1995) and Crown(1994) both note questionsabout (1) the problem of connectionswith Mesoamericaand (2) possible continuitiesacross long time gaps in the Southwest. We propose that attentionto gender, an issue not raisedby Shaferor Crown,may suggest a solutionto these problems of spatialand temporalcontinuity.Genderedconflicts involvingcontrol over rituallypotent symbolictools maywell be a humanuniversal.The Flower Worldcomplex in the Southwest and Mesoamericais unusual in that flowers are associatedwith masculinepower.In Mesoamerica,flowers in Aztec song are symbols, not of beautifulwomen, but of brave warriors and of blood (see Hill 1992). The Yaquideer dance is an exclusively male domain;women are not supposedto touch the items of ritualparaphernalia that can be describedas "flowers"or "flowery."In the Southwest,the kiva is a largelymasculinedomain(Young1987),andkivapaintingswere almost certainlymadeby men. Kachinaritualis also a masculinerealm.As noted above, flower images appearon the Hopi Flute Society altar,together with birds (Stephen 1936:789-90), and male Flute dancerswear fresh sunflowers and make flowery paths (Stephen 1936:809)like those mentioned in songs. This associationbetween flower symbolismand masculine power coexists with obvious associations between female fertility and flowers, widely attested in the contemporarySouthwest (as in "flowernames"for females in widely separatedareas, such as at Hopi and Taos [see Parsons 1936 for the latter]) and in most other parts of the world where flowers appear in ritual and art (Goody 1993). We suggest that periodic efflorescences of Flower World imagery may represent instances of the recruitment of female progenitive power to masculine ritual activity. This is an obvious symbolic move that could easily have taken

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OFANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH JOURNAL

place independentlyin Mesoamericaand in the Southwest, as well as independently in the context of wider ideological shifts at different time periods. In both areas there are masculinedeities of germinationand fertility that are associated with flowers: Xochipilli in Mesoamerica, Paiyatamuat Zuni, Mii-yifiwa(Moulard1984:124) or Muyingwaat Hopi (Young 1994:117; Young equates this deity with Tlaloc). The notion of this deity could have spread at the same time as maize agriculture,providing the foundationof the masculine Flower World system. Interestingly, in the Teotihuacanmurals, the Flower Worldis often associated with representationsof a femininedivinity,the "GreatGoddess"that Karl Taube (1983) argues may be ultimately related to Spider Womanin the Southwest. The emergence of the Flower Worldimagery independently in later periods may represent independent triumphs of deities like Xochipilliover feminine deities like the GreatGoddess.Anotherinstance of masculineappropriationof symbols of female power can be seen in the form of kivas themselves, which may represent symbolic wombs complete with the sipapu (a floor feature symbolic of entrance to the Underworld) as birth canal (Young1987). Women,too, maymanipulatesymbolsof genderandpower.Potterymaking is generallytaken in the Southwest to be an art practicedby females. Not only is pottery a feminine domainin the present-dayPueblos, but a Classic MimbresBlack-on-whitebowl depicts an obviouslyfemale figure painting pots (Moulard1984:Plate 4), Shafer (1985) describes a female Mimbresburialwith pottery tools, and pottery tool kits are often found with female burialsin the Anasaziarea (Crotty1983). The points at which FlowerWorldimageryappearin pottery(as in Hohokam,Mimbres,Salado) mayrepresentmomentswhen womenattemptedto recaptureFlowerWorld imagery.A modelforthis sort of recruitmentof maleritualpowerby women can be foundin the emergence of the figurativeceramicsknownas "storytellers" at CochitiPueblo. Helen Cordero,the originatorof the storyteller image, intended it to represent her own grandfather,SantiagoQuintana, and to evoke a traditionin which ritual story performancewas a prerogative of men. Corderowas surprisedwhen her imitatorsbegan to make female storyteller figures, because, as Corderotold BarbaraBabcock, "At home,no womenstell stories."Babcockrevealsthatthe governorsat Cochiti tried to stop womenfrommakingstorytellers;they were unsuccessful,and the figures have become an enormous contemporarysuccess (Babcock 1988). Alternatively,Mills (1995) argues that males may have made pottery alongsidewomen duringMimbrestimes (or paintedpottery;see also Brody 1977:115-16; Hegmon and Trevathan1996; Jett and Moyle 1986). Mills's ethnographicstudy of the divisionof craftproductionat Zunishows that duringtimes of economicstress and rapidchange,the gendereddivision of labor may break down. Individuals can take on the crafts usually associated with the opposite gender, without having to take on "third-gender" identity (lhamana in the Zuni language; see Roscoe 1991). Careful

