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The Coptic Encyclopedia

Editors and Consultants Edhor In Chief Azil. S. Atiya University of Utah

Editors William Y. Adams University of Kentucky Basilios IV Archbishop of Jerusalem Pierre du Bourguet, SJ. Louvre Museum, Paris Rene-Gwrges Coquin College de France, Paris W. H. C. Frend Glasgow University Mimt Boutros Chali Society of Coptic Archaeology. CiJiro

Bishop Gregorios Higher Institute of Coptic Studies, Cairo Peter Grossmann Gemran Institute 0/ Archaeology, Cairo Antoine Guillaumont College de France, Paris Rodolphe Kasscr University 0/ Geneva Martin Krause Wesrftilische Wilhelms-Universilt1t, Munsler Subhi Y. labib Kiel University TilO Orlandi University of Rome Marian Robertson Utah Stare University Khalil Samir Pontifical Oriental Institute, Rome Consultants Labib Hahachi EgyptiaM Department of Amiquities, Cairo J, M. Robinson Institute of Antiquity and Christwnity, Claremunt, Califunlia

Magdi Wahba Cairo University Editorial Managing Committee S. Kent Brown Brigham Young University. Provo Fuad Megally Polylechnic of Central l.ondon

Aziz S. Atiya EDITOR IN CHIEF

Volume 5

Macmillan Publishing Company NEW'\DRK

Collier Macmillan Canada IDRONID

Maxwell Macmillan International NEW '\DRK. OXFORD· SINGAPORE· SYDNEY

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Copyright CO 199) by Macmillan Publishing Company A Division of Macmillan, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmiucd in any form or by any means, cle<:tronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher. Macmillan Publishing Company 866 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022 Collier Macmillan Canada, Inc. 1200 Eglinton Avenue East, Suite 200, Don Mills. Ontal"io M3C 3NI libl-ary of Congress Calalog Card No.: 90-23448 Printed in the United Slates of America printing number

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Library of Congress Cataloging·in-Publication Data The Coptic encyclopedia / Aziz S. Atiya, editor-in-chief. p. ern. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-02-897025-X (sct) 1. Coptic church-Dictionaries. 2. Copts-Dictionaries. I. Atiya, Aziz S., 1898BX 130.5.C66 1991 90·23448 281 '.7'03-dc20 CIP The preparation of this voluma was made possible in part by a grant from tbe National Endowment for the Humanities, an independent federal agency. Photographs on pages 567, 736, 754, 755, 790, 791, 876-878,1284,1311, and 2168 arc reproduced courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Photography by the Egyptian Expedition.

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(coll/illued)

JOHN, SAINT. Bi:;!Jop of Armanl (feast day: 7 Kiynhk). According 10 Ihe SYNAXARrON of Uppel'

Egypt, John's parcnls, who were cilbcns of the (own of Armnm (l'lcr'monthis), practiced the traue

of carpentry. His cIder brother Piscmius withdrew to the monaStery of TOd. The excellence of the Christiun rclilliun having become clear 10 him, Pi· senlius hnd himself bnplilcd with hb brolhcn; John and P1\ICrmullus, Immediately afterward John became n mOnk on Ihe mountain of Arman!. One day when he experienced a carnal temptation, John 1'01lc::d himself in the brian; until 'his whole body was bruised by the Ihornll and appeared a~ iF lacerated. When he l'clurncd 10 the lJ1unaslt:ry, thc holy abbot named Pisentiuli said to him, "Welcome 10 the young, lluolcsccnt Ethiopian: behold! because of your patience, your conMancy, and your firmness of spirit which you have shown in the thoms, God will entru.~t to you the episcopate of the town of Ar· IlIlint. " Shol,ly afte"'lard. the inhabitants of the town asked Piscntius to become their bishop. He refused, and delivel-ed to them his brother John, whom they

1353

accepted and brought to Alexandria to be consc· crated bishop there. On his return, John baptized a number of idolat· ors who lived in Arm'lnl. He wished 10 build a church, hut the Idolaters came to destroy the build· ing. His miracles converted a number of pagan..., who had them~eh'e~ baptized. He refused presents under the prete;1ll of ordination. One day orl coming down from his episcopal cell, he saw some men hanging by the arms bl'cnuse of their refusal to pay wxes, and said, "Who has ,Jared to hang up the Image of Cod?" He wa~ told that the prefect h,ld given the order. Immedilltdy he went to the pl·efecl'.~ residence, and by hi~ in~istence suc· ceeded in being ushen-d in at II time when the prefect was having a meal. The prefect asked, "Why do you dare to thrusl yourself into my house?" The bishop l1~plied, "I have been a ca.-pemer, and if your door has oc-en damagl>d. I can repair it; bUI !.he image of God, if it is broken, )'011 will never restore as it was before." The prek"ct replied, ''The sovereign demands or us the appointed laJte!li; il ili nOI po~~ihle for us to

1354

JOHN OF ANTIOCH

remit anything whatc\'cr to anYOlle." The bishop said to him before leaving, "Let them go, and I myself will pay for them." The magiStrnlcs respected him, and did nol dan: (0 (:ommil an injustice. The mention of the pagans who were converted leads one (0 place his cpisl:opate in the r,,-e-Isfami<: period. The Moir-Bryce diplyclJ published by W. E. CRUM (1908 and 1926, Vol. I, PI". 135£.) contains two Johns: thai is why we cunnOI determine Ihe period al which Ihis John lived.

Hdelc, C. J., and II. Leclercq. HiSlvire des cOllciles, Vol. 2, pL I, PI'. 287-377. Paris. 1908. Kraau, W., 00. Coplic Acts 01 COll/lcll 01 Ephesus. Texte und Unlcnuchungen 26, no. 2. Leipzig, 1904. AZIZ S. ATIYA

JOHN THE BAPTIST, FEAST OF COM· MEMORATION OF SAINT. See Festal Days, Monlhly.~

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Crom, W. E. "A. Greek Diplych of the Seventh Century." Prcx;eeJi"gs of the Sociely of Biblical Ar· chaCO/UK:! 30 (1908):255-65. ---::-. MOIlQsury 01 Epiphtmius al Thebes, Vol. I. New York, 1926. RENF.·CF.QR(;ES COQUIN

JOHN OF ANTIOCH, a Iifth-ecnlury bishop of Antioch who was the chief supporter of NESTORIUS,

patriarch of Constalllinople, in ,he Nestorian con· trovel'SY over the nature of Christ. To resolve the controvel'liy, which set Nestorius .lgainst Saint CYR1L r. palriarch of Alexandria, Emperor ThcoJusius II ordered the Council of Epheslls to be convened in 431. The council, under the prcsidency of Cyril, wa.~ inaugurated 22 Junc, before the arrival of the Syrian bishops under the leadcnhip of John of Anli· och, the mllin sympalhi:l:er wilh Ntstorius. By the lime the Syrian delegation n.-achcd Ephesus, the council had already approved the doctrine of the Virgin lIS THF.OTOKOS. condemned Ntstorianisrn (which opposed Ihe doclrine), and deposed Neslon· Wi. Consequently. John of Antioch, logelher. wilh his Syrian bishops and a number of other dluenting bishops, convened a rh'al council Ihal confirmed Nestorius and hi.~ teaching and excommunicated Cyril. !Jur rheir decisions wel'e never sanctiuned by lhe impel'ial authol'ity, and rhe problem between John and Cyril remained unsolved unlil 433, when a compromise was reached whereby Nestorianisrn was finally rejected and the 1'Jreolvkw acccpted. John died In 441. 818UOGRAPIIY

Chadwick, H. rile EiUly Church, pp. 194-200. Har. mondsworth, 1967. D'Alk. A. I.- Dogme d'Ephese. Paris, 1931. Fliche. A., and V. Martin, oos. llistoire de l'iglise, Vol. 4, pp. 163-96. Pari.~, 1939. Freud, W. H. C. rile Afotlopllysite Movemenl, PI'. 1-49. Camblidge, 1972.

JOHN THE BAPTIST. SAINT, in the New Testament the forenlllner of Ihe Messiah (feasl day: 30 Ba'unah). He is called loanne.' ho BapliSll!s because in Mallhcw 3;6-11 he prepares for Ihe coming of Christ by administering lhe baplism of con· version and pcIllUICC. His origin and mil:Sion are described in Luke 1:5-80 as J1;:lI'allel 10 Ihose of Jesus Christ.

life John is the son of Zechariah. of priestly family, and Eliu.beth, and hi.~ bil1h is considered miracu· lous because of the old agc of his parents. Tradition situates the event in 'Ayn KArim. II small village some 4 miles (about 7 km) wesl of Jelllsalem. Luke 1:80 states Ihal the child dweh in Ihe descn until Ihe day of his manifesLation to Israel, which might suggest thai he had somc relation 10 the E.o;.sene movcmcnt b3.Sl.--d in Qumran, although John the Raptisl differs from the Qumrnn community in Ihat his message was open 10 all. 1·le appears preaching and baplizing on the banks of the Jordan in lhe fifteemh year of Ihe reign of Tiberius Caesar (A.D. 28-29). When Jc.sus goes from Na7.areth to receive John's baptism. John r«ognizes him and proclaims him rhe Messiah (Mt. 3:1-12). In his preaching John censures rhe behavior of Hcrod Antipas, which leads to his own Impt'lsonmelll, l\rld behead· ing at the requeSl of Herodias, niece of Herod, who receives his head on a plattel·. John's body is recovered by his disciples and buried (MI. 14:3-12). The Gospels show John the Baptist as Elijah reSlored to life (MI. II: 14, 17: 10-13; Mk. 9: 13), apply· ing to him the pa.\.~&e or Malachi 2:23. Ahhough he is iorerior 10 Jesus !lnd at the servi<:e of the laller's missioo (MI. 3: 11-12; In. 1:8, 30-31), he is greatly praist.-d by Jl."SUS as the greatesl or Ihose bom of woman (ML 11:9-11; In. 5:35). Joho's preaching 10 the whole of Israel i5 ao iovilalion 10 rcpenlilnee and the radical conversion of men in prepal':ltioo

JOHN THE BAPTIST, SAINT

for the coming of the Kingdom and the Messiah (Lk. 3:7_9. 16-17). A group of disciples gathers around him, some of whom will ];ue,' follow JeSus (In. 1:35-51). whereas others seem to continue John's movement par-olliel to that of Christ (Acts 18:24; 19:111.).

John hi also praised by f1avius Josephus. who adds that he died in Mnquerome (Josephus Allliqlli· lies 18. 5. 2). Thc apocryphal gospels add new data to his life, Some state that his conception tool: place 9 Octobcr and his birth 5 June, The ProI0J,'U5' rut of Jnmu of the second or third cenlUry. based on Mallhew 23:35. confusc5 Zechariah the father of John the Baptist with zechariah the prophet. son of Bereehlah. a confwlon that continues in it laJ'Ee ~rt of latcr literature, This same apocryphal gospel relates the legendary flight of Elil.abeth with the child from the persecution of Herod, and the mira· cle whereby the rock opens up and hidfi mother and child from their pursuers. The Our'an mentions him (19 and 21). and so John the Baptist and his parenL~ became popular figures in lslamic litemtun:.

Cult The cult of Johu the BaptiSt was widely extended throughout the church at the end of the fourth ccntury. almOlit ccrtainly through the inlluence of the u1onks. who saw in him a perfect model of asceticism, and also becausc of the continual discoveries of reliu of thc saint. Numerous churcll\..'S wcre dcdic'l\ed to John the D,.ptist in Palestine during the By7.nntlne peliod, loc3ted in 'Ayn Karim and espeei'llly in Scbaste (in Samaria), the place to which the disciples, according to tr:\dition, removed his body, Churches wer'e soon erected in the West also. It i.q .qufficlent to mention Saint John ~ter~m in Rome .md the clllu'ch in Ravenna consecrated by Saint l'elC1' Chl'ysologus, From the fourth ccnlury ut [ellst, the Greeks eelebr'ated 7 January as the fClIst or the day after the baptism of Jesus. This date wa.q changed by the Nestorians and Armeni:lIls, The West, lit least f..om the time of Augustine. celebrated the bh1h of John the Baptist on 24 June, corresponding to the celebration of the birth of Jesus on 25 December, whereas the beheading was eommemor-.lted Oil 29 August, perhaps corresponding \('1 the d:l.te of the dcdication of a church in his honor in Scbaste or the tnmslation of relics. The,'e aloe abundant tl'llditiom; of relics of John the Baptist and places where they are preserved. Saint JF.1I.0MF.. Rufinu.q of Aquileia, and Thcodorctus coincide in stating that the body of Jol1l1 the l3aptist

1355

was buried and venerated in Sebaste, According to Theodoretus. the tomb wa.q Ilrofaned in the time of JUUAN THF. APOSTATE, in the founh century, the body burned and the ashes scallered to the winds. Rufinus. however, states that some monks were able 10 save the bones and send them 10 I'atriarch ATHANASt· us I of Ale>tandria. Some scholars. 5uch as Sw.omen in lhe fifth century. daim that tlte head of John lhe Baptist, having been removed from Alexandria. was sent to Constantinople by ordcr of the Emperor Valens in the fourth century. Othel"lli, such as Of· onysius Exiguus in the si>tth century (Pl. 67 pp. 420-32) state that it was laken from the Holy Land to Ernessa by twO monks, Place In the Coptic Church In thc Coptic church John the Baplist is the most venerated biblical character after Jesus and the Virgin Mary. His cult was highly popular in Egypt and many churches were dedicated to him. There arc cight feasts related to him in the calendar of the Coptic church: (1) 2 Tilt commemorales!he death of Zechariah and recalls the childhood of John the Baplist; (2) 26 TOt commemorates the annunei..tion by the archangel Gabriel 10 Zeeh..riah of the binh of John; (3) 18 B.abah COlllmemorates the dea!h of the palriarch TIlOOI'IIlI.1IS OF ALEXANDRtA who built lhe shrine fo,' the relics of John the Baptist; (4) 11 Tubah marks the baptism of JeslJ~ by John !he Baptist in the Jordan; (S) 16 Amshir Illllrks the death of Elizabeth. recalling John's bil1h; (6) 30 Amshir rec..lls tile discovery of John the Baptist's head; (7) 2 l3a'ilnah recalls lhe discovery of his bones; and (8) 30 Ba'o.n..h celcbmtes his birth, On the translation and permanence of the rclic5 of John the Daptist in Alexandria, Coptic historical tradition, conlained in the Hislory of Ihe Church of Ale.l:Qlldria (Orlandi, 1968) and In the HtSTORY OF TIrE f'ilTlUilII.CHS, dr'aws on a tn,dition along the lines of Rufinus of Aquill;i<' llnd Is br'iefly a.q follows. In the times or Julinn the Apo.qtnte, the relics or John the Bapti.qt were in d:lIlger of being destroyed by fire in Sebastc (or Jerusalem) when the emperor ordered the Christian tombs, discovered during the reeon· struetion of the Temple, to be burnt. Some Chris· tians were ablc to save them and send them to Athan3sius, who placed them in the baptistery of Ale>tnndria. Athallasius declared his intention of building a m3rtyrium 10 John the Baptist in the place occupied by the garden Qf his pllrents. TheophiJus heard of this, and when he succeeded Athanasius (IS archbishop of Alexandria, he built the manyrium ovcr the ruins of Ihe Sampion, I... hich

1356

JOHN THE BAPTIST, SAINT

had been destroyed by thoe monks. The relics were then removed to the martyrium. place In Coptic Literature Coptic literature is full of references to lohn the Bapti~1 in encomia. doxologies. and magic leXl~. Among Ihe encomia there is a Sahidic frogment attributed 10 Theophilus of Ale!Candria. probably genuine, Dt otdi/icQ/;otlt Mortyrii luQ.m;s Bopt;stoe (Orlandi. 1969, pp. 23-26). This fragmenl contains an aCl.:uunt of the tr~nSllltion of the bones of John the Baptist and of the pl"Ophet Eliseu5 to Ale!Cllndl'ia and Ihe intellt of Athanasius to build the manyrium, a projecl he was unable 10 complete. The text probably continues with the building of Ihc church by 'Thcophilus, as narrated in the rragmen~ of a $ahidil: l'neomium (van I..mllscllOot. 1931. pp. 23554). Also preserved is an untitled homily in Sahidic thllt might have belonged to CYRil. I. patrial'<:h of Alenndria (ROMi, 1887, fase. 3. pp. 53-65; for the attribulion to Cyril, see Orlandi, 1971. p. 181). The fragments of Ihis homily narrate the martyrdom of John the Baptlst and largely coincide with another encomium attrihuted to TflEOOOSIUS I. pallial'eh of AJcxlllldria, in Sahidic and preserved in several mallUM:ripts (Kohn. 1966, Vols. 33 [tCJI:t] and 34 [translation]). This cncomlum is divided into three parts: the birth of John the Baptist, the baptism of Jesus, lind John's martyrdom. John is said 10 have his throne in Ihe seventh heaven by the side of the Holy Trinity. A homily presel'ved in Bohairic, by lin unknown aUlhor, is dependent on these Sahidic works and namaleli the martyrdom (Dc Vis, 1922, pp. I-52). An encomium attributt"tl to PROCLUS 01' CONSTANTIN· Of't.£ h...... also bt.-en pre:o;erv..-d in Sahidic Coptic (Rossi, 1887, pp. 65-82), It is independent of the works mentioned and is concerned in pal1icular with Ihe burial of John the Baptist's head. A rmthel' encomium in Sahidic is 311ribUlOO to $aim JOHN ClikYSOSTOM (Budge, 1913, pp. 128-145 [telll); pp. 335-51 Itran...la!ion); see aIM) the improved tr.tnslation in German by W. Till, 1958. pp. 322-32). This work is of great interest because of the apocalyptic tmiLS It contains, As his fidd (If action, John the Ihptist is assigned 10 Ihe third heaven, to which hI.: carries the souls dedicated 10 him in a golden ship, freeing them from rivers of lire. The discovery of relics of John the Baptist is also narrated in other COptic works, for example, in "Gesta Cess; et 15;· dor;" (SteindorfT, 1883, pp. 137-58). There lire be· side_~ mllny other' fragments. proh:lbly from hnmi·

lies on the bil1h of Christ or liturgical tellls. thai mention John the Baptist and his glory in heaven (Till, 1958, pp. 311-21; Orlandi, 1971, p. 181). Coplic literature conccming John Ihe Baptist contains the marvelous accounts propel' 10 apocry' ph:ll lilerature and attrihutes 10 Ihe ~int new mira· cles, such as his appearance to a wealthy young woman, who, when she is about to marry, con.~e crates herself to virginity (van Lantschoot, 1931, p. 239). But abo\'e all, his role as prophel and forerun· ner of the Messiah is stressed, together wi!h his glorification In heaven. Thus in Ihe Panegyrk 011 Johll Ihe Bapli~'/ by Theodosius of Alellandria (Kuhn, 1966) it is stated thaI in the visitation of Mary to Elizabelh, John, in an imaginary coO\'crsation wilh his mother, asks her to allow him to leave her womb in order to adore his lord and the mOlher of his lord. When he realizes that the 1ll0ment of his birth has not yel arrived. he asks Elizabeth hersclr to ador'e Jesu~ and Mary (Kuhn. 1966). The voice crying in Ihe wildemes.s (Mt. 3:3ff.) is interpreted as the voice of the :Irchangel Gibricl, who sends John the Baptist to prepare Ihe way of !he lord. When John, acknowledging his unworthiness, refuses to bapti7.e Jesus, the latter tells him that he has already baptized John through his mOlher Mary's greeting when he wa.~ still in Eli7,abelh's womb. A curious feature is that John the Baptist is compared in dignity with Adam, insofar as tIle latter w.os not the son of man but created directly by God, and he is even called the second Adam. Finally, allention is drawn to the fact that a confe!lsion of trinitarian ami Chr'istologieal raith i~ seen in Lhe letlel'li that make up the name of John the Baptist. BIBUOGRAPHY

Banina. S. "Juan eJ Bautisla y su t..-alogia en un Delctreo cOpto." Boleri.r de la Asociacion es· parto/a de Orielrla/islas 8 (1972):208-212. Budge, E. A. W., ..-d. Coplic Apocrypha in lire Dialect of Upper El:Ypt. london, 1913. Kuhn, K. H., ed. "A Coptic Panegyric on John Ihe Baptist Attributed 10 Theodosius Archbishop of "le!Candna." I.e MUJtotl 76 (1963):55-57. -c-,- "Three Forther Fragments of a Panegyric on John the Baptist Attrihuted 10 Theodosius. Arch· bishop of Alexandria." l.e MUlieun 88 (1975):103112. _-.,-' cd. A Panegyric Oil Johll Ihe Bap/iSI Altr;bllt· td /0 Theoousius. ArchbiJhop of AluQndria. CSCO 268,269. ScriptortJ Cop/ici 33, 34. Louvain, 1966. L'lntschoot. A. van. "Fragments coptes d'un IXIIICgy' rique:: de SI. Jean.Baptiste," Le M,utmr 44 (1931 );235-54.

JOHN CHRYSOSTOM, SAINT

Orlandi, Tito, cd. find trans. Storia della Chie.sa di AIe.UlIlldrio. In His/()IJ' of the Church of Alcxan· dria, Vol. 1, lines 307-327. Milan, 1968. _-'" "De aedificatiQnc Mllrt)'rii loannis Baptist· ae," Revis/a dcgli Smdi Orien/ali 44 (1969). _.,.,_. "Un frammcmo COplO di Teofilo di Allcssandna." Revis/a degli Studi Orietl/ali 44 (1969);23~ 26. ___. "Teodosio di AlIcssandria nella letleratum copla:' Giofflo/e /ioliol/o di Fil%gia 23 (1971): 181-82. -c::-c "W papynu copies du Mus&: cgypliell de Turin," I.e MU$~oll 87 (1974):121. Rossi, r., cd. I Papyri copti del Museo Eghio di Torino, /rQscriu; e IradOlli, Vol. I, fuse. 3, pp. 53-82. Turin, 1887. Steindorlf, G., cd. "Gesla Ges.si I!/ Isidori." leilschrilt liJr lJ.gyptische SpTllche lind Allerlumskunde 211 (1883). Slramare, T.. and A. Cardinali. "Giovanni Battista." Biblio/hecQ Sall(;tonml, vol. 6, pp. 599-624. Rome, 1965. Till. W. "JOhanne5 der Taufcr in der koptischen Lileralur." MillO'if"lIgell des deu/schell t4rcheofogiscJren Ills/;/u'$ KairCJ 16 (1958):310-32. Vis, H. de. /lome/its coP/ts de fa Va/icatle. Vol. l. Copenhagen, 1912. GoNZALO AIlJ\NI>A PEREZ

JOHN CALYBITES, monk in Earl)' Christitm Rome nOled for his great asceticism (feast day: 4 ....mshlr). The 5101)' of his life 15 known in Greek (BlbliOlheca Hagiographa Groeea 868-69) and has come duwn in &Ihidic in only one codell (British Libral)', Or. 6783,6). The tellt belongs 10 lhe catel!o,')' of individual slories, tlial is, lhose not linked tu ;1 CYCLll. Such stodes could have Greek urigins, as seems to be the case here, or th~y CQuid be Coptic in origin. The llUlhor of ,he cadell presents himself as a contemporary uf John, who he .says was the sun of 11 llllll!iSl,'ate of Rome, educated by Christian parents. A monk uf the ukQimc/ai ("sleepless ones") pcrsundes him tn hecome a monk. He then has his parents buy a Gospel deconl1ed in gold (hence his Coplie nllme, lranslated "John of lhe Goldcn Gos· pel") and leavCli home scuelly, 10 their despair. After he has become n monk among the akoime/ui, the devil le:lids him inlo apalhy, so that he n~lUms to find his parcnls. On lhe Wll)' home he gives his clothes to a poor man: for this reason his parents do not recognize him, and he spends a year as a bt:ggar at lhe entrance to their house. They give

1357

him food without knowing him lind even make him a small hUl (t'a/ybe-hence his name in Greek) dose to the door of the house. Afler ten yea!"!; of very hard ascetical praclice, he has a vision annOUllcing his death. HI." reveals himself 10 his parents by mentioning the golden Gospel and lhen dies. BI8LlOCRArilY

Budge, E. A. W. Coptic Martyrdoms . .. in Ihe Dia· lect 01 Upper ElfYpt. London, 1914. Muyser, J. "Saims ttrangel'5 honores dans l'EgIisc copte. L'Eglise de: S. Jean Ie posse.ueur de j'Evangill." dort • Naqlldah," CollectQtlea Chris/iolla 7-8 (1954):11-18. Trw ORLANDI

JOHN CHRYSOSTOM. SAINT

(e. 347-407),

palriarch of Constantinople and dOC;:lor of the church (feast day: 13 November In the East, 13 September in the WCSI). John Chl'}'SOStOln was born in ....ntioch, where he studied law and theology. For some years he devollod himself to monaslit: life, part of the lime as a hennit. l'le wa~ :Ii deacon under the bishop Flavlan, who ordained him a priest in 386 and apPQinlcd him to preach. His name Chrysostom means "golden·mouthed:' He was made paldarch of Conslanlinople in 398 against his will. Chlysmaom's stern moral stance ;1I1d lllciless ef· forts to rdonn the corrupl court and city led to conflict with the empress Eudoxia and wilh SainI THE.OPHILUS. palrinrch of Alellandria, who was jealous of him. Theophilus took the occa~lon of Chryso· stom's havin~ received the Tall Ijrothers, Origenist monks from Egypt, to have him condemned for Origcnist views at lhe Synod of the Oak in Chalce· don in 403. The synod, tht'Ough the intervcntion of the empress, had him depused and exiled to the Caue:lsus, where he died in 407. '1111s article will concentrate on Chl)'SoSlom's im· ponant positiun in Copllc lite''111ul·C. It Is sU'l'rislng lhal despile his conflict wilh Theophilus, he was enthusiastiC:llly Hlken up by Copllc tradition, hoth as an author of homilies and as a saint. This prot;eSs was achieved withoul eumpromising the position of Theophilus. In fact, the earliClit Coptic sources and those that are mosl authorilalive concerning Chry5' OStom omil his relations with Theophllus, attribut· ing the caulle of all his lribulatiuns 10 Eudoxia. Thus a Coptic hislOry of lhe church defines him as a "wise Inan of God, full of failh, wisdolll and chari-

1358

JOHN CHRYSOSTOM, SAINT

ty," and after a long account of his lilentry works it amibute5 his misforlunC5 soldy to his dispute with the wicked Eudo:da. The text of the S<.H.:alled MfWf. oir$ 01 OiQslWfT)s (Juhnson, 1980, pp. 88-90) s~a1r.s in similar tenn.<;. In Ihe Coplic translation of Ihe Villi Epipnllnii epi!;copi SQ1QmiflQ~, how,;\',;r, the rclatiom; between Theophilus lind John Chl')'SOStom are broughl out. The homily, Dc horQ mortis, lIuributed (0 Saint CYRIL THE GIl.EAT. albeit spurious and late, is also lIware of this episode, although it speak:> uf a post mortem reconciliation of the two hi~hops. The feeble echo of Ihe vicissitudes of the life of John Chl)'~Olilom and his delllh in exile gave rise at a laler date in the seventh eentUl)' ill lhe pcriud of the CYCl.F.S to 1I series of fictional tcxt~ o.t.tributed to him ur coneCl1ling him, which will be examined separalely bduw. A lisl of the authcntic works by ChrysOSlom thut have survived In Coptic translation follows. From his lIIunastk period there are Epistle 2 IJd Thcodorum. and the Epistle ull StelechiwII (frag. ment, Vicnna. Pupyrussullllt/llmg, ed. Orlandi 1974). Of his homilit$, Ihose in Sahidic are t'SpeciaJly importanl. These are ExCCrplQ from Ihe homin..:s on Ihe Episile 10 the Hebrews (fragments from IJAYR ANlIA SHINitDAH); /11 /os~ph, In Susamlum (Clavis Pal' rum Graecorum 4566-67: MuSC(l Egizio, Turin, Cat. 63000, cod. 8, 15-25. ed. Rossi, 1887-1892, Vol. 2, pp. 20-37: British Ubr,.lry, Or. 5001, ed. Budge:, 1910, pp. 46~57); D~ DQvide: e:1 SQul J (Clavis Pal' rum Grnccorum 4412.3: MUSL-o EgWo, TUlin, Cal. 63000, cod. 8. 26-39, ed. Rossi, Vol. 2. pp, 38-47); /11 }Je/mm 11'1 Helium (Clavis Paillun G''acconlm 4513; fragmenl from Dayr An~ Shinudah. cd. Devos, 1975-1976); De CI,U/lQllaea (Clavis l'atrUIll Graecornm 4529; Blitish Libml)', Or. 5001, ed. Budge); De Nlllivi/Ille (Clavis Patrum Graccol'um 4657; I'iellmnt Mor'gan Ub''nr)', New York, C6, cd. (rum, 1(15); hI MIlII, 12:4 {cxcrmle.~ Pharisuei} (CIa· vi.~ I'Mrunl GraeCOl'urll 4640; Muscu Egiziu, Turin, Cal. 63000, cod. 6, 74-91. ed. Rossi, Vol. t, pp. 54-70); De Pe,l/eL'{Js/e (Clavis Patrum Gmecurnm 4536, unpublished fragment from Dayr Anba Shin· udah). Many uthers arc found in Sohairic (especially ill Ihe Vatican Ub"lI)', Coplic 57; but also in olher codices of SainI Macalius; d. Hebbelynck and Van LanlSChlX», 1937, 1947), but these arc probably a Iranslalion deriving from Ihe Sahidic, and evcn if $Onle are trnnslalcd directly from the Greek, it would not seem possible that Ihey could go back to Ihe fifth lind sixth centuries, as is Ihe case for the Sahidic.

Other homilies, however, are not only cel1ainly spuriOu.' hUI were also mOSI probably composed di~tly in Cuptic no earlier than Ihe mid-sixlh cen' tury. u:avlng aside for now thc Cycle of Chrysos. lOrn (see bclow), seven works are lisled. D~ R~surr~t:lj,m~ (Picrpunt Morgan Ubrary, New York, M595: unpublished) speaks or Ihe normal epi· sodes referring 10 the RC5urn::ction, dwelling princiIX11Iy on IWO poinl." of inlerest: Ihe: calculillion of the chronology of JC5US' stay in Ihe lomb and Ihe • momenl of the Resurreclion, and an "lIulooio-grallhical" episode concerning a certain Eul)'chus, who died when Chrysostom had been II bishop for two years. After the first part of {n Ivlrw11lem Blip/is/nit! (Ilritish Libr,.lry. Or. 7024, cd. Budge, 1913, pp. 128-45; fmgmell( frorn 0:111" Anbil Shinudah), whieh has tbe normal charlleler of nn EneomiulII. a report is given or what the author is said to bave found in a precious book from the Apostles' library in Jel'Usalem concerning Ihe honors accorded to John the Baplist in heaven. Afler a nonnal prologue for /11 RapllQdem Arch· allgdulII (Brilish Library, Or. 7022, 6806A, cd. Budge, 1915, pp. 526-33; fragment from DayI' Anba Shinodah), an "autobiographical" episode is inlroduced in which Arcadius has Ihe oralory of Raphael buill. This is followed by the account of Ihc miracles that occurred in the oralory. /n Qllfl/luOr A'limQ/ia (Picrpont Morgan Library, New York 1.1612: Berlin, Papyru$Sflmml,mg 1'11965; frogmenl from O~r lbl1rll) is one of the tcxts con· cerning the enthronement of angelic creatures (cf. similar lexts concerning MICHAEl., RAPHAEl., elc.). Pseudo-John is said 10 have found Ihis texl in iI book of the libral)' of the Analiiallis of Jerusalem (llialogue between Jesu.' and the disciples prior to the Reliurre<:lion). /11 Lulu 7:37 "De P~ccl,/Irit:e" (Pierpont Morgan Librnry, New Yurko M; cd. Y:U"tl, 1958-1960) is II simple exegesis of lhe pllsSage relating the sinful wOlllan's anointing Ihe feet of Jesus. III Mit:ha
EJijah. !-lnatly, Ihe Cycle dedicated to John Ch~torn, which belongs to a special type of produclion of

JOHN COlOBOS, SAINT: Coptic Tradition

Coptic teXL~ (cf. CYCLES), to be dated about the seventh century, is a series of texts derived fTOm ChI)'sostom's life and divisible into two pans: (I) his activity in Antioch and Constalltillople in the peliod in which he was c1e<:ted bishop: and (2) hi!; tribulations related to the conflict with EudoKia (rheophilus is not mentiom..-d) and his exile_ Concerning the 6r5( pan the creation of a lictitious figuro is of p.'lnicuJar inlerest. This is nl'J.lF.TRtus 01' "NTIOCll, who Is s.ald 10 have onlained John Chrysoslom a priesl. II is impossible today to see what purpose was served by sub!;tituting the histori· cally true F1avian by this Demetrius. In any case, some homilies were even attributed to him, and al leasl one wa.~ allribu(ed 10 Chrysostom himself: In Vic/ore", (manuscript of [)ayr Anba Shinudah, ed. Bourlant, 1893), In which he himself rocounts his ordination and translation to Constantinople. Concerning the second pan. we 6nd principally a kind of biogmphy of Chrysoslom (fragment from Dayr Anba Shlnudah), In which, after undergoing various sufferinp in Thrace, he convens the local population 10 Christianity. In this work. mention is already made of a cenain Amhimos, who, according 10 the homily In Michllelem attributed to EUSTA· THlUS Of THRACE. became bishop of Thrace; Eusuthius was his succes..'lOr in that sec. The same aroa is dealt with in II homily alll'ibuted to PItOCLUS OF CON_ STANTtSOt'I.F~ In XXIV Scniore$.

1359

Devos, P. "I>eux feuilleL~ coptes sur Pierre el Elic.'· Orielf/al J.,ihmry 1',.lJIicatiOlU 6, 7 (19751976):185-204. Hebbclynck, A., and A. van L.antschool. CodiCC$

coptici I'll/icll"i bllrbcrillialli borgillni ruffiani. Rome, 1937, 1947. Orhllldi, T. Pupiri cop/i di COllfelll/lD lCologico. Mitleilungen BUS der l'apyl'Ussammlung der Osterreichischen Nationalbibliothek 9. Vienna, 1974. Ros..~i, F. I papiri copll del Museo E/:izjo di Torino, 2 '0'015. Turin, 1887-1892. Simon, J. "Bom~lie copte incdite sur S.. Michel et Ie Bon LalTOn, anribuee a S. Jean Chrysostome." Oriell/alia 3 (1934):217-242; 4 (1935):222-234. Yassa, 'Abd ai-Mas!!). "A Discourse by 51.. John Chrysostom on the Sinful Woman in the Sa·idle Dialcc!." BIllie/iii de lu SfJCii/e d'Artht.%gi~ Cople 15 (1958-1960): 11-39.

Trro OIU..ANOI

JOHN CHRYSOSTOM, SAINT. CANONS OF, SU Canons of Saint John Chrysostom.

JOHN COLODOS, SAINT. [111;$

elliry el.»lsislS

of 111'(.1 pnrls: Coptic Tradition alld Arubic Tradition.)

Coptic Tradition D1DLlOCRAPIIY

Bouriant, U. "L'cloge de 1'''1X1 Victor Iils de Roman· os." MlmoirCJ pubUes par Ics membres de fa mi$· $iO>l archilO/og/qut fralJ(;lli.~e IlII Caire 8 (1893): 145-268.

Budge, E. A. W. "On Ihe Fragments of a Coptic Version of "n Encomium on Elijah llle Tishbite, Altrlbured to Suint John Chrysostorll.'· TrrmsllctiO>IJ of Ihe Sod/!ly of Biblical Ardwcology 9

==' =

( 1893):355-404.

CoptiL' lIomilies. London, 1910. . Coptic Apucryplw. London, 1913. . M;)'celflmeolj$ Coptic Texts. London, 1915. Campagnano, A.: A. Man::sclI: and 1'. Orlandi. QWJI1m olllef/e cop/e: VI/a di Giol'Qlmi Crisostomo, Ell' comi del 24 VcgUardi, Ellcomio di Michele Arclm· gelD iii £lu/(lZjo iii Trocia. Tcsti c documenti per 10 studio dell'lllllichita, serie copta 60. Milan. 1971.

Crum, W. E., ed. "nd IT. Der Pllpym$(..·oJu Saee. VI_ VII du Phl/lipP$bib/io/lIek ill eliel/ellltllm. KopIIJche Thc%gi.{che SchriffcII. Schriften der wissenschafllkhen Ge~ll.o;chaft in Strassburg 18. Stl'llSbourg. 1915.

John Colobos, Ihe Little or Ihe Dwarf (fourth and frflh centur'ies), is one or the moM striking 6gurcs among the desert fathers. He is known principally from Ihe M'OPlrrlll',CMATA PATR,UM and from a Life in the form of a pllJlegyric composed in Coptic by ZachaJ'ia.~, the bj~hop of Sllkhti In Lower Egypl, at the end orthe seventh cenlury. This Life mItis certain eKtra informlllion 10 the data in the apoth\'gms, the value of which It is dimeulllO assess with any preci· sion. Some of lhe llpolhegms also should be handled with caution. In the fourth century lhere were many monks In Egypl bearing the name John, and it is oot easy to be sure of the establishment of lhe role e(IC!J played. The episode regarding the piece of wood thai wa.~ watered for three years as ;In ,'Ct of obedience should, accor'ding: to Saint John CASSIAN, be attributed to JOHN Of LYCOI'OLlS. On lhe olher hand, we should ccrtllinly keep the identifica· lion of John Colobos with the John described as "the Little," who was a disciple of Anlllloes (I'G 65. cols. 125-28) mentioned by t'.VACRII/S in his treatisc 011 Prllyer (PC 79, col. 1192).

1360

JOHN COLOBDS, SAINT: Coptic Tradition

Accordillg to Zacharias (AnnQfes dll MWiee GlIimet, p. 324), this John, also called the ''Theban,'' wa... a nali~'e of the village of Tesi in the region of OJl.yrhynchu.~ (known today as al·Bahnasa.). From his youth he sought to ~rve God continually, without any preoccupation, like the angels. He must have come to SC£TlS In the middle of the fourlh century. He found the abbot Ammoes a rough and . It was only just before he died thaI Ammo~ pmised his disciple, stlylng 10 Ihe old men who were present, "He is an [lng!,:l, not a man" (PG 65, col. 240B). When In his turn John had become one of the "elders," he Jed a ~oJittlry life "in a pit," that is, in one of those narrow, deep nalUml caves in the environs of the W:'I.dT al.N:wun, doubtless at the site where later the monastery bearing his name WOll; to be erecled. His holiness, his humilily, and his discemmen! ensured th:u his innuence would be an eXlraordinary one; "Who is John Ihat by his humili· ty he had all Scelis hanging on his Iiule finger?" And yet we do nOI know the names of any of his disciple-... We know only, Ihrough Theodore lhe Studite, that AIlSEHIUS. on arrival at Sccl~, was subjected by John to a humiliating test (PG 99, col. 852). Moreover, from the way in which f'OfMEN spea.ks of him, il may be conjeclured Ihal he him· self had profited from John's teaching (PC 65, col. 340, no. 74). In the apothegms Ihere ~ no indication lhat John was a HEGUMEHOS and a priesl as zacharias claims. However, he was a spiritual father renowned and appreciated, always available to welcome the brethren who came to eon~uJI him. He wa.. also able to be severe on occasion, to en· sore Ihat the claims of God and the requirements of silence were respected during meals and work alike. At such times he could even Jet hi... spiriled temper'ament nlll away with him to lhe point of finding it difficult to master his temper. Sometimes his Ihoughts were so fixed on God that he could not lum away from meditating to de.IJ with the thing... of Ihis world, His concern 10 "win" souls was such Ihal he had no hesilalion in going 10 a pro."lilUle to convel1 her, and succeeded SO well Ihat he saw h~ conven ascend 10 heaven by the very nelll nighl. Rec.:ordcd in an apothegm, Ihe story m:1y have shocked some monb of fonner days, but it filled Saint Theresa of li... ieux with enthusiasm
raiders made an incun;ion into Ihe region, doubtless in 407 (Evelyn·White, 1932. pi, 2, p, 158), He wilhdrew to Ihe Clysma area where he seems 10 have died on 17 October 409 and his remains were brought back to Scetis on Z2 August 804 (Evelyn. White, Vol. 2, p. 294). The monastery of Saint John, the ruins of which are now almost entirely covered wilh sand, is located roughly 2 miles (3 km) to Ihe soll\heast of thai of IMYII; ANI:lA DlSBOt. In Upper E&Ypt, to the soulh of Minya-. in Ihe village which still bcah his name-IlAYII; AUO I:\INNls-near the ancient Antinoopolis, Ihere exisled anOlher monas· tery dedicated to John, going back possibly 10 the Si1l1h century. This could be where John Colobos Jed a hermit's life before going to Sceti~. This mono astery 11\ least prove~ that the cult of John spread l'apidJy as far as the Thebaid. The saint is men· tioned in the Coptic Synallarion under 17 October and sometimes also under 22 or 23 August. We may regard the apOlhegms on John Colobos Oll; a particularly noteworthy synthesis of desen spiritualily. There is nOlhing hard lind fast or syslematIc, nor is Ihere any abslract development, but rath· er iI series of live piclures interspersed wilh maxims of greal lucidity, Ihe outcome of rich expelience. According to Poemen, John c.:uhivlltcd every vinue and encouraged h~ disciples to do likewise, giving Ihem a whole list which perhaps did not pass his lips as it stands all at once, but must nevenheless be a good refleclion of his teaching, since we find mosl of ils c1emenlli scallered among the olher apolhegms. All the essenlials are Ihere, from ao;cetic loil practiced with "endUI'ance" 10 tile hcighls of humilily and the fear of God. Its ba...ix was "the love of God" and "winning one's neighbour" "with evel)' fervour of soul and body," To Ihb end a con· stant struggle is necessary againSt the fleshly pas~ions, by means of dieting restriClions; and against bad thought.., by means of watchfulness, hesychia (quietness), aml the upening up of the ~oul (Poe· mcn 101). Every monastic obscn-'lIlcc has its place in this list: prayer and manual work, nocturnal watche~, Ilunger' and thirst, c.:old and nakedne~~, lroublesome impositions, and .~o l
JOHN COLOBOS, SAINT: Arabic Tradition

so very soberly. John cerlainly wa.~ a greal contemplalive, but doublle:>s it was not he who spoke of "contemplation." In his youth he had dreamed of angelic carefrcen($.~ and laler he bad lliready en· ;oyed here on canb lhe company of Ihe angels. He had asked God 10 fn~e him from his passions and had oblained his rcqu~t. bUI he had learned Ihat per· fce,;tion consiSIS !'alher in endur.mee and humility. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aela salle/omm (x:lobris, Vol. 8. pp. 39-59. Brussels, 1853. Arras, V. Coffee/io mOllas/iea. CSCO 238-239. Budge, E. A. W., tranl. 17,e Paradise or Cardell of /nc Holy Fa/hers, 2 vols. London, 1907. Cltd:u, J. "Nol~ an;h~logiques el philologiQues.... Bulletin de 1'/tlSlilul frutrfuis d'ArcJriolugie urien· tale 2 (1902):41- 70. COlelier, J. 8., cd. Apoph/1relmala Palrum. PG 65, 204-220. Paris, 1864. Supplementary items were published by J. C. Guy, Recherches sur 10 tradi· lioll grecqllc des Apophlhegmala Patrlllll, pp. 2324. Brussels. 1962. Oelehaye, II., ed. Sytlaxarilllll CotlS/atltinopolilatmm, col. 208, 57. Propylaeum ad Acta SS. Novcmbris. Brussels. 1902. Draguet, R. "A la souree de dt.'Ux apophlegmes grees (Migne: Pa/m/ogia Gracea 65. Jean Colobos 24 el 32)." Byumlioll 32 (1962):53-61. _--,_. I-es fonlles syriaque.t de lu lIla/iere de I'bis. wire uJlfsiu(/lle. CSCO 39'::l, p. 240. Louvain, 1978. Evagrius. 011 Prayer. PG 79, 0;01. 1192. Evelyn.White, H. G. The Mot/aSlerics of Ihe Wadi''' Na/r'-lIl. Plll1 2, Till! lIiJilory of the MOJlu.ueril!s of Nilriu amI vf Sce/is. New York, 1932. Part 3, The Ardtilec/ure //lui Ardrev{u/:y, cd. W. Hauser. New York, 1933, Freire, J. G. COtlllllO/liriolle.~ stlllclorum P'llrl4lll, pp. 313-15. Coimbm, 1974. Grcbaul, 5., cd. Syrwxuire t/hitll'ierJ. PO 9, pp. 41822. Guy, J, C "Je1ln Colobvs ou Lc Peli\." In Dk· rionnalre de S/Iirituall/c, Vol. 8, wIs. 390-92. P;tris, 1974. Mar1in, M. I,a I,allre de Der·al·Dik il AII/iIlOIl. pp. 3-5, 66-6'::l. Blblloth~que d'Etudcs Coptes 8. Cairo, 1971. Meinardus, O. Chris/iall Egyp/: Alleietrl und Modern. Cairo, 1965. Nau, F. "La venlion syriaque dc l'hisloirc de Jean Ie Pelll." ReVill! de I'Orictll Chretiell 17 (1912): 3478'::l; 18 (1913): 53-68, 124-36, 283-307: 19 (1914); 3-57. Regnault, L "Lc vmi viS/lge d'abba Jean ColohM il. lraven 5CS apoplnegmcs." Cahien d'Orientalisme 3. pp. 225-34. Gene\'ll, 1983.

1361

Sauget, J. M. Bibliolltecu sa/lc/orum 6, eols. 666-69. Rome, 1965. Thcodorus Studitae S. umdatio S. Ar$enii, PG 99, cols. 852-53. Zacharie. "Vic de Jean Coloholl." In Almales du Mu.tie Guimel 25, cd. E. Amclineau, pp. 316~410. Paris, 1894. LocIlON REGNAULT

Arabic Tradition The Arnbic veBion of tbe Life of John Culobus by zacharias of 83kh;\ (G6l1ingen codex Arabic 114, sixteenth eenlUry, fols. I lOr-ISo..) has nol been published. There is a much oldel translation into Syriae, made in 936 and preserved in a series of Syriac manuscripts in the British Museum. The edi· tion and translation were provided by F. Nau in Revue de {,Orienl chritierl from 1912 to 1914. Some interesting facts emerge from this long text. Fint, the name of John Colobos is not mentioned, except in the title. In the passage about the visit to Theophilus, lhe text conforms with the panegyric which is attributed 10 him in sahidic. There are, therefore. grounds for asking if Ihe 90hairie Coptic tClIt has not insened an independent slory into the panegyric of Zacharias of sakhl1 of which only the S;lhi(lic fmgmcnts ,·cmaln. Doubl1ess also through Arabic channels comes lbe Elhiopic reference for 29 Nabuse (5 September) which tells of lhe difficulties In moving lhe remains of John Colobo.~ h'om Clysma, llten in Chaleedoni· an hands, to the convenl of $aint Macarius (DAYR ANIIA MAOAIl) of Scelis in lhe year A.M. 520/.... 1), 80S. This transference was without doubl menlioned in his Life, hitherto beller known. It is mther Slmnge that in the Elhiopic SYN... X... RION (PO 9, pp. 418-ZZ), Ihe commemnration of this evenl took place on lhe S;lme dlly as the' Nativity of our Lord as well as lhc 1I1lll'Iyrdolll of Saint Athallllsius of Clysma whose Chalcedonian 1l:gend places this eel· ebration on exaclly the sallle date. His lomb was idenlilied among tbose of lhc dcsert rather'll including John Colobos. However, Ihe Arabic Synax•• rion merely slales under 20 B~b;lh that lhe remains of Saint Jobn Colobos were \l'ansferred to Minya.

BIBLIOGRAPIIY

Amclincau, E. lIiSlOire du mOllasteres de fa Basse· Egyple. PliriS, 1894. Baumslark, A. Ge$€Mehtc dcr syriscnell Li1f:ru/llr, p. 283, n. 8. Bonn, 19ZZ.

1362

JOHN OF EPHESUS

Crum, W, E. Dcr PApymuodu SAee. Vl-VlI der Philipps-bihlimhtk in CheltenhAm. Strasboul'l, 1915, Nau, F. "u version syriaque de I'Histoire de Jean Ie Petit," Revue de rOritnt Chritien 17 (1912):347-89; 18 (1913):53-78, 124-33, 282_ 307: 19 (1914):33-57. Orlandi, T. Staria dell" "hiesa di Alesstmdria, Vol. 2. Milan, 1970. pp. 102-104, Till, W. "Ein sllhidisehel' Bericht del' Reise des Aptl Johannes naeh Babylon." Zdls"hrifl filr dic nCll· tes/ameIl/Nc!lI.' Wis.~ellsclltJ,ft 37 (1938):230-39. MJCHEL VAN EsRRQF.cK

JOHN OF EPHESUS, Monophysite writer of a history of the churt:h in the Syriac language. He was born around 516 in Amida in nonhern Mesopotamia. lie Ih·ed until at least 585, the last observable date in his history. In 542 the emperor JumNtAN appointed John a missionary to Asia, Caria, Phrygitl. and Lydia, where in four years he convened some 70,000 persons Jo Christianity and caused ninety· eight churches and twelve 1Il0nuSIcrics to be buill for them. In 558 he bee:lffie bishop of Epheslls. Only the third pan of John's tripartite church history is ClIt
prisoner by the Maziques in the course of their raids in the area. When the imperial officer came in the name of the governor of Egypt 10 demand the submission of the monks 10 the Tomc of Leo in 631, John had gone ofT to the inner valley to hide the chun::h's saered vessels, and it WOolS thcre that the barbarians made him prisoner for the Ihil'd t,lme (Evelyn-White, 1932, pp, 275-711). Some yeal'll 10ler he met SAMO'II. OF OI\LAMON. and il Seems that John was only rc1cused at the time of the ARAii CONOUIJST OF EGYPT (Van CllUwenbergh, 1914, pp. 87-88,110-12). He appeal'S 10 have become hegumenOl> of Scetis about 641. He took pan in the trans1mion of FORTY· NINE MARTYRS OF SCETIS (de Ricci and Winstedt, 1910, p. 348). He assisted the patriart:h flOOAMIN t in the restoration of the monastcry of Seetis, al· though his name docs nOI appear in the book of the consecration. He is known as the master of several saints and important perlionages and shared with them his hermitage of Bajlj oUlside the enclosure of the monastery of Saint Mllcarius (OAYR AN8A MAOAIi). OIBI,IOCRAI'HV

Cauwenbcrgh, P. van. Etude sur les moines d'Egypte. Paris and Louvain, 1914. Evelyn-White. H. G. The MOl/asteries of Ille Wadi 'n Na!run. Pan 2, The Hislory of tlte Monasteries of Ni/rio. and SCIliis. New York, 1932. Ricci, S. dc, and E. O. Win-Cltedl. "I.es quanmte-neuf vieillard5 de $ctlt." Notices t/ (l~trails de mallu.u:riU de la Bibliotlli!que 'ta/ionate el Qutres bibliolh~qw1lS 39, pp. 323-58. Paris, 1910. RE'.KE-GF.oIiGES COOUIN

JOHN JEJUNA TOR. See John IV the FaClter, 81BLlOGRAPHV

Ball, C. J. "Joanne.~ (160)." In DCD 3, pp, 370-73. Repr. New York, 1974. Ashbrook, S. A. ASf.·(llidsm and Society ill Crisis: Joh" of I5ph(l~'14s and Ihe Lives of the EaStern SainLCI. University of California Press, 1990. Includes bibliogrnphy. RANOAu.. STEwART

JOHN, HEGUMENOS OF SCETIS (c. 585675), born at Jepromencsin (Shubra Mansina) in lhc nome of Arw1! and a monk at the uge of eighteen. It is not known when and why he came 10 Scetis (Wlidl al.Na~rUn). 1·le was three times made

Saint.

JOHN KAMA, SAINT (fcaSI day: 25 Kiyahk). The ninth·eentury John K;1ml1 was born in the village of Jebromounonson in the nome of 5.'\is, in the Delta. This village name has not survived, bot it could be ideluical with Shubra Wasim in the markaz (district) of Kom ~Iam:idah in the modern provo ince of Beheirah. He is said to have been very pious in his youth and to have contracted an unsoiled marriage, having persuaded the spouse chosen for him not to consummate the matrimonial union. Guided by an angel, he went 10 SClmS, where he became the disciple of a certain Apa Teruti, a name not unknown in Coptic literature, who lived in a

JOHN OF LYCOPOLIS, SAINT

[363

, hermitage dependent 011 lJAYk AlIO MAOAR. Teroti

assigned him a habitation and taught him the rules concerning the divine office.

Arter II cenain time spent under the jurisdiction of Teroli, he was moved by a vision and arrived at the monastery of JOllN COWOOS (the Small). An an-

gel ordered him at the same time to found a new monastery. to which his name would remain attached. The Virgin Mary b said 10 have late." appeared (0 him. promising him Ihal a church wuuld be built in her name and that the walls of the new monastery would Myer be destroyed. In token of these prom~s, the Virgin i$ said 10 have delivered 10 him three coins on each of which wali inKribed a cross (the Muslims then dominated Egypt), pieces that were still preserved in the diaconia of the monastery at the lime when the life W-olS composed. The vinucs of John ~mJl attracted numerous disciples. The life speaks of three hundred. For them, the saint wrote canons and rule5. A place of reunion, probably a church, was built to shelter the syruuis of the nocturnal psalmody, which appears to have been publidy celebrau.:d at Ihis period. The Ufe mentions the names of his principal diKiples: Shenllte, Mark, Colluthus, the deacon George, Antony, and another George. Afler Ihe establislullent of Ihe new monastel'Y, John ~m;] was ordained priest. He seems 10 have had a particular devotion to Saint Alhanasius. who is said tu have appeared to him in a vision. ~Ie is supposed to have introduced the mention of his name in hymns. At the injunctiun lJf an angel, he is said to have undel1aken a journey to Upper Egypt, but this may have been IU ctllllOufiage his flight before the bar· bar'ian invadel'!l during the sack uf 817. He is said to have ordered his disciple Shenute to hold his place at the head of the community during his absence. Warned by 1111 angel lJ[ his approaching end, he WIlS smillen by n sudden fever, in the COUf:lC of which he addressed a last scrmon tu his monks. Accurding to Evelyn.White (1932, p. 306, n. 4), the name ~ma is sometimes WrittCIl with an X, which would make it II proper name, and somelimes with II K ll.~ If it were an adjective. meaning "the Black" in Cuptic and thus indicating that he was indeed black. IJIBLIOGRAPIlY

lIudge, E. A. T. W. The Miracles of the Blessed Virgin Mary and th, Life of Ifalllla. London, 1900.

_ _ . Olle HWldred alld Tell Miracles of Our Lady Mary. London, Liverpool, and Boston, 1923. Davis, H., ed. The Life of Abba }olm KI,ume. PO 14,

pp. 315-72. Paris, 1920. Evelyn.White, H. C. The Hislory of Ihe Monasteries of Nitria alld Set/is, pI. 2, The MonQsteries of the Wadi 'II Nalnm. New York, 1932. RI'JIIP.·GF.oItCES CooUtN

JOHN OF ~LYCOPOLIS. SAINT, so called from the name of the lawn of ASV£1J in Upper Egypt, on the Wesl bank or the Nile, where he was proba. bly born in the first or second d"'''ClIde of the fourth ccntury, and not far from which he died at the end of 394 or beginning of 395. Thi5 was a little before or after the death of Emperor Theodosius I (d. 395), with ....hom his name wa.~ often associatcd. He "''ali an ascetic and recluse of renown, whose fame a.~ a prophet and also a healer spread .....ell beyond the Thehaid, reaching its peak in his closing years. Hi.~ role as a strict recluse in a cnve thai he himsclf adapted, did not prevent his communicating through a Iiule window with vis han-all malewhom he received on Saturdays and Sundays. In· formation abOut him comes chiefly from the evidence of two bmous visitors who came to see hhn a few months before he died. The first, a spokesman for "seven fureign breth· ren" who had come from Jerusalem, is the anonymous author of the IlI!ITORIA MONACHORUM tN AIlOYi>· TO. Jobn lakl.'5 up the first and longest chapter (65 panlgro.phs) of this well·known Greek work, which at [he beginning of the fifth ccntu!)' was trnnslated iow Latin wilh sollle personal additions hy Rufinus of Aquileia. It was, however, censured by Jel'ome in his Epistle 133 ad Ctesiphontem, for [he placing of John-quem fit cathalicwn et salle/urn fuiHe 11011 dl,bium est-at the bl:lilinning of the collection, to gain easier' acceptance for the "heretics" who fol· lowcd. The second aUlhol', who journeyed eighteen d..ys ITom the Kcllia, was lhe Galatian I'AUAIJIUS, a fmul'e bishop of I-Ielenopolis, a.~ fOI'ctold by Juhn. Twenty, fivc ycars latcr PaliadJus recorded in chapter 35 of the Hi~·/IJriu IUI/siaca an intelvlew he had with John, assisted by a local interpreter named Theodorus. Chapter 35 became one of the largest texts in that wOl'k. Rather than conlrnsting their accounL~, it is better to establish any links there may have been between diem, while respeCting their specific charac· ters.

•

1364

JOHN OF LYCOPOLlS, SAINT

In the Ublnria Montle/IQr"", ;11 Augyp{Q John is IIgcu ninely, forty yean of which he has spent a.~ a recluse. There is nothing on his earlier life. as priority is given lO his spiritual COnl'cP.;alion with the Sevcn £01' three days in succession. The very cby they lefi him, John announced to them that "'he leuer rel11lin~ to Thcodosius' victory o~'cr the lyr.ml Eugcnius" had just arrived. This was at the time of the Imp(lI1llnl bailIe of the River Frigidus on 5-6 St:ptcmbcr 394. In the lIiSloria fallsiaca. John is scvcnly~ighl

yean; old, forty-eight year.> of which hll\'C been spem as a recluse and eighteen with the "gift of prophecy:' In his youth he had learned the trade of a carpenter while his brother was a dyer. From ages twcnty-fi,'c to thiny he was trained in "various monasteries. " He read men's heans, knew hidden things, present and to comc, predicted natural I'Vl'nlS such a., NilI' f100cb and hal'Vl'Sl$, as wl'll as personal occurrences. Thc lWO prediclions m051 oftl'n recalled arc Ihe Intimations of victory he arranged 10 have passed on to Theodosius when Ihal emperor had conwlted him on the mailer of the usurpen; Maximu$ (388) and Eugenius respectively_ Mlillimu$ and Eugenius ar< mentioned in the Utin (l;upplement added to Eusebiu...' Historia I'Ccltsi(ls/icil by Rufinus of Aquileia, for whom the gift granted to John is merited through the piety of Theodosius. John o.S.';I"N recorded (/us/ilulioues coe1loIJiticae 4, 23 and Cal/atialltlS 24, 26) thaI Ihe "abbot" John owed to his vir1ue or obedience both his "prophetic charisma" and the trust he cnjoyed "cvcn among the kings of this world," despite the "extreme obscurity" of his origins. C:usian, (tCcording to thl) confidences recor'ded in f1istorla Mmlachorum III AugyplU (1. 21), recalls that John wa., not immune from the nocturnal wiles of the devi] but makes him furthermore a paragon of obedience whcn he was a novice. He al1l'ibutcs to him, among other exploits, the watering of a dried·up stick for a whole year In a spirit of submission to the Lord (/I1sli/laIQlrc,~ cO/!1wnilicae 4. 24-26). Through Rufinus, Augustine learns of the double "prophetic reply" to Theodosius (De Clvilate Dei 5. 26) and is emphatic about the gift of discerning spil'ilS, which hI" 1I11ribulcs 10 John. Augusline regrets being unable to a.~k Ihi~ man about certain problems, since he had shown himself "in a dream" 10 the wife of II triblfllllS (De Cllra gerenda pro mor/I/is 17, 21). l;ucherius of Lyons is scarcely more explicit (De

lal/tle heremi 27), while in his ClrrouiC:VI1, Prosper of Aquitaine l'I'(:ord~ the prediction of the viclory on the Frigidus on the CIUlct dale. Among the G~b, the lH_floria EcdesiO$/ica of Sowmen (6. 28, 1; 7. 22,6-8) givcs morc information than that of TheodOl'et (5. 24, 1-2), and of John's role lit thc time of the above-mentioned victory known both 10 George the Monk (ChrQtlicoII, Tellbuv, p. 589) and to Gcorse Coorenus (His/aria,., 1'11I COII/fUtldil/lII I, Corpus scrip/ari..m historioe By. vmtinae, p. 568). John exercised the aift of healing by the uSC of holy oil. Perhaps the secrct of his gifts resides in John's remark to the seven (!lis/oria MotiachoT'/lm in Act::Yp/o I, 28): "He who has been judged worthy of some partIal knowledge of God , , , also altain:;; knowledge of aillhe resl: he sees the divine mysteries for God himself shows them to him; he forcs.ces Ihing.~ 10 come, he has revelalory visions like those of the sainls, he accomplishes miracles, he becomes the friend of God and obtains from God whatever he asks him for:' Among John'5 visitors, apar1 from Ihe two already named, were Ihe follOWing: (1) those of unknown name: a strale/ales, a lriblltlus (and hill' wife, see above), u prQipositQS and a sugk/etikos, each with his wife (1Jlstorio MOllocharm" itl Aegyp/o I. 2, 4~9, 10. 12): (2) the hegemDI/ of the "-'gion of Lycopolis, known by name only-Alupios (Historia Lul/sioca 35. 5-6): (3) others known from el~ewhere: (a) Eutropios, the ..p,....epositus s..'lcri cubiculi," the mCS-'lCnger of Thcodo~ius to John before Ihe battle of the Frigidus,
JOHN OF LYCOPOLlS, SAINT

, LycopoH5, who had the benefit of a cure and a prophecy

fl'(I(II

John, then left for Jerusalem.

There did exisl at least four Sahidic codices fTOm lhe While Monaslc1'Y (l)"YR ANOA SIUNOOAll) with

I

abundant material on John. Unfortunately, only thirty or so damaged leaves survive Qui of lhe sellcr011 hundreds lhey contained. However, there arc enough for us (0 be able 10 make out IWO lypes of haglographlc Iiter:uure: a life or ~ries of lives, beginning with a reproduction and lnlOslation of Ihe rderencts in lIiSloria MOllac1lOmlll ill AegypfQ and HistoritJ Lal/sioes, on 10 John's role at lhe lime of the COUNCIl. 01' CIlALCF.J)()N in 451 (codices A, B, D);

an Encomium that begins with a procmium and

I

,

also ending with lhe Council of Chalcedon (codell e). Thill EncomIum can probably 1x- found again in part in thl,: references in the Coptic Synaltan<m in its Coptic version for 21 Hatur and in its Ethiopic version for 21 I;h.'dar (17 November). In both types there :are varioUli accounts of the same stories. un· known in the Greco-Latin suun;cs. For example one Is the epl~e, which may be historical, of John's intervention on bch3lf of his mllive town when it ....'as under threat of extermination by Tbeodosius a<; a reprisal for murders occurring after a sporting contest between rival factions. Historically the besl is doubtlC55 intcnninglcd wilh the worst. II is probable tMt the renown that cast an aura around Ihe "prophet" John e\'en before his death was eltploiled by overLealous disciples of the archillumdrite SIIION· lITE to glorify their ma,<;ter. as well a,<; by paf1i~ns of the deposed p(ltriareh D10SCORUS in order to db;· credit lhe Council of Ch(llcedon. Mockery hns been made of chn,mululO' to the point of m:.king Juhn, who had been dead for mor'c than half a century, into :1 cOlltempor:lI)' uf the emperor Marei
1365

about a literal')' :lClivity?" :llso dl!c1aring that "The Seer of the Thebaid is a pc,fl.'Ct orthodox. saint lllld who had wrilten nOlhing" (Allor Qril:i"c.~ ... , pp. 500, 508). And even less did he write in Greek than in any otlle,' language, since John needed an inter· prcter to converse wilh PAUADIUS. It \YolS only wrongly and belatedly. and with nevcr a mention of Lycopolis, Ih:ll "'Orl<; allributed to his name arc actually those or a namesake, John the Solitary, a Syriac author whose idenlity is at present the subject of cQnsiucmblc debate. The essence of John's personality has been be.~1 defincd by HaushelT. "No n::pulation as a cOll/empTo/i"c evcr excelled that of the 'seer' and 'prophet' of the Thebaid" (1938, p. 498). All his spirituality is cont:lined in his instNetion to the Seven with the striking portraits of the three monk.<; facing Tempta· lion in their three diffcrent W"olYS (32-58). This en· tire instruction c:an be !lummed up as a pn'SSing invitation to purity uf intention. No wonder, therefore, that the only two apothegms tbat concern him should be two extracts from this instruction: "The abbot Jobn of the Tbe· ooid said: 'A monk must above all have humility.... '" (cf. lIis/oria Motlac/rorllm ill AegyplO 1. 59); and ''Tile abbot John, Ihc 0111.' of the cave, said: 'My <:hildren. pursue quietude, exercising yourseh'es ah"oays in contemplation so that in your pr.lyers 10 God you may keep your minds pure.. _. The contemplative who ha" withdrawn from activity inlO knowledge is beller and greilter ... {ree {rorn eve,)' care, he stands ne:ll' 10 God, and no connieling thought drags him bu<:k. Sueh :1 lIliln pilSSCS his life with God, his commerce is with God, :.s he celeh,'Otes God in endless hymns'" (cf. lIis/or;a Mcmachorum i,r AeK)'plCI I. 62-63), In conclusion, the Hi$/()r/(I MC)IICldrurum i'l Aegypw (I. 13, 18) and the If/s/Oria I.Ql4.~iaclI (8, 10, II) agree in giving the nonagenarian recluse a playl'ul charucter and II smiling countenance. DIDLlOGRAl'ltY Devos. P. "La 'servante dc Oleu' Pocmeni:l .. ." An· alec/a Dol/lind/alia 87 (1969): 189-2 I2. l'Om

"F1'Ogmcnts Copies de l'l-!lstoria Monacho· in Aegypto: S. Jean de Lyco et li.I Tentalriee."

AlluledCl Oull/llrdimra 87 (1969):417-41.

___. "Fcuillets <:oplcs nouveaux el anciens .. ." Ana/eela BoffalldiOlla 88 (1970): 153-87.

___. "5. Jean de Lycopolis el l'empe''eU'' Mar'· den." AmJ/eefQ l)oJJalldialla 94 (1976):303~ 16. "De: Jean Chrysoslollle iI Jean de L}'(;opolis." A'lUleclCl lJ<JllalldiOIlO 96 (1978):389-403.

1366

JOHN OF MAYUMA

Fnmkcnbcrg, W. "Evagrius Ponticus." Abhalldlung~Il der kJ:Jrlig/ichctI Gesellschall des Wissenschaf/en ZJ.I GljulHg.m, Pltilo!ogisch,-IIi$larische Khmie.

Vol. 13. no. 2. Berlin, 1912. Guy, J.·CI. "Jellil de Lycopolis." In DietfonHo;re de spirillla/iti ascbiqlllt d mystique, Vol. 8, cols. 619-620. Paris, 1932. liaushcrT, I. "Aull origines de la mystique syrienne:

Gregoire de Chypre nu Jean de Lycopolis?" DoTford C!a$.fiC(l1 (lrld Philosophical Monographs 4 (1938):497-520. "Jean Ie Solitaire (Pseudo Jean de LycopoliS), Dialogue Illir 1'3mc .. ," Oxford CliilSical tllld Philosophical Monographs 120 (1939). "Un grand auteur spirilUel retrouve: Jean d'Apamee," Oxford Clas.sica! rllfd Philosophical Monographs 14 (1948):3-42.

Muyldemlans. J. "Un Icxll; g~ inooit attribue a 1. de L" RuhercJru d~ .u:i~llc~ rtligi~US4! 41 (1953):525-30. Peetel'5, P. "Une Vie cople de S. lean de Lycopoli$." A"(lleclo 8olloPldionil 54 (1936):359-81. RegnOluh, L lAS Scmlt:II,·u des pi!rn dll desert. Col· 14!Cficm o/pJroWliqlltl. Subk"-Sur-5arlhe, A!>baye Suint·Pierre de Solcsma, 1981. Sauget, JA.... "Giovanni di Licopoli:' Bibliolheco SUliClOrflm 6, cols. 818-22. Till, W. "Kopti~che Heiligen. und MOll1yrerlegenden." Ori"//illio Chrislior/(J p,riodico 102 (1935): 138-54; 108 (1936):131-40. PAUL

DEVOS

scmal" concoction. Two of tht:l>C fragmentary eodi· ces al'e in Sahidic (Pierpont Morgan Library, New York. CU. cd. Crom. 1913; National Library, Vien· na, K2S02, ed. Orlandi, 1914) and comain an anthology similar to the Syrillc translation, though their numberiniS are different. Hence, lhese two codic15 have many omissions, additions, and a dif· ferent order for the episodes. The third Coptic co· dex is in Bohairic (Coplic MU5Cum. Caim. S. M:lcar. 12(6», and il probably contained only those event:> referring to ihe life of TIMOTHY II AELlJRUS. some of which agree with episodes in John's P/erophoriae. The fourth manu.~ript (4925 (University of Michi· gan], cd. Orlandi, 1974) has some excerpt:> from a collection very slmllar (0 the Syriac translation, as well as $Orne additional epi!iOda.

BIBLlQCRAI"HY

Crum, W. E., ed. Theological TuJs from COP/it: Pa· pyri, pp. 62-64. O~ford, 1913. 10hn Rufu$. Plirop}lOrie. PO 1, pt. I. cd. F. Nau. P:lris, 1912. Orlandi, T. Papiri copli di come,mlo le%gico, pp. 110-11. Vienna, 1914. --c;::-C "Un fnllnmento delle PleroCoric in copto." SI/lJi e Ricerche s/lfl'Orienfe Cristiano 2 (1919):312.

TITo ORI....NDI

JOHN OF MAYUMA, sill.th·ccntury bishop who

JOHN OF NIKIOU, sevenlh.century bishop of

wrote an anthology of miraculous lales. John of MayullHI WllS a monk from the Mon:J.Stcry of Bayt Rufina, whence the name John Rufus, by which he is also known. He succeeded Peter the Iberian a.~ bi.~hop of MayunHI Ileal' Gaul in Palestine. Around the ye:lr 515. 10hn compo~ed a collection of plerophoriae (anecdotes and brief episodes) of a mir:lculous nllture thtH were meant to testify 10 the or1hodo~y of Ihe Chalcedonians. The majority of these storie$ were :lh'eady in e~istence and, indeed, had been incorporaled in various other compila. tions and te~ts. He wever, the anthology of 10hn of M/l.yumll WIIS the most widespread. and so by antonoma..~ia it gained the title PlerophQriue, by which it is known tooay. The original venion W:J.S certainly written in Greek, but only II few fr.lgmcnts of it have survived. Two complete manuscripts, however, exist in a Syri!lc translation (Nau, 1912). In Coptic there are only fr.Jgmenls coming frolll three codices and a fourth manuscript, which we might designate as a "pel"-

Nikiou in the Prosopite nome, in the southwest Del· la-a place already known in the (hiI'd century B,C. All that we know of his life is conl,lined in the HlST(). RY 01' THE PATRIARCHS. In (he Hi.~/Ory he is present:lt the death of the patriarch JOHN JH of Samann(al in 689 and at the election of his successor, ISMC, in 690, accompanying him to the court of the gover· nor, 'Abd al·'Azl:l.. He was scner'lll overseer of Ihe monasterie.~ under Simon (693-700) until he wa.~ deposed for bC(lting 10 dealh a monk who had raped Il virgin. Since his Chrolliclc doe~ not extend beyond that dale, his death mllY be assigned 10 some time shortly after A.II. 700. 10hn's ChrOllicJe survives in an Ethiopic version lIIade from a lost Arabie versioll. Views have been divided about how the (CXI wa..~ wrinen. H. Zotenbcrg, the first editor, believed that the original le~t was wliuen partly in C~k and partly in Coptic, according to Ihe source used. Some claim that it was written totally in C~k; othcl"l\ that it was cntirely in Coptic. Yet il is unlikely that, as a leading

JOHN OF PARALLOS, SAINT

1367

r Monophy~ite

bishop, John would have composed his work io the language of the Melchites, llnd T. N61deke pointed to traces of Coptic in the Elhiopic translation. Considering the absence of any reference 10 the Chrollicle in Byzantine literature, il becomes almost certain that the originllilanguage wa.~ Copllc, llhhough John drew upon Greek writers

plentifully. The Elhiopic version i.~ badly mutilated, especially the malerial on the first half of the seventh cenlU1)'. for which John provides valuable contempornry evidence. The work, which is prefaced by a summa· ry. presents some problems. From chapter bv the $Ummary and text disagree numerically as well as in conlent. The PUrpo5C is 10 chronicle the whole history of the human race from Adam, including references 10 Egypt and ~Ilons on early Roman history, as well as on Hcllcnistio;; history. A full, though hrief. account of the rdgru; of the Roman emperors fucWie:i on those who pcrsccuted the Christians. As the Empire become.~ Christianized., dclai1.s increase about both secular and rdigious mailers, although much of the information is untrustwuI1hy. John I:;; depen· dent, indirectly, no doubt, on Malalas and, for ec· clesiastical mauel"5. on the ecclesiastical historian Socrntes. For the reign of Justinian, John gives (chap. xcii, 20-21) the histories of Procopiuli and Agathias crcdit for being the authoritative studies Qn the Vandalic and Persinll wars. From the reign of Milurice through the events leading to the accession of l-IemcJius ilnd Ihe subsequent Amhic inva.~ion of Egypt, John lissumes the role of a l.:ontemponlry authority of major impor· tance. Unfnrtunately, his text for this period. partil.:ulllrly the lleCOUtlt of the Arabic conquest, is corropt, full of lacunae, and dislocated. The !:Ieuna in the relevant chapters (evii-cxxij tn the end) omits completely the yean 610-640. Thus the history of the Sassanid l.:Qnllucst, occupntion, and evncuation of Egypt nnd the preliminary phases of 'Amr's opel"' luions before his investment or Dabylon have been omitted. Despite the difficulty of intel'Preting the c1mptel"li about the lOIter stages of the conquest (chaps. cxi-cxxl; see ARAB CONQUF..ST Of ECvn), his narratives assume pride of plul.:e over the Amb chroniclers in instances where they disagree on fundamentul points. The style of the Chffl,ddc-a.~ il appears in U"lln.~ lll.lion from Elhiopic-is simple, naive, and" disjointed in places. Nevenheless, it carlies f;:onviction by il~ delail, even when the sequence is confused either by Ihe author or by the intermediaries between him and the surviving Ethiopie vCl"liion.

Bt8L10GRAI"HY Dutler, A. J. Tire Arab Conquest of Bgypt fwd Ihe Last Thirty Years of Arab Domirrion. Oxford, 1902. ~etani. Leone. Annllli deft/slam, vol. 3, Milun, 1905-1926. Chades. R. 1-1. The Chroniclc of 10Jm, Bishop of Nihu. london, 1916. Ntlldeke, T. In GiJllirlgische Gefehrre Anzcigell I (1881):587-94; 2 (1883):1364-71. Zotenbelll. H. "Mcmoirc sur III f;:hronique byl".antinc de Jean, Cv~quc de Nikiou." Joun/aJ asialique 7, 10 (1877):451-517; 12 (1878):245-347; 13 (1879):291 -386. P. M. }-RAsER

JOHN OF PAKE (feast day:

19 Barnmh:it), her-

mit of the fifth or sixth cetltury who does not appear in the Synaxarion but who is well kno.....n from inJ;Criptions of monasterles. It Is probable that he was considered a saint by the monks. As the inscriptions show, he was no doubt a native of Pake. a village 10 the north of Miny.i in Middle Egypt. B1BLIOCRAI"IIY Crum. W. E. "Frngments of a Chureh Calendar:' Zeiuchrift filr die IIel
JOHN OF PARALLOS, SAINT

(c. 540-6101

620) (fCllst
lower Egypt, wh
•

1)68

JOHN THE PRESBYTER

devil. He was probably ordained in 576 by I'ETEk IV, pall'iarch of Alex.andlia. We Coin n,:construcl Juhn's aCllvltles from his w!ilings, as well a.~ from the Coplo-Arabic SYNAXAR·

ION. Undoubll:dly he knew Greek and Coptic, and perhaps Syriac. SUlnding fil1nly against every heresy. he did not share the Coptic indination IU search for instruction in unorthodox book.<; or in lhe Egyp-

in Arabic 01' Ethlopic lranslatlons. The originals were. of course, Coptic. lohn of Parullos played a major pal'l in the dog. matic controver:sy betwccn DAMIAN. patriareh of AI· cxandria, !lnd PCter of KalHnikon in Syria, where he stayed for four months, helping Damian. It is pas...i· ble thm he contributed 10 the rcuaclion of o-... mian's treatises sem to Syria.

tian Gnoslic quest to decipher God's secrets nOI

found in lhe Bible. Rather, he labored arduously again.'it any book encompassing doctrines or rc\·c1aliOnS additional 10 those recogni7.ed as onhodox. He invcMigated mon:;l5!Cry libraries and burned virmally evel')' such book lha! he found. lie w!'Ole a Homily about the archangel Michael in which he condemned the heretical books read in the onho
UIULlOGKAI'HY

Lantsehoot, A. van. "Frngmenlll coptcs d'une home· lie de lean de Parallos conlre les livres htreti· ques." Misctllurtea Giov(lrtni Mere'lli I, olfprint with own paginalion. Studi e Testi 121, pp. 1~31. Vatican City, 1946. ___ "Un texte paJimpscste dc Vat. Copte 65." U MllSeOl/ 60 (1947):261-68. MUller, C. D. G. Die (lIte /roptm:he PrediCI (Versl/ch ei"es OlHrblicks), pp. 102-103, ISO-56, 300-349. Darmstadl. 1954. _.,-_. "Einigc Bcmcrkungen zur an; praedicandi der alten koptischen Kirche." Le Mll.l;eoll 67 (1954):231-70. ___. "Die kopti$Che Kirche 'lwischen Chalkt'don und dem Arnbereinmarsch." Zeitu:hrill fur Kirchtn1:eschichle 75 (1964):271-308. ___. "Aufbau und E.ntwieklung dcr koplischen Kirche nach Chalkcuon 451." Kyrios 10 (1970): 202-210. WUslenfeld. 1'1. F. Sytl(lXarilllll, d(ls ist, flei/igell· K(lilmder der Coptischell Christtll, pp. 187-89. Goth", 1979. C. OI;TLEF G. MOLLER

JOHN THE PRESBYTER, (lulhor to wholll

fl

Coplic version of the llfe of Saint PISENTlUS, bishop of CHI (Cuptus), dating from the mid·seventh eentu· ry is altdbuled. The text has reached us in only one codex (British Museum, London, Or. 7026, Budge, 1910, pp. 75-127). The Life of l'isenlius is made up of miraculous episodes; these do nOl always appear in the same order in the different venions and may sometimell have additions or omissions-in some ellses homi· letic passages. De L. O'leary (1930) identili~'S foul' versiuns; one in Sahidie COptiC, allributed to John the Presbyter; one in Bohairic Coptic, attributed to MOSES OF OIl'T: and two in Arabic, one shOl1er than lhe other. O'leary also gh'es a c:areful llummary of the \'cr- .. siom. Thc teltt is deady based on a preexisling

JOHN THE SHORT

colleclion of episodes, so that it is later than the version allriboled to Mo~., of Oif1The main featore of the ven;iun auributed to John the Presbyter is that il has the fonn of a real homily, with :m added prologue, conclusion, and pcBOnaJ reflections by the author. These are of an encomiaslic or moral nature, inserted between episodes or groops of episodes. The most interesting sections are the prologue (which also discusses the Iitenary justification for the wol'k), a digression on Jacob, another on Moses, 10 whom Piscnlius is compan:d, and II third 011 the oratorical skill of Pisentius. BIBUOCRAPIIY

Budge, E. A. W. Coptic Homilies in the DiAlect of Up~r El:Ypt. London, 1910. O'Leary, De L The Artlhic I.ife of S. Pi.umtius. PO 22, 3. Pam, 1930. TITO ORLANDI

JOHN RUFUS. Set John of Mayuma. JOHN SABAS (II. c. 550), Nestorian ascetic who spenl a long time as a hemlil and at an advanced age was the founder and principal of a monastery. His writingli consist of lellers, short sennons, and a compendium on the spiritual life called Ru'us AIMa'rlfah (Chapters of Urll.lcrstandlng). Despite his Nestorian fnith, Ihe.~e writings made him greatly e:;teemed in Jacobite and Monophysite circles, so that he became known as the "spiritual elder," almost 3.\ n Icgend:uy chameter. D1BLlOGRAPHY Wright, W. AShar/ His/ory of SyriIJc IAlera/ure. london, 1894. VTNCENT FREDERICK

JOHN OF SHMON, sixth- ami early seventhcentury bishop of ShmOn and writer of two Coptic works in praise of Saints MARK :tnd ANTONY. There is no other evidence about him in Coptic literary tradition except for a passage by the historian sAwlRUS 10M AL-MUOAI'l'A' and John's own mention in one work of his contemporary, DAMTAN. patri..rch of AI· exandria. John'5 encomium of Ihe Evangelisl Mark (cd. Orlandi, 1968, with an Italian translation) consist.~

1369

of a prologue, which pr'llises the greaT figures of Egyptian Christianity; a paraphrase of episodes con' cerning Paul, Barnabas, alld Mark from the Acts o( the Apostles; legendary relations between Mark and Peter; Mark's deeds in Alexandria, according to apocryphal accounlS; and an exhonalory conclusion. John's encomium of Antony (Pierpont Morgan library, New York. M579, (ols. 72-87: cd. Gariue, t943, with Latin tmnslation) consists of a prologue; the praises orAnlony, which go on at considerable length: and an exhortatory epilogue. John d0e5 not give a real biogfllphy o( the saint being praised, as would be indispensable in a later period. Nevenheless, boTh works show an exedlent opacity for construction and for the organization of COnTent. The rhetorical style is florid and often very complex, in line with the taste of that time, which was distantly derived from that of the "second sophistic" style. From his works, John', most marked characteristic appears to be a burning nationalism, which is also obviously Ihe basic reason for the choice of the subjects of these two homilies. At the ti,ne of £>am. ian, in fact, the Coptic church tended to be dosing in upon itself and 10 view Egypt as a privileged region lhal alone was capable of preserving onhodoxy against almost all the rcst of the Christian world. From Ihe literary viewpoint, one can observe John's panicip:uion in the argument about the appropriaTeness of reopening discus..~ion of subjllcts already treated by the great Greek fathers of earlier limes. In the late sixth and early !\Cventh centuries, Coptic was becoming established as the language for everyday use (from the popular to the scholarly) within The church: at the same tillie, texts in Greek coulll no longer be ll'Usled from tne theolo~icaJ viewpoint. BIBLIOGRAPHY Garitte, G. "Pancgyrique de Saint Antoine par' Jean eveque d'Hermopolls." Orlcn/alia Christialla PeriodicQ 9 (1943): I 00-134, 330-65. Orlandi, T, S/Ildl Copli, I. Ull ellcomio di Marco Evangelisla. 2. LII fOlltl copte della Storia del PaIriarch; di Al(l$salldria. J, La lel:J:llnda di S. Mercurio. Testi e documcnti per 10 sludio dell'anti· chita 22. Milan, 1968. Trro ORlANDI

JOHN THE SHORT, See John Colobes, Saint.

1370

JOHN AND SYMEON

JOHN AND SYMEON, fOlJl1h-celilury martyrs in !3gypt. They arc the subject of the Passion of John and Synleon ... Coptic wodt thaI survives in only one Bohairic manuscript of the ninth Cl."nlUl'y (liyvernat, 1886-1887, pp. 174-201). The Passion belongs to the late literary pauern defined by T. 8aumeister as "koplisc:her Konsens," the rcpetitivt: treatment of the Egyptian tht:me of "indeslrut:tible life" (see llA(;t(l(;l(At'UY). It is related to the cycle of Julius of Aqfah~ (see MARlYRS. COPTtc) and for cerlain legends IQ the Antiochene Cycle Qf BASIUDES (sec CYCLES). The Passioll opens in Kcnemoulos, a village in the Panau di~lrict of Egypt, where li...e old Moses lind his wife, Hdt'n, who arc childless. Moses makes a VOIV 10 John the Baptisl to bund a sanctuary, and the latter pmmia.\.~ion repl)l'ts the episode of Nio;omelle, the SOn of lhe king of Persia, who had bcen caplUred in war-a Slory typical of lhe Uasilidian cyclc. After Diocletian. successor to Quintili;m, rejects Christianity John ;md Symeon go to Ale:'!:andria in order to confes~ their faith. They are imprisoned by the prefect Armenius. Before Julius of Aqfah~ they are tOl1ured and put to death. Julius s;lve~ their bodies :lnd writes their Passion.

JONAH, FAST OF. See FasIS. JOORE. martyr in fourth-century Egypt. Jooru was presumably venerated on 10 Kiyahk. The uncertainty springs from the fact th3t the te:'!:t of his Passion ~ survi...ed in only one codex, which is in S.,hidic dialect and is muliialL'Ll to""-.lrd the end (Egyptian Museum, Turin, Cal. 63000, I). The text ob...iously belongs 10 Ihe genus of "cpie" Passions (se~e HACI(t(';ItAMIY), but cerUlin fairly areha· ic features of buth language and namative organiza· tion indicate that it should be placed among the older Qnes, wrilten (in Greek or Coptic) in aboul the fifth cenlury. The lext begins with the arrival al Shmin of an unnamed Roman prefect in the reign of the emperor Diocletian. On the day on which the ChriSlians who refuse 10 make sacrifice to the empemr are to be judged. live JOldiers go to the town of Jinjeb and meel Joore, a shepherd who admits that he is a Christian. They try to capture him, but he manages to escape. They then take two of his animals. Joon: relums and recovers the animals by foree. wounding three of lhe soldiers. When the prefeci hears of Ihls. he threatens the kQmarchl!-S (village leader) of Jinjcb. who lakC!l Joore in custody. Although Joore manages 10 escape once ag.'lill, he is recaptured and imprisoned. In priS()n Ihe other Chri~lians encourtlge him to nlal1yn.lom. There fullows a debate wilh Ihe prcfect that la~ts into the evening and includes various episodes and discus· siQns, aftcr which the text ends. OIOUOCRAPIIY

Rossi. P. "Un nUQVO eodicc eopto del Musco Egizio di Torino." Alii Acc/lde/llia dt'i f.iucei, ser. 5, 1 (1893):3-136.

Tno OKLANDt

lUOLlOGRAPHY

BaUllleiSICI', '1'. MIMyr Il1vle/lis. Da Miirlyrer (/Is Si'wbild del' !JrWsr",/: ill tier Legem/e mrd im KIIII del' frilhe>l kup/i)'dtfJII Kirch/!.. MUnster, 1972. Hy...cm:lt, H. Lcs ACles des marlyrs de /'Egyple rire.~ des ",alllucrilS copIes de la Blbliolhi:qlle Vaticane CI d,1 Mllsec Borgia. Paris, 11186-1887. TlTO OIU.ANOl

JONAH. See Biblical Subjel:ts in Coptic All..

JOSEPH, sel:rct:lI)' of Apa

(reust d3Y: 30 nit). This saint i~ not in the SYNAXI\IIION of the Copts, but he was celebrated at the munastery of Apa Shenule in Akhmlm, as the fypiko (liturgical manuals) cQming from this monastery witness. He is also menlioned In the Ufe of Shcnute in"Coptic and Arabic versions (CSCO 129, pp. 32-33). We know nothing about this person. It is possible that he wa.~ alS() a doctor (according 10 the Arabic version of the Ufe or Shenute. where he is called SJll,!Nl!Tl,!

JOSEPH THE CARPENTER

lll·~laklm,

a lerm thai in Ihe Middle Ages signified a

doClOr). BIUl.lOCIl" ..HY

Amclineau, E. Munllments po..r sen/ir il l'histoire de I'Egypte chrbie'lIIe IIU:C IVe el Vt .~iedc$. Mission archCologitlue fran\,aise au Caire, Memoires 4. Paris, 1888. Crum, W. E.. CtJlo/ogllc of /he Coptic MomlScripls in the CollectioJl 01 Ihe lohJl R)'/onds Librory. Man· chester, 1909. Leipoldl, I" and W. Cruill. Sinulltii (Jrchim(Jlldritac Vila t!I opcra omnia, CSCQ 41. Pleyte, W., and P. A, A, Boeser, l,ds, MallllM:rils copus du Muste d'lontiqui/ts des Pu),s·Bus il l.eide, Leiden, 1897.