THEFLOWER WORLDIN MATERIAL CULTURE

21

study of the age, sex, and grave offeringsof Mimbresburials(see, for example, the data set presented by Anyonand LeBlanc1984) might provide valuableclues. Unfortunately,most of the beautifulvessels illustratedin references cited here were recoveredbefore the adoptionof contemporary research standards or were looted by treasure hunters, thus depriving present-dayresearchers of importantcontextualassociations. FUTURE RESEARCH Ourdocumentation of the suggestivedistributionof FlowerWorldimagery acrosstime, space,andmediacontextshows thatit is importantto studyicomethodscanadd nographyacrossthe fullrangeof media.Historical-linguistic verbalmediato the materialmediastudiedby archaeologists.Neitherthe linmethodcan, of course,reconstructancientperforguistic nor archaeological but methodscanhelp us to constrainourrangeof mance, ethnoarchaeological inferences.Hill's (1992)focus on verbalart left manyquestionsunanswered. Similarly,an exclusivefocus on materialcultureevidencewouldnot permit the interpretationsthat Hill's findingsmake possible.We hope to have sugbetweenlinguisticsandarchaeolgested the potentialofferedby collaboration as Hill's work (1992) ogy.However,just neglectedmanysourceson verbalart, the surveywe offerhere of Southwestmaterialis not exhaustive;gapsin both geographyandchronologyappear.Datingthe woodenflowersandbirdsfrom Doolittle,Mule Creek,MontezumaCreek,and FeatherCaves wouldbe exwith Mimbresmortremelyimportant.Are these artifactscontemporaneous or withthe laterSaladoandPuebloearth/fertility tuaryiconography complex? New techniquesnow permitus to datesuchartifactswith the sacrificeof only a smallsliverof material. Finally,we suggest that there is a very interestingglobaldistributionof flower imagery.Goody(1993) has discussed an elaboratecomplexof "cultures of flowers"in both ritualand everydaylife, with many complexrelationshipsacross all of Eurasiaand Oceaniafromthe fourthmillenniumB.c. Goodyasserts that cultivationandritualuse of flowers,a well as flowericonographyor the evocationof flowersin verbalart,is strikinglyabsentin subSaharanAfrica,except on the east coast. Flowerimagery,at least in material culture,is also quiterestrictedthroughoutthe Americaspriorto the historic period.The exceptionis the SouthwesternandMesoamericancomplex,which Goody(1993:288)identifiedin the "elaborateflowercultureof pre-Columbian Mexico."In this Flower Worldcomplex,the associationof flower imagery with masculinedomainsis especiallystriking,as is its strong restrictionto markedlyritualas opposedto everydaycontexts. Archaeologists,linguists, and ethnographers should join in careful studies of the global distribution of floral iconography and its functions, because this complex of imagery shows considerable promise as a phenomenon through which we can explore the limits of diversity of human thought about the relationship between people and nature.

APPENDIX A Distribution of Flower World Imagery by Culture Area, Time, Dates (A.D.)