1371

need it," lie distribuled it 10 lhe poor and needy, the widows and the O'1)han~. Cro~~ing Ihe Nile, he became a monk in the mountain of Bcnhadab. l'le fell sick, and said 10 himself, "If I recover and regain my health, I will Ih'e wilh Saint Elias:' This was done, and he did nOI lea\'c Saint Elias unlil his death. He :'lpplied to himself the gospel saying, "It is enough fOf the disciple 10 be lIS his mao;ter, and Ihe servant as his 10n:I" (Mt. 10~25). He applied himselF to ao;celic!sm, consuming neil her bread nor olives, He eonlenled himself with bema and gave himself up to ~trict lasting, He spenl the ire::tler pan of the nighl in prayer, 10 the point Ihat he fell ill, spilling blood. But one night as Ihe brethren SUlTOUnded him, Jc5llS came 10 heal him, He then ~umed his asceti· cism to Ihe poinl of bt..-comiog so thin that his skin adhered to his bone$. Allowing himsclf no rest, he fell ~ick :t.gain, and died 'II the agt: of thirty-three.

JOSEPH, STORY OF. Ste Biblical Subp;ls in

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Coplic Art.

emf. e. JOSEPH OF BISHWAw. SAINT, a monk from Qlft who lived with Saint WAS OF BISHWAw (feast day: 5 Halur). He was the son of parents who were important in Ihis village. His falher being already dead, his mother called him 10 her dealhbed. Joseph said 10 hel', "Why are you forsaking me?" She replied, "I am entrusting you 10 Jesus Chrisl, my Lord, l'le will not fOl'Sflke you, and will never be far from you," According to the SYNAXARlON, he had seveml brothers, the eldest of whom received him into hi~ homc and took ctlrc of him. God, his firSI lutor, suggesled 10 him Ihat he cro....~ the rivel'and withdraw Into Ihe cave of Saint EliAS OF IlIS11WAW, He lhere ruund tlie book of the prophet Elias and began to read in a very swecl voice, whieh c,ltlsed Saint Eli'ls lu say, "May this young miln rell1ilin here and spend the fetlS! of Ea.stcr with u~, Ihtll we mllY he,ll' him re'ld!" Joseph retul'lled 10 the to.wn, and Anb:'\. EJi:Js h:Jd a vision In which he received a palm that bore fruits in lhc place where he WlIs. Joseph an~wered the call of the Lord Jesus Christ. He abandoned lhe world lmd embn.\eed the monastic life. He a.~ke
COI(J{oglte de Mau",scrils arubes chrtliePl5 cmUef\lt5 au Caire, Studi e Tesli 63. Cairo, 1934, Troupeau, G, C(Jtolog/le dl'5 mallltscri/s orabes, premi~re por/it: mumucriu chrilien5, Vol. I. Paris, 1972.

JOSEPH THE CARPENTER. saint lind spouse of Ihe Vi'l':in Mnry and fosler father of Jesus Christ (feast day: 26 AbTb), Biblical Accounlll In the New Testament Joseph is mentioned in the accounts of the birtb find childhood of Jesus (Mt. 1-2; Lk. I -2) and al~o in Luke (3:23, 4:22) and John (1:45, 6:42) ~IS the r(llhel' or Jesus. He he· lunged to lhe ldbe of Judah and the bmily of King David (ML 1:2-16; Lk, ]:23-34), lind in lhe Gospels he is the link lhal joins Jesus to th(J1 lineage, The Gospcl~ differ in the nllme given tu Joseph's r"lher in the genealogies of Jesus. According 10 Matthew I:l6 it is Jacoh; tlccording to Luke 3:23 it is Heli. The different ell:plana1ions for this divergence reo main in the l'ellim of hypothesis, FOI' Julius African' us in the third century, Jacob lind ~le1i were broth· ers, and on Ihe death of Heli, Jacob married his widow in accordance with the Levilical law. Saim Augustine suggesled Ihat lieH had adopted Joseph, who wa~ Ihe son of Jacob, Heli could also have

•

1372

JOSEPH THE CARPENTER

been the father of Mary. Since she was the only child, on her 1ll1llTiage the family rights of Hcli would have passed to Joseph. The Gospels tell us nolhing of the birthplace of Joseph. but ancient Christian write." suggesl three possibililies: Jerusalem, Bethlehem. and Nazareth. The cvangelists call Joseph ho td/oll (anisan). The Coptic. Syriac. and Ethiopic versions take him la be an artisan who work,; wilh wood. a carpenter; the Latin versions take him to be an anisan who works wi!.h iron. la~,. Creek writers generally call him a carpentcr. The Go!;pcls relate that Mary was already be· lrothed to Joseph when she received the annuncia· tian of thc angel (Mt. 1:18; LIr.. 1:27). From !.he tellt of M,:llIhew it appears that the situation was that of the formal promise of matrimony. the lirst stage in a Jewish marriage. which was complcled by le.'lding the bride to the husband's house. In .su<:h a situa· lion it is unlikely that Joseph would havc accompa' nied Mary on her journey to the hill country of Judea 10 visit Elizabeth (Ur.. I :39). On observing the signl of Mary's motherhood before they lived tagether. Joseph. a jusl man. decidt:d to put her away privately (Mt. 1:19). In a dream he then received the revelation of thc mystery Ihat had been worked in Mary and voluntlll'ily accepted Ihe mission of patcrnity lhat Cod commended 10 him (ML 1:24_ 25). As legal fllther by divine vocation. Joseph gave the child the name Jesus and took care of Ihe l'loly Family. In the Gospel of Mullhew. we are lold thai Joseph had further divine revelations about the journey to F..gypt and the rdurn to Nazareth (Mt. 2:13-19). According to Luke, Joseph accompanied hls spouse, Mary, who is the prolagonist of the evenll (Lk. 2:4-5; 16:48). Since there is no (lirect rnention of Joseph during the public life of Jesus, it can rca~onably he supposed that he had already died.

Apocryphal Accounts Joseph loWiclllly llppellrs in apocryphal literature. which has had a great Influence on :ll1istic representations. Joseph appears above all in the apocryphal gospels of the hirth of Mal)' and the childhood of Jesus. The old"'lit of this series is the so·ealled Protogospel of JOllies, dating from the second centu· ry (Tischendorf, 1876, pp. 1-48), the main idea of which is to defend the honor and virginity of Mary in Ihe narration of the antecedents of Mary and her husband Joseph. The laller, an old widower with children. is given the task of looking after Mal)' by

the high priest after a meeting of the widowers of Jerusalem hi which a dove appears frolll Joseph's starr and llies over his head (chap. 9). When Mary is found to be with child. the high priest suspects JOlIiCph and submits both of them to the lest of drinking the biuer waters. Tht..")' come through the lest UnlUlmled and their innocence is acknowl· edged (chaps. 15-16). Such a presentation af Jaseph clarifies the New Testament references 10 the brethren of Jesus (Mt. 12:46; Mil.. 3:31; In. 2:12; Acts 1:14). since these would be children of a previ· ous marriage of Joseph; the perpetual virginity of Mary is also protected. TIre Gospfll of Pseudo-Matthew is d"'PCndent on the Protagospel of Jamu. In this sixth-century won: (Tischendorf. 1876. pp. SOlOS). episodes from the childhood of JesWi arc nar· rated. Equally dependent on the Protogospel is the De nlltivitllte Mariti/! (ninlh century: Tischendori, 1876. PI'. 113-21), which e1iminatt..'Ssuch themes as the 1i.,,1 marriage of Joseph and the tesl of the biuer watcrs and clarifies other themes $uch as the true marriage of Joseph and Ihe Virgin. The apocryphal gospels of the childhood of Jesus have Ihe prime aim of showing Ihe divinity of the child and contain many anecdotes on the relation· ship belween Joseph and Jesus. Thus the Guspef 01 Pseudo·n,oll/as, which dates from the second cen· tUI)' (Tischendorf. 1876, pp. 140-75), gives an aecounl of Ihe miracle worked by Jesus when He causes some clay pigeons to take llight after having been scolded by Joseph for making them on the Sabbath (chap. 2). Joseph scolds Jcsus ;lnd pulls His ea.", when he cannot unde."I::md the child's behav· lor (chap. 5), and he tries in vain to find a teacher suitable for Jesus (chap. 14). Along the same line.~ is the so·called Arabi,· Guspel of the Childhood, alsu known in Syriac (ed. from Latin version in Tischen· dorf, i876, pp. 181-209), which includes details of the jnurn!:y to Egypt and Ihe return to NlW,Ar-Clh. This apocryphal work indude~ the tradition of the stay or the Holy Filmily in M!l!ariyyah, a tuwn some 6 miles (9 km) nOl1hea.~t of Cairo neal' the ancient lieJiopolis. There Jesus c:luseu a spring tu flow in which Mary wa~hed His robe, and the balmy perfume of the sweat filled Ihe whole region (chap. 24). However, this tradition is not included in the twclfth-eentury Chl/rches Qlld Mcmosler;es hi Egypt. The apocl)'phal j.Ji.$wry of Joseph Ihe CarpeMter has also been preserved in Coptic. Previously it was known only in the Arabic version. edited by G. Wallin in 1727 and translaled into Latin by C. Tischendorf, 1876. Pl'. 309-336. and in the latin

JOSEPH THE CARPENTER

version of 1522 by Isidol'O de lsolano. E. Qual· rem~re in 1808 and C. ZoCga in 1810 drew atum· lion 10 the existence oC Bohairic and 5.ullit'iently well founded, since the basic motiC in the history of Joseph is the death of Jo$eph, whereas lhe Ill()tif of the myth.s is lhe resurrectiOn of ().<;iri.~. Although cerlain expression.s taint· ed with gnoslicism can be found in the llis/Qry of Jo.scph, its contents arc substantially ol1hodox and suppose a well.developed doctrine of the Trinily, judgmenl after dealh, the immurlalily of the soul, the angels, and even (according to G. Ciamber· ardini) the ~craments. On the other hand, il con' lains apocryphal Infonnatioll concerning the liCe of Joseph. !>ueh as that he was from Belhlehem, was married for the fin;t time at the age oC forty, remained married for Cony-nine years, and was a widowcr Cor a year. He thcn took the Virgin into his care and two years later they were married. He died al an advanced age when Jesus wn.~ eighteen. By hi~ first marri~ile Joseph had four sons and two daughters called A.~sia and UUII. In Bethlehem Jo· seph regislered Jesus before his hirlh (ch;tp. 7). The

1373

History of JOSllph also includes the tradition of lhe

death of the prophets Elijah and Enoch at the hand!> of thc Anliehrlst (chap. 31), itS is narrated in lhe Apocalypse of Elijah. An interesting feature of the History of Jo,~cph is that it is the oldest indirecl witness to 1I feast in honor of Saint Joseph, leading to lhe conclusion that the Christians of Egypt were the Iirst 10 cele· brate il. The figure of Joseph is, of course, closely linked in the traditions of t~ Coptic church 10 lhe journey of Ihe Holy Family to Egypt. On this subject it is sufficient to note. among the homilies in Arabic, that of lakarlyy.l of Sakha, in which the reasons for lhe journey arc given for the Iirst time: to purify Egypt of idolalry. to fulfill the prophecies of the Old Teslament, and to shower blessings on Egypt. In two homilies by Cyriaeus of al-Bahn~ there is mention of the Holy Family's sUly in Bisus for four days and of a Book of Joseph, in which the saint wrote an account of his liCe. Many places in Egypt lay claim to the residence there of Joseph and Ihe Holy Family, for example. Cusa and Hennopolis in the Thebaid (Meinarous, 1963). In the apocryphal Vision of Thcoplli/US. preserved in Syriac (cd. Mingan~, 1929), it i.s recalled lhat near Cusa Jesus look Joseph'.s !>lafT and planted it in the ground as a wilness of His arrival lhere, and that immediately the staff began 10 sproul.

Cult of Saint Joseph The cult of $aint Joseph received its first explicit wilness in the West in the eighth century (Central Ubrary, Zurich, Rh 30.30) with a feast celebrat...-d on 20 March. From the tenth cenlUry the different calendars and martyrologics place the feast on 19 March, and lhe first witnesses 10 public devotion are found in the lwelfth century. This devotion became more widespread in lhe We~t through the activitie~ of the Prcmons!l·aten~i;m.Servile. Franciscan. and Carmelite orders, and the figure of SainI Joseph grew in CSlt.'Cm and became the object of theological refleclion to such lin extent that Pope Pius IX on 8 December 1870 declared SainI Joseph patron of the Roman Catholic Church (feast day since 1955: I May). Saint Joseph is acknowledged a.~ having a divine mission and a singular holiness below that of Je.su.s and Mary alone. In the Ens. the feast of Saint Jos"''Ph is mentioned in the ninthcentury clIlendars of the Palestinian monaslery of Saint Sabas (feasl day: first Sunday after ChriSlmaS).

1374

JOSEPH OF TSENTI, SAINT

The commemoration of lhe parents of Jesus is joined to lhal of the Nativity and is celebl1ltcd the day after or on the preceding Sunday. The Coptic church has used a proper omel' for sailll Joseph since the Middle Ages. It is placed after that of John the Baptist, but before that of the Apostles. In the SYIllAXAIUON of the Coptic church of Alexandria, written about 1425, the feast of 26 Abib is prc:;crved. The feast to cdebr.lte the stay of the Holy Family in Egypt is joined 10 the ft:a5/. of the COnsecration of the churches of those places in which they arc suppo5(.-d to have lV:Sidcd. There are signs of a fea.\! celebn'lloo on 26 Arnshir, which could be thl,: betmthal of Joseph and Mary. The most theological consider.uion of Joseph before the modem period is by Ibn AI·Tayyib al Mashriqi (1403) in a Comrrn:nlary on the Gospel of Mallhew. AI prc:;cnl the devotion to Jo:scph is not of partic· ular Imponancc among the Copts, and his feast and office arc celebrated only in the monasteries. Some connect the forty·three days of fasting in Advent to a fast of the ~me length by the Virgin before she gave bil,h in Bethlehem because Joseph had insuh· cd hl,:r (Gi3mber.wdini, 1966, pp. 47-48). The Jeru5alem Copts cekbrale the 3ppearance in 1954 of the Virgin Mary, the Infant Jesus, Joseph. and the angels in S:lint Antony's College, next to the Church of lhe Holy Sepuleher (Mcinardu.~, 1970. p. 267). BIBLIOCRAPUV Battista, A., and B. lJagillli. Edizionc enliea dellelfilo arabo de//u JIi)'/lJria foscphi I-abri I,ig'mrii e ricerclle sulfl/ sua origin/!, Jel'IJsalem, 1978. GiamberartlinL C. San Gil/seppe 1Il~lla tradition!! cfJpla. C"im, 1966.

Kltlmeth, G. "Oher die Herkunft del' apokryphcn 'Geschichte Jnsephs lies Zimmernmnns.·" Angdulfi 3 (1930):6-31. Lcfol1, I•. T. "A Propos de 'L'Hisloirc de Joseph Ie chnrpcnlicr.'" Lc MllSeOlI 66 (1953):201-223. l..egllnk:, P. de. Accypliaca, pp. 1-37. Gottingen, 1883, Mcimu·dus. O. F. A. III llie Step.t of the /fury Fumify from Be/II/elle"! 10 Upper Egypt. Cairo, 1963. _-'--' Chri$lillll EKYPI Faith and Ufe. Cairo, 1970. Michel, C., and P. PeclCU, Evan~iles (lpocrypllcs I, 2nd cd., pp. 194-245. Paris, 1924. Minglln;t, A, "Vi~ion of Theofilus, or the Book of lhe Flight of the Holy Family into Egypt." Bulle/itl of Ihe 101m lly/tHu/.s l.ibraf)' 13 (1929):383-425. Moren?, $. I)ie Geschichle VOIl Joseph (Jem Zimmer· 11101111, llberseltl, er/OlllCrt mill .mteriillcht. Texte und Untersuchungen lur Geschiehtc der altchriSI· lichcn literatur 56. no. I. Berlin. 1951.

Rc\'illQut, E. "Apocl)'phes coptes du Nouveau Teslament." Ewde.t i:.I:YP/Q/ogiq.les 7 (1876):28-70. Robinson, F. Cop/ic Apocf)'pha/ Go.tpek Texts and Studies 4, nO. 2. Cambridge, 1896. SantOS, A. (Ie. Los £lIal/gelio_~ Apocnfos, pp. 358-78. M:ldrid, 1956. Stramal-e, T.. and M. L Casanova. "Giu!leppe, spo.so di Maria." Bibliollleca Satlc/orm", Vol. 6, pp. 1251-92. Rome, 1965. TisehcndOlf. C., ed. Evange/ia Apocrypha, 2nd ed. Leipzig, 18]6. GoNlAW ARANDA PEIl£Z

JOSEPH OF TSENTI, SAINT. The life of J(>seph is summari7.ed in the recension of the SYNAXARJON from UpJX'r Egypt at the day of his death, 5 Halilr {Bas.~I, 1907, pp. 283-86: Forget, 1954, Vols. 47-49, pp. 295-96 (text]: 78, 1953, pp. 120-21 [Irans.]). A nalive of F~w, Joseph was an only son. His parents reared him with the child of neighbors nallled Patasius. When the two children had grown up, they went to the mona.<;tery of Tscnti founded by Saint '''CHOMtUS of Tabenn~ and asked to be received as monks. Joseph decided to live a.~ a recluse and cstablished himself in the mountain of Tsenti (al.A~$) in Ihc nome of OU·T. !-lis friend Pataslus was the first to die, afler pre' dieting his own death. Jm;cph accomplished mira· c1es and alro huilt a church in the name of the apolltlcs whcre Palasius was buried. The church was situated, according 10 the Synoxflriall, "in a cave in lhe mountain." Nothing more i.~ known of Joseph of Tsenli Ih;tn what is l'tcortlecl in the Syn"xarion. This Joseph of Tsenti should nO! be confused wilh another saint, JQSW'JI OF BISHWAw. who lived and died on the mounlaln 01" Tscnti to the west of Oir!, more precisely in the southern parl called al· Bishwnw (Ihe Pl,:nlea). Joseph of Bishwil.w is men· lioned in the 8ymixi/rion only wilhin lhe notice devoted 10 his master 1ll.IAS 01' U1SflWAw. Hi.~ name is written "Yus.5.b" in lhe Syllaxarioll, bUI Winlock und Crum havc shown lhal this is a transliteration of the Coplic way of writing Jo.~eph. H10LlOGRAPIIV Winlock, H. E., and W. E. Crum. The MOl/as/ery of Epiphallius al 7'hebes, 2 vol~. New York, 1926. Reprinted 1973. Rp..NG-GOORGES COQUIN

JOSEPHUS FLAVIUS

JOSEPHUS FLAVIUS, famous Je.....ish historian of his people, who wrote in Greek during the second half of the first century "'-0. As he reports in hilO autobiography, through his fmher MrlUhiru; he was a member of the pricstly family of Jehui:,rib (cf. I ChI'. 24:7), which rose to high.pl'iestly rank. More· over, Ihrough his ltIlJlhcr he was 1\ descendant of the myal house of the HasnllJn;)eans/Maccabees, and was thu.~, as he emphllSizes, of rlJY:11 blood, III accordance with hi.~ lineage and his f;.'llher's social position, he received :111 excellem educatilJo, FOI' a noble Jewish boy in Jerusalem :,t Ihat time, this indude
1375

an attached hiln to the suite of Titus, hilO son OInd successor (79-81), whlJ was appointed 10 bring the Jewish war to an end. During the siege of Jerusalem in 70, Josephus tried repeatedly, but in vain, 10 perlOuade the n..-bels to surrender and especially to presl:l"\'c the Temple fmlll destruction. After the city's capture he lived in Rome, now 01 ROIll;).n citizen and a distinguishl:d member of the fluvinn court, especially during the reign of Domltlan (8196), who valued the company of schnlarl'l. Josl:phus prohably died'in Rome; lhe date and the exact circumstOlnces are not known. During Vc.~pasian's lifetime Josephus composed the histol}' of the Jewish war. prub:,bly in Aramaic. This first edition, which is lost, was followed by a final edition in Greek, which he prepared with the as.sistance of good stylists for the general Hellenistic public. His further woro arc the histol}' of the Jl:wish people from the bcginning.~ to the outbreak of the Jewish war (AmiqllilQles JIIJaicae), designed for educated non-Jews; :m aUlobiography (Vila); and a k'arned c.Iiscusslon on comcmpQI1uy antiSemitism (Contra Ap;clIl/:'m). Probably he wrotl: and publishl:d all these works duriog Domitian's reign. In the course of its social and spirhual reorg:lni1.ll1ion after 70, Jcwl}' lost all contact with thc liter· ary work of Josephus for many centuries. Deficien· cies of language may have hindered the reading of the Greek lellis. II is, however, much 1I101'e likely, based lJn Josephu~' repons on his life and actions during the war, thOlt in leading Jewish circles there was the conviction that he was a descner and a traitor to his natilJn. In any C3.'Ie, his woro were ignored until the tenth ccnlury-. BUI then they appear a.~ historical sourccs of a popular Hebrew book with the title JOSippoll, which narrates the history of thc Jewish people up to the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70. ObvioUlOly the unknown author uscd one of the Latin tr.lnsl:.tions of Josephus' works, which-except for lhls autobi· ography-had been mude in the church sinl:l: the fourth century. Today Josephus and his wor'ks are a fOlvorilC subjeet of Jcwish seholal'Ship. Surely the Latin translations rcnt..'Ct the reputation tbat the works of J05Cphus gaincd in the old West· em Christian church. Similar popularity is allcsted by 1hc p:1l1ialtexL~ of Josephus in Syriac and Slavic, which are not translations, strictly ~peaking, but rcworkings with an explicitly Christian orientation. There is no Coptic translation. During the Middle Ages thc works of Josephus wcre a f:lVorite pa" of n..'Uding matter in the W..: stcrn church, no 1t..'SS SO than the works of the falhel'S of thl: church. This is

1376

JOSHUA

IilSlonishing, in view of the fuel Ih:lI early Christianity plays vinually no pan in the works of Josephus, although he cenainly knew of it both in his native country and in Rome. He repons in AlIliquilQles on the work and fate of John the Baptist, and on the violent death of James the brother of Jesus, "the stK:IlJled Christ." However, he mentions them not for their own sake bUI because their fale exposes the men who did away whh them. There is also Ii remark conceming a cenain Jcsus, the so-called Testimonium Flavianum. However, because JC5US is there called the Christ without qualification, it.. genuineness is disputed, lind loday il is generally viewed as hllving bl..,tm at lellst revised by Christian hands. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Feldman, l. H. Josephus ami Mudem Schularship (1937-1980). Berlin and New York, 1984. Reng.~torf. K. H.. ed. A Complele Concordance 10 Flavius Josephus, 4 vols. Leiden, 1973-1983. Schreckenberg, H. Bibliographie VI Flavius Jose· phus. Leid..n, 1968. _ _ . Bibliographie w FlavillS Josephus: Supplementbotld mil Gtsamtreiisur. Leiden, 1979.

KARL HEINRICH Ra
JOSHUA. See Old Tnlamem, Arabic VersKms of the.

JOVIAN (c. 332-364), Roman eillperor who

re-

Slored onhodo~ Christianity to its official stattl.'l nf· ter its tk"Position by JULIAN TH£ APOSTATF- Jovian WllS born in Moesia. Illyria. in the Balkans, to a mililal1' officer, Count Varronius. Jovian was all officer in Julian's a"my when Julian died fighting the PeNlians in 363 .lOd the troops hailed him llS emperor. The situation of lhe ROman army in Persia wa.~ pelilous, and Jovian wa.'l forced 10 conclude a disastrous peace with Sh••pur II in order (0 save his forces frQm destructiQn. On July I, 363, he surrendered the live provinces cast of the Tigris River that Gaterim had captured in 29tl. the frontier cities of Nisibis and Singara, and all Roman influence in Annenia. II was a "necCSliary but ignoble peace" (Eutropius Br~iorium to. 17). Jovian restored Christianity as the official religion of the empire, bUI he seems also to have issued an edict allowing all his subjecu freedom of conscience except for practices of magic (Themistius

Oralio V). The chi-rho symbol, a 5Iylb.ed, abbreviat· ed foml of Ihe name "Christ" in Creek. was restored 10 Ihe coinage, and some of the privileges taken away by Julian were restored 10 the church. In particular. immunitiell from tax:ltion were reo stored 10 the clergy, as wen as their allowances in kind lotltlontl), and stipends were to be paid once more to widows and virgil1lii. On his way 10 Antioch in september, Jovian met ATHANASIVS. exiled bishop of Alexandria, lind togeth· er they rode into Antioch. It W"olS one of Athanasius' great triumphs. The angry critic of Ihe empel'Or Con5tanlius, who had deposed him, became a loyal imperial subject once more. JovIan formally reo 5tot'ed him 10 his bishopric and, equally important. invited him to draw up a stlltement of the faith. nlis is preserved as Athanasius' LeU!!r 56. Petitions by Athann.~jus· opponents in Alexandria were dismissed by the emperor with indignation. While the Nicene Creed was now established as orthodox and Athanasius' lenaeity had been vindi· clued, it was not possible to bridge the differences between him and Mclilius. bishop of Anlioch, who represented the "New Nicene" party (see MEUTIAN SCHISM). Melitius agreed wilh Ihe HOMOOUSION posi. tion on Ihe rwlurc of Christ, but a council over which he presided on 5 Oclober 363 added the gloss "the Son is born of the substance of the Father, and in resJ)«'t of substance is like him" (SocratC$ Scholastieus Hurona ecclesiostico 3. 25: cr. Sm.omen IlisronQ ecclesjQsticQ 6. 4). Melitius and Athanasius remained out of communion with each other. Jovian left Anlioch in November and progressed slowly toward Conslantinople. He stopped at Tar· sus. where he paid his I'espects at Julian's tOmb, before moving north tQ Ancyra, where on II Janu· ary 364 he promulgated an edict abrogaling Julian's restrictions on Christian leachcl'!i of the classics (Codex '111eodosia,uls 13. 3. 6). Thence he reached D:.dastana, on the bordeNl of Blthynla and Galatia. on 16 FebrUIH1'. The night was culd, and a eh:m:oal brazier was brought into the emperor's room. Ne~t morning he was found dead, suff()(;l
JUDAS CYRJACUS, SAINT

reign. His reigll Is imponanl ill the hislory of Egyptilln Chlilltl:mity for ilS unequivocal ~uppon for the theology of Alhnnallius. It assured the bishop uf AI· eXllndria's prestige and aUlhority as spokesillan for onhodoxy and enhanced the standing of Alexandrill as "the dty of Ihe onhodox." BIBLIOGRAPflY Winh, G. "Jovian, Kaiser und Karik:ltur." In V;vuri· 1111I.

Fe:#schrilf 71leodor Kllmser

lllltr

90. Gebllf/s,

pp. 353-84. Jahrbueh rur Alltlke und Christentum, Erl!lunzungsband I!. MUnSler, 1984. Wordswonh, J. "Jovian." In DeB 2, pp. 460-65. Repr. New York, 1974. lag,

W. H. C. FRENP

JUDAS CYRJACUS, SAINT, second.cemury bishop of JellJsolcm a!iSOCiated in legend wilh the discovel)' of the cross. [n connection with JudOls CyriOlcus we mu_~t distinguish history from legend. Ji.OSEIIIUS OF CAllSAKJ;A is the earliesl witness that Judas was the lifteemh bishop' of Jerusalem, after James, the brolher of the Lord. BUI Euseblus him· self was astonished Ihat Ihere were Ihirteen bishops between 107 when Symcon died at 120 yean; of age, lind 135, when Judas became bishop. 11 is clear Ihal Eusebius has h:lI'moni:red independent sources. His note on Symeon is borrowed from Hegesippus, that on the third bishop, Justus Barsabas, from Papial;, and Ihal on the lir:st non·Jewish bishup or Jerusil' lem, Mark, from Aristo of Pella. The historical Judas may have lived laler, and il i... very likely that the period of his episcopate occurred a century liltcr. since there were both a Judeo-Christian hierarehy and a Gentile hierarchy. Judas Cyriacus i~ at the eeOler of Ihe !egenlls of the discovery of the cross. These developed as early a.~ the fumth century. They eonsi...t basically or three connected ver:sions, of which unly one ha.~ come down 10 us in COln!c in a sufficiently accu· rate form. Ilut the other two, fragmeOiary accountS have ne\'enhelcss had much innuence on the characterizatioll of Judas Cyriacus in more than one Coptic literary tClIOt. From Ihe.~e lexlS, his person has to be taken as II symbol of Ihe l!lrowing aUlonomy of Jerusalem from BYLlintium. The three legends of the discovery of the cross thilt were woven around Ihe person or Judas Cydac· us appear in almost all languages of Ihe Christian East, including, of coun;e, Coplic. The discovl'ry of the cmss by saint Helena. sians

1377

wilh lhe vision of Constanline on the shol'C!i of the River Danube in the seventh yenr of his reigll. Fol· lowing Ihe pTOmise of victory :IS a result of the vision of the cross, ConstaOline receives bal'l ism at the handll of Eusebius of Rome and sends hi.~ mOlh· er, Helena. to the Holy Land 00 a kind of pilgrim. age. The discovery of the cross is 5upposed to lake place in lhe 233rd year of the Rc:surrection. l1tal facl might be the last veslige of the aClual life of Judas as bishop of JellJ1!
1378

JUDGES

holy places are held by the Jews, she summons the pricst.s Oolas ben Hannan, Gucdalla ben Kajapha, and Judas ben Ebcdshalom to lead her to what she

seeks. Scarcely has she reached the three crosses when her daughter dies suddenly. Thanks to the Lord's cross. which bt."1:omes identified through thai incident, she revives. Protonike aoc:s bac:;k to Rome and incites Claudius to iliSUC an edict against the Jews. As a consequence. the Jews, under Trojan, sill' up J)CniCcution against Symeon. the se<:und

bishop of Jerusalem, and the CruliS is taken by Nike· las and bUrlt:d at a depth t:'quivalcnl to the height of twenty men. There. according 10 Euscbius, it rcmalned during the reigns of thir1ecn bishops until it was found by Judas for the Sl.:cund time. Such arc the Greek :md Syriae legends; all three complement one another. But the Coptic tt-adition is lIpp.lrently earlier than the Greek form, which begins with Ihe vision of ConSlantine on the Danube. This episode is intended to blacken the memoI)' of Constanlius the Arian, to whom CYRIl.. 01' SIiIW· SAU!M had dedicated a leller in 35 I on the occasion of the battle of MUDa, in which Constantius II was viClorious al the Danube, By bringing this vision back to 312 (Constantine's lieventh year), the anonymous apologist places all the enemies of Christiani· ty out of reach of the shame of apostasy, This composition undoubtedly dates from about 400. In fact, the lcgend of Saint Helena is known by Saint Am· brose in 395 in conneclion with the death of Thcadosius the Great. In Rofinus, al lhe beginning of Ihe fifth cenlury, Macarius is actually the bishop of the discovery of die Cross. In Socrates and Sozomen, it is always Macarius who is bishop of Jerusalem. The originality of the Coptic lrodilion is plain in lhe panegyric on the cross, atll'ibuled to Cyril of Jerusalem. published rrom l:I London manuscript by E. A. Wlillis Budge in 1915 and A, Campagnano from the Pierpont Morgan Library in 1980. The origin of Ihis first discovcry is ea.~y to find. [I hod 10 bc explained why the cross had been bolied the first time. Moreover, under Claudius, Helena ur Adiabene, who wa.~ Jewish, trovcled to Jeru!W.lem and olrered gold utensils for Ihe Jel'Usulcm tcmple. of the family of Berenice (PI'Otonike), lhis Helena was Christianizt:d on account of Ihe second Helena in order hetler to juslify din..-ct dependence on James of krus..'llcm. Note th.:u the date 233, ali it parodoxically remained in the Greek legend, might cOrTeSpond 10 me person of Judas. In any case, lhe Latin legend of the discQvery, which is very old, slill mentioru; the death of Macarius before the nominalion of Judas C)'riacus.

Gntf (1944, vol. I, p. 244) gives some delails of an Aroblc version of the discovcry by Helena in BiblioIheca Hagiogrophica Groeca 395, His data are can· fined today to a single manuscript, the scatlered pans of which belong to a Sina[tic manuscript dOled 950. The portion dealing with Ihe discovery of lhe cross is in a manuscript at l.ciden (Oriental Arabic manuscript 14238. fol. 40), a.~ well as in the fragments scattered in two manuscripts (Mingana Arabic 149, J. and Mingana Arobic 94, fall'. 3, 2 and 4). More reCenl is a sixleenth-ccntury codcx in lhe National Library, Paris (Ambie codex 281, fols. 342 -49: Troupeau, 1972, vol. 1, p. 250, n°,27,G" and Graf, 1944). which quotcs severnl other manu' scripts. The Sinaitic manusclipt of 950 includes the leg· end or Cyriacus within the Arabic framework of the dormilion of Ihe Virgin in six books, tuday in the pages preserved at Bryn Mawr College. BIBLIOGRAPHY Budge, E. A. W. Miscelhllleolls Coptic TexIS it! Ihe Diu/ecI QI Upper Egypl, pp. 220-26. London, 1915. Campagnllno, A. P. Cirillo di GeI'lUil/emme. OmeJie cople 511110 pO$5;one, sullo croce el 5/1110 vergine. Testi e Documenti per 10 Studio dell'Antichita, Serie Copta 65. pp, 76-148, Milan, 1980. Esbroeck, M. van. "L'Opuscole 'sur la croix' d'Alex· andre de Chyprc et sa version georgienne." Bed; KQn/isQ 37 (1979):102-132. _---:_ "Remetnbrement d'un manuscrit sina'itique arobe de 950." Orienluliu Chrisl;Qnu AI/ulecIQ 218 (1982): 135-47. Guidi, J, '·Textcs orientaux inedits du manyr de Judas Cyriaque, evl!que de Jel'Ugalem. II. Te~le copte." Revue de /'0';1.'111 dlre/iell 9 (1904):31032. Levl§()ll, W. "Konslanlinische Schenkung und SilveslCr·Lcgende." Miscellanea BrQI/sesco Ehrle 2 (1924): 159-247. Truupeau, C. Calalogue des lIulIlliscriis Mabes, Vol. I. Pari~, 1972. M. VAN EsBROECK

JUDGES, See Old Testament, Ambic Versions of lhe.

JUDCMENT, LAST, belief in a final reckoning after the resurT"tttion of me dead, when God will judge men and reward them for their deeds,

JULIAN

There are copious references 10 the ~t Judg· ment in both Old and New Testaments: Ecclesiastes 11:9,12:14; Isaiah 3:13; Mallhew 10:15. 11:22,24; Luke 10:12; Acts 17:31; Hebrews 9:27; 2 Peter 2:9, 3:7; I John 4:17. Many of Ihe early fathers of the church treated the !'iubject of the LaSt Judgment. According to Polycarp of Smyrna, "Whoever per· verts the saying of the Lord for his own desires, and says that there is neithel' re.~urrectlun nor judg· ment, such a une is the first-hum of Satan. Let us, therefure, leave the foulishness and the false teach· ing of the crowd, and tum back 10 the word which was delivered to us in the beginning" ("(Second) Letter to the Philippians," in Jurgens, 1970-1979, Vol. 1. p. 29). Saint JOHN CHRYSOSTOM stated, "U:I uS therefore take courage at His love of mankind and tet us be diligent in showtng repentance before that day arrives which will preclude our benefiting from repentance. Now everything depends on us; but then He alone who judges will be master of the sentence" ("Homi1ie~ on the Gospel of Mallhew," in Jurgens, 1970-1979, Vol. 2, p. III). Saint Augustine equally affirmed that "just a!'i there are two regenerations, of which I have already spoken above, one llccol'ding to the faith, which is accomplished now and throullit Bapti!'im; and the other according to lite nesil, ... so too are thcre two resurrections: a first one, which takes place now and is of soul!'i; ...•md the second resurrection, which takes place not now, bUI is 10 be at the end of time, and which is not of souls but of bodies, and which, through the lasl judgment, will send some to the M:eond death and others to that life in which there i$ no death" (''The City of God," in Jurgen$, 1970-1979, Vol. 3, p. 103). In contrnst to the Roman Catholic chun;h, the Coptic ehul'Ch preaches one la~t and gencl"lll judg. ment, which will take place after the Second Coming of Christ (Mt. 24:30; Lk. 21:27; I Tltes. 4:17), llnd following the gcoeral resurreclion (M!. 25: 3146; 1 Thes. 4:16; Heb. 6:2). II will he a universal judgment, of sinners lind pious lllike, of the whole man, bolh body and :>oul simultaneously. This i$ llUested by lhe sayings of the I.:arly fathers. Thus, Tcrtullian wrole, "We say, first of all, that it must be believed that the judgment of God is full and perfect, in such a way that it is final and therefore pc:rpetual; and that it is just, since It is not less severe with lIOme than with others; and that. full and perfect, it is worthy of God, "incc it is in keeping with His patience. It follows, then, that the fullness and perfection of the judgment consisls in

1379

nothing else than in lIS representing of the interests of the whole man. Since tlte whole man is com· prised in the union of bolh substances, he must appear in both; for it is necC$&lry Ihat he who passed Ihrough life in his emin;ty be judged in his entirety" (''The Resurrection of the Dead," ill Jurg· ens, 1970-1979, Vol. I, p. 149). lSee Ilbo: Hades; Paradise.] B18110GRAPHY

Cull mann, O.

Chri.~/

Il'ld Time. Lolldon, 1951. l;:I6fi~ Dawii.d. AI·DisquIiYYllh Ill'.' TIl'!J/lm al-R'l$Id,

2nd ed., pp. 123-124. Cairo, 1940. Jurgens, W. A., trans. The fllith of the carly Fa/hers. 3 \'Ois. Collegeville, Minn., 1970-1979. MIkh!'11 P.UoA. 'JIm a/-L4hUi, Vol. 2. pp. 225-32. cairn, 1936. Morris, L The Wag~s of Sin. london, 1955. The Biblical Doc/rille of Judgement. london, 1960.

--c:::::

ARCHBISHOP 8A.SIUOS

JULIAN (d. llfter SIR), bishop of HallCD.rnas!'ius who was a leader of MONOI'IlY$ITISM. Because he was (lppo~ed to the orthodox view of the nature of Christ dl..'(:lllred at the Council of CIIALCEOON. Juliau was deposed from his see in Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum, Turkey) and ncd to Alexandria, a center of monophysitism. There he became the leader of Ihe religious party known to iu opponents as Jullanisu, or Aphthartodocetae (supporters of the doctrine of incorruptibility, Ophlhflr$ja, of the body of Chri.~t), or Phantasiastae (~upporters of the teaching of a merely phenomenal body of Christ). In fact, Julian taught that the body of Christ "wa.~ Free of corruption f-rom the moment or union" rather than from the Resurrection only. In tlte days of His nt.>csh Christ was free from the "conuption" tltat infected all Ilesh; for ~IS the Son of Man, he was hOl!/OOIUi05 (euosubSlantial) with Adam l>efol"e the FulL not with man in his present fallen state. Inevitably, this doctrine seemed to sUl\&est analogics wilh the I>OCETIS,l,\ of an earlier century, a heretical view that the humanity of Christ, especially Hi!'i body, was "apparent" rather than real. Julian was refuted by other opponents of Chatcedon, notably the moderlite Monophysite SI!Vl!M\.lS. patriarch of Antioch, against whom Julian wrote four works. A large $CriCll of fragmen!.'! of these in Syriac and Greek have survived. Some of his letters also have been recov' ered.

1380

JUUAN, EVANGEUST

BI.8L1OGRAPHY

JULIAN, SAINT, eleyenth patriarch of the See of

Bardenhewer, O. Guchidlle der afu:hri$llichc!tl Lile' ralur, Vol. 5, pp. 2-6, Repr. Darmstadt, 1962. Draguet, R. llIlien d'Hulicumasse t!1 su CDtlfrovt!fSe avec Sivere d'A"tioche sur tincorruptibi/ite dJ' Christ. Louvain, 1924. Fragments in Syl'itlC and Greek. ___. "Pieces de polemlque amijulianiste," Le. Mu·

Saini Mart (180-189). He held the office for ten years during Ihe reigns of emperors Marcus Aureli, us and Commodus. He wa.~ laid to resl on 8 Baram· hal next 10 Ihe remains of Saint Mark in the Church of BU!;lIlis at Alexandria.

$«0'144 (1931):255-317; 54 (1941):59-89, Jugic, M, "Julien d'Halicarnassc et Silvere d'Antio· ehe." Echos d'Orielll 24 (1925):129-66, 256-85. Sanda, A., cd. Severi Alllij,,/iul1islicll. Beil'Ul, 1931.

BI8L1OGRAPHY Atiya, A. S, lIislIJry 01 ellS/ern ChriSlimlity, Mill, • wood, N,Y., 1980, AzIZ

S, ATIYA

MAIl.TINlANO PlllOOlI.lNO RONQ,GUA

JULIAN THE APOSTATE (332-363), Roman JULIAN, EVANGELIST. Aeeonling to the £cclesiaslicuf /listory of John of Ephesus, the fin;t Chrislian missionary to won: llJIlong the Nubians was a M<mophysite priesl named Julilln. Be had earlier aeeomp.;inied Ihe Coplic p.;itriarch TIlEOOOSI· us I in his exile in Constantinople, and through him had become imbued wilh a zeal to convert Ihe Nu· bians, In pursuit uf this goal. Jull;1n went to sec the Uy7.l1ntine empress Thendora, who was symp3thctie to the Monophysite cause; from her he received all vlli!;ia! !;ornmission to preach the gospel in the northern Nubian kingdom of NOIJATI.\.. However, lhe: clllpcrOl' Justinian, the husband of Theodora, or· dered instead that a Mclchile mission be dispatched to Noo.llia. When Theodora heard or this plan she connived with officials in Egypt 10 dl'lay the deparlure of the Mdchiles, with the result that Julian arrived first on Ihe Nubian scene, According to John of Ephesus, he W.IS ardently received by the Nobatians and soon achieved the conyenion bolh of the king and of his subjects. Julinn remained in Nob."Ilia for two years, after which his mis~ionary erron.~ were carried on by Theodore, bishop of Phi· lac. The final eonvcl'llion of Nobalia was completed by 1.0NG1NI!~ between 569 and 575, [Sec also: Nubia, EvangdiUllion or.)

BIDLlQGRAPHY Ad;IOIS, W. Y. Nubia, Corril/or 10 Africa, pp. 441-42. Princeton. N,J., 1977. Cadallah. F. A. "The Egyptian COnlribution to Nubian Christianity." SudDn Nato; Dud Rtcords 40 (1959):38-43.

Monnercl de Villard. U. Slona del/a NI/bia criSlia"a, pp. 61-64. Oricnlalill Christiana Analecta 118. Rome. 1938. Vantini. G. Chris/iar,it)' ill lhe Sudal/, pp, 38-40, Bologna, 1981, WILLIAM Y. ADAMS

emperor who atlempted 10 reStore the classical panlhl.'On, Julian WllS born in Constantinople, son of Julius Constantius and Basilina. With his half· brother Callus, he survived the massacre that claimed lIlany of the relatives of Emperor ConsIlUl' tine I on 9 September 337, including their father and cider brother, Julian W11S, however, rellloved from the capital, and hi~ early education took pillce under lhe supervision of Bishop Eusebius of Nicnmedia and the eunuch Mardoniu~, the latter nominully II Christian but (llso an admirer of the classics. On Mardonius' death, Emperor Con~tan· tius II, Julian's cousin, ordenxl the brothers' reo nloval to Macellum. a distant imperial estate in CaPPlldoda (modem Turkey), There Julian studied the classics bUI, with Gallus, moved closer to Chrislianity. He WllS baptized and became a lector and a PlJpil of Bishop George of C8ppadocia (later bishop of Alexandria). In 348 the IWO princes were ~ calk-d 10 Constantinople, where Julian came into contact Wilh Libanius and other pagan philosophcn;; thenccfonh the pagan dassi!;s held his devo· lion. In 351 G:itlus was created caesru', and Julian found greater opponunity to travel. Journeys to Ephe:sus, Perllamum, and Troy Irrevocably commit· ted hiln to the mystical form of Neoplatonism, 10 which he adhered for the rcm(linder of his life, Gallus foiled in his funclion a.~ caesar, and in November 354 COllStantius had hilll executed. This acl, coupled wilh the suspicion that Constanliu5 had been behind the murder of his father in 337, alienated Julian from the emperor. Nevenheless, he had to bide his time. In the same month he found himself accused of abelling anti-imperial activities and wa.~ summoned 10 the imperial cOlIn at Milan, but he was saved from Constantius' anger by the empreu. He wa.~ allowed to go to Athens, wherc he came into (;ontaci with BASJL. TIm CItF.AT and his f,'iend "P.f.C,(JRY OP ),/A2JAN7.US, who retained :l vivid,

JULIAN THE APOSTATE

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if unfavOI'llblc, memory of Juli"n (Gregury Orali" 5.23). For Julian it was;) happy peliod in which he was able to visit f.unous pagan shrines in Greece and finally 10 renounce Christianity, at least mental-

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In less than a year, however, Julian was b:u.:k in Milan. Germanic inv:uions along the Rhine frontier required urgent ::mentlon. FI'01ll a life of study and philosophic debate, he found himself al age twentythree c:ne:lle
1381

tians in their deadly hatred of one another" (Ammianus Man:cIlinus, 22.5.4). In NoMh Africa and in Alexandria his beliefs were justified. On 24 December 361, a mainly pagan mob had Iynch(.-cl Dishl)p Gt'Orge of Alexandria. After a shon interregnum, dUring which JuHan wrote a mild rebuke to the Alexandrianli for Iheir yiolent behavior (/..eller 21), ATHANASIUS I. who had been deposed in fuyor of George, was allowed 10 reluro 10 his episcopal eily (21 February 362). Julian's allemplto restore palf,lnism Y,~olS hl)pdcss from lhe sian. Though lhe Celtic provinces of the empire wcre very largely pagan, in Ihe wcahhiest and most imponant areas, including I-:'.gypt, worship of the trodition:al deities had becn giving way in· creasingly to Christianity. His auempt 10 organi7.e pagani~m in a fono imitating the Christi:an hicrarchy failed to c:atch on, :as did his elTon to inSlill a sense of purpose and practice of charitable action among the pagan pricsts. As he admitted to Arsacius, high priest of Galatia (tAtler 22), "the Hellenic religion does not yel prosper as I desire." Christian benevolenec \I) slrangen, care of the graycs or the dead, .lnd the pretended holinCS5 of their lives had done nlO!>t to incrC
1382

JULIUS OF AQFAH$

was something that "should be passed O"CI' in eler-

mIl silence" (Res gestae 25.4.20; cr. 22.10.7), and Christians were 100 finnly entrenched in Ihe educa· tional system throughout the East (0 be licriow;ly inconvenienced, at least in the shon IeI'm. By this lime. the summer of 362. Julian had <.-osI:l.blished his headquaners in Antioch. preparing for what he hoped would be a Iinal reckoning with Persia. On two counts his romanticism played him false. First his elfon to rc:ilorc p3ganislll in Antioch only provoked ridicule and discontent among the populace and involved the emperor in an undignified squabble with local satirists (recorded by Julian In his Miwpo/:fm ["the Beard·Haler"]). Second. in· stead of a well-prepared. limited campaign

10

retake

ground \0:;\ by Constantius in 359-360 and s«ure for Ihe empire a defensible frontier on the Tigris with PeBia-which, as evenL~ ...howed, ....'as within his puwer-he a.~pired to emulate Alexander the Great and conquer Persia outright, It W3li .m impos· sible Jream. Beginning his campaign on 5 March 363, Julian won a series of brilliant vicloriClO on his march down the EuphratClO low.. rd Ctesiphon. There, like others before and after him, he was checked. Fatal miscalculations (or perhaps an act of treachery) caused him 10 ~tire up Ihe easl bank of the Tigris: and with the river behind thenl, his forces were cnunteratlackt:d by Ihe Persians. Even so, Julian mighl have made good his relreal by vinue of the superior lighting ability of his lroop.... nut nn 26 June he was wounded hy a spear thrown trom an unknown hand. Thc wound proved fatal, and he died around midniKht on 26 June 363, Christi:ms wcrc 10 e1aim that the emperor's death was due to the hand of God. By the sbtth century, the credit for his death had been given to the Cap· patloclnn 1I11111yr MercuriuI, supposedly a general who IHld suffered for his Christian faith under Emperor Oeeius in the third century. This story became current in Egypt, and the HtSTORY OF nm PATRtARCHS recol'ds how Mercurius was sent by God to punish Julian for his :lpostasy, and lhat he struck the emperor through the head with his lance. The JliSlory records Basil the GrCal as the source of this account, though placing it under the episcopate of Athanasiu.... II document found in the cathedral of Oa~r Ibl1m in Nubia shows a further development of the legend. in which Athanasius himself and Saint PACHOMJUS lire the central figures. Pachomius has a vision of Mercurius, who tells him how he slluck down the "cnemy of God," Julian, and this he rclat~ to Alhanasiu... (Frend, 1986). Pachomius had, of COUl-';C. long been dead at the time: but the

version of the legend, repcatt'l1 on a fresco from the clllhedral at Fams, shows the desire of the Coptic and Nubh:m e1lul'ches to associatc Athallasius with Julian's dC!l>truetion. III addition, il demonstratcs Ihe rolc of the IIp,anline military saints in the protection of the Christian religion and. in the case of Nubia, lhe national identity of the Christian Nubian kingdom.... BIBLIOGRAPHY •

AthanllMladi·Fowden, P. Julian a"d Hellenism. UII /nullutlllli Bl08rllph,. Oxford, 1981. BaynClO, N, H. ''The Death of Ihe Emperor Julian in Christian Legend." Journal of Romun Siudiu 21 (1931):22-29. Bidez, J, /41 Vie de l'emperellT Julien. Paris, 1930, Sorries, E. "JuHanns (Apostata)," In Real.Etlcyclopildie, Vol. 19, cols. 26-91. Stultgan, 1911. Also

Supplemcnt, Vol. 8, eols. 155-756, no. 141. Bowersock, G. W. Julian the AfH1slu{t!. L.ondon, 1918.

Brownina, R. The Emperor JIlJian. Berkeley, Calif., 1976, Frend. W, ~I. C. "I-tem of a Losl Cause." The Ri5e of Christiun;I" chap. 17. Philadelphia and London, 1984,

___ "Fragmenls of an Acta Martyrum from Qasr Ibrim:' )uhrbllch fllr Alllike mId ChrislC1lfum 29 (1986):66-10,

Glover, T. R. f.,ife "lid UW/!fS ill the FUllrth Celltury. New York, 1925, Malley, J. Hd/euism "ud Christialllt)'. Analeeta Gregol'lana 210. Rome, 1978. W, 1·1. C. FRENO

JULIUS OF AQFAH$. See Manyrs, Coptic.

JULLlEN,

MICHEL

MARIE

(1821-191 I),

Fl'ench Jesuit missionary, He served in Egypt from 1880 to 1886, Arter an intedude of ten ye:lTS in Syria, he returned in 1896 to Egypt. where he re· mained until his death. He was a member of the Instilut d'Egypte, a founder of the lirsl Coptic-Cath· olie M:minary al Tllh!l\ (1899), and the initiator of lhe model'll pilgrimage 10 lhc Virgin of Ma!ariyyah, a church dedicall::d in 190410 the Holy Family. His writings. which detail his explomtions alld reo searche... on ancient Christian I3&Ypt, have I'emained very useful: L'El:Yple, .~ollvenirs bibfjque~' el chr~frelu (l899) and Sillai' el S,Tie, souvenirs blbliques et chTetrims (1893), Also Ihere are some pre-

JUSTIN I

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cious 3r1ic1cs on the conuitiun of Coptic monaster· il'5 in Upper Egypt at the Hlrn of the ninc[(:cnth century in Missioll:; cll/holiqlU5 (October 1894, June 1901, June 1902, Allril-June 1903). HIUUOGRAPHY

Marlin, M. "Noles

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JUNKER, HERMANN (1877-1962),

Gcnnan Egyptologist and Coplologisl. He studiM for the

Catholic prie!Olhnod at Trier and then at Berlin with Egyptology as his major. He joined the University of Vienna in 1907. 1·le was also involved in the foundation of the Institute of Egyptology a.nd African Stud· ie5 at Vienna Ul1ivcrsity (1923), served as director of the German Archaeological Ilistitute in Cairo (1929). and became professor of Egyptology at Cai· ro Univel'"5ity. Junker was primarily ~n an:haeologist, epigraphist. and "field man." l-lis excavntions ....ere all rclatL~ to dynastic Egypt, and his colo~~1 outpul is mainly in the field of Eg}·ptol\Ji.Y. Neverthelcss, he made a number of significant contributions to Coptic studies. BIBLIOGRAPHV

1).

D;lwson. W. R., :lOd E. P. Uphill. Who WO.1 Who in E8YpllJlogy, pp. 154-55. London, 1972. Kammerer, W., COlliI"'. A Coplir.: lJiblioj;ruphy. Ann Moor, Mich., 1950: r·epr. New Yurk, 1969, AZJZ S. AT]YA

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JUSTIN I (c. 450-527), Ily/.;lnline emperor who worked fur unhodui'ly :lOd the reunion of Rome and Constantinople. He was born l:IbOul 450 ill Bededalla (in mudern Yugosl:lVia). Of peasant stock, he followed his father' into Ihe Ruman anoy. fighting with distinction against the Isaurian rebels in 498, the PersiAnS fl"oll1 502 10 50S, and the rebel general Vitalian In 514. He bccame captain of tile imperial

..."'.

On Ihe death of Emperor Anastasius on 8 July 518. Justin was proclaimed emperor. II soon ~_

1383

came clear thaI his reliKious polil:Y would be rndically differem !l'om the anti·Cha1cedonk stance (sec CIlAI.(;EDON. COUNCIL 01') of his prcdeeL~r. In this Justin was following populoI' opinion in Con· Slantinople. parts of Syria, and Jerusalem, which increasingly dcmanded Ihe unequivocal assertion of the canonical Sialus of Ihe Council of Chalcedon, the removal of the Monophysite patriarch S£VE1I:US Of A"'TtOCH from his see. and tht' restoration of com· munion with RQme broken by Ihe ACACIAN SCIllSM in 482. The first ~ lWO demands were easily mel. Re· garded by Ihe sixth-eentury historian ThLvdonJs LeclOr as a "hlazing 7.ealol" on ~half of Cha1cedon. Justin had Scverus depost.-d as early as 20 July. Ending lhe Acaeilln Schism look longer, since Pope Hormisdas was dctermined to me the situa· tion to gain every possible adv-.tnlage for Lhe papacy. Belween 7 September 518, when Ju.~tin infoml<X! Lhc pope of his steps to end the cunfliet (Col/ecrio AvcllllllQ, n05. 143, 146). and 28 March 519. when patriareh John. of Constantinople, signed Ihe papal leuer. 10rtuOUS negotiations took place (sec Vasiliev. 1950. pp. 166m. The papal k-gah.:s who arrived in the capital on 25 March in~isted that the price of endinK the schism must be the con· dcmnation not ol1ly of Acacius patriarch of COn· stantinople (471-489). bUI also of his four succesSOl'S and the cmperors ZENO and Anastasius. The weak handling of the negolialion by Palriarch John allowed the p:lp;:ley to gilin :1 tactical victory o\"er the claims of Constantinople. which eaused laSling billerncss in the East. However, Justin himself had directed .he course of the negoliations (ColleeN!) Avell/ma, no. 161). and kept supreme authority in ecclesiastical (as oppose,1 10 dO(;trinal) mailers in his hands. He did not intend to .'lee his patriarch humilillled, and John W:lS the firsl p:ltriarch of Constantinople to use the later' much dispuled Lille "eculllenic:II plltri"rch," All the :lIlathemus excepI that directed againSI Acoc1us wcrc quickly allowed 10 lapse. Juslin had irllendetl lhe retum vf lhe ccdcsiaSli· cal situation 10 the status quo hefore Acacius and !he consequent reunion of Rome and (;onstan1ino· pIc. On 7 Scp1Cmber 518, Justin's nephew, the al· l'eady powerful Counl JU$l'INIAN (whu latcr 1x~ame emperor), had wriuen to HOl1l1isdas, infol'ming him thaI his presc:nce in Constantinuple wall awaited "without delay." There W:I$ no qUC$liOll hi the em· peror's mind of subjecting his own aUlhority or thai of his patriarch to lhe papacy. I-Ie was concerned• as Zcno had been, with the religious unity of the empire. ei'lcepl that he ~w this unity nol in leons

1384

JUSTIN II

of Zeno'! HENonCON but in tcrllls of the canonical

st:llUS (,If the four ecumenical coundls and the unity

of Rome and Constantinuplc. the Old and New RUllic.

Between 521 and 523 Justin look stern measures (0 enforce lhe new cc\:ksiaslical Ol'del'. In Asia Mi· nor, Syria, and Mesopotamia, some fifty·five bishops

were expelled (the n;lIlles of fifty are listed in the C1lronicQII ad "mlllm 846 per/iner/S, pp. 171-173), including sirong anli-ehakcdonian:> such as Philo,,· cnus of Mabuug and John of Tella. Such massive

uprooting of clergy supponl,.-d by a strong current of religious lor;thies in the East made the e.~tablish menl of lin llntl·Chatcedonian hierarchy inevitable. During Justin's reign the first tentative steP'! were

taken loward the fonnation of the Monophysite church. independent of Bytantinc onhodoxy. In Egypt, ho.....ever, Justin's measures had little effect. According to mharias Rhetor (lfis/oria uc1csia$/iCIl 8,5), "the sec! of Alexandria was hardly disturbed, and Timothy succeeded Dioscoros [in 5171 lind he neither retired nor accepted the synod [of Chalcedon] in the days of Justin:' Alexandria became a haven for ami·Chalcedonian exiles. in· duding Severos and the bishop JUUAN OF HAUCAK· NASSUS. The Egyptian church remained united against the Tome of Pope LEO land Chalccdon. as Severos ju.~dy claimed (Severus Sdet'l Letters 8.11). In one important p:1l1icular, aho, Ju.~tin showed that the major interests of the empire overrode ec, clesiastic..1 policy. In the early years of the .~ixth century, mis.~ions known collectively as Ihose of Ihe Nine Saints h:ld :Irrivcd in Elhiopia, preaching an anCi-Chalccdonian faith and practicing a monastic order based on the Paehomian Rule. By Justin's reign, Ethiopia and its dependent territory of Yemen were in the anti·chalcedoninn cnmp. Yemen, however, was !llso an area where Roman and Persian inlluenccs clashed; lind in 523, when wal" broke oul bel ween the Yemeni Jews supported by I'ersill and the Christians. Justin supporled Ihe Chrislian cause. The defense of Najmn nnd the nlll.~· SIlcre of Chdsti:lIls that resulted from ilS fall in 523 were tlVengcd by an Ethiopian nllny supplied and viCtualed by Justin, using TIMOTHY Ill. patriarch of Alexandria, as his intermediary with lhe Ethiopian COur1. CllI'istianily wa.~ not threntened again in Yemen until the reign of Justin II in lhe late sixth ecnttll)'. In 526, the final year of his reign, Pope John I visited Constalltinople as an emis.~ary of Theodoric the Ostmgoth. The Pope was pemlilted to crown the emperor. but otherwise the preeminence of the

pnlriarch in the imperial capital was maintnincd (see Vasiliev, 1950, pp. 212-21). Justin'" Sh0l1 reign hnd an imponnnce disproportionale to its length. His policies showed Ihat the Lalin·speaking provinces still ('oullled In the empire. The unity of the two RomC$ and the canonical stalus of Chalcedon were affil'med ns Ihe corne,," stones of imperial cccl<:siastical policy. There could be no l'\ltu,," to the anll'Chalcedonian policy of Em· peror AnnslasiU$. Alexandria and Ihe Coptic Chris· lians were Iefl on the sidelincs, and Alexandria was 10 find that Its claim to be "the dty of the onhodOli" could be sustained unly outside Ihe orbit of Byznnline and Latin Christianity. BIBLIOGRAPHY Frend, W. 1-1. C. Tht Rbt ol/he Mcmoph)'siU Movt· IIIt,,/, 2nd ed., chaps. 6, 8. Cambridge, 1979. Moberg, A. Tlrt Book ol/he llimyari/cs. Lund, 1924. Ryckmans, J. /.A PeNecllliou des chrbiCliS hwnyar· i,cs all sixieme siecle. Istanbul 1956. Shnhld. I. "By.t:.'llllium in South A.....bia... Dumkrtoll Oaks Papers 33 (1980):23-94. Vasi!iev, A.ll1sl/" /he F/rst. Dumbarton Oaks Studies I. CtImhndge, Ma.~~., 1950. Contains full bibliography of source and secondary material.

W. H. C. FRENO

JUSTIN II

(d. 578), Byznntine emperor who losl terrilory in Wal' and shifted rl'Om toleralion of Me). NOPHYSrTlSo\l to persecution. Justin was a nephew of the emperor JUSTlNIIIN and was marriev to Sophia, the niece of Justinian'5 wife, THEODORA I, He held lhe post of t'lIrvphh"es (palace administrntor). When JUstillllln died in 565 the succession wns a millter of spcculntion, for he Iwd left no son und no dell!" instructions. As lhe choice of the Senalc and John III Schnlasticus, patriarch of Constantinople, he secured the succession OVCI' Ihe c1nims of Justin son of Germanus withoul difficulty though not wilhoul ill feeling (Evagl'ius, IS911). A heavy investmem in propngtlnda l.~ evident fmm the Latin panegyric of the cOUl1 poel Corippus, wrillen shorlly aflel' Ju.~tin·s t1ccession (Col"ippu.~, 1976). Corippus claimed thaI Justinian hav named Jus,in all his deathbed (pedltlps nn addition in S66, in "iew of opposition 10 Justin) lmd laid gre:lt stress on his rcla,ion to Justinian. There were nlsa c1nims of suI'" POl1 for Justin by the palriarch EUI)'chius and the stylite Symcon the Younger.

JUSTINIAN

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Juslin's reign began well enough with attempl5 :ll reconcili:llion with the Monophysitcs. He rcswn:d those exiled by JUSlinian and llUempled 10 win llgreemem with the MonophysilCS by issuing an edict aimed at their cunl,;crns {lnd calling a meeting at Callinicum. Ilis elf0l1s were rejected, however, and he turned to pcr:>t:culion in the early 570s. Many bishops were again exiled. After the Ios.~ of Dara in Mesopotamia to the Persians in 573, he went mad. In 574 he made Count Tiberiu:; caesar in an affecting speech in which he askl.-d forgh'cncss

from Got! and the pcQple for his errors. John of Ephe-.us

wa.~

certain that his madness was a punish-

ment for the pcrsc..-culion of the Monophysites. Juslin's reign was rCJrulrbblc for the prominence of thc empress Sophia. According to JOUN OF El'1lF.S-

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she tried hard 10 gain control when Ju:stin be· camc ill and la'll:c1y succcetlt.."'tI for a time. She was featured wilh the emperor on coins and Wali namcd conder in kgal documents. Evidently conscious of the p~lige of being Theodora's niece, she seems to ....vc had strong religious indinalions herself. She is represented by Corippus a.~ cliprasing public de· votion to the Virgin Mary and ali linking with Justin in sending a fragment of lite True Cross to roiliers. Nevel1heless. she wa.<; 6nally ousted from power by Tiberius, who was made augustus before Juslin's dealh in 578. HlBl.lOGRAPHY

~,

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Bury, J. B. His/ory of Ihe taler Romllll Empire from Arell/lil/S to frellli fl. London, 1899. Cameron. A. (.'vll/i'lI/i/y /HI/I Ch{Jlllie ill Six/h·Cell· /my BY~lmlillm, London. 1981. Frend, W. H, C. The Rise vf Ihe MUllvphysile Muvemelli. Ctlmbddgc. England. 1972. AVERIL CAMERON

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JUSTINIAN (c. 482-565), Byzantine emperor. Originally given Ihe name Petrus Snbbatius, he took the name J\lstini.m upon being adopted by his un· cle Justin, whom he laler succeeded as empcrOI' (1 August 527). Justlnilm's reilln was marked by exten· sive legal reform, successful military incursions against the Vandals and the Goths, ,'ast architectur· al underlllkings, lind an intense but ullsuccessful ;:I.llcmpt to unite the Clmleedonians and Monophy' sitcs. Ju~tlnlan believed tl1m Rome had been a great nutiun, and he felt it was his task to rt.'Store its preeminence, fI" majOl' tlll'uSI of this restoration

1385

took the form of a renovation of the Roman legal system. On 7 Aplil 529 a commission headed hy Justinian's legal expert, Tribonian, produced the first eOOID( JUSTlNtANU.'i. a revision and ellpansion of Theodosian's Code. The Im'lillllts, based on the Icgal text compiled by the second-century Roman jurist Gaius, Wali published in 533. The lJige.(f, consist· ing of codified excerpL<; of the classical jurisls, followed on 16 Deccmber 533, and a second, revised edition~of lhe Codell JUMinianus. on 16 November 534. Subsequently Justinian added to, and modified, these conslilutions Ihrough morc than ISO Newel/ae. Together Ihese works CSlablished a single code of law incorporating all of the constitutions back 10 the time of the emperor Hadrian (117138). AnOlher aspt.."(:t of Justinian's restorntion unfolded in battles against the barbarians, who had en· croachcd on thc empire's bordel"5.. On the eastcrn frontier he wa.<; forced to 6ght a lengthy and inconclusive war with the Persians. Although a treaty arranged in 532 wa.<; designed to end this war, fighting broke oul allain in 540 and continued wilh inlermittent InlCes uillil a new tn.-aty was comlXlcted in 562. Fortunes in North Arrica were more salubrious. On 13 SCptcmber 533. Justinian's troops, led by Belisarius. defealed the Vandllis 1I1 Ad Decimum. On the nellt day, lhey captured Carthage. The Van· dOli kitlgoom was dismtlOtled quickly and ellieiently. ARtANISM ned befoTt1 lhe incursion of Catholicism. Bclisariu5 nexl turned hl~ attention to Ilaly. wheTt1 he conducted successful cllmpalgns against the Ostr080th5 during; the years 535-540: Ju~tinian'5 gen· eral Nar:;e~ finally subdued the Ostrogoths com· pletely in 553. Meilnwhile, in 551, a major ponion of VisigOthic Spain wa.<; conquered. Throughout the empire Justininn not only reno· \lilted older buildings and aqueducts but 'llso erect· ed churches, momuiteries, llnd fOt'lresses. The most noltlble llchievement of Ihis building camp'lign WilS the cathedral of Hag!:l Sophia in CunsHlntinople. After five ye'H11 uf eunSII'lJction, the church, which wa.~ huilt after lhe- pbn of a Greek cross with an octagontll dome, was dedicated on Saint Stephen'S Day S37. In an attempt to establish orthodoxy and harmony throughout the empire, Justinian enaeled legislation against the major heresies of his day, such as Nestorianism, Eutychlani~m, and Apollinarianism. In 529 he closed the AClldemy of Athens, thu~ ridding thc cmpire of its laSI OUlpost of pagan intclh..~· tualism. But Jostinian was thwartt..'d in his boldest

1386

JUSTUS

religious undertaking, fur despitlJ his diligent efforts. he wns unable to close the rm bel ween the Monophysiles and Chalcedonians, When he failed in his attempt to unite the two sides in acceptance of the Theopnschite formula "one of Ihe Trinily suffered in lhe nesh" and when a series of meetings between tbe two groups in 532 and eady 533 did nuthing to reduce the tension. Justinian ratified the bnnishmenl imposed by l\ Iromc synod un the Mu· nophysite leader Severus in 536. Nexi he Iried 10 reinlroduce Origenism, but this attempt 10 provide a Christological concept accept· able 10 buth sides alsu f-diled, and in 543, Justinian condemned ORTGEN. a move that resulted ultimalely in the lvss uf lIlany of that ehurehm;m's works. The next approach involved removing from lltc paClS of the Council of CHALCEDON those points most offen· sive to the Monophysiles. Accordingly, somclime between 543 :Ind 546. JusTini"n issued an edict con· demning the Three ChapTerS-lhat is, lhe writings of THEODORUS OF MOPSUESfTA. THEODORET'S work against Cyr'il's Twdvt' Anulh"m(I)', lind lhe Christo· logical Leiter of Ibas of Edessa, However, at the Fifth Ecumenical Council, convened 011 5 May 553 in the secretariat of Hagia Sophia, the edict won scanT support, .lOd it "Iso fuiled to bridge the gap between rhe two groups. Justinian's inability to bring re[igiou_~ unity to the empire rIllly Itave been indie:ttivc of " f.lilure to establish peace at home. THEODORA, Justinian's wife, was a strong and active supporter of rhe Monophy. sites. Often working behind the scenes wilhout Jus· tinl;m's knowledge, she arranged shelter for Mo· nophysite clergy who had been exiled; encouraged the mission of JACOB BARADAI!US to Syda, where he ordained n lnrge number of Monoplrysitc pricsts; and promoted Monophysite missions to Nubia. The 11islorian Procopius, whu left one of lhe best records of Justinian and his accomplishments, fell her aetions had a deeidedly divisive influence on the empire. JUSlinian died in 565, leaving the empire lllrger lind better equipped with legal codes, lrade rela· tiuns. and architectural splendors than it had been at his accession, but over'extended, open to attack by the Slavs and Lombards, and the Monophysite schism involving Egypl and Nubia withuut pruspeet uf settlement.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barker, J. W. Justinian ImJ the Lilia Ronlllll Em· pire. Madison, Wis" 1966,

Browning, R. Ji4Millian afld Theodora. London, 1987. Cameron, A. Procopills. London, 1985. Downey, G. A. Com-Iml/inuple ill /he Age of Jlls/ini· fin. Norm:,n, ok\"., 1960. Frend, W. H. C. The Rise of /he Motlophysi/e Move· melll. Cambridge, 1979. _ _ . The Rise of Christianity, pp. 527~65. Philadelphia, 1984. Rubin, B. Dus Zei/alter JlIslinrlllls. Berlin, 1960. RANDALL STEWART

JUSTUS, sixlh pOlrial'ch of the Sec or Saint Mm'k (122-130). He held the oflice during the reign of Emperor Hudrian. I-Ie was laid to reS! on 12 Ba'unah nexl to the reml.\ins of Saint Mark in lhe Church of Bucalis al Alexandria. A1.TZ S. ATIYA

JUSTUS, SAINT, marlyr in fuurth-celliury Egypt. Justin is rel~ted to the Amio,;hene eyde concerning the family of the Roman general BASILTDES (see CYCLf'S), His Passion was presumably written latcr, wlten the deSCriptive clements of The cycle were already much developed and the kinships among people were very elaborate. The Pa.~sion was hand· eJ Jown through TWu quite different redllelions, in two in,;omplete codices both dated to the ninth century: une in Sahidie (Winstedl, 19/0, pp. 18899) and the other in Bohail'ic (White, 1926, PI>. 78-82). The more complete text is in Sahidic. A version similar 10 the Bohairic exists in Ethiopic (Pel'eil1l, 1955, pp. 73-98), The litle of this lell! menlions, in lIJdition lu Jusl· us. his wife, Stephanou, his daughter, Sophia, and the son of Basilides, lhe marlyr Eusebius. The texl hegins with the apostasy of the Roman emper'Or' llIOCLllTtAN, brieny explained in the Bohllirie version by the tl'ea.~on of the AnTiochene bishop, who I'e' lums Nicumedes, the e:iptured sun of the king of Persia, to the I'crsians in exchange for money. Diocletilln asks the heathen priests what he must do. They order' him 10 make sacrirtces and perse· cute tlte Christillns, Many people refuse to ohey his edict. Here The clmracler of Justus is inlroduced, the son of the emperor before Diocletlan, who was a rriend of Basilides. The lex I also reporlS lhe wellknown late legend that Diocletian was an Egyptian called Agrippidas.

JUSTUS, SAINT

In the Snhidic ver'sion Justus and Eusebius con· fC$s their faith in tront of Diodctian in Rome. In Ihe IJohairic version Justus comes wilh Apol! and

Theocll3. Dlnclcti:m !lends them all to the prefect Armcnius in Egypt, who in lurn sends them to the south to the prefect Alianus. The Sahidic manu· script is intcrrupl(."(1 here, while the IJohairic telll

reponll the manyrdom of Justus and Eusebius un-

der "rianus.

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1387

IIIBLIOCRAPIIY

Pereira, M. E. Acta MartYr/IIII. cseQ 37-38, Scriptores At/hiopid 20-21. Louvain, 1955. While, H. G. NllIII CQptic TexIs from the Monastery 01 Saitll Macuriu$. New York, 1926. Winsted., E. O. Coptic TexIs (Ill Sai", Thendore the GeFleral. SlIi"t Theodore Ihe Easten" CllQnlOIl/ alld JIISluS. London and Odord. 1910. TITO ORlANI>I

•

KAFR AYYUB. See Pligrimagl5.

KALLILEION. See Anointing.

KAFR AL·OAYR. &c Pilgrimages.

KAMIL MURAD. See Murad Kamil.

KAHLE. PAUL ERIC (1923-1955). Brilish Cop-

KANEBO. See Muscunls, Coplic Colleclions in.

lolaaisl of German e:l(lfaclion. He was the son of Prolff..'iOf Paul Em!>1 Kahle, the emillenl Orient3lisl. His family Oed 10 England from Hitler's Gcnnany in 1938. He held the Laycock Studentship in Egyplo], OIlY al Worcester College. Oxford, for Ihe years 1948-1954. during which he slullied under Battiscombe George Gunn. I-Ie was eleclcd (0 thl' Lady Wallis Budge Fello\\'Ship at University College. Oxford. in 1954. He published a large collection of lileral'y and document:l.ry material from the monas· tery of DayI' al·BalayLllh, (II Asyii! in Upper Egypt, arriving al impol1anl conclusions regarding the distribution of Coptic dialccls: Dljlu'izuh: Coptic Text.1 (rum BIl/u"lall ill Upper Egypt (2 vols., Oxford, 1954), He died al Charlbury, Oxfordshir-e. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dawson, W. R., lind E. P. Uphill. Who Was Who in Egyptology, p. 155. London, 1972. M. L. BIERBRIER

KAHYOR, See Mon;lslcrles of the Middle

KARABACEK. JOSEPH VON (1845-1918), Austrian Orientalisl. He became privaldocelll for paleography and numi.l;malics of Islamic peoples al the Univcn;ily of Vienna in 1869, was made profes· SOl' extraordinary in 1874. Wa,l; profe!iSor ordinary of history of the Easl and related subjects from 1885 10 1915, and served as prefect of the Coun Ubr,try fmOl 189910 1917. The Iibr,try is indebted 10 him for mUl:h of ils preeminenl collection of ancienl textl;. In 189). Karabacek was able to acquire ror Vienna around len Ihousand Coptic, Greek, and AI" abic papyli Ihal had been found in Ihe FayyOrn in 1877-1880. His coopcf'lllive effol1s with Theodor Graf were beneficial tn him in his purchases for Ihe libmry, oUllined in Die Theai/or Graf'sche" Frmde ill AIO'Pllm (Vienna, 1883) and K.·k. 1).~lerreichisches Mrl.~eum: Kalalos del' Theodor Graf'sdul./1 FUIIJe ill Agyptell (Vicnna. 1883). The editions of Arahie texts that he had prepared were conlinued and publishcd by Adolf Grohrnann.

~a·fd.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Locbcnstcin, H. "Vom 'Papyrus E17.he17.og Raincr' zur Papyrussammlung dcr 6sICrreichischen Na· lionalbibliothck. 100 Jahre 5.'1mmdn. Bewahren, Edieren." FtW$chrifl ~lIm 100 jahrigtm Bes.teht" der Popyrussammlimg Jer iis/t'!"eichischctl Natio·

KALABSHA, Sec Ta1011s. KALAI\tON. Sell DayI' Anbfr. $a01ull of Qalamun. 1389

1390

KARANIS

nalbibliotltek: j'oT'YrlI$ Enhen.u/5 Rainer. Vienna, 1983. <Jsltt.rreichiscJlcs biocrollhiscnes l,uikOl/, /8/5/950, Vol. 3, pp. 228-29. erat. and Cologne. 1965. MARTIN KRAUSE

KARANlS, an ancient Egyptian fanning village Ihal was II lively ccnler of Christianity in the Ihird, fourth. and fifth centuries. II was north of lhe FayyOm some 20 milC!l (30 km) from Arsinoi!. the metropolis of Arsinot' Nome. EJ,:cavalions have supplicu only mute evidence of village life, in the form

of Coptic tC'llliles and Roman coins. But a large number of papyri, about 5,000 documents, from the third century

ac

10 the fifth century A.D. give a

Soad plccure of daily concfOrns: they include Egyptian Ie'llts found al Karanis and Greek Chri~tian teXis from the ncarby village of Soknopaioo Nesos, which disappeared 81 the end of the third century. Ten of the papyri from Soknopaiou Nesos. wrinen lalcr than Ihe lhird century, could have been found in the neighborhood of Karanis. Situaled not rar from the ancient Egyplian reli· glOUli center of Nilopolis in the FayyOm and Soknopaiou Nesos, Karanis itliclf had a temple of Ihe crocodile god Pelsouchos attended by numerous de!'&Y-fifty·four prie.lll> and fihy paslophori (priests of a lower class). Demotic Egyptian was still wriuen and spoken there in the second and third centuries. Chdslianity, however, took root there early. In the middle of lhe third century, according to Tire Ardliv6 Qf Aurelius lsidorus (hereafter referred to as P. Cair. l.~id.), some inhabilants gave lheir sons Chrlslian mlmeli. PelrOli, born about 250 or earlier, futher of Polion, did not know how to write in Greek (Soak and Youte, 1960,81. 3. 31; also Pre· 1!>lgke el aI., 1915-1983, 7676). Johannes. born aboul the S(lITle time. was a gymnaslarch and could write In Gr'eek (1'. Cair.lsid. 114. I. 15; 115. 2. 8). Paulos wus born ubout 290-300 (1'. Cuir Isid. 77. 30). These men were among Ihose tenants who held an average of about 25 acres (10 hectares), which put lhem InlO lhe bCS1·endowed part of the popula· lion. We have nQ archal.:Qlogical evidence of a church or monastel)', but repeated 111el11lon by the papyri of lhe presence of deacons in the fourth century pmvCl' Ihe existence of a ,hurch community. These deacons shared the life of the region. One of them, Amaels, fulfilled his obligation for work on the em· bankmenlli (Browne, 1970, 595. 5. 10). Anulher,

Aion, paid tl land tax that placed him a little below the aver-age in the liSl of laxpayers in which he appears (Brower, 1975, 12. 651. 4). Still anOlher, Antoniaos, was in the company of a monk, lsak, in Ihe fields around the village. This is Ihe firsl uSC uf the word "monk" in the papyri (Bagnall, 1979, 12. 17!. 15). (sak came to Ihe help of Isidoros, son of Ptolemaios and father of Ihe Paulos previously men· tioned. This Isidorus, a descendant of a Roman soldier and h1mself a Christian, had been cxaspcrnled al seeing a cow owned by two villagen; lay waste his harvelit. In confonnlty with Roman law (Oxy· rynchus Papyrus 2704), he seized the offending ani· mal for confiscation and sale al auction for the benefit of the treuul')' (P. CaiTo lsid. 78; Rces, 1959, p. 92). The cow's owners alta,ked and heal him. Through the Intervention of lhe deacon and the monk, Ihe wounded man was rescued and the cow TClilon.'d to ill> owners. In the fourth cemul')', Ihe gradual drying of Ihe periphery or the FayyOm madc agricultural life pre' carious. Karanlll, whose cuhivaled land eXlended down fronl the lillIe cliff on which the village W3.'i built, was close to the canal leading lhe flood waten from the Nile as far as Soknopalou Nesos. The safeguarding of the WOller supply was a collective mailer for the mcn of Karanis represeming the Stale aulhorities. In the fifth century the clergy of Kar-.lIIis had responsibilily for the w-'lter supply. A Greek document dated 20 May 439 (Preisigke et aI., 19151983, 14. 11357), the Illst of those lhat have come down 10 us !'rom Soknopaiou Nesos, is an official writinl!l lh:lt shows lwelve priests and five deacons playing the role t'olmel'ly played by the elders of the village. They undel100k to watch over the usc of the Watel' under lhe cOlllrol of lhe prefect through the ~ltleney of a numer(lrius ("accountant"). In this arrangemenl lhe village scribe writes for those priests (lOd deacons "who do not know how to wr'ile" (lh/l.l Is, wI'ile Greek); in f"et, they no doubt knew Coptic, as the use of a four1h· or fifth·cenlury COpl ic biblical text found III Kamnis lends 10 prove. In the early sixth centul)', well before Ihe Arab cunquelil in 641, Karanis became extinct. (Browne, 1979, p. 2). BIBLIOCRAPHY

Bagnall, R. Fourth Cenlury Documems fro", Karan· is. Missoula, Mont. 1979. "Rcligiou.'i Conversion and Onomastic Change in Early B)7.anllne Egypt." Buffelin uf lire

,

KARM AL·AKHBARIYYAH

American Society of Papyroiogisis 19 (1982):105123. Book, A. E. Ktmmis. Topographical and Architectur·

al Report of ExcavatiQns during the SCOSOl1S 19241928. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1931. Book, A. E., and H. C. Youlc. The Arclrive of Aurd;· us IJidorus. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1960. Bonneau, D. "Un Reglemenl de I'uliagc de !'cau au

Ve siecle de notre ere." Hommages Serge Sauneron 2, pp. 3-23. cairo. 1979. Browne, G. M. Documentary Papyri lrom Ihe Michi· gan Collee/ioll. Toronto, 1970. Mkhigtlll Papyri XU. Toronlo, 1975.

--===

:

Michig(m Coptic T£xu. Barcelona. 1979. Gercmek, H. Karallis. CommUlltlwi nll-afe de

l'EVPlc romaine au lIe-lIIe pp. 41-52. Wa~w, 1969.

si~de

de notre

~re.

H",elst, J. van. Calalogut du papyrus lillerajres juils

II chritiens. Paris, 1976. Husselman, Eo. M. KarallU: Topography lllld Arcn.i· IU/IIN!!. Ann Arbor, Mich" 1979. Judge, E. A. ''1be Earliest Use of Monach~ for ·Monlr.' (Yolllie 77) and the Origins of Monasti· cism." JahrbllCn. fn,. An/ike und Christtnwm 20 (1977):72-89. Modrzejewslr.i, J. "Ulpien ct 1.11 nature des animaux." Accademla Nazlolla/e del Lirrcei 373, no. I (1976):1177-99. Prcisigkc, F.; F. Bilabel; E. Kiessling; and H. A. Rupprecht. cds. Sammelbuch griechischer U,.kunden aus X8YPlell. Published in various places, 1915-1983. Rees, B. K. Greek Pal')'ri ill Ihe ColleClioll of W. Merllm. Vol. 2. I>ublin, 1959. DANIRl.l.E BoNNEAU

KARARAH,

Sllll

Qartil'ah.

KARIMI GUILD, one of the most imp0l1ant guilds of merch;mts in the history of tho:: MiddJo:: East. II conducted extensive trade between Inc East and the We~t at the end of the Middle Ages. includ· ing the Kliriml I:l,lmmerce in spices. jewelery, and preciou.~ Monc~, f!"Om thc Far East to the coast of the Mediternlllelin Sea, via the Red Sea and the Ea~lern Desert of Egypl and the Nile Valley. Its CCOlen; were in o~, Cairo, Alexandria, and I}J.m· iella. II is slill difficult 10 trace the origin of the KArimi. Uowever, the first reference to these merchants goe~ back to the tenth century, and panicularly to the Falimid epoch in Egypt. Though the first names among Ihe membership of the guild arc Muslim and

1391

Jewish, there is no doubt that Copt~ were also represented among them. Even though the earliest roolS of the KmimIs are still enveloped in my.uery, and though Ihe detection of the names of Coptic merehams among the Ka' rimI guild is still difficult, it Is known thm the last participation of the Copts coincided with the beginning of the Crusades and a change in Egypl's (;om· mercial policy during the reign of the Ayyubids, whieh f11.Ilde it incumbent upon thi.~ guild 10 be Islamic and ils members Muslims. Perhaps the last notable Copt of lhis guild was the KArimI merchant AbU al-Majd ibn Abl Ghalib ibn 5awiru!>, who lived in the closing years of the Fatimid dynasty and the opening years of Ayyubid rule in the reign of .$alaf.l ai-DIn (1171-1193). He died less than tWO years before the Ayyubid sul£:1n aI· IUmil (1218-1238) came to power. Abu ,,1·Majd had endowed his enormous wealth, amounting 10 17,000 dinan;, to charity wter he, as a layman, was selected to become the sevenly·fourth patriarch of the Coptic Church, under the name of JOliN VI (1167-1189). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Labib. S. Y. SQval "nd Wiruchaftsgeschichlc. Han· dcfs"e:schichlc A'KYptllns im $pjjlmillelalter (117 JJ5J7}. Wit:sbadcn, 1965. SUDHI Y. tADID

KARM AL.AKHBARIVYAH, a small senlement from the late Roman period in the Mareotis, about 5 miles (8 km) northeast of AbO MinA. The place contains only a few bulldlng~, among which wcrc also some agricultural stT\H.:tUl'es such as cis· terns and a wine PI'eSS. E.xeavations ~o fur have been limited to the church and its immediate ancil· lary buildings, to which also belongs a ~mall court adjacent on the north side. The church is a smalL short basilica of the usual furllL with an apse in the east but no apse side rooms (pastophoria). The north main entrance is lIdorned with an outer pl'Othyron. On the west there i~ a latcr annex like a narthex, which, however, can be entered only from inside the church. North of this Hell the baptistery. The special significance of this church lies in the paintings once contained In It, which reveal a high artistic standtrd. Unfortunately these are complete· Iy destrvyt;d, lind could be recovered only in the form of numel'Ou.~ small, painted'pIaster fragmenls strewn over the floor of the church. It will take

1392

KARNAK IN THE CHRISTIAN PERIOD

years of work before a reassembling of the fragments can be completed. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Grossmann. P. "Kirche am Karm al-Akhbariya." Milteilungen des DeuBchen Archaologischen fllstitllls-Abteihlllg Kairo 26 (1 970):75. Muller-Wiener, W. "Die Kirchc im Karm al-Akhbarlya." Archaologischer AI/zeiger (1967):473-80. PETER GROSSMANN

KARNAK IN THE CHRISTIAN PERIOD. The temple at Karnak formed an immense complex of buildings dedicated to the worship of Amon. Today the oldest known remains go back to the Elev~ coth Dynasty (about 2100 RC.) and occupy the central core known as the Court of the Middle Kingdom. From tbis core the temple continued to develop, principally toward the west in the diree· lion of the Nile and toward the south, but also toward the east. This development, realized in a succession of hypostyle halls and of couns separat· ed by enormous pylons, was only completed at the end of the Ptolemaic era. All the great pharaohs of the New Kingdom and of the Late Period contributed to this extension, sometimes usurping the monuments of their predecessors, altering them, or occupying their places. Simultaneously with these constructions, the precincts of Arnon continued to grow, enclosing a large number of minor buildings. With the decline of the pharaonic civilization, the complex became set in the situation in which we see it today. The domain of Amon then covered 30

The great festival hall of Tuthmosis III In Amon's Temple, Karnak. Courtesy A. Sadek.

Saint John the Baptist depicted on the fourth column on the eastern side in the festival hall ofTuthmosis III at Karnak. Courtesy A. Sadek.

hectares, of which eight were built over. It was in these abandoned and panly JUined monuments that the Christian population established itself from the fourth century, remaining no doubt until the eighth, after which it gradually declined. We find this situation in all the other great Theban temples. The Christians made great usc of unbaked brick in their constructions, at the same time taking advan· tage of the existing SLOne walls. From the nineteenth century down to the middle of the twentieth, archaeological excavations aiming chiefly at investigation of the pharaonic monuments gradually caused the disappearance of the Christian remains considered of minor imp0l1ance, and what survives today consists of a few architectural elements in stone, either displaced (columns, lintels) or in situ in the ancient walls (niches, traces of ceilings, etc.). The relative height of the elements in position allows us to determine the level of the

1393

KARNAK IN THE CHRISTIAN PERIOD

floors and the helghl of thc ccilings in the Chrislian installations. An OSTRACON from Karnak mentions a church. "Ihe holy sanctuary of Apa Slephanos in the lown of Apc." The Djeme papyri discovered at Madinal H4bil mention a "monaslery of St. Scrgius" and a "mOnllSlery of Papnoutios in Ape." Archaeological im'esligatlons have allowed the conclusion Ihat there ",'Cre at Karnak at least thl"\:(: churches and three monasteries, although we cannot idcntify them with the monulllenl..~ mentioned above. A monaslery was eonslrucled on either sidc of the IiTlit pylon on enonnou.~ masses of unbaked brick, Ihe remains of ramps abandoned after serv· ing for the conslruetion of the pylon. We can see. on either side of each tower, troiCes of the insenion of a regular .series of wuoclen beams representing 11m or three stories. The pylon has tl"llnsvcrse pas. sages thai .served originally to allOCh the flagslafIs. Aecess to thl'SC corridors was gained by mghlS of stt'J)S cut in the Christian period, which allowed a passage through the lowers of the pylon. There was thus a relation between thc buildings on the east and on lhc WCSt. Two niches in thc fonn of conches

t

have been hollowed oul in Ihe east face of Ihe soulh lower. The second knuwn 1Il0na~tery was situated in the courtyard belween the sevenlh and eighth pylons. II, lOll, is marked by Ibe insertion of beams for two upper stories. in the eighth pylon. and by a row of fifU~cn niches forming as many cupboards, which were equipped wilh wooden doors and shelves. The lalter are generally thought to be linked with a refectory or a library. Remains of stone walls. a slaircase, ana shafu of columns were still in Ihis court in 1922. They have now bL"Cn removed. A third monastery Ihal occupied the court be· tween the ninlh and lenth pylons seems to have been destroyed by a lire. Here have been found shafts of columns, capitals wilh acanlhus leaves, and decoraled door lintels in sandstone or lime· stone, malerial deriving from Ihe demolition of lhe temples. ~cavation has yielded oil lamps, St:l.tu· elles in terracott:l., sielae, stands for water jars, and so forth. A niche adomed with a conch CUI in the south face of the west lower of the ninth pylon proves that these installations wcrc raised about 15 feet (8 m) above Ihe ancient ground level.

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Plan of the Chrislian remains at Karnak. I: monastery cnnJ<;lI"llcted on cilherside of thc first pylon. 2: the !iCCond known monastery, between Ihe seventh and cighlh pylons. 3. the lhird monastery, between the ninlh and lenth pylons. 4. church connL'CtL-d wilh the Ihird monastery. ,. hyposlyle hall. CQlfr/~ Frellch·Egyptian Cel/ter 01 tI,e Temples of Kamak.

1394

KASSA ASRATE STELE

The three churches of which it has been possible to find traces were all installed din:(;l!y on the floon; of the phal1lonic monuments. We can imagine that othen; may have e:dsted. buill highel' up neal' the level of the known monasteries. The (;hurch built in the S()-(;alled edifice of Amellophis II has left pr-"cticaJly no traces apart from the defaccment of the pharaonic sccnes in the hypostyle hall and !lOme mortises under the capitals of thc columns at the entrance. A few lamps and statueues were found there. However. the name that this monument 1Itill bears. "al·Kanjsah" (the church). confil"m$ the prClience of Christian worrJtip there. The church was oriented east-west. It was no doubt connected with the third monastery men· tioned above. Recent invesdgations, still unpublished. in the temple or Khonsu have refu~ the assumption that II church ...."M established there on a nonh-sooth axis, the principal axis of the temple. II was, in mct, in the hypo.~tyle hall that this (;hurch wa.~ situated. on an east-wcst axis. The alterations necCSiliitated by iu in.nallation involved the blocking of a door to the east, the cOnstruction of .. sanctuary. the rcu.se as an ahar of a pharaonic haootand, the inSlallation of an ambon. and the use or a 1'60"1 to the northwe51 perhaps as a baptistery. The enclosure at Karnak may have contained lieV' eral ham leIS, identified today by remains or puUery: in its southea.~1 corner and ncar the temple of Ptah, in ils nOl1hwcst corner. and to the northwcst of Ihe tcmplc of Khonsu. In association with Ihis last ham· let, there must have been an oratory 01' sanctuary

on the roof of the temple uf Opet, where there remains a niche with a conch cut into thc wall. One of the twO gl'CRt subsidiary complellics of Karnak, the enclosure of Montu to the nurth. (;ontaim. no Christian traces, and the other, the enclosure or Mout to the south, has not yet yiclded any. OIBLIOGRAPHY

Anus, P., and R. $a'ad. "Fouillcs aUlli abon:ls de )'cnceUlIe occidcntale;\ Karnak:' Kemi 18 (1968):

229-39. Coquin. R.-G. "La cllristianisation des templcs de Karnak:' BulleliPl de /'iPl~/jtUl frQPlfQis J'urcheolo. £ie orielllQle 72 (1972):168-78. Jullien, M. "Le culte chretien dans lcs temples de l'ancicnne £gypte:' W Etudes 92 (1902):237-53. Munier, H" and M. Pillet. "Les edifices chreliens de Karnak:' ReVile de l'Etyple Qncierme 2 (1929): 58-88. Pillet, M. Th~hes, KdmaJc et l..ouqsor. Paris, 1928. JEAN JACQUET

KASSA ASRATE STELE, Ras (1918-1974), Ethiopian noblenlan, vice-president, then president of the Senate (1957-1964), governor of Eritrea (1964_1971), and president of the Crown Council. He led several missions to Egypt. mainly in 1958 and 1959, to negotiate the demand~ of the Chun:h of Ethiopia for independence from the Coptic church In Egypl. He Willi murdered with many others by the revolutionary regime til;\t came to power in 1974. MJKRIT BOVTROS GHALI

KAUFMANN, CARL MARIA (/872-1951), German priest and archaeologlSl. His discovery and excavation of AUO MINA (1905-1907) places him among the founders of Christian archaeology in Egypt. He also explored in the Fayyilm and in Mid· die Egypt. His writings include several publications on Christian archaeology and on excavations and findings at Abo Mlnli, as well as various literal)' works. His autobiography is Allah isl 8'OSS (Frei· bUll;, 1950).

c

~

c~

...·

Remains of the chul'Ch in the hypostyle hall of the temple of Khonsu. Karnak. P/Qtl Qlrer F. Laroche. TrQUllecbr. CU/lr/esy Peler GrossnUIIIII.

BIBLIOGRAPIIY

Baulllst.ark, A. Kurl MQriQ KQufmQlln. Skiue eincs dellischt:ll GelehrlenlebetlS. Leipzig, 1937. rETER GROSSMANN

KEEP

KAYSAN IBN 'UTHMAN IBN KAYSAN. tenlh-cenlury Melchite physician of Mi~r. He is mentioned in thc His/ory 01 Physician.f by Jamiil al·Dln ibll al-oi~i (d.....H, 646/A.D. 1248). ibn Abf U~ybi'ah doc'S nOl dCVOlC II section 10 him, but he mentions hitn in paning when speaking of his brolher, the physician Abo al'!:Insan SAlll-AN IBN '\IT1-IMAN. TIle brief section by Ibn al-Oif!i may be mlOslated: "Kaysa;n ibn 'Uthmtin ibn KayS<\n AbO Sahl was an Egyplian Christian physician, who lived in Egypt at the time of al·Mu'iu [341-365/953-975] and aJ-'Az)z {365-386/915-996]. lie had a solid repWiltio!l, and wa..~ well known for his capacily 10 cure. He was in the service of lhe palace, where he had an honored place. lie died on the sixth day of Sha'biin of the year 378, while he was liVing at the palace, at the time of al··A7j7~" Thi~ date corre· sponds to 19 November A.D. 988. He was Ihus a contempontry of sAwlkUS IBN AL-MUOAFFA', the Coplic bishop of a.I.AshmCinayn. Ibn AbT U~ybi'ah records Ihal Kaysan wa..~ buried lit llAVR AU)lI$AVR. Ihe monaslery of Saini An;enius overlooking the small town of Turah, about 10 miles (15 km) south of Cairo. DlDLIOCRAPIlY Ibn Abf U!J'llybl'ah. 'Uy,i" al-A"b,)' If [abaqiil al-A1iblxl', ed. NI?.!r Ri{Jii, p. 549, II. 2-7. Beirut, 1965. Jamdl ai-Din ... ibn 31-0iflT. To'Jrlkh al.Jfllkamo.', cd. Julius Uppen, pp. 267-68. Ldp-.tig, 1903. KHAUL SAMlk, S.J.

KEEP (/\rah., jawsaq), multistoried tower willi de· fensive capabilities. II has stl'Ong walls and in must ca.~es there i~ nu entrance (It tlround level. The entrance lies at the second·f1oor level, and i~ reached by mean~ of a drawbridge th:lt C:ln e:lsily be taken in or dnlwn up into thc keep when danger threatens. This accounts for the fact that a keep of this kind l~ alw:lys connected with a staircase tow· cr. which is physically separated from II. A second stairca.~c wa.~ required inside the tower'. In the way it is built and the pUipOSll it served, this kind of keep is basically ditIercnt from the so·called wlltchtower or burg of the late·Roman borde.. defen~ ~~tem, a large number of which are known In thc western oases and in which small troop units were slationed. The keeps in civilian !'iCulements were used for passive defense only, and to sollie extent sel....ed as a protcclive haven of retre;)t for the Inhabitanls when danger lhreatened.

1395

They were particularly advantageous In isolated set· tlemenl~. If appropriate prcCllu!ions were made with regard to provisions and water supply, lhe inhabitanlS of a keep of this kind would be in a posi· tion to sWitain a long sieae. Thus the keep was employed quite eady in monastery conslruclion and mo.~t notably is a pn:dominant featllT'C of the hennit colonies (laura'). The Greek monasteries on Atho.~ are also provided with corresponding towers. This kind of keep is lil'$l mentioned wilhin lhe conleXI of a monastic communily in lhe Ammonius narralive (dated belween A.D. 373 and 381) tllat deals with the tower of Ihe lauras at Mount Sinai (M"'yerson, 1980, pp. 137-40). Of cou~, keeps of lhis kind were in existence at a much earlier period. G. Welter (1954, pp. 87-93) describes severnl Hellenistic towers similarly constrncted on Ihe is· land of CMos. They differ only in certain details. Large numbers of keeps, especially from the Roman imperial period, lire 11150 known from Syria (Butler, 1919) lind Palestine (Negev, 1973), among which the laller show a kind of stairw.ty matching Egyplian examples. Olher famous ellamples are Ihe keeps built by Herod in Jerusalem, the impregnabil. ity of which is stressed frequenlly in Josephus (De bello JllduicQ 5.4. 3-5; 5.5, 8: 5.18.4). The oldest keeps at leasl parlially preserved on EiYPtian soil were di~overed in Ihe grcal laura of KFJJJA on the western edge of the Della and are 10 be dall,.-J with eenainly to the tirsl half of the fifth centUl)". The ground plan is divided by two inner seJXlntling wul1s running al right angles to eat;h othel' into four large room units of appro~imately the same si:w, one of which contained the staircase. In addition to the ~taircase, smaller kceps generally have only a single room. Or' besides that only a vel)' small side chamher. A somewh:lt llirger room plan, in which the staircase lind three additional rooms arc llrranKcd along a central corridor, i~ conttllncd in the keep of henniltlgc Nu. 44 of QusOr '[7.ella in Kcllia (Mission suisse, 1983, Vol. 2, pI. 42), evidemIy deriving from the sixth ur seventh century. The funher development of the keep al~o belongs to this same form of ground plan. An almost identical dis· position of the ruortls is still apparent in the much later keep (1130-1149) of DAVR AL-MUIJAkItAO (Monneret de Villard, 1929, pp. 28-33). This plan Illso underlies the large kups In the Wadi alNa!rCtn. In the kecp of DAVK AL-IMKAM(ts only the pruponlons lire vluied and the in~idc corridor ex· tended, 10 make plaee for ellira rooms. The latest tOWCr1i are the towers of llAVR ANBA BlSHOl and DAVR ,,/'lIlA MAQAR. In the first upper slory both lowen;

1396

KEIMER, LUDWIG

cOnlain a chun:h with three altan;, To accommodate them. the ground plan of the lowen; had 10 be extended cast of the inner corridor by a depth of two room.'l. Neither tower is 10 be dmcd before the middle of the lhinccnth century (Grossmann. 1982. p. 2IS). The waleI' supply In Ihe keep was vitally imporbOI in the e1lent of n siege. The oldCl>1 examples in the Egyptian lauras cvidcmly did nO! al....-ays have immediate access to a watering place. Appa.renlly, al first an indoor supply of water was not rl,ganlcd as a mailer of urgency. In the Ammoniu!> narralive, pilgrims attacked on Mount Sinai needed only one day in lhe sheller of the lower to recuperate (Maycrmn, 1980). Still, in the p¢riod of tile patriarch S1UiNllTe I (858-880) the monu in the Kellia had Lo leave their lowers 10 fC!t:h water (Hutory of the PutriArchs, Vol. 2. pt. I, p. 60 [English trans.]). On the other hand, the keep of DayI' al-Baramiis in the Wa.di al-Na!n:ln, which unfonunately has nm yet been dated, wtIli already provided with a well that could be reached by an underground paMageway (Evelyn. White, 1933, Vol. 3, p, 233). The same ar· rangement might :t15O have been available in the very old keep (.If DAYIl, ANBA ~criL Of OALAMON. The I,!ler keep!; in the Wildl al.Na!riln even have wells within the keep walls, There i~ no unifol1nity in the qucsti(.ln (.If access to the kl,.-":p, While in the oldest examples of keeps known to us from the different colonies of hermil~, entrance \Va.'! effected only on the second /Ioor, this del.ail was in a St ...." nge way occasionally disregarded in the kcep!\ found in the cenobite monasteries. Thus the keep found immediately in front of the south door of the chur'ch of Dllyr Anb;\ Bishoi in Suh4j Clln be entered at ground·floor level through a wide door (GroSSlllonn, 1974~1977, pp. 323-25), The extensive keeplike lodging complex in llA¥1!. AN· BA HAOR}, in Aswlln (,Iso had an entrance on ground level. APPllrently the securing of the keep entrance was not regol'ded as VCt)' important hy the large number of monks in the cenobite mon
Grossmann, P. "Sohaj," Arclril' flir OrierllfQrsc!lImg 25 (1974-1977):323-25, MiuefalterlicJre L<mg,hallskllppelkirdum lI1/d vtnl'Ulrtlte Typel/ jn Oberii(O'ptetr, pp, 213-15. Glilckstadt, 1982. Ibmhim Haii3j. "Introduction in Coptic Defelice ArchilCClUre" (in Mabic). Disscnation, Cairo, 1984. Mayerson, P. "The Ammonius Narrative; Bedouin and Blemm)'e Attacks in Sinai," pp. 133-48. In The Oible World. EsSDyS it! HOllor 01 C)'rIlS H. Gordoll, cd. G. Rendsburg. New York. 1980. Mission suisse d'Arch!ologie copte de r'Universite de Gcni:'\'e, under Ihe direelion of R. Kassel'. Survey D'ch~oIQt:/qllt des Kefliu (llusse-EKJ'pte). ropport de ID cDmpflK"e /98/. Louvain, 1983, Monnen,:t de Villard, U. Deyr el.MI4I.rD"DqDh, pp. 28-35. Milan, 1929, Negev, A. ''The Staircase Tower in Nabutacan AI" ehltecture." ReVile bibliqlle 80 (1973):364-83, Orl:utd05, A. K. Mo>oO'''''lP'O'u/ QpXlTeXTlWUC;', pp. 134-37. Athens, 1958. WalleT'S, C. C, MOl/as/ic Arcllueology ill Egypl, pp. 86-99. Wanninster, 1974. Welter, G. "Von griechischen Inseln." Archiio/ogi· Jehu A"~igt!r (1954):48-93. PETER GROSSMANN

KEIMER, LUDWIG (1893-1957).

a German EgyplologiSt. Keimer was a professor al Cairo University, where he became vice prcsidenl of Ihe Egyplian Institute, He earned doctornles from the univcrsilies of MUnster (1922) and Wun.burg (1922. 1924). His most influential mentor, G. Schweinfurth, WOOle the preface 10 Keimcr's first Egyplalogical work, Die Garterrpf/Drrzell illl DltelI Agyptl'll, 2 vols. (Hambur'g, 1924), A bibliogrnphy of hi~ publications appeared in the first pan of Kelmcr's Eludes d'cgyplologie (Caim. 1940). Biogntphies were published by J. Lccl;tnt in A,chiv III' O,ielllfon'dlllng, 18 (1957-1958):488-89; and by B, van de Walie in Chrulliqllc d'Egyple 33 (1958):66-78, 235, the lalter of which includes a bibliography for lhe periud 1940-1957, S. KENT BROWN

KELLIA. [This ellll')'

cOllsists of lire lollowing urli·

cles: HI.BLlOGRAPHY

Butler, J, C. SyriD. Publications of the Princeton Universily/Expcdition Division n, Architecture. Leidell. 19 I 9, Evelyn· White, H, G. The MOlla.flen'es ol/I,e wad' 'II ND!rlitr, Vol. 3, Tire Archilecture alld Archeology, Ncw York. 1933: repro 1973.

Hi~tOl)'

of the Sill" French Archaeological Activity Swiss Archaeolog:ical Activity Egyptian Archaeological Activity The Churches Epigraphy P:tinlings,]

KELLIA: History of the Site

History of the Site The Kellia is one of Ihe mOSI importanl and most cdebn'lled monastic groupings ill Lower Egypt. lIS localion long reillained uncertain. III 1935 Omar Toussoun wrongly believed he had discovered ilS l\Iins near the nOl1hwest extremity of the Wadi aiNa!riin. It was the exaci location of the ancient Nitria by 1·1. G. Evelyn.White (1926-1933, Vol. 2, p. 1932) in the Delta thaI made it poss.ible to identify the site of the Kellia. which the ancient texIS situate between Nitria and Seelis. This idcntilication. al· ready proposed by A. F. C. de Casson in 1937, was definitively established in 1964 by A. Guillaumonl. The site is at the entrance 10 the l.ibyan desert, some 11 mile!! (18 km) south of a1·Barnliji, the an· cient Nilria, two miles beyond the NubAriyyah ca· =1. A foundation story reported in the AI'OPlmn:CMATA 'AnUM makes plain Ihe link thm exisled between Nitria and the Kcllia, The new habitat ....-as founded by AMMON, on the advice of &tint ANTONY. for lhose monks who wished to live in a greater solitude than at Nitria. The monks, who lived in cells .'iCaltered in the desert, pmcticed a !lCmi-anchoritism: on Saturdays and Sundays they all assembled at the church, celebmtlng the liturgy or JiytlaxiJi together and sharing a me,,1 taken in eulll11l0n. According to PilUA()I' us. nearly 600 monks were living in the Kellia al the end of the fourth century. The priest-monk who ofliciated at the church exerci!led a certain authori· ty over them all, partieul:Lrly a spiritual :.uthurity; he was assisted for' serious mailers by a council formed from the oldest. The best-known priest of the Kellin nl the end of the four1h century was MACA· R[US Al.EXANDRINUS. Within this f.lirly 10000e organiz,,' tion, the monks could grour themselves into "ITa· ternitles," the most widely known of which is the onc that lil:1lhered :lround !lVAGlllUS find AMMONIU$. This was the community of monks considered as Origenists. against whom (t disciplinary expedition was directed al the beginning of 400, under the orders of the patriarch THEOPHILUS (385-412), Among Ihe monks who were [hen forced into exile, and who were b[el- able to return to the Kel1ia, was Apa ISAAC, who when he became priest of the Kcl1ia added Il hostelry 10 the church for pa.~sing stmngers and for siek monks, as was already the ClIse in Nitl'ia. At Ihis period there was still only a single church in the Kellin. 11le ccddliasticlll dissensions that al'O!Ie in the coune of the fiflh century following the Council of CIlALCeDON were the cause of Olher troubles and

1397

more serious divisions among the monks of Ihe Kellia. As we le.lm frum un upothegm under the name of Phocas, it wa.~ necess.ary to build another church, in order that Chalcedonian and anti-ehalce· donian monks nlight each have their own. As this apothegm also shaWl". it was in the course of this century that the cells, while remaining hermitages, tended to become grouped into monasteries, the most remote being gmduully abandoned. This was probably to escape the dangers to which the monks .....ere exposed by the incunions uf the numads, who devaslaled Seelis sevel"lll limes during the fifth century. Important evidence about Ihe Kellia In the seventh century is furnished by the Book of/he Consecration of the Sanctuary of Ben/amin, an account of a. journey of the patriareh BENJAMIN I (622-661) to the WSdT IlI·Na!'''lin to conse<:l"Ilte the new church of the DAYIt ANBA MAQAIt in the winter of 645-646 or 646-647 (<:oquin, 1975, p. 59). During thisjoumey, as narrated by his companion, the priest AGATHON (Benjamin's succC550r), the p.ltriarch stopped for two days with the monks of the .Kellia, some of whom thereafter guitlt:d him on the road to the Wl\di al·Na.!rtln, This te~t, preserved in Coptic and in Al"Ilbic, ha.~ been summarized by sAwlRUS llIN AL-MUOAFFA' in his IllSTORY OF TIll': "ATltIARCIIS, in the Coptic text the Kellia is c..llcd "rf' (niri), "the cells." which is the lnmsllltion of the Greek name. The corresponding telm in the Arabic text of S:iwlrus is ol'Mund, which is probably a transcrip· tion or the Greek IIIOlli, a synonym of kellioll. It is in fuct under this appcll:Ltion or al-MunA that the Kellia is merllioned in Arabic authors. According to the same work, Benjamin had already visited al· MunA in 631. When fleeing before the Mclchite patriarch Cyros, he went first to the wildl al·Nap-on and then 10 Upper Egypt. The same work affirms elsewhere that it was thank..~ to the palriareh Benj:lmin that "the reeon~lr'Uetion WAS under'tAken of the monasteries of the WlidT HabTb [Wlidi al,Na!n1n] and al·Muna." which h:\d been destrl)yed in un· known circumstAnces in the period of the patriarch DAM[AN (569-605) l)r his suet:essur ATilANASIUS (605-616). The same /liMOP')' of lire POIriorcllJi infonns us about the Kellia in the course l)f the eighth century. It is related that under the paularch AlEXANDER II (705-730), John, biJihop ur Sais, chnrged by the Muslim governor with collecting the taxes due from the Christians, came to al-Muna, where he won back to onhodoxy the Gaianite and Barsanuphian monks who \\-"ere there, pruof that lhe divisions

1398

KELLlA: French Archaeological Activity

which llrose in the Coptic church during the sixth c:enllJI)' had II las/ing elre!;:1 among the monks of the

Kdlia, as among those of Seetis (Evetts 1904-1909, vol. J, pp. 62-63). The evidence conCC'l'fling the ninth cenlUlY leads onc

10

cea.~ed

think that in this period the monasteries to be Inhabited. This is affirmed by Ya"qiibt

(d. 9(0), who knew the sites. In the e1e\'cnlh century, Bakrt. probably using a much earlier .soun;c. says thaI the site was covered with imposing ruins, where, howc:ver. some monks were still living. In the fifteenth century al·Maqrttl makes no mention of the Kellia or of a)-Mona, proof no doubt Ihal the ruins of the monasteries were already covered by the Sllmls. ThCR ruim; have 5urvh'ed to our lime. Unfonunately the site is on the way 10 being completely destroyed, in consequence of the works of irrigation and of extending the arable land undertaken sinee before 1964 by the service of Agrarian Refonn. To the destruetion thus caused mmt be added the damage effected by the eonstroction in 1977 of a rail~y line from Tanta to Alexandria, crossing Ihe site from one side to Ihe olher (Cuillaumont 1981, pp. 195-98). ANTOtNE GUttL\UMONT

French Archaeological Activity At the time of the discovery of the site of the Kellin in the spring of 1964 following the investiga· tlons conducted by A. Guillaumont, il had the ap. peanlOce of a scattering of Iwms (Arabic, hillocks), the result of the collapsing of the vaults and walls and thc progrcSliive leveling of the constructions as a whole. Those in the center had offered grealer resistance, and the sand had gradually filled the empty spaces. Some dements of lhe materials hlld come to the surface again in such a way as 10 forlll II solid crust, giving to cllch hermitage the appear:lOce of a oipl'lle. Somctimes a building was so greatly leveled thllt it was nol marked by any elevation. '111ese koms extend in an east-west direction over more than 7 miles (12 km) and in a nOl1:hsoulh direction ovcr about 2 milt.os (3 km), Thc majority of them were grouped in agglomerations lhat hi the Arab period received designations compounded of the word qa!!r (pl., qu.~ilr.. from the Latin ells/rlllll, fortification), The InSlitut fran~ais d'Archeologie orienttlle car' ried Qui a lillit campaign in March-April 1965 on

kQm 219 of Q~ar cI-Ruba'iyat, with the collabora-

tion of the UniveNiily of Geneva. Since Ihe sile is immense, it later appeared more advantageous to divide the groups of kom~' between Ihe lWO inslitlllions. Of more than 1,500 1i1'Ied in 1972 (Kasser), aboul 900 remain ...-d sliII inlact after the beginning of the works of the agrarian reform (1964). The Swiss mission was to devolc ils efforts 10 the eastern pan: OU~Or el·b.eila (al,'U7.aylah), Qu~ur el· 'AbId, QW1t1r 'lsA, 10 which R. Kassel' (1969) later added tWo groups found further 10 the southeast: O~iir c1·Higeila (al'J:lijaylah) and Ou.~ur el-'Ireima (al.'Uraymah). The French iltSlitule would work on me weslem sector: Ou.~iir el.Ruba'lyal and Oa.~r Wal.teida (al·Wa!,taydah), Between 1966 and 1968 the French institute ac· complished an exhaustive topographical survey of ~ur el.Ruba'iy6t (later published in Daumas· Guillaumonl, 1969). From 1965 to 1968 and then after an intel1"\lplion due to the state of war in Egypl, from 1979 to 1984, it cleared eleven koms of types varied bolh in Iheir dimensions and in their plans, whkh we may da.uify a.~ follows:

Type A. Hermllagea of Small Dimensions For a sillgle occllfMlI/.

This kind of hermitage appears to have been ralher rare in Ihe Kcllia, or al least there arc only a few examples. One of them bears the nUlnber 166 in Ihe survey of Qu~iir cIRuba'Iyat, and measured only 50 by 40 feet (15 by 12 m) in ils prirnilivc state and Ihen about 72 by 40 feel (22 by 12 m) in iL~ second phase. It could have had only a singlc inhabitant, for it had only a single Ol';ltory and a single Sloreroom, even in its second slage, or Ihe two othcr rooms, one to the cast of thc Ol';ltory wa~ reserved for manual work, as is shown by some cavities in which bones of camels or cattle are wedged about I foot (0.30 Ill) from the ground, four of them symmetrically arranged opposite to one another. In the fir'llt phllse of occupution thcre was neither well nor kitchen nor latrine. The pot· tery collecled, dating probably from lhe lllst occupation, gives a general dating to Lhe six.th and sev· enth centuries. This would show that alongSide very developed hel'milages, in which the hermits grouped together, there were entirely isolated her· mits who lived the llnchorite life liS the texts de· scribe it. For tWQ or even /lrree occllpallls, Five ko/tls of this type have been cleared allhe western e~lremily of Qllflir cI,Ruba'iy5t, 10 which musl be added the small primllive hennitage found included in a laler extension of kom 167. These hermilages have a sur-

KELLlA: French Archaeological Activity

rounding wallmcasurillg on lhe outside between 50 and 65 feet (15 3.nd 20 m) wide (north-south) and 65 to 100 feet (20 to 30 m) long (cast-west). Their plan Is rather varied. but in Ihe hahilalions placed to the west we ca.n clearly distinguish two (somt-.. times three) cells: that of the dder containing th~ rooms, the oratory in the northwest comer, and tWO chambers of which one gives access to a small storeroom, the whole being c1O!ied by an entrance door wilh a boll, The cdl for the disciple (or disciples) Is slluated to the south of the first one, and most often contains only two rooms, one of them an oratory. Large rooms, apparently communal, are set to the east of these two (or thn:e) cells: in front of the elder's cell, a hall with two bays acces..o;ible from the courtyard by a door (in the oldest hermitages the north bay of this hall was appropriated for anbanal work and appears 10 have been converted into a reception lobby), To the east of the disciple's cell are placed the kitchen (which contains a bread oven) and a room which could have served as a pantry. The purpMC of the other large rooms, to the south and also agailUl the north wall, remains unknown. The well was dug in Ihe 50utheast comer of the courtyard and surrounded by one or severnl basins from which channels r.ln, no doubt inigating a vegetablc gardcn. One of Ihesc channels often ended in a basin on the Outside of the surrounding W3I1, This wall encloses the whole hermitage. in· cluding the courtyllrd, but its original height is diffi· cult 10 estimate, Latrines arc constructed againsl the south wall, sometimes the east. In several small hermitages, no gatcway has bcen brought to light. Type B, Hermitages of Medium Dimensions Their surrounding wall, reClangular as in the pre· ceding type, measures un the outside 80 10 90 fcet (25 to 28 m) by 80 to 130 fcet (25 to 40 01). In OU~llr c1-Ruha'Iy:U, such hermitages arc the koms bearing the numbers 88, 167 (in its final extension), lind 171, Onc chal'actcl'iMic of this type is the multiplication of Ihe habillltion units: up 10 five in the three korns cleal'ed by the French institute. The very large dimensions of lhe halls are another fcature; the largest. which is always the oratory of Ihe elder's cell, reaehes 23 by 23 feet (7 by 7 m), whel'eas in the preceding hermitages il did not ex· ceed Il by 13 feel (4 by 4 m), Moreover. the deearation becomes very rich, wilh imitations of sculpture (capitals and columns), in fine materials like nUllble, and mural paintings which can hardly be

1399

the work of the hel'mitll alone. Thc plan is distinguish(.'(j from type A by the add ilion of large rooms. including a habitation unil, against the north wall and even the south wall. where we sometimes natice an assembly room (chapel, or perhaps refec· tory). We also see towcn; of refuge appearing in these hermitages (kQ'" 88) in the south. The water installations are more eXlensi\'e and complicated, and Ihere is an cntnlnce gatcway in the surrounding wall, on th! easl side, sometimes also-at lea~t in an c.~r1y phase-in the north wall,

Type C.

Hermitages of Very Large Dimensions

A single example of this type has ba:n cleared, in ~r el.Ruba'lyAt, lorn 219, It seems to have been occupied by some len hermitll, and probably represents Ihe most developed siage of the Kellia hermitages. Its dimensions, 145 by 195 feel (45 by 60 m), are imposing, II is difficuil 10 spl.:c,:ify the limits of each cell. bUI we find here the same elements as in the hermitage of type A: thc cldcr's apartment in the nol1.hwest and disciples' cells to the south of it. However, tht:sc last (ahout lI;n) are lodged almost everywhere. As in type B, a large hall, here against the south wall and originally of three bays. may have served as a chapel. This hermitage lIlay have been Gaianitc, by rc3$On of two inscriplions, no doubt down to the conversion or these schismatics by John of Sais In the eighth century. Excavations have shown the evolution of this hermitage, Stl'.111ing with a building of type B, by progrcs..~ive extension 10 lite flllal slage,

Type D.

Center of Communal Services

The she in question is Qa~r Wal,Jcida to the south· west of QU501' el·Ruba'Tytit, cleared In 1967-1968. This is not a hermhage, fur we have found neither the plan nor the con5ti!ulive elements such as individual oratories or chumbers with stOl'e room, but on the contrary, buildings Wllich to all appeamnce scrvcd thc inhabitants of a cluster of hcrmitagcs, This is clear from lhe pr'Csence in panicular of two churches in juxtaposition, the apse of the one being backed on 10 lite weSl wall of lhe other. Each is of basil leal plan, with a llanctuary in three parts and lhree aisles separated by pillal'S or columns (only the bases were still In place). The altar of the small church, to the west-the oldcr-w.tS square in form, and the north annex of the saneluary was occupied by a baptistery with steps to cast and west, as well as an apenure for emptying at the

1400

KELLlA: Swiss Archaeological Activity

bottom of the pisdnll. The lorge church had a eirculllr ahal' (Ill ~1Il:l1l columns, bUI did nol POSS(:ss a

baptisl(·ry. In cae.h llll llmho was backed against the south side of the sanctuary. with three steps to give llCCell.~ to iI. There was a kind of peristyle on the south fm;,;c of the large church. and a marble founlain·ba..~in wa.. placed to the right of the entrance door under Ihis peristyle. 11I'obably for the washing of hands (and perhaps face) before the synaxis. A cistern constructed in the nOl1hwest corner of the small chul'Ch collected the rain waleI', for unknown

usc. The large church fell out of favor at some period and was tramfonncd into a cemetery. This complex of communal services also included inside a surrounding wall a \'cry large hall with three aisles, no doubt a hustdry, with a kitchen adjoining and dilTerent rooms in juxtll.p05ition, and also a rduge lo....er. A second tower of the same type had been buill, backing on to the surrounding wall but on Ihe out!iide and in proximity tu the first. The independent staircase that gave access to the fil'5t noor wtlS, il seem!>. common to the two towen. Walcr installations around two wells allo..'led the irrigation of the gardens. This series of French exca..'ations on Ihe site of the Kellia wa~ of limited character compared to the exeeplional extelll of the agglomeralions. SliIl, by reason of the very divenity of the kOllls cleared, it nonethell.,;$ brbullht confi"mation of information supplied hy hiMolical 50urcl.'I>, and also new data. The inhabitanL~ of the Kellia were hermits. not ee· nobites. living an
COQUIN

Swiss Archaeological Activity The Swiss mission in Coptic ilrehaeology from the Univer-sity of Geneva eallied out iL~ aClivilies in the Kellia on three different and complemenlary levels. Belween 1965 and 1971 (with extensions

down 10 1978). it accomplished a topogrnphical SUI" vey of Ihe si,e of the Kcllia as a whole, covering more than 49 square miles (126 square km). The east, nonh, and west pal1S have bcclI published (Kassel', 1972). This survey sought to locate all trac, es of ancient constructions showing on the surface of the ground, either from remains still standing or from the presence of the deblis of buildings or of terTa·cotla. More than 1,500 Coptic buildings were rapidly recorded on the general plan (kollls still well preserve
KELLIA: Swiss Archaeological Activity

of particularly inh:resting buildings or structures allowed their Il.ethodical exploration in the course of later cnmpaigns planned to this errt.~t. This method of analysis was applied In 1982 to a group of l1fly.live koml of the Ou~ur c1.Ruba'iy.lit, a group including severnl buildings of very Inrge dimen· sions. In thl~ aren. where dcstruction was considerable betw~n 1982 and 1985, these invcstigations made pM...ible the detection of the particularly 1"(.-markable arehilt."Cturnl ensembles. Excavation of various hems whooe function had been identilied allowed the presefYation of pictorial and decorative material of great importance. The topographical work ant.! the sunace analyses carried OUt by Ihe Swiss mission between 1964 and 1985 have brought to light numerous poinu of interest in the site, some of which have been the objects of pal1lal or complete archaeological excavation. The longest, mlX'Ot thorough. and most complete investigations have had as their object a particularly large and complex kom (OU!!ur -fsa I), where it \\135 hoped to lind chronololil1cal and typological refer· enccs reflecting thc history of the sile as a whole. The discoveries tllade..,in this very special building, rich in a long history, have supplied the essential basis for the chronology of the pollery of the Kellia, a 1001 for dating and analysis indispensable for any further study. Apl.lrt from this special case. in the face of the immensity of site nnd the abundance of the problems posed, the investigators of the Swiss mission have been very selective in choosing their ob}cetives. The results arc sufficiently conclusive to provide the state of our archaeological knowledge In the areas explored and an appreciation of the physical factors that conditioned the various forms of monastic ~etllcment in the Kcllito.

Sitc of the Kellin: Gcologlcal and Geographical Criteria The monaStic: site of the Kellia was founded in to desert milieu, a qutorter of the distance between Nhria and Scetis. The occupation developed on a strip J1mning from nOrlhwesl 10 soulheast, p3l"allel 10 Ihe edge of Ihe Delta and thus remaining at an altitude less than J) k~t (10 10) tlbove sea level. In the most southedy low.lying area, one could easily reach the table of fresh \Wter by digging II well. Desert conditions became established in the final Pleistocene period. shaping the site in undulating dunes on lUI axis from nonh and northwest to south and southeast. This fonnation was later hard·

1401

ened by a saline upsurge linket.! to a pre·Neolithie climatic val'iatlon. In the COptiC period the Isolated hermitages, and later the agglomerations. were founded for preference in the low.lying ,u'eas, to take advantage of the proJdmity of the water table while escaping the notice of distant neighbors. In a va... t area, one could thu.~ lind all the requi· site conditions for raising isolated constructions in a desert milieu, where one could live and even cultivate a soil that was fertile if it was suitably ~ watered. Construction Materials The only construction material available on the site is the alluvial and briny sand that can be ell· tracted from the 5Ubsoil at any point. Moistened with water and molded In the trenches from which it was dug, it takes on the consistency of II thick concrete, which allows the making of crudc molded bricks. which dry almost without shrinkage. No veg· etable or mineral additions have bei!n observed. The bricb are bound together by a mortar of briny mud of the samc provenance. The massive brickwork was placed dire<:tly on the $andy ground. Sometimes the buildings were slightly hollowed out in the subsoil. The rooling of the huilding... of the Kellia iii very original. By far the majority have a system of gradu· ated vaulting, mounted without any shol'ing. Hyperbolic or semicircular archeli, built of unbaked brick wedged with shards of pottery, were piled up againslthe support of II holding wall. The density of the local bricks lind the weak adhesivenes.~ of the mud monar limit the slope of the vaulting to a maximum of 45 degrees. The vaulu were fonned hy two sets of brickwork supported on the opposing walls of the room and overlapping one another at their junction In the center. The general appearanCe is lhat of a vcry low vault resting on the backing walls. The rooms are for the most part rectangular, and arc then covered by elongated and flllllened domes. Spans nf mnt'e than 23 feet (about 7 m) have been observed. There was II less common system reserved for Imporlant buildings (churches, rt.~eplion halls). Four spherical triangles forming a pendentive were established simultaneously by the grddul\ted vault· ing technique. resl.lng on the corners of the l·oom. In the new angles resulting from their junction, four new spherical triangles were set in pillce, and the process continued until the dome was com· pletely dosed. To roof an elongated room with two

1402

KELLlA: Swiss Archaeological Activity

bays, the spl'ings of the two neighboring vaults were supported on a mcdi:m arch resting on ,wo pillars. The rooms lllaking up the buildings were added

one to :lnathe.' as need required, and the vaults mutually buurC5scd one another. Hinged wooden doors furnish(."(1 wilh bolts ensured the closing of the entrances. Windows with

sloping fl':lllleS or loop holes pierced in tile \t'upplicd light and ventilation. A vel}' large number of niches was COni rived in the walls. The \\'3l1s were plastered with c1ay-marUr, then wa.~hed with while lime or coaled wilh lime mortar. Like the baked bricks, the few hewn siones and the wood, this last material was entirely imported from the Della. The floon and !iOmetimes the plinths were carefully covered wilh lime cement mixed with crushed baked brick. The upper part of the wulls lind the wullS werc generalJ)' washed with lime, and lhi, wa.~ the foundalion fJr painted dttQrations and inscriptions. ' Unbaked brick being very susceptible to humidity, the outer eurve!ii of the vaults were rendered w::uertight by layers of clay, and sometimes limemortal'. lnstlllllltions cunnectt.-d wilh waleI' (wells, b.",in" lalrine,) were construcled of baked brick lind tOllled with Iimc or mortar mixed wilh chips of blicks. Wood was rare, rcscrvL-d for the frames and Ilaps of doors, ...helves in some niches, or sets uf shelves. and the recovered pollery was abundantly used in conSII,-,ction. Amphorae and pots were sunk into the noun and the walls (Ihere i... controversy aboul Iheir runction: acoustic ~ascs, dr..ins. ni(;hes, hiding-places?). Piping wa..~ made of amphor'ae placed cruJ 10 end. The bridul of the vaults were wedged Wilh lhe aid of countless shards of pottery.

Typology 01' the Monastic Habitation The trace... of the Illo...t ancien I (;onstructlons ob· serveJ in lhe KelJia were discovered in lhe kom Qu· ~iir 'lsI!. 1 in lhe form of very small rooms deeply excavaled in lhe subsoil .md roufed by gmduated vaults made of sm31J bricks (17 x 14 x 7 Clll). These eonslnlelions belong 10 lhe second half uf lhe fOUl1h cenlur)' £ll lhe eadies!. These shelters must scarcely have risen above the sUI'f3ce of the desel1, and were elller-ed by n shor1 flight of steps, through a door sheltered from Ihe p~vailing wiuUs. The usc of lime mortar is not alte.~led during Ihi... early period. Some niches are filled into Ihl,: WIllis, and thl,:rl,: is a kind of cylindri· cal ~ilo or hiding place sunk imo Ihe floor of mOSI

of lhe rooms; iu function remains unknown. There is evidence thai bcnl,:hcs or bunks wel"e placed along the w311s, In the f0l"l11 of brickWOl'k uprights that could support planks or a wooden panel. The progreSliive addition of similar I"OOms, sometimes interconnL'Cted, shows Ihat se~eml people li\'ed together in a complex of a gradually eXJXInding t)'pC, although no specifit organization is apparem. AI Ihe beginning of Ihe fif.h century, a southern addition displays the IiBI fealure~ of an archilt:elural model Ih:at was to ha~e a considerable development in the hislory of the site of the Ketlia.. This is a chamber with a silo and II bench·Ix.-d, wilh an important nkhe in Ihe east wall adomed with a painted cross. II connects with a smaller secondary room. Here we find lime morta.rs and bricks of a large size, and the lirst indication of Ihe enclosure of the building by n wall delimiting a courtyard with a well. A lirst church is associated with Ihis building. Traces of cm" and culinary aClivity have been nOliced outside the dwellin" in the courtyard. The complex of ~(jr '1s1 I stands apart from Ihe Olher buildings excav31ed al the Kellin through the construction of three churches of large dimensions, daling 10 the fifth to seventh centuries. The adjoining constructions-such as enclosures, courtyards, and ctulmbers-had functions quite certainly linked to the service of Ihe churches. and an~ nOI Ihe mos. characteristic of thl,: current monastic habitation. The invesligations carried out by the Swiss mission between 1965 and 1984 in various zones of the sile and pllrticul:lrly in Qll~i1r cl-'Izeila in 1981 (sur· face analysis nf 120 buildings of an "gglomcrdtion) have allowed \15 to ~nlSp the recurrent eharacteris· tics of the mon3stlc habitation currcnt in lhe sixth and seventh centuries, :md the way in which lhe he11l1itages developed llu'ou8h progressive increase in lhe effective strength of the community around the cell of some elder. If lhe plans of the buildings dated to Ihe fifth centul)' lire rare and variable, a model oflen I'cpcllled appeo.lred from the sixth cen· lUry on: one described by de Cosson (plan A) when he idenlified lhe site of lhe Kcllia in a 1937 article (pp. 247-53) in which he pr'csents the essentials of lhe WCSI building of a hermitage which he briefly excavated at OU.~UI' el.Ruba'iytit, The Fr-ench clteavat ions h:lVe cleared and analyzed sevcral of these eonslI"\.Ictions in detail. The great majority of the huildings eltamined, with few eltceptions, present common characteristics whieh allest the presence of several .successive

KELLlA: Swiss Archm::ological Activity

and effective barriCI"$ between the outside W(Jrld and the monk, TIle nlutllltl l'elationships of the oc· cupant.'l of the same hermitage and bctwl:cn them and visitors could be very subtly contl'OlIed by the use of numerOlIl> doOl'5. For individual retreat. the hermil had in Ihe first monasllc tlm~ his primitive cell. Later in Kellin tile cell devclopl,.-d inlo a chamber, slill simple, with whitewashed walls pierced with niches and furnished with a leaved door, The ormory niche was placed in Ihe easl ....-all of a large room communi· caling with Ihe ccll in the northwcsi comer of the bemlitage. Deserilx.' arranged against the wall on a raised bench, There was also a brelld oven of a somewhat cylindl'lcnllhape placed venically or obliquely: this had II remuvable cover. Deside lhe kilehen we very often find 0. chambel' with a storeroom Identical to Ihe monk's chamber. The person who lived there evidently had .'lome function in relation to the kitchen, with usc of Ihe vestibule and (;ontrol of the entrance dool' and the coul1yard space. The princl· pal resident or elder thus ordinarily hlld (It his service a subordinate pedlaps charged with managing pan of the contacts with the outside world and probably also with stewardship. The garden·courtyard il> the fourth enclosure of the hennihtge. In Ihe southeast corner of the enclo· sure are the lau;n~. which run off to the oUl~ide. In the same sl,.-clor II well of b.'1kcd bricks is surrounded by basins and drainage channels, probably

1403

for artisanal usc, the surplus water from which could irrigate a few planted arcM. The entrance gate to the hermitage opens in lhe sOUlh enclosing wall, somelimes in the cast, Visitors could be n.... ceh'ed in a mom which formed a vestibule or gate· house, Outside lhe hermitage al sume dislan(;e from the gale was a I",bbish heap where kitchen wmote, building rubbish, and broken pollery were thrown. The hermitages rarely preserved this Slructure througboul their history. Ap.'1rtmenls or other buildings, eilher ~P:trate fmm the elder's dwelling or (;ommunicaling wilh ii, were installed one after the other Inside the enclosure and along ils length. We can n..-cognile them in general rooms that have the same functions and decoration lI! Ihe ap,1I1menl in the nonhwest: a chamber with a store room, an Ol1ltory, II reception room, somctimes a kitchen. We can thUl> ob5erve the successive installntion or up to fiVt: apanments in the larger hennitagcs. Another architectural solution in responsc to the increase in the strength of the smnll community was to knock down some or the enclosing walls and extend the enclosure in one or IWO directions in order to install more or len important blocks or buildinas. The growth of the hermitages was effect· ed through succel>sive ndditions of monil5tie dwellings, and it is only rarely thaI we observe denloli· tionl> and reconl>tructionl> on the l>lImc l>ite. Thus Ihe vasl majorily of the hcnnitagcs of Ihe Kellia rrom the sixth 10 Ihe eighth cemuries reproduce a very restricted number of vt:ry closely rd:llt:d pl.," types, .....hich are carried out in a mOl'e or less spa· cious or lu:mrious manner according to the means of the residents. Each hermitage had ilS o.....n inter· nal evolution, yet in obedience to principles that appenr to have been the nIle. Amid the apparently multiple and variable archi· tecturlll forms which the monastic IHibilfllion Itl;iy t:lke In the secondal)' apartments, cenain constants sland out which no doubl refl<:<:l important aspects of the mona.~tic organi7.:ltlon. The cell or monk's chllmber with its indispenSllble slore room remains the mo.~t remote and private place in evel)' resl· (.lcnee. In fronl of the cell lIrc OIlC or mOI'c rooms, one of which always has in its east wall an oratory niche, This arrangement alJows the association of the functions or this room with those of tile oratory in the cider's apartment. The separation of the functions of the rooms, however. appears in II less rigid fa.'lhion In the secondary apal'lment.'l. New ar· chiteeturul solulions, (;ombining the funelions with one another, make c1enr the pmbable hierarchical differcnce between the dder and other occupants,

1404

KELLIA: Swiss Archaeological Activity

The Two-Bay Hall The mo.~t remarkable construction in the secondary blocks uf buildings is tho:: hall with two (sometimes three) bay~, a juxtaJlOllition of room!! communicating through a wide an;ading that recalls the vestibule In the p,;ncipal apanmenL The bays are amply lit by upenings or windows. This room beCOllies the largest in the hermitage, with direct access to the counyard through one or severol It:aved doors. The eastcrn nichc with iu special deeorotion is very rarely lacking. Kitchens with or without a pan· IfY are often clearly 3S5O<:iated with the tW
The Towers The towers nrc imponanr constructions that appear' SPQmdically in lhe se,;ond hair or the seventh century and particularly in the nonhern half of the agglomeratioll of QU~Qr c1-'I~eila (19 towers in a total of 120 hermitages). Their substructures are very thick and ealT)' high walls which one 6mb collapsed In compact masses at the foot of the foun· dations, Access ~IS by an independent staircase and a movable gangway leading to an upper floor door pierced in the tower. The base of the lowen; contains only storerooms, hiding places. and flights of Internal stairs. The tOWer is most often backed on to the enclosure wall of the hermitage, or on the

uutside in such a way that access is possible from the lOp of the wall and the roofs of the hennitage. and this in proximity 10 the entrnnce gates. No tower in the Kellia ha.~ been sufficiently pR-o. served to show the :Irr.lngement of the upper stories. Piping and water outlelS allest the presence of latrines. The towers are generally associated with hermitages which have been extended or cnlargc..-d, or include impo~nt annexes (double-bay halls, refectories, or churches). The existence of a much earlier tower has been attested in the complex of the churches of Ow!ilr '151: subsequent to the building of the second church and built outside, a tower measuring 26 by 30 fc..ocl (8 by 9 01) at ilS base was erected toward the apse or choir or the chun::h. Access wa.~ by an independent staircase and a removable bridge. In contrasl with the towers of the seventh century, this construction was sct up in the center or lhe monastery and not on the enclosing wall. Special BuIldings A bUilding of about 260 fcct (80 meters) squ.arc was erected on t.he southern edge of the agglomero· tion of Ou.~ur el·'lzeila (nos, 141-42). The building comprises a simple enclosure wall, in the intcrior of which nineteen identical and l:ontiguous rooms are alignc..-d on the nonh, with a door and two nich· es. 11,is vast whole was probably lin enelosure for commercial functions, an interpretation reinforced by the presence of numerous fragments of am· phoroe.

The Complex or the Churches or Qu,o.r '181i I A kOIl1 situated at the southern limit of the llg~Iomeration or OU~llr 'ld was the subject of me· thodical excavtllion from 1965 to 1968 and 1976 to J977 by the Swiss mission from the University of Geneva, It became apparent that this comple,>; was quite exceptional among lhe hundr'eds of kOllls. It was in opemtion aul'ing the entire history of the Kelli:\, or neady so, and three chur.:hes have been brought to light, Both in its structure ana in its content the building presents numcrous analogies with lhat of Oa~r Wa~eid/lh partly eltplored by the French mis.~ion. A first nucleus is fonned by very small cells half buried in a thoroughly desert mi· lieu, described above (second half of the founh century). At the end of the founh ccntury and lhc beginning of the fifth, a church wa.~ built (33 by 26 feet [10 by 8 mn, lind this was included in an cnscmble of rooms already well organized in a rec·

KELLIA: Swiss Archaeological Activity

tangle of 65 by 90 feet (20 by 28 m) with a court/ yard unll a central well. Through lhe addilion of )Vw,s of rooms and ad· joining conslruclions. this complex lhereafter underweOl a pl....Clically continuous extension. Al lhe end of lhe fifth ccnlury we find lhere a second ehurch 55 by 3J feel (17 by 10 m) of basilical plan. with a nave of six columns. A ciSlern collecL'i me rain water from lhe roofs. A high towcr adjoins oluside the apse or choir of the church. An enclos· ing wall of Il00UI 176 by 169 feet (54 by 52 m) with ill nonhwesl and southwesl comers rounded, surrounds the whole, and the principal enlrance i,s on the east, In thc ,sboth century the enlargement continued throuih lhe addition of a .wuthern wing with a new well, and later by a ,simultaneous extension of the enclosure to the nonh and cast, A final phase of m;ajor works, which caused important changes in lIle plan of the monastery, is datcd to the beginning of the seventh ccnlury, A western eXlension of the enclOliure broughl ilS dimensions to about 250 by 2J4 feel (77 by 72 m). The buildings of Ihe fourth and fifth centuries were raJ.ed and filled up. A :;;padous church 72 by J9 feet (22 by 12 m) of basilical plan (nave with 16 COIUnU1S) was erected on me site of Ihe tirsl church. The two baliilicas then funclion simultam:ou,sly, openhlg on a eenlral eoun bounded on the west by a columned ponico. Sever· al living and service room$ opcn on 10 it. There is also a large hall, lhe roof of which is suppoJ1t:d by three middle columns. This was no doubt a guest hall or refectory, opening at once onto the portico, the kitchens, and the back court,s, which themselves open to the outside through ser.oice doors. The principa.l entrance to the enclosure on the east reo mains in operution. At the end of the seventh ecntury thc aspect of thc site ch'lIIged. All the peripheml huiJdings fell suddenly OUI of fuv01"; thc vaults collllpscd for WlIIIl of maintenance, the courtyards (lnd the ruins were completely covered with sand. All that sunoived was the two basilicas strengthened by bullresses of mud bricks, the centl'lll C01ll1, and probably the old tower. The openings of the portico were walled up and a kitchen WilS inStalled in a corner of the colon· nade. On the outsidc. a large cemetel'Y extends to the nOl1h. ellSt. and south of Ihe churches in the mins of the ancient btlildings. The 'ombs are oriented cast and west, with the head 10 the WCl'il. The defini· live disaffection took place befol'C the middle of me eighth century. The complex of OWitir 'lsA 1 throughout iL~ histo-

1405

ry displays its permanent peculiarity. Situated on the mal'gin of a very 11Irge Agglomeralion which probably developed In the sixth to Ihe eighth cenluries, it is a center whcn: one finds building.'i es-sentially intended for the service of the churches (CouI1yards, reception room,s, refectories. kitchens, etc.). ScriCli of rooms suilllble for forming residences, such as we observe evcrywhcre else in the hermitages of thc Kellia, are except.lona.l, which indicates that the perma.nent residents were, no doubt, few in number. The decline of Ou~r '151 I and it,s churches may be expla.ined by a profound change in the cultie habits of the monks of the Kellia, which occurred in the course of the second half of the se\'enm century. The churches outside the agglomerations of the sixth and seventh centuries, in which the communily gathered from the founh century on, were abandoned to the advantage of places of worship inlegrated into the hermitages themselves, like the chapels and churches observed al Qu~tir el'Izeila., which even altain 10 Ihe dimensions of genuine basilicas (OU.,Or '151, J66 bis northwcst).

The Development of the Agglomerations One single agglomel'lllion of the Kellia (OU~I' e1·'lzcila) was lhe subjl'Cl of a full-scale analysis during the 1981-1984 projecl of lhe $wis.'i mission. The results of this analysis allow us to suggesl a model for thc devclopnll,:nt of the site, which is probably equally valid for the other pal1s of the Kettia. The cells of Ihe primitive type, from the fourth lind fifth cenluries, arc known only at Ou~tir 'Isa I. We do not know the distribution of these small half·buried constructions, but toward the beginning of thc sixth century, in contntst, hermitages of 1\ simple plan, with an enclosure, are distributed in very scattered fashion at the low points on the milp of thc Kellia. The density is that of the numerous small conslJ'Uctions, of generally unknown type and date. which UI"C Strewn (Jver the site outside the later agglomerations, without any Plll1iculal' con· centralion and invisible one from a.nolher. It is like· Iy that this distribution is in the spirit of the initial stage. In the CoUI'SC of the sixth century we witness at 00.,01' c1-'lzcila, on the con\l"lll)', a concentration of lhe buildings in a great depression. Variants appear in me Iypology of ,he hermilages, where the an· nexed apal·tments were multiplied. We can thus dis· lioguish arra.ogcmcnts conceived fOI" a single rc51dent or for lin elder and his disciple.

1406

KELLIA: Egyptian Archaeological Activity

According to Ihe simple systems which were to prove their wonh during nearly two ecoturie:> (:;cventh and eighth), we wimcss on the one hand suc· c~<;ive developmenL'il of aparlmenlS within the existing cndosing willi, and on the olher hand nt-ow foundatiOilli of hermitages which reinforced the density and thus crcatt--d vcritablc agglomenltions of building.<; more or less contiguou.'l and of divel"!le orientation, 5epar.ued by rubbish heaps. In the sevcnth cemury, very specific additions modified the charactcr of ccnain ponions: tower.; and places of worship or assembly appear in the developed hermitages. Thc buildings cllcavated in tile principal agglom· er.ulon5, ~r al.Ruba'iyit and ~r 'Isa, confirm this scheme of development and indicate that the clltreme concentration of Ihe agglomerations oc· curred in the !cVt:nth and eighth centuries. The great isolated huildings 5ituated to the foOUth of these zones and giving shelter tu ehun;hcs for community uSC (Ou~Or 'lsi I and Q~r Wal)eidah) played a mIl' up to thc middle of the seventh centu· ry, the date at which tht-'Y were practically aban· doned or tran5formed into cemeteries. DENtS WEIDMANN

Egypllan Archaeological Activity Independently of the french and Swiss archaeological illVcstigations in the Kellia. the Egyptian Antiquitk'li Org:miullion has also earned out impor· tarU ellCavations on this site, principally along the line of the Tania-Alexandria milway under con· stnll,:tioo (some thir1y /cows at Ou~ur al·Ruba'iyal. in addition to several sites cleared in collaboration with the Swiss l11ission). This work has gone on since 1971, when the increasing pace of deslruction oblitled all the t1vailablll inSlitutions to concentrate their' etfoI1.'l 011 the western part of lhe Kellia, which no means of proteclion was going to save from r'apid IInnihilfllioll. The working out of the results of these ellellVations has not yet I'eaehed II stage III which a full account can be given. I)ENIS WElnMANN

The Churches In the general area of the Kellia a not inconsider· able numbc:r of churches has so far been identified. Several of these were conceived as independent buildings, while others had clearly the character of I:iler annexes to bullding.<; already in existence (he....

mitages). Moreover the churche5 50 far found belong to very distinct lypes Ihllt Ilre discussed below according to their typology and topography. Ou~fir 'Isa. South 1 had lhree churches; they did not, however, .. II ellist 1:11 the same time. The older nonh church camc into being !>hortly after 400 llnd i5 therefore t.he oldest church so far identified in lhe Kellin. It has a shon but relatively wide single·aisle naos, which was evidently roofed ov"r by a ti~r of beams running east and west. The sanctuary consisted al first of a single rectangular altar room. Howev"r, while the construction was still in process, two additional side rooms were added on the two sides. The one on the south was connected by a narrow passage with a subtelTllnean hiding place. The south church belongs to the end of the fifth century and is a fully developed church building with a three-aislc naos and three-pan sanctuary, the middle room of which contains the altar and the nonhern side room, a baptistery, The entrnnce lies on the nonh side and is provided with II covered porch, neceu.ary because of the frequent wind.. in the desert area. A slllall platfoml elllcnding to lhe left serves a,<; subslilutc for a narthex. In general, this church is only a modest building with very unbalanced proponions. The huer nonh church stands din.'ctly above the older nor1h church, which accordingly had ceased to ellisl. In its architectural development, it gocs a step fUl1hcr than the south chul'ch and is provided with a western return aisle. The sanctuary is again lripanile, but shifted slightly to thc north from its allis in order to make room for a staircase to the roof, aeeommotl:lteu lit the south end. This church was built in the early seventh centUl)'. Qa~r al.Wal)aydah is the mosl importanl place in OU~C1r al.l{uba'ly41 and in many respects comparable to the complex of Ou~ftr 'fs:i South I. Here two churches havc so far' becn discovered. The west church is [llmost the exact counterpart of lhe south church in Qu~fir 'lsil South I. It 100 consisl.~ of a VC1)' simply prop0l1ioned three·aisle naos wilh three-pan sanctuary, in the north room of whleh the bapti.'ller)' was again accommodated. The round pil>Cina itself has the canonical form with sleps on west and east. The entrance to lhe church is in lhe middle of lhe south W"dll. 111e east chUl'Ch correspOnds to the later nOI,h church of Qu~Or '11il'\ South I, but is some years older. liS n80S was originally divided for ilS whole length into three ::lisles with a weakly stressed ccnlral aisle. In a later change of the position of the eolumn5, the central ::li.~le ...."a.~ widened and space

KELLIA: Epigraphy

created at the west cnd for a return ai~le. The: southern apse side roum contains an additional tao ble, which pmbably served for the preparation of the sacrifice of the m'IS5. At the southern elllrano;e to the church an exonanhellO was later added, in Ihe form of a roofed vestibule (Andreu, Castel, and Coquin, 1980. pp. 341-68). In Qu~Or 'Id ko", 58,85/19.46. the great church dales from the seventh centuI)' and was :I 1:ller addition on the nonh side of a hcrmil:lge already frequenlly eXlcndl:d. The three·aisle naos ha... a western return aisle, and IL' rear Ihird is divided by the insenion of Iwo quatrefoil pillars inlo two seclions of unequal length. The longer front section exhlbiu in the middle on both sides a fairly large inlercolumniation. which was prnumably intended to indicate a II-ansven;e axis. Whether the outer walls contained nichcs relating to this can no long· er be delcnnlned. In the 5:1ncluary the side sections arc separated from the allar by simple mw:" of columns while Ihe nonhem side room has a bench nanning round the wdlls. In Ou~Or el·'luila, hermitnge 14 (55,42/20,14), Ihe church is built onto the south side of :In already uisting hemlilage. The naos consistli of two domed bays one behind the other, which were linked together by II wide trnnsverse arch. The sanctuary consists of a simple transveI'5C room with a large niche in the cast wall. Later the room was divided Inlo tllree seelions by Ihe building of two arches. Traces of an altar base are not to be seen. Pottery finds allow a dating of the church to the midule of the seventh century. In QU~11r el·'I~.ella, hermitage 16 (55,40/20,12), the church Is built into the northeast comer of an already e~isting hermitage. The naos, as with the preceding church, is comJXjsed of IwO domed bays. The sanctuary shows an asymmetlical division of the r'()Oms, with a main room corresponding to thc breadth of the naoS untlln lhe middle of it the altar. On the 1101111 side a small side are:1 is sep:mlteu by three arCtH.les lind hllS
1407

place, which eh.ewhcre is not common. The build· ing of the church is to be set even before 6]0. III hermitage 45 (55,70/19,20), the church is on the south side of II fn:qucntly extended hel'mil:lge, and like the other two examples consists of two bays set one behind the other. The sanchla.)' is adomed with several painling.~. :lnd is divided by large arches inlO lhree upcnly linked sections. On the floor a special area Is marked out by paintings, in the middle of which a portable ahar was presurn· • ably to be sct up ill c~ of need. The building of the church can be dall-d to the midulc of the seventh century. In Ou.~r '151, kOIll 59, ]5/18,8], the place where several marble pillar frngment$ were found points to a church of several aL'ilcs that once stood on this spot. The building itself was completely destroyed through the canal works in this area. PETEII GRl!SSM,\/'IN

Epigraphy Idenllfieallon of the Sile By the Kellia we understand the "presumed site of the Kellin:' aiven that no inscription, mural or otherwise, giving explicitly the name uf the site has yet oc'Cn round in sito. The amphora slmrd wilh the inscription 1fJ'ILhp.au xdAU.,III, enklc$i:\S kclliun (Egloff, 1911, p. II), could be an argument in favor, but the object may have been found on the site quite by chance (an amphorn sent from one place to another with the name of thc .~cnder). Other ahhreviated inscriptions in the form 101 on amphor· ae or potsherds call only be resolved into 101 (xA'IlTwO'), and for this reason c,mnot constitute evi· denee for the identification of the site.

The Inscriptions of the Kellla In the interior' or the hCl'llIitage inRC1'lption~ can he found ever),whcrc. For lhe most p"n they
) 1408

KELLJA: Paintings

arc practically never any Coptic or Greek inscnplion~.

Bases for Inscriptions In.~criplion~ we,'1!

written on clay pla."ler coveling

brick made uf sand, on Iirncwash laid

di~lly

un

clay pl;u;ter. on plaMcr cross·bars prepared for me inscripliOlls of lmponant monks. on plaster wheth· er whitewt".';hed 0'- not, lind on mamle. The majo,;· Iy of the inscriptions IITC painted with red ueher (....o1lh a calaffiW; or brush); some are traced in black

ink or charcoal. or else st:rntchcd with a pointed implement. In one Ca.5C' a Coptic funerary stela has

been found in chalky IimCl>1.onc with cngr.!.\'cd let· ters painted with red ocher (Kasser, 1972, p. 82b, 6g. J3).

DecoratIon of the InscrIptions The inscriptions mayor may nol be sct in a frame. The frames sometimes hnlltlle the lablllu(:

securicill/ae of the Grc<:o·Roman inscriptions, but the number of handles (sometimes as many as eight) proves that their primitive function was forgotten. The frames m.ay be decorated with stylized palmettes or rope patterns or take the fonn of two columns on Ihe capitals of which there is an arch-a fonn known in the decor-uion of the lisl, of the canons in Ihe gospel manuscripts of the late empire and high Middle Ages (cf. Nordenfalk, 1938). The inOuence of manuscripl dL'Comtion is visible (styliled Cl)ronis and <>belus, decl)J"'alive upper lines, ell',; sec Cramer, 1964, Vol. [0, PI". 13, 18-20). We Ill(ly observe the transition from the (initial or final; the Constantinian monogram), which could be understood liS (11 Chris· tianized ankh), to the cross hy way of the ~ (symbol for cn,Yf'OC stlluros),

..g.

t-

Pnlcogrnphy Alongside elilligniphers (uncial h;-lOds or various types) (Ind professlon(ll sclibes (eursives (Ipproach· ing Ihe epigl'l'lrhic capital, Corlic and ByJ.antint;: cursives that arc also found on the economic and juridical papyri of lhe period), there arc unskilled hand" the work of monk., who hardly knew how to write or were semililel'ate. In some inscriptions cryptognlphy is used.

Language of the Inscrlptlons Coptic, in lhe Bom-iric dialect, is the language of Ihe majority of the inscriplions (almost the oldesl

monulllentS of lhis dialect). Greek very badly wrilten appears ralher rnrdy, and may be contaminaled by Ihe use of Coplic words. The Arabic inscriplio...s ","'Cre for the mo~t pan Imced after the Kellia had bL'<:n abandoned by Ihe monks.

Content or lhl' Inscriptions TIle major part of lhe inscriptio...s of Ihe Kellia consislS of the obitu:u)' mementos of the monks. which are fairly u...ifonn i... fonn. In the inlerior uf the hennit::lge the monks could copy one another for certain invocations or particular expressions, which thus become characteristic for a gi-'en mo...· asIcI)', Thc nam(."S in the Kellia arc typically biblical or Coptic. Sometimes the name of a historical personage-a palriarch of Alexandria or emperor of BY/.antium-is intercalated, or the nallle of the in· vader ravaging Egypt at the period. The dated Inscriptions may se~ as chronologi· cal benchmarks (if the archaeological conte:ct per· milS) for the decOl1ltion, and the latest co~itute a lentlimlS POSI quem for the construction of the hermitage (or of the addition in which they were found). A series of inscriplions (the majority in Greek) accompany the decorntions (cross with invocations. rcprcsent:ltions of the sainls, or olhers). Some con' sist of reading notes (name of a personage or quotation from the Bible or the apocl')'pha), or lislS of pilgrims who have visited a her'milage, with pious invocations, In one case a long praycr to Christ has been found (Daumas and Gui1lalllllOrll, p. 99). TIle poorly legihle inscriptions on pottery have not yet becn sufficienlly studied. Some hieroglyphic inscriptions were also found in lhe Kel1i:I, on plmr.lonic blocks reused ill lhe Coptic con.,truclions (KilSser, 1972, 82b, 126b-27a, in a hydraulic installation: 444/82), A relative chronology of the epigraphy in the Kel· li:1 shows lhc following: oidesl sill', Qusur 'Is;I; in· termediate, Qusur el·'[zella (sixth to ei gil1h centur· ies); and lalesl, QusOr c\-Ruba'Iyll.t (seventh-eighth 10 lwelfth centuries), JAN S"ANISI.AW I'ARTYKA

Paintings The Illajol'ily of lhe rooms in the Kellia were decorated. In the simplest cases, only the ba.-.e was painted in dark red, and occasionally a band of geometric motilS-most ohen monochromatic-

KELUA: Paintings

~urmounted

it. A dark stripe framed the doors, win· dows, and niches, and marked the cornel'S uf the rooms. The monks' n:stibules and or,dory displayed the richest and lIlost varied dt.'Cor. The ....'all:> were COy, ered with yarioWi pattems (triangles, braids. foliat· ed interlacing. intenwinings, leafy scrolls, vine $Crolls, succulents, pomegfltnatcs). Various animals were al~o depi<.:led. HOl'lles were legion: lhere were also slags. camels, ginlffes, 1ion~, and hflrell. Birds appeared in t."
1409

a specinc location in the buildin~s. Hnwever, ill one oratory niche there is a cumposition quite similal' to thllt at Saqqard, wilh a maies/us /Jomilli de· picted In a conch. and saints and monks on the walls: but the Virgin-always present at Saqqarahas not yet been found here. A..~ al B:iwi! and &lqqal'1J, ptlinting sc!'v1."(1 to evoke thc use of prt.'Cious malerials and to imitate the appcal1lnce of stone when applied 10 architectonic elements. •

MARGUERITE RASSART·Ol!U!;R(;1l

lJ1BUOGRAJ>HY Andreu, G.; G. Castel; and R..c. Coquin. "Sixieme campagne de fouilles aUll Kellia, 1979-1980. mI" port preHminairc." Bulle/ill de {'hu/itu/ fruIJ~'ais d'an·1J(wlogie orilm/lIle 80 (1980):347-68. Andreu, G., R.·G. Coquin et al. "Septieme cam· ,- pagne de fouille5 aux Kellia (avril 1981), ra.pport prelimirt4lirc:' BI/lldir/ de /'Jr/S/illli fnHlfois d'orclleologie ori~lJ/ole 81 (1981):159-88. Chitty, D. J. The Desut a City. Oxford, 1966. Coquin. R.-G. Livre de 10 COI/Steralioll dl/ sOr/e/lluire de Belljamin. /lrtnx!IICtiOIl. tditioll, /rutilie/iou e/ amlQ/IJ/iuns. Cairo, 1975. Coquln, R.-G. et al. "Huiticmc campagne de rouiIlcs aux Kellia (avril 1982), rdpport preliminair'C." BI/lle/iu de /'Jus/I/llt Inmrais d'arc"iolu~ie oriemufe 82 (1982):363-77. Cossan, A. f. C. de. "The Desert City of JiJ Muna." B.dflltin de /Q SOCitli royale d'o,chi%gie d'AfIl'{' Q"drie 31 (1937):247-53. Cramer, M. KOflti.~che Bue/mlll/ere!. Recklinghau. sen, 1964. Daurna.~, F. "Lcs fouilles de Kellia, 1965-66." Comptes rel/dllS de f'Acadimie des illSCripliulls III belles·lettres (1966):300-309. _ _. "Lcs fouillcs de Kellia, 1966-67." ComplllS relldllS de /'Acadimie des i"scripliOllS el bellesleflres (1967):438-51. ___. "Lcs rouilles de Kellin, 1967-68." CUlIlpte.q rendus de /'A~'ud~mie des {"scrip/iOlls IJI belles· le/lres (1968):395-408. _-,-_. "Lcs Fouilles de I'lnstilut rmn~'lIis d'archC· ologic orienl.!lle de 1959 a 1968 et Ie site mona.~t· ique des Kellia." leilsehri/! du dell/selle.. mor· genlilndische" Gesellschalr, Suppl. I. XVII. Dewscher Oriell/o!isleIltQg (1968); 1-7. ___. "Les fouilles de Kellia, 1968-69:' COII/ptes relldllS de /'Aeademie des iIUcripl{OIl~' e{ belle.~· Lellres (1969):496-507. Dfluma.~, F. and A. Guillaunlont, et al. Kcllill I, kom 2/9. Cairo, 1969. Egloff. M. Keffia, 10 pOlerit cople, qUQ/re siecfeli d'llrtisQnol III d'ichanges en Basse·Egyptt. Gene,,",. 1977.

1410

KELLS. BOOK OF

Evelyn.While, 1-1, G. The MOl/aSlen'es of lite Wadi 'u No/nm, Vol, 3, pl. I: New Coptic Tuis frum Ihe Monastery of Sllill/ Mllcorius; pl. 2: Tire Hislory of Ihe MCJIIlls/eries of Ni/rill (wd Qf Seelis; pI. J: The ArclJitectr/re and Archu/w{ogy. New York, 19261933. Guillaumonl, A. "Lc Sile des Cellia (Basse EgypIC)." Revue archtQlogiqlle (1964):43-50. ___ "Premieres fouitles au site des Kcliia (Basse Eto'Ptc)." COlllptn rel/dus de l'Aclldimie des Inscriplioll.f et be/les·lettres (1965):218-25. "Une inscriplion sur la 'prihe de Jesus.''' Orltnttl1ia Cilristim'rl Periodlcll 34 (1968):310-25. ___ "Hiswire dC5 moine$; aux Kellia:' Orientrllia Lovlll.iellSirl Ptriodicrl 8 (1977):187 -203. -,:-~ "Lc Sile des Ketlia menace de destruction." In Prospection t/ Sll'lvtgurde dn allliquiIe.s dt tEgyple. Cairo, 1981. Hyvemat, H, Albllm dt paUographit cople, (hnabrUck, 1972, repr, of 1888 edition. Jarry, J. "Dcs.cription des restes d'un petit monaslere coup(> en deux par un canal d'irrigation aux Kelli.... " BufJetill de nlls/ilm frallfais d'llrchiologie orielllille 66 (1968): 147-55. Kasser, R. "Eltptoralion dans Ie desen occidental. (}Qu~our ~Icgeila el Oomioor 'Ereima." Kimi 19 (1969):103-10. ---'0 "Sonir du monde, reflexiuns sur la situation Cl Ie developpcmenl des clablisscmenlS monasliques des Kellia." ReVile de Iheo/ogie e/ de philf).~ophie 109 (1976):111-24. Kasser. R., et ;II. Kellill 1965, tupugruphie gillirllle, lIIenSllfOl;OIIS et IOJ/illes aux Q()ljfOlir '/sa et aux Qou"oiir e/·'Abld, me/lsllwliO/lS allx QoufO/lr el ''zeilil. Geneva, 1967, Mis.~ion suisse c1'ArchCologie copte de I'Univcr.sile de Geneve, under the direction of R, Kasscr et al. SI/rvey archeologiqllil des Kellia (Bassl!·Egyllte), rllpport de ill cllmp(JK"e /981. Louvain, 1983. Slane, W, MaeGuckin, baron dc, cd. Dt.~criplion ill< l'Afr/que Seplemr/Q/lC.te by Abou Obeid·el Oekri. Algiers, 19 I I. TouSsoun, 0, "Ccilia" et SC.~ couVlmls, Mcmoires de la Societe royalc d'archeologie d'Alex''1ndrie, Vol. 8, pI. I. Alexandria, 1935. Wilson, R. MeL., ed, Tire Fumre of Coptic $IIlJil<5. l.eiden, 1978.

KELLS, BOOK OF, See British Isles, Coptic Influences in lhe.

KENYON, FREDERIC GEORGE (18631952), Ena1ish scholar and adminiSlralQr, After hill sludit..'S in Oxford, he elllercd the Brilish Museum ali an assislanl in the Dcpanmenl of ManUl>eriplS. In

1898 he was llllnll:d assist;llll keeper' of manu' SCripls, and in 1909, direcWr. He held thill posl until 1930. I-Ie ediu..x1 Volumes I (1893), 2 (1898l, and 3 (1907, with ~I. l. Bell) of Creek Papyri ill the British Musellm and m;lny books on the lelll of Ihe Greek New Teslament, nOlllbly The Text of the Greek Bible: A Swdent's lIandbook (London, 1937; 2nd cd., 1949). Arter his reliremelll, he worked on Chesler Bcally's collection of biblicill papyri, calaloged in The Cllester Beatty Biblical Papyri (8 vols., London, 1933::'1941). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bell, 11.1. "Frederic George Kenyon:' Dictionary 01 Naliollrll Biography, pp, 576-78.. London, 1971. MARTIN KIlAUSIi

KEYS, See Mellliwork, Coptic; Woodwork, Coplic.

KHA'IL I, rony-sixlh patriarch or lhe &:e or Saint Mark (744-767). Khl1'II, or Michael, wa.~ a simple monk and presbyter of lhe MonllSlery Qr Saim Ma· carius (DArR ANBA MAOAR) in WADI AL-NATIl.ON, When n1EODORUS, his predecessor. dicd, the congregating bishops togethcr wilh Ihe clergy or Alexilndriil and the ;lrchons or the Coplie eommunily selecled an episcopal delegation 10 go 10 the governor at al· FUS!fl! (Old Cairo) 10 ask permiAAion 10 select a new palriarch, This wa..~ gmnled by I~af~ ibn al·WalJd al.I:la9rarnl on Ihe condition that they b,'ing lhe candidate for an audience berore lhe consecration. The de1eg:llCll sci~cd this oppor1unily 10 complilin of the harshness of 1:laffs predeccssor, Aba al· Oiisim, who doublcd lhe !CHAW tall and exlorled (l lot of money from lhe people al a time when the counlry's resources wete depleled by famine and pestilence and lhe Nile W;lS low. The delegation left for Alexandria with J;Iar~'s appr'ovlll, but without securing relief rrom Abo al·O!lsim's impoSlS. For several days, deliberalions in Alenndria could nOl procure unanimity on a name unlil, fol· lowing a dream, II deacon camc forth wilh the sug' gestion of KM'U, the monk of Sl\inl Maellrius, as the worthy cAndidate. So lhe bishops proceeded to Wlldl Habib ;lnd C;lme back with KM'i1, whQse con· .secr-uion look place aner his introduction 10 the governor. In the meanlirne, lhc benign caliph Hi· shflm (724-743) was succeeded by al·Walld ibn Yazid (743-744), who abused his power in Egypl by recruiling slave labor to build a new city in his

KHA'iLI

nllme. But he was killed by hi~ sueces..~or, IbrAhim (744), who r'elell.~ed the enslaved workmen and, in anticipation of introducing new refonns, appointed II rhoal governor better acquainted with the administration of lhe country. But Ibrahim Wa5 forced to f1~ 10 Daml:lSCus, and l;Iall resumed the governorship with the promise of relieving the COPUi who embr.lccd Islam from the poll tax or JIZYAH. TempI' ed by this propositiun, 24,000 Copt~ abjured lheir faith and tlpo~tati~ed to Isltlm, and some of them became Islamic soldiers, while Kha'il, the patri· arch, helpk'SSly watched lhis calamitous event. J::Ia!li was pursued by a ne..... governor, Ha.....lharah, who burned him alive and killed most of his sup' porters and confiscated all their propeny. This cru· el action gave the people of Egypt a breathing space. According to the HI~lOKY OF THE PATlUAKCHR, "he loved the Onhodox; and as he resided at Wasim with all his a ..my for three years he used to consult the Father Abba Moses about the 5ah'alion of his soul." In the meanlime, lighting continued among lhe Muslims everywhere until M:uw!in II (144-750) 5ei~ed the reins of lhc caliphale. In his household he had Q ChaJcedoninn hy the n1Ulle of Theophylael. a goldsmith by profession. who prevailed upon the caliph to mtlke him Chalcedonian palriarch of the Greeks, in Opposilion to the Coptic Onhodox Khi11. Though relative peace peBislcd in Egypt for live yean, III new governor, of Islamil.ed Jewish ex· lraclion, 'Abd al·Malik ibn Musil ibn N3~ir, overran part of western Egypt and entenained much hatred for the COpIS. He encuuraged Theophylacl, now Chakedonian patriarch under the name of Cosmas, to reclaim some By1..antinc churches lhat had been appropriated by lhe (;opts after the Arab conqucst of Egypl, including lhe famous calhedral of Saint Mena:> (Abu Mina), built by Emperor Arcadius in Mareotis. This led to a heated debate between Kh:i.il and Cosmas. Saint Menns was an Egyplian many.. of the third ecntul)" and lhough the Chalee· donians tried to prevail by bribel)', apparenlly the eloqucnce lind the logic of the Coptic patriarch in the end won this banle of wilS. During thc lime the Chalcedonian5 tried to restore lhe unity of the two churches, with subsequent prolonged discussions between the two parties, general allention was drnwn away frOlll r'eligious dialogue by a pestilence. But the government «:SUllied Its qll~l fOI' extraordina.)' financial imposts from both patriarchs. The Coplic patriarch was constrained to ask pennis..'lion to go to Upper Egypt (0 collect funds, .....ith which he could quench the lhirst of the rulcn; ror gold.

1411

AnOLher incident of imemational char.lcter seems Lo have worsened the sitUalion of Kha'l1. He wa~ led 10 intelfen~ in a conflict between the king of Nubia and his bishop. Mler a long cxchange of leiters between the king and the Patriarch, the governor of Egypt be<:ame awarc of the situation and seized Kha11 and placed him in prison. He was charged with going beyond his jurisdiction in med· dling with internation::ll maLters over Lhe head of the governor. The king, Cyriacus, Look arms and invaded Egypl with a hundred thou.saml horsemen, as well as a hundred thousand camels. The Nubians are .said 10 have reached the p~incts of ML'!r, and the governor was constrained to free the captive p,lII'iarch and urge him 10 go 10 lhc king and in· ducc him to withdl'llw fTom Egypt. This he did. and for the lime being the patriarchal conflict with the adminislr.rtion ..... a.\ amCliOl'llted. Later, lhe governor laid a heavy hand on Lower Egypl, cxtorting extraordinal'Y imposts from the people, 10 thaI thc I3ashmurit~ rebelled against the Muslims and slew many of them (sec UASltlolURtc REVOLTS). Consequently. in 749 Marw:in IJ arrived in Egypt with a tremcnduus Ilfmy 10 chaslise the febels. bUI he could nOI reach thcm fol' they wer'c safely enlrenched behind the marshes of the delta. Thus, he seized the patriilreh. accusing hiln of complicity with the BashmurilCS and imprisoning him with "a mass of iron to his feel" (His/ory of the Patriarchs). Numerous members of the clergy were put to flight. The patriarch was abused
1412

KHA'!L II

tow ard llpplying only the just kJ!arlJ! tax to the Copt.s. Th~ patr iarc h spen t the rem aind er of his reign in rd:lt ive peac e und er Abu 'Awn, The 'Ii.~tory ol/h e l'u/riarchs (Vol. I, p;lrt 3, pp. 402 -403 ) dc· scri bes his char acte r in the following terms: "No w our fathcr Abbli Kha"1 wa.~ s.....eet in ~peL'(;h, beauti· ful in coun tena nce, perfL"1;t in statu re, dece nt in hi~ lltlire, wcll-fol'med and dignified; and his wor ds were like a swurd agninst the rebe llion , anu his teac hing was like lO:lh to peop le of vinu e and mod· esty. And the hand of God was with him in thos e hardships which he end ured thro ugh 'Abd al·Malik." After a rcign of nearly twen ty.fo ur years, he dieu. and his body ......,s inte rred with the bodies of the holy falhers buri ed in AleXlllldl'ia. B1BLlOCRAPHY

Atiya. A. S. f/i.u ory a/H aste m Chri s/illl lily. tond on, 1968. Cambridge Hi~'/(J'" of Islum, 2 \'ols .. cd. P. M, Holt, Ann K. S. Lalllbton, and Bern ard Lewis. Cam· bridge, 1970. Ililli. P. K. /lis/o ry of lite ArQbs. London, 1946. U1nc·Poote, S. 1Ii5lary of Egypl in /lte Middle Ages. Pad s, 1925, SUBHI Y.LA mB

Ktl A'I L II, fifty·third patri:lI'ch of the See of sain t

Mark (1149-851). Kha'll succ eede d Y(JsAu t without enco unte rhlg opp ositi on frum the bishops, the clergy. and Ihc Cuplic arch ons. He wa.~ well known to them for his sanc tity and his prof oun d knowlcdg~ of the Holy Scri plur cs. Originally, a.~ a simp le dca· con, he h'H.! acte d as scri be and assistant to Yus;'lb, and it Wll.~ in that capa city that the Alexandrians lint beca me acqu aint ed with him. In due cour se. he plea ded with the patr iarc h to rclea.~ him from his local duti es and 10 perm it him to HO to the wilderness of Wadi Habib in the Western Deseli. Consequently, he ente red the mona.~tt·!)' of Saint John (Dayr Anba Yul.lllnnis) and contenllOltcd on prayers and funh er studies. He be<:amc widely know n for his scho larsh ip in all religious mail ers. When thc dclclllltion from Alexandria cam e to fetch him ror cons ecra tion . he resisted, but they evenWll[' Iy rorccd him to acco mpa ny them to the city, whc rc he wa.~ conseo;:raled on 24 HalOr. 1·lis reign was roth er brie f and uneventful, for he occu pied the thro ne of Saint Mark for only one year and five months. His euntemporuJ'Y caliph wa.~ al-Mutawakkil (847 -861 ) of the Abbasid dynasty. who enjo ined the go\' erno r of the tOllnt!)' to pres"

the patr iarc h for immf.-diate paymcrll of his heavy la;'llCS. Thus. the main prob lem facing him w:lS the perm anen t and vexatious inlpo.~ition of incr easi ng :mnual taxation, which he, nevcrtheless, seem s to have rcndel'Cd to the satisfaction of the Islamic ad· ministration. He w:lS a man of frnil physical statu re, lind the weighty dutiCli of the patr iarc hal office scen l to have been too muc h for him to bellr. In the sceo nd year of his reign, he went h:lek to Wadi Habib to eelebrolle EaMer wilh thc mon ks. following an esta blish ed cuSlom of prc\ 'ious patrillrchs. The re he fell seriously ill and died. ~Ie WilS buried in the Monastery of Sain t M:lcariu~ (DAV it ASBA MAOAR).

Aztz S. AnY"'

KH A'I L JII, fifty-sixth patr iarc h of the See of &1in'

Mark (880 -907 ). Kha'il succ eede d Slll~NllJE I shortly afle r his death. lilli e is known ahou l his life before or afte r he took the IU(lIlastic vow exce pt lhat he was a man of vinu e and that he was penali~ed by one of his bishops, the occu pan t of the dioc ese of Sakha. He wa.~ a cuntempor.Il'Y of A~mad ibn Tullin (870 -881 ) al Ihe outset of hl~ palrillrchate, KM'II happ ened to be at the village of Dan thha r within the epis copa te uf Sakh:\, near the mod em city of DisCJq in Ihe Gharbiyyah prov incc (Amelineau. 1893, p. 143), for the conse<:ration ofa new chur ch in the nam e of Pto!emeus the Martyr. Apparently the bishop was absent from the liturgy of conso.:<:ra· tion, lind the palr iarc h pl'oceedL-d with the performan ce of that function. Then the bishop arrived and prot este d against acti on in his abse nce. and he took lhe saCrllllJental utcnsils tlOd thre w them away, which was rega rded a.~ a mOlial sin. for which the patr iarc h depo sed him. Viciously, the bish op went to A~mlld ibn Tulu n to com plai n aboo.lt Kh.1'il and to de<:lare that Ihe patr iarc h had imm ense wealth, Ibn Tu!ut1, bein g in dire need of funds for his im· pend ing milit,lt'Y e;'llpcdilion to Palestinc. sum· mon ed Khoi'I1 and dem and ed money from him, which he did not have. Conse<juently, the patr iarc h was arre sted and inca rcer ated . On hL-arillg this. two Coptic scribes of Ibn TaM n's adm inist ratiu n, Bisl1s and Abraam, went tu the vi~ier, Al,lmad ibn al·Mari· dan!, and plea ded with him to inte rced e with the sulta n on beha lf or patr iarc hal f~dom. Ibn Tulu n freed the patr iarc h on the stipulation that he would pay 10,000 dinars in a mon th and ano ther 10,000 within four Illonths. The first amo unt wa.~ levied frum ten bishops. but the seco nd sum was not paid beca use Ibn TOllin died in the field duri ng the in·

KHARAJ

te.-wl and was succ(:cdcd by his son Khum~rawayh (881-896), who was more lenient towan! hi:> Chrntian subjects and chose to forget about the second installment_ lillie beYOlld lhis minor cpisod.c is menlkmed in the HISTORY Of THE PATRIARCltS, save some miraculous and legendary tales. According to the same source. howC\·cr. simony (cIIFJIl.OmNIA) had to be revived to help in payment of state financial imposts. The patriarch died on 21 AmshTr in the reign of al-Muktall (904-908), lJtHUOGRAPHV Amclineau. E. Geographic de f'EKyplc iI f'c,roque caplc. Pads, 1893. LIIne·Poole, S. Hi~l{>ry uf Egypl ilr Ille'Mlddle Ages. London, 1901. _ _ . Tile. MohtJlI1/1wdtJ'l Dynaslil1s. I'aris. 1925, SUBIlJ Y. LABlB

1413

number of othen; in an attempt to drive Pauial'ch CHKtSTOOOULUS (1047-1077) [rom office. [See a/su: DayI' a1-Khandaq.] BIBLIOGRAPHY Amelincau, Eo La Gi.ographie de I'Egyp/e a l'epQqlle cop/e. Paris, 1893. Crum, W. E. "Hagiogrophica from Lc:ipl.ig Manuscripts." Proceedings of Ihe Socie/y of Biblical Ar· chaeology 29 (1907):289-96, 30 1-307. Evelyn.White, H. t. 11le MOllasteries ol/he Wadi '" Nalrml, pI. I. New York, 1926. Timm. S. Dos chrisrlich.kop/isclre AgypflJII in urabi· $f;her Zell, pI. 3, pp. 1082-87. Wiesbaden, 1985. JUNDAU. STEWART

KHARA']8 AL.NAMUS_

Sl!e

D:\yr al-N6miis.