Flowers

Basketmaker II

200 B.C.?-A.D. 500

-

BasketmakerIII PuebloI PuebloII PuebloII-IIIMesaVerde PuebloII-IIIChacoan

rock art

500-700 700-900 900-1150 900?-1250 1030-1200

rockart,pots,basket jewelry,rockart,pots rockart pots,jewelry wood,rockart,jewelry

PuebloIIIKayenta MaverickMountainphase PuebloIIIGallina PuebloIV

1150-1300 1280-1310 1200s 1300-1540/1628

pots (poss.) wood,jewelry(poss.), ceramics(poss.,late) wood,leather wood murals murals,pots

Hopi

1628-present

wood,altar,pots

wood wood murals murals,pots, altar, jewelry,rockart pots, wood,altar

Zuni Acoma/Laguna RioGrande

1540-present 1540-present 1540-present

pots, rareon altar pots pots

pots, wallpainting,altar pots pots, wallpainting

1000-1150

pots,wood,jewelry (poss.) wood wood pots, rockart

pots,jewelry,wood

pots pots pots jewelry(poss.) -

pots, rockart,jewelry pots pots,jewelry wood,jewelry rockart

Period/Culture Basketmaker-Pueblo (Anasazi/Hisatsinom)

Mogollon Mimbres

UpperGila(Mimbres-Salado)1000-1450 900?-1300? Jornada WesternPueblo 1200-1400 Other Hohokam,Preclassicperiod 500?-1150 Salado 1280-1450 CasasGrandes,Mediophase 1200-1450 1000?-1300 Sinagua Fremont 700-1300

Birds

wood wood,rockart pots, rockart

APPENDIX B Flower Depictions in Southwest Material Culture

MediumandContext fr Pottery:unidentifiedred-on-buff Site (Tucson);GilaandSacatonRe fromSnaketown;SacatonRed-on GilaBendSite. "Sunburst" pendan representflowers. MesaVerdeAnasazi Pottery:MancosandMesaVerdeB whites andMesaVerde-styleSant on-white,possibleflowers.Note th dates900 to 1150, Black-on-white Mancosvessels lackprovenienced flowerson RosaBlack-on-white, U

Culture Date Locality A.D.500?-1150? CentralandsouthernArizona Hohokam

A.D. 900?-1300

MesaVerde,southwest Colorado,andvicinity

Juan, ca. A.D.700-900.

A.D.1000?-1150 VerdeValleyandFlagstaff

Sinagua

A.D.1000?-1150 MimbresValleyand areaof surrounding southwestNew Mexico

MimbresMogollon

Turquoiseandshell disc mosaicsm representflowersor sun. Pottery:mortuary. Stone andshell "sunburst" penda representflowersor sun.

DoolittleCave,UpperGila River,New Mexico

MimbresMogollon

Paintedwood:possibleflowerpeta be assembledinto a compositetab Associatedwithpaintedwoodenb sh cone, MimbresBlack-on-white

A.D. 1000?-1300? BearCanyonCave,Upper

ProbablyMimbres Mogollon,possibly Salado

Paintedwood.Associatedminiatu coiledbasketswithradialdesigns attachedto sticks,couldrepresen flowers.Undatedritualdeposit, associatedwith brownwarepotte

A.D. 1000?-1150

GilaRiver,New Mexico

1054-1116

Room 93, Chetro Ketl, Chaco Canyon

Chaco Anasazi

A.D.1050-1200

Other Chacoansites and southern CibolanAnasazi, including Puerco Valley of the East

Eastern Anasazi

1150-1300, probably1200s

Sunflower Cave, near Kayenta, Kayenta Anasazi and Cummings's Montezuma Creek Cave (undated)

A.D.

A.D.

Western Pueblo (Late Mogollon)

A.D.

1200-1450

Mogollon Rim

A.D.

1200-1450

Casas Grandes, Chihuahua,and Casas Grandes, Medio phase vicinity, including southern New Mexico

A.D.

1280-1300

Bonita Cave

A.D.

1200s

North-central New Mexico

Painted wood. Shell and stone "sunburst"pendan represent flowers. Mosaic pendants from Aztec Ruin m flowers or sun. Possible flower finia hairpinand St. Johns Polychrome a Black-on-red bowls from Village of Kivas. Puerco Black-on-red bowl fr Kiatuthlanna.Also Wingate Black-o Reserve Black-on-white.