KHARAJ, a tax imposed on propcny lind districts

KHANDAQ, AL-. ancient smfll1 village on the outskirts of Cairo northeast of the city. There is some uncertainty about its name. One possibility emerges when one elltrnpolatCli from three different accounL~ of the martyrdom of Saint APOU. The end of the Cuptie manyrdom indicat~ thai a memorial church was to be built in whith his body would be entombt:d. u.tel' a flourishing town named Pesenetal sprang up at the site. Another version of the martyrdom rel:ttcs that alier some time the budy of Apoli was transferred kom Pesenelai to a place named Psobt-m·p-hoi. W. E. CI'Um (1907, p. 291) and H. G, Evelyn·White (1926, p. 92, n. 5) deduced thai Ihis Psobt-m·p·hoi was Ihe Coptic name of alKhandaq from the facl that the Arabic SYNAXARION gives al.Khandaq as Ihe llame of the place where the body or Apoli was kepi for a lime. That Psobt·rnp.hoi means "the w(lll of the moat" and al-Khandaq means "the moat" adds strength to the deduction. Anolher name presented by the medieval Jist of Egypti:," thurthcs and monasteries Is Shats, whith slands a.~ the Coptic equiv:llent of al·Khandaq. The available evidence does nOi point to an obvious answer to this pU121e, but among the poli-'iible solutions arc Ihe following: al·Khandnq may have been known in Coptic as Psubl-m-p-hoi lit lin earlier peri· od and as Shats in a later era; Psobt·m·p-hoi may htave been a village, in which the body of Apa Apoli was kept for a time before it was brought to al· Khtandaq, which was known in Coptic as Shats. AI·Khandaq was a bishopric by thc middle of the eleventh ccntury when Bishop George joined with a

I'lliher than on individual person.'!. The exact mean· ing (If the word is "land yield," signifying Ihe harvest pruduct.-d by a given tenitory. It was (lriginally paid in kind as in Ihe preceding Byzantine system of laxation. P. Schwart7. (1916) has allempled to establish Ihe lhesis Ihat thc Arab system wa.~ inherit· cd from the Arabs' Byzanline predecessors. Unguistically Jt.huriJ; is a corruption of the Greek choregio, and both words are idcnlical in their praclical usage. With the passing of time, payment in kind was considered to be impractical and was n:plaet.-d by ilS equiwlcnt in currency. In later centuries the tax became a somewhat unlimiled imposl on fanners, who grotdually became more and more like slave laborers on land owned theoretkally by Ihe conquering Muslim community as fuy' (Our'An 59:6-7), signirying lhlll all goods, thattcls, and land ~hould be sceul'ed from unbelievers without Jill:hting. Hence the proceeds of all such propcl1y mu~t be ceded to the Mate. Lcll:ally, the governors in Egypt had a free hand In the imposition of the khurilj on the inhabitants of all villtlges, The governors often imposed ~uch massive levies as to leave the Coplie fanners without Ihe slightest share of what the lalld produced, a situation Ihal eventually k-d to their migrating to neighboring towns in search of a livelihood. As can be seen from the hislories of certain medieval patriarchs, the migration movement became SCJ litrong that whole tcnitorics became fallow, a state thai alanned the rulers because of the loss of kJIara;. ConSC
1414

KHARTOUM

to SlOp mia ratio n and orde red the retu m of the migr ~nts hy forc e to thei r orig inal homt.'S. III the Abbasid peri od, the legal part icul ars of the JchQr6j wcr e codi fied by juris ts such as Abo Ylisuf Ya'qilb and, laler , Maw ardi and othe rs. How e\'cr , the khQruj 0..1 land tax bt."(:IUlle obso lete as mor e and mor e Christian inha bita nts conv erte d to Islam and thus auto mati cally beca me liable to tithi ng ('ush r) and tIlk61 inste ad of Jchar6j. The khQrdj even tual ly fell into disuse. II is nOiewonhy, how ever , from the HISTORY OFn m Pi\TRtARCHS that :ldditional irreg ular taxes wer e im· pose d by the gove rnor s of Egypt on evcr y Cop tic pop e afte r his cons ecra tion , and the bele ague red patr iarc h had to a..~k for spec ial disp ensa tion to tour the coun try co coll ect the requ este d ilnJ)O!;I, so that he wuu ld be Icft lo occu py the thro ne of Sain t Mark in relat i\'e peac e. Suc h extr aord inar y financial mea · sure s beca me cust oma ry for each pope at his acce s· slon. 81BI .IOG RAP HV

Bec ker, C. H. "Die Ents tchu ng von 'Ush r· und Kharaj·LancJ in Agypten." Zeitschrift fur A.l'.l'yrioI08ie 18 (190 4-19 05): 301 -319 . Fagnan, E. Abou Yousof Ya'koub. Lc Livre de f'impU/ fOllcier. Paris, 1921. Gaudefroy, D. Le Mon de ltIU$ufmQn el byza lllill jus· qU'Q 'U: croi sadt s. Pari s. 1931. SchWill'U, P. "Die Herk unft von arab isch 'Kha n\j' (Gru nd) Steuer." Dcr (siQIII 6 (1916):97fr. Wellhausen, J. DilS arabische Reic h IIIld sll;n SlU~ Berlin, 1902. Ye'o r, Bar. The Dllimtlli: lew$ Qnd Christiml.l' Under Islum, tmllS. from Fren ch, David Maisel, Paul Fent on, and David Littm "n, Ruth erfo rd, C:dif., and Lon don. 1985. AZIZ S. AnVA

KH AR TO UM , See Sud an, COplS in the.

KH IRB AT AL .FIL (JS IYY AH , a fortified lawn

at the cast end ot Ihe Sabk hat al·B anla wll (the an· clem Lake Scrb onis ), with the seat of a bish op from A.D. 359 (Munier, 1943, p. 7). Sinc e it was a harb or town lmd beca use of its posi tion dos e to the most imp ona nt milit:lry and cara van rout e link ing Egypt and Palestine trom Pclu sium (Far ama ) via Rhinokoru a (al-'Ansh) to Ga1.n (Jos ephu s De beUo luda ico 4.66 1; also Gard iner , 1920, pr. 991[,), at least from

Rom an time s it had a sign inea nl mer eanl ile imp ortanc e. At the begi nnin g at Ihe sixth cent ury it was deve lope d into a stro ng fonrcs!!. It was delltroyed by the Pers ians (619), but und er Arab rule was I"Cbuil l on a som ewh at diffe rent site, usin g muc h malena l (spo lia) from the old site. The linal desl ruc· tlon pres uma bly resulted from the eart hqu ake of 1302. Dur ing the exca\'lltions in the regi on of Ihe former town, who se ruin s exte nd ove r an area of several squ:l~ mik'S, pan s of Ihe cam p from late anli q· uity as well as two dlU rche s were disc over ed. Both chu rche s belo ng to the ba.~ilica type, and arc prov ided wilh an atriu m, whi ch is seld om Ihc case else whe re in Egypt. In the lown area in the neig hbo rhoo d of the Illle Rom an cam p, the sout h ehul 'ch is the larg er of the Iwo and has on the west side of the atriu m scve ral sepa rate room s and a cisle m (wro ngly rega rded as a bapt ister y). The naOli show s the usual divi sion into thre e aisles with a wes tern retu rn aisle and a thre e·ro om sanc tuar y. lu the apse ther e wa.~ II synl hron on and in front of il the bem a with vesliges of Ihe canc elli. The alta r seem s to have been cov· ered by a cibo rium . Each of the IwO apse side room s had n sem icirc ular nich e in the cast wall. Acc ordi ng to the eltcavation repo l't (CIc:lIat, 1916,1'1, 24), the setu p of Ihe chu rch was of a rem arka ble unironnil}'. h may ther eror e be date d to the first half or Ihe slltth ccnl ury. The nort h l:hul'ch in the harb or area is subs tan· tially limaller, and appe ars to have had an enH ance only Oil the wesl. Access was thro ugh a tnbe lon from the atriu m into the nart hex, and then thro ugh thre e f\lrt her doo rs into the [hre e·ais le naos. The re is no retu rn aisle. The sanc tual y as usual is divided inlo Ihre e room s, and here also the apse is equi pped with a synt hron on. In front of the apse is lhe bem a surr oun ded by canc elli, wilh the alta r in the mid dle. A pecu liari ly of this chu rch is a sma ll trico nch adde d to the a]l!le at the back, whic h in it.~ easl conc h cont ains a fl..'CCSS wilh a Oight or lileps asce ndin g in fron t or the easl wall, and ther efor e prac tical ly unus able . The exca vato rs have no expl a. nati on to offer. Whl :ther it is an arbi trari ly form ed bapl ister y, as conj ectu red by A. Kha tcha trian (1962, p. 84), rem ains unce rtain . [See also: Arch ilecl ural Elem ents of Chu rche s.] DI8L 10G RAP llY

J. "Fou ille$ a Khir bet c1.Aousiyeh." A""Q les dll Serv ice des AII/iqllite.~ de l'Egyple 16 (191 6):6 32.

CJi~dal,

KIRCHER, ATHANASlUS

Gardiner, A. H. "The Ancient Military Road Be· tween Egypl and Paldtine," Journill oj Egypliun Arclrileolog, 6 (1920):99-116. KhalChlitrian. A. Lu baplisteres pu/iochrelieIlS. Paris, 1962. Leclercq, H. Diclior/llilire d'archeologie (:hrilierme. et de /ill/rgie 13 (1937):54-70. Municr, H. RU/leil des {jSlts ~piscopules de Nglisc cople. Cairo. 1943. Nussbaum. O. Slal/dorl des Lilllrgell 01/1 chri$tJichcII Al'ar var de/H Jahre 1.000. Bunn. 1965. Vincenl, H. "Un typoe de baptistCre byzantin." Revile bibJique 21 {I 922):583-89. PhTEM GROSSMANN

KHIRBITAH, 10wn located on lhe weslern edge of Ihe EcYPlian Delta aboul 3 mile:> (5 km) soolh· wesl of Kom IlamAdah in the Beheirah Province. In Greek the town wa.~ known as Andmpolis. Coptic sources from the pre·Arabic period do not mention Christinns or churches in Khirbitah, bUl Ihe mct thai the town was II bishopric within a few decades of the ARAft CONQUt:ST Of EGYPT suggesls lhal It had been nn imponanl cenlcr of Christianity even earlier. Records indicate Ihnt Bishop Jacob from Khirbitah wa.~ one of lhose Pn,$Cnl when P..· lriarch JOHN III died in 686. Khirbitah wa.~ slill II bishopric in Ih... elevenlh century as evidenced by the allendance of Bishop Theodorus from Khirbilah al Ihe elcction of Patri· arch CYRIL It in 1078 and al a synod in Cairo in 1086 (Munier, 1943, pp. 26, 28).

lhe mona.~tcl)' of Shenute al Suh::l.j (While MonastelY) lhree }HlVe so far been identified, under the two side chambers of the casl conch and under Ihe soulhern (weslward) ascem of the north staircase, one of which is nlenliom.-d by AbO al·Mukflrim. In each case Ihe secrel entrance is localed in a wall niche, the bollom ledge of which consistL-d of a Ihick Slone slab and could be moved sideways; in the slonework leaving Ihe way down open. The khi. timuh in the n!>l1h wall of the church of Sill Maryam at UAYR AWURYAN (Grossmann, 1982, p. 2(6) can be enlered through Ihc cover of one of the wall niches in lhe nor1hem sanctuary. Several khildlluh:>, with somelimes vcry compllc:ued entrances. were found in some of the mono' dwclling.~ in lhe gnoat laura of KIlU..IA. They seem to have been added by some of Ihe hermits for use when lhey had to go on a journey, but lhis was nol the rule. Other monls len eV1!rything accessible. Fin.llily in the Melchite and Maronile churches khi~IIah mC.ilons sacristy (Arabic, sokrisliyyll) as well as tabcrnnde to keep the remains of the communion (Graf, 1954, p. 42). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Graf. G, VerzeicJmis ilrabisc1ler Kirchlicher Termilli. Louvain, 1954. Grossmann, P. Mi/lelallerliche l_utl/!,1Imukllppcl_ Kirchen lind venvillldu T)'pe" ill Obcriig,pltn. GIUckslndt, 1982. Kasser, R.. el al. "Survey archCologiqlle des Kcllia (B:lssL'-tgyple)." RapfXJr! de fll campllglle 198/. Louvain, 1981. PI..'TER

DIUI.IOGRI\PIlY Munier, H. Recl/cii dc.~ /iSles episcopale.5 de l'egli~e cople. Cairo, 1943. Timm, S. Da,l chri~llic:h·kC!plischl! Agyplen in arabi. scher leit. Wiesb:tdcn, 1985. RANllALL STEWART

1415

GROSSMANN

KHtJRUS. See ArChitel:luml Elements of Church·

.,.

KIRCHER, ATHANASIUS (1602-1680), Ger. m'ln Jesuit. J n 1630 he bccame professor or philos-

KHIZANAH (Arabic), sloreroom or warehuuse. In Egyptian monastery architeCture it also has the meaning of a hiding place. In some !iOurces lhe same hiding place is ealk'd in modem Ambic mukh. ba'. They arc to be found in almost all mona.~leries, and in p311 probably fllsa scrved as archives. Their main function was, however, as plact:s where objl:cts of value sueh as liturgical utensils could be left in case of danger, whHe the inhabitants of Ihe monastery took flight. Accordingly they arc usually provided with a secret entrance. In the church of

ophy, mathcmatics, and Ol'ienlallanguages al Will'....· burg, and from 1635 10 1643 he was professor or mathematics al Rome. His endeavors to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphics borc no fruit but amused intereSI in ancient Egypt. His Coptic studies, Pro. dromrlS COplllS sil'e Atlgypliacu.f (1636) and Lirrglla Ael:)'pliaca Restifltlil (1643), were succt:ssful. Bl8l10GRAPHY

Chaine, M. "Une Composition oubliee du P. Kircher en J'honllcur de Peiresc." Rel'ue d,. forie,,! cllrbietl 9 (1933-1934): 196-206.

1416

KlSS OF PEACE

Dawson, W. R., lUlJ E. P. Uphill. Who Was Who ill Egyplology. LonJon, 1972. Janssen, J. "Alhanas-ius Kircher 'cgyJ>lologe:" Chrollique J'£I:)'PU 18 (1943):240-47. MARTIN KAAUSE

KISS OF PEACE (Greek,

aspasmos), a greeting

exchanged amOllg the clergy and the congregation Juring the Divine Liturgy as a token of pure love and communion of spirit. The asflaslllOS dates Imck to the apostolic age. In his epistles Saint Paul repeatedly referrcd to the "holy kiss," as in Romans 16:16, I Corillihians 16:20,2 Corinth.ians 13:12, and I Thessaloni:m$ 5:26. Saini Peter described il a.~ a "kiss nf charity" in I Peter' 5:14. CYRIL OF JERUSAWM (c. 315-386) Ill'eseribed the essemial sphitu(\1 na' ture of Ihe kiss of peace: "I)() not think that this kiss is like that which fTiends arc accustomed 10 give one anolher when they meet. This is not such a ki.'i..~. Thil; kiss unites the souls togelher and destroys all resentment. This kiu is a sign of union of souls" (1955, no. 23. p. 153). Saini Augusline called il a "sign of pellce" and added thaI "the outw:lrdly shape of the lips cxpr'esses what is 1n our heal1s" (PL 311, col. 110la). IL~ intrinsic quality was stressed by THEOOORUS OF ).IDPSUt:STtA: "By this kiss people make a kind of profession of the unity amI charity which Ihey have among Ihemselves. It is not fining for Iho:se who fonn one body in the church that anyone of thcm should hate lilly of his brotherlli who lire ~haring in the faith." Thc introduction of the ('(sp{lsmo.~ in lhe Coptic liturgy din..'(:tly after Ihe Pl'3.yer of Reconciliation signifies, in the words of Saint Paul, that G<x.1 "rec· onciled us to Ilimself and gave us lhe minislry or recondliation" (2 Cor. 5:18). Accordingly lhe cele· brant sa~. "And make us all worthy, 0 Lord, to grcct one another with a holy kis..~," 10 which the dencon responds, "Pray fOl' perfct:l peace, for luve, and for the holy aspasmos of the Apostles." Then the congregation ~ings the tl-~pas",o~' hymn Ih'll SUirtS with the words "Rejoice, 0 Mary the hand· maiden and mother." For this reason the Prayer of Reconciliation w:u nanled the Prayer of the ASPll$' /fIOS in some old euchologia; the verbal greeting accompanying it was "Chlist is between us," to which the response wa~ "He is and will bc" (Gogol, 1934, p. 36).

At first Ihe Kiss of Pcaee WllS a real kiss ex· changed by the faithful in the church, but in time it became a movement in which four hands enfold in a lIlutual greeting with two palms touching, as il;

practiced now. The thirteenth·century Cuptic wliter IBN Sill...· dei>Clibcd it lIS a kiss on the right check, reciprocally given and received, followed by a handshake. The Kiss of Peace is also gi\'en at certain poinu dUring church services. At Ihe start of the lilullO", having made a prostration toward the caSt before thc altar, the celebrant bows to his fellow priestS, embl1lces them, and asks for their absolution and prayers on his behalf, In the pn:'senec of llle palri· arch, metropolitan, 01' bishop during the Iilurgy. a pliest takes the incenlK: box to him and then kis.sc:s Ihe cross and his hand. When he ha~ p-,sS4'ti the incense to his fellow pri<::ots, they embrace 3.$ a sign of pc-..ee and love. Aftel' Ihe Lilurgy lind pn~ceding the dismiss:ll, lhe priests embrace, as do the memo bers uf the eongregatiOIl. Following the completiun of the sacraments of baplism and anOinting with lhe holy chrism, the priest and the failMul embrace the person baplized, who has become a member in the body of Christ. The ConstitUlions of the Holy Fa· thers (1951-1959, p. 4113) laid il down Ihal follow· ing the consecr.llion of a bishop, "he be placed in hi~ throne, in a place set apart for' him among the reSI of the bishops, they all giving him the KiM in the Lord." The kiss Is nOI pennllted on the Wednesday and Thursday of llQl.Y ....'ED:. in memory of the treacherous kiss of Judas Iscariot who betrayed Christ (1011. 26:48; Mk. 14:44; Lk. 22;48). B18L10GRAPHY

Gogol, N. V., ed. I.a Dil'i"lc Iilurgic, lrans. T. Bel· paire. Namur. 1934. Ibn al··A.~I, al.~I'J. KiUtb al·QawlJnln. Repr. Cairo, 1927.

lbn SiM' Vu!.tanni ibn Abi ZakarlyA. Kilab al·Ja ..... Jiarah al·Na/lsah fi 'UJiim uJ·Ku"lisah. ed. ViktClr Man~iir. Cairo. 1902. Latin version Prelio$fl Mar· Rania dc n·ientii.1 ecclesiaslici.~, trans. Vincent Mistrl!.t, C3iro, 1966. Malatl, T. Y. Christ ill llie E14cJlllrist, Bk. 5. Alexan· dria, 1973. Y(l~n4 Sal::limah. Af·w'lJlf al·Na/lsall Ii S1far~ fuqUs wa-MlI'taqadQ.1 QI·Kallwh. Cairo, 1909. AJtCtunsHoP BAStUOS

KLEBER,

JEAN·BAPTISTE

(1753-1800),

French general who joined Ihe FltHNCH EXl'fltlr'flON to Egypt in 1798. For a lime he was lIlilitilry governor of the province of Alexandria and then of Dami.. ena; after the departure or Napoleon, he succeeded

KOM ABO BILLO

him in the supreme command of the French Oriental Anny. As governor of AICMndria, Kleber tried to remain neolnU. n-garding the different religious groups. But he could already see that the leaders of the non· Muslim minorities showed more loyalty to the French than the Muslims. His positive impression conceming the non·Muslim pOpulation of Egypt grew stronger during his stay at Damieua, because of the cooperation of the fonner leaseholder of the customs tax farm of the pon, a Syrian Christian, and of the head of the Greek Onhl;)(/ox community. When Kleber became ~upreme commander, he was confronted with enormous financial problems. The pay for the soldier~ wa~ in arn:::ans and there wa.~ no cash in the tre'lsury. Napoleon had left the collection of the taxes to (t gr'e(tt extent in the hands of the Copts under the tlirection of murs AL-JAWHARI, Kleber was con,~cious of the disadvantages of this system, but he believed th.1I he could not dispense with lhe services of the COpts. He tried to reduce the irregub,riti(::s by more c1o.~ely controlling and reducing the Coptic admillistl7ltivc machinery. But the scarcity of IlIon(.')' induced him to gl7lnt the Coptic bureaucracy and its tax collectors more in· dependence and 10 give them financial premiums in the form of bonuses fur the year IBOO. Since these measures failed, he tried force, with threats and arrests, to make the demanded .sums of money available. Kleber's attitude to the Muslim people "~oiS cool· er, more objective, and morc formal than Napoleon·s. He d(.-alt with the Muslim leaders respectful. Iy, and he promised to prot(.'Ct and rC!lpect Islam liS the religion of the majority, But inwardly he wa.~ convinced Ihal thll Muslims, in lipite of their reverence to the French, clung to lheir rdigiun and only waited for' a propitious moment to come down upon their foreign enemy, His skepticism was corrohoratcd during Ihe preparations of the eVllcuatiun and throughout the insurrections that followed the annulment of Lhe trcllty of al·'Arish. As a punishment, Kleber inflicted enormous levics on the Mus· lim population of the seditious towns. Thus, his relationship to the Muslim leaders remained cold and ''ather hustile for some time. Only the threat of a new Turkish attack moved him to hold out the hand of reconciliation to the 'uJemas (Muslim religious lcade.,.). After the Muslim revolts in Cairo and other plac· es, Klebt-r ga\'e up his n(.'Utrality to\lltlrd the differ· ent religious groups and openly used the l>Upport of non-Muslim minorities. He transferred the police

1417

supcf'\llSlon in Cairo and its surroundings to the auxiliary troops, which wen:: mainly ,-ecruited from Gn::ck Christianli. The collection of the punitive levies inflicted on the Muslims was handed over to the Coptic YA·OOB. the fonner secn::tary of Sulaymnn Bey and later intendant of General Desaix, who ....-as granted wide-re.aching powcn. With hili help, a Coptic auxiliary of 600 soldiers was also established, the so-called COPTtC lltitON. of which Ya'qub was appointed commander. Ya'qOb replaced Jirjili al-Jawharf as~ nativc adviser and confidant to the French. Moreover, Kleber made use of lhe mood among the non-Muslim population to reinfol"(:e the existing Grcck auxilial;es and 10 erellte two new COmPlUlles of Syrian Christians. Arter the reconquest of Egypt, Kleber once morc gave tile collection of taxes entirely to the Copts, but the upper level of the Cuptic adminilitmtive machine was put directly under the control or tile French financial administration. Kleber granted compenSlition to the Christian minoritiCli, which had suffered lossC5 of life and prop. eny during the Muslim insurrections. He also c10liCd his eyC!l to the chicanery the MUlilimli were subjected to by the Christians as revenge for their suffering. However, a month after the recaptUf"l:; of the capital, he stopped Ihese actions, announced a reconciliation between the French and the MUlilims, and promised a policy more considerate of Ihe interests of the MUlilim pOpulation. Kleber was not able to realize ihis plan of internal peace belween the differenl religious groups in Egypt. On 14 June 1800, he was murdered by a Muslim from Aleppo, whom officers of thc gr,tnd vizier had hired. Genel7ll Menou succeeded him as supreme COIl1mander of the French Oriental Anny. BIBLIOGRAPHY

I..ll Jonquiere, C. E. L. M. de Taffanel. L'ExpCdiliOil d'Egypll!, /798-/801, vols. 1-5. Pl\riS, 1899-1906. Mot:r.kl, H. Dimmu Imd Egali/c. Dil! /lich/tIIl/slimischeu Miuderheite/l Agyp/e/ls in dl!r zweitlm tWllle des 18. JIIJJrJumderts Imd die llxpeditiull Bunll' pllrtes (/798_J801). Bonn. 1979. Pajol, C. P. V. Kleber-Sa vie, 5U correspondance. Paris, 1877. Rigauh, G. u Gillirul AM-allah Me1lou e/ fa derni~re phase de f'expMitiori d'Etypte (l799-180J).

Paris, 1911. HARALD MOTZKt

KOM ABO BILLO. See TamO\.

1418

KOM NAMRUO

KOM NAMROD, early Chrislian anehorile senlement on the edge of the desert, northwest of Sam."l· Qt. part of which has been uncovered by the £.gyp-tian AntiquitiC!i Organiz.alion. As in Kellia. the hennitages consist of rectangular buildings situated well a.way From each other, with a walled courtyard and a small Ihoing area in one comer that was often extended on diJfcnmt sides a.t a later period. The ground pllllns of Ihe houses, however, differ from the examples at KEU.lA. Almost in the center of the area is a church that wa:; built pa.l1ly on an older hcnnitage and \
wall work on both sides of the apse CUlve arc two small rooms probably intended a.~ hiding places (KIllUNAH).

[Su II/SO: Architectunal Elements of churches.] PETER GROSSMANN

KOM OMBO,

a town on Ihe east oonk of the Nile.

and the only one of any lIize between the Nile narrows at Jabat"al·Silsilah and Aswan. It is also imporlant from the point of view of trolde, since here the caravan route from the Sudan lead~ into the Nile Valley. The double-eelled temple from the I'tolema· ic period, dedicated to the crocodile god Suehos and the falcon god Haroens, must be r-egnl'ded a.~ its rlloSt impol1ant monumcllt. In the area of this temple, and still within itll enclosure WillI. some pedestals of columns from laiC antiquity were found to thc nor1hwest of the actual tcmple building. nnd these are gcner,llly regarded as elements from n church. A somewhat larger oose wa~ still ill situ. The only surviving capital is a reused late imperial capital. East of this stands a simple dwdlin& house of the early Christian period. in which all kind~ of chun:h fumbhings were found. Some connection between this building and a church is therefore very naturnl. BIBUC>CRAPHY

Barsalui, A. "Rappon sur Its travaux de eonsolida· liOn executes a Kom Ombo." Anna/es dll Service des All/iqlliles dl! I'Eopte 15 (1915):113-74. Cutbub, A. "Kom Ombo." In Lexicoll del' ~gyplO/og iI!, Vol. J. Wiesbaden, 1980. Kees, H. "Omboi 2." In Realctlcyklopiidie fur pro· us/amisene Thea/ugie l/tId Kirche 18 (19J9):]46~ 49.

.

KOM AL-RAHIB, village ahout 6 miles (10 km)

..

.. D

III

Plan of the church at Kom Namnld.

northweM of SAMil.LOT. The ruins of a large monas· tery containing a garden of palm trec~, a cistern; a church, and monks' cells have been discovered there (Johnson. 1910-1911, p. 13). In the neighborhood, an ancient cemetery has yielded up a very Iinc funernry SI"EIA (Anf, 1906. pp. 11]-14). M. Ram~1 (195]-1954. 196], Vol. 2, pt.]. p. 236) identifies Kom a1·R.ihib with the ancient Pergoush and the Dayr Anba Bakhlim, but there is nothing to support this identification.

1419

KUHNEL, ERNST

BlBlIOGRA.PHY

Alif, S. "DCcouvcne d'une tombe chretienne pres de Samallut." Allllak~ d14 Se""ice des ""tiqui/es de I'Etypte 7 (1906):111-13, Johnson, J. de M. "Graeco-Roman Branch. Excavations lit Atfieh." In Archeological Report /9/0_ /9/1, cd. F. L Griffith, pp. 5-13 and pl. 6-8. Ramll. M. AI·Qam(u al.]ughra!i lil·Bi/ad al Mi~riyyah, 3 vols. in 6 pIS. Cairo, 1953-1968. REN!-GEORC£S COOUtN MAURICE MARTtN, S.J.

KOPTOS. See Oif'!.

KRAJON AND AMUN, SAINTS, manyrs in fOl.ll1h-ecntury Egypt (feaM day: 25 Abib). Some fr.Jgment5 of the original Passion have survived in Bohairic in the Coptic Museum, Cairn, and the University Library, leipzig (Evelyn·White, 1926. pp. 105-113). The text belongs to the Cycle of AIUANUS (see CYCLES) and ~ms to be of the seventh 10 eighth century, inspired by the more highly fictionalized slyle of this Inter period. According to the summary of their Pa.<;sion in Ihe Copto-Arabic SVN. AXARION. it had a twofold focus: their manyrdom al SCErIS and the tmnslation of their remains to Alex· andria. The remaining lext fr.Jgments explain thai Kmjon and Amun are IWO Ihieves who arc friends; they are convCI1ed and bI.:come monu at ScetL~. Krajon then goc.~ to Pshati (Nikiou) and meets the emperor. After a missing section, we find Arnun in dispute wlth the prerect Arianus at Antinoopolis. Arianu!! sends him to the prefect Culcianus in Alex· andria, where he meets many holy confessors in prison. DJOLIOGRAPIlY

Baumeister, T. Marryr hll'ic/us. Dcr MiJr/yrer als Sill' nbild der Erlljswlg il1 der /.egende und jill Kull der Ir/llll~" kOpli.~cJlIm Kirche. MUnster, 1972. Evelyn-White, H. G. New Coptic Tex/Ii from Ihe Monos/cry of Sai"t Macarius. New Yurk, 1926. TIro ORLANDI

KRALL, JAKOB (1857-1905), Austrian Egyptolo. gisl and Coptologist, He was educated in Trieste, Athenx, and the University of Vienna (1879-1880). He thcn studied Egyptology al the College de France and at Ihe Louvre. He was appointed cx-

traurdinary prvfl.:ssor al Vienna Univcrsity (1890), ordinary profcs.'lOr (1897), and full profes.'lOr (1899). He was a corresponding member of Ihe Vicnna Academy from 1890. ~Ie made many impol1ant con, tribUlions 10 Egyptology and to Coptic studies. BIBLIOCRAPIlY

Dawson, W. R., and E. P. Uphill. Who Was Who il1 Egyptology, p. 160. London, 1972. Erman, A. "Joseph Krall." Zeiuchrift lur A.J:}'ptische Sprache mId Altertu/OlsJClmde 42 (1905):86. Kammerer, W., compo A Coptic 8ibliogruphy. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1950; repro New York, 1969. Aztz S. ATtVA

KRESTODOLU I. See Ethiopian Prelates.

KRESTODOLU U. Su Ethiopian Prelates.

KRESTODOLU Ill. See Ethiopian Prelatcs.

KUENTZ. CHARLES (1895-1978), Frcm,;h Egyplologist. He was a professor in France: then he became liUccessively a member, secretary, and di· n:-elor of Ihe Instilut trnn!;als d'Archeologie Olien· tale du Cai"e (1919-1953). He was also director of research at Ihe Centre national de la Recherche scientifique in Paris (1953-1965). BIBLIOGRAPUY

Trod, M. "Bibliographie de Charles Kuentz." Bulle· tin de 1'1rU'litullrClllfuili d'Archeologie orientale 79 (1979):5-16. Vereoulter, J. "Charles Kuenu: (1895_19711)." Bulletill de I'JIIS/itut Iral/fais d'Archeolo/:ie oriell/ule 711 (1978):1. RENa-GEORGES

COOUlN

KUHNEL, ERNST (1882-1964), Gerl11an scholar. He was direetur of the blamic Depanment of the Berlin Museum (1931-1951); professor at the University of Berlin (1935-1954); consultant to the Textile Museom In Washington, D.C.; and member of many academics. He worked in all branches of Islamic art, notably on the connection bct.....l.'Cn Coptic and Islamic art, especially textiles. His l11ajor works a~ lAue AntiqlHJ Coptic ulld Islamic Tex/iles

1420

KULA AL·HAMRA, AL·

of Egypl, with W. F. Volbach (London, 1926); "La Tradition caple doins les lissus musulmans" (Bullelin de la Sociili d'archtologle caple 4, 1938, pp. 79-89); "Kopti<:che Kunst im islamischen Agyplcn" (in Kop/ische Kunsl, Chrislen/llm am Nil: Cataloglle of /he Exhibitiorl in the Villa Hillel, E55en, Ma)'IlllgllSt 1963, Essen, 1963, pp. 153-56); and "Nilchwirkungen cier kopiischen Kunsl im islamischen Xgypten" (in Chrislen/14m am Nil. In/ernotioIla/e Arbei!sta~II"J: zur Ausstellllllg "Koptlsche Kww" Ellen, Villa Hllge/, 23.-25.7.1963, Reckling. hausen, 1964, pp. 257-59). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Etlinghausen, It "In memoriam Ernst Kiihncl." Madrider Milleillll1/:;m 6 (1965):215-36. KUhnel·Kunze, L "Aus der Well der Islarnisehen Kunst." In Pes/schri!! fllr Ems/ Kuhne! zum 75. Gchurwag am 26.10.1957. Berlin, 1959. MARTIN KRAUSE

JolU81AN I....NGU...GES AND UTERAT1JRE) spoken mure recenlly in the Sudan. Around 350 the empire of Kush finally disintegratcd through a combination of inlernal weakne!'.~ and barbarian inroads. Most of iu territory was tak· en qver by Nubian-spcaking groups (see NUOIANS) who mo\·ed into the Nile Valley from areas further 10 the west. The Nubians established Ihree king' doms of their own in the old lerritories of Kush: NOOATIA In,. the north, t.tAKOURIA in the middle, and 'AtwA in lhe soulh, around Ihe eonllucncc of the Blue and White Niles. Nobalia, though located far from Meroc, inherited :'\nd carried on more of the ancient traditions of Kush Ihan did lhe twu more southerly kingdoms. In Ihe middle of lhe sixth century all three Nubian kingdom~ wcrc converted 10 Christianity (see I'll). UM, I!VI\NOELI/-"TlO~ or). The medieval civili7..ation that subsequently develuped, alld Ihal is now rccog· nized :IS one of the high poing in Sudanese eulluml history, was a blend of Christian innuences and of older tmditions inheriled from the empire of Kush.

KULA AL-HAMRA. A[... See Hennitages, ntt-.. bon.

KURUM AL·TUWAL. See 'Amriyyah.

KUSH. EMPIRE OF. Roman Egypl

bordered on lhe south by the empire of Kush, whme lerrilory extended from Lower Nubia 011 least as far wuthwanl as the conlluence of Ihe Blue and White Niles. The empire WOlS ruled for n~r1y a thouSlmd yean! by descendant!!; of Ihe "Ethiuphm" pharooh~ of the Twenty.fifth Dynasty, who maintained a pharo aonic-styk stllte in their own country long afler they had ceased 10 rule Etlypt. Theil' earlie~l capit:11 was at Napata. nClir lhe Pourth Catar;ll:t of the Nlle. Latcr', as the empire expanded southward, tlte capi· tal Willi shifted to the more southerly cily of Meroi!. From here the Kushite nllers mainlained diplomatic relations with Ihe Plolemaic and Ruman rulers of Egypt, lind Meroe! Wall visited on occasion by Greek and Roman envoys. The people. or al least the rulen! of Kush, spoke a language called Meroitic. Although a considcrnble number uf texts sun/h'e, Ihe language has nOI been deciphered, and il is Ihus 001 certain who the Ku· shites were or wllence they originated. Their Ian· guage does not appear 10 be related either to an· cient Egyptian ur 10 any of the Nubian diak-cts (s¢c

BIBLIOGRAPUY

Adams, W. Y. Nubfa, Corridor 10 A!ricQ. pp. 246381. Princeton, NJ., 1977. Aritell, A. J. A His/ury uf /ne Sudan, from Ine Earlies/ TI/Ilrs 101821, pp. 110-73. London, 1955. Shinnle, P. L M,.r~. New York, 1967. WilliAM Y. ADAMS

Wlls

KUTLAH AL-WAFmYVAH, AL-. See POlili· cal Parties.

KYRIAKOS MIKHA'IL. See Mlkh:'l'II, Kyria· koso

KYRIE ELElSON, Greek for "Lord, havc mer· ey.'· According to Saint JEROME (c. 3~2-420) and Saini Gltl'-OORV OF NAZIANZUS (329-389), It Is one of the Imdilions entrusted by lhe apostles 10 Ihe church. The peLiLion is used eXlensively throughout the Ps.alms. It is also mentioned by Jesus Christ in the parable of the Pharist.-c lind Ihe publican (LIt. 18:13) and appears ill various places in the Gospels, usctl by dilferenl pers.clnS asking Chrisl for mercy (Mt. 9:27, 15:22,20:30; Mk. 10:47; U. 18:38).

KYROLLOS

The term Kyrie elc/soll or iL~ equivalent in other languages is widely used in all chureh prayers, of which the following instances deserve mention; I. at the beginning of the p''aye,'$ of the CANONICAL

the petition of the FAST during mOl'lling pmyer in the FlIst of Jonah and in the Greal Lent. 7. many limes du,illg Ihe perfonnallee of the saernmenls.

1l0UIlS.

2. in Ihe annual and Klyahk psalmodia, particularly In the pel.ition said toward thc cnd of the service. J. at the beginning of evening prayer and morning prayer, where the priest slan.'i the peliLion of mercy before Lhe Gospel pelilion; Ihe deacon and Ihe congregalion respond by saying the Kyrie dtisrm Ihree limes. 4. many times during Ihe Divinr lllurgy and as a speci",1 Intercession. 5. in lhe Lilurgy of Saini Gregory. 6. said by lhe congregation when the priesl reads

1421

ARCHBtSHOP

KYRILLOS. See Ethiopian Prelates.

KYRILLUS.

KYROLLOS,

St.t. Cyril.

See Cyril.

BASIl.lOS

........;]L.....

LABID, CLAUDIUS. See Illll\diyus Labib.

slty in 1928, and joined lhe Department of Antiqui. tie~ in I!iJO where he spent thl11y years, during which time he covered pl'actiellily 1111 the Egypti:m Inspectorales and became thoroughly acquainted with all antiquities. Ill' also studied Ihe Egyptian colleclions in the leading mu.'lCums of lhe world. The O';enlal Institute of Chicago Univcnity se. Iccled him as consultant to its Nubian eltpedilion in 1960. In 1981, on the occasion of his seventy.fifth blnhday, a fcsischrih W3$ dedicated to him by Gcrman institutes, a 531·page volume containing seventy contributions by Egyptologists from twelve nations. His bibliography, numbering approximately 170 titles, shows oceasion;ll contributions in the field of Coptology. He became a member of Ihe board of direclors of 11111. Society of Coptic Archaeology in 1976.

LABID, SUBH] YANNI (1924-1987). professor of Near Ea!;tem histol)' at Ihe Christian·Albrechl<; UniveOiity of Kiel. He was born al Tania (Egypll. and n..'Ceived his educalion al Ihe Universily of Alexandria. In 1961 he oluained a doctorate from Hamburg Universily. His aClive academic service included the posts of chief calaJogcr at Ihe Unlversily of Alexandria U. brary from 1947 to 1954. lcelurer in Arabic al Ham· bUr&: Unh'cnily from 1961 to 1978, and professor of Ncar Eastern Ilisiory at Kid Unlve~ity from 1979 unlil his dcalh in 1987. I-Ie W"ollI al.50 a hislory professor al the Univcn;ity of Ulah from 1970 to 1974. Beside:; numerous anicles, he wrote and ediled 50me major \'olullles in German and Arabic, including Handelsg<,s,'hicJlle AIO'PftmS im Spa/miue/uller (Wiesbadcn, 1965) and al·Turkumi'ini's Arabic Chum. ide (Cairo, 1986).

BIBUOGRAPHV

l;Iabachi, L The Obelisks of Egypt. New York, 1977. l:Iabachi, L, :lnJ Z. Tawao;lnk FE Sa~'ar(J' a!·'Amb wu.u/.Adyir(l!l al.Sharqiyyah. Caim, 1929. Trad, M. "Bibliography of Lnbib Hab:lshy." Blilletin of/he Society of Coptic Ard/ll~uluKY 28 (1986).

YOUSSEF FARAG

MIRRIT BnUTRns GllAl.1

LABIB I:;IABACHI (1906-1984), Egyptologisl. Hc was born al al·Man~urnh, carijal of the province of Daqahliyyah. and died in lA.u:or. I-Ico look an Interesl in Coplic studies from his carliCfiI days. 11is firsl publicalion in Arabic was a book in 1929 on Ihe Coptic monasteries of Ihe Eastern Desen. Although hili eduC;llion and aClive ca· reer in the Dcpanmem of Anliquities led him to become one of the foremost Egyptologists of modem times, he ncover lost inlcrest in Coptology. Hco was One of the earliest graduates of the newly establishcd Institute of Egyptology In Cairo Univer-

LABLA, See Monasleries of the Fllyyllm. LABOR CONTRACTS. See law, CoptIc: Private Ln\y.

LACARON, SAINT, manyr in founh-century

1423

_

Egypt (rcasl day; 14 Babah). His P:L~,ion has come d"wn in a complete codell in BohO/iric in the Vati-

1424

LACAU. PIERRE

CllO Ubl'llry (Coptic 68, fol.~. 1-15) (Balcstri and Hyvemat, 1908, Vol. I. pp. 1-23). The le",t is thai of oue of the laiC CQplic I)a,,-~ion.~ from Ihe period of the CYCLES and can be daled 10 the eighlh century. II de"ls with Ihe period of persecutions under OlOCL£TIAN. The Roman prefect ARIANUS c;om~ to A~.-yi'l and onlers sacrilice 10 the gods. l.~caron. a soldier, refu.'iCs and. after Ihe usual arguments. is put in jail. The le",1 then describes the usual epi· sodes of torture. nlirnculoufi healing.... fiudden con\'ersions-of a magislr~te omd the torturers them· selves-and 01 her visionfi and he:n.enly interyentions. It includes :m account of the archangel Michael's gathering up the various pieces of ucaron .md restoring them to life. In the end Lacaron is killed. after cOrwerting and bapli7.ing the soldiel"'i around him.

scripts passed inlO the hand.~ of Th. Hirsch and C. E. Jordan (1881. pp. 504-506), whose brothers sold thc Annenillll and COplic dictionaries to the University of L.eiden, whcre the manuscript of the Coptic dictional')' is still kept (Code", 431 B). C. Scholtz;. the brolher-In·law of Jablonsk.i. ask.ed his pupil C. G. Woide to copy this manuscript. Woide also made a copy for himself. This dictional')' was published in 1775 in Oxford by Scholtz and Woide (Kammerer, 1950. no. 289). U Cro7.e'S dictional')' \\~d.S based on copies of Coptic manuS(:npts that Jablonski had giv· en to him or the New TClitamcnt, the liturgies of Ibsil and Gregol')'. and the psalter of the Old Testa· ment published in 1663 by Petraeus (ibid., no. 852). J. F. CHAMPOUJON. who composed a Coptic le",icon, made USC of La Croze's dictional')'. BIBLIOGRAt'HY

BIBLIOGRAPHV

Balestri, I.. tlnd H. Hyvernat. Acta Murty"",r. CSCO 43. 44. Paris. 1908. &umcister. T. Martyr [livietllS. Del' Miirlyrer ufs Si,mbild der Er/t}slltrg in del' 1..e~ellde Imd im Kllft der Irflhen koptisehen Kirche. Munster. 1972. TITO ORLANDI

LACAU, PIERRE (1873-1963). French Egyptologist. Working in all fields of Egyptology, he also puhll...hed Coptic biblical and apocl)'phal le"'ls: 'Ie",tes de l'Anden Testament en copte sahidique" (Rccutil de Iravaw: 23, 1901. pp. 103-124); Frog· melllS d'apocrypl1es c.uple~' (1904); Te;{leS cuples ell dia/I!clc.t dJlI/rimique el .tahidique (I 90S}; and "Fr..gments de l'As<:ension d'lsllie en cople" (Le MUSlim! 59, 1946, pp. 453-67). IJtHl.IOGRAl'HV

Daumns, G. l1,jl!eli,j de /'hmilru fraHfai.t d'Archeolo. !:lie urienlil/e 62 (1964}:231-35. Dawson, W. R., and 1:.. P. Uphill. Who Was Who in Egypl%gy. Londun. 1972.

Hirsch, T.. and C. E. J. Jordan. Allgemeine deu/sent!Biogrllphit!-. Vol. 14. Berlin. 1881; 2nd ed., Berlin, 1969. Kammerer, W.. compo A Coptic Bibliography. Ann Arbor. Mich., 1950: repro New York, 1969. "La Crm.c." In Orienill/ill Neerlandicll. pp. 71-74. L.eiden. 1948. QUlurem~re, E. Recherches critiquC5 el liis/uriques sur Jll lunRlle ef /11 lilll:rafure de I'Egypte. Paris, 1808. MARTIN KRAUSE

LADEUZE, PAULIN (1870-1940). Belgian theologian and ecclesiastical !listol"ian. Ladcuze joined the faculty at the Univerllity of Louvain at the age of twenty.eight. lie wa.~ a founding member or Revue d'lti$loire ecde~illsliqlje and succeeded his teacher, Msgr. l-Iebbelynck, as hend or the theology depart· ment and cvcntU(llly as rector of Illc university. Both his dissertation and his subsequent tcaching and publishing cnrecrs focused on Cuplic studies. A biography was published by lo·T. Lefort in 1..e Mu.~~nll 53 (1940):151-53. S. KHNT BROWN

MARTIN KRAUSE

LADLES AND SPOONS, LA

CROZE.VEYSSIERE.

MATHURIN

(1661-1739), Huguenot historian and linguist. He wrotc no less Ihan four dictiolllll'ies (Armenian, Coptic. Slav• .and Syriac). Hi~ correspondence with P. Eo Jablonski and David Wilke, !..a<:ru<.e. Mll/hurin VeYS$i~re de, 'I1.e.tauri Epi.twlici !..acrozialla (ed. J. L uhlius, J vok L.cipicig. 1742-1746), has many references to Coptic. After his death, his manu'

See Metalwork, Cop·

tic.

LAGARDE. PAUL ANTON DE (1827-1891), German Orientnlist. He was a pupil of M. G. Schwan:te, became professor in Gt.\liingen in 1869, nnd published many texlS of the Old Testament: Del' Pen/ll/euch kop/isch (1867): Psulteri; VersiQ Mem-

----lJ

LALIBALA pliitica (1875); PsalteriulII, Job, ProIJcrbia Arabicc (1876); lind "BruehstOeke der kuptisehen Obersctzung des ATs" (Abha"dlul1gc., dcr GesclI.~chaft dcr Wisscnschaftetl VI GiJt/itlgen 24, 1879, pp. 63-104). His New Testamem texIS include Acta Apos/olorwn Cl>ptice (1852); Episwlae Now Tesfu,mmti Cop/ice (1852); lind Cal/l.we if/ Evangelia Aegyptiacae quae Silpersml( (1886). His apocryphal texts are in Aegypfiaca (1883). BIBLIOGRAPIlY

RahlB, A. "P. de Lagardes wisscnschahliches Le· benswerk im Rahmen dner Gc5chichte seines Le· ben"." MilteilmlJ:en des Sepruaginta.Untemehmens der Gesellschaft der WissetlSl:hafttn ill GQllin~e". (;Ottingen, 1928. &:haeder, H. H. ·'P. de Lagarde als Orientforscher." Orietl/aIisti~clle l.irerlJtllruitlltlg 45 (1942): 1- 13_ MARTIN KItAllS£

LAJ:lN (plUr.ll allJdn), Arabic translation of Coptic HXOC, adopled fl'Om G~k lkllllS, a lerm used in Copde liturgical books and manuscripts to specify lhe mu.,ic 10 be sung to a given text. Sometimes lranslllt\--d imo English as "air," "tone," "melody," or "mode," it refers basically 10 eilher a ecnain melody or melody type that is readily rccognil.ed by the people flnd knvwn by a specific, oflen dcscril>" live nllme, such as I.a~", al·Fflral! (... of joy) and Ln~m al.I/I/VI (... vf surrow). Two leading AIJ,ulI to be eitcd liS melody Iypes al'C AnAM and wATUS. J.aIJ" may h:lVe SQtl1C atrinities yet to be elucidated with thc DYZlmtinc echos and the Ambic maqlJ.l1I. 1"01' a more complctc dist:ussion, .'Ice MUSIC: llES(;RJPTION OF 1'IIE CORPUS. and MUSIC, IIlSTORY. MARIAN ROBERTSON

LALIBALA, Thi.'l sl11all and Isolated community set deep In the Simycn Mountains of cenlral Ethio· pia is one of the mOSI remarkable Christian reli· gious centcrs in ArTiC(l. Wilhin the contines of the lawn arc no fewer than eleveo monolilhic chu1"(~h· e.~, hewn frOIll Ihe native red .'l.(lnclSlone of the Ethi· OpillO Plateau. 1'raclilion (lllributes them all 10 Em· perm LAlibal:.i of the Zagwe dynasty (1181-1221), who had his capital here llnd for whom the town is oamed. Modem schotal"l'ihip suggests, however, that the churches wcrc made over a considerable period of time, frum the reign of LAlibabi to somelime in the foul1eemh century. Among monolithic monuments, the churches of

1425

LAlibal4 have Sometimes been compared to the great rock temples of Abu Simbel in Egypt and to the shrines at Petra in Jordan. They an~ unique in that they are nOt cut into cliff faces but arc hewn downward from the level plateau surface. For seven of Ihe churches, a wide and deep treneh was firsl t:ut downward so that il .'Iurrounded a monolithic mass of stone, into which chambers, doors, and windows were Ihen hewn. Each church thus gives the hnpression Ihal it is stllnding in the bOllom of a pit, the rooftop being level with the surrounding ground. However, four of Ihe l5libala churcheli are "grotto churches:' They are nOt completely freestanding but arc surrounded by a trench on only one, two, or three sides. Thc largest of thc L1libaU, churches, called Med!lane A[em (savior of the world), measures 112 x 80 feet (34 x 24 m) and is 37 feet (11 m) high. It ha.'I a simple re<:taniular plan compriliing a cemral nave flanked by two aisles on either side, all of equal width. There is I!I small nanhelt chamber at the west end, and al the east a wide rectangular sanctual')' area flanked by smaller sacristies. The nave and aisles are sepan:ned from each other by imitation colonnading (actually hewn from the monolithic rock), and there was originally a colon· nade running around lhe exterior of Ihe building as well. Many of the olher churches at Uilibala arc alSQ rectangular, but they have only one aisle on cithcr side of the nave and do nOI have a nanhex. Typically there is a centrally placed door in the west wall, giving directly onto the "ll\'e, l.nd additional dour'lj in the nonh and south walls. The church of Biet Mnl)'!lrn (house of Mary) has project· ing porches at the nor1h, :;outh, and west, hewn from Ihe same stone mas:; 1.S the body of the church. One of thc most spcet:,t:ular of the Uilibala churches is Biel Giorglos (house of Gcorge), which has lhe shape of (l perfee! cquilllteml cross. It Is lwo slorie., in height, but thc inleriur cunsists of only (0 single vel')' t:lll chamber. A distlnclive felllUrC of all tht: Uilibtlili churches is Iheir c1abor,i\e exterior dec01'ation, using allernating advanced alld recessed panels, nlnged either hurizontally or vel1ically. This is a vel)' ancie'" lr,,· dilion in Ethiopian architecture. visible also in the munuments of Axum and traceable ultimately Soulh ArlIbian influence. Thl'I'C (lre many variations in Ihe paneling scheme on each individual church, and no two of the buildings are c1n.,ely similar in their decoralion. O«llways and windows arc especially decomt\--d; windoW5 frequently have an arched lOp or are CUI in thc shapc of a cross or

'0

_

1426

LAMPS

BlBLIOCRAPHY

Barrivicra, L. B. "Le ChiC5e in roccia di Lalibela e di altri luoghi del wta." Rasseg/lQ di Swdi Eliopici 18 (1962):5-76; 19 (1963):5-118. Bidder, I, LoJibtlo. Cologne, 1959. Buston, 0, "The Christian Antiquities of Northern Ethiopia:' Archocologia 92 (1947):22-34. Findlay, L. The Monolithic Churchll$ of LalibdQ m Ethiopia. Cairo, 1944. Gesler, G. Churches in Rod. London, 1970. ):iger, O. A. 'Antiquities of NOrlllCm Ethiopia, pp. 103-118. Stuupn, 1965. Monti della Cone, A. A. LAUbe/D. Rome, 1940. WIW....M Y. ADAMS

LAMPS, Sre Cemmics, Coptic; Glass, Coptic: Met· alwork, Coptic.

LANGUAGES, COPTIC. See Appendi:c. Church of Biela Gheol'iis.. ulibala, Ethiopia. Elev· enth century. COllrIU>, Pierre du BOllrgl4e/.

sWMtika. Additional paneled decoration is found on

the roofs of mtlny churches. Interiors arc lavishly adorned with calved scrollwork, geometric and 00'

LAQQAN (pl. laqqiimlt), Coptic designation for the mandatum tank, which on Maundy Thursday and on the fealil day of Peter and Paul (S Abib) is used ror the ceremony of the foot washing. It is a small basin sunk slightly into the iloor in the west· ern pari or the nave. II is covered with a wooden lid when nOI in usc. In older examples made from

rnl fri~cs, and effigies of sainl~ ~t in sll:.lIow nich· es. The decortltion of the Ulibala churches has sometimes been allribuled 10 Egyptian Coptic al1i· S.lnS. but Ihls has not been historically pt'(lved,

The,'c arc at least a do~cn other rock churches in the immc(li:lle vicinity of Ulibalil., and Sl;;ores of others throughout northCrl1 Ethiopia. Their exact number is still unknown, hut a survey in 1966 dis-

covered the existence of three do~.en such churches that hold never previously been seen by outsiders. It Is generally conceded, however, Ihal the churches at lAlibaJa. (Ire unmah,::hed in lhe elegam;e uf their dccortltion. Before 1960 Uliball1 wa~ accessible unly by l1luleback, lind Wall repol1ed to be three days' travel rl'Om the neareSI road. 1n 1960 a landing strip was eonstnn;ted in the valley below thc lown, and regular air ~rvice was inaugurated in the dry season. A network or primitive rmlds leads to the town and 10 some of the nearby roek churches, and Ihe area has become a significant tourist attmction. Extensive l-enovation wa~ carrit:d out in some of the Uilibahi churches in Ihe ye"l'S after 1967.

'" 1/

/

/,

""

,\.

!/

"

Lid or a mandatum tank, or loqqilll; elevation and plan. COtlrlesy Peter GrOUmOm1.

LATSON, APA

light·colored marble, the fonn of the lids is strikingly uniform. Lids usually consist of a rectangular slone slab wllh a high rim, in the middle of which is a round conical hollow also providl.'
Sarjah there arc also some lius with an octagonnl shape and polychrome marble inlar.;. which probably date to the Mamluk period. When luqqlht(J' began to be u.~ is still nOI clear. They arc unknown in the (:ady Christian period. There is no church known from Ihis period in which there ;uc any remains or even traces of their eJo;istcncc. On the other hand, Ihe ceremony was mentioned a.~ carlY:l!i the seventh century. Prob.'lbly at thai time portable basins were employed. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Assfalg. J., ed. and trans. Die Ordmmg du Priesler-

tum!. T/lrllb Q/·KQhQnUl; ein /lItes liwrgur:hes H/lndbuch der Kopl/schen Kirche. Cairo. 1955. Burmester, O. H. E. '"Two Services of the Coptic Church Aluibuled to Peter, Bishop of Bahnaslli." Le M,lSton 45 (1932):235ff. - , _ The Egyptian or CQptic Ch'lrch, pp. 256-63.

Cairo, 1967. Eyelyn·White, H. G. The MonQs/eries 01 the Wadi 'n NQ!r6n, Vol. 3, p. 21. New York, 1933; repro 1973. PI::.'ER GROSSMANN

LAQQANAH. town located in lhe Egyplkm Dellil about 7 miles (II kill) eaSI of Onmnnbur in tbe Behelmh Pl'ovincl'. Laqqftnab was a bishopric by J 145 wlll.:n Bishop Ya'qob nl·O;iI'i' of the town wn~ one of n numbel' of men who attempled 10 make VClnis ibn Kl1drllll patril1reh. In l257 Bishop John of l..aqqAnah wa~ present at the l'Onseerution of the holy CHRISM. ;md in 1299 Bishop Jolin (perhaps the same man) of l..nqqdnah and [)amanluir was present at the same event (Munier, 1943, pp. 35-36). AI· MAORI1.I wrote in the lale faul1centh 01' curly fifo teenth century th;lt there was a church of JOliN (;UWUUS in I....:,\ltlilnah.

I HlIJLlOCKAPIIY

Munier, 1·1. Recwli/ rle.f /ISles ep/scopQ/es de /'iglise CQPle. Cairo, 1943. Timm, S. DUIf christlich-kQptin'he Agyplell ill urabi· scller Zl1-it. Wieslxlden, 1985. RANDAU STEWART

1427

LASCARPIS. See v:I'qub. Genel"'],

LAST SUPPER. See Christ.

LATROCINIUM, See Ephesus. Sc<:ond Council of.

LATSON, APA (feast day. 17 Ba'Onah), There is reference to Ihis saint in the SYNAXAIUON of the Copts at 17 Ba'Onah and in the notice devoled to Saint ML\MON .::11 30 TObah. W. E. erum (1926. Vol. I, p. 114) thinks thaI the two namC'$ refer 10 the .same person, although he is called Talason in the Life of Saint Palamon at 30 TObah. His Life, wrillen by his disciple J'mumlEUS. is preserved in a manuscript in the Coptic Museum, Cairo (Iiistory 469, fol. 314). Arable fragmentS of the Life arc preserved in the British Library (Or. 5650, 69, 70). Latson \YtIS a native of al-Bahn;.sa (OXYRllYNCllUS). While still a child, he one day heard the pa.~'>age from Mauhew (16:25-26), "Whoey!'r would saye his life will lose it, and whoever loSC'S his life for my sake will find it:' He withdrew to the mounlain of SCETIS. where an angel appeared 10 him, enjoining him to go and find SIlint ISIDORUS. who would give him the monastic habit. If we arc 10 believe Crum's hypothesis, he left Scelis and wa.~ the confidant and friend of Saint Palumon. One of the rnllllus<:riplS of the Syna){(lrion recounts that, having recelyed from the dying ;.bOOt or a monastery Ihe confession of his sins, he wished to apply the Gospcl lc){l, "Greuter love has no lIIall th"n this. Iiml II man lay down his life fol' his fTiends" (In. 15:13). Hc therefore attempted seven.ll timelf 10 kill himself, bUI each lime was bmught back to life by Chrisl or an angel. Finally, Chrisl announced to him Ihat the soul of the abbol had been reduced 10 nothing, since it could neither be retaincd in hell because Q£ the pellflllCCS of Saint Uitson, nor admitted inlO heaven because of its own sins. The mention of Saint Isidol'lls at Sceti~ at the beginning or this notice seems 10 indicate thai &tint Lat50n liv..-d at the cnd of lhe founh and the beginning of the fifth cenluries.

[428

LAURA

lJlULlOGRAI"HV

Winlock, H. E., and W, E. ernm. The Monllstery 0/ Epiph(w;IIs (1/ ll1ebes. Vol, I. New York, 1926. RllNll.GOORGIJS COOUIN

LAURA. tenn thaI seems to have originated in Palestine, where it described a range or group of cells around a common center. including a church, a bakel)', and various communal services, where the hennilS g:l.Ihered on Saturday and Sunday, bringing the fruit of their labors and leaving again wilh their bread for the week. Since the G~k word lavril me.ms a narrow street or alley, one thinks of what is suggested by the Arabic word wq, thaI is. a mlr· row street lined wilh boothi!i, a kind of market

where the hermits brvught their work together and wenl off 10 their ceJ1li with the product of their week's work (see D. J. Chiny, 1966. index, p. 203). Consequently the Creek lerm appean; 10 have had two meanings. Fil":l't, it designated scverotl monasteries of cenobites, grouped around;,) common cemer including 11 church, a hostelry, and a bakery; it sums indeed Ih:u Ihe young monks were grouped Ihcre while wailing 10 be assigned to Ihe diITerent monasteries that romled Ihe laura. The only laura thai answers 10 this meaning of the word seems 10 have been Ihnl of the F.NATON, west of Alexandria. We may nOle that in Palestine Ihe word appears 10 h:lVc takcn Ihis sense. (( it was applied to monasterIes ncar Alexandria, it seems to have been by stmngers and f:tirly 1:lle (before the fourth eenlury it does not appear' 10 have been used): narratives attributed to DANtI!L 01' SCE'TtS (Clugnel, 1900, p. 61) or journey of John Moschus (PG 87, cols. 3029, 3032, etc.), for whom len·ra signifies simply monasler)'. Seeond, it dcsign:ucd a group of hermitages ar'()un(1 common buildings, one of them a church. This appears 10 be Ihc primilive sense, at least in Palestine, No Egyplilln lext scerns 10 use the word in Ihe same way. II has come aboul that, for convenience, II Is used io Ihis sense, bUI it should be known thai texu do nm so u~ il when referring 10 Egypt. If we reltd il in some texts, this is Ihe work of non·Egyptians who t1'llnspose to Egypl the reali· tics they know. 8J8L1OGRAPJlY

Chilly, D. J. TlI(l O(l$(lrl, a Cily. Lundon, 1966. Clugnet, L "Vic et redts de I'abbe Daniel de Scete." RCVIIC de I'Orietrt cJrrericn 5 (1900):49-73, 254-71.

Crum, W. E. A Cupti" Di'·liu~l/lry. Oxford, 11/39; 2nd cd., 1962. Lampe, G. W. H. A. Palri$/ic Crcck l.cxicon. p. 794. Oxford, 1961. Moschus, John (Ioannis Moschi). l'u/rull1 Spiri/llale. PG 87. Paris, 1860. French trans. M. J. Rouet de Journcl. J.e pro $piri/llef. Souret::> ehrl:tienncs 12. Paris, 1946. RENE·GEORCES COQUIN

LAURA OF KALAMON. Sce Eiluslon.

LAW, COPTIC, By "Coplic law" we understand the pal1icularities of lqal practice evidenced in documents wrillen in Ihe Coptic language, from roughly the SiXlh 10 thc nimh century (Slein~nter, 1955; Schiller, 1932a, 1957, 197Ia). The substance of the law is found in the combination of Greek, Coptic, and Arabic documents, but the presenl t~:umcnl reslS lorgely on the Coptic evidence. The notion of "law" (NOHOC, nomos) in Coplic dueu· menlS embraced custOmary rules, Hellenistic insti· tutions, and lIOmewhat dislant echoes of late R.o-m:m imperial leiislntion (Steinwenler, 1957: Schiller, 1971b). Whal functioned as a source of law was what we sec oper.ltive in the dOCUlllellts themselves.

Private Law Law of persona. The blnh of a natural person wns often, but not always, registered (Cnull, 1926, nos. 99-100). The person came of age at fourteen (d. P. LOlld. V 1554.8). His or her status could be "fr'ce" (Till, 1951), "slave," or "dedicaled person" (Steinwenter, 1921; MaeCoull, 1979:\). Marriage was often accompanied by a contract respecting the parties' property (d. MucCoull, 1979b); divorce also was signaled by a contl'D.ct (Crum, 1902, no. 130; Crum, 1926, no. 161, P. Cairo Mu~'P. II 67153, 67154, 67155), bOlh par1ies having Ihe righl 10 remarry or to choose the monaslic life. (Incomp'ltibility was often cited; lhere waS no in· lIexiblc church leaching on indissoluhility.) Four kinds of Intltrimonial property lll'C known: CXJ.lt.T (skhaal, gift from Ihe groom), ~66T (liheleel, gift from Ihe bEidel, rott16 lfoywH (rompe nou6m, lilerally "year of eluing:' probably suppon paymenl.5), and ~ 6&0>. (nouhr ebol, probably movable household gocxls). These perhaps dCI'ivc From oldel' Egyplian calegories and correspond to

LAW, COPTIC

the fourfold Icmlinology found in the Byzantine papyri of M~, 11M, Q_Ag,~ and t7Xfv1J (hedna. proiks. anal6m&la, and skcue). after the old terminology of ~vr,/.,,()plr~PIJ(f, phcrnc{paraphema. passed out of usc. As for juristic persons, aCl:ording to one theory both the KOlHOll (koinoo) of a vitl(lge lind the AIK).ION (dikaion) or govcming oo.lrd of a monastery could be I:om:civcd of as juristic persons, as

,

•

Lhey aCled subjectively in lransal:lions and executed busines..~ (SlcinwcnlCr. 1930; d. 1953): but the can· cept was nOI fully developed. Law of thing•. The B)'7.antincs divided propeny iolo )JUllItTOO (akinclon, land, buildings, trees). kllltfTOH (kinetan, aniclell). and Jl."(TOt(./IlHTOtI (3UI(Ikinetan, animals) oblaim:d. Ownership of propcny was indicated by Tx061C (I'jocis, or dominium. It1Ipl£WLI', [kyrieudn)) and ~(J (amahl!:, or pQ$SQSio lhe right 10 use, improve, and pledge, llnd to alienate (sell, give, bequealh) lhe property. Churches llnd monasleries, or parts thereof, could be the priVllle property of an individual. a praClice III v..riance with imperial law. Regarding inheritance (Till, 1954), both eecle~ia~ tics and by persons could make wills, called AlJo.OII1(H(·Jo.I), diathi.'kiH·ai). Holil relatives and non· related per~ons, and both church hodies and indio vidual ecclesiastics. could inherit. The princip.'ll heir was u~ually obliged to bury the lestator. offer lilurgi<;:s for his or her soul, lind pay out.~landillg debls. Disinherilance was known (Crom ;,nd Stein· dorff, KopliM:he RcchI5u,kU1rdc" des aehle" Jah,hunderts, 68, 71. 67; Crum, 1905, or British Museum 445; d. P. Cairo Masp.• III, 67353v). A great many Coplie legal cases involvcd dispules over lhe division of nn inhcritance; Ihey were usually seuled by aroilmtion (see below. under civil procedure), the agreements reached being incorporated in a A.r),),YCIC (dialy~is) document (e.g.. Crum and Steindorff, Kop!ische Rcc1l1mrbmdcII des In·hlen Jallr. Jumderls, 35, 37, 44). Law of obllgntlon•. The usual dO'ellmem of a loan is an Jo.c4>AAlllJo. (Ilsphaleia), in which the debtor acknowledges receipt of money or goods and prom· i.'ics to repay with or without inlereSI (e.g., Crum and Steindorff. KopliM:he Reclllsllrkutldetr des /JehIC" Jahrh"rrderls, 64; cf. Crum, 1902, no. Ad. 17). Loans wen: often repayable at harvest time; a money loan could be rL'paid in kind, or with interest in kind. Loans in kind are most often of basic agricul. luml commodities (grain, wine, often payable in Meson: al the grape harvest; oil); they can include provision of a money fine in case of dl'fauh, or paymem in money (cr. Bagnall, 1977). On receipt of

1429

payment Ihe creditor made acknowledgement 10 the debtor in an Jo.UO..... 6ll.k: (apodeik:iis). Bolh creditors and debtors are found in both clerical and lay staws. The usual name for a document of sale (Doulard, 1912) of immovable property is IlfJo.CIC (prasis), the operative vcrb being t coo), (Ii ehol). Transfer of ownership was effected by the drawing up and sign· ing of the docullient of sale. The sella could be One representative 01' severnl co-owners (e.g., Cr'um and Steindorff, KopllseJre RechlSl/rkUllIlIm des aeh. len h.lhrhulldulS, I; SChiller, 1932b, no. 7). For the sale of movable propel'y lerminology is looser, and prnclices appear to havc varied from district to dis· trict (regionalism in Coptic law would repay funhel' sludy). I...cascs of land were either yearly (HICOUCIC, misthOsl~) or heritable (6J'ttyTeyoc, emphylcwb) (Comfon, 1937), the latler favored by monastic and ecclesiastical landlords (MacCoull, 1989). The con· tract of lease could be dl'Bwn up by either Ihe lessor or the lesst:c; in the former case the boundaries, the length of tel'll', and the amount of rent (n.uc.TOl'l, ~H, 4>oroc [pakton, shilm, pharos]), in moncy, in kind, or in both, arC specified. In the laner clIse lhe rent can be called either G,IGOp (shcor), of a one·year HlCOQ)(;lC (misth6sis), or IUKTON/+oroc (p.'lkton/ pharos), of an Jo.C+AAtilJo. (asphllieia) for severnl years (Schiller, 1932a, pp. 278-79). PennltiCli could be <;:ltaeted for nOnPAynlent of n:m. Many rent receipl!i are prescrv(:d (Jo.IlO.....8hK:, -61C [apodciksis, -cis]). The ettofyT6yC1C (emphyteusis) or heritable lease coold be framed by eilher party (Crum, 1905, or Briti~h Museum 1014-1015; Crum, 1909, or Rylands 174). In Ihls case, the rent, callcd 1u.KT<m (paluon), was payable in moncy, in kind, or in bolh. The main types of labor contraCl!i (Till, 1956) are eyt't'j>uIHOtl (symphunon), drawn up by either employer or employee, orten in two copics; ),UMIII.Q (lebeke) (a litle for the hired person), simplc hiring for wages by a community; 6l1ITfOl1H (epitI'Opl':), u~ually for agricultural services; and ru.rJo.HOmt (par· IIlIIonl':), an appremiceship contract wilh pl'ovision for suppol1 of the leamer. There are also many documents and letters embodying a simple carllmL'lSion or charge on a pany to perform some servo ice for a i'leCond or third pany; they are probably not legal eontracl!i in Ihe narrow sense. For deposits (t'r'nooliku/-KGIOOJo.I (hypotheke/keislhai], .,.Il [arcb], eym (euO]), either the whole of an individual's propel1y (c.g., Crum, 1905, or British Museum 1039 and elsewhere) or specific al1ick-s (e.g., Crum, 1926, no. 95) could be pledged. The receiver of the pledge obtained possessio al the

1430

LAW, COPTIC

lime of transfer, but dam;II;lIm only in the case of nonredemption (e.g., Crum, 1902, no. 183). Surely (61'lY" [engye), lI,lTWfO [shton::]: Till, 19501957) could be given in the ease of a public or a private obligation. Most public surety is for taxes (Slcinwenler, 1920, p. 4) or for periormance of the compulwl)' services exacted by the Arab government (as seen in Ihe Aphrodito documents in P. Lond. IV). Private liurety iii often found; the docu· menl of GITyH (enBYe) served to entille one 10 go surety for the one requesting it (cf. Crum and Slein· dorff, Koplische Rechlsllrklilldell des achlen Jahrhlilldcru, 115), Such action occurs in conneclion with loans, sales, labor conlracts, and leases. There are also ecclesiastical sureties, in which one cleric guarantees lhal anolher will cany out his office (Crum, 1902, nos. 31-33, and many more: d. Stein· wenter, 1931), Agency is an obligation usually embodied in a cbuse of a document of one of Ihl: types mentiont.-d above «l1t'O R~, eire mpros6pon, literally "make" someone's face or persona; see San Nicolo, 1924). Also in Ihis category are many examples of a liimple requesl, in lellers or other private documenlS, lhal one party bring money or goods 10 a third; Ihese seemingly were not regarded 3.'1 leg:llly binding. Numerous other sorts of l:ontracts are loosely designated z()HO.>.OfU, (homologia) or 6rT'pJ.+<w (engrnphon), and treat of joint ventures (e.g" Cmm and Steindortr. Koplische Rechfs.. rhmdell des acll/ell Jahrlllwderts, 55), often agricultural (Crum, 1902, no. 304). Occasionally they deat with baner, but thili liituadon i~ hard to distinguish from sale or loan (Cntm aod SlcinuorfT, Kuplische Rechlsurklmdell des ac!wm Jahr/ulIJderts, 7, 24, and el~e· where). MOM recorded donation.'I (AWp6)'CTlkOtl, dorcasti· kon) (Honvitz, 1940) werl: made 10 monasteries or chul'che~: they were of land, children, or. io one case, onl:'S sdf (Crum lind Slcindorff, Kupliscne Reehl$ljrlwudell des aell/ell JahrJumderts, 104). Some donations were made in fulfillment of a will (Crum, 1902, 135) 01' a pr'Ornise, or for the l'epOSe of a soul (dollal;o morli,f causa; Crum and Stcindorll', KUpl;sclle Rechlsllrk.ullcien des uehlert Jahr· lumdcru, 106). Nol many penalties fur nonfulfillment of obliga· lion al'e recorded, but they could be secular or religious (c!, below, on oalhs). Public Law The e1emenl.!i of continuity and change in late anlique EJr,YP1 as a province first of Ihe Byl.anline

empire and 'hen of the caliphate are wdl documented (P. Ca;r, Masp, I-III: P. Llmc/, IV·V; Rcmondon, 1953; Rouillard, 1928; Hardy, 1932), but a synthet'i:dng sludy remains 10 be made. Here we can lreal only what is known from Coptic documenl.!i dealing wilh public obligatioIl$, almost all from Ihe Arab period. The inhabitanl of Egypt was aJfel:lt.-d most direCIIy and most often by lhe requirements of taxation. Taxes were levied in money (the poll tax or J.HAf1CHOC/AW1'),+OO [andrismos/diagraphon), the lanu tall or .utHOClOH (dtmosion], properly so called: and the ..u.tu.HH (dapan~]; lOCe Bcll's preface 10 p, Lond. IV); and in kind {the gr.iin 6HBOMt (enIOOlt], formerly for the provisioning of ConSlan' tinople), Usually the Arab govemor (t:yHISOyAOC, symboulos) ordered the pagarch (sometimes through the diU:) to drew up a list or .-egiSler (IUTM!'),,*,,,I, kaLagra.pht) of taxable persons and propertics. Individual local lax collectors were obliged 10 payout of their own pockets the quota of the entire p;:Ig3rchy if othe~' contributions fell short of the tOlal quota. Monks and eeclesi3.'Iticli were taxed (cf. Kahle, Vol. 2, 1954, nos. 290-304). Many tax receipls are preserved from these village collectionli (esp. Crum, 1902; Stcbnski, 1952). The fono of reeeipl seems to vary slightly from place to place; most are daled only by the indiction. and contain a simple declaralion by Ihe collector that he has received the sum a.'I,'I~ed, "Fugitivl'S" (¢lvyir&<;, phyg..des) were those who had ned rrom Ihelr own pl3ce of enrollment, usually 10 cscape laxes, Numl:TQus ou<:umenlS rrom the Umayyad period exist ordering the retum of fugi' tivell (e.g., in P, Lond, IV and P. Russ, Geurg" IV). In connection with this situation we encounter the m-c:ltled .\OI·OC FfllNOyT6 (Iugos mpnoule, Schiller, 1935a; Till, 1938) lind lhe ulyiAAw (sigillia) or safeconduct passes. Oaths in Coptic legal uoeulllcnlS have been lr'eatcd and classified by 1:.. Seidl (1935: cf. Tilt, 1940), Of interest for social history arl: oalhs on lhe mo· nastic habit, on relics or icons, and in churches (elipecially on Ihc Gospels). Legal Procedure It has been contended (Schiller, 1969) that owing to the divisions aftl:r Chalccdon, Ihe Copticspeaking populalion in late 8}'7.anline and early Umayyad timeli had no recourse whatever to public lribunals and sellied all dispules by private means, usually arbitration (Schiller, 1968; 1971a), Our principal sourees for lhis sort of proceeding are the

L\W, COPTIC

Budge Papyru~ ($chiller, 1968), p, Lolld. V, 1709, and P. CQir. MI15p. 1JI (67353r). II may be that, lacking further evidence, to claim that all references to judicial bodie~ in Coptic documentary prae· tlce are merely l:ummonplaees of the Hollinate withoul factual referell1s is somewhat exaggemted. In addition to the sources for arbitmtion, we have evidem,:e for the judicial activities of pagarchs and bishops (cf. the clauses contrasting ),f'XOtlTlkOiII GlUt.kHCUCTIKOH [arkhontikon/ekklcsi....~likonJ: Crum and Steindorff, Koptische Rechrsurlumde'l des achrerr Jahr/umderts, 5, 24, 48, 98, 107; Schiller, 1932b, I; MacCoull, 1989b). Authority was princi· pally seen to reside in the village U19).Htj (Iashane, headman) and the body of H06 Jlf'IUl1G, (noc nrome), or ~fi.(OVf:~ (mei:wnes, furmerly the prarocomelal; Steinwenter, 1920). Still at issue is the question of the extent Lo whil:h Hellenistic·COplic Egypt reo eeivcd and eonfOlTned In the Justinianlc law and later Novellat (Schiller, 197Ib). In actual pr.uis, conformity seems to have been minimal: the "'-'Orld of Coptic law is a world of ils own. In civil procedure, the claims and counterclaims were usually brought to an arbiter (the operative verb is J.K:1InR/~ lai$Otiii/ans6tm, Ilwe have heal·dj). If his decision was accepLed, the plaintiff drew up a document of J.H6pIHH61J. (amerimneia, release) after the defendant had obeyed the ruling. All pllnic.~ could join in drawing up II A1J."YC1C (dialysis, sec above). We hllvC no records of Coptic criminal tri
Greek papyri are, by univcnally accepted convention, dted according to J. F. Oates, CI aI., Chedlist of Editions uf Greek Papyri ond Ostraea, 3rd cd., Allanta, 1985. The standard won: is Sleinwenter, A. Dos Rech/ der kop/i.~che" Urk/wden. lIandbm':h der Allcrtwnswiuensehalt, Vol. 10, pL 4, no. 2. Munich, 1955. The Djeme dOC\lmenlJi (as a group) are found in Till. W. C. Die kopllsehcn Reeh/surlwlldetl UIIS Thebell /l!lerse/z/. Oslcl'l'eichische Akadelllie der Wissen~charlCn, Philo.~ophisch-histori.~che Kbsse, SitUlng.~bflricllte 244.3. Vienna. 1964.

1431

Bagnall. R. S. "Prices in 'Sales on Delh'cry:" Greek, Roman und Byum/ille Studies 18 (1977): 85-96. Boulard, I~ LI/ ,'ellie dlHlS les flctes cop/c.~. l'llds, 191 2. Comfort, H. "Emp},y/eusi~' Among the l'llpyri." Ae· gyp/lis 17 (1937):3-24. Cmm, W. E. Coptic OSlrtletl lrom the Colleetiolls 01 the Egypt ExplorQliofl Fund, Ihe Cairo Museum and Others. London, 1902. ___ CQtldogll~ af the Cuplie Monuscripts i'l the. British MIIS4!lIm. london, 1905. ___ CQtalogll~ of the Coplic Manu~ripts irr the John Ryfands Library. London, 1909. ___ The MQI/uslery 01 Epiphullills Q/ Thebes. New York, 1926. Hardy, E. R. Tile Lar/)e Es/ull;I$ ul Byzanline Es:ypl. Ncw York, 1932. Horwitz, I. The S/rucmre 01 Ille Cop/if OU/latlo/1 COll/raet. Philadelphia, 1940. Kahle, P. E. Bufa·iwJr. 2 vok London, 1954. MacCoull, L S. B. "Child Donations and Child Saints in Coptic Egypt." EU$t EllroPCtlll Quarterly 13 (1979a):409-15. ___ "A Coptic Marriage·Contract in the Pierpont MOll;an Ubrary." In Acles dll COlIgrts int~rnalioll al de papyrologie, Vol. 2. Bru.<;s~ls, 1979b. "Palronage and the Social Onler in Coptic Egypl." Egillo e .Horia anliell (1989):447-52. ___ "'JY1\OC in Coplic Legal Papyri," Z Sill' Kim· UII 75 (l989b):408-11. Remondon, H.. Papyms grees d'Apollcmos AIIG. Cairo, 1953. Rouillard, G. L'odmitlis/ro/ion civile de l'Egypte b,. wnlirre, 2nd I'd. Paris, 1928. $an Nicolo, M. "OilS ClIf'G 1fI1f'OCG111011 als Stcllvt':nretungsformel in den koptischen Papyri." BylOnlini.Jche Zeltschrifl 24 (1924):336-45. Schiller, A. A. "Koptisches Recht." Kritische Viutel· johrschrifl IUr Gese/tgebllng WId Rechuwis· sensel/afl 25 (19313):250-96. Tell Cop/ie Legal Tuts. New York. 1932b. _ . "The Coptic "oroc RIlflOyr6 Documents." In Sludl 1/1 memoria dl Aldo Albertmll, Vol. I. Padua, 193.5a. _ _ . "Koptlsches Recht." Krilisc:he Viertc1;llllr_ sellri!t li/r Gescm.gebllng II/IIJ RedllswissellsL'hull 27 (I935b):18-46. ___ "Coptic DocumenlS." Zeitschrifl fiir vtrgfei· chende Reehuwi$j(!nschllfl 60 (1957): 190-211. 'The Budge: Papyrus of Columbia Universi· ty." JOlmrol of tire American Research Cellter ill Egypt 7 (1968):79-118 "The Courts Are No More:' In Stlllli di Oflore E. Vo/lerra, Vol. 1. Milan, 1969. _ _ . Introduclion lu W. E. Crum and G. Steindorff, Kopli.'1ehll Reeh!sllrktmdll'l des Ilehten Ja},rJlImdert.'1 ailS Dieme (Thebm), 2nd cd. Leipzig and Hildesneim, 1971a.

-==.

1432

LAW OF OBLIGATIONS

_ _ . "'l1le Fate of IIllJlC'fial Legislution in Latc By1.allline ~pt:' In VIII em'gresso illlutlazjotl· ale diriflo campara/a. Brussels, 1971b. Seidl. E. Der EM im rijmisc".iigypliscllt~t1 ProvitlVa{· recht, Vol. 2, Munich, 1935. StefanlOki, Eli7.abeth, ed. Coptic Osiraca frolll Medi· IICI flahl/. Chicago, 1952. Sleinwenter, A, Stlldictl ;p dell kuplisclten Rech/surkl/lldel/ ails ObcriJgyplcn. Studien wr Pa· Illographic und Papyruskunde 19. Leip7.ig, 1920. ___ "Kinderschenkungen an koptische KlOsler." leilsehrif' der Saviglly-5lif/w.g, Krmullis/isehe Ablei/unt 42 (1921): 175-207. ___ "Die Rechtsstdlung der Kirchen und Kloster," leilsehrifl du Suvigny-Slillung. Kan(JIIi· sliseJte Ablci/,mg SO (1930):1-50. ___ "Die Ordinationsbillen koptischer Kleriker." Argyptlt.t II (1931 ):29-34. ___ "Obcr e1nlae Ikdeutungcn von i,u in den nachklassischen Oudlen." lura 4 (1953):124-248. "1tOHOC in den koptischen Rechtwrkunden," In Siudi ill ollore di A. Cu/derini e R. Puribeni, Vol. 2, Milan, 1957. Till, W. C. "Koplische Schuubriefe." Mil/cUI/ligen des Deutsche" Arr:hiJologischrm "lSliluts 8 (1938):71-146. "Zum Eid in den koptischen Reehlsur· kunden," leitsehrif/ fur iigyplisehc SprQchc r/lld AI/t!fllll/lsklmde 76 (1940):74-79. "Die koptlschen Burgschaftsurkunden." Bllllc/i" de 10 Sod.!l.! d'urchtologie cople 14 (1950-1957): 165-226. ___ • "!l.\(JYOOPOC: Unbr.-scholten." Museu" 64 (1951):251-59. ___ . Erorer;h/lid,e VlllerS,jehu/lge" oul Grund der kOPlisdlell VrlcUlldlm. 6stelTeichi~he Akademie der Wisscn~harten, Philosophisch·historischc Kta~~c, Sltl'lIlgsben'chte 229.2, Vienna, [954, ___. "Die koptischen Arbeilsverlr'Jge:' Eus 48, I [Symbolae Ruphllcli Taubensehhlg dedicalac] (1956):273-329. LE.~Llp.

S. B. M"CCOULI.

LAW OF OBLIGATIONS, See Law, Coplic: Pri· lillie Law.

LAW OF PERSONS AND FAMILY. See Law, Cop,ic: PriVll,e

l~w.

LAW OF THINGS. Sec; Law, Coptic: Priv-.tte Law.

LAYING·ON OF HANDS. The laying-on, or imposition, of a bishop's hands on a person's head on the occasion of his nomination to the priesthood or dial:onate is a rite fiBt mCnlioned in thl: Old Testalnent and has been practiced in lhe l:hurch ever sinl:e the apostolic: age. Befon: the Ascension of Christ. He appearcd to the disciplelO while they were meeting behind locked dooB, and insufflating them, He gave them the gift of the I~oly Spirit. by which they l:ould groml or withhold forgivenelili. In their tum, the aposlolic falhers ordained others as bishops, priests, or deacons by laying their hands on them. In this way, they appointed the first deal:ons, including SICphen (Acts 6:6), When Saint Paul and Saim Barna· bas ordained elders in churches, following prayer and fa.~tln8, they did thls through the laying-on of hands. The Greek lerm used in Acts 14:23 is chriratrmuolltu, which appears in various English translalions as "chose," "appointed," or "ordaincd" and origirutlly meant "laid their hands on them." Whcn Saint Paul ordainl:d Timothy bishop of Ephesus and "tuS bishop of Crete, he did so by laying his hands on them. This is l:onlirmcd by his words to Timolhy. when he wrote to ellhon him to stir into flame lhe gift of God "which ilO in thee by lhe laying on llf thy hands" (2 Tm. 1:6). In an earlier cpistle he had warned Timothy not to be oven.ealous in the laying-on of hands in ordination. lesl he incur rMponsibility for oth~r JlC'ople's mi_~. deeds (I Tm, 5:22). The APOSTOLIC TRADITION stipulates the imposition or hands as pan of the prueL'SS of ordaining bishops: "leI the bishop be ordailled after he has beell l:hosen by all lhe people, When someone pleasing tn all has been named, let lhe people assemble on Ibe Lord's Day wilh lhe prcshyteno and wilh sUl:h bishops as may be PI'eSelli. All gilling assent, the bishops sho.tl impose hands on him, and the presby. tet'S shall slnnd by in silence. Indeed all shall re· main sitent, praying in their heans for the descent of lhe Spiri1. Then onc of 'he bishops prescnl shall. at the request or ali, impose his hand nn the Ol1e who is being Ordilincd bishop" (Hippulytus, 1970, Vol. l,p. 166). The same provisions arc made in the Constitu· tions of 'he Holy Apostles: "Concerning the ol'din£ltions of prl:sbyters, ... when thou omainest a pre.~· byter, 0 bishop, lay lhy hands upon his head, in the presen!:e of the presbyters nnd deacons, and Pl'ay" (1951. p. 491). The 5."\me prol:edure is rccomml'nd· ed in the ordination of deacons. Accol'ding to al-SAl1 ruN At/AWL "the Bishop

LEATHERWORK, COPTIC

I

sh:.Jl be installed on a. Sunday, wilh the approval of aJithe cOIlgl'Cgation. both the people and lhe clergy tcstifying for him. The bishops who arc prescnt shall Illy lhdr hands upon him, saying, 'We lay our hands on IhiJ; servant who ha::; been chosen for God, in the name of the Falher. the Son, and the Holy Spirit, 10 be insmlled ll,.> an upright rank, for (lhe service,: of) the One Church of God. which is without blemish'" (1927, pp. ]2-33). From Acts 8: 14-17. il seems that the act of lay. ingoOn of hands W"d.5 a rcquiliite for receiving the Uoly Spirit. Thu.~. having heard thai in Samaria mere were eOllvens who had accepted the word of God and been baptized bUI had nOI been visited by the Holy Spirit, the aposdCl'i sent Peter and John 10 Pl1lY for them, asking thai they might receive the Holy Spirit. When Peter and John laid their hands upon them, their mission was fully accomplished. Acts 9 relates that when Saint Paul in Ihc course of his voyages came to EphcslL!i, he found a number of conl/crts and \Wnte
1433

BIBLIOCRAPHY Mrk~'il Min~. 'I/m al·lAlllit

(The Study of Thcology),

Vol. 2. Cairo, 19]6, William Sulaym;in Oil~dah, Kildb uf·Disqil/iy)'uh, Tu'ulfm al·RlIslfl (The Didascalia). Cairn, 1919. ARCHBISHOP BAsIUOS

LEAD COLLARS. See Alexandel' II.

LEASES. See law, Cuplic: Private Law,

LEATHER BINDINGS. See Book Binding.

LEATHER RESTORATION, See Art Preserva. tion.

LEATHERWORK, COPTIC. The importance and craftsmanship of Coptic Icathen,vOl'k is well at· tested. Yet, despite Ihe e.tnlordinary climatic con· ditions of Egypt, which had a paramount role in prescn>ing ancient al'lifaCtS lind particularly Iho~e made of organic material otherwise prone to disin· tegrate, only rare samples or leatherwork have been pl"eSe,.... ed e.cept for Ihe bookbindings, Among the mOl'e frequent finds, sandal~, which are SCatlereu in various museums throughout the world, are most common, Some sandals \Verc foullu in grnves, The overwhcJming majority are open sandals, with l' sole and ll!ripS on thc lop to hold the fecI. Less usual is the flat ~hoe, witb a covered uppl:r surface (KOpll.Ie/1I.! KWlSl, Chri$ICIlIWII am Nil, 196], p. 290-92 no, 228). The decOl'lltion rnay be open' work, exploiting colorful effects fmm different slHlllcs of leather or sometimes painted. Few pouches have been preserved, Ilnd a frtlg· mcn! with lm intcrCSTing decor'ation may bcJong cither 10 a jl()uch or to a $lIddle, Most of the tech· niques used for the decoration of such items arc similar to those encountered in the major field of leatherwork, for which our information is the widest-that of UOOKDINDINO. BlBLlOCRAPHY Hls/ory

QI

Bookbindil/g 525-/950. nle Wallen Art

Gallery. Baltimore, 1951,

•

1434

LECTERN

1\"I,li""l,,.

1\11".-1,

('{,,·i.'iI·'I/IU" am Nil. vill" I [ugel,

':_""n, 1'Jlil.