Painted wood and leather (regalia), in "cliffdweller corrugated"jar at S Cave; carved wooden bird and cut g may represent flowers at Montezum Pottery: Fourmile Polychrome, poss Point of Pines Polychrome, definite Rock art in Showlow area (possibly Pottery has possible flowers. "Sun petalled pendants.

Maverick Mountain phase (Kayentan migrants) Gallina

Painted wood (regalia), ritual cache Mountain Polychrome jar. Murals

A.D.1280-1450?

Widespread,focus on central and eastern Arizona

Salado

Pottery, all depositional contexts.

A.D. 1300-1540,

Hopi Mesas to Rio Grande

Pueblo IV

Pottery: Sikyatki Polychrome, Rio Biscuit and/or Glaze wares. Shell " pendants may represent flowers. P flowers in Galisteo Basin rock art.

1628 (Hopi)

1375 or 1400- Hopi Mesas to Rio Grande 1540, 1628 (Hopi)

A.D.

Late Pueblo IV

Kiva murals at Awatovi, Pottery M area; possible flowei at Kuaua. Wa Puye Cliff Dwellings, Pajarito Plate paintings at Cerro de los Indios.

A.D

1628 to present

Hopi Mesas, Arizona

Hopi

Sunflowers used in Flute dance; ap kachina regalia, textiles, rattles, alt murals, baskets, pottery (San Bern Polychrome, Polacca Polychrome).

A.D.

1540 to present

Zuni, New Mexico

Zuni

Pottery, regalia

1540 to present A.D. 1540 to present A.D. 1540 to

Acoma and Laguna, New Mexico

Western Keresan

Pottery

Cochiti, Santo Domingo, Zia, New Mexico

Eastern Keresan

Pottery

San Juan, New Mexico

Tewa

Pottery

A.D.

APPENDIX C Bird Depictions in Southwest Material Culture Locality FourCornersarea FourCornersarea

Culture BasketmakerII BasketmakerIII

A.D. 500-1100

MediumandContext Rockart?If so, birdsare rare. Rockart (frequent),pottery(rare), (rare);stone pendant.Paintedbird multicolored,usuallywhiteor blac FourCornersarea PuebloI Probablyin rockart;two pendantsf Verde;potteryfromMesaVerde. CentralandsouthernArizona Hohokam,Preclassic Pottery,jewelry,rockart.

A.D.900-1300

Utah

A.D. 900-1150

ColoradoPlateau

Fremont PuebloII

Date A.D.200?-500 A.D. 500-700

A.D. 700-900

FeatherCave,RioBonito, LincolnCo.,New Mexico 1000?-1150 Doolittle A.D. Cave,UpperGila River,New Mexico

NorthernJornada Mogollon MimbresMogollon

A.D. 1000?-1300? BearCanyonCave,UpperGila

MimbresMogollon, possiblySalado

A.D. 900?-1300?

A.D.1000-1150

MimbresValleyandvicinity

A.D. 1054-1116

Room93, ChetroKetl,Chaco ChacoAnasazi, PuebloII Canyon

MimbresMogollon

Rockart Rockart,butless frequentthanin e BasketmakerIIIstyle. Paintedwood

Paintedwood.Associatedwith pain flowerpetals,woodencone, Mimb white sherds. Paintedwood(regalia)in BearCan muralsin GilaCliffDwellingsNatio Monument.

Pottery,mostlymortuary;stone, w shell pendants.

Paintedwood(regalia);shell andst pendants.

A.D. 1060-1300

VerdeValleyandFlagstaff

Sinagua

Paintedwood(regalia)at RidgeRu at RidgeRuinandothersites.