LECTERN, a fOlll',legged wooden or melal book· "ra",I, "ho"r e;o i"d,," (12e; CIl') in Ilci~hr, 011 "hich the Bible and other liturgical books an." plaeed for n:a~lin~ II is Orlell in rhe form of .. n ~· ..gk "ill, olll~tfclchcd II lIl~s. The 10\\,cI' p::U1 i!O cuslomaril~' ll"Cd :'s :. l>lOI;I~e colll:lil1O.:r fo' book:, and ",,,:,il;al insll'umenls clllploH:d ill the SCI'VI<':C~, soeh as Cylllb;,ls :Hl~l tli..ll):ll.... 11,CI'C arc t\\'o ICCll:'lTlS III e,er)' Coplle church. TlIl'!>C k-.;Il·nl:. ;,r~' orll'n :.donH.."d wilh l;eolllet"ic d.-,;,igns :,nd ""mcri",cs inlaid "ilh iUlI) can'ing.s. The Iincsl cx:ullple is 10 be found in Ih,,, old Cal hI." dl.. 1 of $:lint M:uk :11 the ,Ibtri<;t of ,,1·A,o;b....kivv;,h in Caim, It had ead ..:r bclongcd to al-Mu'allaqah Chul"l·h in Old C:.iro "ml l1I"y d:'IC to ril,· h:nlh Ul' c!e,-enth century, A co-ering or Mlk or soml:' rich matcl'ial b som"li"'e:. pl:.ced on rhe IIum;/,li\'\"(lh in such a ""a\ Ihal It CO\·Cr.Ii till' sloping d....,;k and 11:",&-" halfway dowll rll<' frtlnl. The t\\O Icclems ahYrl)"l; .sland in Ihc choir arca bdor,· rll" 1",..1.,,,1 (lk'"CI,,:."''') do~"" The one ..I Ihe nonh side taces ,'ast and is us.:d 101' singing Ihe h..-.JIl' in CVI'Iil.:. Th,' olher lectern, "I rl'e :;uurh side, f:\~es "esl and is used for rcading lhc 1cs.'iOns ill Ar.,bie, Oecasion.. lly, Ihere i!> only one leclan, 1o"r tlo" honkr.-:~r ill Ihis ca.s" is u,~"all) doublc and I"l'vol\"cs on a Cl'm.,.1 column. The nurlh side of th~' dluir is "onsid..,r.."l tloe proper 1'1:'l;e I()I' :\ :,ingl,: Icclern. To the Idr ~,r rhe p..,,":>/)n reading "t e;'c1, !t:er",." usually .~tand~ a rail candcltllwulll 011 which rhe cen:,er is 1111111; 11'10,," nur in u!>e. The principal pLlrpo~(' I'll' the lectern is 10 support the books of rhc uiulil,;:d lir"'"I:;I;,,1 le~u,,~. rhal is, rio" Iectionade~ I'm' rhe whnle year, fnr Lenr. and for Holy Week, Ir is :dso lIsnl fvr re"dill): rh~' 1'11'0<'::'Iyp~" (nn Iinly Sarurday), rhe SYrl~XAKrON, rhe 110m' ilks, rill' I's~r.Moor~. rhe illFNAK, the TU/l.uIIAT (sec l'~KII). and rhe hihlil;,,1 leS'WI.S in otlll:'" pri",tly (,1· tiel'S such as marrimonial or buri:,1 servin·s. 11 b :,Iso "u..,,,:ol1y 1l-,c,1 a:. a pull,;t for s.'r"Ulll.S, though a scrmon h" rh(' patriarch or a bi,hop i, d,·li,-",·".1 r,·,,,,, hi, OW" "..,;.r. Pcn c:',c with .·eprcscnwtiu" of S;,i"r PI,i1olhelLs. Lealher (the ca,.:) and !",'ed!>. L':IIJ:lh: 23.5 cm. ('''''I'..

,.:.t.". 1,01In",:

AlUSCI/III,

I'/If/:;.

----l'-'

LECTIONARY

At the beginning of Holy Week, the lecterns and candelabra arc moved from the choir inlo the nave of the church and the lecter'llS are covered with black doth. All the lessons are then sung or read at these lecterns in the nave, except those of the morning offering of incen.~e and the Divine Liturgy on Maundy TIll.ll'lldty, which arc I'C
J bibLIOGRAPHY

Bunncster, O. H. E. The Egyption or COptic Chllrch, pp. 20, 27. Cairo, 1967. Butler, A. J. The Anci,mt Coptic Churches of Egypl, Vol. 2, pp. 65-68. Repr. Oxford, 1970. C;nf, C;. Vert.eich"is orobischer Jcirchlicher Termini. cseQ 147, p. 108. Louvain, 1954. Ibn Sib,a' Yul,lanna ibn ....bi Zakarly1. Kildb ol·!nwJrnroh ol-Na/tsoh /l 'Ulil", af·Kanfsa1l. ed VinClr M~r. Cairo. 1902. Lalin version Pretioso Margorita de scietltiis ecelesiastlcis, Irons. Vincent Mistrll,l, p. 349. Cairo, 1966. EMtL MABUR

ISH"O

LECTIONARY, set of four books containing the readings for the various liturgies of the Coptic church. Different Icctionaries existed according to different rites in Upper and in Lower Egypt; it was only with the coming of thc printing press (sec CYRIL [v) Ihat a cel1aln uniformity evolved among the COptic churches in the whole of Egyptian territory. In the beginning, for the reading of a passage from the PSlllms, the whole Psalter was used, and for a section from the Gospels, II book containing the wholc Gospel of Matthew or Mark or Luke or John, with lin indcx indicaling to thc reader at what point he was [0 begin and end. At a second stage, it IIPPClired mor\: pnlctical to consign to a spccial book, the lectionary, those passages that could be properly rcad on the different feasts and celebrations, drown from the various biblical books. This multivolume book-for it rapidly grew beyond a single volume-was given Ihe nallle kQlu meros, probably from the Greek, signifying "in pans." which does indeed indicate ils content. The indeKcs previously in use continued 10 cireulate-we still have manuscripts-but they do not give the sections to be read In full. only the beginning and end

_

1435

of each [ection, which could be a source of confu· sion. The lectionary in use today was printed for the first time in 1900-1902. Information will be found in !:Ianna Malak's siudy (1964) aboul the publica· lion of each volume, both for the Onhodox and for the Catholic Copts, The original term, no doubt Greeo-<:Optic, has given rise to the Arabk tmnsHter· ation qo!omaYils according to thc vocalization adopled. As in the ancient manuscripts, there are two editions, one bilingual with the lwo lexts, <:oplic and Arabic, in parallel columns. the other with the Ambic text only. We may add one point that is important for the history of the calendar of the feasts celebraled in various places. The lectionary consists of two prin· cipal e[emenu. It supplies, of course, the p.lssagcs from the Old and above all the New Testament that ought to be read at an offiee or mass; and before these biblical sections, it includes a rubric nlention· ing the feasf or Ihe saini, the whole forming a pre' cious calendar, for the SYNAXARION itself is a literary work, renccling the personal researches of \1$ authors. Moreover, Ihc Synaxarion has becn rcmode1ed several times, and thus does [101 render an account of the :lclual usage of each church. These calendars, al leasl some from the environs of Cairo, and also liome of the mosl ancient, have been studied or published and t....mslated into French by Fram;:ois Nau (1913). Some date from the twelflh century, well before the oldest manuscripts of the SynaJtarion. A.~ for the choice of the biblical perico· pes, or p..1S5ages, it is cxamined al least [or the annual lectionaries by U, Zanelli (1988). The commentaries on the lectionary are also important, as they provide a kind of spiritual commen· tary on the lections made at each celebration. Four lectionaries arc used in the Coptic church on various OCCasions thl'ough the year: the annual qa!allll1ms, the Great Lent qa{llm{Jrus, the Pnschll qa!/Imllrus, and the Pentecost qa!aml1ms. The Annual QU(UmflrllS This indudes the readings IlSslgned fOl' all Sun· days and weekdays through the year, with the ex· eeption of those collected sepal'll.tely in the three other leclionanc.:s. Far from being gathered at random from the various books of the Bible, Ihe Gospel readings fOI" the Sunday lilUrgy are methodically arranged and coordinated so that the Gospel lections for the foul' Sundays of every month in the Coptic calendar

1436

LECTIONARY

combine 10 pI'csenl a ))<"lrticular theme. The themes of the lwelve months are planned to COITeSpond with the bcginning and end of thc yetlr, the cslab· lishment and consummation of the church, and the creation and terminaliun of the world. These themes become apparent when the subjeclS of all four Sundays of a given munth are examined as une unit, as follows: (1) Tut: the love of God the Father for mankind: (2) Babah: the authority of Christ and His power of purifying souls and bodies; (3) H~IOr. the word of the Gospel, ils blessing:'> and reward..; (4) Kiyahk: the nativity of Jesus Christ: (5) Tubah: the gracc and blessings of salvation; (6) Amshtr: spiritual nourishment; (7-9) BaramMl. Bar-.· modah, and aa... hans: during the months in which tile church observes Great Lent and celebrntes Eas· tel' and Pent«ost, the Gospel readings are closely related to fasting, pr.ayer. and repentance; (10) Sa'Onah: the fellowship of lhe Holy Spirit; (II) AbTb: Christ's authurity imparted to His disciples; and (12) Misn\: the consummation of the church. Each of the above·mentiuned themes is fully ex· pounded through the readings apportioned for ev· cl)' Sunday. Thus, in TOt, the first month of the year, the genel'DI theme of which is lhe portrayal uf God's love for mankind, the lections are designed to rellect the following constituenl clements: first SU/ldQ)' (U. 7:28-35): the wisdom of God the Fa· ther as revealed in sending John lhe Baptist to pave the w:ly fOl' Clu;st: second SundQ)' (Lk. 10:21-28): the manifl,.'lll;ltion of the gospel uf Jesus Christ; third SWldQY (Lk. 19: 1-10): the promise of salvation given to those who, like Zaechtleus, arc willing to aCCept it; lind lour'lI Sunduy (Lk. 7:36-50): Chrisl'S mercy and compassion toward sinners, Two further points are wO.1hy of nOle in lhe general framework of lections. First, when a month conlllins u fiFth Sunday, its rellding is invuriably taken from Luke 9: 12-17, which relates the miJ'Dcle of rce,ling the five lhoustlml. Second, ~ince all twelve monlhs of lhe Coplic C(llend,lr h,lVe lhirty d;lyS e;lch. ;lccordingly, should the ''eillaining five or six days (known as a/·Nasi) include 11 Sunday-the final Sunday of the year-its Go~pel reading is taken from Mal1hew 24:3-35, in which Christ talks to His disciples about variou... wllmings of the imminent end of the world and the birth pangs of the new age. Weekday readings, on the other hand, a,'e selected and arr...nged to harmoni:l:e with the life stOI)' of the saint or sainlS being commemorated on each day, as recorded in lhe Synaxarion. On eenain QC. ea...lons, such a... the Feast day of a particular saint,

the reading refers to anuther OOy in the calendar on which an amllogoull saint is commemorated. Thus, 24 Biibtlh, I} Kiyuhk, and 23 Ba'unah are the feast dayll of Saint Hillll'lon, Saint B1man the Confessor, and Saint Abanllb lhe Confessor, respectively. On each of these days tlte readings refer to 22 Tubah, the feast day of Saint Antony, the father of monasti· cl..m. Closely related to the Gospel reading of the Di· vine Uturgy are the two other readings assigned for the service of the mlsing of incense for the evening and for the muming. Fur instance, 10 fit in with the readings apportioned for the liturgy of the first Sun· day of TOt-the theme of which is God's wisdomthe Gospel fOl' the evenil1g service is laken from Mauhe..... 11:11-19, and for the morning sen'ice from Manhew 21:23-27. The theme of lhe formcr reading is God's mercy, and of the latter God's justice, mercy and justice being lhe woof and warp of God's wisdom. Similarly, on the thinl Sunday of Tubah, where the Gospel l'e:ldlng (In. 3:22-36) promises etcmal lire to those who believe in Christ the Savior, we find that the two preceding readings for the evening and morning services (In. 5:1-18 :lnd In. 3:1-21) refer, respectively, to purificalion from sin and n..newal through baptism. This system is slightly lllodified during lhe months of B3bah, Hatur. Ba'unah. Abib. Misra, and the last two Sunda)'ll of Bashans, when the story of the ResulTeclion is read ever)' time from a differenl gospel in lhe morninH service of incense raising. On the first Sunday it is Matthew 28:1-20, on the second M;lrk 16:2-8, on the third Luke 24:1-12, and on the fourth John 20: 1-18. Rcadinlls from the Pauline and C:ltholic Epistles and Acts arc al~o closely interrelaled and bear di· reetly upon lhe Gospel of the day and it~ Psalm· vel"~lcle, thereby helping to p.'Ovide an inlegro.lled mess:lge lhal the church offe~ day hy day to the faithful, as seen from Ihe following example. On 17 H:ltQr the church celebrates Lhe feast day of SainI John Chl)'sos\orn. A close look al Ihe cun· tenls of this day's readings will reveal a common th''ead, The Gospel (In. 10:1-16) speaks of lhe Good Shepherd and His care for lhe flock. It is preceded by the Psalm-versicle 73;17, 23, 24: "Thou dosl hnld Illy right hand, lhou dOSl guide lI1e wilh thy counsel, and afterward thou wilt receive me to glory." The EpiSlle 10 Timolhy la)'ll down the pastora.l duties of a presbyter 10 his eongregalion (2 Till. 3:10; 4:1-22), and in the Calholie Epistle (I Pt. 5: 1-14), the key vel"lie is ''Tend the flock of God

LEFORT, LOUIS THEOPHILE

thai is your chtlrgl:." Likewise the 1"C3ding from the

center:\ upon lhe resflOnsibilil)' of the shepherds: "Take ht:i,:d 10 yourselves and to all the flock, in which the Holy Spirit has made you guardians. to feed the church of the Lord which he oblained with his own $on" (Acts 20:28). ACl~

Great Lent QalamOnu This lectionary comprises readings assigned for the Ihrce-day r~1 of Junah and the sc\'cn-wcck WI p~eding ea...ter, known as Greal Len!. For the fast of Jonl:lh. the It:clions arc all centered upon the idea of i'alvalion through belief in the resurrection of JC5US Christ, as fofC5hadowcd by Jonah. The four chaplers of lhe book of Jonah are spread oVt:r the three days (Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday) and are read bdo~ lhc Gospel of the morning service, which is followed by a relevant sermon. The r=in theme of all Grc-:u Lent lectinns is spiro itual flmitudc. In the first four WL'CU special emphash. i.~ laid upon the llSpeCLS of such fortitude, and in the n:maining thrw wceu, upon its fruits and benefils. A major feature of worship In Lenl is lhal, with the exceplion of SDlurJays and SunJayll, the chun:h commands full abSlinence from all food and drink -nol just from foodstuffs including animal fat-till the end of the Divine Lilurgy of the ninth canonical hour, thal is, three u'duck in the nftem(J(Jn. During thc OIhcr fivc days of Ihe week, !Tom Monday to Friday, the evening service dL>CS flut include the offering of incen~ nr Gmpel reading, bUI lecliorlS for the murning raising of incense contain particub.r prophecies chosen from the Old Testament.

The Pa8cha Qu.futlllJrm· This includes lectlons Apportioned for Ihe Holy Week. Here ag'lin Ihe readings from bolh the Old and the New TeSlament are particularly corrc1a1ed 10 focus the various CVCnLQ Ihal look place in the life of Jesus ChdSI thr'Oughout Huly Week.

I

The Pentecogl Qu(umlJms The lcctions for l'enlecoSI cover a period of scv· en weeks slartlntl with the Monday Ihat follows £as. tel' Sunday. The r-eadings assigned fur cach week fOflll a whercnt unil the theme of which is closely related 10 the Sunday Gospel. PenteClJSt may be divided Into two main :qections~ The first fOl1y days follow the rt:surn;~Clion and cnd with the asccnsion, during which Christ appeared

1437

10 Ihe di~dples. 11 Is panieulnl'1y significanl lha' lhe firsl Sunday in this period is named after Thoma.~ and i.~ also referred 10 as "New Sunday." Lectlons arc cenlered upon the theme of belief in Jesus Christ. The last tcn clays (;ulminate in the descent of lhc Holy Spirit, Ihe theine being the promise of Ihe 110ly Spirit given to lhe disciples (Acts 1;4-8). [S.-e also: Holy Week: Lenl: PelitecosL] BIBLIOGRAPHY

Banub 'Abduh. KlllI/;l. al-Nilllall fj·Ma'lina/ Khuddam a/·Ka/imah It Shari! A"~I"f a/oSunah a/-Tidiyah ~/asab Tarl/b wu·MII'/aqad a/·Kan/suh a/-Qih!iyah rd-UrlhMhuLiyyah, Vol. I, Cairo, 1952; Vol. 4, 1958: Vol. 5, 1962: Vol. 6, 1965. Malak, Hanna. "l.es Li\'TeS Ihurglques de I'eglise copte." In MelanglS ElIg~"e Ti$uratl/, Vol. 3, pt. 2. Studi e Testi, Vol. 233, pp. 1-35. Valican City, 1964. Le<:lionaries are dealt with on pp. 9-12. Nau, Fr.:IIIO;ois. Us Mello/uges des evarlgeliaires cuples-arabes. PO 10, pl. 2. Paris, 1913. Yuhanna SDltlmah. Ki/Db al·l.u'Dli aloNallsah Ii Shar~ Tllqiis wa-M,,'/aqaJDf al·Kanlsoh, Vol. 2, PI'. 297-99. Cairo, 1909. Zanclli, Ugo. l.es uc/iomtaires copies allllllelsBas.n: Egyple. Publication... de l'ln:<;lilut orientaliSle de Louvaln 31. l..ouvain·la·Neuve, 1988. AItCIU\ISIIOI' BA$IIJOS REN£-CEORCES COQUIN

LEDA. See Mythological Subjects in Coptic Art.

LEFORT, LOUIS THEOPHILE (1879-1(59), Belgian Coplologt..! and Orienla!lst. He wa.~ horn at Orchimont :md studied at the Jesuit Collcge at Namur and the Petil 8eminair'e al Bastogne before guing to the University of Luuv.,in in 1901. Then he studied under Alfred Wiedemann nt Bonn. He be· came professor and honol'1lry president of Ihe OriLouvain; he was ental Institute of the University also director of the journal Lc MUSCOtI (cf. "Me· langes L. Th. LefOr'I," I-e Muser.m 59, 1946), in which most of his immense output in the field of Coptic studies was publisItL-d. He di<.-d tit Uluvain.

Or

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I>awson, W. R., and E. P. Uphill. WIIO Was WhQ ill EK)'plofol:)'. London, 1972. Kammcrer, W.. compo A Coptic Bibliography. Ann Arbor, Mich. 1950: nopr. New York, 1969. A1.tl. S. ATlVA

1438

LEGAL PROCEDURE

LEGAL PROCEDURE. See Law, Coptic.

LEGAL SOURCES, COPTIC. The sources for eoplie law arc legal documcnls in Greek. Coplie. and Arabic. The ,'cason for Ihis is Ihal se\'cral Ian· guages were in usc in Egypl in this period. as is shown also by the faci Ihal the Egyptian civil law· yers dral1ed Greek and Coplic documenls al the same lime. while CoplS who demonstrably did nOI understand Greek nevenheleu had a Greek will drawn up (Kenyon and Dell. I, 77). The Grt"ek and Coplic formularies, however, aiM) lived on in Ihe Arabic Uocumcms ul'I:lwn up for former Christians convened to Islam. This has been shown for the sale of immovable and rr..'sidenlial propcrty through invesllgalions undertaken by Frantz·Murphy. Fur· ther eomp;lrison of documenlS will enlarge Ihis picture. The nature of Ihe sources requires that the Coptic legal hislorian know lhe Ihree languages menliOlled or-if he or lihe iii concemed only with Ihe period before the Arab conquesl-Gn:ck and Coptic only. Thl~ requiremenl was met by the two legal hislori· ans who havc Icrt fundamcnlal works on Coplk law: A. A. SCHlU.ER. who also ediled Coplic legal documenlS. and A. STEINWENTER. To date no legal hlstolianli have been able 10 continue their work in Ihe field of Coptic law. 11 is tberefore impanant 10 follow Ihe path begun by Till and 10 translate Cop· tic documents that belong logelher inlO modem language groups and so make them accessible to legal historians who have either an inadequate knowledge of COpllc or Iloue al all. Till tr'anslated the Coptil: labor l:ontracts, security documents, marriage contracts (cr. his essay on alimony claims), and lelters of safe·conduct. The lcgtll historitlll Licbcsny htls conlributed an eSStly on the last group of documents. Till concerlled himself with the Coptic p:m,Jlcl documents and expressed his IIlews on the oath in Coptic legal documents and on the Coptic stipulation clause. Following the patte1'll of KrcHcr's inllcstigAtions into marriage law in the Grcco·E.gyptitln Ptlpyrus documents, Till ex· amlned the statements of the Coptic documents on marriage law and prc,~ented all the published legal documents from 'nlches to the legal historians for evaluation in a German tmnslation. Schiller and Slclnwenter assessed Ihe malcrial Ihus made avail· able (cr. the lilemlure mentioned in L\W, COPTIC). Till's services lire not diminisht.-d by the fact Ihal since the appearance of hili work, fun.her docu· ments of this group ha\'e become known and havc

enriched our knowledge. As an example we may refer to the group of marriage documents: Ihe documen! called no. 3 by Till has since been edited afresh by Kahle (Vol. 2, pp. 566-71) as no. 152. Two ful,her Coptic marriage documents from al· Ashmlinayn were ediled in 1953 by &108h and Kahle along with a document of di\"OTCe. MOlllevecchi pUI together the Greek marriage and divorce documenl$ in 1936, and Ihl.')' were trcaled afresh in 1955 by Taubenschlag. Till's 1948 work overlooked Ih:". published by Abboll (1941) on Ara· bic marriage eOnlrael5 among the Copts. which included IWO tenth·cenlury marriage documcllIs of Copts who "belong 10 Ihe lower clergy·families. " BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbott, N. "Arabic Marriage ConlraclS Among Copts." Zeilschri!t del' dell/sclren murgenliindisch~" Ge$ellsc},af/ 95 (1941):59-81. &Iogh, E., and P. E. Kahle. '1'wo Coptic Doeumenu Relaling 10 Marriage." Atgyplus 33 ( 1953):331-40. Frantz.Murphy, G. "A Comparison of the Arab and Earlier Egyptian Conlract FOmlularies. Pan I: The Arabic Conlraets from Egypt (3<.1/9lh-5Ih/ I IIh Centuries):' lOl/mal of Near Eastenl Swdies 40 (1981):203-25. Kahle, P. E. 8a/a'illlh. Coptic Texts from DeiI' d8afa'iwh in Upper EKYpt, 2 vols. London. 1954. Kenyon, F. G.. and H. I. Bell, cds. Greek Papyri ill 'he British Museum,S 11015. London, 1893-1917. Kreller, H. Erbrech/fieht U1Itersllclwngen allf Grlllld del' gracco.aegyplischell Papyrll.~lIrkll"de". Leipzig and Berlin, 1919. Liebesny, H. "RechlsieSchiCh\liche Bcmerkungen w dcn koptischen 5chutzbriefcn." MII/eilullgen de$ Del//$clum hwI/Ii/$ fUr iJgyplIsche Al/Ulllms· hmde III Ka/ro 8 (1938): 127-14. MacCoull, L. S. B. "Coptic Marriage.Contract." In ACles dll XV' COllgr~.~ ill/ema/ional de pa"yrologie, Vol. 2. Brussels, 1979. Montcllccchi, O. "Riccrchc di sociologia nej documenti dell'Egitto greco-romano 11. I contralli di matrimonio c gil aui di dillorzio." Aegyplus 16 (1936):3-83. Schiller, A. A. "Intl·oduction." In Kopliselle ReclrlsIIrkulideli des (Jelr,ell lalrrllllllderls ur/$' Dieme (T},ebetr), 2nd cd. Repr. Leipzig, 1971. Steinwenter, A. {Jas Recht der kop/isc},ell Urkun· den. Munich, 1955. Taubenschillg, R. The taw of Greco-RamUli Egypt ill lire Lighl of 'he Pupyri JJ2 B.C.-640 A..D., 2nd ed., pp. 101lr. Warsaw, 1955. Till, W. C. "Koplische Schulwricfe, mit einem rcehlsgcschichllichcn Beitrag von H. Licbc:my:'

LEMM, OSKAR EDUARDOVICH VON

MiII~j/1II1XIm ,,~S I/ellucnur

Instill/Is lur ilgyplische Alterllllllskllntfe ill Kilir/J 8 (J 938):71-146. _ _ , "Zum Eiu in den koptischen Reehtsurkunden:' leitsehrilt lilr iigyptisehe Spraehe Iwd Aller, I",nsbmde 76 (1'J-W,:74-79. _ _. "Die koptischen Ehcverlriige," In Oster' reichi.u:he National 8ibliolhek, Fe5tschrill Josef Bick, Vienna. 1948, _ _. "Die koptische StipulationsJdauseJ." On·en. lalia n.s, 19 (1950):81-87. ___ "Koplische Parallelurkunden." In Stlldi ill onore di Vi"cenV) Aratlxio-Rlliz. Vol. 4. Naples. 1952. ___ Erbrechlliche Unter3llchllngell allf Gnmd der kopti.u:he/l Unlwderl. Osterreichische Abdemie del' Wissenschaften, PhilO!iOphisch-histori.sche Klasse. Sltumgsbtrichu 229.2. Vienna. 1954. ___ "Die koptischen Aroeitsverlrlige." Eos 48, 1 (Symbolae Raph:lCli Taubenschlag dcdieatac] (1956):273-329. "Die koptischen' Btirpchaftsurkunden," Blilletin de fa 50dile d'archiofogie cupit 14 (1958):165-226. _~_ Die kopti.u:hen Rechtsurklmderl aI's Thebell (Obersetvllli). Osterreichische Akademie der Wis· senschaften. Philosophisch-historische Klasse. Sil' vmgsJnrichte 224.3. Vienna. 1964, MAJl.TIN KRAlISF..

LEGION. See Army, Roman. LEGRAIN. GEORGES (1865-1917), French At first he studied al1 and architecture in Palis under Je:m·LCon CCr6me, Auguste Choisy. l.CQn Hcu"-Cy, lind &lmond POllier, and Egyplian arch..u:ology and philology under Paul Pierret and Eugene Rcvillout at the Louvre. He went to work for the In~titut franli'ai5 d'Archeologie oliemale in Cuiro in 1892. AhhoUKh he concenlrated his ilcllvities on Egyptology and Egyplian sites, he had time fur intel'esl in the mooern COplS and Coptic folklore, ~llologisl.

BIDLIOGRAI'IIY Dawson, W, R" and E. P, Uphill. Who Was Who ill Egyptology. London, 1972. Kammerer, W., compo A Ctlptic Bihlitlgraphy. Ann Arbor, Mich. 1950: repr, New York, 1969. Aztz S, AnYA

LEIPOLDT. JOHANNES (1880-1965). German theologian alld Coplologist. He studicd theology

1439

and Egyptology. mainly Cuptic, under G<::org Stdn· dorff at Leip1.ig. He Wi\5 professor of New Testa· ment studies in leipzig (1916-1954), where he taught S. Morem:. among Olllel' notable scholars. He also published Coplic nonlilerary (Koptische Urk· wrdetl, Berlin. 1904-1905. with A. Erman) and lit· emry texts (SimI/it;; Arch/mandrItae Vita et Op~ra Omtlia, Paris. 1906-1913) and wrote tlte biography of Shenute (Leip7Jg. 1903), BIBLIOGRAPIIY Dawson, W. R., and E. P, Uphill, Who Was Who ill Egyptology. p. 172, London, 1972. MARTIN KRAUSE

LEMM, OSKAR EDUARDOVICH VON (1856-1918). Russian Coplologist, I-Ie was educated at Alexandrcwslti Lyzcum in St, Petersburg, In 1877 he went to Germany 10 study at Leip1Jg University. He published Agyptische Lesestllckc mit SchrIfllQfl'1 "lid Glossar (Leipl:ig. 1883). From 188710 1891 he Icctured at the Oriental Faculty of St. Petersburg on Egyptian. Coptic, and SCmitic languages, His principal published works on Coptic are: Bmelullicke der sQltidiselten BibeliibersetVIFIS /lQclt HQlldseltrilten der kQiserliellen offcm/ichen 8ibliOlltek VI SI. Petersbllrg (Leipzig, 1885): Koplisehe Qpokry'pltc Aposlefac. Ie" (51. Petersburg, 1890-1892); ZlI'ei koplisdre Frogmenle aus dell Fcstbriefcil des hei/igell Athallasi· IlS (Ikrlin, 1899): DerAlutlFlderrQmall bei derl Kop· 1/:/1. Ei" BeitrQg Vir GesciridUI! der Alua/ldersage 1m Orielll (51. Petersburg, 1903); DQS Trifld/Jr!, till sflh· idi.~chcs Gediehl mit aralli.~eher OI)er.~etllmg (St. Pe· lersburg, 1903): Sa/ridin:hc Bibclfwgmellle, 3 vols, (St. Petersburg, 1890-1907): Die "l'hQla.~siOll-Lc· gendc lIei dctl Koptell (Leipzig, 1912); Bruehstrlckc koplisdrer MiJrlyreraktclI (l'cll'ogmd, 1913): Koplische MIselJl/cll 1-148 (1907 -1915), reprinted frum Bulle· lill de /'Acad~mie imp~riale des sciellce~' de 51, PeIcrshllrg (Leipzig, 1972); 211 CillCIIl Ellkomilllll aul dIm hi, Viktar (Leip~jg, 1911): Kf~ille kOplische Swd/ctl I-58 (repr. Leipzig, 1972). BIBLIOGRAPHY Kammerer. W" eomp. A Coptic Bibliography. Ann Arbor, Mich" 1950: rcpr. New York, 1969, Ricci, S. de. "Les Etudes COpl1:5 en Russie et 11:5 trallault de M, lion Lemm." Revm~ Qrcll~Qfogique. ser. 4. 2 (1903):302-318. Turnev, B. A, "L..c:s Pertes rCceOies de I'oricntalismc cn Rossie:' Reel/eit de trQVQIl,'( re/Qtifs il lu philo-

1440

LENORMANT, CHARLES

/uJ:ie el il /'orchc%gie c8Jplielllles 39 (1921): 111-

Il. ALll S. Ann

LENORMANT.

CHARLES

(1802-1859), French EK)'Ptl,lll,lgist and numismatist. He accompanied J. F. CH....MPOlJJON to Egypt (1828): his journal uf the journt..'Y through Egypt was poslhumou.~ly published in 1861. He ....~ profeswr I,If Egyptian archaeology al the College de France (1848). Se\'eral of his many publications deal with Egyptology and were of great value in their time. His contribu· tions tu wptie studies may be found in A Cl,lplic Bibliography (Kammerer, 1950. 1969). D1BLlOCRAt'HY

C:trre. J.·M. Voyageur, 1'1 icrivailu !ratlfaU "PI 1!gypll'. 2 vobt Cairn, 1932. Dawson, W. R., and E. P. Uphill. Who Wos Who itl EgypIO/OI;J. London, 1972.

Kammerer. W., COll1p. It Coplic Bibliography. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1950: repro New York, 1969. AzIZ S. ATIYA

LENT, See Fasts.

LEO I TUB GREAT (c. 400-461). pope who assel1ed uncompromisingly the pl;macy of Ihe papacy, opposing both the doctrinal and ccclesia.~ti· cal claims of Alcumdria, reprcsented by the patri· lu-ch 1)I0SCOllUS I. He also helped to defend Rome again.~t threatened aBack by the l1uns. He is reg
Juvelllll uf Jerus..lem to pall;archal status. This IS his fin;t recorded contact with Alex..ndri .....orks he makes it clear t~t he regards himself, as bishop of Rome, to be a rnouthpien' of Pder. It was this "pow"r Ihat liv~ and his aUlhority that prevails in his See" (Senium 3.3). In 445, the West· ern emperor. Valentlnian Ill, pronounced thai in the provinces under his rule, "whatever the authori· ty of the Apostolic See has enacted, or may hl:reafter enaCI. shall be the law fOl' all." Bishops sum· moned fOl' lI'ial before the bishop of Rume .....ould be compelled 10 atlend. Though Valeminian's edict was aimed at sclliing a dispute belween Hila!'y. bishop of Aries, and Ihe pope. il sct a precedent fur papal supremney in the W(.'litern church throughom the Middle Ages. The ~itioll of the p
LEO I HIE GREAT

in 448 deploring the revival of "Ncstorianism," and Leo had n."lied on I June. thanking him for his solicitude. Alier his condemnalion by Ihe synod al Conslanlinople on 22 November. El,Jlyehes had included Leo among Ihe senior ecclesiastics 10 whom he appealed against hill M!ntence. Brcukdowm;, in communication bel ween Rome and Con!ltantinople prevenled flavian'!l repcll1 of the synod's procccd· ing!l from reaching Rome. Leo was irked by whal ItppcHed to be F!:lvi:m's neglect and flliled to give his colleague in Cunstanlinople timely support. It WfIS exactly a month from 13 May. whcn he reo ceived his SUlllmons to Ihe "Robber Council" Ihat Ihe Easlern emperor had coovoked al Ephesus. 10 his dispatch of his leiter to Fl:wlan on 12 June. aflinning in ullcompromising terms the doctrine of the two naturt'S of Christ. This letter. number 28. has become known to history as the Tome of Leo. Leo's objcct was to llteer between the It."achings of NC5tOriU.~ and or Elllyehe:;; on the ha.~is of accepted doctrine in thc West. Cluisl was 10 be recognized in two natures, lhe properties of each nature being presenl in the other (the COMMlINIC"'l"IU IOIOM..."lJM). Although Leo sen! similar leiters to the emperor's siSler, Pllicheria. and 10 the council via his legate. the Tome was for thc time being inelt'ectivc. It ar· rived too late to help Flavian; and. not unrea.. .o na· bly. Di()S(:orus, who presided at the council, which opened on 8 August. cunsidered that the emperor's lelle~ and the iuue between Flavi.U1 and Eulyches should be judged first. The TOll/I!! wa.<; not refused a reading but was placed fur down the agenda. Before it ....' as reached. Eutyehcs had been acquined of her· esy, and Aav~n had been condemned for di.. . turb· ing lhe good order of the church and seeking to add to the Nicene Creed (by leaching the l"eCognition of IWO natun.·.. . in Christ). He was declared deposed. The papal legate. the deacon lillarlus (lal· er pope). and JUllll..... hi . . hop of PUleoli. were gro.. . . . ly in.. . ulted. It was per}\;lps fortumlte that lhe Tome had not been read, fol' the prevailing mood of the council would have led to its condemnation (lnd ils aulhor's excommunication. So long as Empclvr Tht:odm;iu.. . II Ih'ed, Alexan· dria was the "city of the orthodox," and II Monoph. ysite interprelalion of Cyril'~ theology ....1aS the faith accepted by Ea.~tem Christendom. In Flavian's place was Dioscoros' trusted deacon and representative in the eapllal. Anatolius. Despitc great activity and Illany exposlulation..... lhere .....as lillIe th.",t Leo could do 10 aller mailers. On 28 July 450, however. "leodosius dicd a.~ the result of a hunting accident. Everything changed overnight. The new l"I.Iler, Pul·

1441

eheria, and the elderly Thr.acian officer Marcian. whom she married on 25 August, were intent on restoring relations between COn.~tantinople and Rome. In Ihe ensuing months Leo was brought round to Ihe idea of a new council, and An:llolius was weaned fronl his dependence on Dioscorus. On 23 May 451. Pulcheria and Mal'Cian SlllllfllO.,ed an c<:ulllenieal council 10 meet lit NIC""" in &.'ptt·m· her. The location was cllllnged to CllflLCUOON and lhe date changed to 8 October, but the term.. . of reference . . uited Leo. The new council W:IS "10 end Inc disputations .md settle the true faith more dear· Iy and for all time." Leo had had lasHninute ht.'Silations before ac· ceplinl Ihe emperor's invitation. In the event. the council had elemenlS both of triumph and of sel· back for him and the Roman see. The Tome was accepted as orthodox. Lc.:o'. formulation thai ",wo nalul"Cll are united without change. without division and without confusion in Christ" found iu place in the final ChristologicaJ definilion; bUI his legates failed to prevent lhe council from agreeing wilh Canon 28. which placed Constantinople on a par with the Roman see ellecpl for the "primacy of honl)r" reserved 10 the laller. Also, the Tome wa.. . accepled only because the bi.. . hops. in their willingness 10 please the emperors and their readiness 10 rid lhemselves of Dioscorus. were prepared 10 af· firm with acclamation that "Cyril and Leo laught alike." The priority. howellcr. was Cyril·s. For Ihe remainder of his pontificate. Leo W,iS oc· cupicd in long, drawn·out dispulC5 with the imperio 0.1 court and Eastern episcopate that were designt.'t1 to safeguard the Chalcedonian delinition from all reinterpret it or undermine its authoriallempls ty. and al the same time 10 deny the validity of canon 28 of the council. 11,us, ill March 453. u.'O branded 'hose who questioned the binding charne· tel' of the definition as "F..utyehians" and heretic..... On 21 June 453, in response to Marcian's requesl 10 him, liS ":,rchbishop of Rome." that he r.ltify all the decrees of lhe council. Leo . . tated his reservalions re~llrding Canon 28. Previously he had told Anatn· Iius l.hal white Constantinople might be a roylllc.;ily. nOlhing could make it inlO an apostolic see. and this remained his position. Marcian died on 26 January 457. and his succes· sor, Emperor Leo I. respected the decisions of Chalcedon. However. supporter.> of Dioscorus (who had dit..'t1 in 454) consecraled II former presbyter of Cyril·s. TIMQTIIY II "the Cat." as palriarch (16 March). Twelve days laler his rival, Prolcriu..... who had been appointt't1 at the Council of Chalcedon

'0

1442

LEONTIUS OF TRIPOLI, SAINT

llnd was loyal to il~ decrees, was rnul'del'ed (MAun' dy Thursday. 28 Mllrch). The evenl~ that followed led to a culmination of Leo's dillicuhiCll in the Ealit. Despite his protesL~. he had not been able to prevent Anatolius frum "promoting" the deacon Aetius. who had been secretary at the Council of Chalcedon, to the rnnk of presbyter in charge of unpleasant duties connected with the cemeteries of the capilal. Nor, in the same year (453), had he kept Aruuolius from consecrating the patriarch of Antioch and hence demonstrating his position as senior bishop in the East. In July 453, the dealh of Pulcheria had robbed Leo of an important supporter In ConStantinople. Now, he failed to have the murdercn of Proterius punished. Despite frantic activity in important and wcll·arxucd. Ictlcrs, dispatched on I September 457, the fiJlure of Timothy was decided by the cmperor and the bishop!! of the East. A "plebiscite" involving some 1,600 bish· ops came out overwhelmingly against TimOlhy in early 458 and vindicated Chakedon's value at least as a dillCiplinury council that also formally protect· ed the righb of the see of Constantinople against all comers. In 458 and 459, Leo allempte
In the East, howevcr, he was lells successful, and hL~ effect on the Coptic church was wholly nega· tive. Anti·Chalcl..-donian (and later. monophysite) opinion was nOt alienated from the Roman sec as such; Pope Julius I wa.~ helieved by SI'.VI'.JlUS OF ANTt· OCII. on the strength of Apollinarian forgeries. to have favored lhe "one nature:" Christology. The Tome of Leo, however, was associated with the Council of Chalcedon as an impious and heretical document. "Cursed be the Council. Cursed be the Tome of Leo" -the outcries of the populace of Anlioch at the time of Scverus' enthronement as patri· arch on 6 November 518 (John of Bcit-Aphthonia, Life of Sel'erns, p. JII)-were typical of reactions in the Easl. In EiYPt, condemnation of the Tome figured, with the abrogation of Chalcedon, as the basic requirement in every negotiation between the Coptic.Monophysite church and the imperial au' thority. For the Coptic church Leo and Cyril did not leach alike, and no one has convinced its adherents lbat Ihey did. BIBUOGRAPHY

Batiffol, P. "LOOn Ie Grand:' In Dictiollllaire de tile· ologie c(llholique, Vol. 9, pp. 218-301. Palis, 1926. Dvomik, F. 8yV'nce til la primQ/lli romai"e. Paris. 1964. frend, W. H. C. "Ea.stem Altitudes to Rome Duling the Acacian Schism." In Swdie.f in Church Jlisto'Y, ed. D. Baker, Vol. 13, p('l. 69-81. Q,I[ford, 11J76. Hofmann, P. "Del' Kampf der Papste urn KonzH und OQgma von Chalkedon von u:o dem Gro:;sen bis Hormi~da5 (451-519)." In DIU Komi! I'on Chulkedon, cd. A. CriJlmeier lind H. Bacht, Vol. 2, pp. 13-94. Wurzburg, 1953. JaJland, T. G. Thl! Life and Time.~ of SI. I.eo Ihe Greal. London, 1941. Pickman, E. M. The MimI of Lilli" Clrrisl/mdum, pp. 589-616. London, 1937. W. H. C. FREND

LEONTIUS OF TRIPOLI, SAINT, nl1lrtyr in the early founh century in Syria (feast day: 22 Ablb). The Coplic trudition has preserved in trnnsill' lion lWO documents aboul LeQnlius, a Passion and a panegyric. The two tCltts fill the finol :>evenly·live pages of II Codex Sg5 in the Pierpont Morgan Li· brary, New YO"k, dating from the ninth ccntury and anlllY/.cd by G. Gllrille. They are rcilited to a wide collection of leltL~ about Leontius in many fOrmJi and languages. Their COlitent is described here, fol-

LEONTIUS OF TRIPOLI, SAINT

lowed by an ;ll;!lC~~ment of each in the light of the Greek, Syriac Arabic, ltlld Georgian parallels. The Coptic Passion The Passion opens with Leontiu.~ "the Ambian" living in the time of pen;«ution by the emperor M:u:imian, The decree of persecution i~ receh'cd by the proconsul Julitln in Tripoli, in Syria. The angel of the Lnrd appean; 10 Publius, II noble and rich man who hal; received the young orphan Lcontius inll) his home, When Publius and Leonlius come to the lribunal to be.. r wilne$$ to their faith, Ihc hos· tile judge threatem punishment. Lcontius is scourg· ed, beaten with lashes, has sail rubbed into his wounds, and i~ burned on his sides with lamps. but the an;hangd Michael comes to cure him. Lcontius then professes his fallh in a dialogue with Julian and refuses to sacrifice to the emperor. L..eontius is then rolled upon iron spikes, sauck in the face with thongs unlil all his tt'eth are broken, and cast into boiling sulfur and lead; ag.tlin Michael descends to heal him. Leontius Ihrows earth into lulian's face and hal; his tongue slit, but Michael once again descends to cure him. The proconsul Ihen prepares a cauldron of sulfur, bilumen, and lallow unlil ils boiling makes a greal noise, but Karcely has leoni' ius enlered inw it when Ihe brew is Ir.msfonnt-d inlo cool wtlte,', so Ihallhe tallow Slicks to his body like wax. Lconlius Ihen defies Asclepius. god of healing, by hCllling a paralytic whom Ihe god call· not relieve. Finally the proconsul gives an order for the beheading of Leontius and Publius. Their last prayer is received by the arch.mgel Michael. Leon· tiw;' blood is collected to work hcalings. The eo~ es, len by Ol'dcr a.~ prey for wild beasts, are protect· cd by the angels, llnd the Christians come by night 10 bury lhem with honor. This Coptic Possion is lhe longest of those relating 10 Leonliu$. The common motifs or Coplic HAm· OCRAPHY arc prcscnt in lIbundllnce, in pal1icular the frcquen1 u..::secnlS of Ihe archangel Mi\:hae1. TIlis Iype of nUl'l'ative has all lin: marks of an imaginmy slory withoul llny actual documentation. None or the Greek documents (Bibliolheca Hagiographica Grneca 986-57u) knOW anything of Publius, bUl they associate L.eontius with lwo soldiel'S whom he convert.~, Hypatius and TheoduJe, who suffered with him under the judge Hadriao mu\:h earlier (lil'St century) in Ihe time of Vcspasian. The Coptic Pas· sian probably owes ilS origin to the foundalion or n church of Saint Lcontius at Daphne in 507, following Ihe destruction of a synagogue. For Daphne

1443

reeeived its theater uncleI' Vespasian, and the cult of Leontius must have replaced an older cult. The Syriae Passion and the corn:sp<.lnding Georgian Pa.~· sion both presuppose a lost Greek Palestinian mudel. Lcontius there is Greek, nol an Arab as he is according 10 Ihe statement of Theodore the OrienIal (BibJiotheca Hagiographica Orientalis 1163) in· sel1ed in I.he Ihle of the Coptic Passion. Probably there is some connection with the sanelUary of Leontius in thc Hauran. In Ihe Syriac and Georgian Passions, Leontius is judged with Publius under Di· ocletian and MllXlmlan by the tribune Philocrinus and then by the judge Firmilian. Publius is senl to the prCfCi;:1 Eumenius at Tyre but dies on Ihe journC)'o Leontius, who hal; been sel free, is rearrested and acourged with branches of thorny citron, men plunged into the Jea, aftcr which he dies. His body is taken up by Joannia, who in clothing it for burial takes an image of his bee and prays for her hus· band, MaufUS, who is imprl'iOncd near the emperor in Rome. Maurus l~, in fuCI, sct free, dines with thc emperor, and on his return to Tripoli is led by a siranger who disappears before he reaches the dlY. When hl~ wife shoWl> him the icon of Lcontius, h<;: recognizes thc fealures of his guide. This final epi' sode in the Syriac and Georgian telllS has migrated into one of the Greek Passions published in J964 by F. Halkin and into an unpublished Arahic Passion (Sinai Arabic m.muSCripl 406, fols. 153-89. dated from 1264). This Arabic Passion descl'ibes Maudus (a version of M(lurus) as close 10 Diocletian. l.l.'Ontius hus no compnnion, and his judge is called llfftrius (perhaps a version of Finnilianus). The Coptic Panegyric The Cnptic Panegyric is lhe mOSI striking hislori· cal piece of (II] the te",ts in prlli.~e of Lcontius. It may be contril.~ted with two Syrian panegyrics de· livered by SCVCRUS 01' ANTIOCH. on June 513 and 514 (homilies 27 and 50 In the great \:ol1c\:lion or 125 of Severus' homilies). The Coptic work, which ha.~ several parllgrnphs in COllllllon with homily 27, ap· pears to have becn delivel'ed al Tripoli, ncar the S
1444

LEPSIUS, KARL RICHARD

Copti~

Panegyric also reeounl~ a ~lory of the mar· tyrdom according to the statements of an old lllall whom So.:vo.:nl.'; himsdf ono.:t tIIt(. This slory tmphasizes Ihe torment of the cauldron in which the boil· ing tallow is tnmsformed into wax, which in Severus' time was Slill used for the healing of the sid. Three etiologic;11 mir.ldes arc Iink~d to the story and testily beyond doubt 10 the experience of an eyewitness in 488, the probable date of the conversion of Sevcrus. The corresponding Syriac passage, at Ihe point of passing to the testimony, says that Lcontius had no need of a scribe to write his Passion with all the f1ow~rs of rh~loric bec,lUse the s..int himsdf wrote it wilh Ihe cures Ihm continued to be performed at his tomb. This importall1 affirnmtion is interpreted by C. Caritle (Carille, 1968, pp. 425-26) as if no Passion yd existed in 513. But il may be ....Ihcr .. queslion of the lofty style of rhetoric, for Severus' rd1co.:tioll indkuto.:s thm in his period P,lssions were necessary l"or mor'e tl""n one saint. However that may be, in the fifth eenTUl}' the church at Tripoli r'eceived some distinguished visitors, such as Mel;mk thc Younger .lnd P~ter the fbelian. 11 would probnbly be wrong to deny the exislen~e of the tlIat1yrdom or the documental}' value of the simplest text, the Syri'H: Ptlssion, BIIIUOGRAI'HY

GtlriUe, G, "La Ptlssinn copte .~ahidique." I.e MI<-,
VAN

EsRROF.CK

BlBLiOGRAPUY

Dawson, W. R., ;tnd E. P, Uphill. Wilo Wa5 Who in Egypw/ogy. London, 1972. K
LE QUIEN, MICHEL (1f>61-17.13), French church historian. He W
Leclercq, H, "Le Quien," In Dietio'mllire d'(m:heologie chrbiemle et de lilllrgie, Vol. 8, 2. Palis, 1907-1953. AZlz S. ATiYA

LEROY, JULES {I903-1979), French hbtorhm of Chlistian iconogl1lphy of Ille anti-Chalcedonian churches. He was master of research at the Centre national de la Recherche scientilique in Paris. He studied with A, G....bar and worked on the mini..lures of Syriac, Ethiopian, and Coptic manuscripts, as well as on Coptic mural paintings. D1BLlOGRAPIlY

LEPSIUS, KARL RICHARD (11l1O-11l84), German Egyptologist. He was born at Naumburg an der SallIe and edm;aled at the universities of Ldplig, Omlingen, and Berlin, where he continued his studies of .m;h
Coqllin, R.-G. "L'Abbe Jules Leroy (1903-1979)." Bldletill de 1'f115titut frUlll;ai5 d'archcologie orientale 80 (1980):5-15. RlJ.Nll·Gr;OIlGI'S COOUIN

LETRONNE, JEAN ANTOINE (1787-1848), french nrchaeologist and classical scholar. He was born in Paris. He became keeper of national ar-

LETTER OF AMMON

chives (1840) IIml tuuk a prominent interc.~t in the deciphering of hieroslyrhics by J. F. CIlAMPOWON and Thomas Young. He made a few contribution~ to Coptic studies. He died in Paris. BIBLIOGRAPHY Dawson, W. R., and F... P. Uphill. Who Was Whu ill Ecyp/ology. London. 1972. Kammerer, W., compo A Coptic Bibliography. Ann Arbor. Mich., 1950; repro New York, 1969. A1.11. $. AnYA

LEITER OF AMMON. The two most imponant rnanuscripUi that have transmilled the tl:xt of the first G~k Life of Pachomius to us, the f'lore,lwu<s and the Alhellietlsis, ha...e also preserved the text of • document known :u; the Epistu/o Ammonis. It is a leller addressed by a bishop called Ammon to a eenain TheophHu.'1 and is followed in the manuscrip15 by a response: from the laller. The texts of the leller and of the answer were first published by Papenbrocch in 1680 in his ACTA SANe· TORUM (Bollandus, 1643) and again by F. Halkin in 1932 in his SOllcli Pochomii Vitoe Craccoe, according to the Florell/hlllS manuscript. Halkin published the version of the A/hellictlsis manuscript in 1982. No translation this text appearcd before the two published in 1982: one by A.·J. Festugit!re, following the AfhltlJietlsis milnuseript (with footnotes indicating the dl...ergent readings of the FluretllilllU mAnuscript), and the other by A. Veilleux, following the Flore'ltilws manuscript bUl laking inlo account lhe readintls of the Atillmie,uis manuscript. From the delails given in the letter itself, we know that Ammon, hom to pasan parents in Alex· andria, waS eunverleu 10 Christianity at the age of seventeen :md wenl to I'bow as a monk in 352, six ycars afler the delllh of PACIlOMlUS OF TABP.NNPSt, when THP.OOORlJS OF l'A1W.NNMB was loll lhe head of the Pacholllian koinonia (community). He spent three yeal'!l Ihe!'e in the house of lhc Alexandrian brolhel'll [lnd then transferred to NITRIA, where he spent many years before lx,'(;oming a bishop. His leller is a kind of panegyric of Theodorus, for whom he developed II great admiration during the three years he spent al Pbow. It Is accompanied in the manuscripts by a response from a cenain Theo· philus and w:u; published by l'apenbroeeh under the titfe Episwla Ali/mOl/is Episc. od Tlleophilwl/

1445

Papom AleKum/rilJe, But since the lemma of the Florclllbws manuscript has nu menlion of Theophilus and that of the Athctlicluif manuso:ript spcak.'1 of "a cel1ain Theophilus," it is far from cer· tain that the addressee of the letter was really the archbishop of Alexandria. The authenticity and the historical value of Am· mon's leller. generally acknowledged by historians. was radically questioned by l.. T. LEI'ORT (1943), whose: conclusions were in tum rejected by P. PEETERS (1946) and especially by D. J. Chilly (1954). Ammon knew Theodon.ls personally and heard about him from various people, especially from two monks called Ausonius and Elourion. Although he wrote some fony years after leaving the THEBAID. Ammon s("'i:ms to have had a very good memory for dates, and his letter Is cxtremely useful in reconstructing the chronology of early Paehomian m0nasticism. Dut the fact that he Ii...ed for II long time at Nitria after only three years al ?bow and that he wrote his leiter 50 mllny years later certainly ex' plain~ that his tenninology lind even his preoccupations (e.g., the possibility of forgiveness of sins commilled after baptism) are not particularly Pachomian. Of Theodorus and the other Pachomians he has remembered not so much their ...ir· tues and their graces of pl1lyer as their gift of prophe<;y and their mirncles.

or

BIBLIOGRAPHY Bollandus. AC/(l SOllc/orWII. Antwerp, 1643. Continued by J. B. Cal'l1cndet, G. l'lenschenius, D. Papenbroech. Venice, 1734; Paris, 1863. Chitty, 1>. J. "I'llchomian Sources Reconsidered." Jounlul 01 E,'duias/ical History 5 (1954):38-77. Balkin, r. 5IJtlcii Paclromii Vilac Cratcac. Subsidia HagiognlphiclI 19. Bl'us~els, 1932. ___ . Le Corf!It.~ alhblien de suint Pudlume avec WIC /raduCliOtJ frul1l;uise pM A.·J. FHfugicre. Ca· hlers d'odentllllsrne 2. Genev:l, 1982. Lefor1, I•. T. Le~' Vies coptes de saint f'ach6me et de ses prcmius SIICCCSSCJ/r.~, pp. Ji-I~iL Bibliolht!que du Muscon 16. Louvain, 1953; repro 1966. Peelers, P. "Lc DossIer cople de S. 1'1IchOme <;:t scs I1Ippons avec la tr'lldition grccque." AliI/Icc/a 801· laudia'w 64 (1946):258-77.

Veilleux.

La Lilllrgie dlllls Ie cbwbi/i.wlI! pach6miw aJ//V" sicclc. Pl'. 108-111. Studia Anselmi· ana 57. Rome, 1968. "achomioll Koi"OllilJ, Vol. 2, Pacllomiall Clrrollides and Rilles. Cistercian Studieli 46. Kala' mazoo, Mich., 1981. A.

ARMAN!)

Vt;.Il.t,f.UX

1446

LETTER OF PETER TO PHLLIP

LE TT ER OF PET ER TO PH ILI P, a Gnustic

Christian tract. pr'Obabl)' from the seco nd cenlUry. The onl)' manu!OCript that we hav~ of this trea tise i~ the CoptiC tramilation of thc orig inal Gn.:ck. Thc Coptic teltl (NAG HAMM .... Dr LlllRARY VIII. 2) rccuunl~ of the tl Grlo stk vers ion of Pent ecos t, the desc ent 110ly Spirit Ihat gave birth to the Chrislian chur ch. To som e Clttent, th~ trcatlo;e para llels Luke 24 and the first chapteTll of Act.s and may well shar e a com mon tmd ltion . The cent ral message is thc emp hasi s on the sute r· iological '~ollue of the simp le ael of proc laim ing the gospel. The wor ds of the apostle:'> when they prea ch are actu ally inspired by the Holy Spirit. For ellampie. when Pete r i.~ first filled whh thc Spirit, he givcs voice to the sacr ed cree d: Our illum inat or Jesu s cam e dow n and was crucified, And he wore a crow n of thur ns. Aod he put on a purp le robe; And he was cruc ified upo n a cros s; And he ....~olS buri ed in a tom b; And he rose from the dead. l'ellleeost fulfilled the prom ise made by Christ when he appe ared on the Mount of oliv es befo re the disciples in orde r to conv ey to them the imp or· tane e of the missionary aetivily Unoul to begin. He explllins how the cosm os cam e into bein g and in it man kind . which harb ors a spir itua l self that must be awa kene d and set on the path to free dom iro the spirilul,r wor ld in which ther e is no death (see GNOSTICISM). Trying to prel 'en: thn e~cape of the disciples arod othe rs like them are the arch on" (cos· mic pow en) crea ted by the Arrogant One (the Dcmlurgc). So fIll" ther e is noth ing new in this vcr· sion uf the myth ilbollt the fall and redc mpt ion of Ihe "pirit. Bowcver, the disd plcs want to know what wea pons lhey can usc to com bat the archoros and not be destroyed, The y leam that the arch ons' frght is against the "inn er pers on," that is, the "pir it· ual self. and that they can be euulllen,:d successfully by girdirog the inne r prrs on with the pvw er and undcTlItanding lhat com e from the Holy Spirit. In othe r words, the lioly Spirit gran ts to the (lis· cipl es the spirit of und erst andi ng (plll wma cpis ilme .s). emp owe ring thelll to heal and to spre ad the saving kroowledgC' abou t Christ. Anol.'
PeroteeQSt is clearly the birth day of the Cllristiaro com mun ity, but in this tellt it is set within a frame· work of ong oing revelation. The stru ctur e of the rt:slS on four sacr ed evenlS, or divine cpiphan ie", ellch in a different selling. In the first, the disciples travel to the Mount of Olives, whe re, in resp onse to thei r petition8. Christ appeaTll 10 them in the fono s of light, a voice, thun der, and light. ning. In the secorod, on lhe road back to Jern sale m, the voice is hCilrd onc e again. In the third the disci· plel; a.'rive lit the Tem ple iro Jeru sale m, whe re they ClIprrience (Jirst Pete r and then all of them ) the com ing dowro of the Boly Spir it, whi ch fills them with its pow er to prel,ch :lnd to hcal. The four1h epiphany takes pluee afte r Pentecost and afte r the first peri od of Christian missionizing, when Jesu s appeal'S to the disciples in orde r to give them his blessing. Thu", the Leiter of Peter 10 Philip reflects a lIiew accon.ling to whi ch the disc iple s' expe rien ce of on· going revd ado n Is a guidirog fact or in the developmen t of the Christl;m chu rch. The ri$en Christ ap· pear s mor e than once , both befo re
won

B1B UOG RAP IIY

Bcthi:e, H.-G, "Oc r soge nann te 'Bri ef des I'etr us an Philippus': Die Zweite '&:hrifC aus Nag.Hammadi. Codex VIII eingeleitet unci iiherset7.t vorn Berl iner Arbehskreis fOr koptisch'gnoslisehe

LIBRARIES

Schrirten." Thea/oglsclre Li/t'raluruitulIg 103 (1978):161-70. Koschorke, K. "Eine gnostlsehe I'fingslpredigt; Zur Ausein3.ndel'~et7.ung 1.wischen gnostiM:hem und kirchlichem ChriSlenlum (1m Beispiel der 'Eplslula Pelri lid Philippum' (NHC VIIT, 2)." Ztilsehri!, /lir Theologie utld Klrche 74 {I977):323-

43. ___ "Eine gnMli~he Paraphrase des johanni. schen Pl'Ologs: Zur lruerprctalion von 'EpislUla Petri ad I'hilippum' (NHC VIII, 2) 136,16137,14." ViKifiQe ChristlQllae 33 {I979):383-92. uJllikhui:tCn, G. 1', "The Leiter of Peler 10 Philip and .he New Test:lmenl.'· In NQg lIamllladi alld Gliosis, pp. 96-102. Nag IllIlIIlIIadi Studies 14. u-iden, 1978, Menard, J. E. 1,6 I~/lre de Pie"e il Philippe. Quebec, 1977. "La Lettrc d(' Pierre ... Philippe: sa slme' ture," III Nag Halllmadi and GliOSis, pp. 103-107, Nag Hammadi Studle!l 14. ~idell, 1978. MC)'<'r, M. W. Tile /.tiler o! Pder to Philip; Text. TrallS/alio", arrd Comme,rlury, Sodely of Biblical lileralure Dissertalion Series, no, 53. Chico, Calir., 1981. Perkins, P. "Peler in GnUSlic R('vellllion." In S()(:ie' I, 0/ Biblical Li'UQlllrl.' 1974 Seminar PlJpers, Vol. 2, pp. 1-13, ClImbridge, 1974. Wisse. F, "The Letter of Peler to Philip." In The Nag lIulIllIIQdi Libr(jry ill Etlglish. San Fmncisco. 1977. B£VERLY MOON

L1BANIUS (c. 314-395), Antiochene sophist and rhetorician, and II chllmpion of pagan classical literalure, He w... ~ an admirer and supporter of the apostale empcrur JULIAN. hut he also numbered among his friends and students the Christians JOHN CIlIIYSOSI'OM, UASIL THE CREAT. and 'nll10L>ORUS OF MOPSUESTIA. As n young IIHm Lib.mius spumed the teachers in Antioch and steeped himself in the Greek classics. AI abuul the llge of twenty·two, he went lu Alhens, where he studied for four years, He laler IIlUghl and lectured in Constantinople and Ni· comedia, where he first heeame a,~quainled with Julian, the young cmpcrur'to,bc. He spent the last half of his life in his beloved Anlioch, The voluminous wurks of Libanius, which PI'Ovide much valuable Informlltion on pOlitical, sodal. and economic alfaio; in the ea.~lern portion of the Roman Empil'e, include rhelurical ellOerdses, decla· matlons, oratiuns. an apolosy of Socrates, a life of Demosthenes, lin aUlobiogl'llphy, and a collection of letters that ineludC$ correspondence with ATHANASI.

1447

us, CRE,.oRY OF NYSSA, John Chrysoslom, and the emperor Juli:ln. UIBLIOGRAPIlY

Foerster, R. Liballii O,ur(l, 12 vals. in 13, Bibliothc· ca Scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana. Hildesheim, 1963, Reprinl of 1903-1923 edition. LiebefiChuctz, J, H, W. G, Amioch: Cil, alld Imperial Admi"islralion I" Ihe JAllr Roma" Empire. Ox· fonl, 1972. Pack, R. Swdiu ill Liballills and AII/ioche"e SoddY Ullder TlIeodosill$. Mcnasha, Wis., 1935. RANDALL STEWART

LIBERAL CONSTITUTIONAL PARTY, Su Political

Parti~

LIBERAL EGYPTI;\NS PARTY. See Political Parties.

LIBRARIES. In pre-ehrislian limes there were libraries In the temples of Egypt. From the Hellenis· lie period the libl'luy of Alexandria is particularly well known, 11 once sheltered 700,000 scrolls, bUI in 48-47 B.C, it fell viClim to a eonna8n1tion. A second libmry of Alexandri:l.. located at the Sera· pcum, was dC!;lroyed in A,D, 391 during the stonn' ing of the Sempeum. When Egypt W{lS Christianized, other libraries in addition to AlexandRia were scI up, above ,Ill in the chief cenler~ uf the bishoprics of Egypt and lmer also in the monaSleries. Of lhese, despite the dry climate, which is f:lVorabJc to the preservation of libraries, only remnanlS have survived, The library of the archbishop of Alexandria was particularly large, It .~el'ved also fol' the theological instruction ilt the (;ATI!CHlITtCAL SCHOOl_ In the lime of OIlICL:N it wa.~ the model fur the library of Jerusalem, and after his banishment fr'Om Alexandrill (231), Origen built up an il11portllnt libmry in Caesarel'l on the model of the library in Alexandria. An impressiun of the numbet· of hooks in a church is afforded by the inventory Jist of the Church of Thcodorus in Hermopolis, which men· tions thirty·one books without naming the litlL'S (Crum, 1909, no, 238, pp. 112-14), According I\) Crum (1905, XII, no, 5), the Coptie manuscriplli of Turin may have belonged to a church in Thinis (Abydos).

1448

LIBRARIES

On the evidence of the literary sources, the Ii· braries of the Egyplian monasteries were especially large. The Rule of PACllOMIUS required tllat those entering the monastery not only lOhould leam Bible texts by heart but abo should leam to read. Every monastery contained a library, !'mm which during weekdays a monk could borrow a book to ....-ad in his cell. In the evening he had to lay il on Ihe windowsill, in ordel' Ihal the superior's representa· tive might count the vulumes and lock thelll up for the night (Leipoldl, 1962, pp. 210/£.). No list has sUlvived of Ihe books in the monasteries of I·aeh· omius. Under SHF.NUTI!. too, the monks hal.! to learn to read. In a room siTuated to the north of the gretlt apse of the church of the White Monastery (UAYIt AN· sA SllINDoAIl), inscriptions were found on all foul' walls that name the titles of books, sometimes wilh the number of copies of Ihe book concemed. From this. Crum concluded that the monastery Iibr..ary wa.~ located in this room (1904, p. 552; 1909, pp. xrr.). According 10 the Inscriptions (Crum, 1904, pp. 5641£.). the New TcsUlIlIclit bO<:!ks were on shelves 011 the north wall, thme of the Old Testamenl on the 50Ulh wall, the homiletic and historical books on Ihc elIst wall, and Ihe biographies on the west wall. Of Ihe four Gospels Ihere werc more than a hundred eopks; of the Life of Pal;homius, twenty; and of the Ufe of Shenute, eight. Individual biog....phics of Pachomius, the founder of mona.slidsm, and of his SUl;eelOSOl'5 HORSIEStOS and THEOOORIIS OF TABENN~ are mentioned, as well as of Abl1lham of Pbow. Along.~ide Shenute his SUCI;es50r 8F.AA appeal'1l, as well as a scries of other monks: PI5ENTIUS 01' {."()PTOS, JOliN COL080S. Apa Apollo, Apa E1ia.~, SAMUEl OF OALAMUN. lind others. It i~ not known from what pcdod the inscdptlon~ (;Ol11e. There are dated in~criptions from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The period wilen the mon(lslcl)' nourished extends down to the thirteenth centuly. of the oldest m'lI1useripts, which were wrilten on papyms, none has SUlvived. Even of the cady parchment codices, which replaced pllpyms in the sixth .md seventh centuries, only scant remains are preselVed. On Ihe evidence of the colophon!!, manuscripts were given as gifts to the Ii· brary of thc While Mona.<;lery by olher monasteries (e.g., in Ihe FayyUm) and by private pcrSOlis. AI the beginning of the eighteenth I;entury, the lil'$t leaves of manuscripls from this libral)' came 10 Europe, initially in the collection of Cardinal Borgia, lind then through C. G. Waide and H. Tallam to Oxford. R. Cur.,wn also brought manuscripts from

his travels in Egypt. In 1883 C. Maspcro bought all Ihe manuscripts Ihat remained in the 1ll0na.<;lery lib.....l I)'. These are now in Paris (d. Hyvemal. 1933). Pan.~ of manuscriplS or individual pages are to' day divided among the libraries of many eounlries. In addition to Egypt (Cairo) these indude Italy (Na· p[cs, Rome, and Venice), Great Britain (London, Manchester, Oxford), F....nce (Paris), Austria (Vien· na), Russia (Lcningr..d. Mas<:ow), the Netherland.. (uiden), Sweden (Stockholm), Gennany (Berlin), and Ihe Uniled Stales (Ann Arbor). W. E. Crum, O. von Lemm, Ii. Hyvemat, L T. Lefort, and othcl'$ began the task of rcconstnll,;ting the original I;odi· ccs. Othcr seho[ars. among whom D. W. Young and T. Odandi should especially bc mentioned, have continued the work more recently. [n the libl'ul'ies of older monusteries there were Greek a.~ well ;is Coptic cudices. This is shown by a lI10mlstery manuscript Ii~t deriving from the FllyyUm (Crum, 1892, p. 50). It includes the writ· ings of the New Testament In several copies, both in Creek and in Coptil;, the Psalter in ooth Ian· guag...'S. Icctionaries. and a series of theological boob. Some of the. codicl'S were of papyrus, some of parchment. There is a fUI,her book lisl in Turin (Crulll, 1926, Vol. I, p. 205 and n. 3). The works of Origen and I>II>YMUS, written in Greek, IIlat were found in 194 I in the monastery of Arscnius at TUr.Jh also I;amc from a monastery li· brary (Koenen and MUller.Wiener, 1968, p. 48 and n. 14). The library of DAylt AI'A f"IIOlRA~IMON i~ designated in child donal ion dOl;uments (sec OONATION OF CHtLOREN) as Ihe place where such d...~ds were to be deposited (e.g., KOpli$che RecJluurlwtldl.!t1, no. 89. I. 36). While we have no infunnalion aoout the num· ber of the manuscl'ipts kept In It, a part of the monastery archives h;is survived. I'rom the neigh· borhuOl:I of this impol'lnnt monastery comes u U· bl'lll)' catalog (d. Coquin, 1975) of the period about 600, written on a lal'ge limeSlone OStracon, from Ihe Olhel'wise lillle·known monastery of ElhlS (Crum, 1926, Vol. I. p. 113). [I enumerates in three SC<:tions some eighty titles with a statement of the writing material. For the most part il is a queslion of P(.pyrus I;odices, oel;a.~ionally with the addition "new." Parchment codil;cs arc ill Ihe minority. The ostl'acon, bought from a dealer ill Luxor and published by U. Bouriant, wali discussed in detail by Crum along with the remains of literary texts found in Thebes (1926, Vol. I, pp. 197-208). His arguments arc in part to be COlT«ted in accordance with the new edition by R.-G. Coquin, who I;ffiend-

LIBRARIES

ed erTOl"ll in the first edition. In &ddhion to lhi: books of the Old and New Testamems, sometimes in two or mOI'e examples, the following are lIIentioned: I.J!CTIONARIES. church canons, a book about the binh of the loOl'd and the fcasl of Epiphany, the life of Mary, books abom JOHN mE BAPTIST. works of the monastic falhers PACIIOMllIS and Shenutc. the church liUhel"ll ATHANASIUS and CYRil. I (lhe Greal), biographies of and encomia on monks (Paehomius, Shenute, Apa THOMAS ntP.. ANCHORrrF~ etc.), manyrs (Archbishop Peter of Alexandria, Apa EpithymilCS, etc.) and church falhers (EPIPHANIUS. BASil TIlE GREAT), two books about burials, and a medicine book (see PAPYIlI. c,:OI7lC MEDICAL). From a later period come two manuscript discov· eries from two monastery libraries. These are, lil"llt, the lind of lifty.six codices from the monastery of the archang1.:\ MtCI1AEI., situated al Sopehes in the Fayyilm, which passed almost completely to the Pierpont Morgan Libnuy. They we~ written between 820 and 920 in the Fayytim and were published in facsimilc by Hyvenlat In 1922. The extant library (complete in\'entory in Hyvernat, 1922) con· lains, in addilion to books of the Old and New Testaments, lectionarics, homilit.'S, and an antiphonary. The sermons are traced back to archbishops of Alexandria (!'t,TER I, ATHANASIUS I. TIMOTI1Y I. THF.oI'HtlUS. CYRil I. D1OSCORUS I, JOlIN Ill), to bishops of other, non-Egyplian cities (CYRTl OF JF.RUSAlEt>l, JOtIN CHRYSOSTOM of Conslantinuple, DEMETRIUS OF A"'J'I. OCIl. SEVI!JtU$ OF ANTIOCH. Basil the Greal of Cat.'S."lrea, SF.VF.RIAN 01' JAIMUlIl) aml uf Egyptian dioceses (Macarius of Antalopolis, ConsTantine of Lyeopolis, Stephen of HeltlkIcOp<.ltis), and ahbot Shenute of Atrlb. Among PassiOns of rnartYI1i lire those of COlUJTllUS, COSMAS AND DAMIAN. Cyprian, Elias, McItCURlUS. PUOI· BAMMON O~ I'ItUIlT, (md botb TUEODORUS STRATFtL\TFS Dnd QricntaJis, os well as lhe mirade stories of $alnt MllNAS and Phoibammon. The biogmphies deal with the apOSlle John, the protomartyr Ste· phen, and the monks and hermits Antony of Kome, Apollo, ARCIll!l.l.IIlF.s, LONGINUS and Lucius, ONOPHRlUS, PHlIl. Imd SAMO'll OF OAL\MON. The installation of lhe archangels GAJIIUm. and Michael is also dealt with, as is the death of the palria!"ch ISI\AC. The codices of the mon:lSterie.~ :It Idfu were wril· len somewhat later, from 974 to lhe twelfth cenlury, above :.11 those of lhe Mercurius monastery, which were boughl in Egypt in 1907 by R. de RUM' aijaelJ and passed to the B.itish Museum, where they were published by E. A. W, Budge between 1910 and 1915. As the titles of Budge's publications

1449

show, these are biblical and apocryphal writings, homilies, and passions. From the Middle Ageli come the surviving libraI" ies of lhe monasteries of tbe Wadi al-Na!riin, which we"e investigaled by H. Evelyn.White ill 1920~ 1921. The older IibrariCli were dcstroyed mainly through the inl'Oad5 of the bedouin in lhe years 408, 434, 444, and 817. That of tbe Macarius monastery (CAYR ANRA MAoAR) IIluSI have been panieularly imponant, since the emperor annually provided money for ii, llnd in lhe middle of the sixth century lhe patriarch lransferred his seat 10 Ihls monastery. The library surviving from the Middle ASCli fell into decay about the middle of the fourteenth Cef!lury, and its dispcl"ll8\ began in the sevemeemh century. J. S. Assemani brought valuable books tu the Vatican; Huntington to the Bodleian Library in Oxford: Tallam's books passed to the John Ry\ands library in Manchester, and K. von Tischendorf brought codices to Leipzig and Cambridgc, 10 mention only the most important European travelers, before Evelyn-White brought the remains of Ihe masl important manuscripLS that had remained in the qil.'!'" to the Coplic Museum In Cairo. The fate of the librory of the Syrian monastery (DAYk A....SURYAN) is dealt with by Evelyn-White (1926-1933, Vol. 2, PI'. 439-58), as Is Ihat of the smaller monasteri~ (Vol. I, 1926, pp. 270-74). For the reconSlIlIction of the libraries of the monasteries or the Wadi al-Nalriin, all the codice5 brought to European Iibrari~ must be taken into considerotion, a~ well a~ Ihe remna"l~ lhat still remain.

D1DLlOCRAPIIY Boudant, U. "NOles de voyage." Rllcueil de Irm'au): I I (1889):13\-38. Budge, E. A. W. Coplle HOllllliu i/1 IlJe Via/eel 01 Upper Egypl Edited lrom the Papyrus Codex Orienta/ 500/ ill Ihe Urilish Musellm. London, 1910. ---c:-' Cupric Apocryphll ill Ihe Dialect of Upper £l'Ypl. Londun, 1913. ---c:-' Coptic Martyrdoms, elc., ill the Dia/eel of Upper Egypl. London, 1914. ---c:-' Mi.~cell(ll,eous Coptic TexiS ;1/ Ihe Dialect of Upper £gypl. London, 1915. Coquin, R.·G. "I.e clIlalogue de la bibJiothcque du couvenl de Saini Elie 'du rocber.'" Bullelin de I'll/Srilul Iranr;ais d'Archeologie oriertlale 75 (1975):207-239. Crum, W. E. "Coptic Papyri." In Medllm, cd. Flindel"ll Petrie, p. 50. London, 1892. "Inscriptions from Shenoulc's Monaslcry." Journal of ThealogicaJ Siudies 5 (1904):552-69.

1450

LIBYA

___ Calalogue of Iile Coptic Manuscripls ill Ihe Brilish Alllseum, London, 1905. ___ CII/(,/oglle of Il,e Cuptic Mmlll.'cripls in Ihe Col/ectiull of tlte lohl/ Ry/al/(ls Library, Mal/ches· ler, Manchester, 1909. _ _ . The Monastery of Epiplta"i1/$ al The.bes, p. I. New York, 1926. Crum, W. 1:... and G, Stcindorlf. Koplisehe Reehtsurklmdell des Acllle" lallr/llfl/derIS ailS Djeme (The· be,,). leipzig. 1912. Repr, 1971. Evelyn·White, H. The MOllasteries of Ihe Wadi "I Nldr"/l, 3 vol$. New York, 1926-1933. HebbclYllck, A. "l...cs manuscriL.. coptes-sahidiques du 'Monastere Blanc: Recherches sur ICli rragments eumpl~menlaircs de la collection Bo~ia:' u MI/UUII, n..s. 12 {I911):91-154; n.$. 13 (1912):275-362. H)'Vemal, H. Bibliulhet;at Piupoll/ Murgtm codices coplid photographlce expn!1Si, 56 \'015. in 63 fac$imilcs. Rome, 1922. ___ "Introduction au Porcher, E., Anal)'5C des m:lnuscrilS cOptes 131 1-1 de la Bibliothetjue natlOTmle, 3Vl'C indication des teXh:S bibJiques." Re· vile d'E8Ypt%gie I (1933):105-116. Koenen, L, and W. Molle...Wiener. "Zu den Papyri ;lUS denl AT$eni()$kluSler bei Turn." ailschrifl (iir Papyrolugit IIl1d Epigraphilr. 2 (1968):42~63. l...eipoldt. J. "Pachom:' Bld/l'li" de /a SOCiele d'ur· chiologie copte 16 (1962):191-229. Lemm, O. von. KOplische Miscell/!II. St. Petersburg, 1914. Repr. l.cipzig, 1972. Lucchesi. E. Ripertoire de$ It/mwscrits COpieS (salli· diques) pl/bUis de 1/1 BibIiOlhi-.qllt: lIatiOllal1! de P(lri.~. C:;Ihien\ lI'Orienl.:llisme I. Geneva. 1981. Orlandi, T. "Un culliee copto del 'MonaSlcro Bian· cu:" {.e MII.,eou 81 (1968):351-405, _---:' "Un pl'Ojet milanais concernant les m:.nullCritS eopK'S
LIBYA. See PellUipolis.

LIGHTING EQUIPMENT. See Metalwork, Coptie.

LINEN. See

Te~tiles, Coptic: Yams.

LINGUISTICS, COPTIC. See Appendix. LINTELS, See Woudwork. Coptic. LITERATURE, COPTIC. National litel'atures are defined not only by the language in which they are wnlten bUI abo by ethnic and eullural affinitie.s thaI bind their authors. That i$ why we may distinguish an American Iiler,lluT(" in English from Bril· ish litel".llure or a Latin-American literature in Spanish from Spanish Iilerature. The Iitcrnlure in the Coptic language is unusual bt..:i;ause il should be considered as part uf a wider lileraturc that in· c1udes patristic Greek literature and Christian Arabic literature written in Egypt. Thi$ anicle will ex· amine Christian IIteralure wrillco in the Coptic language from the $("cond century lill the eleventh century. by which time Coptic had bL"Cn vit1uaJly superseded by Arahic, WC sh;lll exelude magical and medical texts. thuugh the most ancient of them may be considered lhe fil,;t examples of Coptic wI'iting.

The Bt!ginnlngs The origins of Coptic lilel'lllUl'e are problemalic hecause the uucumenlalion is scant. Neverlheles.~, since lhe Greek langl1at\e predominaled in Egypl rOl' .~ome lime before and after the beginning of the Chrisli:m era, we can assume lhal Greek Iiteralurc was at the bllse or Coplic litcmtl1re, ulfecling ilS devc!opmenl ill bOlh content
LITERATURE, COPTIC

Ueal ur Gnustic(i;:ing) le~ls. l3ut neither of Ihese ideas Is supJlOI1ed hy documented proof. Olher schulani have im.licated monastic gl"Oups as the place fm' the transl:lIing and mis.~ionary activity as their purpose. According 10 this view, it seemed necessary 10 make the lexlS of the new Chlistian religion spreading through Egypt comprehensible to those who did not understand Greek. Thl~ view may bc partially lrue, but the ronnation and uSC: of the COplic language appear so complicated, gin'n the acceplanee of an enonnous number of Greek words and the importance of Greek syntaJl, th:11 the "practical" purpose of tmnslation dot:s nol seem to hold. Other purposes should be considered, namely. thc cffort 10 revive a national Egyptian culture long since in decline lhough never completely dead and a wl
1451

to comaCl~ with A.~iatie cirdes, l'ather than the AI· cXilndrian school, and therefore to an origin in the Nile Valley rather than Alexandl1a. The lil'lit person who might have wrillen (or rath· er dictated) originally in Coptic was Saini ANTONY, a hcnnit in the desert in the Sl,'cond ..:entUl}'. We ha\'e a collection of his 5e\'cn leue.."'. existing in Latin (from a losl Greek original), in Georgian, and in Coplic (some fragments). I3llt whelher the Coplic text a~ we now have it is the original one or a translation from the Greek is not known. Another person who might have written in Coptic is HIERACAS OF LWNTOI'OUS, a fascinating figure in the beginning of Egyptian mona~tidsm and Chris· tian culture, According to Epiphanius of Salamis (Pallario" 67, 1 and 3), he was well acquainted with both Egyptian and Greek science and wrote a biblical exea;esis and nine Psalms in both COptic and Gret'k. He was a professional scribe and therefore may have been a central figure in the formalion of the Coplic language, script, and literature. He wa.~ probably a followcr of ORtGEN in his exegclieal (allegorical) methods, which he expanded into Gnostic id<.'M. All this fits intu the frame of the bt.-ginning of Coptic literature, but nothing more than this can be said at prcscnt. The first original lIuthor or whom we are well infonned by hislorical documenlS and some extant wol'ks is Saint I'ACllOM1US, 1'1 fourth-century abbot. Until a few years ago, we could speak of the li!erary achievements uf the Pl\..:humilln communities only on the ha.~is of general deductions rather than wilh much concrete evidence, From Pachomius himself in the Coptic Illngullge, we had but a few fragmenlS of his rule and othcr texts of doubtful aUlhenticity, This situation was r'adically changed in 1972 by lhe identification of lhe Coptic text of some of Pachom· ius' leHers 11 nd orJellel"S uf his sueeCSSOni Sllint THEO· DORlJ5 01' TA8IlNNf>S£ and Saint 1I0RSlESros. The fundumentul queslions about lhe aulhenticily of lhe le~t of I'llcholllius' lellers and its original language arc nol yet completely clarified, but we Illay make thr'ee observatIons. First, such an ancient text, ultrihuted with precision to only one particularly noted awhor, Illay well be considel"ed genu· inc, at lea.~t until some olher documentation is found lhill proves lhe conTral)'. Second, the pecu· lial' fonn of transmission of the text (scrolls were often uset.l, mlher thftn lhe USual codex) paints to something special in the Coptic tradition. 111ird, a~ to rhe original lunguagc. everything leads us to believe that the leuers were indeed wriuen in Coptic.

1452

LITERATURE, COPTIC

The works or Pachomius and his immediate successors, therefore, represent the olde~t original Coptic teillS wilh true literary characteristics. Their content and fonn (especially in the letters of Pachomius) are rather problematic, mainly because of the alphabet used. Also, there is difficulty in understanding the general meaning, because the text was fonned of a sequence uf biblical quotations and short connecting sentences, without a real structllre.

In fuct, it is possible that, though Paehomius and his sucees,o;on; acccpll:d the function or some kind of writing in Christian monastic spirituality, they r-.::jected the r'Ules of literature formed in the Greek rhetorical tradition lind accepted by other Christian aUlhol's writing in Greek or L.... tin,

Shenule The initial step toward uccepting the common rulc:> of litcr~turc when producing Coptic tcxts was taken by Saint SHl'.NllTE. fifth-ecntury ubbot of Atrtb, 1:111.'1' known as the famous Dayr Anba Shiniidah (the White Monastery) of Upper Egypt. He has I;gluIy gained wide renown amona both his contemporaries and modern scholars as the most important author of Coptic literature. But the documented e....aluation of his work.~ apart from a generic appre· ciation is very difficult for many reasons. The manuscripU containing his works were conseiVed almost exclusively in the library of hili mono astery. from which they were Mlrted only in frog· nlenlS, and it wa... as fragmcnts that they became known as, through the years. they reached various parts of Europe and America. The first ponions arrived in Italy in the I.'ightccnth century (Bor'gla and Nani collections, now in Rome, Naples, and Venice). In 1888 came the imponant discovcl)' of lhe remains of the White Monastery library. MOSI of the find was laken to Paris, while smaller ponions wenl IQ Leiden, Lnndon, Vienna, and el.~ewhere. The work of cdlling begllO rather quickly, and the e_tensive publication of te_t.s began in 1903, by E.C. AMJ1.L1NEAU. C. F. J. WESSELY. and J. U!II'OLD'r. and W.E. CRUM. The manner in which Shenule's work was edited L" not liatisfuclOry, though it was justified by the poverty of technical and practical ml..'ans available at the time. The schollll'$ worked mainly on one collection, I1Irely trying to put together fragments of the same work from different collections. So Amclinl..'au limitl..-d himself to the Borgia fragments, merely transcribing and translating them in haMe

without indicating any internal structure or the general meaning of the pieces. Wessell' limited himletf to transcribing the fragments at Vienna, with no translation or critical work. I...eipoJ.dt, whose research dales from 1908-1913, concenll1lled on the Paris collection. Unlike Am~· Iineau, Leipoldt (working with lhe help of Crum) sought Ollt fragments in which a title or some other indication penniltcd him to characteri:1.e and thereby organize them. But he was unable to achicve much beyond a collection of excerpts that are generally brief and all in all among the least :>ignificant ellamples of Shenute's thinking. Also, although he did seek out parallel codices in other colleclions, he omilled the eSliential lask of pUlling lhese fragments in the original or'der of the codell from which they were taken. So it happens that he published, under differenl numbers and titles, fragments frorn the same work. In the meantime, P. LA[)FJJ7.P~ who worked in the Univel'Sity of Louvain, published a fundamental monograph on Shenute. His l-esearch was the rcsuh of hiSlOrical criticism by Catholic scholal'$; it W8li sound In philology but somewhat lacking in a more liberal approach. Unfol1unatdy, he could not a\'ail himself of the ICJlU published by Amelineau and by Leipoldt and Crom. So hili work was severdy critici7.ed by liberal Pmtcstants, cspe<:ially A. Harnack and his collaboralOI'$. The basic monograph about Shl,:nute remains the one published by Leipoldl, who proposed thl,: finol historic evaluation of Shenutc's works. Although he was too severe in his judgment of Shenutc as wrill,:r, tht:ologian, and eccleliimotical [l,:ader, he did Iry to reconstruct the figure of Shenute in the frame of the Egyptian church and monasticism of his times. However, owing to a lack of sympathy toward monastic life in general, and toward lhal of Shenute and Egypl in pal1icuJar, his cvaluation of the man and wriler remained unkind and hardly objeclive. In atlempling any analysis uf Shenule, we must admit lhal there arc Slill vel)' few codices, cithcl' complete or par1ially complete, Ihul give a !mti.~fac tory idea of the transmission of his work.... But we may menlion at least three: one at the Louvre, the other two at the lostitut fr.m~ais d'Archeologie orientale in Cairo. They demonlitl'atc lhat the works of Shenute were gathered into CQrPQrQ, with I.itles and remarks, which are useful in placing them in some historical context. The remaining work to be done on thl.' remnants of lhe Shenute codices depends on the basic task of reconstituting the White Monastery library. This

LITERATURE, COPTIC

wort is beginning to yield liOme results thaI add to the theory Ihat places the Gnoslici:t!ng codices dis· covered al Nag liammadi (see HAC HA.MMADI U· BRARY) in a monastic selling of Upper Ea,ypt and thaI have reawakened an Inlerest In Shenute, which had become somewhat donn;mt. Aboul the historical figure of Shenute, one of Ihe 61"$1 problem.~ to be examined is that of his rdation to Pachomian monasticism. The common belief was that Shenule and hili community remained ba· si..ally Pachomian, ..xcept for some reforms of the roles. Four (acts, however, seem to contradici Ihis idea. Firllt, there OIre two different trndilions ..bout lhe participation of COplS al lhe lirst Coun.. i1 of EPHESUS as helpeno; of the patriarch CYRIL I: thc PlU;' homian tradition ccnlen::d on Ihe monk VICTOR OF TAUIlNNJ1Sn and the Shenulean cenlered on Shenule himself. Second, at the Ijme of lhe Cha1cedonian crisis, Ihe PachOlllians remained failhful 10 Ihe imperial authority, even :It lhe CoSI of losing some of their archimandrites, while lhe followers of Shenute persisted in their loyalty 10 Ihe allli· ChaJccdonilm p"lrial'chs descellding from DJOSCORUS I and Ihus held to a more genuinely Egyptian cui· lun:. Third, although Shenule's works (and those of BESA.. his successor) were in a $Cnsc inlroducl."t.I into a literary tradilion ..rcalcd by Pachomius, Shenule followed Pachomius only inliOfar as they both wrule in Coptic. As to the content, form, style. and quando ty, lhere is great divergence in their writings. whilc P:tehomius did nOI {'specially wanl to be a literary figure, Shenule soughl not only 10 use Ihe language per se bUI also wished to make il a means of lilerary c1fpression complelely individual and highly developed. Fourth, although Ihe documenlation 10day is yet anylhing bUI l'lbu.ldant, we find diffen~nc· es in theology also_ Whereas Shenute shows cleur examples of an lUlli·Origenist Sland (with all that this implies also (ot' Gnostlcb.lng lexls), lhere is no such evidence for lhe pllchorllians, because the evidence in thc various Lives of I'nchomius should be considered suspect. From what llppcar.l in Ihc dussier of A.GATlIONtCUS Of 'l'AII.SUS, we have rea'lOn to believe that even the Origenist doctrines of IlVAGIl.IUS PONTICIIS mighl have been aecepled by some of the lirsl PaehOlilian cOIlimunitiC5. This fourth point leads 10 Ihe Question of Shenute's theological background. Allhough Leipoldt harshly denied ii, we can nOw read al leasl two works in which ShenUle showed that he was not only abreast of Ihe doctrinal currents of his own time but also kne..... how to discuss them in an original way, ~urely ..nd ably. Fil"llt, we have a

1453

work published by L T. Lefort Ihal Ireals lhe wellknown issues of the InCllmalion and Irnnsubsunlia· lion, especially against Ihe Nestorian heTc!tJ'_ We aiM) have a text, recently recOnSlructed from many fragmeots, lhal discusses problems penaining to lhc Orlgenlst contm\'ersy of the beginning of the fifth ccntury, as well as some popular Gnostic ideasfound in Ihe codices from Nag Hammadi-about the creation, Ihe preexislence of lhe liOul. apocryphal lilerature, Christology, prayer. and angels. We know today Ihal Shenule was a highly eduClUed person. He knew lhe Greek lantluage and Greek literature, nut only ecclesiastical but also dllssieal; he knew theology "nd was inlerested in many subtle questions of elhies and physics, which he trealed ill a manner characteristic of his limes. His influence on Coptic lilCntlurc is due nOt only to his vasl produclion bUI also tn Ihe work of tnlTlsl,,· lion lhal he fostered and supervised, as il seems, in his monastery. It is velY probable thai much of the lllalel'h,1 to be eltamined in the next st:clion was produced lhere. T,...mslallons of Ihe Fourlh and Firth Cenlurles Ap.'lrt from lhe worJu; of Shcnutc, and possibly of liOme unfamiliar authors such as &lint rAUL OF TAM· MIl.. Coptic literature of lbe fourth and fifth centur· ies cO'lsis\.S mostly of tran.dations. Except for the language. this literature is nol in itself very inleresting for scholars, who would prefer to analyze Ihe authors' original Ihoughl and styk; lhis is one of Ihe reasons why Ihe sludy of Coptic literature is generally neglc"led. In facl, we shOlIl sec Ihal lhere lire many original lexls lhat are disguised as translations and that lherefore did not aU ...,ael the alienI ion of sc:hol;lr.l. They belong ill My Case to lhe laler period (nf lhe CYCLES). Whal is interesting about the II'llllslntlons of the rOUl'lh and tiflh centuries is the peculiar ehuice uf material made by the Coptic: Imnsl'IIOrs. whel'cas we generally possess systematic translalions of cor· pora of Ihe most important Creek authors in Syr'iac, Annenian, Georgian (and laler in Arabic and Elh;· ople), in Coptic the situation is enlirely differen!. In vain we look for basic texis such liS lhe Annenian lranshuion of Jrenaeus, or Ihe Syriac transl.uion of the works of SEVUUS OF ANTIOCH, 1I0t 10 mention lhe most imponanl homilelical, Iheological, and historical works of the chureh falhcl"ll of the time. The Coptic preference wa..~ rather for the minor production of those fathers such as individual Hom-

1454

LITERATURE, COPTIC

ilie!> p,....scrv<..-d in Greek (if at all) in secondary colk'Ctions. oflen changing thcir attribution for accidental rcMuns-such M elTOrs in manuliCripl lr.lnl,mission or the intcrests of SC'lme collector. In faCI, it seems evidenl that during this period the Copa chose texts for tl'an!>lation without eonsid· ering the name of the authu!' very .~eriously. It is even p05.~ihle thOlt in the beginning texIs eireulnlcd nnonymously, only to have an aUlhor assigned to lhem Illter on. An example Is the homily on the Canaanitish woman, by S.... inl JOliN C/lR'ISOSTOM. whose alll'lbution in Coptic to F.lJSF.RIUS OF CAI:.sAII.I!A. "the historiugrnl>her," i!> explicable only by it... initial allu.'iion to the church alld hi!> history. Anolher reason leading us to Ihink that the au· thor per se was of Hule importance to the Copts i.s the fact that the Egyplian write~-including the venerated bishops of Alexandria-were quite un· fairly trealed when it came 10 Ihe choice of matcri· OIl for tmnslntion. So for thc homilies lreating the problem of Ihc N<..'Slorian hcrcsy. PRDeWS OF CON· ST... NTINOPLE was dlOsen rather than Cyril himself. A hu-ge place WM reserved for JOHN CHRYSOSTOM, because of thc gre(ll literary f..me tlml spread his texts inlO Egypl, notwithstanding the bad relations between him lind the parlia1"(:h TllEOPHILUS Of' I\UJX ... N· OKlA. The material selected for translation seems to havc bl.-en chosen chieny according 10 Ihe requirc· ments of a spI.:cial seclion of Egyptian society. Ihe monastic &roup.'i. M..ny of Ihe lranslations lreated spiritual problems peculiar to Egypti..n MONAl>rlCISM. Ap:tn from that, the criterion for selection seem!> 10 have been whatever the "normal" market W-dS oITering. a market geared more for popular consumption than for the demands of any "official" levcl. Accordingly, Ihe needs of pleasing simply educated people were also eon~iJcrcd. As to literary genre, the texts cho.scn for rransla· tion may be divided inlO rwo basic groups: lhe homilies of the church I"nlheT!l ..nd the mm1yrdoms (or Iivcs) or sainlS. For most of lhese le~ts we have the Creek original (though, a'i we have said. the attributiun Illay vary in Creek ano in Coptic): olhers havc no corresponding Greek text. but their style and content make it sufficiently evident thai they '....~re lranslated from the C~k. All relevant information about the tn:aoslatlons of individual authors or hagiographical worb is found in their respective enlries. Therefore we shall !>imply mention now thc names of rhc church FatheD: ...·mANASlus I. BASIL THE GREAT. CYRIL I of Alexandria, CYRIL OF JEll.USAI.J'.M. EPHRAUM SYRUS, EPIPHANIl/S Ot' SALAMIS, Jerome lhe

Presbyter, JOHN CIlRYSOSTOM. GkEGOltY OF NAZI"'HZUS, GII.F-CQRY OF /I."ISSA. 'AUJoOtUS, Proclus of Con.stamin· orle. S£VERlAN OF CABALA. SEVERUS OF A"'TIDe", THEODOSIUS r. TIIF.OPHlLUS OF ALEXANORIA. There are 1Iiso the ",POCRYPH... (others than thOM: mentioned Qbnve), the APOPlrmF.GM...TA PATRUM. and the canonical litcr;llure, which arc trcllted in their particular articles. In order to determine (In appl'mdmale Jale of the tl'anslatio.ns, we clln set as a limit alier which rhe translation must have m-en produced the date of the original ill Greek, but never a useful limit be· fore which it must have been produccd: no Coplic or Creek lext contains any data ..boul this question. Information might be inferred from the d:lIe of the manuscripts, if Ihey were not 100 late (from the ninth celltury on) to be of any usc. We would set these translations around the fifth ccntury, because it is logical to a'l5ume that th<..')' were made of works of contemporary interest and not too ancient. From Ihis vicwpoinl il is significant that most of the :IUthol'S translated lit inlo a span of time belween Ath..nasius MI.l Saint JEROME (c. 330 to 420); latcr IUlthors of the fifth cenlury, such as Theodosius I and Severns of Antioch, are justifiable exceptions. The Sixth Century 11Ic vicissitudes and final clecision.'i of the Council of CHALCEOON (451) determined at once an ceclesiMtiea! crisis and thc delachmenl of mOSI of Ihe Egyptian church from the "international" Christian· ity Mlpported by the emperor!; of Byzantium. This crisis also producl,.-d cultural effects, bllt they were nOI felt unlil lhe beginning of thc sixth cenlury, when the evenls following the exile of Thcodosius I from Alexandria put an end to hopes not only for a reconciliatIon between tIle patriarchates but also ror developing II 110l'mal ecclesiastical life In Egypt. m"inraining beliefs and hicl'lll'chy differenl [rom rhose officially llppl'ovcd by the irnper'ial (proChalccdonian) cmwn, This is probably thc mument when Greek began 10 be perceived as the language of the oppressors and Ihe patriStic Greek ("international") culture was looked upon with suspicion as thc vehicle of fllise dogmas and misleading histori· cal infonnalion. It was at Ihis time Ihat Egypt really SoCnscd the need to build a historical and spiritual culture, one typically Egyptian (Iherefore Coptic), in opp05ition to Ihat of the imperial. Greek.speaking church. However, wc II1USt not Ihink that the question of I:lnguagc became a cenlml problem all at once. The

LITERATURE, COPTIC

change wa.~ prohably quite a slow process, which began with :1 dctennination to be different from the Byl.antine culture, proceeded to II rejection of any· thing coming from Byauuium-and therefore in Greek-fUid e\'entually brought about a refusal even to usc the Greek Illngunge at all. Ncvel,hc1css, it is clear that during this lengthy period Greek was still used, for traditional rea.'iOns and in relalions with Christian 5eCLlO h:wing beliefs similar to thn~e of Egypl, l--spccially the church in Syria, In fact, for the texL~ under discussion, it is extremely difficult to differentiale belween those translated inlo Coptic from Greek and those originally conceived in Coptic. The lilerature of the "in· temational" Christian culture of this period, using the Greek language, is enormously rich in theologi. caltrel1tisl'l'i wrillen by bo4h Chalcedonian and antiChaleeclonian writeD In defense of their confeslions. The namc!i of John the Grammarian of Cac5area and Leonliu.~ of Byzantium arc prominent on the Chalcedonian side, and those of Severus of Antioch and Julian of HalicamasslL5 on the other, This kind of liter:llure WtlS not translated iOlo Coptic, probably because interested (><:ople preferred to read such works directly in the oligioal language. We mcntion hCI"e the most important sixthcenlUl)' works that we have in Coptic, whether orig· inal or translutions; more Infonnation will be provided in 31licles on thesc works, First is the History of the Clum:1l in two P311~, The first is :t tronst3tlon, whh ~ome changes, of l3ooJr.s I through 7 of the E,'de.~'iCIISliclJl /lis/Qry of Eusebius. The sec· ond pan recounts the events from PETER I of Alex· andri3 down to TlMonlY II f\I',I.UIlUi> (early fourth to late firth cemul)'): this Is an origimJl composition, compiled from lI111ny diffcrent source.~ ranging from Imernal chronicle~ of the Alex:mdri:ln sec to histor'· ical or litcnJl")' n:lrmtlo"s and simple hagiographi· cal legends. Another inlCrcsting wurk is the Panegyric of Ma· carius of Tkow (sec mnC;CORUi> I), in which the event~ ~url'oundlng the COIlOl;il or Ckl1cedon and the life of Dioscor'Us al'e 113l'1":l.ted. In fact, it is actually a compilation of :1I le:lSI lhree diH'ere1l1 tC){ts of historil.:~l Or autobiographical n3ture, An IIlu)l1ymous Life of Alhana.~lus, wrillen on lhe basis of semihistoric:11 documcnts, also helong.~ to thi~ period, Its tendem;ou.~ and hagiographieal :lims prev:lil over the facts, The same lllbture of hi~tol)' and legend is to bt: found in m:my olher tellts recounting the Jives of such figure.~ aI; Severu~ of Antioch. the famous monk JOHN Ot' UCOI'OUS, i1nd IltOSCOIUJS (different

1455

from the text cited above), Of 3 more polemic character were the "plerophories:' a scries of lillie Slorit-s collected by JOliN Ot' MAVUMA to prove the thesis of lhe anti-ehalcedonl:lOs, In this period the collections of the "3CIS" of the three great ecumenical councils were probabl)' also redacted; in Coptic they differ 8()mewhat from the Greek and Latin texLlO, The material rl'!:llcd to Nicaea went in Coptic undcr the title "Canons of HippulylUS:' lind cOnlpriJ;ed the credo. the glioma;. Ihe DtDASCAUA. 3nd othcr minOT lexIs. 111e 3Cts of Ephcsus were centered 31"OUnd the monk Victor of Tabenn~i!, who dOl.'l'i not IIppellr in the Greek and Latin colJl.'Ctions, !-lnally, a number of texLlO rdate the livC5 of the grc31 monks (mainly archimandrites) of this period, in which histol)', legend, (:lCU, 3nd miracles :l.rc all mixed together. Among these ilrc IJCcoonts of AllltA· HAM Of' fAMSIlOT, AlAmU,W TilE POOR, MO!iCl'i of 83ly' :tnll, 3nd many others of importance and intere;L Similar hagiographies appe3red l3Ier in ~uch works as the P3negyric of Apollo of Pbow by SfEPIlEN Of' HNts und the Life of $amiloll of Oalamun by tSAAC OF QALAMON.

Late Sbth Century and Early Arab Period We h3Ho one example of the liteml)' activity of Sltinl I)AMIAN, P31ri3rch of Alexandria, a homily on Chrislmas, fragments of which :ll'e preserved in two p.."lpyms codices or the seventh 3nd eighth ccn1llr· ie.~. "hi~ Indicall.'s th:ll, though probably preached In Greek (it is dillieuh to conceive the Syrian Dalllian .~pcaking Coptic), the homily was imrlledi. 3tely translated into Coptic, The same wa.~ done for his well· known SYllodicoll and for a partially lost work entitled Kllrygmulu (Pr'OClarl1:l.tior1.~). of uncer· tain charuclcl', Othel' Egyptian writers of this . We haw not only lWO different Ih'es of him-one wriuen by Moses of Oif,. his successor, nlld the mher by JOHN THE pJlliS.

1456

LITERATURE, COPTIC

flYTI'.J\ (ill the style of the pn.-viow "plerophoric" lives of monks)-bul we hllVC also part of his personal flr<:hiv(."S. found in lhe monastery of DAYR EPIPHANIIlS at Luxor. His only complete work 10 be

preserved is an cncumiuni of Onoplll'ius. OONSl'MnlNR, bishop of A.~yii!. specialized in panegyrics. He wrole two fur Alhanasius, two for the

rna'1YT Claudius, and :mother for the martyr

George. We ha\'c an account of his lire from the Mabie Synallarion, bUill is Fragmentary and docs nOl S3y much concerning his ilClivilics. From his

works we understand Ihal he tried 10 help Bishop Damian in his efforts 10 reform Ihc organization of the Egyptian church and 10 improve !.he morals of the people. which had deteriorated through lhe

long difficulties of thc prcviow; century. Constan· tine W'dS also one of the Sirong champions of Egypt, which he saw as Ih" nalion destined to preserve the true ehun;h, with its own dogma and elhics, despile the often denounced tendency of the pt.'Ople toward sin. JOliN OP SilMON ""'ali another author with strong nationalistic ft.·c1ings. His tWO main works are pane' gyrics of the two figures representing for him the must imp<)rlant pha$cs of Egyptian Chrislianity: Saini MARK the Evangelist and foundcr of the Egyptian chureh. and Saint Antony, Ihe founder of the nnchoritic life. Egypt is always foremost in his thoughls, and, as many passages in Ihese homilies teslify, he skillfully defends Ihe right, his own and that of his fellow men of !ellen, to produce works in Coptic. John, bishop of Parallos in the Delta region. wrote :1 special t!'catise against the apocl)'phal and heretienl honh still surviving in the Egyptittn church. Anti Iwrr\JS 01' SUOH"', who seems to have been n close friend of Constantine of Asyftl, wrote the k,st pr'eserved example of exegetical activity be· fore the Arab invasion of 642 in a commentary on the Gospels of M:ltlhcw and Luke. These Rul hoI'S may have witnessed the Persian invasion of the years 619-627, and some probably lived 10 see Ihe Ar'nb invasion. In any event, at thc beginning of the Arab era Ihe most importanl pcr· SOrllllilies ill Ihe Egyptian church were still abie to produce WOl"ks more or less openly. Thus, from the patriareh UllNJAMIN J we possess II long homily on the miracle of Cnna and a shorl passage of Ihe panegyric of Shenute. Benjamin's successor, the pn· trinrch ACATIION. wrote a homily in which he narrated episodes about Benjamin's cons\..'Cntlion of a churdl in honor of MACARtUS TilE ECYPTtAN. He prob. ably also eomposed a panegyric of Benjamin. An·

olher p3triareh, JOHN Ill, wrote a panegyric of MENAS (whose sanctuary in Ihe Man.'Otis desert was still alll"llcling masses of pilWrims), alld composed a Ihe· ological lreatise in the fOlm of erolapokriliili ("questions nnd nnswers"), which seems to have been finally redacted by one of his pricsts. At Ihe same time, Saini Menas of Psh:lli, bishop of Nikiou, descrilx.'tI the life of the palriarch ISAAC (686-689) and wrote a panegyric of the marlyr MACRORJUS of Pshati. ZAc:HARJAS, bishop of Sakhi'i, left two homilies of cxegcllcnl COnlenl, nnd possibly a Life of Saini JOHN COlDBOS. The twelflh-eenlul)' palriarch MARK III wrote the last Coptic homily IU have a known author (which was mercly an adaplalion of a homily by Epiphanius of Salamis). The Slyle of all these writers is rather similar. reminiscent of the typical canons of Ihnt Gn.-ck literary movement of the sccond to fourth cenluries known as the "sccond SOphi.~lic," a movement lhat influenced all Ihe great preachers of the Christian church. What we m~t appreciale is Ihe ability of all these men 10 wrlle and speak a Coptic language lhat is perfectly cap.,ble of expres."ing any concept desired. This is Ihe first time that this occurred, for neither the tranSlations of the Bible nor those of Ihe homilies and manyrdoms of the fourth and fifth centuries refk-ct a language Ihnt hns at last become .so independent and llufficienl in its syntactical and stylistic elements. Only Shellute (and Besa after him) approached this level.

The Seventh and Eighth Centuries: The

Period

or the Cycles

The nttributlon of the many texts mentioned be· low to Ihis Illter period of Coptic literature will undoubtedly arouse both surprise and suspicion: surprise because Ihe works we will tl'eal lire gener· ally ascribed-according to the OItlnuscripls' in· scripli/JI1I1S-IO aUlhors of the fOur1h and fifth cen· tudes, nnd they describe events and problems of this earlier period: suspicion, Ihllt we might have used such II simple expedient merely to collect texts of doubtful origin and allribute them 10 a single late pel'iod and one homogenous literary school. Our reasoning can be explained. First, the wrilings exnmined below have already been recognized for the most parl as having false' titles. Funher· more, the real problem of their chronology has ncver been posed lx.-cause scholars somehow be· lieved them 10 be trnnslalions from Greek. We have obscrvt.'tI, however, Ihat man)' pseudepigrnphous

LITERATURE, COPTIC

lCK!S of Coplic literalure can be collectl.-d and reas· sembled by nOling certain histol'ic episodes and personagcs Ihal appear in diverse works; these worb conSlitUle a pseudo·hislonc SUbSII1l1um lhal sustains Ihe 1llU'I"illion of the various e\·ents. It is cvident thaI the episodes thl.')' d~eribe are histOri· cally raise and could nOI havc been invented in the earlier period. Whoever compik-d Ihese lexlS and whoever read or lislened 10 them might have had a vaguc memory of ellents ITom this previous petiud. but they really underslood neither Ihe menlality of thc time nor iu nonnal, evel)'day affairs. The basic tr1J.in of the n3rTations and the accom· panying considerations correspond to objectives en· tirely different from those appropriate 10 the earlier era. l1t~ aims were. lif'!;t of all, propagandist and addressed to different segments of lhe populace. For those within lhe church, the purpose was to S1rengthen the people's faith in the Coptic church tnadition and 10 reinforce and elevate their moral SoCntimenlS and behavior. For th05C outside the church, the purpose was to affirm the eltistence. Intiquily. and orthodolty of the doctrine of the Coptic church in comp...rison with those Christian sects sepanued from It. A second raison d'ctrc for these worb wa..~ the need 10 defend Christian doctrine in lhc race of the rival Jewish and Islamic religions. Third. we can perccive a motive of providing spirit· ual entertainmenl. for lhese texts are filled with descriptions of the mOSI attractive. wondrous, and grim events im:lginable. all relaled in a most porn' pous and lavish slyle. In codices th:ll lransmil these works to u.~ in a unified form, the pOR~ibllity of such combination and assembly of these diverse lexlS docs indeed exist. Thus, we have concluded that these works were conceived:1I onee by single ilulhors or groups of aUlhors adhering 10 similar criteria in a period very much later lh::m that 10 which lhe lexlS have been :lssil\ned. We reel juslified in grouping these problemotic texts according 10 various predominant events or personages lhal furlll a unifying theme and we h:lVe CAlled Ihese groups CYCLES. Often these cycles were produecd by using preex· isting works. modified 10 fit lhe aim of the redactor and asscmbk-d. when neCeSs.;lI)', with other original eXI!'llc{,<; wriuen for the purpose. This is why, within the homilies assigned 10 this periud. there a.ppear extl'llcu from old translaliortli of genuine texIS of the churl;h falheni dlllin~ from lhe fourth and fifth centuries. 'nle critical work in this regard is, for the most pan. yet to be done and, we believe, rich in possibililies.

1457

The redaclion of each cycle presenl~ its own spedal problems M to the various pcrsonagl."S. events. and texiS involved. Alllhe Cycles. however, had as a poilll of depanure one or more authenlie works or else cenain episodes already famous in the tradi· tion of the Coptic church. But. despite what was §aid carlicr about the chronology and the produc· tion of these Cycle,;, there remain, nevenheless. two major problems: that of their literal)' basis and that of the causes for their "creation." That such a phenomenon should happen sporoldically in a gi~n literature may be natural and also sen<e some purpose, but that it should occur on such a grand scale wilh 50 few "honest" examples demands an explanation. The lradition behind this producdon is not diffi· cull to trace. We can call attention to die previous hagiographers' school of the founh century (mentioned above). whose task was precisely 10 produce tell15 that would appear to come from lhe hand of another (perhaps that of a secretar)' or some other witness present at the trials and dcatrn. of the mar· tyrs). After all, it is logical to think that the Copts writing in the seventh centul)' might have !'CIneIll· bered some of Ihese by~one authentic texIs. Also, many worb writlen dUring the period following Chalccclon furnished ellcellent precedents whose doubtful historical iUJlhenticity would not h:lVe pa!iS1.-d complelely ullnoticed aftcr Olle eentul)'. More difficult is Ihe investigation into the causes that mighl have determined or suggested such a literary posture. In fact, a number of diffcrcnt causes probably coalesced 10 prtxluce these Cycles, C:lUlies lh:lt we will seek oUI while limiting our· selves to objecth'e proofs. The fll'Sl evidence is that lhese wrilers extmcted from Ihe litel'::u)' Il'adilion names of greal aUlhurs along wilh accomp:\Ilying memuirs. Al Ihe same lime, Ihey avoided lhe genuine worh, which, in our opinion, the Egyplians uf the seve nih and eighth cenluries mUSI IHlve slill been ahlc to obtain in Greek. In fact, it seems that these writers aclllCl'Spective of the theological situation of the post-ehalcedonian period. "Coplic" lheology was basiclll1y simple (at lea~t so it seems in the theologi· cal excerpts of the homilies) and sought to aSSllme a diSlinctly popular character. Seen from thi~ point of view, all the homilies of the founh and beginning of the fifth eenluries became suspect because they conlained a trinilarian and aOO\"e all Chrislologieal

1458

LITERATURE, COPTIC

theology that could have seemed confusing to Coptic listeners (and probably evclI to the more educated clergy). Clearly diophysile phrases were easy to identify in these early U,'Xh, but by subtle arguments they could be reduced to "orthodoxy," ~nd thus be put in accord with Monophysite Coptic thinking. Such activity secmed to occur specifically in the monastic societies, which, after the long peri· od of the post·Chalcooonian crises, were fashioning the fundamentals of Coptic culture, and thus substitutcd more acceptable text~ for the old patristic ones. It al$O seem~ thM the prominent authors of this period were not rn::e, and did not feel free, to pub· lish works under thdr own names, perhaps because they sought to give gl'elller authority to their writ· Ings by allributirlll them to a vener:l!cd
Iilerature began during the ninth to the elellenth centuries. Then: was literary acth'ity in this period, for old material Slill useful for some spedal purpos· es Wll5 reassembled and rearranged, but no original production has been dl!'lCo\'ered, The Arubic Ian· guage Wll5 slowly but surcly submerging Coptic, both as the administrative and everyday language and a..~ the vehicle for the transmission of Christian culture, further, continued political troubles and increasingly difficult relations between the Coptic and Islamic communities recommended the use of a single, common language to a\'oid an isolation that could only damage the conquered community. [n the Egyptian Middle Ages, the center uf Christian life was the momlsterics, whieh tended to ar· rlln~e all extant. valid, and vital texts according to lhell' ~pecilie usc and mtiorwle, Since the lext~ were to be rcad during the .lyllCLtels (pm1 of the litul's'y preceding the Eucharist). lhey had to be copied in books sel aside for that purpose, with clear tllies to idenllfy them and the proper occasion for their delivery, These were the homilies or the so-called Synaxaria (to use the terminology of the Eastern church). in which all kindf> of old tClItS assumed a similar $hape: that of a homily, or at mO$t, the life of a saint. Even texts that oliglnally had bt:cn treatises were reca.~t as Homilics by this school. The feasts of tbe saints were the occasion for a more extensive collection of teXl!i, which con· sisted of (I) the martyrdom or vila, more often In the enlargcd form of the seventh and eighth centur' ies' redaction than in the original rifth-eentury or sixth-eentury une; (2) an enCOlllium, which could again contain a homiletic form of the martyrdum or vjtu; .,nd (3) a !'Cries of miracles, with l'eferences to the gr.-ce that could be obtained In the !lanctuarics of the saints involved. Texts that originion for pronuuncing the telll. Inde<--cl. with the elleeption of the oldest CoptiC texts (fourth and fifth centuries), In the Nag Ilam· madi Library, IIOllMliR I'APYIU, or MAO]NAT MA~i. most of the tellts from which we derive our knowledge of Coptic literature were compiled or copied in the ninth to the eleventh centuries. The codices, al· though used for practical, lilul'Iical pUfPOSC$, were

LITERATURE, COPTIC

al50 venel"'.l1ed as luxury objects and a means to obtain divine grace. Tht'y were produced not for the individual but mlher for the community and thus depended on the common taste of the lime. In SUnlltUlry, their shape derives from the school of this period, which provid«lthe final liturgical systc. mati7.3tioll of Coptic literature. Of course, the impol1ant monasteries were depositories of Ihe manuscripts so arranged. One think... abo"e all of the White Monastery in the south and DAVit ANBA MAOAR (Monastery of Saint Maearius) in the north. From them radiated the culture on which all Coptic «clc5iastical life ....-as based_ This situation contiOlH..-U for the next fcw ccnturiCl>, though in the Arable language. Soon Coptic almost dis:tppt'arcd, first as the language for sermons, then abo as the language for the rest of the IituflO'. The manuscripts remainL-d in halr·forgonen rooms or eavCl>. detcriorating linle by little from dust, humidity, animals, and age until Westem tra\'elers and manuscript hUllters rediscovered them. and rene..... ed inte~t 1«1 to the removal of many from the native monasteriClS to libraries around tbe world. In conclusion, we should bear in mind that this last s)'lltematiz.,tion in the ninth 10 the eleventh centunCl> WIIS the principal cause for the very low esteem hitherto accorded to the texIS of Coptic litemturc, for lhey have appt'ared at lil1>l glance as something bonngly uniform, without those differentiations in ch:oroctcr nnd age that can offer guide. lines for the historical :.ppn..·d:otion of a given lit· erature. Therefore, the historian should liTht recogni1,e in thi... final singe ur Coptic lile,-ature the Ia.~l activity of Coptic writers-an activity of redac· tion, choice, and sy~tcmatjzation. not crcation. Then, by means of lhese late texl~, the historian may l''ace Slmtification~ to recover the older stnges of the literature. Por, if it is lrull lhal Coptic writing is cunsis(cnt in qualiLy and subjecl maller, being almost exc1u~ivdy religious, ilS pr'oduclS are in fact diveThe in c!l:tntctllr', content, and style. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arm!llneau, E. C. Del/I' res de SkenQl4di. Coptic text wilh F,'ench tr'3n~latjon. Paris, 1907 -1914. Banly, G. La QW!stiml de.~ I(mgues dims l'eg/iSf! an· ciemre. Paris, 1948. Baumstark, A. Die drris/ticker! Literaluren des Ori· CIIIS. Sammlung Goschen 527, 528. Leipzig, 1911. Bohlig, A. "Koptische Literalur." In Die ReligiOll it! GeS€hidue mId Gegel/wart, Vol. 4, cols. 8-11. Uourguet, I'. duo "Brcf tableau de 101 liUcralUre cople." /JQle/in AEO 5 (1969):175-81.

1459

Crum, W. E. "Inscriplions from ShenoU!e's Monas· lery." Joumal of Theulugical Studics 5 (1904): 552-69. Dawson, W. R. "Early Christianity in Egypt. The Litcl"'dlure of the Coptic Period." Asiu/ic Review. scr. 2, 17 (1921):342-5L Doresse, J. "Lillcralure copte." In Er!cyclupedie de la /'Ieiade. Histuire des LillCrall/res, Vol. I. PI'· 769-79. Paris, 1956. E1anskaja, Alia I. ·'Koptskaja Iiter"dlura." In Folklor i liuTamra Ilurodov Afriki: Shornik stu/ef, pp. 1827. Moscuw. 1970. Gnselcc, S. "The Native Literature of Christian F..gypl." TrallSllCliolu uf the Helit:ious Socii'/', scr. 2,33 (1915):21-45. Guillaurnorll, A. "Cople (littcraturc spirituelle)." In Die/lumlgire de Spirimali/t, Vol. I. cols. 2266-78. Paris, 1952. Ilyvemat, H. "Coptic Literature." In Tht Calholie EPlCyc/llp4!dia, Vol. 5, cols. 350-63 and Vol. 16. cols. 27-31. New York, 1907-1912. Kasser, R. "R~lIexions sur I'histoirc de la Jiuerature COpIC." Le Muscon 88 (1975):375-85. Krouse. M. "Koplischc Utcratur." In LuiJ;o/l der Xgyptolot:ie, Vol. 3, eols. 694-728. Wicsbaden, 1979. L3deuze, P. Ell/de SIll' Ie CetllJbitisme Pa/chomit'n pel/dm'/ Ie IV' .~ii!cl4! e/ III premii:.re ",ui/it d" V" sii:.cfe. Louvain, 1898. Lefort, L T. "Lill~''3ture bohairiquc." I.e MlIiieon 44 (1931):115-35. _-,---. "La Ullcroture cgyptienne aux demiers siccles avanl J'invasion arabc." Chrunll/llf! d'Egyp/t 6 (/931):315-23. Leipold.. J. "Geschichte der koptischen Lilte,-atur." In Geschich/e der dlrist!ic!l4!11 Lil/era/urell des Orien/.f. ed. P. Broekclmann et aI., pp. 131-82. Leip· zig, 1907; r'eprint Leipzig, 1976. Morcllz, S. "Die kopti~chc Utcratur." In If
1460

UTERATURE, COPTO·ARABIC

L. E, "Liu~I'llturc cople," In Dicf;QIIIIU;rC t/'urche%git chrilie""e el de filll')lie, Vol. 9. pl. 2, pp. 1599~1635. Paris. 190119]9. Orlandi, T. EJemcu/i di Iil/guu t! leI/ira/lira cvplu.

O'Leary.

Dc

Milan, 1970, ---:-:;-' "Patristicll COpl;l (: PilLI'iMica greca," Vclcm

Chris/lul/omm J 0 (1973):]27 _4 L _---:_ "The Fulul'e of Studies in Coplic lliblical and Ecclesiaslical Liter:lIurc," In Tire Fulurll of Coptic Studies, pp. 1-22. Coptic Studies I. Lei· den, 1978. _ _ . "Coptic Lilcralurc." In The Roms of Egyp. lilHl C/lr;sticwily, pr. 51-81. l'hiladclphla, 1986. QuacKcbcur, j, "De la pr<:hislOll'c de l'<:Cl'ilurc cople." Oritmlaliu Lo,'a"iells;a PcriCHlit"u 13 {I982):125-36. Roberts, C. II. MIlJlIISl:ript. StJcidy and Belief ill Early Chris/;urI Egypt. Oxrord, 1979. Roncaglia. M. P. "Littcrntllre copte ct patristique (I et II s.):' AI Muchriq 58 (1964):607-618. _--'-' "Essai d'histoil'e de la liuerature copte des origines ft la fin dll llIe siccle." AI Mucllriq 61 (1967): 103-133. ___ "La Utt~rature eopte ct sa diffusion en Orient et en Occident (essai)." In Aclts dl/ Se CUllgres de tUn ion t!lfropiemle dn ArabisQtI/s, pp. 219-42. Aix-en·Provence, 1978. Schmidt. C. "Obersidll libel' die vornicanisehe Literatur (einschliesslich del' Apokryphen) in kaptischer Spmche," In Geschichle der ai/chris/fiche'l Li,eralllr bis Eusebius, ...-d. A. von Hamack, Vol. I, pp. 918-24. Leip:r.ig, 1893. Till, W. C. "Coptic and Its Value:' BIlfle/i" of lite Jolm Rylands Library 40 (1957):229-58. Wessely, Karl. Gricchi~che lIud kl)plischc TeXltJ Iheo· II)~i,~clrcl1 lllhalls, Vols. 1-5. Leipzig, 1909-1917. Trro ORLANDt

LITERATURE, COPTO-ARABIC, Coptic literature per se, a subject treated elsewhere, is confined to the writings in the Coptic language during the early centuries of medieval Egyplian history when that l:lIlguage wa.. the spoken language of the people as well as dicir only written inslrumen!. After the ...RAB CONQUEST OF IOGYI"T in the seventh century, the usc of Coptic survived in the administrative structure of lhe government for some dec· ades. Gradually, bilingual documents llppeal'cd in which Coptic and Arabic were used in par..llci columns, mainly for clarification of administn:ati\'e affain; to the Arab governors, who did not understand any Coptic. Then in thc year 10.11. 85/.... 0. 705, Ihe Mu~lim administr::ttion of the counlry decreed that Arabic be exclusively u.~ed in all ndministnltive of-

fiees and all accounts. This revolutionary decision led ultimately to the establishment of Arabic as the acc..." tcd official language in the country-at thc Cllpense of Coptic. The state functionariC$ found it necessary to be proficiem in the language of the cunquerors in order to retain their positions in the administration as lax colieetol'll and scribes. The Copts were very able linguists and soon ma... tercd Arabic. In time, however, Arabie became prepon· derant in daily life and Coptic declined steadily, unlil sometime in the latcr Middle AgC$ it became ddunc.:t. As early as the tenth century, however, we begin to find work.~ wriuen in Ambie by noted Cop· tie persooalities. Two major works written in classical Arabic appeared in that period. The first was a book of chronicles, Kitab a/-Tawartkh, by Sa'id ibn ai-Bi!r1q (877-940), known as Eutychiuli, Melchite palriarch of Alexandria. The other was TlJrikh Ot/IMika/ al· lskalldariyyuh al·Oib/, the famous hislory of the Coptic patriarchs, begun by SAWIRUS tBN ... t.MUQAFF...•• bishop of Ashnll)nayn. Although the Cop, tic language was still the spoken language of Egypt at the time, il is obvious from Ihese works thai lhe authors became proficient in their knowledge of classical Arabic, llnd their wor'k~ marked the heginniog!! of a vast Copto.Ar'llhic literature, which eventually became an cstahHshcd discipline among the Copts in medie\'lI1 and modem times. Sa'id ibn al·Bi!l1q wrote another book, also in Amble, entitled A/-lada/ bay" Q/·Mllkhalil WQ-Q/Na~riJll', a polemical treatise in which he defended Christianity against non·Christians and tried to justi· fy his Me1chite creed against the predominuot non· Cluilcedonian Orthodoxy uf the Coptic people. But his historical work, Ki/lJb Qf·TawiJrlkll, which he ad· dressed to his brother 'IliA, remains his major cun· tribution. He Intended thereby to cover the wh/)Ie span of world history from Adam to his own day. Apparently, he covered the period of Islamic histol)' to the Abbasid caliphate of al-R:\~I (934-940). From this poiot his worle \\.~olS continued by Ya~ya ibn Sa'id al-AnJAkl on It nJ/)re massive scale cuvering mOSt of the rest of the Abbasid period from the caliphate of al.Muttaql (940-944) to the caliphate of al·~nhir (1225-1226). We musl remember that Yal.lyn spent II great m,lIly years in I:.gypt and that he included In his accounts. beside Islamic epi· sodes, a considerable amollnt of external history including the Christian patriarchates of the Eastern provinces. His work may be treated here on the periphery of Coplo--Arabic leuers. On the other hand, Ihe ~trictly Coptic.: native

LITERATURE, COPTO-ARABIC

product is the HISTORY OP THIl PATRIARCHS by Bishop Siwlrus ibn al.MuqafTa', who was a much more prolific wliler in Ihe Arabic language. 1·le is credi!· ed by Kami! saJi~ Nakhlah with the composition of some thiny-eighl wQI·ks. ,"10ugh many of lhe works of Siwirus rnwe becn 1051. othen; of panieular im· portance have survi~·ed. Apan from Ihe monumental biographical history of the patriarchs, ht'" wrote a uUlisc in refutation of Sa'id ibn Bi!riq's Mclehite attack on Coplic onhodoxy. His work on me ecu· menical councils. enlitled KitQb QI·MQ;Qmt, has survived in 1010. Most of Ihe olher works deal with theological subjl.'Cts of Ihe highest imponance, such as the Incamation of Jesus, a book on the first principia of the Christian faith prepared for the vizier OUl.mAn ibn MlnA, CQmmeotaries 00 several biblical texts, traditions and liturgies of the Coptic c!lurch, a treatise un hefClliCl, another on fasts and feasts, and a multitude of olher WQrks on purely religious and moralislic subjects. On the margin of religious sludles, he wn:lIe also in Arabic on such subjttts as psychology and psychic medicine, and several brochures Qn educational mallen; as well as a discussion of Ambic proverbs. In a WQrd, he seems 10 have inaugurllied a subslantial amount Qf Copto.Ambic Iherature. It is thought Ihat other, un· known trentises cOnlposed by him have been loS!. On the whole, the contribUlions of S5wirus 10 this field are still open for funher inquiry. The compilation executed by 5awirus ended wilh the biograpby of his cunlempumry, Pope SHENUTE I (858-880). He depended on a cennin Bidayr al· DamRnhOrl who later beeame bishop of Tanis, Bu· qayrah al·Rashldi, and Yu'annis ibn Zaklr, as well lIS Tidr;\ or Tadrus of Minuf, in assembling his material frolll Ofill InnI Coptic sources. His work was continued by later compilers, of whom lhe first was the above·mentioned bi~hop of nnis, Anbfi Mikhfi'il, who appeaf.~ to he responsible fOf the biognlphks of KHA'IL III (11110-907) 10 SHl!NUTE II (1032-10411). Mterward, this monumental work W(l~ continued by olher writers in Mabic, These included MawhOb ibn Man~Or ibn Mufarrij for the period 1069 to 1079, followed by Yul.lannd ibn Sd'ld ibn Mind al· Qulzuml for the period from 1092 to 1128. The palriarch MAlleK llJ (1167 -11119) is known tu have wrinen about t1l1'ce of his pn"decessOl"S, from 1131 to 1167. Ma'linl AbO al·MRkAl'im ibn Bamkah ibn AbO al· 'All.' covcn.-d lhe period from 1131 to 1167, and AnM YOslib, bishop of Fuwwah, Ihe period from 1224 to 1261. The rest of the work wa:s filled OUI by

1461

anonymous cQnu'ibulors until we reach the modem period, where Ihe name of a eel1ain Ireglllllcm,}s, 'Abd al.Masll,l, eme'1;es in the sevemeemh century. After him, the mo.~t f3mous name in the Ambie liter-llun: of the Copts is lhal of ·.... 81l .... L·MASII;! SAI.Hl ....L-MASO'D!. a monk of Dayr al-Baramm. In ~ubSCQuenl centuries, the COplic litemry heri· lage in Arabic kept multiplying in all manner of disciplines, somelimcs by the pen of Islnmil.ed Copts who aposUllired In order 10 relain their high posilions in lhe adminislr4tion of lhc country, bUI mainly by great writen; of the highest merit among the Copts themsdvC5 who dealt with purely Coplic subjects. One of those who converted to Islam in the twelfth century is the author of a rare tcxt of lhe highesl impol1ance entilled Kiftlb Q/l""hlill /ll.D/l. ",llwin, written in the year 1209. The author. who was a dislinauished Copt and a miniSh"r of stale in the Ayyubid dynasty and who com'erIed to Islam 10 k«p his high position, was al·As'ad ibn al-Muhadh· dhab ibn Zak.ariyy.i ibn Oud5mllh ibn Min.. Abu al-Maltarim ibn Sa"d Abo al-Malll,t. Since hi:> Islami· l.ation he has been known a.~ tBN MAM.\lATl. the Arabic corruption of lhe Cuptic "Mahomeli." He W·.IS a ChriSlian native of lhe city of Asyu!. Apparenlly he descended from n well·known Coptic family, his falher bdng n conlcmpornry of MOil III.·JII,.,AlJ and Ihe caliph al.Mu,;tan~ir BilI!lh (1035-1094), for whum he alUlined lhe dignily of chief scribe of lhe dilVllll, a position his !IOn ::ll-A.~'ad inherited toward lhe cnd of Fntimid nih; in the ealiphatc of al·'A~lid (1160-1171). The caliph laid a heavy hand of pelose· cUlion on the Copts :md forced al·As'ad 10 apostatile. Consequently he was pl'QIllOled to an even higher position at the head of the dilVUIl of the arllly, which he retained undel' $Olal.l al·Din (Sala· din; 1169-1193) and hiS lion al·'Aziz 'Uthmfin (11931198). Ibn Mllmmilll presumably wrOle his book for the later Suhan al·'M.17:, mainly a.~ a record of all the provinces and districts of Egypt. Hc supplemen. ted il with a Stlltelllenl of taxalion for each province or district in four volumes, of which only one h;\~ sUl-vived, since all financial Slntements were n~gard· cd as confidential and restrictcd 10 the state 1'1'eord~. The work as il stands, howcvcr, is a tremen· dous mille of Infol'lllallon, not only in the field of the historical geugr.lphy of Egypt but also on the agricultural calendar of the Nile Valley. 'Ine delails contained in II are c1o.'iely aSllOClaled wim the Coptil; llgricuhurnl reckonings, which indicate the author's familiarity wilh the Coplic calendar of lhe martyrs.

1462

LITERATURE. COPTO·ARABlC

Ibn MammAli's life has been detailed by Ibn Khallikan in hi:i work Witfiy/JI al·A'yan, as well lIS al·'Ayni's '/r,d lIt-/"'"an, al-Maqrtu's Khi!lJ!. and YAquI'Jl /rshlld af.Arib l/a Mo'rilal a/·Adib. All seem 10 be in full agreement aboU! his stature in the adminL~lra{ion of Egypt and on his literary excel· lence. He is known to have written a number of other works ~ides Oawdnl/1 u/-DawaWUI and 10 have composed a fair amount of poetry, quot<..-d by

his biographers. on literary as well as political subjecl~.

A few lines quoted by al-Maqrizi sound like an

appeal by a Muslim on behalf of Ihe Copts and the imposition of restrictions on the type of dres-'l they wear, Ibn MarnmAll died In Aleppo in 1209. His dealh wa.'! lamented by the poets of hi.'! lime in obituary poems that indicate his unusu:ll pillet' in

Iwclflh-centUl)' Egypt. Contemporary wilh Ibn Mamm:'l.tI, a Coptic prie~t n"med AltO ,\,1_"M,\,KARtM W:U bu~y assembling materials of a similar g(:Qgl'flphiclll nature between 1177 antI 1204. But lhls time the author coneentraled on a purely Coplic subjcl:t. The tide of his book in Ar.lbil: is TurlkJr al-Kalla'is wa-al-Adyurnh (The Churches and Monasleries of Egypl and Neighboring Counlril:S). II is inlere.liling 10 remark Ihal its unique manuscript, now deposiled in !.he Nalional Ubrary in Paris, .....as purchased in Egypt by the tnwe!er J. VANSLEB in 1674 for the pitifully small price of three piaslers. This Arabic lexi was owned by AaU $AUt.1 TIU! ARMf.HlAH. whose name was inscribed on the manuscripl_ Owing 10 the imporlance of ils COnlenl$, il alll1Jcted Western scholars and was Iirst published al OllJOrd in 1895 by B. T. A. Evetts mislnkenly ascribed to Abu ~1iI.1 the Armenian; in 1969 the Engli5h lranslation wa.. republished. A Coptic monk of Dayr al-Suryan, :?amfl'1l ai-SuI'yani, i~sucd a new edilion (1984) of this invaluable work. The lext is a complete listing of the churches and mona...tcrics of Egypt, classified under provinces and cities as they stood in the twelfth century. The author, Ahu al-Makllrim, attempted to use classical Arabil:, but his peculiar style indicates beyond doubt that he could have been a Coptic-speaking native using a foreign ltlnguage. Though his Arabic style is full of peculiarilies that musl have been current among Ihe Copts of that period. the contcnlS are of the hlghesl lmporumce for Copllc annals and hislorical geography of Egypl in the Middlc Ages. In Ihe Ihinl"enlh cenlury, and specifically under the Ayyubid dynasly, Arabic Christian liternture nourished and its products multiplied_ The most eminent authors of that period were membcn of

lhe family of AWLAD A...·ASSAt. Their life llnd work mark lhe peak of produclivity in Ihe Coplic families whO!le members occupied eminenl scribal positions in the Egyplian administr.ation. Th..'Y arc known to have resided in the famous Coplic district of J:larit Zuwaylah, with its historic churches, in Cairo. Most eminent among them for his contribuliol1$ wa.. al$AFl IBH Al.:ASSAI., whose name is associaled with the great jurisprodenlial compikuion enlitled al· Mujmu' af-!?ufawl, in which Ihe aUlhor assembled all the available malerials concerned wilh IWO wide subjecL.. from Ihe onhodox point of view. The firsl W;l5 the question of religion and Coptic orthodoll religious tradition; the sel:und cornpl'ised all the Items of civil jurisprudence, to which he applied the rules of cla'iskal Iskunk works on this subjel:t. The Iin;t section consists of m:my chapters and deals in the fin;t instance with the position of the patriarch, who is the equivalent of thc imam or cllliph in Islamic society. The capital difference is lhal the Muslim position is bolh religious and civil, whereas the patriarchal dignity is n:slrkh..'d 10 Ihe religious surveillance of the Coplic communil)'_ The civil soclion of lhis W(ll'k IreaL.. the material life of individuals within the conlcxl of biblical and orthodOll lradilions. Delails of contractual conditions (or sall:S, rentals, witne55e5, and the like arc survey«! in more or IC5!i the same syslem as the Islamic fiqh (works of jurisprodence). Other subjects such as inheritance are treated from the orthodox outlook, which varies from the I.damic system, in which, for instance, !.he female inherilance is eslimalcd as half the male, conlrary 10 the Coplic, in wbil:h the IWO sexes al'e equal. Moreover, in marilal relalions, divorce is nol pcrmilled ellcepl within lhe reslricled condilion of adullery. Numerous OIher legal and fiscal items are surveyed In this comprehensive work. Al-As'ad ibn al·· Ass:11 is known to have composed some Arabic poetry on subjccts treated by him, Including a long iambic poem (liririwh) on the subject of inheritanl:e among the Coptic Christians. One of the greatest contributions of Ihe AWt.Ar> At...·ASSAL family in the field of religion was the trans' lalion of the New Testament inlo Ambie, which Ihey based on Coptic, Greek, and Syriac original languages, wilh which lhey were thoroughly ac· quainted_ A copy of Iheir originallmnslalion of the four Gospels, signed by Jiljis AbO al-Fae;ta'il ibn Lu!fallih, is dated A.M. 1057. This is 3v-.lllable allbe patriarchal library in Cairo and is \II troe reproduction of the autographed original by al-As'ad Abu al-Faraj Hibatal1:ih himself. Members of the family of Awl1d al-'&.sal have

LITERATURE, COPTO·ARABIC

also become famous for their exquisite Al'abic pen· manship, which becamc known to posterity as the As'adl slyle of Arabic writing. Among al'$an's lega· cy are a series of rellslou.~ homilies or orations In which he extemporized cloquent pronouncements in rhymed Arabic equal in beaulY to any similar tUlS known in Islamic litendure. The Awlli.d al· 'Ass;llleft behind them a number of other works 00 religious qu~tions including a significant tn:ati5e entitled Haltj a/·Sabll f1 al-Radd 'alb. mall QadaJ.la af./nJ1/, a kind of literary defense against Ihose who deprecated the Gospels. Apparently they were highly proficient in thcir knowledge of the Coptic language, for they compiled a Coptic-Arabic dictionary as well H a gn.mmar of the Coptic language. During the same century, other Coptic writers distinguished themselves by their works in Arabic, including Jirjis ibn al·'Amid, known as Ibn al· MakIn, a scribe in the Ayyubid military diwan, who wrote a considerable universal hi5tory concentrntini on Muhammadan dynasties. The first section of that work reviews world history to the reign of the Roman emperor HCl1lclius and Ihe spread of Christianity. The second section i5 devoted to Islamic h~ory from the lime of the prophet Mul.13mmad to the reign of al·~hir Baybars (1260-1277). This hi~· tOI)' wou supplcmented by another Copt namL-d alF;w;jl ibn Abi al.F:l~'il under lhe title AI.Naltj al· Sadfd, wa·a/·DIITr u/·Farfd limO bu'd Tilrikh ib/l af· 'Amid. AI·MAKIN tllN AVAMlD left anOlher work emitied a/'f!6wl, comprising a defense of the Christian Faith and II commentary on sections of the Gospels. To the same century :lnd of considerable renown In Copto·Arabic literature belongs another writer, ABO SHAKlR lBN AL-RAHtB, also known n~ Abo nl-Kar· am ibn IlI·MuhlldhrJhab, the son of a leading Coptic $(ribe, who retired from the ~ultan'~ ~elvice and, after losing his wife, became a monk and was nomi· Ollled prieSl of the historic Church of Abo S'lljah. His son Abo Shakir became", rJe",eon of the Church of Our Lndy known as al·Mu'ullaqah in 1260. He was a contemponlry of Popes CYRIL III (1235-1243) and Al'lIANASIUS 1II (1250-1261) as well as O....'RIliL III (1268-1271) and JOHN Vll (1262-1293). He may have also survived 10 the reign of 'l'Il£OOOSJI)S II (1294-1]00). Ibn al-Rahib di~tinguished himself during those patri,'rchales by his prolific writings in Arabic, which showed his va.~t knowledge in Iheology, the exact science of Coptic astronomy, and Ihe history of his church, His litCI':3IY herilage induded the following works: (I) Kit6b a/·Burh6n, on thea· IOiieDl subjectS and Coptic traditions in fifty.two chapter.;; (2) Kit6h a/.Sltilli If Koshl II/a·/sla/oro min

1463

Uhil/ a!.MQSf~ wa·lkhlaf6, a trealise on the divinity of Jcsus Chrisl; (]) Kililb u!·TawiJrlklt, on the ddini·

lion of the Coptic eJl3ct and the major fcast~ of the Coptic ehurch in fifty-one chapter.;; (4) KiWb al· TlJrlkh, a succinct universal history from the cre· ation to his day; (5) Kilab af·Majiimt, a survey of the eculllenical councils; anv (6) U~'ilf Muqaddimal S/lllam a/.lMglrah af.Qib!i:n·alt, a sea/a and intmvliet ion in Arabic to the Coptic language and Coptic grammar. His compilation of the patriarchal biographies and the computations of the date.lO of the p:llri.arch.~ i5 considered the mmt invaluable source in Ihis conneclion on account of his meticulous astronom· ical and mathematical knowledge, Next in succ'-'SSion to AbU ShAkir ibn al·Rahib, we haye an equally diStiniuishe
1464

LITERATURE, COPTO-ARABIC

Kitllb la/a' af.'Uqli/ {rJlm al.U~il/. in eighteen chap·

terJ, on theological problems comprising a dctaik-d accuunl of ChriSlian bclieh :md doctrines. from the oneness of godhL'ad 10 tlte Trinhy and lite LDrd',s inc'lm.llion. This work is ~omclimc:s identified with a similar text by Ibn nl-'As:;(ilunder the title Tiryltq

al·'Uqtil fr I/m ill·/}.~I'/ (On the mysteries of the Chr'lsllan faith), also llssocialcd with Bunus al·SadamantT; (5) II polemical wOl'k In refutation uf Jewish IlOU lslnrnic attacks on Christianity, ()f which II Sill' glc 1l1tmuscripl is prescl'Vcd in the Vatican Librnry, still unpublished; (6) RislJ/at a!.Oayim af.AVIUT, writ·

Icn in rcfuuuion of the :,,-guments in behalf of the doctrine of prcdeSlimuion. Even alier his retirement from gO\'CrnmCnl M'IVicc, Ibn Kabar continued 10 a~5i5t his superior and

friend, the

Ba~ri

Mamluk amir Rukn-al-DTn Bayoo~·Jnshanklr (1308-1309), In the compil3.tion of a histuricpl tl'C'ptise on Isl3.mic histury entitled 2l1m/al a/·Fikrah Ii Turikh a/·Hijrah. This is llSCertaincd by twu famous Muslim hi~torians, Abc, al-Mah:'lsin Ylisuf ibn al-Maqarr and al-Ma<\'17.1. Frum lite above .~tatements, it mtly be deduced that Ibn K'lb'lr's work stnnds 111 the petlk of CoptoAntbil: lileralY accomplishment. The last ycars of his rich life were spent in complete seclusion o.way from the eyes of persecutol''!l of the COptS, nnd it must be a<;sumed Ihal he spent those yeal.,. in concentrated revisions of his vast literary produclS. TIle date of his death is known with certainty to be IS Bnshans ..... M. 1040/10 May A.D. 1334. Yu~ann:i ibn Zabriyy.1tllN suJA·. who was a contcmporary of Ibn Kabar, produced a wurk on the same subjeel as Misbll.~1 u/-?I1/11111h (Lamp of Dark· nt-ss): the wurk is ,nore modesl, but wonhy of a citation nevenheless. lillie is known about Ibn 51· b:'i' except thtlt he lived in the laller pan of the thirteenth and {he first p.'\n of the fourteenth centu, I)'. In fact nothing is known about him beyond the fact lhal he wrote a work entilled A/·J(jwllllfllir 11/' NIlII.11l1l IrV/lim u/·Kunh'lIiI, the annotated text of which has bL-en edited with a Latin translatiun by Vincentio Mistrj~ under the tille Pre/rOSIl Margarira de Sciell/iil! E,·c1esias/rci.f (Cairo, 1966). The work begins with a biblical introc.luction to the nativity of JesWi Christ in twenty-two chapters. This is followeu by a summary of Ihc rise of Christianity in ten chapters. In the rest of the book, consisting of eighty chapten, he deals with Coptic lraditions and gives a mcticulou:> display of the Coptic church offices and officers from the dcacon anu the arch· deacon to the prc:>byter and the IlF.(;UMF..NOS. to the bishops. the archbishop!!, and the patriarch. Ibn Si-

ba' goes into every detail of tl~ liturgical officL'S and the ccclQiasti<:al instruments. Several chapten are devoted to the fCa5ts and fasts of the church with a concentration on Uoly Week and the Easter 5Cimln. Later chapters deal with the burial offices and the sacrificial offerings for the souls of the deceased. HI' records the patriarchal duty uf assem· bling alt the priesthood evel)' week fOI' a moralistic homily. The plIll'hll'eh is also supposed to keep an eye on his lIoek and 10 follow their increase or decreas.e numerically. The last chapters define the meanings of the ringing of the church bells during the liturgical cclebr~tion. Thc steady decline of the Coptic laoguage during the later Middle Ages had the inevilllble effect of the rise of a new form of Copto-Arabi<: literature. The above·mentioned works from the tenth century onward rea<:hed their peak in the worb of authors of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Para.llel to the Ara.bic tr.mslalion of the Gospels, we should not overlook the Olher purely religious works, hitherto emplo}'ed in the liturgies of the church in Cuptie. It was gradually be<:omlng necessury rOI' the Coptic hicn.lrehieal authorities to translate some of the Coptte liteluture into Arabic so thlll the congre· gation, who had st:ll'ted tu speak AI'l1oi<: a.~ a subsli· tute for the spoken Coptic, could understand il. It is difficult 10 fix a precise date fur this translation, but we can !lafdy assullle that it must have taken place in Ihe later medieval period, at least parnllel to the translation of thc Gospels. This formed a class of Copto-Arabic lellers that has been the subject of numerous sludies in the area of theology and cede· siology. Here .....e lIlust be content with qUOling such liternture as Kitiib al Klrfllajl al-Mllqaddas. cd· ited by ij.... ulu JlIOlS and !lung throughuut Coptic Christendom. Other worb, such as Kr/lJb a/''(flrM.llll "'a.al.Ab~(Jliyyill, which conlains song:> of the l:hureh edited hy Oummu~ BakhOm at·Baramiisi and 'Iry!!.n Fantj, arc a sample of Coplic religious liwralure generally published in bOlh Coptic and Arabic. Perhaps the Coplic versions :I1'e used only in the mOll:lslerics. But {he Arabic is used as much as needed by the priests within their churche:>. On the whole, WC' nlust regard thc llge of Ibn Kllbar lind Awll\d al-'Assal, together with these liturgical lexts, as the golden age of Copto·Arabi<: literature. Perllaps the work of Ibn SibA', despite the importance of his endeavor, should be con.sidered as the inccption of Ihe dedine pn.:cipiwtcd by Ihe advent of OUoman rule. With the dawn uf modern history and Ihe subjt'Ction of Egypt to the Onoman yoke in 1517, Egypt

LITERATURE, COPTO-ARABIC

~ms 10

have gntdUlIlIy losl its inlelieclUal flair

pmong both Muslims and

Copt.~,

Whereas a faint ray

of sunshine kepi flickering in the ancient fortress of Muslim eduClllioli lit al-M.har Univen;ity, Coptic ed· ucation h«amc I"($triclcd to the primitive kUlldb (scrip/oria) affiliated with the churches under the supervision of the Coptic canton (sing. <arils, pl. 'irfdn), who were generally blind and offered only limited religious instruction. Assistants conducted programs of n..-ading ~lIld writing of liturgical leill:1S, as well as intcn5h'c COUBeS in practical mathemat· Ics and acl;:ounts in onkr 10 prepare the candidates for scribal offices and lax collection in the government. The CoplS could not allend al·A1.ha.r Universi· ty for a higher education in jurisprudence. ad-

vanced grammar, logic. and prosody on a religious basis, though the Hanilite sect raised no objection in principle to the :Idmission of Copts. The pcrio<.l of nearly four centuries until the :Idvent of the French occupation in 1798-1802 provcd to be one of the cbrkcst in Egyplian annals. We must thus cros.~ From Ibn Kabar's age to modem history to discover any real awakening of Copto-Arobic literature. The seeds of modem education were IOwn among the CoplS by Pope CYRIL IV (185318(1), known :I.~ the "F:lther of Refonn," who devoted his altention 10 Ihe establishment of schools with teaching staffs of high quality. His example was followed by a number of Coptic benevolent societies such a.~ Ihe TAWflO COPTIC SOCIETY. and Coptic schools spnmg up. not only in Cairo and Ale~andri:l but :lIsa in mrn;f provi'lcial towns in Lower :Ind Upper Egypt. A numbcr of the graduates of these sehools even managed to attend al-Azhar Universily under borrowed and rnther anomalous names. Thcse included Mlklu\'11 'Abd·al·Sayyid, who later established the daily newspaper al-Wa(iin; Ta· drus WahbT, tile Cl1linCnl Coptic educator; and the journali$t Jindi Ibr.ihim, who :Imong Muslims W:IS known as Sh:lykh IbrMllrn lLI-Jindl. The three be· caille leading Slal'S in Coplo-Arabic literature, and all memorized whole seclions of the Qur'an, which they qUOlcu frequenlly in their wrinen works. In the meantime, numerous Copts ll1tendeu study circles held privalely by the rector of al-Azhar, the famous Shaykh aI-islam MUQammad 'Abdu, who did not object 10 their pf\l1iclpation but welcomed il. The Coptic poet Frnncis aVilr, who was the son of a well· known Cuplic priesl, was a l'Cgulal' pal1ici· pant in Shaykh Mul)ammad 'Abdu's sludy circles throughoul the year 1902. In this way, Coptic literary scholarship and Coptic education in genel1ll gave birth to a new class of

J

1465

young people with Iitel1lry tendencies that became evident in Coptic: literary creativity and in Coptic journalism. The old Coptic newspapers al-Wa!an and Mi~r became Ihe fOI'Um in which the literary productS of the age were amply demonslrnted. The educational reform movement was extended to female in.~truction and the liberation of women from past tr~dilional reslriclions. Here pcrllaps the COplS were pioneers, though the national leader of this mov('mcnt in Egypt happened to be a progressive Muslim by the name of O:isim Amln. This mo\'ement found outspoken supporters in Ihe poe. lry of noted Coptic poelS of the day, especially N~r LUzah al.As)'l1!I, who sang its praise in delicate Ara· bic poems as early as the first decades of the t.....entieth century. In the provinces, poets such as 'AyyAd Bishay followl.-d suit. Numerous poems are quoted by the historian of Coptic literature, the Muslim MUQammad Sayyiu KIIllnl, in Af-Adab ul.Qihrl (1962). Somewhat obscure Coptic poet.~ such as Bas~ Blshliy, Rifii4 Chubri)'!I, Ruf1'11 Nakhlah, and in particular the beller known N~r U!Zah a1-Asy(t!1 have wrillen poetry to commcmorate progressive educalional evenlS among the Copt!>. The reform movement in general education found its echo in the Coptic religious institutions, where the CU'JlICAI_ COu.ECE slumbered until one of its students, Mal~ti SarjiyCts, eloquently allacked its slaliollary status and pleaded for ils reform. A long poem by Ibrahim I:funayn al·BiMwl was published in KiJAni's ul-Adab ul-Oibrl. It supports Boutros Pasha's position ilgainst the relrogressive auilude of Pope Cyril V. 11ithel10 the Copts seemed to act as :I separate community within the body politic of the Egyptian nation and prided themselves on their direct de· scent from the ph:ulIohs. This separatist tendency was intensilied as a !'eactlon to the rising movement IOwilrd universal Islamic unity, .....hich lhe Copts reo garded as lllltinationaJistic. Thi~ tendency refleCted it~elf in the Coptic press and became the origin of the mOVCil\ent lhul led to the COPTIC CONGRESS OF ASYO'f to fight for equal rights for the Copts, who felt barreu from principal admini.~trativc positions in the state. In the early twentieth century a cam· pilign reviling thc CoptS by Shaykh 'Abd al·Aziz J§'wlsll, Ihe editor of the leading Muslim daily newspaper Q/.Mu'Q)/yad, n:suhed in a coullleraltack in the Coptic daily ul· Warun, where Jawlsh was ac· eused of being a foreign meuu1cr of Tunisian ex· tmction. Well.meaning Muslims and Copts, howev· er, repudiated this wave of hatred among seglllents of Ihe Silme nation, and PQCIS on hoth sides

1466

UTERATURE, COPTo-ARABIC

preached brotherhood and love and unily. On Ihe Isl:llllic ~idc, we read pacifying pQeI1)' by 'Abd al· Ra~m(\n

Shukri and Mul.llllCld Ramzl Na.-:im, llnd on the Coptic side, by 'Awa9 W(\$if and Ibn"ihim ':Iunayn. These were even joined by noled Coptic polilician.~ such as WISSA WASSa' and Murqus t:lann.1. The literature of 001/1 Muslim and Coptic poetS is quoted by KillinT (pp. 80-84).

Thi!> sillruliun W3-~ nOI helped by the assassination of Bouu"OS Gh;;,l, on 21 February 1910. which pn.~ cipltMcd (\ new wlIve of tearful literature. Lament· ing the murder of an illustrious Cuplil: prime minis-

ter, Coptic versifiers poured out their hearts in poems of biuel" grief, tinging this liter-II)' Stage wilh solTOwful doqucnce (Kilant, pp. 145ff.). The b."ule of words was ~umcd wilh vehemence on Ille pages of the dailie:; aJ·M,t'ayyad and ul-Wa!rln. An avalanche of [heron)' output reflected the uni· ven>al support of the Coptic pt:ople for the principles for which the COPTIC CONCItES$ OF ASYCrr (1911) stood. Kllnni (pp. 106-113) quoted Copli'c poets who expJicilly pl1lised the just rcquesL~ of their coreligionists. These ioduded Billus al-Shamlllti', Ri· yad Ghubr1yil, Na.~r I..iil.ah al·Asyll!i, Tadrus Wahbi, Ibrahim I:lunayn. and z.akl Wa~if. Thc Coptic pre» oyerlklwed with anicl6 from the pens of eminent joumaJists and politicians. The Muslim reaction in holding a pardllcl meeting known a."l the ECYI"TlAN CONFI!Rl'NtE OF HE.UOPOUS, counterpart to the AsyU! Coptic Congress, is Interesting but outside the scope of lhis article. The Copts werc pleased by the death of the British Commi»ioller, Sir Eldon Gorst. who sympathi:u.-d with the Muslim majorily against the Coptic minority. BUI Coptic hopc:'i were not raised by the appointment of Lord Kitchener as his succ~o;or. A ray of hope appeared on the Egyptian polhical hori· zon whell U. S. President Theodore Roosevelt vi.~it· cd EKYPI. He spoke out fOI' constitutional liberties and the /\meriCIUl conception of equality among all citizens irrespective of their faith or color. The COpts were unreserved in their literary pmiM' of the Am('riCfln president. Riyal} Ghubriy.il published a long poem in praise of Rooscych. In facl, the Roo5C!velt visit to the Nea.r East and his outspoh'n pronouncemenl."l seem to have !lparked a budding moycment towlll'd nationalistic aspirations that blossomed in the 1919 revolution under the leadership of SA'O ZAUlILOI.. who m(maged to bring Muslims and Copts closer together in the enSiling battle fOl' Indepmdence, The Wafd pally of Zaghlul Wall composed of Muslims and Christians on an equal basis, and lhe ncar-

cst person to Sa'd zaghlul was a young and e10· quent COpl. MAKRAM ·UUlllll. Though the BJitish inslituted a new policy of protecting the minorities through the declaration of 28 February 1922, this prolection was refused by the Copts. This time there was complete unity of purpo...e, and while the Muslims preached independencc in chul"('hes, the COpl.~ allacked the British occupation in mosques. Oummulf s:ujiyUs delivered memorable ol'ation.~ at al·A7.har m05que, where he W(iS ilpplauded by the Muslim 'ul~ma·. This new developmenl on the EKYPtian .~ccne gener'llled :I new phase in Coptic lilcrature in which poets spoke out for the total and undiminished indCl>CIldence of Egypt. together with a multitude of wliters who professed national unity. The leading Coptic poet, Na!ir Liirnh al·AsyU~i, recited verses glorifying the unity of the crescent and Ihe cross. Poetic obituaries were unrestrained in their glorification of Sa'd Zaghhil on his dealh in 1927. The Coplic liter.lture inspired by sa'd's death included signiflel:lnt poelry by NI:l~r Lii7.ah al·Asyu!l, Ous\andT Dawlld, Philip 'A\allah, and olhers (Kililnl, pp. 167-78). The problem aftcr the realiz:ation of independence for Egypt was a constitutional one, on which the CoptS held varying opinions. Some wanled thc reprcsent.::ltion of the Coptli to eonrorm to their numerical pcreelllage, while others thought that Copts and Muslims should stand before the elecloratc without religious distinction. The latter parly won the day. Thill problem hIlS hecome acute with the emergence of fundamentalist Muslims. The CoptS, with the exception or the 1919 revolution, tended to look upon Ihemselvcs a., a separate nation with its peculiar trials and tribull/.tions, iu own aspiralions. its fea.~tli and traditioOl; and cus· loms. They looked upon them5C!lyt:s as the pure Egyptian stock and professed thdr pharaonic lineage. This becomes evidcnt in works on Coptic hilltory, best I'cpresCl1\ed in the brilliant Arahic His/ory of jll/! COpll1; Nmion by YA'OOR NAKH1.Afl KUFAYUH, Numerouli other works by autnon; old and new, such as Tawf'lq IskfuUs and Ra0l7j Tadrus and many ochers, conceming famous CoplS in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, follow the same line of thought. This has also been recognized as an 6labHshed facl by some Welilem authors such as S. U. Leeder (1918). After' many years of cOl11p(lratiyc stagnation, re· form was pioneered hy Pope Cyril IV, the "Father of Coptic Itefonn.'· His life was commcmonuoo in poems by Iskandar OuzmAn. Ibrohim J:lanna 'A!liy:i, and others. Obituary litel'ature commemor::ttoo eo.,.

LITHAZOMENON AND SAINT PETER'S BRIDGE

tic celebrities such

ilS

Boulros Ghiill (Pasha) and

Yfisif SuJaYlUlln (Pasha) (Kil:\nl, pp. 183-84). On the whole. Coptic literature bean; the impression of religiosity lind Christian l:ompassion, and

1467

YlI'qllb Nakhlllh Rufllhlllh. Kilab Ttlrlkh al-Ultlmah al.Qlbfiyyah. Cairo, 1899.

AZIZ S. ATIYA

re~erence

for the church. This llppean; clearly in a number of poems by Ruf:i11 Nakhlah. N•• ~r LUwh al·AsyO!l. Iskandar' Quzmfin. and MikM.'il Man~ur (KillnT, pp. 192-98). Sometimes, Coplic literary

writers arc cl,InSlr.lincd by certain circumstances to use Islamic dicta. Onc such is Tadrus Wahbi'li poem on the occasion of the I'Clum of Khedive Abbas /I (1892-1914) from pilgrimage to Mecca; another is his felicitation 10 lhe same prince at the Bairam Muslim rea.~t (KlIAnt. pp. 199-201). With its numer-

ous bifurcations or aberrations. Coptic belles lettr-es have genuine qualiti" of originality, creativity, and superb Arabic style. Co~ic poetry has varictl in its tendencies from age to age, ~f1ecting the feelings of the peoplc in a give:n oKt or c:in.:umstanccs and callina for lhe expression or certain spedflc emations. The education of each poet left its indelible mark on hb pue:try. Though it is difficult to place Coptic poel~ in the ~me high category ali AJ.tmad Shawql or I;:IM~ Ibrtihim, they retain ror themseh'es a place or honor, modest hut appreciable and reo spectable:. Finally, the wOl'k on Coptic titeruture by Kilani (pp. 205-231) ends with :I poctic: sclec:tion assembled from the lite'~lI'Y produelS of a number of not· ed Coptic poetS, hitherto dispcf5Cd in many journals and COplic daily ncwspapen;, supplemented with succinct notcs on thcir biogmphics.

DlULIOCRAPIlY

Abo al·Makfllim, Tilrlkh fll·K,mii'is \IJfl'fll.AdYlIrflh, 4 vol.~" ed. SamO'TI nl,Su]'Y:lni. Cairo, 1984 (older edition under Aha $Alii.] nl·Armanl, ed. B. T. A. Evetts), Allyll, A, S" cd. Killib Qmvihtl'l a/·DrHl'ulI'ln by ibn MammiilI. C;liro, 1943, EIl/yehU Patriarchal! AIC):alldrilli Atltla/lrnn (facsimi· Ie), Oxford, 1654. Arahic text ed. L. Cheikho, B. ean'll de Vaux, nl1d H. Zayyat. In eSeQ 50-51. SeTiplOre5 Arubici 6-7. Beirut, 1904-1909, lbn Kabur. MI~blll! al'~1I1mah {f'!dli/! af·Khidmah, 2 vols., cd, Samir Khalil. Cairo, 197 J. Kamll ~1iJ.t Nakhlah. KltrJb Tarikh wa·/adinllif Bu· f/tr/kul al./.d:.utulariyyuh al.Qlb!. Cail'('l, 1943. Leeder, S. H. The Mooem SOtr~' of lhe Pharuohs., London find New York, 1918; repro New York, 1973. MuJ.tammad Sayyid KiI~nT. Af.Adab al.Qib!i-Qadimall ",a·HadilhUII. Cairo, 1962.

UTHAZOMENON AND SAINT PETER'S BRIDGE, t~v munllSterics west of Alellandria, no doubt fairly nell" the city. The name Lilhazomenon indicates a stony te:rrain. The 6nt lI11cstation is toward lhe middle of the fifth century (Orlandi. 1975, pp. 82-83), but it is not staled whc:thcr thc:rc: W""-S already a monastery lhere. At lhe end of the !'iilllh century or beginning of the seventh, John Mos.chus, in company with Sophronius, visited the Thessalonian monic AbM Palladius. Moschus adds funher on that he knew at Ale:llandria the pious Syrian ~ader Zoilus, a scribe by profes.~ion, who later on was buri..:d at the Lithawmenon, in the monastery or the same Abb:'!. Palladius. The mOnalilcry or Saint Peter's Bridge was home: to John the Soldier. The life of this holy man was curiously divided between asceticism and the inevi· table basket.making, on the one hand, and the bar· rucks, on the other, Drescher (1949) was unable to dctemliue which wa.~ the water-course crosscd by the bridge nearby. As for the: name, it seems that it relates to the patrial'Ch PRTF.R I (300-311), the "hieromartyr" executed under DlOCUITtAN, Scverdl sources, ill fact, testify that hi.~ m:1I1yrium was set up outside the walls, Wt."'S1 or the city. This rdiqmll'Y ehun.:h, which survived until nfter the AllAR CONQUFSf OF F.GYPT. charucteristically bore the name Western tal· Gharblyyah; Bassel, 19Q7, Vol. II, PI'. 758-59). There i!'i little doubl, in our eyes, that Saint Peter's Brid~e drew il5 nUlIIe front 111111 of lhe neal'by mar· tyrium. That a monastel'Y !'ihould have been eSlah· lished in the loculily is unly mllural. Qne of the mllnuscl'ipls of the LIfe of THEO[)()RA OF ALI!XANDRIA (National Lib",ry, Paris, Arab'-.' 1454; Wessely, 1889, p, 30) gives the Aposlle Peter and not the archbishop of the same name as lhe pe~un to whom lhe Ilumyriulll was dedicated, This is certainly an error, and be!'iides. other manuscripts (Paris. Ambo.: 1468 and 1506) arc COOlent \\Il1h "Saint Peter" (We.~sely, PI" 29, 30). UlBtlOCKAI'HY Caldelini, A. lJivOllario dei 1I0mi geogra{ici e IQ~ gra{ic; dell'Egillo greCQ-rQItIUIIQ, J vols. in 8. Mi· lan, 1966-1980.

•

1468

LITURGICAL INSIGNIA

Drescher, J. Bulldm de III socUtl arehtologiqlle d'AltICtltldrie 38 (1949):13-15. Orlandi, T.• ed. Vile dei mOPlae; Phil I! Lol/gino. Milan, 1975. wessely. K. Die Villi s. Theodorae. Flin/uhllier Jah· resberiehl des k. "fld k. Slual$g)'mrulS;ums ill lIu· flals. Vienna. 1889. JEAN GASCOU

LITURGICAL INSIGNIA. Just lIS the crown and scepter arc pan of the n..-plia reflecting the majesty of a monarch. the liturgical insignia serve as emblelll$ of thc authority and dignity of thc c1er· gy during the celebration uf the Divine Liturgy, reIIccling the majesty of God.

Pastorul Staff A pasloral staff is ;t long ornamental Slick carried by a patriarch or Il bishop. Il is SUl'mounled by a

cross on a small urb between two inwaroly curv(.'"d serpents. This stalf is symbolic of the victury of the Cross. as well as the pastoral care expected of a good shephenl. The serpents are an iIlustnllion of the words of Christ with reference to Moses' brazen serpent, when He spoke of His imminent crucifix· ion, "And as Moses lifted up the scrpem in the wilderness, so must the Son of Man be Iiftt..'"d up, that whoever believes in ~Iim may have etemallifc" (In.3:14-15).

The pastoral staff is usually carried bdure a patri· arch or a bishop during proc~ssions, It has a red silk sash hanging down from its upper curves.

Cross, Pectoral A pectoral cross is worn by the clergy (as well as pious Christial1S. both men and womcn) as an insig· nia and di!;tinguishing mark, giving the dcrgy spiro itual po...."Cr and protection. The custom of wearing pectoral crosses scems to have been widespread during the urly centuries of Christianity. Saint Macrina, sister of Saint GREOOIlY OF NYSSA (335-395), is said to have alwa)'S WQm a cross. Saini JOHN OtRYSQSTOM used to encourage eve!)' believer to cany a cross and take pride in so duing. as if wearing a crown.

Cross, Processional A large cross muunted on a pole is carried by a ueacon at the head of a procession durin~ reasts. celebrations, and other special occasions. The crossbearer is followed by tWQ othe,' deacons, each carrying a fan, and then by the rest uf the deacons, all holding banners. Eusebius gave a description of a processional cross designed by Constantine the Great, on which were engraved the initial lellers of thc name Jesus Christ. It was carried at Ihe head of the anny when il went to baule. On one side of thc processional cross there is usually the picture of the Crucified Christ, and un the olher side, lhe Risen Christ. Pa.~toral

stnff. Courtesy COJllle MI/sewll, Cairo.

LITURGICAL INSTRUMENTS

Croll with Tapers Allegorically, the eross with three lit tapen; symbolizes the fact thDt Chl;SI, who ww; crucified 011 the cms..;, is the light of the world and that He ha.<; called believers out of the darkness into His glorious Iighl (I Pt, 2:9). It is USClU on se\'eral occasions. At the e\'ening and morning services, following the creed, the offi· ciating priesl holds a cross with lit tapen; at lhe entrance to the sanctuary (naykulJ and says the p...ycr of God, have Mercy on Us. He silently makes the sign of the cros..; on the congregation three times and then turns to the east and prays, "0 God, have mercy upon us, establish Thy mercy unto us, have compassion on us, hear us, blCliS us, kL'CP us. help us, take away Thy anger from us. Visit us with Thy salvation and forgive us our sins." To this, the congregation responds Kyrie e/eooll three times.. At the morning 5Crvice of the two FeaslS of the Cross (17 Tut and 10 Sara-mhat), after lhe above-mentioned prayer, Ihe clergy anu deacons make a cir· cuit rounu the church with the cross with tapers and then rcsume Ihe 5Crvice. At the morning servicc of Palm Sunday, again after the abovc-mendone
al·Miskin. (fayM 01·.5(116h. Cairo. 1968. Malla'us, Bishup. RfII,r{ll1iylll Taq.1 o/·Ouddas fr al· Kall/sa/I ol·Oiblinah ul·Urthudhuk.liyyah, 2nd I'd. Cairo, 1980. ARCHBISHOP I3ASILlOS

LITURGICAL INSTRUMENTS. The liturgi. cal instruments of the Coptic church, 3.<; well as everything worn or u.<;ed during the services, louSI

1469

be consecrated by the patriarch 01' a bishop w; pari of the general proces~ of CONSECRATION.

Basin and Ewer A basin and ~wer are usually plae(:d on a low wooden stand al the nurthem side of the ALTAR; Ihey are used to wash the priCSf5 hands during the Divine Uturgy. The basin anu ewer are usually of silver, bmss. or bronze, and are enlrusled 10 the deacon on ordination. When all communicants have partaken of the Holy Communion, the deacon pours water ITom the ewer over the church \'essels until the priest makes sure of their proper ablution. He then pours waler into the palms of the priest. who says the following prayer: "0 Angel of this Sacrifice ll5Cending up on high with this hymn of praise, remember us before Ihe Lord, that He may forgive us our sins:· The priest then insuffiatcs the water, e3.';lS it up into the air before the altar, wipe!> his own face with his hands. and Ihen touches his fellow priests. II is also usual for the priest (0 take the ewer into his lefl hand, pass down the middle aisle of the church, and sprinkle the water o\'er Ihe congregation in the form of aspersion before praying Ihe final ble!i.~ing ...nd dismissal (see 'Abd al.MasiJ:a. 1902).

Candelabrum A candelabrum is a large ornamental candlestick. It appears in various forms and Is usually made of bronze, iron. copper, or silver. It is plal;ed inside the SANCT\!ARY Owykal) or outside. next to the tCoNQSTASIS,

In some churches one candelabn.Jnl lItandll at the north end of the altar and another tit tbe south, meant to represent the two angels who appeared inside the Holy Sepulchel', one at tbe head and the other at the foot of the p!tII;C where the body of Christ had lain. II Is also common to see in some churchell two candelabrn outside the /wykal screen. representing Ihe Old and New 'I'estament<;. The use of the candelabrum was originally com· mandeu by God to Moses as pali of the furnillhings of the Tabcrnflcle (see Ex. 25:31-40, 37:17-24; Nm. 8:1-4). Censer The censer is III metal bowl about 5 indles (12 cm) in diameter, in which incense i~ added 10 the glowing coals. To it are attached three chains, each me3SUling about 22 Inches (54 em) in length,

1470

LITURGICAL INSTRUMENTS

which end with a small domelike lid nnd a hook. Small spherical belJ~ arc sometimes alluchcd (0 the three c1wins. In the Old Testament the censer w;u; a n.-'ccplncle carried by h!llld, 10 be filled with live coals fTOm Ihe ahar (Nm. 16:46). Cenllel'S used in the Tabernacle of the Congregation wen;: made of bronz.c (Ex. 27:3.

38:3), whereM those used on the altar,

a.~

well as

the censer which was taken by Ihe chief priest 10 the salle/11m ,mlle/orllln on the day of atonement, wcrt' made of pure gold (l Kll:s, 7:50; 2 Chr. 4:22). God cOlllm:mdcd Moses to make till altar on which exclusive swet!1 incense wns bUl'n1 by AaI'QJl every mOl'oing (Ex. 30:7). The perfume of incense thus came to be SYInbolical of pra)'cr and the pn:s. cnce of God. Hence the added significance of Solomon's word~ "While the king was on his couch, my nard ga.vc fonh ilS ITagmncc" (Sg. 1: 12). In Christian worship thl!: offering of incense con· tlnued to have the SlImc importance, and the censer acquired an essential symbolic signirlcllllce in the Coptic litur!D" The censel' that bears livc coals and sweeHJJlclling inccntie became an anulogy rOl' the Blessed Virgin Mary, who bore the Savior of thc world. Reference is madc 10 this panicular relation· ship at cert.:l.in points in the liturgy, as when, fol· lowing the Prayer for the Absolution of Ministers, the congregation sings the Hymn to the Virgin: "This is the censer of pUl'e gold, contilinin~ the ambergris, that wati entrusted to the hands of Aaron the Priest, ntlsing inccnse upon the ahar," On fast days lhe following sc(;!ion is chanted: "The Virgin is the gold censer, our Savior is ils ambel-gris. She gave binh to I-lim Who has saved us and forgiven WI' sins," Throughout the Fast of Lent the follow· ing ve~ is chanted: "You are the pure gold censer, containing the Blessed Live Coals." In the PSAlMOI). IA. the Sunday 'mEmOKL\ include similar intitances uf the Villlin·eenscr llnfltogy. The Ethiuplan liturgy cont..ins the same ..nalogy In the PI'ayer that thc pl'iest says while offering inct'lise before the icon of the Virgin: "You arc the gold ..enser which bore the Uve Coal Fire.... Blessed be He Who was incamClted of you, Who offered Himself to His Father for incense and a..· ccptable offerinll." Standing olllsidc the Iconastasis, the priest also says, "The censer is Mary; the in· cense is He Who was in her womb, Who is fragrant: the incense is He Whom she bore, He came and saved us, the l'n:lgrant ointment, Jesus Christ,"

Censer.

Bron~c,

COflrtesy Coplic Mus!!/I"', Cairo.

LiTURGICAL INSTRUMENTS

Open

censer with

handle.

Bronze.

Ahno\syah

(Thebes).

1471

Fifth century.

COIlr/e5Y Coplic Museum, Cairo.

The offering of incense WOIS widely practiced right from the bcginning of the Christian er... Some ecclesiastic:!.1 commentators, however, have exprL'SSed doubt m; to the validity of this beliC£, perh.lps becau~ of the :
eadler Jewish usage: "And another angel ..aline and stood at the "har with a Kolden censer: and he was given much inc('n.~c to mingle with the pr..lyers of all the saints upon tlte gulden altnr before the throne; and the smoke nf the incense rose with the prayers of the saints from the hand of the angel hcfOl'e God" (Hev, 8:3-4), The next chapter spe.. k~ of the twenty-four eldel'S "CHell holding a harp, and with I::ulden bowls full or incense, which arc the prayers of the stlims" (Rev. 9:8). This nlust be an Indlcatinn of the then-prevalent manner or Christi.m worship, fealul'ing the usc of censers and incense. In describing the piigh! of Ihe church in laltel' days, lhe ecclesiastical writer Hippulytus (c. 170-c, 236) employed the following words: "And the churches, too, will wilil with a mighty kllTlentation, because neither obk.tion nor incense is anended to. nor a ~rvice acceptable to God" (1951, PI'. 25051 )_ The Didascalill (/:IMi; Duwud, 1967) provides an indication as to the nL'C~ity of USilig the censer, instructing lhat the bishop shall carry the inecnsc and make three circuits round the altar in glorifica'

1472

UTURGICAL INSTRUMENTS

lion of Ihe Holy Trinity and Ihen hand the censer 10 Ihe priesl who shall go round Ihe whole congreg:.· tion carrying it. In the writings attributed to DlONYSIUS THE "Sill!IX).AREOPIIGITL! is the following SI:l11.:ment: "The bish· op having made nn end of sncred prayer al the divine altar, begins the censing with it, and goes o\'er the whole circuit of the sacred plnce." A good many of the early falhc", who I;ho5e 10 minimize the irnponancc of using Ineense in worship, including Athc:nagoras, Tenullian, Cl£MENT OF Al.£XANDRlA. Amobius, Lactanliu$, and Augustine, were convened to Chrislianily from cults that reo lied hL'avily on the use of incense. They were un· derslandahly anxious to divest Chrislian worship of allY apparenlly heathen cusloms and 10 render il ~triclly Spil·itual. Thus, Clement of Alcxandrln preached thai "the righteous soul is the lruly :mcred altar, and Ihat incense arising from it is holy prayer." SpcOlking of the efficacy of ChriSlian worship, Saini Ephraem Syrus (c. 306-373) wrote, "Your wu are a defense for our land; your praye", arc a shield for our city; the buming of incense is our propitiation. Praise to God Who has hallowed your offering" (1866). He strL-ssed the point in another context: "I exhur1 you not 10 bury me with swcct ~pices ... hul to give the fumigation of ~weet·smel1 ing smoke in the house of God.... Burn yOUI' in· cense in the house of the Lord to Hi~ praise and honor" (1732-1746). The use of incense is mentioned in the course of a description given by Saini BASIL mE GREAT of the desolation suffered by the churehes during the persecutiun: ''The houses of prayer were casl down by unholy hands, the altars were ovenhrown, and there was no oblation nor incense, no place of sacrilice, bUI fearful sorrow, a.5 a cloud. Wlls over all" (1885. col. 496). According to the witness of Etheria (Egcrin), the nun who made II tour of Egypt, the Holy 1..3nd, &k-SS3, Asia Minor, ilOd COnstantinople toward the end of Ihe four1h cemury, ineense llnd censers wcre used al Jerusalem in the Easter service (1919). The third of Ihe AI'OSTOUCAl. CANONS offers expJicil evidence of the nKessity of using incense: "If any bishop or presbyter offer any other things at Ihe altar, bc:iides lhat which Ihe Lord ordained for the sacrifice ... lei him be deposed ... excepting oil for Ihe lamps, and incense" (1956. p. 594). Cum' menting on this Jaw, The Rudder adds, "No one Is pennilled 10 offer anything else on the altar exccpt oil for the purpose of illumimllion, and incense, at

the lime when divine liturgy is being celebraled" (Cummings, 1957, p. 5).