A.D.1100-1350? CentralandsouthernArizona Hohokam,Classic A.D.1150-1300 SunflowerCave,nearKayenta,KayentaAnasazi (probably1200s) andCummings'sMontezuma CreekCave(undated) MesaVerdeAnasazi A.D.1200-1300 MesaVerde,southwest Colorado,andvicinity WesternPueblo A.D. 1200-1450 MogollonRim (LateMogollon)

Jewelry Paintedwood

andCasasGrandes,Medio CasasGrandes,Chihuahua, phase vicinity,includingsouthern New Mexico Gallina New Mexico North-central A.D. 1200s MaverickMountains A.D. 1280-1300 BonitaCave phase (Kayenta migrants) Salado central on focus 1280-1450? Widespread, A.D. andeasternArizona A.D. 1300-1450? PhoenixBasin,DoubleButte Salado Cave

Pottery,mostlymacaws;shell "bu

A.D. 1200-1450

Pottery(MesaVerdeBlack-on-w (poss.). Pottery(PinedalePolychrome,Fo Polychrome),mostlymacaws.

Murals Paintedwood(regalia)

Pottery,manydepositionalcontex

Paintedwood,possiblebirdwingf compositefigure.Associatedwith depictionandpossiblekachinaon p

A.D. 1300-1540

Hopi Mesas to Rio Grande

A.D. 1375 or 1400- Hopi Mesas to Rio Grande

Pueblo IV

Pottery (JedditoYellow Ware, Hom Ware, Zuni and Rio Grande Glaze Grande Biscuit Ware), painted alta pendants, rock art, incised slab, fig

Late Pueblo IV

Kiva murals at Awatovi, Pottery M macaws, bluebirds, other colorful b

1540, 1628 (Hopi)

as waterbirds.Wallcarvingsin Pu Dwellings, Pajarito Plateau. A.D. 1540 to present

Hopi Mesas, Arizona

Hopi

Pottery, painted wood, altars, texti

A.D.

1540 to present

Zuni, New Mexico

Zuni

Pottery, wall paintings, altars.

1540 to present A.D. 1540 to present

Acoma, Laguna,New Mexico

Western Keresan

Pottery

Cochiti, Santo Domingo, Zia, New Mexico

Eastern Keresan

Pottery

1940 A.D.1540 to present

Isleta, New Mexico San Juan,Jemez, New Mexico

Southern Tiwa Tewa, Towa

Wall painting, Medicine Society.

A.D.

Pottery, kiva mural at Jemez.

APPENDIX D Butterfly Depictions in Southwest Material Cultur Date A.D. 1000-1150

Locality MimbresValleyandvicinity

Culture MimbresMogollon

A.D. 1200-1300

MesaVerde,southwest

Mesa VerdeAnasazi Pottery

MediumandContext Pottery,mostlymortuary.

Colorado,and vicinity

A.D.1280-1450? Widespread, focuson central Salado andeasternArizona A.D. 1200-1450 WesternPueblo MogollonRim A.D. 1300-1540

HopiMesasto RioGrande

A.D. 1375or 1400- HopiMesasto Rio Grande

1540, 1628 (Hopi) A.D. 1540to HopiMesas,Arizona present A.D. 1540to Zuni,New Mexico present

PuebloIV

LatePuebloIV

Pottery

Pottery(PinedalePolychrome,Kw Polychrome). Pottery(JedditoYellowWaretypes Tularosaor Klaget Black-on-gray; white).

Hopi

Kivamuralsat Awatovi,PotteryMo Also dragonflies. Pottery,paintedwood,textiles,bas

Zuni

Regalia,pottery(poss. dragonflies

APPENDIX E Rainbow Depictions in Southwest Material Culture IDate A.D.500-700

ILocality

ICulture

I MediumandContext

Canyonde Chelly

BasketmakerIIIPuebloII

Rockart,one withfluteplayer.

A.D. 700?-1300?

Utah

Fremont

Rockart

A.D. 900?-1300?