Cross, Manual In the course of perfonning any ecclesiastical

function, whether inside or outside thc church, the palriareh, bishop, or priesl must hold in his right hand a eross called :falTb )·add. With it he makes the sign of the cross uver the oblatiuns on Ihe altar. the baplismal waler, the heads of the betrolhed during the ~dding ceremony, or those to be given absolulion. He holds il during the rettding of Ihe Gospel, while delivering a sermon, and when blessing members of the tongl'egalion or their homes. When a patriarch ur bishop i~ consecrated or a priest i.~ ordained, he is given :I manulli ero~~ as II token uf lite authodt)' he reteives in the mune of Jesus Chtist. Its usc during the liturgy signifies that he is Ihc miniSler of Jesus Christ who is Ihe Shep· herd and Guardian of souls (I Pt. 2:25). It also stands for the power Christians can derive lhrough prayer, for just as Chrisl conqucred death and opened the gates of His Kingdom for believcrs, they tan reson 10 the cross as a weapon with which to light evil. Cruel A cruet is a small vessel wilh a secure lid, now usually made of glass but in olden times SOlllelime~ made of gold ur silver, and ornamented wilh erosses or venes from the Gospel. Two cruets are used during the Divine Lilurgy, one for wine and the other for water. [n some ehurches one croel may be us«!, from whieh lint Ihe wine and then the water Is poured into the chalice (see EUCHAR.ll;TtC VESSl!L$). Larger cruets Illay also be 1lS<..'
LITURGICAL INSTRUMENTS

1473

the Holy Spirit," and won. The deacon SilyS, "Pray for these sacred, precious oblations, for our saclilil:cs lind for those who have offered them." Then the priest make~ the sign of the cross over both the bread llnd the wine, places the bn~ad on the paten, tllkes the cruel from the deacon, and p(lUI'S the wine into the Ch:llicc, completely emptying the cru· ct. He returns It 10 the deacon, who wipes il and takes it back 10 its proper place. Cruets are also used 10 hold the following sacramenial oils: (I) the holy chrism, lhe cruet of which may only be handled by Ihe priesl, who ensures that it is stored in a st.~urcly locked place near the baptismal font, keepina iL~ key in his possession: (2) the kal1ielaion (or galilcon), lhe oil of the CATF£HlJMENS. used in the baptismal service (Ihis cruet must .Iso be kept beside the chrism cruel): and (3) the 011 for the sick. O\'Cr which prayers are said on the Friday preceding the Holy Week.. These three kinds of chrismal oil mUM be carefully preserved in croas wilh the nallle clearly Indicated oul..!;idc. Among the cOlllenu of some ancient Coplic churches are found curiOu.~ fonn~ of croclli or CIlMtSMATORIES. such as thc one in the Church of ABO SAYFAYN in Old Cairo, described by A. J. Butler (1884, Vol. 2, p. 56) as being ":;I. curious round wooden box wilh a revolving lid. The box is wlid throughout, but has three holes scooped out inside, in each of which is depositcd a small phial of oil:' Eucharistic Dread Basket The eucharistic bread basket is a large wicker basket. wilh a Cl'()ll,';·embroidered lining, to hold the loave~ baked for the Euchnrist. Only one of tbe IOllVes, lhe most perfect of three or five, is chosen for con~ecl..,tion :IS the "Lamb" (I.lamal), and the rcmaininl!l loaves are kept for distribution as bless· cd bread among the eongregalion at the end of the sel'Vicc.

Fnn A flm made of oSIl'ich or peacock feOlthers, linen cloth, thin ~heels, or fmc threads of metal i~ ~ome· times uscu in the chun:h d~ring the Divine Liturgy to drive away flie~ and othcr insects from the chal· ke. It usually Clinics a drawing of the six·winged cher\lbim 01' is made in the shape of the cherubim. but i~ rarcly uSt-'d in modern chul'che~. Aceot-ding to the APm>TOllC COSSTI1VTIONS, "Two deacons. on each side of lhc altaI' hold a fan made of thin vellum, 01' peacock's feathers, to drive away nies or gnaL", lesl tht.')' rllll inlO lhe chalice"' (Cons/i-

Metal fan for lhurgy. Ccmrlesy COJllic Musclnn, Cairv.

Iwimrs of Ihe 1/oly Apostles, ]951, p. 486). These

deacons represent lhe cherohim whose wings Oap in reverence lit the sanctity of the divine m}'Ster·ies. The D1DASCAUA lays down simila.. rules to be obscnecd during Ihe celebration of lhe Holy EucharisL

1474

LITURGICAL INSTRUMENTS

Metal fans arc still in usc in Syrian and Annenian Or1hooo,,; churches. In the Roman Catholic church. however. where fans had bei!n wed since the si"th century. Ihey have been oul of usc since the four· teenth century (Venables, 1908, Vol. 1, p, 677). In the Greek Or1hodo,,; church, fans were in common U!;l' in the si",th eenlury but are no longer used. Cyril of Scylhopolis. a COnlempornry ecclesiastical historian, related how "OOmitian [stood] at the right side of the holy tahle, while St, Euthymius was celebrating. with the mystical fan just before the TI;sagion" (1939). In ceremonial procc.~sions during lhe eonilecra· tlon of bishops and ordinal ion of priests, large melal f(lns wilh long handles arc C(lrried. logether with crosses, Gospel books, and candles. Likewise, in lhc procession held during the prep'lnltion and conse· cralion of the chrism, rans al'C carried in the cir· cuit. M:musl,;ripl 44 at the Valican Libnll)' includes a detailed dcseription or lhe myron prOCl'ssion, Two subdeacons would can)' candle!>, twelve dea-

cons would carry fan!>. and lwelve priests would carl)' censers; then lhe high priest would follow carrying the chrism. surrounded by other bishops holding fans lmd crosses, Gospel This is a book bound in metal in which is en· closed a copy of lhe four Gospels or the complete New Testament, in Coptic or Arabic (~metimcs both). and which is placed on the ahar during the church sel'Viees. It may be mode of silver or gold and usually measures about 6 inch<.'S (IS em) by aboul 4,5 inches (II em), On one side it has the embossed representalion of the Virgin Mill)' can)'· lng the infont Je~us. with one of the Evangelists in each comer, and on the othel' side, the saint l<.> whom lhe church is dedicated, In the eady centuril's, bel,;ause copie~ of the New Te~tament were mre and cosIly, they had to be proteeled and venerated in such ornate cases, ano Crafl!;men vied in producing highly ar1istic ones. decorated with CI'Ol'.'iCS and somelimes studded with gems, together with verses ehO$Cn from lhe Gospels and Coptic inscriptions mc,llling '~he Gospel of our Lord. God. and Savior Jesus Chri!;t" (sec GOSPEl. CASKET).

During the celebration of lhe Divine Liturgy, the deacon holds the Gospel and a cross while making a circuit around the altar. The book is held by the priest during the reading from lhe Gospel and during the blessing at the evening and the morning offerings of incense; it is kissed by member.; of lhe congregation before they leave. The Gospel book is also carried during proccs, sionJi. The Coptic church In Jerusalcm uses two large gilt books, each embossed with a reprcscnllllion of the Crucifixion on one side and the Resurrection on the other side. Thesc lire carried by two pdesls or deacons, The eustolll of placing lhe Gospel book on the ahar follow!; an old tradilion. According to E, 13ish· op, "il was regarded as representing OUI' Lord Him· self, just as (he Altar came to be conceived as lhe Thronc of the Greal King" (1962, p, 21). Incense Box

Melal box for holding the Gospel (Textus ca§oC). Sevcnlh cenlury, COllrtely Coptic Museum, Coiro.

The bo'" or case for incense is usually of silver or carved wood. It Is placcd at the righl hand of the ottici:lling priest. A small spoon Is usually placed in the incense bo'" and wed for pulling the incense in the censer.

LITURGICAL VESTMENTS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

'Abd al·Masl!;l ~llb al·Ma.~'udi. Ki/Qb cr/·Khulbjt al· Muqaddas. Cairo, 1902, - : 7 AI·Kan'san Bayl Alli1n. Alexandria, 1979. Atchley, E. G. A His/ory of the Use of IIICellse 11/ Divine Worship. London and New Yo"'l:, 1909. Athanasius, Bishop. Kifi1b Tarlib Glslllul Rll/ab al· Kahallii/ wo-Takrfs Jalllr Awdllj ul-MuJhbaJ]. Cai· roo 1959. Bishop, E. J.illlrgica his/orica. Oxrord, t 962. Burmester, O. H. E. The Egyptian or Copflc Church. p. 26. Cairo, 1967. Cummings, D. The Rllddu. Chicago. 1957. Cyril of Sc)'lhopolis. Kyrillos VOII Sky/hopolis, ed. Edward Schwanz. Leip7.ig, 1939. Etheria. Peregrina/io Aelheriae: The Pilgrimage of Elheria, trans. M. L McClure and C. L Felloe. London and New York, 1919. l:llifi, Dawiid. AI·Disqilliyyah aw Ta'alirn ul-Rus.. l (The Did.ucaHa). 2nd ed. Cairo, 1967. Ibn al·'Ass3I, al-Safr. Kif4b a/·Qawi2nin. Cairo. 1927. Ibn Siba.' YOI:Ia~nj ibn Abl zakart~. KiliJb ut·Jawhllrah al-Naf'sah (f 'Ulum al-Kanlsah, ed. Viktor M.an¥1r. Cairo, 1902. Latin vcnion Pre/iosa Mar. gari/a de sciell/iis ...celtsliLulcis, tmns. Vincent Mistrih. Cairo, 1966. IsidhuR.ls, Bishop. AI·Kharldah al.Nalisah Ii Tarikh al·Kanl$ah, 2 vo[s. Rcpr. Cairo, 1964. Kassab, H. I:.. Ma;mj(at al·Shal ul-Kullasf. Beirut, 1975. Man~ YuQ;mm\. Turlkh al·Kallisah ul-Qib!iyyah. Cairo, 1983. ManqaryOs 'Awadallah. Aiunbra/ al.AqdilS Ii Sharh fuqus al·Kanlsuh al.Qib!iyyah wa·al·Ollddds. Cairo, 1947. Neale, J. M. 1·he. /Iis/ory of the Huly Eus/em Chl/reh, Vol. J. p. 396. London, 1847. Rock, D. Th~ CllIlrd, al OIlY Fa/hers, Vol. 3. UtIldon, 1849-1853. Tadru., Ya'qub Mulu!1. AI·Qiddlsuh Maryam Ii al·Malhum al./Jrtluidllllksi. AlcJlandria, 1978. Venables, E. "Flabellum." In Dicliurwry of Christiall Amiquilies, ['lJl. 615-78. London, 19011. William Sulayllllln OiM-dah, Kitllb a/·DisC/MiYY/lh uw Ta'M/rn a/·Rum/. C;tiro, 1979. AKCllnlSllOP BASIUOS

LITURGICAL VESTMENTS, The concept of devoting spl,."(:i;ll apparel for UliC at won;hip services has Its odgln in the Old Testament where God com· manded Moses to prepare sacred gannents that would impart dignity and grandeur to his bmther, Aaron, and his sons ([i,I(. 6:3; Nm. 3:2). VC5tments

1475

for the high priest induded a breast piece, an ('ph. ad, a mantle, a checkered tunic, a turoun, and a sash. They were made of finely woven linen, stud· ded with precious stones, and adorned with gold, violet, purple, and scarlct yam. Ordin!ll')' priesL~ had to wear simpler and less colOlful vestments consisting of tunics, sa.dle5, and headdresses (Ex. 28:40). In contrasl to vestments of othcr churches, where shapt: !lnd style v.:llied from time to time, tholiC in u.o;e by the Coptic church underw('nl lillie modifica· lion across the ages. This fact is allested by the writings of such ecclesiastical historians as Abu Daqn (1963), Vansleb (1677, p. 60), Renaudot (1847, Vol. 1, pp. 161-63), and Denringer (!863, Vol. I, p. 130). White i5 the predominant color in Coptic liturgical gannents, this color being the symbol of purity (Ps. 101:7; Is. 1:18; Rev. 3:4-5; elc.). It is also the color in which Ihe angels are a1v;ays robed (Mt. 28:2-3: Mk. 16:5; Acts 1:10: et(;.). The twenty-four heavenly priests arc also dressed in while (Rev. 4:4). Consecrallon of Liturgical Vestments Before they arc first used, liturgical Vl'Stments mllst be conliCcrnted by a DlSHOP. who says the fol· lOWing prayer uver them: Master. Lord God Almighty, Father of our Lord, God and Savior Jesus CllI'ist, we beseech and en· treal Thy goodness, 0 Love" of man, to accept unto Thee the offerings or Thy servants, which they have dedicated to Thcc. Rew;lrd lhem with eternal gifts in return for their ephemeral ones; heavenly for ellrthly things; and cverlastin~ in lieu of passing ones. Gruciously, 0 Lord, sanelify this vestment, purify it through the glllce of Thy Holy Spirit. I'urlfy our souls, uur bOl.lies, and our spirits. Grant unto liS Thy Heavenly Girt, through Thy Only Son, OUI" Lor'd, our God, and our S;lvior Jesus Chri.~l. Here the bishop makes the sign of the cross uver the vestment, consecrating it in Ihe name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Before the celebration or the Divine Liturgy, a priest's or deacon's vestmentS have to be .~igned by the officiating priest In Ihe name of the Trinity, but when a bishop is present, il is he who signs them. While the vestments are being put on, lhe priest should recite Psalm 30 ("I will clllOl Thee, 0 Lord") and Psalm 93 ("The Lord relgneth, He is clothed

1476

LITURGICAL VESTMENTS

wilh majesty"), in addition to Isaiah 61:[0: "I will greatly rejoice in the Lord, my soul shall exult in my God, for he has cloliled me wilh Ihe ganTlents of salvation, he ha~ covered me with the rohe of righte()usness, as ;l bridcgmOIl1 decks himsclf wilh a garland, and as a bride adorns herself wilh her jewcls, " Each of the three grades of the ecclesiastical hierarchy has its own liturgical vcstments, Those of the episcopale can be more elaborate ;lnd deconltivc than the other:s. Bishops normally wear large bulbous crowns, except in Ihe presence of the ptltriarch, in which ca.~e they wear a special hood kn()wn as a kOllkol/lliol/. The bishop of Jel1..lsalem alone may keep his crown on, as he occupies an t>post()lie metmpolit;.ln sec.

Cap The cap i.~ used by bishops as ~, close-fitting head e()ver worn und'T the hood of the Immus (cape) and is usu
Cape

Epitrnchelion and two sleevcs from the Saini Mark E.7.bekich Cathedral (c. 816). Courlesy COplic Muse11111, C(liru.

The cape (Arabic, bllmw;) is ;l liturgical outer veMment in the form of a loose sleeveless cloak made of linen or silk and embroidered with crosses or other religious inscriptions. [t is worn by priests and bishops, the lattcr having a shield-shaped seclion attached at the bliCk, sludded with pred()us stones,

of the p;ltriareh when he is thus wbed: "Praised be God who has poured His gmce upon His priests, like thc precious oil upon thc head, running down upon thc beard, upon the bCflrd of Aaron, running down on the collar of his robes" (Ps. 133:2-3). It also si!!ni~ed the act of cal'l'ying the cross and assuming the yoke of responsibility on behalf of the congregation.

Epilrachdlon

Girdle

The epitrncheJion is a liturgical vestment worn by priests :md bishops ovcr the sticharion (sec below). It is a rectangular band of silk or coHon that mcasures about si.-: feet by nine inches and is embmidered with crO.'lseS or, if worn by a patriarch or' bish()p. with the figures of the twelvc apostles. It has an opening for the head, allowing a small seeti()n of it to hang down the back while the remainder' reaches down in fronl to the feel. The wearing of the epitrachelion is a symbolic allusion to the w()rds ()f the Psalmist that form pan of a hymn chanted by the deacons in the presence

The girdle is a band of silk 01' linen embmidered with golden 01' silver crosses. TIs use is nowadays restricted to bishops on certain ceremonial occasions, though in the past. it fonned part of the liturgictll vestments uf priests tlnd bishop tllike. Il is worn over the epitrnchelion llround rhe waist, with its two ends held together by means of a silver clasp. The girdle stands for the concept of virtue and piety: "Righteousness shall be the girdle ()f his waist and faithfulness the girdle of his loins" (h. II :5). It ..Iso symbolizes vigilance and watchfulness: "Let

LITURGICAL VESTMENTS

your loins be girded and your lamps burning" (lk. 12:35). It is aJ;!IiOCio.ted with the lealher girdle that John lhe Daplist wore round the ....';list (Mt. 3:4) and wilh Saint John's vision of Christ "clothed with a long robe and with a golden girdle round his breast" (Rev. 1:13). As a liturgical \'eS(illent, the girdle was first imro· duccd by the Coptic church. "The use of the girdle in lhe Coptic Church is 1II0rc ancienl than in lhe churches of western Chli.~tendom," wrote A. J. But· ler (1884, Vol. 2, p, 126), who in some churches in Old Cairo had seen fine examples that date back to the eighth centul)'. As a mona.~tlc vestment, the girdle is still an es· senlial part of a monk's gamll,:nts. made of leather 10 follow the example of the Baptist and of Saint Antony the Great, lhe Falher of Monks.

Miler Known in Arnbic ;u Iii;, the miter, or crown, ili a bulbous headdress OlTlamented with silver or gold and sunnounled by a cross. It may also be uudded with gems and decornted wilh the figures of Chmt. the Villlin Mal)', and lhc apo.~des. The miter is worn by the patriarch and the bish· ops dUring Ihe liturgy and in ceremonial processions. It is one of the insignia that, according to the Rite of Consecration of the Patl'iarch of Alexandria, is bestowetl upon the selected patriarch by the sen· lor bishop, the metropolitan of Jenlsalem and the Ncar Ens!, while the deacons sing, "The Lord reigns; he is ro~d in majesty" (Ps. 93: I) and "Thou scltest a crown of pure gold on his head. He
1477

Orarlon The oradon is a Slnp of silk or COllon milleriill I..easuring about 10 feet (3 m) by 6 inches (15 em) and embl'Oidered with CroSSCli or IC (Ihe first IWO letters of the name of Jesu.~ ChriSI). It is WOI'll by deaCOI1S over the stieharion (Sl-'<: below). The center Sl.-elion of the strip Is held under the I1g11l arm and passed upwanJ to the left shouldl'r aCTO" thc brc3!it and then allowed 10 hang dOWll loosely to the feet in fronl and the back, Though now commonly used by all mnks of the diaconate (i.e., readcn. subdeacons, and deacons), the oranon was originally restricll-oJ to deacons alone. According to canon 22 of the Synod of laod· icea (343-381). "lhe subdcal,;on has no righl to W1.'ar an oral'ion"; similarly, canon 23 says lhal "the anagnOSls (readers or lecton) and psalu [canton] h3\'e no right 10 wear oraria and thus read or chant." The Coptic church, however. rnrely en· forced Ihis prohibition, and the orarion fomls an esst:nlial part of all deacons' vestment." Ihe only dilference being that now the lo.....er r.mks of the diaconale, among Ihem teenagers, wear il with a hol'izonlal seclion in the front (in Ihe form of an II) and crossed on the back (in Ihe fonn of an X). In the ordination service of a deacon, the oltidat· ing bishop, having read the prnyers at the ahar on behnlf of the candidate, lurns to the west and places the ornrion on lhe eandidate'li left shoulder, saying, "GloI)' and honor 10 Ihe Holy Consubstanlial Trinity," Sleeves Sleeve~

are made of the same malerial us the epilrnchelion and arc worn over lhe sleeves uf lhe ~tlcharion (~ee below) and fastened with loops and buttons. Although they fonn pan of the liturgical veSlmenlS of plllriarehs, bishops, and priesls. sleeves arc now reserved for ceremonial occa~ions. They arc embroidel'Cd wilh bnlid crosses or slud· ded with sem~, and mny also have embroidered bibliclil inseriplions, such iiS "The righl hand of lhe Lord is exalted: the right hand of the Lord does vnlianlly" (Ps. 118:16) on lhe right sk'<:ve and "Thy hand.~ have o1ade me and fashioned me: give me underslanding lhal I may learn thy command· mentli" (Ps. 119:73) on lhe left. The usc of sleeves a.~ part of sacerdolal dress may have originated in lhe Coptic church, from which it laler spread to other Ea.~telTl and Welilem churches-a faCI for which there is the lestimony

1478

LITURGICAL VESTMENTS

of /\" J. BUlh:r: "Unless we tnke refuge in the Ihool)' of II (wile independem origin for this peculiar prielilly ornament in the eastern churches and in the Church of Gaul, we arc driven 10 the conclusion that epimanikia (slt:cvcs) were brought from the Easl-pcrhilps by 50ffiC colony of Egyptian monks, such a... we know I,;lImC o\-er to Gaul and 10

Ireland in lhe earliest Christian limes-and were ddibenuely adopted by the Gallic clergy. If this idea of eastern influence be correct. il is nOI merely curious when tnken in connection with other tOo"

kens of the same influence in the early Briti5h and Irish Churche..; bUI it furnishes also an argument for the extreme antiquity of the Coptic sleevC!'i as II sacred vestment" (1884, Vol. 2. pp. 171-12). The same author expressed panicular admiration for a pair of sleeves at the Church of Abu Klr wa yul.13nn:i "made of crimson velvet and richly embroidered with stars and Crosse!i wrought in massive thre:u;l of silver.... Round either end runs :I double border enclosing desigllS. and while one sleevc is ornamented with a reprc:5cnlation of the Virgin Mary and her Son, the other ha... a figure of an angel with outspread wing5- Nothing can exceed the /inene5-" of the needleworit and the delicacy of the colours in which these figures are embroidcn:d" (1884, Vol. 2. pp. 166-67).

Slippen According to Ihn al·'Assal's Ki/ilb al-Quwunin (1927, p. 121), which setS down thc provisions of

Coptic ritual, shol'S arc nOt allowed inside the !iane· tuary as a sign of respect for il!i sanctity and as an implied expression of llll inner feeling of security and absence of danger in the house of God; Ihus, the footwear used by bishops, priests, and deacons is a pair of slippers, made of conon. wool, or kllit· ted material. Thc custom of removing the shoes upon entcring the church building itself, not merely the sanctuary, wa.. a common prnctice down to Ihe end of Ihe nineteenth century and may still be observed in Ihe villages of Upper Eg)'Pt and, of course, in monaslerics. This is done in oWienee 10 God's commandment to Mo~s (Ex. 3:5) and 10 Joshua, the ~n of Nun (Jus. 5:15). Sikharlo" The sticharion i5 a long-sleeved linen vestment. In his compendium of church ordinance, Ibn al· 'Ass<\1 enjoined that the sticharion mUSI be white, not colored, lind lllUSt reach down to the ankles (1927, chap. 12). II has an opening on one or both shoulders, with buttons and loops. It is worn by various orders of Ihe clergy £rom bishops down 10 suhde:lcons (the higher the rnnk, Ihe more ornale Ihe embroidery) and i~ usually adorned with crosses on the front, back, and sleeves. In the past, some sticharin were ornamented with the ligure of the Virgin Mary holding the infanl Jesus on her left ann, and, below, the figure of Saint George slaying the dragon. Other stiehari:1 had embroidered crosses surrounded with the name of Jesus Christ and some verses from the Gospels and, on each sleeve, an angel with outspread wings. As an expression of the majesty of the Blessed Sacrament, some bishops Weal' sticharia set with gems 01', follOWing an Old Testament tradition, have small bells allached 10 the sleeve~. It is probable tlwt thc tcrm sticharion origin:tlly meant a dress used in everyd:ty life. SOWMEN, who mentioned in his writings that one of the charges brought agrtinst ATllo\NASIU~ r by the Arialls was that he had l'equired the Egyptians to fumi...h contribu· tions linen stlchal'ill, described them liS chi/O,liml lim)u "horon: "Accordingly, came the first indictment that he had imposed upon the Egyptian a tm: 011 linen tunIcs" (1864, 2.22; Socrntcs, 1864, 1.27; Die/iollary of c:lrri~'liu'l All/iquiri..s, 1880, Vol. 2, pp.

or

--

•

Slicharion. COl/rtesy Cup/ic Museum. Cairo.

1933-34).

When II priest or deacon puts on Ihe sticharion to eelcbrnte the Iilurgy, he is 10 n:cite Psalm .JO ("I wilt eXlollhe<:. 0 Lord, for thou ha."1 drawn me up, llnd hast not let my foes rejoice o~'cr me") and

LONGINUS

P$lIlm 93 ("The Lord reigns; he jesty").

15

robed in rna·

18)'1814n

1479

LITURGIES, MELODIES OF COPTIC, See Music, Coplic: Description.

LOANS. See Law, Coplic: Private Law.

The !aylas~Il, or sll/llllJah, is a llhawllike strip of while Iincn or silk. usually embroidered with CnJl>5' 6, worn by priest.~ over Ihe head and shoulders.

DtDLlOCRAPIlY

'Abd al·Masih ~Iib al·Mas'udl. AI·KhMiiii a/·MllqaddIU, 195-96. Cairo, 1902. AbU al·BarU11 Ibn K:lror. Mi¥u!1 a/·Zulmilh fi 140.1 a/·Khidmilll. Cairo, 1971. AbU Daqn. lfistory of /h~ Jacobitts, trans. E. Sadleir. London, 1693. Butler, A. J. The Ancient Coptic Chllrches of Egypt, Vol. 2, pp. 118-19, 124-27, 134-42, 163-72; Vol. 14, pp. 127-35. Oxford, 1884. C4110tl$ of Ihe Sy"od I/dd ill tlte Cily of wodictQ, In A Sdecl Librury of the Nic~lle Qlld PWI Nicelle Falhers of fhe Chris/iQIl Church, 2nd ser. Vol. 14. Grand Rapids. Mich., 1956. Dcnzingcr, H. Ri/lls OrieIl/Q/iwII. Wiirzburg, 1863. Duchesne, L Origille.f dll cll/,e chritiell, p. 376. Par· is, 1889. Ibn al·'Asslil. al~l't. KiUJb al-Qult'dtl'", p. 121. Repr. Cairo. 1927. Ibn Siba;' Yl11)3nnA ibn Abl 'lakariyyA. Kiliib QI·)aw· harah al·Naf/sah ff 'W,i", Q/·KQllfsQh, ed. Viklur Man~Or. Cairo, 1902. Lalin version Pre/iosQ Mflr· garila de .fCie,l/iis eccle.fiaslicis, lrans. Vincem MiSlrll.1. cairo, 1966. Ibrahim Jabr:'lh. "fuqlis ul-Kallfsalr. Vol. I. pp. 6264. Cairo, 1947. Mala!!, T. Y. Chri.~/ ill Ihe Eucharist. Vol. 5, pp. 288-92. A1exandri:l, 1973. ManqariyOs 'Awa411Il11h. MOIl~rat al·AqdlB II Shorl.J ruqii~' 111·Ktllll~'uh ul.Qib!iyyalr lI'o·o!·Quddas. 3rd cd., Vol. 2, pp. 40-42. Cairo, 1981. Norris, H. CllIIrdl Vestments: Their Origill uml De· lIe/Opmellt. London, 1949. Percival, H. R. "Excur~u~ on the Vc~tmcnt~ of the Early Church." [n A Sdect f.ibrary of the Nice/Ie ",Id Pust·Nicelle I'u/lrers of the Christiall Church, seT. 2, vol. 14, ed. P. Sch:l!f and H. Wace. Grand Rapids, Mich., 1971. Renaudot, E. Liwrgiartllli Orientalium Culleclio. 2nd ed., Vol. I, 2. Frnnkfun, 1847. Vansleh, J. M. IIISloire de l'egli.~e d'Alexandrie, Par· is, 1677. Yuhannl'l S3lamllh. Kiliib uf-/.a'dJt al·Nallsah II SJrar~r r'lq,is 1I'1/.Mu't(Jqadlll al·Kanlsah, Vol. I. Cairo, 1909. ARCHBISHOP BAsILiOS

LOBSH, Arabic tcrlll (from Cop[ie ACDMI (I6bsh), crown, consummation) u~ for Ihe litle of Ihe final Stanza in ter1ain hymns. A Ijjb:J1l serves as a conclu· sion for THEOTOKIA excepl on Sunday. The /lJbsJr of the theotokia of Saturday has lWO settions known as the fil'!it and srcond SHAIlAH. The IT'lany I6bsh of the tht."OlOkia for Monday and Tuesday are sung to :In ADA..\l melody, Those for Wednesday through Saturday arc sung 10 a wATtJS melody. A Li>bsh Adam (sometimC$ called p$ll/O follows the first and .set· ond odes (sec HOS), but the second psa/i, whith follows Ihe tllird ode, Is properly :I l.lJhsh W~!l'.~. It should be noted thaI Ihe UNJsh Wa!llS varies according to lhe season. Thus, lhere is one for the feasts of the Lord :lnd the da)'5 of rejoicing. anomer for the month of Kiyllhk, and so on. 111~ :Ire in :lddition to the one used for Ihe rem:linder of Ihe year (af.LQ~m al·Sauawl) and sometimes calk-d Bikawomidlls. In A1-Ab~almtidiyya" al·M"qQddllsalt QI-KiYQhkiYYQh (1911), addilional sections. each called :I ftJhsh, :l1'C wrillen after e:leh 1IJhsh of the odes :lnd theotoki;l, and (Ire toncluded by a TAIl.I;l. Those :lddition:ll lobsll ~cctions gi\·en after Ihe original l{jb~h of eaeh tlwolOkia arc in fact sek't:tions of the V:ll'ious expl:lnations, intel111'el:llions, or paraphrases given in detail in the manuscripts pub· IIshed by De Lacy O'leary, Theil' use is optional. [See also Music, Coplic: Description.] 8IDLIOCRAPIIY

Af.Ab.fulmrtdiYYllh a/·MII/fUlhlIlSflh III.KiylllrkiyyaiJ (Ps:llmodi:.l for the Month of Kiyahk). Cairo. 1911. Reprinted C:liro, 1982. Kiliib ul-Ab'l'U/IIUidiyyuh ul·Sullawiyyah al· Muqodda~'uh (I'stllmodill fOI' the Whole Ye:ll'). Cai· ro, 1986. O'Leary, De L The Coptic Thelltokill. London, 1923, EMfl.1! MAHER ISHAQ

LONGINUS, :I SiXlh·eentUIY missiollary, who, according 10 IX:d(.'Siastical hiSlori:lns, played :In imporl:l", role In bringing Christianity to Ihe Nubian kingdoms both of NOIlATIA and or 'AlwA. Infonnalion

1480

LONGlNUS OF ENATON, SAINT

about his life and activities is found in the wOI·k of his eonlempo.....ry. John of Ephesus, and in the kller writers E."llychiu~ and A....MAQR1ZI, According to John of q,hesus. he was an Alexandrine who became a memher of the Monophysile chun;h of Antioch. and was SUbst."
Mannel'Ct de Villard, U. Storia della Nubia enstiaml, PI'. 65-70. Odcntalia Christiana Analecta 118. Rome. 1938. Vantini, G. Christi/mity ill lIre Slldall, pp. 44-50. Bologna, 1981. Wn.J.JAM Y. AOAMS

LONCINUS OF ENATON, SAINT. See Ena· ton.

LOOMS. See Telltiles, Coptic: Manufacturing Tech· niQues.

LORD'S DAY. Stt Sunday. LORD'S PRAYER, the model praycr taught by Jesus Christ to His disciples in Motthew 6:9-13 and in Luke 11:2-4. but in different contclIts and in slightly differing W(lrds. In Mallhew il folloW!l an inslruction on prayer in the Sennon on the Mount. and in Lukc it is given by Christ to Hill disciples in answer to their requt.-st "Lord, tcac;h us to pnty." The form in Matthew is the one used uni",en;ally by Christians; that In loke Is shoner. Many Greek Gospel manuscript's, but not the old· est. add the following phrase or a variation of it; "For thine is the Kingdom and the power and the glory rorevcr. Amen:' This dOllology was u.-.cd h)' the Jews at Ihe lime of ChriM and was probably added to the Lord's P.....yer in early times, for it appear'S in the l)(OACtlE vel'Sion of the prnyer (c. first century) and is used by Christi:ms in the c..:ISI. It is found ill all the Syriac vel'Sions, in the S:lhidic vcr· ~ion, and in some Bohlliric manuscripts. 011 the other hand, it Is wanling in Ihe Old Latin version and in the Vulgate. In Ihc Coptic church, (he regulilr ending of the Lor'd'.~ Prilyel' l~ not the doxology but Ihe words "through Jesus Chr'lst our Lord," which lH'C added in nccor'dance wllh John 14:13 ilnd 16:23, 26. AI· though the doxology dues nut uppeal' in Ihe Coplie Iiturgicol bonk.~ at the end of the Our Fatht'r, virtu· ally all Copts SllY it "ftcr Ihe phl1lse "Ihrough Jesus ChriSI our' Lord." From eady times the Lonl',S Prayer WllS adopled for liturgical pUI"poscS. [t has regulal'ly found a place in the celebl'ation of the EUCHARtST and was taught 10 CATOCIlUMBNS at ooplislT1. Its suitability for the Eucharist is 5tres.~ed by early commentators. who lay cmphllsis on petitions for the forgh'eness of sins and. aOO\'e all. for Ihe daily. or rather heavenly, bread.

LOUVRE MUSEUM

From S:.lint JOHN CHRYSOSTOM onward, liturgical commentatQrs in Ihe EllSI huve witnessed to its use after lhe euchari~lic prayer as a preparation for Communion. In lhe West, Saini Ambrose and Saint Augustine pn:suppm;c ilS u~ after the fraclion for lhe S,lIne purpose. In shon, all the hl.<;lorie non-By.r..anline Easlern rites and all non· Roman Weslem rites place the Lord's Proyer afler lhe breaking of lhe bread, whieh follows lhe l"ueharistic prayer. In Ihe Roman Iile. since GregOl)' the Creat (d. 6(4). it precedes lhe fractiun, all in lhe Byzanline rite. It is 10 he nOled thai while al Jerusalem lhe bish· op and lX'Oplc recited Ihe proyer together, in the West It appears 10 ha\'C: been lreated all a pan of the e\lcharistic pro)'er and therefore recited by the cele· brant only. This was the case in Africa in Saint Augusline's time. In the lhrce litura:iC$ now w.cd in Egypt (namely, IhOSl: of Saint BA.'lIt.. Saint Gregory, and Saint (."YRlL otherwise known as that of Saint Mark), the Lord's Prayer is said aloud by the people at the end of the Pl'llycr of the F1VoCtION (before the embolism). Then the celebrant priest ,'edtes the Lord's Prayer inaudibly before the communion. after saying, "Release, forgive, 11Ild pardon us our tr.lllsgrcssion, God.....' The Lord's Prolycr also forms a pan of the introductory p''tIyer~ of Ihe Coptic church, said "t the beginning uf every service with Ihe exception of that of Ihe Divine Liturgy, where only the Pmycr of Thanksgiving is recitlod. The people recite the Our Father together aloud or in(ludibly with uplifted hands. Then Ihey sing together with the choir its ending "tlll'OUilh Chl'ist Jesus uur Lord." The Lol'd'~ Pl'tlyer is now recited at the end of each service, even if i1 is not requil'ed by the Iiturgi· cal booh. In {he Buok of CANONICAL HOURS the Lord'~ Prayer is ~aid thrice, i.e.. al the beginning, after Ihe Trisagi· on wilh ils (lddilions. (md after "Holy, Hnly, Holy, Lord of S:lb:loth... :' In the PSAU100lA at the oflice of midnighl pl1lyer, the Lord's I'myel" is said III the beginning and at the cnd aftel" "Holy, Holy, Holy." In lhe evening and the morning offerings of tN· CENSE:.. it i~ ~aid thlice-Ilt the bcginnillil. aflel" the Trisagion (sec MUSIC) wilh illi additions, and before tlte Prayer of the Three Absolutions. During Holy Wl.~k, the Lord'~ Prayer l.~ said afler the Old Te$1I1111elll lessons of eat:h hour. Again il is sait! twelve times each hour following the hymn "Thine u; the powel' and lhe glory," which is sung twelve times, with a recital of Ihe Lord·s Praye,· following each.

1481

In ,he Serviee of Engagemelll, and ~imilarly ill the Service of Ikll'Olhal, an cugageOlenl or the be· lrolhal is proclaimed thrice "In the name of our Lord ... Jesus Chrisl," followct! each lime by the Lord'li Proycr (liCC' MATRIMONY). It is also said by the congregation before the Prayer of Ab50lulion, nOI only at the morning and evening olferings of incense but also 3t many other services. IUHLlOGRAPHY

Bunnester, O. H. E. The E/:yptiun ur Cuptic Churell, pp. 128,320. Cairo, 1967. Cha~e, 1". II. 11fe Lord's Prayer in the Early Church. Texts and Studies J. no. 3. Cambridge. 1891. Dix, D. G. The Shape 01 tile Liturgy, p. 130. Glasgow, 1945. Drawer, E. S. WaleI' ;',/0 Wh,e, p. 184. London, 1956. Lowe, J. Tile Irtlerprelaliotl ulll,e Lord's Prayu. Ev· anston, III., 1955, Rev, cd" cd. C. S. C. Williams. Oxford, 1962. EMILE MAilER ISIIAQ

LOUVRE MUSEUM, The oldest evidence of Coplic objecls entered at lhe Louvre Museum appears in the inventory of the Department of Egyplian Antilluilies, dr:lwn up undc:r Napoleon III and linished in IllS7. Nevertheless, it is difficult 10 pre· pare 1111 assessment of lhc:m, given lhal lhe invenlory of the collections was nOt so precise as al pres· ent. Between 11170 lind 11195, lItH.!er thl) euntturship of Eugene REVtLLOUT. the museum gave special considel'tltion 10 Coplk and delllvlic doculllenis. During this period, numerous pUl'chases of Coplic manu· scriplS, pllpyl"i, lUld ostmca touk place. George Benedite, curator of the Depat'll1lenl of Egyprian Anliquities from 1895 Iu 1926, undertook II policy of laidy massive purchases in Egypt itself. frum his missions he brought baek to the Louvre objecL<; of the COptic period, purchllscd fOI" Ihe 1I10S1 Pilli from IIntiquili{'~ dealcr~ in Caim. But it wa~ tne great excavalions of the end uf the ninewcnth century and the lir!u half of the twenlieth that truly pl'Ovid· ..xl the nucleus of the Coptic section of the Louvre Museum. Beginning in 1897, Emile Guimel, a manufactur· er in Lyons, charged Albert·Jean Cayel to ensure lhe direclion of excavations on the site of ANTI· NOOl'Ol.lS In Middle Egypl, which continued to 1910. They were liubliidizcd in lum by the Guimet Muse-

1482

LOUVRE MUSEUM

Louvre MU:K."Um, Coptic Collection. COl/rusy LOl/llre Museum, Paris.

UOI, the Chamber of Commerce in Lyons, the SocieIt: au Paluis du COSlllIllC. Ihe Ministry of Public F..ducalion and Fine Am, and finally Ihe So<;:itle fran~aisc dl-os Fouillcs archoologiques. Quantities of objecls WCI-e lhen directly given 10 Ihe Louvre, such a.~ lhe "Anlinoc veil" in 1906. but the largest part of the fruit of the e~cavallons belonged 10 the Guimct Mo~um. founded in Lyons in 1879 ami transferred to Paris in 1888. II WlIS only in 1948 that the whole

of the Egyptian collection, l:onlaining very impor· tant Roman Ilnd Coplic series. was made over to the Department of Egyptian Antiquities.

The ceding of h(llf the product of the excavations of Ihe 1l10nastcl'Y of BAwlT (Middle Egypt), which were undeli11ken frum 19U I to 1905 under the direction of Jean CI.MAT and which were followed by a campaign directed by Jean MASI'ERO in 1913, en· dowed the Louvre with architecturnl pic\;es in stone and wood of the first impot'tance. Moreover, it is thanks to this donlltion that it w:l.~ possible in 1972 to effect a pari!al rcconstroction of the south l:hurch of lJ:lw1! (siltth century) in a mom in the Louvre. Other sites yielded selies of objects, always interesting although le!l.~ numerous: Idfu, Elephantine, Mooamud, Tud, Kellill, The resumption of the museum's e~cavations :It Tud (Upper Egypt) in 1982 :ldded a qU:lntity of Coptic ceramics in a ,'cry good

Slate of preservation, Gifts, of course, and, above all, purchases continue to be the m~t common method of acquisition, It WIIS in 1929 that a room called the Bawl! Room W:l.~ installed in the Floro Plwilion, bringing togelher objects from the Greco-Roman and Coptil: periods. These collections were Inter accommodated in lwo rooms on the ground 11001' of the Department of Egyptian Antiquities, while the small objects were presentell in displny cases on the fir.o;t floor of the Egyptian gallery. The tnlnsfer to the CoptiC section of the ruum called the Scrapeum made it PQssible in 1972 to uffer the visitor a homogeneous complex of three room.~, illustrating the evolulion and the characteristics of Cuptic (lrt from the fnul1.h to the twelfth centuries through all thl,: tl,:l,:hniqul,:S (stone, wood, tapestry, br'Qnzes, glassware, paintings, ceramics, manuscripts). The major works were naturally dispJa.yed in these rooms; ,he Antina(! veil (fotlrlh century), lhe horseman Horos (sandslone, fOUl1h cenlury), the shawl of S,t"lblna (~ixlh cenlulY), the Dionysus conch (limeMonc, founh century), Daphne (limestone, sixth century), Aphrodite Anndyomene (limestone, sixth centulY), the Virgin of the Annuncialion (wood. lifth centul)'), the paintings from Kcllia (eighth century), the censer with the e~glc (bron7,.C,

LOUVRE MUSEUM

ninth cCntury), the tapestry with the "Triumph of the CroAA" (ninth centllry), Christ and the abbot Menas of B.'Iwil (painting, sixth'l>Cventh century). and all the architectural elements deliving num B~Wi!, pltlcL-d, where possible in their proper con· tut. Ne\'(~nhcless, the objccts on display arc only a small part of a very much large.' whole, prese,,'ed in the SIOres. The sculptures in stone, architectural or funerary (std;IC), fonn a series of about 450 objects; a large number of them come from Biiwi!. The objects in wood, whether architectural or movable, number 564. Thc most important p3rt of thc colk-clion is fanned by the fabrics and tapestries (between 3,000 and 4,000 picces), which allow one to follow thc evolution of this technique withoul a break from the founh century to the twelfth. Thel't: is a small series of aboul 200 pioxt:5 in ivory and bone. The series of ceramics is far frum negligibleabout 250 pieces, to which are to be added 45 stamplll in unbakL-d clay and an important collection of ostraca. impossible to evaluate at the present time. A collection of objects ill leather (footwear alld sandals. a pannicr adorned with an inscription in incised leather, a fmgmem of the cover of a codex. severnl pen cascs) may be reckoned at about 200 pieces. The objects in bmn7.e and OIhe.. melnls (copper, silver) olrer an inlercsting sarnp1in~ of this l('(;hnique, both through the quality of some objects (polycandilon, crosses, lamp!'i, censers) and through the variely of the forms of vases (aboul 300 ob· jects), There is a smull colleclion or about 120 pieces or glassware, the majority of which are small phials lhal probably served tu cunlain unguents and perfumes. An importalll eolleetiun uf manuscripts (ahuut 300 papyl'l, 420 parchments, and 10 wooden lab· leiS) is curnposed, amunll other things, uf fr..lgmenls of Gospel books, works of Shenule, and magic texts. Fioally, the seeliun possesses some muml paintings, of which 2 t1el'ive r"Olll Bl1wll and 4 from Kellin (lower EsYPt). Holdings in the Louvre arc inventoried below, Sculptures 011 stolle. 400 objects, including architectural pieces: frie7.ell (172): capitals (3): broken pediments (2). (frtlilments; 8); statuary (20), (Fr. 5), Other items such as vases (3): stelae ( 16).

1483

Sculp/llres 011 wood. Afchi1(.'(;tul1ll: frie~es (Ul), (nOl complete: 7), (fr: 91): statuary (IO), (ne: 5). (fr. 13); fillur..lti\·e reliefs (8), (nc; 5), (fr: 13): figu11ltive reliefs (8), (ne: 8), (fr: 22): decorative reliefs (18). (ne: 8), (fr: 46). Other items: ,'ases, pots, ornamental boxCi'i, lIa.~ks. ke)'5, combs. incisL-d stamps (139). (ne: 108). (fro 97). IlIQries olld 1101le. Statuary (8): figurative reliefs (25): dccor-..ltivc reliefs (25); other items such as vases. pots, small boxes with and without decoration, weaving implements (220). Paimh.gs. Murals (2), (ne: 2): ponraits (3). (nc: I), (Fr. 1): figures on wood (ne: I), (fr: 5); decorative fric--u:s (3). (nc: 2) (fr. 30). Duoroud fnbrics. 3,000 objects, including outer gannents (10), (ne: 2); bvnnets and bags (10), (nc: 4), (fr. 4); undergarments (25). (nc: 20), (fr. 190); hangings (2), (ne: 8); cushion pillow covers (20). (rIC: 15), (fr: 15); shawls (6), (ne: 3), (fr: M), CerQt/lil.·s. 200 objects, including decorative vases (31). (ne: 9), (ff: 1(0): goblets (22). (nc: 5). (fr. 45); lamps (18). (fr. 2): S;.int Menas phials (20);

various itemli such a.'i figurincs, crosses, slamp!'i, corks (7). (lie: 3), (fr: I), Hmlll,e.f. Crm.'iC$ (IO): inscribed cros.~es (2). eensen (12), (ne: 3); br.lziel"S (2); eandcl"bra (6): lamps (40), (ne: 12); lamp ba.'ies (7): plain vases (13), (ne: 2); dceorated Vas.c!i (4): ornameolal finCly (8). Lcalhers. Shot'S and sandals (15), (nc: 38), (fr: 95); boots (nc: 4). (f..: 3). Mc/a/.~. Silvcr (2), plus one een:;cr; iron (12, lo· cluding one le(lu ring [?]). Gl/!$s. 120 objecls, Including vases (67). (ne: 27), (fr: 21); mirrurs (4), (ne: I), (fr. 4).

OIBLIOGRAPIIY Borcux, C. "Antiquitcs cgyptiennes: La Salle de Ba· oui!." Bllll('li'l dcs 1m/sees de Frallce 10 (1929):233-40. _ _ . Anliqllil
"L'Amcnagement des nouvelles coptcs du mu.~e du Louvre." Musics el

S
/iml.f plth/iques de Fra",", 124 (1973):165-74.

_ _ . "tes Nouvelles Salles copies du Louvre:' Dulle/ill de fa Societe d·arc1u!.%gie caple 21 (1975):153-61,

Gr.lviers, J. dt'li. "In"entaire des objelS coptes de la Salle de &ouil au Louvre." Ril'iSla di arcflcologio cris/iolla 9. nos, 1-2 (1932):51-102.

1484

LUCIAN OF ANTIOCH

Rutscho>MlCllya, M. I-I. Musee dll WllI're, D,Jis de l'E~rlle cupit:: Reltlli.."f des musees IIlJliolllJlI.I:. I'lll·is. 19M.

day 7 Jan.) and the Or1hodl)X church (feast day 15 Oct.). D10LlOGRAPIlY

LUCIAN OF ANTIOCH (c. 250-312), AnalOlian biblical scholar and theologian who was martyred. Lucian was hom in Salllos:lIa and educated III the iKhool of Edes5a (both citil's in modem Turkey). He became a follower of Paul of Samosata, excommu' nicated bishop of Antioch (although this has been dispuled by F. Loofs (1924] and G. Bard)' [1936]). Lucian founded his own school in Antioch, which taughl both lll\.'Ology and scriplural exegesis. A p~hyll~r in the Antiochene dioce.'le, and known fur bc.Mh piuus ascelicism and scholarly diligence, Lucian produced a recension of the Greek Bible that nut only "~..l!l important in his time but also has conlinued to be an influence (especially the New Testamenl) in the Orthodox church to the presem time. His version of the Septuagint, based on a knowledge of Hebrew as wetl as of GrCl'k, circulated with other vel'Sions of the Old TeSla· ment. (lnd ponions of the Lucianic text are still fuund in current teKts of the I)iblc. While he ........s not !In prolific an author as OllleEN or Saini JEROME, Lucian may ha\'e wriucll onc of the creeds pre:o;ented at the Council of Antioch in 341. and his students published numerous eommenlaries on bib· Iical books. "lis school was dedicated 10 a literal interpretalion of the scriptures, as opposed 10 thl' allci:oricill inlcll'r'elalions of lhc Alell:mdrian school. Luci(j!\ is best known, perhaps, 1'01' being Ihe pel" petrillO!' of SUBOllllrNATrONISM. a teaching about the n:lture of Chri~t .11(I( l:i1er devclopcd into the Ad.rn heresy (sec AkIANISM). In filet, ARIlJS and others win ted witlt the hcr'csy c1:rimcd to bc students of Lucian. Among the more famous "Collucianists" wcrc Arius, Bishop Euscbius of Nieomcdia, Mcno· phantus of Ephcsus, Thcogllis of Nicaen, Mnris of Ch:rlccdon. Alh:rnasius or Anazamus, the ~ophist Asteriu~, and Bishop Lcolltius of Antioch. Bl!cause of his belil
Bardy. G. Recherc1IU sur saim Lucie/l d'Alfliochl' 1'1 SOli ecole. Paris, 1936. 1..oofs, F. Paulus 1'011 Samosola. Texte und Umer5Uchungen 44.5. Leip;dg, 1924. Mct7.Q:er, 8. M. Chaplers in the lIislory 01 New TftSIQ· men/ Tutllul Crilicism, pp. 1-41. Gront! Rapids, Mich., 1963. Quasten, J. Patrology, Vol. 2, PI'. 142-44. Utn:cht,

1964. C.

WII.J'Jl.f.D

GRtC,GS

LUCIUS OF ENATON. See Enatan, The.

LUXOR (31·Uq~ur). a city locat(:d in Uppcr Egypt on the east bank of the Nile about nine miles northeast of Arman!. The city occupies part of the arl:a of the anciem city of Thebes, onCe! the pT'OSperous COIpital of ancient Egypl. which the Greeks called Diospolis Magml. Arob geographers in the Middle Ages called it al.Uqsorayn (lhe Two Caslles) aher thc two major 'cmplcs of Luxor, and from this name the modem al.Uq~ur (Luxor) is derived. Luxor was II bi~hoprie by the clcvcnth l:entury, as evidenced by the allendance of Bishop Marq(Il'ah of al-Uqsurayn til a synod in 1078 (MonicI', 1943, p. 29). AI'chacologicalrcmains, however, show the im· prinl of Christianily in the area :It a much earlil'r dale. Copt~ occupied the Temple of Kllmak l'S e:\r1y as the fOUl1h century. They huilt churches and monasteries in it, nrulihlleJ stattrcs to make el'Osses fr'om them, and plastered walls in order 10 painl murals with apostles, sainl~, :md Chri~ti:tn ~ymbo1s. Climatic changes brought aboui by the Aswan Dam have vinu:\J1y destroyed the~c remain~, DIOLIOGRAPIIY

Municr, H. Ret.:uei/ de)' !i)'les epi)"'opules de Nw1ise cople. C(lira, 1943. RANDArJ_ STEWAIIT

LUXOR TEMPLES. The temple of Anum in the middle of the modern lown is one of the hest prese~ed temples of the New Kingdom. It was erecled by Amenophis III (1408-1372 B.C.) in the place of a

LUXOR TEMPLES

smaller oldel' SDllctunry. About a century later Ram· scs II, wilh :t wmewhm different building-a:\is. added in front the Iwesent fil'St JlCI;style and a pylon. All the walls are decoraled wilh numerous finely worked reliefs of the history and the gods of phar.aonic limes. In the late period the imponance of the temple d,-'Clined. From lhe time of Nectanebml (378-360) came an outer walled forecourt. frum the nurth gale uf whieh an avenue of sphinxes staned, This linked t.he u.lXor temple with the temple uf Amun at Karnak. In the lime of Alexander the Great. a chapel was ert:'ClOO in front of the inner sanctuary of this temple for Ihe keeping of the bark of Amun, The walls carry ponr.ayals of the king before Ihe god Amun and his fellow gods. In the Ptolemaic and Roman periods dilapidation set in. The last n:p;lir mcasurt.'li mentioned in the texts look place in the time of the emperor Tiberius (Darcssy. 1920. pp. 163-66). A new ph.:Lw: In the hllitory of Luxor began when the emperor DIOCU'TtAN. 00 th..: oc.:easiun uf Ihe suppression of lhe Upper Egyptian revoh under L Domilianus (A.D. 297). SCi up a large legionary camp in Ihe domain of Ihe Amun temple. The area of lhe temple W3$ CQovcrt...-
1485

SeI'Vice in the ''egion of the UJxor temple, no fewer lhan five early Christian churehc.s were brou~ht 10 lighl in and a'"Qund the al'ea of the late Roman camp. all of Ihem ereCl...-d on the BAStUCA patlern. The oldesl is in front of lhe temple pylon. and is 10 be mled 10 Ihc tum from Ihe sixlh 10 lhe sevenlh celltUiY. l·lowever. only its sanCIU/lIY survived. 'nle resl wa.~ pulled down when Ihe site was cleared by the Anliquilies Service (Abdul Oader, 1968, p. 253). The apliC in lhe easl wall of the church wa.~ once aOOm...-
1486

LYCOPOLlS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abdul Oader, M. "Preliminary Repon on the Exca· vations Carl'ied OUI In the Temple of LullOor, Seasons 1958-1959, 1959-1960." Ali/lull's dll Sen/ice. des tlllliqllites de. l'EKYPIe. 60 (1968):227-79. D:lrcssy, G. "Noles sur Lo\lxor;\ In ptriode romaine et cople." Allllules dll Sen'ice des AnfiquiJis de 1'!J1:YPft 19 (1920): I59-75. Deckers, J. G. "Die Wandmalereien im Kaiserkuhnium von Luxor." J/lhrbllch des delltscllen QTchiiologisc/ll!ll "mill/Is 94 (1979):600-52.

Grossmann, P, "Elne VCrgl'SSCne frilhchriSlliche Kin;he heim I..liXOI~Tempel." Mitteilungen des dl.'lIfsclle.1I (m.;hiiQlol:i.~chen Itutitltls-Abuilung Ku;ra 29 (1973):167-81. PI;..f.1I: GIIOSSMANN

LYCOPOLITAN. Su Appendix.

MA'ADI. See Pilgrimages.

AI first, he was unwilling to aect:pt the nomination and tried to convince the delegate!! that he was unsuiLable because he was the son of a second wife and because he was Ignorant of the meticulous details of the priesthood. But the delt:gation over· looked his arguments and led him to Cairo, where the vizier, al·Af4aI, permitted his passage to Alexan· dria. Its lnhabitnnts wished to extract from him the promise of patriarchal contributions toward the maintenance of their churches. but he declined and told them that he was an impcl:unious monk and implored them to relieve him of their requesu and let him return to his cell in the wilderness of wa.dl Hablb. AI this. the Alexandrians were silenced, and he Wil.~ forced to go to Saint Mark's Cathedrnl, where he was rormally invested withlhe patriarchal dignity. Aftelward, he was led to Cairo. where another consecrdtion was perl'ornled in Gr'cek, Coptic, and Aronbic In the Church of the Virgin in Old Cairo. One of the first historic acts of his reign was the acceptance of a decree transferring all financial lrdnsaclions connected with the land tax (KHAW) rrorn the Copllc calendar year to Ihe Hegira (A.H.) year. Consequently, all slate :Iccounls were compul' ed under' Islomlc I'Ulher' than Coptic chronology, and the books were now kept only in Ambie. The elghlh year of the I'eign or Macarius witnessed two significant nalural phenomena that disturbed the papulotion of the whole country. First, lhere came 10 ril.~S a ICmpCSlUOUS wind that filled lhe air with desert sand 10 the exlent thai Ihe whole sky wa~ darkened. and people thought thai the cnd of the world was coming, Ultimately. however, the wind subsided and the sun broke out to appcao;c the frightened populace. The second W"dS 1I series of earthquakes. in which ~me building.s fell. includ·

MACARIUS I, fifty.ninth patriarch of the See of Saint Mark (932-952) (feast day: 24 BaramMt), Macarius. who is cited in the IllSTORY OF ruE P.o\TRl· ARCUS lIS Anbl\ Mnqdrah. was .II native of a village called Shubrn ncar Alexandria. He became a monk of Dayr Anbd Maqdr, Nothing i:; known about his life beyond his selection and his passage through his native village on the way to Alexandria, which had not been the seat of patrial'chs since IWA'IL Ill. Macalius wished to visit his old mother and :;how her the glory of his office. But his mothel' ....'3.~ un· happy and received him with tears and told him that she would nit her have scen Ilim in his grave, for as patriarch he must hear the responsihility for 11 whole nation, something beyumJ human forbear. ance, Macar'ius depur'ted f!'Om his mother in pro' found grid, but nevertheless remained on the throne of Saini Mark for twenty years. SUDHI y,

Ll.UlU

MACARIUS II, slxty·nintl1 palriarch 01" the See of SUinl M:,rk (1102-1128) (feust day: 4 Tut), Macarius, or Abba Maql'uonh accol'ding 10 the HISTORY OF THB PATRiARCHS, was a monk of Dayr Anha Maqar when his sele<:tion for the the rmtl'iar'Ciutte was de· cided by Ihe Cail'cnc delegation of bishops and the clergy iogether with the COplic ARCHONS, He was subsequently eonfilmed by the Alexandrians. He was a middle.aged nmn of sufficient vigor, knowl· edge of mona~tic I'Ules and traditions. and logic to undertake Ihe heary burden:; or the patriarchate, according to the History 01 till! Patriarchs,

1487

1488

MACARJUS 1Jl

ing the church of SainI Michael on Rodah, later restored by YOsuf ibn Marquruh. The writer of Ihe biography quoled in the /Jis/Qry of the l'alrinrdu. Yu~anna ibn ~·id. devolcs a lengthy discussion 10 Ihe vacancy of Ihe bishopric of MI~,' after Ihe death of iL<; bishop. Anba Sinhat, which is indit:ali\'c of lhe se,iousness wilh which the populallon regarded Ihe problem of succes..<;ion. An interesting series of IeHers is reproduced by the biog,'tlpher r~garding Ihe search for the right candi· date to fill Ihal vacancy. E\'en Cll!r.tm.."OUs dignities like lhe Armenian patriarch. who was in Cairo at the lime, were consultcd before 1I lisl of t.....elve candidates was made, The names were deposited at Ih" sanctuary and a young deacon .....as to druw lhe name aftcr a period of prayer. I-Ie chose John. Ihe Spirilual ~n and former assistant of the deceased bishop, The sch.:t:tiun ......~ communicated 10 lhe govemor for his sanction. He Yr.I5 then conse<:r.lIed in II formal service conducted by Anb! Mlm'i, bish· 01' of Mllllj, Anrnl Mikhail, bishop of Attlh, Anba Yul;Lanna, bishop of al.Khandaq. and a priest by Ihe name of Bas!ah, The consecration took place in Ihe ancien! church of Our Lady al l:15.ril Zuwaylah amid In:,mcndous celebratiOns. The investiture \llas, of course. sanctioned by the patriarch, and no mention of a CHElROTONIA was made. A very inlCre1;ting event is recorded by the biog' rapher in the History of the Patriarchs from the lifth )'cnr of the palriarchale of Macariu.<; II that had a direct bearing on Ihe history of the COIS;I(les. The Crusaders, ..riel' The capture of Jelu!i<\lem in 1099, continued theIr conquest in southcm Pakstinc amI seem to h
eloquent a staTement on The Coplie view of Ihe Crusades could be found in a purely Coptic !iOurce, The reign of Macarius was almw;t idcnlical 10 Ihat of the Fatimid caliph al·'Amir (1101-1130). The 1a.<;1 imp0l1ani e,",ent of his caliphate 10 be ciled by the His/Qry of the Pulrit,rcf,s is an anempt by three youths from Ihe easl to aSSll"sinate the caliph and his minister. al.Af4al ibn Slll'ihi'lshah. Two of lhem were CUI down by the swords of bodyguanb, bUI Ihe third struck al·Afl,lal with a sha'l) knife, and he wa.~ carried home 10 die of his wound. The caliph, who panieipated in his funeral. returned to sei7-C Ihe immense weal1h he left behind, which included je.....els, gold and silver objecls, precious textiles lind ~, lhe furniture that filled hi, palace, and bags filled with 4 million gold dinars. Uttlc is mentioned about the financial treatment of the patriarch, bUI it must be assumed that he rendered his "ltarll; 11lnd tax. He was left by the Islamic administration to live in peace and securily wilh his congregation throughout his patriarchate of Iwenty-six yeano;;. DI8L1OCRAPIIY Lane-Poole. S. Tilt Mollammadall DyrlQsfies. london, 1894. _-,-,_IIi.~lory af Eg}'PI irl /Ile Middle ASI!S. London. 1901. Runciman, S, lIis/ory Qf/lre Crusades. 3 vols. Cam· bridge. 1953-1954, SUlJfI1 Y. !.AlJm

MACARI US II], 114th patriarch of the See of Saint Mark (1944-1945), He was born on 18 Febru· ary 1872, at the lown ofal.Ma~allah al-Kuhn:i in the Gharbiyy:lh Province, He W;15 mlnled ·Abd·al.Masll.l. LaICI', ot the corly oge nf ,cventeen, he cntered the mon:l~ICI)' of \.lAYK ANU"" UISIIOI and w,IS Ol'(loined pl'ies(, In 1895 CYIW, v appointed him private assist· ant and raised him to the nlnk of IIlWUMENOS. On 12 July 1897 he was consecraTed metropolitan of AsyilJ. a po~ition that he occupied rOI" about forTy·seven years. when he was eleCTed 10 the Throne of Saint Mark on 13 FehruaT)' 1944, In Asyil! he foulld Thill foreign missionaries had made strong inl'Oad.~ lnlO the Coptic church, With remarkable zeal he set about rcvitalizin~ Ihe dcbililaled community: building new churches. resloring old ones, and implemenling a dllring PI"'Ol!:r.:UII of education. hi 1900 he established the first Coptic school for boys, follo.....e d in 1904 by the first Coptic

MACARIUS ALEXANDRINUS, SAINT

school fa.· girl~, run by a highly qUi,lifleJ English schoolmiSln.'1>S with an Egyptian. English. and French staff, He ::also set up more than lhiny de· memary schools for the poor throughout the pn::)Vince, a.~ well as three charitable illstitutioll5 and scores of benevolent societies and n~ligious groups th;)t were lluhsidi7.ed by the community council. He put the tcuncil in tha.-ge of financial matter:; Il'lated to the day·to-t.!ay running and upkeep of the church llnd the other Institutions, while he lkvotcd his ene.-gil$ to the spirilual wclfar-c of his people. In 1920 Maeariu.~ drew up an ambitious plan of refonn incorpo....t ting the following poinL'i: l. selling up a Iheological college in one of the

2. J.

4.

S.

monasteries to provide the church with properly qualified c1c'lU' '-"'itablishing a Supreme Council 10 run all the Coplic propeny givcn to the' church organizing ecclesia.~tical a/fair'S under lhe direction of thc pope and in collaboration wilh a group of bishops and spiritual leader.> fomling an t--ducation committee at the palriar· chale to supervise the teaching of the Coptic language and religious ill5truction kt--cping an up-to-dale register of poor familic:;.

Such a program won the hearts of all the COpls in his pari.~h. It Illso promptet.! the member:; of the community council of AllyU!, some of whom were al.'IO members of the gener-I! council in the e'3pital, to nominate Metropolitan Maeal'ius 3S Clmdidate for the p:uriarehalC, This WIIS in open dclia",:e of the prohibition impOlled by the church a~ainst the C3nditlntul'e uf metropolitans to the papal lleat. The other bishops and Ilbbols, huwevcr, who Ilo'ere opposed 10 the idea of any .~upervlsion e1
1489

MACARIUS, HOMILIES OF PSEUDO·, S/'tJ Pscud",Macarius, Homilies of,

MACARI US, SAINT, Syrian manyr in founhcentury Emt (fcasl day: 22 Abib). Macarius .....;.s the J;On of llasilidcs, ,Ill Antiochene gencral unde'r the empl'ror DIOClETIAN. His Passion is pal' of the lale lbsilidian cvcu!., which emergt--d in Coptic in a Bohairic codex of the ninth centory. The firsl pan of the codc1< is incomplete, bUI il can be recon· Structl-d from the Coplo·Arabic SVNAXARJON. When Diueletian began 10 p<'l"lil"cute Christians, Macarius r('fulled to gh'e up his faith and was do:· nounced, Since Diodetian did not \.\;ant to upset the city of Antioch by punishing a prominent citizen, he senl Macarius to Ihe prefect Annenius in Alexandria wilh instructions thai he be tonured and put 10 dealh, Actually, M;)Cu.rius suffers lhn..-e mar1yrdoms in Egypt. The lir:;t takes place at Alexandria, the sec· ond al Pshati (under II Eut~hian prefect), and the thin.! at Shetnufc (Shal.:J.nuf. another spot in the Delta), Afler each of the lirst two, he is miraculous· ly resllrn:ctt--d, according to a well·known device in IhL~ kind of Pnssion (st-"<.' HAGIOCRAPHY): the Ihird ill linal. John of Aqfah~, a fictitious pcrsomlge who gcncrated allot her cydc ant.! to whom the authorship of Ihc IC1<1 i~ a.~cribed, is present at the thirtl ma"yl'dom. The Passion is followed hy 3 passage narrating Ihe following events: Oioclctian is pun· i~hed by heavcn ant.! becomes blind. The emperOI' Constantine relltores Christl::lnily ant.! sc:nds the prc· reet Elllogius to substitute for the recalcitranl Arm· cniu~. Eulogius wanlS (0 rcmove thc rclic~ of Macarius, bUl the latter appeal'S in a vision and orJer~ them to be left al Shc:lnufc, where .1 large sanc:hl
Hyvc:rnat. H. Lcs Actes des ",artyr.~ de /'I~·J:)'TJte lire!; des maml.~cril.~ cOJlle.~ de /a lJTb/io/heITI/Ii VII/iel/II/' /'1 dl/ MI/see lJQr~ill, Paris. 1886-1887, TIm ORJ.ANflt

MACARIUS

ALEXANDRINUS,

SAINT,

fourlh-eenlury monk ut Kellia (fea.~1 day: 6 Ilashans). He is surnamed the Ale1
1490

MACARIUS THE CANONIST

celebrated Saint MACARllJS TlIP.. EGYPTIAN. He \\Ias

born at the end of the third century in A1ClUlndria,

where, before bci::oming a monk in circum:;;tanccs nOI known, he practiced the profession of a mime, or according to other sources, a merchant of preserved fruits. He died in 394 in the desert of the

any more than in Nitria or in Seetis. The salll~ is t.roe of a discouDC on the fate of souls aher death, transmiued in G~k under his nanle (385-392) and allrihuted by the Syriac tradlllon, equally wrongly, 10 the Egyptian (I..801SChc:x>1, 1950, pp. 15989).

Kellia at almost 100 }'('Brs of age. PAUAOIUS. who

arrived in the desel1 in 391 and devoted to him chapter 18 of his I.Qfuiac Hislory. knew him there over dlree years. He was then the priest of the monastic cOFllmunity of the Kcllill. where the "Ori· genisl" monks

grouped around RVACRI\JS

PO~ICUS

lind AMMONIUS Of KF. l.UA were numerolls. He was

probably in sympathy with their Ideas. Evagrius

mentions him sever-al limes in his books and consulted him a.~ a master (cf. Gui1laumont, 1971. pp. 698-99). Although resident in lhe Kellill, according 10 Palladiu~, he had small cells in various places, ~uch as in NITklA and in SCI!TIS, where he is found in COmpany with Macarius lhe Egyplian, with whom he ""uffered exile in 374 at the time of the Arian persecution. Comparison has often been made betwl."t:n the two Macarii. equals not only in age but also in alicetic vil1ucs, spiritual gifts, and aUlhority. The historian Socrates (His/OriD eccluiDsticD 4.23) says ,hat the Alexandrian was vel)' similar to tke Egyp. lian, bUl lhat while the latter was aUSlere and reo served, the Alexandrian was smiling and loved 10 banler wilh the young mono. We can, in fact, see hirn bring some humor even Into his numerous ascetic exploilS. Ooile early there was confusion of the twO in the slOries, especially in lhe reponing of miracles, of cures, of resurrections of the dead, and even of fantastic tales like the visil far into the dcscn paid 10 the mythical pal"ll.disc of Jannes and Jambres, pharaoh's magicians in lhe far·off times of Moses. This slOI)' is laid of the Alexandrian by Plll111dius (chap. 18) and by the Latin recension of the IlISTORIA MONII.CIIQRlJM IN AIlGYPTO (dlllp. 29), but also of Macarius the Egyplian in Ihe Greek recension of the s:lmc work (Feslugil!l'e, 1971, chap, 21). The Sl,me confusion appcan; in lhe ArQPltTHEGMATA PATRUM. The alphabetical collection places only three apotheg,"s under the nllme of the Alexandri· an (304-305), but among the rOl1y-on~ placed un· der the name or the Egyptian (257-282) several probably belong to the Alexandrian. Macarius the Alexandrian left no writings. The monaslic rules put into Latin under his name, whether alone or in association wilh others (PC 34, pp. 967-982), c~n.ainly do nOI come from him, ror there was no wrillen rule at the Kcllia in his lime,

BIBLIOGRAPHY COlelier, J. B.. ed. Apophthegmota Patru",. PG 65, pp. 71-440. Paris, 1864. Evelyn-While, I-I. G. nle Mona.steries o//he Wodtn No/rarr, pt. 2; The History of the M(mas/erits 0/ Nltria a/ld See/is. New York, 1932. Festusi~re, A.·J. Histuriu Monaehorum ill Ael:Ypto. £dilitltl critique du lexlt grec e/ traduc/iu'l (JII. lIulee, chap. 21. Brussels, 1971. GuilluulllOnl, A. "Le Problcme des deux Mac:lirc dans lcs Apophthegmata Palnml." frelli/mn 48 (1975):41-59.

Guillaumonl, A" and C. Guillaumont, cds. TraC/QIlIS praclicllS by Evagrius Pontlcus, 94. Paris, 1971. untschoot, A, van. "Revelations de Macaire et de Marc de TarmaqA sur Ie son de I'.dme aprcs la mOrl." U Mllseoll 63 (1950):159-89. ANToINE GUllJ.AUMONT

MACARJUS THE CANONIST, monk-priest of the Monastery of Saint JOHN 00L0905 in Wadi al· Na!rOn (first half of the founccnth centul)'). Macari· us is known only through his great juridical campi· lation. There are cleven manuscripts in Ihis collec· tion, but three are only eighteenth.century copies of older manuscripts, most of which arc either incom· plele or lost. Since Abc, aI-BarakAt (d. 1325), author of an encyclopedia entitled MisbaJ.1 al-~Id",ah (Lamp of Darkness), d<X:s nOl spenk of Maearius' work. it is supposed that Macarius was his conlemporluy or perhaps was a lillie younger. II is known thaI he lived after the palriarch CYRIL III [UN LAQLAQ (1235-1243), whose canons h~ cites, and lhal lhe two oldesl manuscripts that contain hi~ compilation arc rrom lhe years 1350 and 1352. An cnumer..lion of Ihe texts that contain his ca· nonical collection, or at least an analysis of the two principal manuscripts. will be found in Gennan in the work of W. Riedel (1900, pp. 121-29). There is also an analysis of one or the mOSI complele manuscripts (National Library: Paris, arabe 251) in G. Troupeau's calalogue: Ihe text is published In R.-G. Coquin's edition of the Canons of Hippolytus (PO 31, fuse. 2, pp. 278-79 and 285-95). Macarius' juridical compilation has pn:served

MACARIUS THE EGYPTIAN, SAINT

5everal documents, lIlllong them the Anabic Dida· sctlliQ, the Leller of PelCr 10 Clemellt, the canons of Hippolytus. the canons of pseudo-Basil, the canons of pseudo.Gregory of Nyssa, and the canons allribUle
Coquin, R.-G. I.e:; Call(m$ d'Hippolyte. In PO 31, fase. 2, Pl'. 272-444. Paris, 1966. Riedel, W. Die Kirchellrechtsqut'l/en de.f PlJtrilJrch· lJlS AlulJlldriM. Leipzig, 1900; repro Aalen, 1968. Tl'1JllJ)I:'au, G. Catalogue des malluscrits arabe.s, Vol. 1; Malluscrits chriliells, fase. I. Paris, 1972. Rf.N£-GEORGES CootnN

MACARIUS THE EGYPTIAN, SAINT, or Macarius the Great, Illustrious fourth-century an· ehorite in the desen of SCETtS (feast day: 21 Baramh:l.I). He was called Ihe Greal. or Ihe Egyptian, 10 distinguish him from his eontemponuy. lItIACAJUUS Al.£XANORtNU5. A monaslery in Sceti.~ is still called by his name. VAVR ANuA. MAOAR. Macarius Ihe Egyptian was born aboul 300 in the village of Jijber. situated in Ihe southwesl pan of the Delta. Ariel' livina for some time as a hermit near a village, he withdrew about 330 into the Wadi al.Nap'un. I-Ie first established himself near the lakes that occupy Ihc bellom of the wadi, then pen· etrated farther south inlO Ihe desen region where OUR AL-BARAMOS is today. He Ihere prepared for himself a cave comprising two rooms, one of which served a~ :m oratory. He then received his first two disciples, to whom tmclition hOls given the names of MAXIMUS AND DOMtTIUS. called the Romans. Later he reached the western pllrt Qf the wadi ilnd instilllcd himself in a cave not fur from the place where the monastery that bellI'S his name stOlnds today. It appean that there quickly gathered around him a nu· merous community of monks who desired to live follOWing his example and his directions. According to RUPINUS (Hislorla ccclcsiastica 2.4) and the SYN· AXARtON (13 BnramhAt), he was deported with Mac· ariu~ Alexandrinus during the Arian persecution in 314 to an island in the Delta. He returned shortly afterward to Scetis, whet'C he died about 390. The CQptie sources-the Life of Saint Maearius (falsely attributed to SERA-I'ION 01' TMUtS), the eollec· tion of the Virluc.s of Sai", Mocarius, and the Ara· bie·Jacobite Synnxarion-have a lendeney to exag· gerate Maearius' relations with Saim .uITONY. Saint Antony is said 10 have gh'en him the monastic hab·

1491

it, then advised him 10 accept priesthood. I'urthermore. confusing him with aoother Maearius. ~uperi· or of the mona~tery of Pispir. they have him present at Ihe saini'S dc-ath and burying his corpse. Howev· er, Macarius' relations with Antony are well allcst· ed by the APOPHTHECMATA PATRUM. which repol't,~ two visilS made by Macariu$ to Antony. He can be considered a disciple of Saint Amony. The preslige alld authority of Maca.rius wcre great even during his lifetime, not only among Ihe monks of Seetls but 01150 among those of Ihe desens of Nitria and the KP.JlJA. EYACRtllS POHTtcus. a resident in the Kellia, traveled about 25 miles (40 km) to Scetis to consult Macarius, who was considered by Evagrius to be a master. It was said of Macariu..~ that he was "a god on earth." Immediately after his death, perhaps even in his lifetime, marvelous 510 .... ies were spread about him, allributing to him many cures and mirncles, somelimes confu.~ with those allributed to Mpcarius Alexandrinu5. According to a narrative preserved in CQptic about the translation of the relics of Saint Macarill5, and according to the Arabic-Jacobite Synaxnrion. the people of Jijbcr, k-aming of the miracle!> wroughl around his tomb after his death, stole the body of Macariu5 and carried il to their "mage to a church lipecially built 10 receive it. After the ARAB CONQUEST 01' EGYPT. since Jijbcl' was in ruins, the body was transferred to another town, Elmi, and in the time of the Palriarch JOHN tV (115-199) bl'oughl baek 10 Seetis, where it was t.leposited in thc church of Dayr AnM Maq<1r, where it is vener-lled today. Variouli writings have come down under the name of Maeariu5. The only one that has some ch:mce of being authentic is a leller known in Latin under the title Ad (iI/os Dei, extant also in Syriac and Armenian and in the originnl Greek tex\, recently edited by W. Strothmpnn. A rich collection of treatises, letters, lind hOlllilies has been handed down in Greek under his name (and sometimes under that of Maenr'ius Alcxandrillus), lImong them the fllmous fifty Spirillial//omilic.~, some passages of which are found llg:lin in the collection of the Vir· Illes of SainI Macarius, a late compilalion of Greek origin. But since L Vilk>eourt showed Ihe close relation of these homilies with lhc Mcssali:ln movc· menl, it is generally admitted that these pseudo·Macarian writings aI'e in reality of Syrian origin. BIBLIOGRAPlIY

Amclincau, E. HislDire du mQllasteres de fa Basse. Egypte. Annales du Musee Guimet 25, pp. 46-234. Paris, 1894.

,

1492

MACARI US THE GREAT, SAINT

Coldier, J. B., ed. Apophlhe/(/lIatu Palm",. In PG 65, cols. 257-81. Paris, 1864. Dorri~. H.; E. KIO!IICrmann; and M. Kroeger. Die 50 gci$lfichen HomiUell des Mllk(lrios. Berlin, 1964. ~velyn.White, H. G. Tile Mmwsteries uf /lIe wadtll Nulr(m, pc. I; Ncw Cop/ie TexIs Irom the MUIlII~" fCry QI Saini Macarius, pp. 120-35. New York, 1926. PI. 2. The His/Dry of/he MonU$IUies of Hilria Qnd Sc;e1is. pp. 60-72. New York. 1932. Feslugi~rc. A.·J. HisfQria Monacllomm in AegyplD. Edition criliqlll!- dll lex/t cre/' et (fuJI/diu" a,,· .wret, pp. In~28. Brussels. 1971. GuillnoinOni. A. "Le Problcme des deull Macair<:: dans k-s Apophlhcgmal:l P"lrum." I,..nikon 48 (1975):41-59. Strothmann, W. lJie syrische VberlielerlHlg der Schri/len des Mlllwrius, pI. I, pp. 74-84 (Syriac tc~l): pl. 2, pp. 16-22 (Greek tc~t); pp. SO-55 (Gennan tmnslation). Wiesbaden, 1981. Vilkcour1, L "La Date et I'ol'igine des 'Homclies spirituellcs' anrihul!cs 3. Macaire." Comptes rendus de l'Aeildclllie des inseriptioll$ et belles· lettr6. pp. 250-58. Paris. 1920. Wilman, A. "La Lcure spirituelle de !'.,bbe Ma· caine." Rel'lIt' d'ascefique et de mysfiqlle I ( 1920):58-83. ANTOINe GUILJ....UMONT

MACARJUS THE CREAT, SAINT,

See

Maeariu5 the Egyptian, Saint.

MACARIUS Macariu~

OF

SCETIS,

SAINT.

St'f;

the Egyptian, $aim.

MACARIUS OF TKOW, SAINT (d. 451{452), bishop of Tkow noted for poverly, sanctity, and henling powers who WilS martyred for opposing tIle Council of l;1l"I£EIION (feast day: 27 Ba.bah). The chief source for his life is the l}utl/~gJ'ric 011 Mu('ur;lfS, Bishop 01 Tkow by PM:udo-Dioscol'Us of Alexandria. This work cannot have been composed earlier than the s..:1:ond quaner of the sixth century. It appears to be based on episodes dealing with Maearius drawn from Ihe Life of Diosconls by Pscudo-Thcopistus of Alexandria. which the aUlhor of the l'anc8Yric amplified and to which he :ulded other trddilional stol'ie,<;. Internal evidence indicates thai the Panl'gyrk WilS composed in Greek in or around Akxandrla. II survives in Sahidic and

Bohairic translallons, and several unedited manuSCI'iplS of Ambic version.~ are e",tant. The Panegyric tells nothing about Macarius' enrly lire or' how he Clllne to be a bishop, His diocese of Tkow (Anl:liopolis: Ouw al-Kflbll') is located ill Up· per Egypt roughly halfway between ASVOT and ""HMIM. The Panegyric is meant to he a diseuurse delivered by DIOSCORUS I. patriarch of Alex31ldria, to a group of munks who ha\'e l:omc to visil him in exile al Gangra in Paphlagonia on the Black Sea. While still in Ale",aodria, Dioscorus is brought news by Ihe abbot P:aphnutius of the brutal dl,.-ath of Macariu,<; for refusing to ,<;ub5cribc to lhe decreC!l of the Council of CH"LCEDON and the Tome of Pope LI'.o I, which the emperor had submitted to the bishops of Egypt to sil/;n. Diosconls Ihen begin,<; a long remi· niscence about M"carius, beginning wilh their meeting on the dncks of Alcx!lndria, as he and the Egyptian hishops pl'Cp.we 10 embark for Con,<;t:antin· ople at the command of the emperor Marcian, Mac81'ius is port.rd)'ed as 3 self·effacing man who i,<; poor, who is accompanied by a single companion, and who ,<;pcaks. and undersl.3nds only Coptic. Die>!;Corns must converse wilh him through :an inter· preler. When Dioscorus' companion, ThcopisluS, makes a disp.m.ging remark abuut the inability u{ Macarius to speak Greek lIntl calls him "this lIIouth· less one," Dioscorus reprimands him and threatens to censure him unless he begs Macarius' pMdon. TIlen in a ,<;pcech using Old Testament holy war Imagery, Diosconl,<; predi<:ts lhat Macariu,<; will play II preeminent role in the defense of Egyptian orthodo",y. Be<:ause all the other bishops are able to escape the trip to Constantinople by bribing the imperial messenger, DioscolUS and Maca.rius embark without Ihem. During the journey, Macariu~ heals ., blind man and miraculously produccs evidence that clears an Egyplian sailor who is falsely accused by his non·Egyptian .~hipmales. During the journey, Di· OSCOl1JS compels the comp'lJIion of Mac~,rius, Pinout ion, to ,'ecount for him some of the bishop's outstanding virtuL"S and miracles, iucluding hi,<; "ictOl)' over demons who inhabited a pagan temple in his dincese. Pinout ion also recounts the vi,<;ion of Abbot SllllNlm:, in which the abbot saw Macarios as a champion of orthodoxy. who, because of Shenutc's advanced age (he is 109). will light in his $tead at the coming council. Upon their arrival in Constantinople, Dioscorus has a vision, In which he leams that Macarius will be buried besidc the bodics of SOlin I JOliN nm B"P· TJ!>T and lhe prophet Elishn. When Dioscol'us is

MACARI US OF TKOW, SAINT

summoned 10 the imperial pl-esence, Macarius is denied emr.mce by a chamberlain because of his sbabby attire. which he l'dUses to change for an eanhly ruler. When he i.s finlllly admilled through the inter.,ention of l>i(lSCorus, he i... unable to participate in thc cnsuing deb.-.te about ductrine because he can lind no one to 1ntelllret fOI" him. Meanwhile, DiolOCorus pn"SCn~ a I'tmsing defense of Egyptian orthodo,\y before Mnrcian and the empress 1'Ul.CIlFJUA. convincing the assembled bishopli of the com:ctncss of his position. After this ses.~ion. an informant Idb Dioscorus thai there is a plol to munler Macarius, and he reluclanlly sends the bishop back to Egypt. Thus, it would seem that Macarius really never gets 10 attend the Council of Chalcedon but only some SOil of preliminary mttting in Constaminople. linK: paucs, during which Dioscorus is removed from hi!; see by the Council of Chako::Jon and ~nt into t:<:ilc by the emperor_ An imperial courier arrives at AlelCandria and summons the bishops of Egypt to subscribe lu Ihe decrees of the council and 10 Ihe TQnIC! of Len. When Macarius refusCli 10 accept these documents because he does not judge them 10 be in conformity with Ihe Council of NI· CAE.\. the courier kicks him so s;lVugdy that he dies on the spol. His body is prepared for burial amid5t a great oUlpouring of devuliun un the pan of the AlcJ13ndrian pupulace. nlld he i.~ laid to resl ne;c.t to the bodiC5 of John Ihe a.-.plisl and Elisha, as had been prophesied. A cripple who touches his bier is healed, a.~ i5 a deaf-mule chilt.!, who lhen recounts thaI he h;ls seen ;1 vision or John the Baptist and Elisha receIvIng the soul of Macarius. This. in synopsis, I... what we ;Ire lolu of the life of Saint Macarius. Very lillie of lhe life of M
1493

the Bnpti.~t and Elisha at the same monastcry may tic in with the 1I11dltion Ihal is found in the Plllleg)'rit: about Ihe hurial of Macarius nCJtt to the~ two holy men. The presence of the relics of thc Ihree Maca!'ii at DayI' AnM Maq:ir is first altCliled in a Iisl made by Mawhub ibn MlIn~ur near the end of the eleventh cenlll!')'. More signifieanl, however. for Egypllan church hislory Ihan Ihe details of hi... life is the mle crealed for Macarius by Ihe pscudonymuus :.uthor of Ihe PQ"~gyric. This work is characteristic of most early Chrislian hagiography in Ihal il is Ic:ss itllercsled in historical accurolCY lind mOI'C intenl on exhoning its audience to vinuoUlO beha\'ioT lhrough the e,\alllpie of Ihe saini_ The Patlegyric can be best characteri'1.ed as a h::tgiogrophical romance situated in II conll."xt of '1nti.(;hah;eOonian polemics. The author, in spite of nn undercutTt'nt of prejudicc against the Coptic language lind culture, sets OUI 10 make MlIcnrius a model Egyptian onhodo;c. hero for Ihe period immcdiately following the Council of Chalcedl)n. FiBI of all, he estllblishes hi... 5llinllineu_ Macarius is pol1roycd lIS soml.'Onc who pl'aclice.~ evangelical p<.lverly, reminiscent of thai procticl.-d by lh~ ~arly monks of Ihe dcsen. He is JKXlI'ly dress· cd by tho icc and cmTies almOSI no money when aboul to sail for Conslantinople. When in trouble, he places his Inlsl in God, who deliver!i him. He has lhe abililY to rea.d men's heans and to guide them effectively 10W;...t.! rcpcnlence arid vinue. Hc has Ihe power to helll the sick, e\'en aher he is dead, and i... able to drive out demons. lIe Is devoted 10 ol1hodoxy lllld willing to ..i.~k hi~ lifc for the raith in conU'a.~t to other bishops whu put personal 8"in and budily cOlllfort before nl1hodoxy. In shall, he is a Christ·like figure, suiwblc for ill1ilnlion. Second, his crcdentiliis ns a S[Xlke511l11n for the Coptic-speaking church arc estab1ishct.! by lhe vision of Abbul Shenute, the premier Copt it-speaking religious leader of the period. Mat':lrltls is ;Ilso nssodated wllh P;lphnutius, II p"chomian abhol who hilllseir has tie5 to Shenute. Thu.~ Macarius is linked to the sources uf the lWl) mOSl impO'1ant tl'aditions or Coptic·speaklng Egypl, men who themsdves can look hack to their close ties wilh S;linl CYIIIL I and the Cuuncil of 1!l'Ill'$VS. Finally, the author links Macmius to the Greek-speaking p:ltrillrch of Alexan· dria, DioscOlllS. Cyril's succes.~oI' and the defcndcr of his leaching5. Thus. the work welt.!s Ihese IwO elemenL~, Coptic and Greek·speaking Egyptian Christianity, into a uniled fronl against Ihe perceived helel'Odoxy of the

1494

MACROBIUS, SAINT

followers of Chalccdon. Whelher Ihe work was r.:omposed 10 foster such ethnic unity, 01' whether it merely reflects and fonifie~ what was alrr.:ady the l::lSr.: in ~ixth'century E.gypt. is unl:enain and mUSI a...."'il Ihc fllnher study of EgYPlian church history in the period after 4S I. A Saini MacariWi the bishop (nol otherwise specl· ficd) is commemorated in variOWi liturgical texts of Ihe Coptic church. It is nOI possible lu cunfirm that Ihis is Macarius uf Tkow, but Ihe identification 5~ms probable. The Exegesis on the Feast Day of Michael the Archangel (Pierpont Mor'gan Ubmry, Codex 592) is attribuLed Lo Macarius uf Tkow. BIOLIOGRAPHY Nau, F. "Histoire de Dioscore." JOllnlol osiatiqllc, ser. 10, no. I (1903):5-108,241-310. DAVID W. JOHNSON, SJ.

MACROBIUS, SAINT, or Makrliwl, fourth-cen· tury bishop of Nikiou, who was martyred under OIOClETtAN (fenst day: 2 BalOlmhat). Only one very brief fr,lgmcnl uf his Passion surviv(.'S in Bohairlc (Nalional Library, Paris, Copte, 151, 1; cd. Devos, 1949), but the "original" text l:an be reconstrucl...-d through an encumium in his honor wrillen by Mena of Pshali (ed. Hyvemal. 1886-1887, pp. 22546) and through the sUlllmary in the Copto-Al'llbic SYNAXARION.

This t<,)xt begins with the ecclesiastical career of the manyI', who becomes bishop and is noted fur his zeal. Two emissarics of Diuclelian have him arrested. Thcre are then the usual scenes of court· room qucstioning and or 10rture. Macrobius is then sent to Alellandria, where Armenius plal:cs him in prison. Here he has a vision of Christ and penorms many mil1lcles. He is taken illto coun again and tortured, but i~ healed by an angel. Armenius tries to have hinl drowned, ea~ling him adrift in a boat, but without success: he then tOl1ures him anew. Finally Macrobius is beheaded and his body L~ take'l 10 his home IOwn of Shmum. This Passiun was constructed in connection with the Cycle of Julius of Aq~ and its stroClure fC
Devos, P. "Le Fragment survivant de la Passion Cople de S. Mal:robe (MS Paris Copt. 15')." AnalecW 8Qllamliana 67 (1949):153-64. I-Iyvernot, H. Les ACles'des marlyrs de l'Egypte lires des mallllscrilS copies de la BibliOlhiJque Vat/Calle el dll },fusee Hartjo. Paris, 1886-1887. Trro ORUNI>I

MADAMOD, town on the

ca.~t bank of Ihe Nile,

about 5 miles (8 km) nonheast of Luxor, and from the phal'llonic down to Ihe Roman period an itllpor· lant cultie center of the Theban district-god Month, which slill emerges from the place-name loday. The temple of Month and of the bull Buchis sacred to him ckrlves essentially from the Ptolemaic period. with some extensions from Roman times. As al many pharaonic siles, after its profanation it was taken over by Ihe neighboring settlement, where the inhabitants at the same time used it as a quarry. Excavalions by the French mission were carried only so rar as to allow a clat'ificatioll of the layout of the temple. The remains of Ihe late anti
1495

MAOAMOO

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Plan of lh~ thrl,:C'(li~lcd basilicllll chamber in the south court:lt Mad.,mf,d. CUjj(lesy Pela Grossmanll, church in the temple may have taken place at the earliest in the COUl'llC of the sixth century.