FeatherCave,RioBonito, LincolnCo.,New Mexico

NorthernJornada Mogollon

Rockart.EllisandHammacknote t ladderdesignnearthe forearm[of a kachina-like figure]maybe a rainb forin Pueblomythology,the rainbo to as a ladder(Parsons1939:310)." Potterybowlexterior,one example Paintedaltarstone Paintedwoodprayerstickwithrain stars,centipedes;associatedwith k carvedandpaintedfigure.No flowe woodenbirdwing. Paintedaltarslabsat Kinishba,Pec

MimbresValleyandvicinity A.D.1300-1450 MogollonRim A.D.1300-1450? PhoenixBasin,DoubleButte Cave A.D.1000-1150

A.D.1300-1540

HopiMesasto RioGrande

A.D.1375or 1400- HopiMesasto RioGrande

1540,1628(Hopi)

MimbresMogollon WesternPueblo Salado

PuebloIV LatePuebloIV

Kivamuralsat AwatoviandKawai some basebandsappearto be rainb flowerson them.Onepossibleat Po Mound.Paintedaltarslabsat Kawa

A.D. 1540to

HopiMesas,Arizona

Hopi

Regalia,altars,drypaintings.

Zuni,New Mexico

Zuni

Regalia,altars,pottery.

Jemez,New Mexico

Towa

Kivamurals

Isleta,New Mexico AcomaandLaguna,New Mexico

SouthernTiwa WesternKeresan

Wallpainting,MedicineSociety. Pottery:possiblerainbowsarchin andflowers.

present

A.D.1540to present

A.D.1540to present 1940 A.D.1540to present

32

RESEARCH OFANTHROPOLOGICAL JOURNAL

NOTES 1. The Universityof Arizona'sSocialand BehavioralSciences ResearchInstitute providedfundingforthe materialculturesurvey,andthe Universityof Arizonaprovided fundsforillustrations. Wewouldalsoliketo thankPatriciaCrown,JerroldLevy,George Cowgill,RichardAhlstrom,Tim Knab,MichelleHegmon,andthe JARreviewersfor data.We also thankNativeAmericanconsultantswho helpfulcommentsandadditional do not wish to be namedindividually.The Museumof NorthernArizonacuratorial, library,and researchstaff providedresourcesand support.MikeJacobsand Nancy Odegaardof the ArizonaState MuseumCollectionsDivisionbroughtthe Cummings Tsegi Canyonflowerto ourattention.We thankthemandRonaldBeckwithof the NaConservation tionalParkService,WesternArchaeological Center,who draftedmost of the illustrations;the rest are creditedin their captions.All errorsare our fault.An abbreviated accountof this studywillappearin the Proceedingsof the 1995Southwest Symposium,to be editedby MichelleHegmon. 2. Severalauthors(cf. Tyler 1991;Smith1952;Parsons1939)have addressedthe symbolicassociationbetweensolar,avian,andfloralimageryin the Southwest.Further explorationof these associationsis beyondthe scopeof this article. 3. We also note thatthe traditional hairstyleof youngHopiwomenhas been called in blossom" and "squash "butterfly" English;in Hopiit is poli'ini,whichroughlytransThishairstyleis clearlydepictedin ceramicsandrockart latesas "wearinga butterfly." (Grant1978:179)at least as earlyas A.D.600 in the Anasaziarea,butwe do not knowif its presentsymbolicassociationshavetimedepth;so thispotentialFlowerWorldimage has been excludedfromfurtherconsideration here. 4. FlowerWorldimageryis widespreadin Navajoiconographyin both verbaland visualart.Spaceprecludesdiscussionof this interestingdevelopmentof the complex. 5. Hill suggestedthat the FlowerWorldmay have originatedamongUto-Aztecan peoples, since FlowerWorldimageryis foundvery clearlyamongthe Aztec, Yaqui, Pimans,andHopi.A few of its elementsarealsofoundamongNumicandTakicpeoples. Outsideof Uto-Aztecan,very clearattestationof a FlowerWorldcomplexis given for the contemporary TzotzilMayabyLaughlin(1962)andfora contemporary Nahua-speaking communityby Knab(1986),andthereis also evidenceforits presenceamongother Puebloangroupsin the Southwest,amongZuni,Keresan,andTanoan-speaking peoples.

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