The sccoml, !lOmcWhal laler church lies in the middle of the remain!'; of numerous laIc antique houses on the south side of the former processional way leading to the temple, a few paces away from the Ptolemaic gale of the temple circuit wall. Of this in pa'1icular 5everal bases of columns have survived in situ, hut the sanctuary has been razed,

Plan of the church lOCAted amid the remains of houses at MadamUd. COllrles}' Pe/er Gross/Ilo.ml.

llPllrl from the foundation of the OUler', northeast comer, The church had fI narthex and on the south side II baplister)' with a circular pool. II is no longer po,'I.~ible 10 del ermine wher'e the entrance to lhe l:hureh lilY. The building is dllll:d by lhe excavators to the seventh eenlury, The remains of house.~ In the ncitlhborhooo of the church arc too incomplete 10 convey any idea of thcir significance. The only one worth mentioning is a small house on the sOUlh side of the front temple tribune, which contains an oil press. North of the tribune numerous decorative pieces from late antiquity were found, wrought from limestone blucks from lhe Eighteenlh Dynasty, BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bisson de la Roque, F. Rapport sllr les (ollilles cle Ml!dumolfd (1925). Fouilles de j'lnstitut fr.m"ais

1496

MADARIS AL-AOBAT AL·KUBRA

d'A!'ch&llogie orientale 3. 1. pp. Cairo, 1926.

17~20.

pI. 3.

- _ . RQpport .fur les IOlfilles de AM.dmlloud (/927/. Fouilles de I'lnstitut fran~ais d'An;hcolo-

gic orientale 5, I. Cairo. 1928. 1"t1"1;1I GIIOSSMANN

MADARIS AL·AQBAT AL-KUBRA. See Edu· cation.

MADINAT HABO. great fortified mortuary temple of Ramscs III. The Coptic seU!ement in the

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Plan or the ehurch in front of the east gate at Madinat ~l:lbu. (.·uurle~y PCIt'r Gm.nmulIlI.

lemple area of Madlnal H(lb~l is the simple eontinu. ation and the final stage of a civilian migration into the t~'rnpJe Iwecinets that began a.~ early as the Twemy·lirst Dynasty (fTom 1090 u.C.). At fin;t. it wa~ significantly limited only to the area wilhin the giro die wall and went on parallel with .o;omt> iliOlated aher'.uions and reconstruction work in the temple buildings tbemsclv~. Larger groups of bouse foun· dation... in the outer an:as, for example. the group of houS(,.'S on the !\()utheast side b~'side the so·called fonilied gate of Ramses III. can only be auested in the Roman period (1-Il:llscher, 1934. pI. 10). Afler the final extinction of the temple cult in Christian timl.'S. n:building around the tcmple WOl-~ nalurally intensified to a considerable degree and look pos. SCS!;ion of the temple itself. which in the preceding periods had al....01)'5 been lefl untouched. Numerous remains of hou.sc foundations have been identified in the fin;t CDunyard. In the second coun a church was built. In this ....OIy. the Coptic inhabitants pressed forward inlO the inner pan of the actual temple building. Evt'n Ihc roof of the temple \ real' wall or the temple build· ing or the stnl'chousc lIbovc the temple of Eye and Hor'Cmhcb (Holscher, 1934. pI. 34) to the nonh. outside the temple precinct. Remarkably. Ihe staircases nrc never situated beside the entrance. hut alwa}'1lln the back pan of Ihe house. They thus gave access to the private part of the house, while the front entrance room sen,ed as a guest room or reception room (HI:Ilscher, 1954, p. 46).

MADINAT

In the eighth or ninth century A.D. the scll]cmcnt was abandoned. The rea.o;on for Ihis I'; not known. In addition 10 the hol!St.'S. there were Sf'vernl

churches in the area of the temple. The great fivc·aislcd b:uilica lh.:al once occupied the ~ond temple court is undoubtedly lhe most

~Il mrd v/!nwlIldte

MA.J)i

1497

Typrm i" Oberilgypun. Glilck-

stadt, 1982. Holscher. U. The beal'alion of MQdillQf Habu, Vol. I. Gerreral P!QIlS alld Vil'lI's. Chicago. 1934. The /J.:;rcQvllIUm 01 MQdillQl IIQbl4, Vol. 5, Pusl RrlJrre,nw R/!mains. Chicago, 1954. Pt,.-n:.R GItOSSM"I'N

imponant. II was oriented 10 the cast, and therefore

across the original axis of the temple. To accommodale the apse, one of the pharaonic columns on the

cast side was sacrificed. Otherwise only lhe Osiris pillars were leveled and the llpllce between

pillars walled op. so as 10 obl:lin

It

lhe~

dOl;Cd wall

surface on Ihe inside. The church wa.~ pl'Ovided with a gallery, but where the stairCllsc fUf il lay can no longer be rccogni1.cd. Chrnnnlngicl'llly, the

,

church probably belungs to thc middle or second half of lhe sixth ccntUIY. Munnerct de Villard (1954. p. 54) dates the building belween the fifth and sev· enlh !:enturies. for :11 :m carlier period so massive lin inll11_~ion into the SllllClur'e of n completely in· tll!:1 lemple seems scarcely probable. The basilka in front of Ihe fortilicd easl gale of the enclosure ....... 11 is substantially more modest and clearly of later date. For the understanding of chrislian church architeclure in Egypt, however, il fomu an imJlOrtant slage in the development of the kh(inl$ (mom between sanctuary and na\'e) and of the front triumphal arch placed befo~ the opening of the ap5C. It is the only example in which the castem ro..... of columns, such as is found cspl:ciall)' in Egyplian churches with a triconch ~ncllull)', has been fused into a massive cross .....all. broken only by a large arch of>Cning. The rest of the church confonns to the usual pattern; in the southeast there is an additional side mom. The nanhex with pn outer door and staircase were "ddl."
BIBUOGRAPHY

Grossmann, P. Mittelrdfuliche LDIl£1Irll/s/wp,nlkirch.

MAOINAT MAJ;)i, an ahandoned !'ile on the soulhwl.'Sl edge of the F.. yyum (perhllps identical with the ancienl Nal'mUlhis). which grew out of an oldel· lemple scltlcmenl lite beginnings of whieh reach back inlO lhe Middle Kingdom. The lemple itself was built by Amenemhet 111 (Twelfth Dynasty) lind cunl"lns numerouS addilions from lhl: Plolenw· ic ;lnd Roman periods. II long procc!'sional way (rirullll))") ex lends in a soulherly direclion. and this cuL~ tl1l'0ugh Ihe !'eUlement. which spreads especially south and cast of Ihe temple. The remains of buildings Ihat can slill be recog· nized loc.Iay derive fron. the laiC ROlllnn and early Al1lbic period~ (down to the ninth century). Ptole· mait; hlJ\ISCS arc found in Ihe ncighborhlWd of the temple. Mud bricks were used as building malerial!' in all periods. as was the cheap qu.. rry stone. Hori· :zontal wooden insert.~ (often even palm wood) were

ill

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Plan of church CH 87 0 at Madinal M:idl. Peru Gros.mUHl".

C(mrle.()'

MAOfNAT MAI?i

1498

iml'oduced 11110 Illony walls as reinforcement. No public buildings have so rar come [0 light in

Madlnal MI1~1. On the olher hand, a considerable number of churches have been identified. and some of these hllYC been cleared. In most cases lhey are mod61 constructions. However. they deserve allenlion insoftll' as !Similar chun::hes were probably con'

tained in very many places in Egypt in lale antiquiIy, bUI today arc aimosl c\'crywhere losl. A characleristic example is the small church CH 84 A. It is entirely built of mud bricks. Only the columns and lhe door sills arc of limestone. The ground plan consistli of the three-aisle "aos with no relum aisle. but wilh the usual IhreL~part sanclUary and a succession of rooms attached on the OllieI' SOluh side, of which only the somewhat larger casl mom can be entered from the interior of the church it.sclf. The remaining roorru; have their en· trances on the outside. Symmetrically in front of this complex there is on the west side a somewhat smaller entrance hall with an antechamber and staircase. Farther to the west is an evidently later COUrt. Chronologically the church may belong to the sixth century. The columns u.scd in it consist exclu.~ively of spolia. In temlS of style, these are like the pieces from Ahnas (Hernkleopolis Magna). and may ha\'e been produced in workshops therc.

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Plan of church Cil 87 Ii Madjnat MolI;Ii. Comusy Peler CrOS$/IIQIIII.

The church CM 84 B is substantially smaller. The area for Ihe laity is broader than it is long, and has in its interior only four columns, which are more' over very irregularly distribUied. Presumably this church was inserted into a building already in existence. When it was cleared, numerous fragments of woodwork (limbers and panels) were discovered. A third church, CH 85 C, is the result of the recon· stl'uctlon of a seculal' Roman huilding. This, too, is nearly squlIl'e. It h:ls in the interiur fuur columns, with an apse in the east and on the west a small nurthell. Once (Igllin all the columns consist of spo· lia. In Its linal phase this church was used as a Jwelling. Other churches still await excavation. Two of them (CH 87 D and CH 88 H) Imve a five·aisle n110S, one (CH 88 G) even a naOs of seven aisles. Never· theless, none of these churches is particularly large, and Ihe lenglh Is even less impressive. CH 88 G is only four bays long, CH 88 H only three. The apse of the hiller ha~ ~111 hurse~hoc·shaped ground plan with an inner circuit of engaged pila,o;teT'S and two engaged columns al the opening to the nave. The single example of a nanhell in these multi·aisled churches is extant in CH 88 G. 111e still 1'Clalively well'pl'Cscl"Ved church CII 87 Eo CXeavlill..-d in spring 1987 has severnl doors on its twO long sides. The sllllctuary is as usual tripartite.

MAGIC

The openings into the central and nonhern rooms are Ilanked on both sides wilh columns. The thirtl room to the south is simpler ill design and served prohnhly ali a dlaconicol1. Farther on a fairly wellpr<."Scrvcd lillie chapel with a narlhe:w. and fOUl' inner columm. is situated in the southernmost region of the lown. II has 1I muhiroom sanctuary with

several different units around the ccntl"ll.l ahar chamber. DlBUOCRAPHY

Bresciani, Eo RQpporto prefi",illure dd//' clImpag"e di ~ClllI(I 1966 e 1967. Milan, 1968.

--C. Rappo"o

prtliminaTe dtllt CflmplIKJle di

KIl-

11(11968 e /969. Milan, 1976. "l':utlvita archeologlca dell'Unh'crsita dl Pisa in Egillo (1984): Madinal Madi nel Fayum. Le chiest!," Egil/u e Vicillo Orieme 7 (1984): 1-7. Jouguct. P. "FouiJIcs du Fayoum." Bulleli" de fa COrnspolldQIICe hd/briqllt 2S (1905):380-41 J. Vogliano. A. "Rapporto prdimimm: della campagna di scavo a Madim,:t Madi." Am'alts du strvice des a",iqui/is de f'EVple 38 (1938):533-49. Zucker, F. "Arch:lologi5Che Funde im Jahre 1909." A.rcMiologiscJltr A.tI~eiger (1910):247-50. EDDA BRESCIANI PETFJI: GROSSMANN

I MAGHTlS,

Set Epiphany Tank.

MAGIC, thl! al'l of pretending to accomplish aclions with the hdp of supernatur"l fon::es contrary to the laws of nllture. Coptic magk is a particularly rich field for studying lhc relationships of lhe ancienl COplS wilh Ihe invisible forces of heaven and hell thtlt were pUrl of the old Egyptian heritage (Lex(l, 1!:I25: Brier, 1980). Angelieus Kropp (1930-1931) gives informUlion on almOSI "II aspeclS of Coptic magic. His work cont3ins foul'leen rn3gical texts in Coptic (Vol. 1), the Genmln translution of seventy.six texts with cor· rections 3nd notes (Vol. 2), and a general study on Coptic magic. Vi;,ux (1978) studied modern Coptic magk with spelb and amuleLs in Arabic, sometimes influenced by Islamic fealures (Winkler, 1930, 1931). As with olher countries, one muSI diSlinguish be· tween modest amuleLs and spells recited by a magician in the presence of his customer at certain

1499

hours of lhe day or Ihe night that are almost like a religious ceremony with burning incense. Amu[eLs weT<: worn even by babie~ and a.re seen even today protecting their bearer wilh the help of God, Ihe angels, find the Sllints. With both spells and amulets there weT<: exa,n· plt:s showing the l1luncs of Ihe persons all Jo.A, dd (ddnQ deitlo.~), "N.N." or "So-and-so" and magical texts thai effeclively worked wilh the names of the persons mentioned. These texu were followl,.'"d, as in Egyptian and C\'en in Islamic magic, not by the father's name but by Ihat of the mother, such as Maria., the d."ughter of Tsibel; TatOre. the daughter of Tsahai; and Andreas, the $On of Marthe (Crum, 1896). The value of a spell or an amulet is more apprcci· ated if it emanates from a well·known source. In the demotic story of Scthom Khamois, the hero gelS hold of a mngical book wrillen by the god Thoth, and the magicia.n reciting a spell asserts that "the books of Thoth" were in his hands (Worrell, 1935). Another spell "to bind a dog:' probably a WlItcbdog, mentions that il was written by Isis (Erman, 1895a). In a reply to King Abgar of EdCMa, one author a.ssens, "I am Jesus Christ, I have wrilten this leller with my own hand" (Krnll, 1892). There is greal frcl,.'"dom in the,: layout of mtlgical texts. Old Coptic tlnd even Christian texts contain passagt:s on how a peculiar problem was solved by divine help. It is, in fact, a kind of mystery in minitllUre, in the,: sense of Greek or Egypthlll Illysteries, where a particularly Impon:mt scene of a god's life is reproduce& as he has helped in the past, he will help in the present cll.~e. Though magical texts present. on the whole,:, a coherent picture of the existing world, there are so many conflicting [eatures in the dc;:(ai!s Ihal they do not fit into a comprehensible universe. The follow· ing, however, m:ly be considered generally aceepled: The se!ll of God the Father, a combination of thron!: tlnd chtlriot, is carried by four cherubim, Under him Iher'e arc seven heavens (lnd fourteen firmaments suppol'led by fOUl" columns apparently pl:lcetl on Ihe earth. Noun (tIOyH) is both the abyss of the sea and the hell, bUI Amenle (ltoMlfTS) is only the hell. Tbe Aeheronilln Sea, borrowed from Greek mythology, is in the nethel"\vorld and must be crossed by the dcceasc.:d. There is a river of lire ror punishmenl and a sea of lire under the throne of the Father. In Upper Egypt (Luxor, Farslnl!, de.) the dead ha\'e to cross a river of fire to get into paradise (Vyciehl, 1938). One spell even speaks of seven rivers or rire (Worrell, 1935, p. 13).

1500

MAGIC

gious lielvice. In rare cases. offerings of animals arc mentioned (chickens, ducks, geese, sheep); the blood is drained from the animal, and the magician and his customer share the meat out between them (Viault, 1978, p. 41). In one case, Psalms 39 and 124 are writtcn with the blood of II white pigeon. Hoopoe blood is used to write a panicular love chann. The head of a dog or II ellt is used to sow disconl in a family and to bring bad luck. The spells mention balSilm, benwin. dates, grapes, lemon and quince juices, laurel leaves, musk, saffron, wine, and such. Thl.-')' call for sl.-'Veral kinds of unguents, made from almonds, roses, and radish oil; also different oils of cotton, Ictluce, linseed, radishes, olive (especially lhe green olh'e of Palestine), and the "oil of the Apocalypse:' conM.~ crated on Holy Saturday. Sornellrnes the kind of water 10 be used is indic.lned In the spells, There is fresh water, Nile water, water of a well that has never SCt:n the sun, bath water, and water from dry places, One special water is Tllbah water, consecrated in the chureh on lhe niaht of Epiphany in the month of Tl1bah. Each spell must be accompanied by a special incense or miltlun: of incense, The tCXIS mention incense of aloe, acacia grains, bean Slraw, ben7.oin, cloves, eard;llllom, coriander, mastic, olibanum (frankincense), pepper, sandarac, and stOl"llll, among otheD.

Names and MagIcal Words

MligictlllCXI. Papyrus fragment. Sixth century. Courtesy Cop/Ie MIiJeWlI, Cairo.

In some Cases, spells contain indications llooul

the magician. They show the magician a.~ the successor of the Egypt ian pricst. He not only in... oke.~ the old divinities under Christian and even untler blamic nile but he must also Ix: "pure" like an Egyptian priest and wear a while linen garment. In One inst.mcc, he even wears a wreath of ruses; in

another one, a wreath of shapsJrap, an unidcllIilied plant. Another magician hold!> a myrrh twig in the light hand and a statf, probably a magic wand, in the left Iland. The ~ilalion of a spell is periOl'nled like a reli-

A name is not only a simple means of identifica· tion but II pnrl of pCI'Sonlllity, He who knows the name, the "true name," of a god or a demon ha.~ a beller chance of coming in contact with him. Some of these names arc secret. Thus, Jesus Christ possesses a wrillen name that nobody knows cxeepl himself. A spell speaks of the "great, hue name of the I'alhel'," anotllcr or lhe "great name:' and there arc also his "tlue name" and his "hidden names:' A frequenl pulindrome is Abhm;\than.\lba. proba· bly of Semitic origin, often misspelled. a sign lhnl its palindromic character was not always apparent to the Coptic scribe, Agramma Challlari is often used with the preceding name a.~ well as with lao SaOO61h. 11 Is used fflXJocntly lind has been cxplained as the mime of an angel. Ahraxas i~ not only lhe Gnostic nllllll; of the highest gud but occurs also In the combinations laO Saba6th Abraxa-~ and Jesus Abraxas, The name of the Phoenician sun-gud, Baalsemes (literally ·'the Lord of the Sun:' I-Itbrew bu'ul :;hemesll>, appears among other sun-

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gods and once in :t list of angelic aeons. BainchMch, with graphic variants, once wrillen with seven omegas, is Egyptian and means "Spiril of Darkness." Ma,'ma,..Oth (Syriac, "lord of lords") designalC5 in lhe Coptic Magical Papyrus of Paris the sun-god lao, A similar form, Bamarnoth, the name of thc highcst god ill the same papyntS, remains unexplained. Semesilam is from semes, "sun" (Hebrew shcmc:;h); the second paI1 of the name has been compared with Hebrew '()/nm, "world," Maslr.elli Maslr.dl6 is :t slrange formalion, once used 10 designate the goddes... of fute. The name ZagOUl'C is once wrillen over the design of 1)tphon or Seth. Four bodiless creatures wilh fQUr faces and six wings in the book of Revelalion are called Alpha, !..e
1501

Magical lex!. I'apyr'us fmgmcnl. Sill.th-eighth cenlu' ry.

Courle~'Y

Cup/it> MII:;ewn, (;m·,u.

were leills in other di:llccts (IS well. The urthogr.,· phy is as a 1'Ule irregular. Tell.l.~ In Old Coptic fre· quemly usc spcciul lellers ucrived frum demulic. They have not lost lheil' contact with the pagan tenninulogy and still preSenl other OIrchaie features, A picture of such lin Old Coplic leXI can be gotten from some passage.'i of tlte magical papyms of Paris (no, 574 of lhe National Library in Paris; d. Erman, 1883, p, 94). One here finds invoked the god Osiris, "lhe King of lhe Netherworld," "the Lord of lite Burial," who is "in the South of Thi.~:' probably in Abydos. His two titles, King of the Nethel"World Dnd Lord of the Burial, COI'l'espond to lhe Egyptian titles ~Ik' dw'.1 and lib ~'5.f, After Tm (Egyptian, Tny) slill other sacred places are men' tioned: EbOt (GMT), or Abydos.
1502

MAGIC

Magical text, Papyros fragment. Sixth-eighlh century. COl/rlCS, Coplic MI/SCI/IIl, Cairo, pca~,

cCl'1ainly Adonai (Hebrew for "My Lord"; .u..CNW, here wriuen UOCDlW) and Micha~l (Ht1O.li.l.) lhe angel (GreeK, t2llgdos) "who is wilh God" (1'lT6IWIO'(TO, IIlepnoule). Saba6th (cu.\GIO) L'I mentioned. 50 the JewUh influence is certain, In this COnlext, One finds such pagan gods as "Anubis on the Mountain" (>.HO'ytI ••• TU.lTlDY, anoup ... IbailOu; EKYPtian. "lip'" lpy dw) and "Thoth the twice Great" (oooyr IlK) IlK), thooUl pio pio), wilh the expl"C!i.'iion "greal of force" (.uUo.iT6. apatite). Then thcre are "goddcsses" (IIT6f'2C1HG, nterhsime) and "gods" (Kr6f:OOYNT, nterhoount). literally "fe· male gods" and "male gods." the first part of which co~ponds to the Egyptian plural nlnv, gods (Erman, I 895b), Thoth, the god of wisdom venerated in the torm of a baboon, is called Panalhoout, the Ape Tholh (IUNAOOQyT, panathoout). just as Seth is called the Ass Selh (I!II cHao iO seth; Erman, 1883, pI. 101). Anolher p,llpyros hus retained IWO Egyplian words nOI found el~cwhcrc in Coptic, TKIT6 (tkite), "Ihc sleep" (Egyptian, 'Id.l), and 2W6 (hOb), "10 send" (h'h) (Erlllan, 1895h, p. 50). In this context the verb I1QlQlr6 (pOOre) slill mellns "10 sec," like its Egyplian rHOl01ype fJlr, and nOI "10 dream," as in Coptic (Erman, 1883, p, 106), TwO intereSling verbal forllls are found in Ihe Old Coplic Schmidt Papyrus: tl6P),(l1 11),'1 (neraei nal), "whal I hfwe done to him," and N6p)'<j fU.1 (nel'llf nail, "what he has done to l11e" (Salzingcr. 1975, PI" 40, 43). This spell also menlions "Halhor, lhe nurse of Anubis" «(t]AOGIf ll'1ON[6 tlJAIKl'(lI, [h]alhllr Imonre n]anoup) and lhe "son of Osiris, Ihe cow· herd" (elOyClf"fI 116,\Olt. siousire peJoih). The Spell There i.'i no general rule for the disposilion of the clements of a spell, but ill nlOSt cases olle can dislinguish the following order: (a) invocation of

God, g0d5 or goddesses, angels UT other spirits. or even obj(.~IS. such as the nails of the Cf0S5 or thc

holy oil: (b) In some cases, a passage about ho..... the invoked

pc~

had helped in

II

similar case; (cJ

thc demand; (d) a final exhortation, such as "Yea, yea, quickly, quickly, stnlightaway. straightaway." Ali 8 Nle Ihe persons or objects invoked give some indication of the period when the spell was written. There are several phases. beginning with

the gods and goddesses of ancient Egypt and moving 10 thc invocation of God and the saints of thc

Christian church. Foremost in the pagan palllhcon is the Osirian family: Osiris, Isis, Horus, Seth. Nephlhys. The "greal magidan" bis occupies the fir,,! place. fol·

lowed by her son, Horus. Their name:; arc Coptio;:: ()y(:lre, 1IC6, 2«11'. clle (ousirc. t-se. h6r, seth); only Ncphthys is called wilh her Greek name, nut0Yc (nephth)'l'i). In the Great Magical Papyrus of Pari~ one ulso finus the Old Coplic fonn NeWw (ncbthu), corrected 10 N64>o- (ncphlhu) (Erman, 1883, p. 100, l. 40), Osiris is invoked in Ihc Old Coplic Schmidt Papyrus (Satzingcr, 1975), Amon is men· tioned as )'I"lON (amon), not as Coptic ),MO)'" (llmoun), wilh Ihe addition "the three gods," mean· ing Ihe Theb'ln triad (Worrell, 1935, p. 30): Amon, MUlh, and Khons. Petoe (mlTII6) is certainly an Egyplian god (Erman, I 895b). Shenoule identifies him wilh Kl'onos, JUSt as Hephaislos (tl'j>),ICTOC) is identified with Plah (m),~). While thi: Egyplilln gods al'e fl'equenlly met with in magical spells, Greek gods are encounlered only rarely. An exception is Lange's Fayyumie spell, whereill the magician finishC5 his incantation with the words, "If thou dost nol obey the (words) of my mouth and dost not come at once, I shall invoke Salpinx, Pechil!l. Sasmiasus, Mescmaasim and the 70 gods and Al'1emis, the mOlher of all god'i. and Apollon and Athena and Kronos and Moi\1l, Pallas and Aphrodite, the l>awn (Eos), Serapis, Urunos:

MAGIC

scize him, bring hhn 1(1 my feet" (Lange, 1932, p. 165). Astane (Greek name of a Phoenician guddess) is misspellcd Asparlt (J.Qu'fTIl), "Ihe daughler of the devil" (Worrell, 1935, p. 12). Moi,1J is Greek for "p:1I1" or "pOI1ion" and ill lhe personiliealioo of dellliny. In Coptic, Ihe moira is mentioned ItS a divine powel~ HlII'J> H1N 6hOllf tiMI (m!ra nihl enther nihil, "evcry moira, e\'cry god" (Crum, 1905, p. 253). Here mtr" (lII"ira) replaces lhe Egyptian god Shni 01' Agathodaemon. The ety· mology of moi," is the 5:lme as lhat of Tul'kish /eismel, pan, ponlon, destiny. Many spells im'oke laO &.OOOth Adonal EJui, where la6 eorrespo'lds 10 the Uebrew Yahwe. Names of angels like Michael and Gabriel arc Jewish, but are also used In Christian tcltlS. A Jewish passage is ecnainly the invocation uf "the God of Abraham, Ihe Cud of lsak, the God of lakbb" (Hopr. ner, 1921, Vol. p. 436). This passage i:; followed by "Jesus ChriSI, Holy Spirit, Son of God [in that or· der) who destroys the realm of the Snake ( . , , )" (d. Gn. 1:14). These forces nre invoked to expel "Ihe impure daemon &1danas [Satanas] who is un him" (Hopfner, 1921, Vol. I, pp. 435-36). This spell is wtiuen in Greek letter.!. Christian spells arc Cl\Sily rccogniwble as Ihey menlion the Trinity, Ihe Father, the Son, and Ihe Holy Spirit. The name of Jesus Chrisl (nfCOYO 1tXftCTOC) is frequenlly abridged (re'" me). Mary (~ru.) is 5Omellme~ called Mariham (HJ>fl~J>H). Here one lintls Ihe Ihree men of Ihe burning fUI·· n~e, lhe ~even areh:lOgel~. lhe nail~ of lhe cr{)S.'i, the Iwenty.four eldcrs sl:lOding in front of the throne of the Falher and the fony mal1yrs of 5ebaste. All these forces appear in the spells with their names (Kropp, 1930, Vol. 3, pp. 40-103). The appeawnce of Gnostic ideas corresponds to a complctely new conception of lhe world in which previously eltisting clements i,lrc inserled with (l dif· ferent meilning. To tilke ju~t one eXilll1ple, aeon is from the Creek lIioll, "tillie, duration, etemity. generalion," bUI in Gnostic texts Ili(ln is applied to powerful spirit~ corre~ponding to the seven p[;IOets. In an exorcism they 3l'C enlled IMI, Sahaoth, lidomd, Eloi, Elemas, Mixanther, and AbmS
1503

is l:ddllba6Ih, the CI'ealQI' of the W(lrld, and Bathourifl. the GI'cat Father, the Father of Ihe heav· enly and cltr1hly beings (KrQPP. Vol. 3, pp. 31-32). Therc is no rigid system in gnosticism. Names and functions change from one ten 10 anolher. So the sc\'en acons arc called in lin eltorcism Arimi~I, l>avilhe, E1elfth, Elmoukralos, Adonai (sic). Ermousr, pi-AoratOn (Ihe Invisible), and BainchMeh (Crum, 1905, no. 1008; Kropp, 1931. Vol. J. p. 22). The epithets "Unsciwble, lncomprchensible, Invisible, Unpronounceable" as well as "God of the gods" arc equally found in Ihe GnOSlic TripQrlile TruC/ult (KOhner, 1980, pp. 61-64). Elements of different creeds-Egyptian, Greek, Jewish, Christian, Gnoslic-may be found together in the same text. In a purely pagan text where Isis appcal1l, the cnd reads, "It is me who speaks, the Lord Je:
1504

found with

MAGIC

II

sHght modification in an old Gennan

SIOI)' (Elman, 1916).

Jesus and a hind. Jesu~ coming out of the door of paradise saw a hind \Veeping and shl.,(]ding tears. because her eye had been hun.

Coptic Magic In the islamic Period After the ....,'able conquest (641) Coptic magic gl'lluulllly lust II bit of its originality. The most Slrik· ing fe:llure .....as the adoption of the Ar.lbic language and s<:ripl. Original creations were replaced by copIes of Psalms wilh magical squares in which leHel1l and figures were insened. each letter representing a figure according to the Ambie l>)'Slcm (abgad, hQWWQt. ~w!!f. ka/Ql/lwl. st:l·t:l/~. qartl!!hal, Ihllk· haJhu, qUtJll:hQ). Scal~ and SQuares were taken (WeT

from Ambic models (Winkler. 1930). They had to be wriuen wilh a special ink. such as rose waler, musk, or saffron essence (Viaux. 1978, p. 46). Special incense was to be bumt: qaqM" a kind of cardamom; Turkish mastic; /:U"', Itmi15iri (benzoin);

and red sandalwood. When wriling, the scribe had 10 sit on the earth 10 keep in cun.:>tant touch with the undcl"W()rld f01"Ce1i. Several praycrs wen: often copied for amulets: the plOlycr of Ap:a Nub the Confessor, Anba Samuel the Recluse, and S:linl Cyprian. The prnyer of the qaritllJh W3.'l written for a woman who gavc binh. It also protected children under seven years of age. The prayer was wliuen after a ureanl of King SololIIun. The qaril/oh correspond'l 10 oberselia in Coptic teXIS, loday wtJrv)/iyytJh, [l fcm;l!e demon who Ihrealen.:> women in child·bed and their babics (Winkler, 1931). In Arabic SIIC was also called UI/lm OI'~llbyilll, not "MOIher of the Childl'en," as onc miahtlhink. but "thc (Witch) of the Children," who kills them, Modem Coptic magic frequenlly uses l'salms. Every PSl.tlm is used fur a special purpose. The objeetive~ of ~pells lllay be the sallle as in old times, perh;tps with the addition of a spell 10 find hidden treasures or attracl a customer inlu a shup, or lin amulet againsl flies, Four of the latter amulels must be hung upside down on the four walls of a room, and this must be done on Easler, becausc the Illes disappear at lhat time or the year, the so·called klrmn51n, or the fifty da)'5 between Easter nnd Whit· .~un.

A Christian text beginning with the palindrume S%r Arl.'lo Tl.'Ill.'l O'UO ROll/5, which means noth· ing but i~ a widespread magical formula, addresses laO SabaOth, but mentions the Crucified One, and ask!! for health for Hcw, daughter of Maria (Krall, 1892, p, 119). There arc telt~ again!!t an eye disea'le, fever, and against sickness and demons (Kropp. 1930, Vol. 2), A spell to henl tI sick eye fir5t tells Ihe story of

Je1iUs: The hind:

Why, hind, dost thou weep and shed tears? I rniscd my eyes to lhe heaven and

5:lid: Sun do nOI become red, Moon do not rise, Henoch, the ~ribe, do nOI dip Ihy reed into Ilty ink until Michael descends and heals my eye! JCliUS sends Michael, who

come~

from the sky, and

SllJ$:

The wound [1] will be healed, Ihe darknC$5 will be dissolved! In lhe namc of the Father, the Son lind the Holy Spirit! (Krupp, Vol. 2. pp. 66-67) A spell against an aching molar and one against

fever for the prolectlon of the mother's bosom and the uterus end with "the seven names" of Mary and of the archangels (without mentioning them). There arc, in fact, several spells for Ihe proteclion of a pregnant woman, for tl mother and her child against all powers of darkness, The "nine Guardians of the Paradise" fire invok(.,(] "to grnnt force 10 Damiane, the M>n of Kyra Kale" and "to protect him from every evil." Another spell is reciled "to gel n good voice." To become strong, II man appeals to Mich;lcl. who s::lys, "What dost thou wanl? I shall do it 10 thee, If tholl wanleSI the stone, I break it, lhe iron, I make II waterl" But the man answers, "I do not wanl lhis or lhlll, but I wllnt the whole furce of thy alTn for my force and my righl ann." Michael di· l't~ets him to :1 plllee where he finds Eehouch, Belouch, and Barbarouch, who fulfill his wish (Erman, 1895c, p. 44), A. Erllltin thinks the dog Is "bound" by the ~pell thaI enables a lhief to go inlO a hOllse to stC!I] (Erman, 1895a) bulthe reciter may be simply afraid of the animal. A long, Impor1anl spell is directed llgainst a dog, The object is not cleal·. The dog may be "bound" to hinder it from warning of thieves breaking into a house, or lhe reciter may simply be afraid of an animal ,hllt allackcd him when he pllSSCd by, Love charms hnve appe;ucd frequenlly al all times. As far as one can lell, it is always the man who makes wishes "10 rulfill his hcal1's desire:' never Ihe woman. The oldest pagan spells IU'e al·

MAGIC

most poetical. 11lel.... arc: pa..... lIelisllls. repellteonS. and questions and answeB that e:rtcite the listener's interest. In the pagan manuscript Schmidt I. Horns is in love with seven virgins. and hi.~ mOl her I~is helps him: Usten to Horus who is weeping. listen to I-lorus who is sighing! Horus:

I have suffered while I was longing (?) for seven virgins, from the third hour of the day, to the fourlh huur of the night. None of lhem slept. None of them slumbered.

His mother, Isis, answel'S him from Ihe lemple of Hnbin, her face being turned tow:lrd the seven vir· gins, who have IUl'Ile
1505

I went in with the feet duwnwards. I have found seven virgins, siuing on a water well, I wished. hut they did nOI wish, 1 persuaded [or slm.]. butlhey were not pcrsuadce.l. 1 wantt:d to love N.N" the daughler of N.N. But she did not want to :::Iccept my kis..~ ( ... ). Aftcr a long dialogue with his mother. Isi~. gelS to know of lhe magil: lipcll and 1:I<Jtl!i:

Horu~

Thou Great one amongst the Spil·its. I wish N.N., lhe daughter of N.N .• to spcnd fOrly Jays :md funy nights, h:mging on me, likl: a bitch on :I dug. like :I sow un a buar ( ... )! A spell invoking King Sulumun e:rtpresses the lov·

er's wishes as

follow.~

(Cl'Um, 1934, IIp. 195-2(0):

( ... ) that I may become honey In her belly, manna on her tongue, and that .~he desire me a.~ il weI.... the suo and love me as it weI.... the mOOll :::Ind hang upon me like a drop of waleI' upon a jal' and that she be like a hOney (bee) seeking (holl· ey). a bitch prowling. a l:at going from house 10 hou.se. like unto a marc going beneath hOBes in he:::lt! A love charm to recover an unfaithful hu!>hand·.'l affection n:product:li a ~ge from Plutarch's "Dc Iside et de Osiride." The Greal Magical Papyrus of Paris Jcscribt..'S the situation as follows: "Isis comes from the mountain. at noon. in summer. her face covered with dust, her cyes fuJI of teaB. her heal' full of sighs. Her father, Thuth the Great came to her and asked her. 'Why my daughtel· Isil>. CO\'cred with dust. are thy eyes full of IC,'lf$, is Ihy heart full of sighs, the ( ... ) of Ihy garment soiled? Wille thy telll'S!'" Then Isis cxplains her ca.~e: "It i~ not my fault, my falhel', I have found a fnull Illy fulher, Ape Thuth, Ape Thoth, my father, I have been ~upplant· etl by my cOlllp,miun, I h:lve found 11 fault [or sim.], yes, Nephthy.~ ~lccp5 with Osiris." Here Thoth is her father. not Kronos. There werc four children, two bnllhers, Osiris "lid SCth...nd two sistel1i, Isis and Nephthys. Then Oliiris, the hu~· band of Isis, slept inadvertently with her sister. Nephthys. whose husband was Seth. The love chaml advises Isis how to punish Osiris and to rl:cover his affection (l'reisendanl~ 1928, Vol. I, p. 71). In a similar way the magidan's "customer" will punish her unfaithful hu.0a.-nd and recover his affection. This charm fOT ..... omen has:::ln addendum fOT men

1506

MAGIC

{Igainsl an unfaithful wife: "When she drinks, when

she eats. when she sleeps with another man, I shall bewitch her heart ( ... ) until she comL'li to me, who knows what is in her heart, what she docs and wh:u she thinks ( ... )." This lihort addition replaces the mythological introduction on Osiris and Ncphlhys :and was certainly followed by a long incanllllion (nol reproduced here) and a detailed de-

scriplion of the cruel punishment for the aduhcr-

"".By the force of his spell the Coptic magician is able

10

treal the invoked god or spirit

35

his sulxll·

tem and 10 menace him if he does nOI ob.::y (Hopfncr, 1921, pp. 139-143). In one lo\'c cbann an unnamed god is menaced:

"If thou dost 1'101 obey according 10 the utterings of my rlIoluh and the worlt.~ of my hand. I shall dcKcnd into the Netherworld, bring up the T/JrfarUlichus (Chief of Ihe lIell] and say to him: 'Thou too, thou all a god. Be complaisant and fulfil my desire for N,N., the daughter of N.N.!' Then the god ans"'ers: 'If thuu wishest, I split the stune, I transform iron Imo water, I quiddy dC$troy the iron doors ulltil I bind the heal1 of N.N., the daugh· ter uf N.N, (, .. ). Ir then she dues nO! come, I shall hold ~Iek the sun In his ca'1 and thc moon on her way, the star CI'\lwn on Jesu.~' head, until I quickly lIl:complish thy desire.''' It is possible that the threat Is directcd agotinsl God the Falher, as JC5us Chl;st is mentioned in the spell. In another spell, a man invokes Ourie! and Mi· chael to get :1 "good voice" without hoarseneM, without spJluing (?). without roughness, "bUI tend· er, with II musical sound anu diffusing sweetness between the poople." But if the angels do not obey, he will "hold back the sun in lhe ellst and the moon in the weSt llilu Jillht with the creatures of the sky," and he witt tell til.:: sky, "Become copper and give no d.::w to lhc earth," and the ear'th, "Become iron and llive 110 fr'uil until the Father will send D::Jvilhcfl. whu witt accomplish my desire." Coptic nmgicirms of the Christian period never invoke S:lt:tn lind the forces or cvil. They remain wilhin the spher-e of Ihe good, invoking God, Ihe angels, holy martyrs, the holy oil. and the like: The /)Qor J:leob adjures God the Almighly, Saba. Olh, f:lther, Son and the Holy Spirit, the God of Ihe Cherubim and the 5crdphim, the creator' of the sun, the moon and the stars, also Ihe sellen Archangels, the uther Angels, the thr-ee holy men of the buming furnace, the four animals, Ihe blood of Jcsus Christ and the 24 presbyters to do eve,)' evil to Maria, the daughter of Tsibel. He wishes her iIlne~ and to hcr family too. "Put hel'

in the hand of an evil daemon who turture:; her, day and nlghtl" (Crum. 1896) The "holy martyrs" urc im'okecJ by "Theotlom. this wrQllgCtl wuman" against Jor and his wife: I cast myself down before your good seh'es Ihut you may do my will with J6r and his wife and smite them and SCllller them abroad and that the curse and the worm and the scattering abroad may ovenake them and the wrdth of God may ovenake JOr ( ... ). Holy Mal1yrs, may you ha.~' ten and eltecute my judltement upon them. (WolTell, 1935, pp. 3-4) The association of God and biblical matters, such as the nails of the CTO$li, with evil human intent is a panicularly repugnant fealure of some spells (Polou;ky, 1935, pp. 421-23).

People In Magical Texts Thcn~

w.::r.:: 5(:veral kings of the town of Edcssa (now Una, Turkey) named Abgar (132 8.e.-A.lI. 216). One of them was a contemporary of Jcsus Christ, who invitf..-d him to live in Edessa and to share the kingship. This leiter is widely used ror amulets as well a.~ Jesus Christ's answer, nut unly in Coplie but also in Greek, Aramaic. Ethiopian, and other l:mguagf..'S. The lener begins, "Abgar. the king of the tOWIi of Et.Iessa, writes to the Great King, the son of lhe Uving God, Jesus Christ." Christ's answer begins, "Copy of the letter of Jesus Chtist, the son of the Uvlng God. He writes to Abgar, the king of I!desslI." One passage of the answer gives the following promises: "Thy skkness will be healed, if lhou, as hum:m being, haS! committed many sins, they wllt he forgiven to lhee, and Et.Iessa wilt be blessed for everl" This pa.~.~se was undoubledly lhe reason that both letters were so widely used for amulets in Oriental cnuntdes, The spells of Kypri:mos Jill pages / -325 in Bila· bet's (1934) collection, in bOlh Coplic and Arabic, Kypr'iarrus was initially a pllgan. Then he was con· verted to Christianity by his love rur the virgin Jus' tina, Mlirtyrcd under OtOCLETIAN, he is celehrated on 20 Bahah, Befure his conversion he was a rnagician, :lnd it may be inleresting to Sf..oe huw the Copts perceived thc appl'entlceship of this profession. As a boy he weill to Olympus, the muunl:tin of the gods, and learned there the S(:Cl'etS of the divine 5tatucs (eikuII) and how they used to speak. He saw chorus· es of demons there. SOllIe of them sang hymns; others were waylaying, cheating, and making distur· bances. Th.::re w.::rc armiC5 uf each god and l"ach

,I

MAGIC

goddeu. He ~pent forty days and forty nights there. At lhe age of l'ifll.'<:n In: was inSln.H::led by priesls, especially the ~ven pri~ts of the devil and his prophcless. 1·le leill'ncd how lhe carth was !il(cd on ilS foundation and the laws of the all' and the ether. He invaded the se.. and wenl down 10 lhc undcr· world (TananJS). Al Argos he look part in thc feasl of I-Iera and was Iaught how LO ~pal'ate women from their husbands and how to sow haIred bctw(,.,<:n brothers and friends. In l.Jlcedaemon (Sp~1I1a) he leamed the mystcries of Helios and Artemis. Ihe laws of Iighl and darkness and the celestial appenrance.ns. LecllnolCoPY The an of seeing hidden or future things by look· ing inlo a cup filled with uil is called m{l>lfif~1 in Arabic. In Coplic 11 i~ nre'l·hI" (C96"'~)' asking the cup, correspunding 10 S"·h,, in demOlic, attested in the Demotic Magical Papyrus of London and Leidcn (Erichsen, 1954, p. 514). The earliest allCSlalion of lecanoscopy in Egypt is found in the Bible (Cn. 44:5), which So'lys lhal Joseph in Egypl had a silver cup from which he dl'ank and which he used to augur. In modcm lillies CoplS alld Muslim.~ use a cup wilhout handles filled with oil (Viallll, 1978. p. 55). The magician who rcads the spell burns a mi1llure of incen~e!l and place~ a boy who h:L~ nOI yet ar· rived al puberty in (1 circle drawn on lhll earth. The boy ~ee~ in lhe cup future events or hidden things, such us lhe idenlily of a lhief, The cirde is 10 pro· lect lhe child fl'Om demons. Coptic magic employs the "Pmyer of Abu TarbCI (or Anbd Tar'bi)," named afler a holy man who had saved the only son of tl woman bitten by (l mud dog. TIle ceremony is ~rformed Cl(llclly as il was by Abo. Tarbu, with seven louves of bread, seven cheeses, a lillie wille, a lillIe good oll, seven dates, and a small cup of waleI' (Gattler. 1905. pp. 124-27; Vinul(. 1978, pp. 87-89). Seven boys who have nol yet reached lhe age of pubel1Y are present. The priesl reilds severn! pmyers and "I he lirc of Abu Tarbti," who is unknown to lhe Coptic Synaxarion, and Psalms 19.22, 118, and 120. Then he nx:iles a prayer rOI' the IlCl'lron binen by the dog and groups Ihe lK:ven boys "r<.lund lhe victim, and lhe children begin 10 circle him .~ven t.tmes. In Ihe meamime, lhe priest reads an incomprehensible text: Pes/he

1507

nllpllS /'shshcrpi'rikas. sl/Qrrasollllrlls kcr.flm, T'erS!"" wl/peni" sOllktmill pi)'/herpcJI/!

When the children have circled Ihe billen one seven limcs, Ihe canlor or Ihe archdeacon greeL~ the pliest, "Peace 10 thee, Mll$tcr!" The PI'iesl n." plies, "Peacc 10 Ihee my child. What dmt thou wish?" The reply is, "I have comc to ask for the recovery and Ihe hcahh on Ihe part of Cod and the Saint Abu 'fal'blll" Then the priesl puIS a moulhf\11 of brcad. cheese. and dates inlo the cantOlJs or archdeacon'S mouth, retrieves iI, and throws it into the lap of the person who was blUen by Ihe dog. Each of Ihc scvcn boys Sll)'J, '" ha\'e come to :L~k for Ihe recovery and lhe hcahh on lhe part of Cod and the Saint Abo TamO!" Then each or them take!O pieces of bread, cheese, and dales and givCll them 10 Ihe \'!clim. He will eat such a piece every mom· ing and drink a bit of wine lind watcr from the church. At the end, the priest anoints lhe bitten one with the oil he had broughl lind leaVl'S him with the blessing of God and SainI Abu TamO. This is the ceremony according to Viaux. but lhcre are some local differences in the various pans of the c;:ounlry. At al·ZTniyyah Qibli, north or L..ullor, thc ooys mime dogs and menaec the victilll as if 10 bite him. The seal (Ambie, khil/m) of the mundul is wrillen on while unlined paper. At the four sides of the SQuare lire Ihe mlllll.'S of lhe four angels: Milui'll, Gabrfi'i1, 'A:r.I'a'il, bral'll. The four 51roku that form the square read QIl{/uh (qui It/Jill} al·I.lllqq l\Ia lallll aJ·ml/lk ("tell him the u"Uth and he has lhe poweI J '). The square in the middle bears the inscription, QIUJd/is rtlbb ul·mll/fJ'ik/11t (Holy is lhe Lord of thl' Angel.~). Ahove are wl'lllen lhe alphabelic iellers sin lind n(ln Md bel ween lhem ;f1l-Nlil.1 (0 Nouh) lind beneath I\I{HI/,rti.I., ("and the spirit") with lwO let· lers, qt'lf and hl\., upside down.

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MA.GIC

The younG boy hold.~ 'his scal in his right hand during Ih~' whole ~l:rcmony (Viau:>:, 1978, p. 103). An invoclliion to the angd Hrouphos (;Ipparenlly kufus) is written in II spirnl form. beginning frum a ecmer m;IA.I.-d wilh a big black dot. The beginning ream, .. , adjure thLOC today, 0 angel Ilrouphos!" (Ko.<;.:lclt. 1974, p. 297). The form of this amulet (ghost Imp) is certainly of Jewish origin. The Hebrews who Jived in the qllHncl~

of Ihe caslcl'n hulf of Babylon and in the

western suburb!: of the city used to invert term-

(ai) instead of tlltor (nai). Also, stars and other orna· ments bCHr these small circles. The Coptic amulet in Ambic f>Cript shown hel';;! was writlCn in 1974 ror a student who had to undergo cxaminlltions at the university. There are SC\'en pentagrams and II text. The Ictters are scpanued and use no diacritical points. and there i5 no spaee between the words, so that the contcnL.. of tile amu' let arc i11comprehensible (Viaux, 1978, p. 47). In (he last line lIppears the Arabic AI/nh, God. tn the left, nearly at the cnd of the Anlbic line.

colta bowls inscribed wilh magical texb 10 pmlect their hOUSL'S from the :lItacks of all kinds of evil spirits. 1111.' disposition of th...' SC fipeJ1S is exactly the

same as thai of the Coplic ghost Imp. The Blitish Museum possesses a \'cry Irlrgc collection of these oowls in!lCrihcd with the square He· brew clwl1leters or wilh Syriac 01' ManJaic leller!;. Iludge calls these tens in circular ronn "devil traps" and has published aboul four of them (1961. PI". 284-89). There is bUI one diffcrt'nee: Ihe lewish text.s arc wrillen on tcrra-coua bowls, btil the Cup· tic ghost trar is wrillen on paper. Simil:lI' udditions tire found in cabalistic amulets whcrc the eXlremities of Hebrew lellers bear a small circle (Budge, p. 404). The circles on the nlgl'S of the lellers seem to irnit.lte cunciform writ· ing. but Wilh circks instead of triangles. The following amulet (Dilabcl. 1934. p. 380) consists of a short pra)'er and two lines of leiters with small circles:

The pn.yer reads. "ti pi<x'is rnoute k6 nai ehol ena nope menaanomi.3 je anok pc peklllnhal anok iob-me :lio :lio ... jnkht takht," "0 Lord God, forCh"C me my sins and my iniquit.ies, for J am lIty servant. 1 :lln lob. son of Me.... Yea, yea. quickly. quickly!" Thll' hvo line.s below the J'1'aycr read, Jo. III l1tlT6yO (= III nt~uyrG), [l 0 pilicuo (.. I') pnoutc), and Kil ltol lIW), (= KCIl NJo.t coo),), kl') ai ehol ("" ko nai ehol). Illcanillg "0 God. forgive me!" The scribe WOolS not fllmiliar with IhiJi writing. so he wrule nNTuyo (pnteuo) instead of nnoyT6 (pnoute) and AI

BI8L1OGRAPHY

Betz. H. I). Tile Greek Magical Papyri ill Trrmsl"/rem, lllclurlirlg the J)emuric Spells. Vol. I. Chicago und London, 1985. Bilabel, F_. and A. Grohmann. Griechisdlc, koplische I/Ild arabis{;!le Tcxte v,r Religioll '/Ild religil'ull Literafllr ill AgyptctlS Spiiluit. Heidel· berg, 1934. Brier. D. Audetll EKYptian Melle Sprue"/.' mid AllerllUllsk"'td~ 35 (189.5a): 132-35.

MAGICAL OBJECTS

"Hcidni.~che5

bei den Korte":' ZC;lscJrrifl fUr Ilg),plischc Spf(l(,'/te wul Allcr/umsk.mJe 33

_ _.

Worrell. W. H. "Copti" Ml1llkal and Mcdiclll Tellts." Orielllalin 4 (1935):1-37,184-94.

(189Sb):47-SI.

"Ein kOplischcr Zaubcrcr," Ze.itsdm'/l fii, iigyplische Sprache. lind AllerlWlIskwlde ]] (1895c):4J-46. ___ "l)re.i Gei.~ler als BOlen des laubcrers." Mi,leilullgcn deT vnrdcras;alisc!u!II Gc.fcffscha/I 2\ (1916):301-304.

Gallier. E. "Contribution a I'clude de 1;1 liu(:r,uurc arabe-coplC:' BI/fle/ill de. tI"sfi/lll frill/fais d'archeologit oriclI/ale 4 (1905):123-27.

Griffith, F. L "The Old Coptic Magical Texts of Paris." lei/sehri!1 liir ii:yplische $prac:J11!! und AI· ler/umsku"de 38 (1900):85-95. Hop{ner. T. Griechisch·iiI:Yp'ischer OffelllwnmgS-Jlubu, Vol. I,Leipzig, 1921; repr., Amsterdam, 1983. Vol. 2, Lt:ipzig. 1924: repr., Amsterdam, 1984. Kosack. W. Ldrrb,u:h des Kuplischell. Grnz, 1974. Knill, 1. "Koptis<:hc AmulcHc." Milleil/mge" de' Pa· PYrllssallml1l1tlB Erzllenog Railltr 5 (1892): II 522, Kropp, A. AusttwjJhllt kQptischfJ ZUlIlnrffJ;ctfJ. 3 \'Ois. Vol. I, I.oUYllin, 1931; Vol. 2, 1931; Vol. 3. 1930.

Kilhner, R. "Gno:>tische Aspekte in den koptischen ZaubenClltCn. Bllllcllll de lu Socl~te d'egyptologie 4 (1980):61-64.

Lange, H. O. "Ein ahrnijumischcr lJcschworungslexl." In Sludies PrIl3'e"ted /() F. LI. Griffith. Lon· don, 1932. Lella, F. La Magie dUllS l'I':gyptc /JII/iqm!, de I'Andell Empire jIlS(/u'u l'epvql'fJ ,·ople. 2 vols. Puris, 1925. Polotsky, f.l. J. "Zu cinigcn Heidelberger Z:mbertellten" (corrections to Bil:lbcl, 1934). OrielllaUa 4 (1935):416-26.

"Suriel del' Trompeler." I.e Mlucon 49 (1936):231-4.1. Prei~endan7., K. Pupyri GrUl!c/Jc Mugiwe. 2 vols. Berlin and Leip1,ig, 1\128, i\l31. Rossi, F. "Oi IIlc\lni 1l111nuscritti t:upli t:he si eonserVllno ndb Biblioteea N:lzion:\It: di Torino," Mem· urie della Reale Accadeillia delle Scie"ze di Tori· no SCI'. 2, 44 (1894):21-52 (corrections in Kropp, 1930).

Satzinger', H. "The Old Coptic Sdllnidl PllfJyr·\IS." JOllm1l1 ollile Ameri"11il Re~'ellrdl elm/fir ill Egypl 12 (1975):37-50. VirlUll, G, Magie el COlllllmes populaire.~ chl!z Il!s COpll!S d'Egypll!. Si~lc"on, 1978. Vycichl, W. "Dcr FeucrSlr'(\rTI im lcnscits." Archil' fllr lI~ypli$cht ArchUollJ/{it (19311):263-4.

___,' "Die sogcmlllntc Alcph.Bcthregel im Arme· nischen und Ilndel'e:n orientalischetl Spl'llchen," HlJw/,s Amsorya 75 (1961).·~1-30. Winkler, H. A. Siegel WId Charaktere ill del' mu/tawmedlJlli.~che" ZlJuherei. Berlin and Leipzig, 1930. ___ SalomOll und die Kari'lIJ. Stullgal1. 1931.

1509

WERNEIl

MAGICAL OBJECTS. In

VVC1CHL

IL~ pre"'entlve form,

magic was considered in phanlonie Egypt ilS ont: or Ihe nonnal dements or religion. It WlL~ a prerogative or divine power and of all who had a slull'e in it. The progressive weakening of the concept of the authentically sacred In the Late Period led also to a degeneration of thi~ view of magic. Oriental and. later, Grttk innuence hllSlent.-d the movcmcnt toward an idea of magic imposing Ihe will of the USCI' upon thc gOlb, for ends that were sometimCli not very reputable. Christianity was unable 10 eradicate iI completely. It is therefore difficult to make any distinction between magical objects used by pagans or by Christians, especially In the fint millennium A.ll. Nev
1510

MAJ;fALLAH AL· KU BRA , AL-

"Ma gie l!'gyplienne." In Dicl ;onr laire dM reliSiorls. Pari s, 1984, PIERRE DIJ BoURGUET, SJ.

-"C""~.

MAJ:lALLAH AL-KUURA, AL., a cily loca ted

In the mid dle of the Dellli in Ihe Ghal'biYJdh provo ince . In earl ier Arab ic sour ces it was know n simp ly as al.Ma!;lallah and in Cop lic as t-;!>.lrt. The earl y histo ry of Chri slian ity in al.Ma~.allah al-K ubra is obsc ure beca use lhe cily is seld om men tion ed in sources befo re lhe Ambic: peri od. How ever, by the year 1257 al·Mai,lallah al·K ubrn was a bish opri c, as evid ence d by the auen dan ce of Bish op Greg ory of al'Ma~allah at lhe consl.'(;rntlon of the chri sm in Cair o in that year (Mu nier , 1943, p. 34). BIBL IOG RAP HY

Amc line au, E. /A G~ographie de J'Egyple 0 I'cpoque cop/e, pp. 262 -63. Pari s, 1893. Mun ier, ~I. Recu eil de.f /isles ~piscopfl!es de Ng!i.~e cO/Jle. Cair o, 1943. Tim m, S. Das chrislfich.koplische A.gypletl ill ara· bisc her Zeit, pI. 4, pp. 1527 -30. Wie sbad en, 1988. RANDAU. STl!WART

MAJ:lALLAT ABO 'AL I, 10wn men lion ed in the HISTOkY OF TIle PATRIARCHS a.~ the hom e of a dum b,

Mllgic doll for cast ing spel l$, pier ced wilh need les, P:lin ted lerrd COlla, Mid dle Egypt. Third~foul1h century , Heig ht: 9 em; widl h: 4 em; lhick ness : 4 em; appa rent leng lh uf need les: 2 em. C/.mrlesy l.cmvre Mlul !wrr , Paris.

wllh mag ic. Abo",e the dem on Alab asui a, pier ced with a lanl,;e by Sain t SisinniOli, are pres ente d bane ful 'lnim nls- a hyen a, an owl, a l,;rueodile, an ibis, tWO serp entS , and a scor pion . II also include1iO an e~ pier ced with a dagg er betw een two swo rds. This eye is evid enlly nOl thaI of the Egy ptian god Horu s, whic h hils benc ficiu l pow er; il 111usl be an intru sion from late Gree k or Lati n sour ccs. BID LlQG RAP IlY

Bon ner, Cam pbel l. Stud ies ill Magical AII/I I/c/$ . Chiefly Grat!-co-Egypl;"". Lon don. 1950. Bou rgue t, P. du. VII al/di/re des fiSllrirres d'en vOII U' men l perc ees d'aiSllille~" avec ses COI/Iplemllllls III"S iqllt5 , "II Mlld e dll wuv re. Mcm oire s publ ies par !l'S mem brcs de I'lns tilul fro.n~ais d'arc hCo logi c orie nlal e 104. Cair o, 1980.

lam e man who was brou ght 10 Sain I Bessus in DAYR YUIJ1INNIS KAMA whe re he was heal ed. This acco unt, whic h indi cate s thaI Mal:mllal Abu 'All had a Chri s· tian com mun ity in the lalle r half of Ihe e1ev enlh cent ury, does not spec ify the loca tion of the lown . Mus lim auth ors kno w four plac es with the nam e: (I) Mah allal Abu 'Ali, now know n as Kom 'Ali, in the dislr ict of Tan! 4: (2) Ma~allal Abti 'Ali al·G har· bi)')'ah, in the distr ict of Distiq; (3) Mai,lalJal Abti 'Alr . lah al-Kubr;1: nl·O anta . mh, in the distr ict of al-M 'lhal and (4) M:J~allal Abii 'All al·M ujaw irah , in the dis· trict of Tan! a. The fact thaI Ihe acco unl in the Hisl o, ry uf the Patriarchs docs not add a spec ifier such as al·G harb iyya h or at-O an!a mh to the nllm e of che town may sugg(,'St lhal it refe rs to lhe plac e know n as Knm 'All, whic h is loca ted in lhe mid dle of lhe Delt a abou t 8 mile s (12 km) nort h of Tan!il in the prov ince of Ghal'biyyah,

BIU UOG RAI 'IIY

Tim m, $. Das christlich-koplische Agyp UII bl ara· bischer Zeit, pt. 4, p, 1530. Wic sbad en, 1988. RANDAl.I. STEWART

MAKARYUS ~UNAYN

MA~ALLAT AL-AM1R, lown located in the Del· ta province of Beheira some 5 miles (8 km) SQUlh· east o( Rashid. The HISTORY OFTHF.I'ATRtARCIIS relates that durin~ the: patriarchatc o( CHRtSTOOOllUlS (1047-1077) the Muslim authorities ordered thal Christian churches and monastcries wcrc to be closed and a special lax (or Christians was to be assessed. Howevcl", al-Mu'ayyad, the amir o( Alexandria, wa.~ fa\'orobly in· dined toward Ihc Chri$lilln$. Hc warned them in ad\'aflce of Ihe impending order and adlllOnished them to take all the valuables from thdl" churches before they could he conliSC':lled. In ..ddition he returned 200 dinOlrs that h,ld tx.~n collcctcd from the Christians in Rashid, [dkil, al·Jadidiyyah, and Mal.mllal al-Amlr. This story suggests that MaJ:lallnt al·Amir was the home or :l well·to·do Christi.1Il communit~· in thl' eleventh centulY, BIBLIOGRAPIIY

Timm, S. DlJS dlTisllid/·kopllsclle Agyplen in ara· bischer lei/, pt. 4. pp. 1530-31. Wiesbaden, 1988. RANDALL STF.WAIIT

MAI;IALLAT l\UN(JF, a town in Ihe Egyptian Delta about 7 mile!' (11 km) I10rth of Tan!a, in the Gharbiyyah province. The town was previously known in Arabic as MinM al-Sufia, in Greek a.~ On. ouphis kato, and in Coptic as lU.NO'("l ~T ( .....mouf khat). Though ancient and medil,.'V3.1 sources pre' SClVe no descriptions or accounts of Christians, churches, 01" bishops in Maryallat Minilf, the fact that thc town is listed in the medieval Cuptic-Ar.1bic scalae and in Ihe roslCI" uf Egyptian bishoplics suggests thai it had a significant Coptic community by the early Middle Ages (Munier, 1943, rp. 46, 53).

1511

MAlLIS MILLI, AL-, See Community Council, Coplic.

MAJMU' AL.SAFA\VI, AL·.

~e Saft Ibn al·

'Assai, al·.

MAJMO' U~(JL AL.DIN (Compendium of the Fundamentals of Reli~ion), a Coptic summa 1lIeologicu in five pans and seventy chaptel'S. wI'ilten by a]-MU'TAMAN AaO ISIIAO rullAlllM lUN AL-'I\SSAL somewhat before 1260. According to G. Graf (1947) il has a COI11I'(1ct, systematic stnlcturc and omits ehurch hiswrical material. The introduction hilS lin exposition or Ihe aim and arrJngement of the work llnd a cit:ltion of the sources used, !llong wilh a list of lhirty Christian Oriental writenl, pasl and p,·es· en!. There Is a preparatory skelch of elemenlary logic lind lUlurial malerial on concepts, judgmenls. and argumentation. The main parts include these subjects: Part I. dogmatics of genel':!1 subjects, en:· alor and creation, man, divine revelation, and iL'i intelligibility and credibility; Part Z, the Trinity; Part 3, ChrislOlogy; Pan 4. church service and customs, treated uncritically and rdying on miracle storics from apocryphal IitCr.1turc; Part 5, eschatology. AI· Mu'taman cites the authors he uses by name and repeals Ihe sourcc material complelely 01" in a1>Str.1CIS. VINCI'~vr FItW£RIC,",

MAKARIUS SAUB. See SalipllC Mikarius.

MAKARYUS I:IUNAYN (1773-1805), a Copt BIBLIOGRAPIIY

Amelineau, E. l.a GeugYClphie de I'EgyJlI~ il /'er!0({/4e caple, pr. 250-51. P"ris, 1893. Maspero, J., and G, Wie!. MllIcriau;o: pO/4r servir u fa gi.ogruphi~ d~ I'Egypte, pp. 202-204. C,lifO, 1919, MuJ:lammad Ramzi. A/.QlIm{u u/-/lIghr(J/f /il·Bilild al Mi~rl)')'ah, Vol. 2, pt. 2, Pl'. 107-108. Cairo, 1958. Muniel", H. Rec/leiJ des /iSles episcopale$ de reglue cople. Cairo, 1943. Timm, S. DlJS chriSllicJr-koPlisch~ Agyplen in arabi$f:hu Zeit, pt. 4. pp. 1573-75. Wiesbadcn. 1988. RANDALL STEWART

MA'IDAH, See Refeclory.

who became a colonel in lhe French llrrny during the Napoleonic Wars. Makiiryu~ was born in the district of Bulliq in Cairo on 17 Febn.l'll)' 1773. He spenl hi~ early years tr.1ining as a gold~mlth with his fathel', Mu'allim I~unayn Abu I?
1512

MAKHURAH

Coptic Legion in Ihe French army IlS a regullir soldier. OIl Ihe strength of his pcrfQrmllnCe in the mililal')'. he was made an office I'.

With Ihc departure of the French frum Egypt in 1801, Gener.d Ya'qOb also left, and with him wenl the leading ligures in his Coplic Legion. including Makaryu1i l;Iunayn. In France he became associated with the restructured Coptic Legion. Owing to his bravery and military skills. his general nomimllcd him a.... a dose military escort, with the rank of captain. After that he is known to have participated

in lhe Napoleonic Wan in 1805 against the Russians anu Ihe Au.~trians. He played a prominent part in the Italian hallles and was gramed the mnk of colonel as a reWilrd for valor. uteI' he fought OIl Austerliu, where he was mortally wounded. He died on 18 De<:embcr 1805.

I\tAKHORAH

(Mareotis). smalll11te Roman scnle· ment on the Mediterranean const ..bout [0 miles ([6 km) wesl of ABOslR (Taposiris Magna). Up to now the significance of the place has not been ascel1alned. Apart from two large chUI'Ches, therc are only a few domeslic buildings within the Sl!1'rQund· ing wall. and the people that lived in them would have been far too few in number to till these churches. On the olher hand, the site is too txpoK"d for a mOfUlStery. Of the two churches only the older central church. which has a higher elevation. has bccn parti:llly uncovered. It comprises :l vcl)' short fivc-

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MAKOURlA

aisled basilica wi,h a sanctuary that boaus a remaricablc number of rooms indulling lWO baplisler· ies. Thc majol'ily or lhem would have been added laler. In the walls of lhe chure-h, which wcre all conSlruCte
Grossm:tnn. P. "Zwei friihchristliche Kirchen in 'Ain MahOra." In FUIS{;hrill E/mur Edef. Bam· berg. 1979. ___ "Arbehen in M:thllra :tl·qibli." Miluil,mgell des dell/schell urchii%gische" J"stilulS-Ablc;· lunK KCliro 36 (1980):225-27. PETER GROSSMANN

MAKIN, IBN AL·'AMID AL- (Jirjis ibn Abi Yli~ir

ibn Abu al·M:tk:irtm ibn al·'Amld al·Makln). Coptic historian (1205-1273). He wrote a universal hislory, a/.M"jllll" Ill·Afuburuk, consisling of Iwo o.Iis· lincl sections. The fint started wilh the creation and covered pre· Islamic liml."S; lhe SCl;ond o.Ieah with the bl::lmk period down 10 his own limes in 1260.1'01' lhe pre·lslaUlil; period. he used lhe Biblc as a principal MlUl'ce fnr his hi.~tory. For lhe lsl::lmk period, he rollowcd lhe CJlumple of the rUlTIous Isl::lmic chronicler al·TnbarT. Apparenlly he used the work of his predecessor EUlychius as well :lS lh:lt of his eontemp0l'lll)' Ibn al-Rlihib. His dH'onide in· cludes 1I slll;dnct hislOry of lhe p'ltdarchs of AleJl' ::Indria (summad~.cd by A. GUlschmidL 1890, pp. 395-525). II is here lhal the works of :l1·M::Iktn and Ibn al·R:ihib ovel'lap. ;jnd it is diftkul1 10 diSlin· guish who copied whom. AI·Makln WllS bol'll in Cairo. lhough his anl;Cstors must h::lve come fl"OlTI T::Ikrit in Mesopotilllli:t. He also lived in Damascus (md occupied ,he office of scribe in lhe military office in Cairo, where he was lalel' deflOSCd (111,1 incllrt:emll.-d, :md Ihcn fn:cd. He retil'cd 10 Dallln.~cu.~, where he died. His world chronicle mls IXlco tr.lIlslatcd into Latin, French, and English.

1513

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EII(:ydopedill ollsllllll, ed. H. A. R. Gibb Cl a!. Lciden, London, and LUZ:1C, 1960-. GUls<:hmidl, A. von. Kle/lle ScI,rillell. Vol. 2. Leipzig, 1890. Khay...al.J)in al·Zirikll. AI-A'/bm. 10 vols. Cairo. 1954. 'Umar Ril)tl Kal.tl,ttllah. MIl'jam uf·MII'a11ifill, 15 vols. D-dmascUS. 1954-1961. AzIZ S. ATIYA

MAKIN JIRJlS, AL.,

hlllW11/!MO$ of Alex::Indria,

not to be confused with two famous Coplic authors of 'he same name-the twelfth·century historian and Ihe fourteenth·century thl.'Ologian. AI-MakIn Jhjis was a hell/menos who in 1609 bore lhll title of he::ld of the priC5l.s in the three churches of Alexandria. This may co~pond to what is now called the "palrian:hal vic:;ar'· for the c:;ity of AleJlandria. AI Ihili d::!te he had an iIluminaled manuscript of 178 sheels copied. It contained the four Gospels in Arabic, wilh Ihe Canons of Euscbius and inlroduclions. In 163 I this m::lnuscript was given to the librnry of the Coptic church of Jerusalem. It i~ now ::II Ihe Coptic P:ttriarchate, Cairo. KJIALlL SAMIR, S.J.

MAKOURIA (Artlbic, D.1·MuQurl';lh), the mOSl im· port::lnt of thc Christi::ln kingdoms of medieval Nu· bia. lis lcrrilOry prob:lbly cJltended from aboul the Third 10 the Fifth Calamet of lhe Nile, ahhough thcre is some uncllrlD.inlY about lhe localion~ of both the northern and lhc soulhern frontiers. The kingdom prcsumably look its name from lhe Milk· kOUI'::li, a Nubian ll'lbal people who are finl men· tioned by Ptolemy (Gcogmphiu, IV, ii, 19). NOlhing is known of the hj~tOl)' of M::Ikouria pri· or 10 the lime its mler WllS convel'led 10 Ihe Cllds· lian lililh. According 10 John of Bicl::ll"Um, this took pl::lcc in 569 or 570. The account of John or Biela· rum has been lllken 10 imply Ihal Makouria wa.~ convel1ed initi::llly by Melchite missionaries, bUI 'his has been questioned by recent scholars. Aflel' the sevenlh century, the evidence is very clcar lh::ll lhe kingdom, like ,he neighboring lands of Non",n", and ·AI_wA, WIIS fil'mly in lhe Monophysite camp. ::Ind il so remained unlillhc cnd of the Middle Ages. The capital and principal royal I'esidence of

1514

MAKOURIA

Mukoul'ia wcrt.· ut the city of DONGOtA siluated un the east b'lIlk of the Nile ubout halfway between the Third and Fourth C.iHlraets. The rnedio!val dty, now entirely in ruins, should not be confused with the modern Iwovlncial capital of the same name. Mud· em Dongoll,. 0" l.longola al·Urdi, jj; situ;lted about 60 miles (100 km) north of the original Dongola, and on thl' uppOSih' bank uf tht.' Nile. In the )'earlOO followiu& their conqUCSI of Egypt. the Arabs triell twice to annex the kingdom of Makouria as wcll. Their first attack, in 642, re.~ulted in a resounding deteot of the invnder'!l, A second attack ten yenr'!l Intcr W;lS militnJily inconclusive and wa.s followt."" by the conclusion of a n('gOliated IruCl', called the OAOT. Under iLs terms the political and religioul independence of the Nubians was guaranteed, in exchange fur an annual lribute of slaves. The obligatiuns of the Buq! were not con!llstenlly met, but the ago,'e",ent remained at least nominally in force fur more thnn 600 year'!l. As a result, the development of Nubia's llledievul civili· wtiun was lIule hindered by the Egyplians or other Arab powers, Late in the tenth centlJl)' Makourill was visited by lhe Fatimid envoy IBN SAI.lM At.ASWANI. The excerpted account of hi~ missiun that is preserved in At. IoIAQR!ZI's Kildb "I-M1IlIa/fa' is the mOSt detailed firsthand description of medieval Nubia that we pOJl5t.'SS. Ibn Salim describes a peaceful and prosperOU1i realm with many towns and with bro'ld, fertile fields. The kingdum of Makouri" proper (Le.. ex· c1uding the Jlorthern territory of Nobati'l, which was umler Makourian rule bUI was 1ieparately desig. nated) was under dose direct super...ision of lhe king. Muslim tradel1i wcn: not permitted to enter th", lerritory of Makouda, where all foreign commerce was" royal monopoly. As a re~lUlt. no money was in circulation. The prineip..'ll royal se:1I of MakouJia W;IS ;II DOn' guh., bUI according tu Ibn Salim, the king had resi· dences in olher places :IS well. The court l'Ctinue consisted of officials called the dom(:slik(lS, prO/ad", mcs/iko$, lI//:'izuII, pro/OItl/:'iwl/:'NlS, and primikerius. These are familiar BYI,3ntinc litles, but we know nothing of their spedfic funclions in the Nubian kingdom. Some Arab SOurces assen Ih.'II, in addi· lion to the "grc;t1 king," there we,'c a numbe,· of vassal kings in the territo,)' of Makouria. The dependent 11<,)I'thel'n territory or Nobatla W:lS separnte· ly governed by the epilrch. whu was a royal appointee. Il is clear fro", a number or references that in early mediel'al Nubia the royal succession passed

rrom f:lther 10 son. After the eleventh century, howevel', we can ubserve a curious reversion 1U the older Nubi"" pl'll.etice uf mlltriline:tl succession. Ac· cording to ADO I1AUIJ, "It is said tu be the custum IImong the Nubillns, when a kina die!l and leaves a son and also a nephew, the son of his sister, that the laller reigns after his uncle instead of the son; but if there is no sister's son, then the king's own sun succeeds" (AbO $l\IiJ:l, pp. 271-72). This rule of succession apparently was nOI consistently fol· lowed, with the result that there was n great deal of dyoastie strife in Mokouri:l in the late Middle Ages, Aftel' the eleventh centory both Nubia and EKYPI began 10 be affected by the spirit of mililliry feudalism lhm was also engulfing Europe lind the Levant. The mult was a period of economic decline and of growing political instability. The rc:,'udalistic Mam· luks seized the Egyptian throne in 1250, lu,tI they soon began intcrvening in Ihe dynastic alfail"5 of Nuhia as well. A number of military expeditions were senl into M(lkouria to support the cause of one dynastic clllilllant or :lnuthel', and in 1276 the Nubi'lll king Shekenda wa.s forced to accept the Mamluk sultan lJayool1i as his SU"l:el'll.in. Although the king himself remained a Christian, he and his .subjects were nuw obliged to pay lhe JtZVAH (poll laX) like any
MAKRAM EBEID

haynah Oil ::account of thei!" mothel"ll. according tn the CUSIOIIl of Ihe infidels which establishes the succession of the sister or Ihc sistcr's son. In this \\'ay their kingdolll disimcgl1llcd and Arab 110· mads of the Juhaynah tribe took pu:>:>cssion of il. But their mle relained no scmblance of the monarchic rule or the king.~. because of the evil which mnkes discipline impos.~ible among them. ConSl.'quenlly, Ihe Nubians dh'ided themselves into many panics. and have rcmainl.-d thus up to the presenl lime. No lracc of efficient aUlhority ha, _lInh'ed in Iheir count!)'. (V, 922-23: trnnslated in Hassan, 1967, p. 127)

B1BLlOGR,,"HY

Adams, W. Y. NI/bia,

C(Jrrido~

to A/rica, pp. 438-

S3!. Princeton, NJ., 1977. Hassan, Y. F. 11u~ Arabs and lire SlIda,,; From Ihe &vt,IIJr 10 Ilrt Early Sixtulllli Celliltry, p. 127. Edinburah. 1967. Ibn KhaldOn. A,/·'ibar ll·a·diwall aJ·/tlllblada' wtHll· lhabtJr. Beirut, 1879. Kirwan, L P. "Notes on the Topogrnphy of the Christian Nubian Kingdoms:' Jounlal 0/ Egyptia" Archaeology 21 (1935):61-62. Monne,:rct ue Villilrd, U. Storia del1a Nuhia cristia/la. pp. 61-221. Orientllliil Christiana Analecta 118. Rome, 1938. Ptolemy. Geographia. cd. S. Munster. Amsterdam, 1966. Reprint of Basel, 1540. Vantini, G. Christial/ity i" Ihe Sudall, pp. 33-198. Bologna, 1981. WIIJ.lAM Y. ADAMS

MAKRAMALLAH

THE

HEGUMENOS,

eightccnth·cenlury priest known f!'Olli lwo manu· scripts in the lihr'3lj' of the Coptic Patriarchate, Cairo. In 1724 Makl'3lll11lh'lh WllS probably pa.~tor of the Church of Saint Menas of Fumm al.Khaltj in C
15 15

He lIIay have been the fa.ther of the deacon and copyist llRJIS MAKKAMAU,.AU AI.·IIAIlNAs,.\wl.

8IUUOCRAI'HY

Graf, G. C(ltalogue de ",amlScril.~ aralu!s cOllservu (Ill Caire. Vatican City, 1934.

cJr~ctiells

K.J'AULSAMtR, S.J.

MAKRAM EBEJO (1889-1961), Egyptian politi· cian !>om in OinA. His family originated rrom Asyia! where his grandfather married a daughter of the ramous Mu'allim JllUtS AWAWIIAMI. Makl1l111'S rather undertook construction work on the railway linc from Nag HNmmaui to Lullor, on the completion of which he was granted the title bey by the khedive. Hc was a.ble 10 buy clltcnsive prupcny frum the Royal Domains before his death In December 1925. Of the cleven chilurcn in thc family, Willialll (this was indeed Ma.kram's ,iven name until he rejected it during the struggle with the British) was the brightest, and his education took place in Qim\, Cairo, and then AsyU!, at the American College. Latcr, at the,: sugg...-slion of Akhnukh Fiimis, WiIIi3m was sent to Ollfol'd in 1905. The dean of New Col· lege, who lIdmircu him, once SlIid thut Makrnm was the youngest of all student<; ever admitted in his college, e,ltcept William Pill. Afte,:r grndullting with u degl'Ce in law ill 1908, Makram moved to France, where he spent two years stuuying Egypiology; he also fell under' the Inlluence of French socialism. On his return to Egypt, Makrnm displayed his nationalisllc tendencies, fir'St by uuhel'ing 10 the Or· thodoll Coptic Church, refusing to duplicate his fa· ther's conver'Sion to l'rotcstantiSlII, and thcn by fol· lowing the Wafd p.my in its struggle for tile total indepCII
1516

MAlATI VUSUF

under Na~l.llls. He ended up by breaking away from the Wafd in its new fOlm to establish in 1952 a separate Wafdist block (l;Ji~b al·Kutlah al· Wafdiyyah). The rising disunity in the ranks of the majority party heralded the weakening of Nal:t~!s·s leadership and the decline of Makram's position on the political scene. He died on 5 June 1961 and was eloquently eulogized at his funeral in Ihe Cathedral of Saini Mark in Cairo by Anwar al·S;:adal, Ihen Speaker of the National As.~embly, who recounted Makr"m's formidable role and his imm011al heroism In the 1919 struggle for independence. [See also: Political Panics: Wafd and New Wafd.] MUSTAFA AI.,FtOI

be identical with modern Millj (province of Mimifiy. yah), located ahout 12 miles (20 km) nonhwest of AU·lb. The lown was a bishopric at lellsl liS early a~ thc middle of the eighth century when Bishop Vil;tor of Mallj allendcd a council in Cairo. Mallj still had a bishop as lale as 1349 when Bishop Peter was present at the consccnuion of the chrism in Cairo (Munier. 1943. p. 41). BI8L1OCRAPIlY

Ami:lineau, E. La Geographic de {'Egyptc a l'epoqlje caple, pp. 243-46. Paris, 1893. Munier, H. RCCllf~il des /istes epi$coplI/es de reg/i.•e copie. Cairo, 1943. Timm. S. Dlls ChriSllich-kopliM:hl' AIf)'plen ill arll· biKher Zeil, pI. 4, pp. 1538-41. Wied>aden. 1988. RANIMIL STEWART

MALArl VOSUF, uriginally the administroltive :l.uistant of the bey Ayyilb the Delterdaf (accountant genentl), one of the lah:r Mamluk amirs of the pow· erful party of Ihe bey Mu~ammlld Abo al-Dhah:ib, prior to the French Expedilion. Malali Yusuf be· came better known under Freneh rule. When the French were established in the country, til!..")' urgan· iud the adminhtration of justice by the creation of a sJX"t:ial diwlln or commission of Iwelve members, half of whom were Copts and half were Muslim. under the chairmanship of Mllla!1 Yusuf. Little is known of Mala!l's life and work beyond this com· mission, though we must assume his relative knowledge of French and of legal studies to have been entrusted with such an important function. In this cap.'lcity his name appeared with three Frenchmen, Magallon. Pagliano. and Tallian, logelher with a Muslim called the effendi Muslafd, who filted lawful ta1l6 instead of the confusion of unprcscribed imposts un(ler the Mamluks. However, with the termination of French nile of Egypt, Mala!1 was executed by the Ottomans for his al:tive participation with their enemy. BIBLIOGRA.PIIY

JabanI, aI-. 'Aj4'ib III-Alhar, 7 vols" ed. J:tasan Jawhal' et al. Cairo, 1958-1967. TawOq Iskarus. Nllwabigh ul.Aqbtil Ii 1I/·01ln! g/Ttisi' 'Ashur. Cairo, 1910. Ya'qlib Nnkhlah Rufaylah. TfJrikh al-VII/mllll af· Qib(iyyuh. Cail'O, 1899. MOUNIR SHOUCKI

MALININE, MICHEL (1900-1977),

French dernolicist and Captalogls\. He was a member of Ihe Insti!ut fran.;:ais d'ArchColagie ol'ien'alc du Cain: (1930-1935); professor of Coptic at the In· slilut catholiquc of Paris (1936-1944); lecturer on Coptic lilerature al the fifth SCClion of the Ecole pratique des Hautes Etudes (1943-1947); and director uf demotic and Coptic studies at the founh section of lhe Ecule pratique des Hautt.'5 Elud~ (1951-1971). 8IBLlOCRA.PJlY

Cenival, F., and G. "oscner. "Michel Malinine (1900-1977)." Bulle/in de l'Insliflll d'Archrologie orielllait. 83 (1983):v-ix.

IrOllfllis

Corso. F. Ie. "Bibliographie de Michel Malininc (1900-1977)." Rev"e d'EgyplOlogil' 30 (1971);7-9. RENl'o·GEORGES COOUIN

MALLON,

MARIE

ALEXIS

(1875-1934), French Egyptologist, Coplologist, und archaeologist. He was born at La. Chapelle-Bertrin, Haute-Loire. lie entered the Jesuil order in 1895. From 1902 he taught Coplic at the SainI Joseph University at Bei· rut and from 1913 at the Pontifical Biblical Institute In Rume, although living at Jel"Usalem. He Jied at Bethlehem. 81BI.lOGRAPIIY

MALIJ, a lown in Ihe Egyptian Delta, the exact location of which is now uncertain. though it may

Dawson, W. R" and E. P. Uphill. Who Was Who in Jigyplology, p. 193. London, 1972.

MAMLUKS AND THE COPTS

Kammerer, W.. compo It CQplic Bibliography. Ann Arbor, Mieh., 1950; repro New York, 1969. AZIZ S.

ATI ......

MAMLUKS AND THE COPTS. Under the rule of the Mamluk dynasty (1250-1517), the Copts were protected by their skill in handling taxation and state lin:lOcell. Occ:l$ionally, :1$ a political subterfuge, the Mllmluk sultl'ns dismissed them from office for their refusal 10 coO\'en 10 Islam, but Copts were soon again employed to save Ihe state from the resulting confusion in tax operations and civil administration. Another faclor in the :ourvival of the Copts and their churches was Ihe relatlon· ship with Ethiopia: the cmpcron, who were of Coplie profession, interceded on behalf of the Copts at the ~ltan's coun, promising to protecl the Muslim mosques In Abyssinia. In bet, after the discomfiture of the Cru...ade of Louis IX of Frnnce at al·Man~rah and thc accCli' sion of the Mamluk sultan Aybak (1250) to the va· cant Ayyubid throne, the new potentate employed a Copt by the name of Sharaf al·Din Hib:u·Altah ibn s:.'k! al·Fa'izi as his vi~ier. He had power.; in the administration of the counuy and could concen· trate on the n:gulatiun of the taxation systcm at a time when the sultan's treasul)' was in need of funds. The ncw vizier. according to al-MAQRlzl, de· vised a new lluPlllemenlal)' tax as "the right of the Sultanatc" over and abovc thc nonnal tou imposed by his predecessors. Its results, Ihough detrimental to Muslims and Copts alike, filled the sultan's trea~ ury with the sorely needed funds. One of Ayb:lk's successors. Qutroz (1259-1260), continued to levy additional taxes for' his campaign in Syrill. Qutruz MIS assassinated. and when Bay· bars (1260-1277) took ollcr. hc rcvukcli llll t'IlI:CS. Peace rctUl11cd to Egypt. Lalcr. accul'Jing lu lhe Christian chnmiclcl' al· Muf;tt:)t:);tl lhn Ahj ;t1.P;tQ6'il, on Baybars's relurn from an cxpcnsive cllmpaign in Sylia. the sultan aimed at eXlOnlng additional funds from all DlllMMIS. as non·Muslims were called. He threat· ened them with burning, and he ordered a large ditch to be dug below the ciUldel In Cairo and filled it with I1ftllltllable material in readiness for punish· mcnt. (The T"('a..an for menacing the Dhimmis with burning was lhal they had been accused of staning fires in several dllilrh:L~ of Cairo an act of vellge· ance for the role Qf tin,: Muslim mob in the dcstruclion of Christian churehC5 [Clubb, 1973, p. 211 J.) At this juncture, they .....ere S3ved only by the emer-

a.,

1517

gence of 11 solitary Coptic monk named Bolus al· l:Iabis. who had reputedly disc:overed the hidden treasure of the Fatimid caliph al'I;IAkim in a cave and used the money for the relief of the poor and the needy, irrcsp«:tive of Iheir religion. He rom· somed the menaced Dhimmis with 500,000 dinar.>, (0 be paid in annual inslallmenL.. of 50,000 dinars, of which the lir.>t was paid on the spot (Tajir, 1951, pp. 174-76). In the meantime, all the Coplic employeC5 in the offices of war lind taxation were dismissed and replaced by Muslims, who were not equipped wilh the requl~i1e skills. In addition, the prosperous m"'R ...tA:lIAND"'Q. outside Cairo in the neighborhood of the golle of BAb al-Fut"~, was ordered to be de· stroyed. But soon Sultan Oalawun and his son aI· Ashraf Kha1J1 found that their administration was in a shambles. and both were con$lroined to reappoint Ihe Copts, 10 set thinas arighl. AI·MaqrW said that the relUmoo Copts abused Muslim subjects. and he gave a case in point, about a Copt by the name of 'Ayn al·Ghazal, whose treatment of a Muslim broker precipitated the wroth of the public and thc Mam· luk amin Bayd:aroh and Sinjar al·Shuj6'1. Ultimately bolh amirs dismissed the Copts li'Om their service and reqUCSlcd other amirs to do the same, while Coptic residences were StOI'med and pillaged by the angl)' populace. Alanned by lhis outbreak of lawlessness, the sultan was constrained to use milital)' foree 10 end the havoc. Nevenheless, a decree was issued for the relention of Copts in ulrice only if they convened 10 Islam; othelWi:;e, they would risk decapitation (Clubb, 1973, pp. 189-90). According to one SIOlY, a Mallhl'ibI vizier who was on a pilgrimage was passing through Cairu in the year 1301 and happened to obselVc a l'ichly dresscd horsernun surrounded by nlltivcs who were pleadinll with him for something and kissing his boots while he ignored them. He was told that the man was a COpl. Consequen(]y Ihe Maghl'ibl vizier approllehcd Sultan al.NlI~ir Mu~ammad Ibn Oa· law"n 10 protest (lgltinst Muslim humiliation by Chrisllans. Consequently, the Mamluk amirs who were preset1(, !I1110ng Ihem the powcrful Bllybars al·lashankTr. ordel'ed the Copts to wear the blue turban inslead of the whhe. and the Jews the yel· low. to distinguish them from Muslims (Glubb, 1973. pp. 189-90). The Copts also had to WCllr a ce"ain belt. Moreover. the chlll'Ches in Cairo were closed for a shon period, and those in Alexandria, together with Coplic residences, were attacked by

m""' . In 1303, Sultan al·Nllsir Mul.lammad ibn Oalawtin

and the amir Bayban al·Jashankfr suppressed the

1518

MANAssA VOJ:lANNA

allnual celehl'ation of the fEAST OP THE MARTYR. which w:l5 a holy tillY among the Copts. The :otl1horIlies even went 10 the Martyr's Church in Shubra and sei:ted the box containing Ihe famous relic of Ihe mtlrtyr's finger, which the Copts used to dip in Ihe Nile to enl'urc the river's annual flooding. Th(..")" burned it lind caSt the ashes in the Nile. BUI the mMt calamilow; and destructive movement against Ihe Chrislian churches came to JXlSS in 1320 and subsequent years. This lime, the s!onn· ing of churches was general and could have been carried out only with careful maneuvering tlnd con· spiratorial prcpar.llion. The d(.ostruclion of churches was apparently camed out at the same time, after the Friday p....yel"ll, from Cairo, Alexandria, and Damietla in Lower Egypt to OOS in Upper Egypt_ It $«ms that the authorities were taken by surprise by this movement and could nl)( do much to stop it. While the sult:l.n was a1anncd at the extent of whal happened, apparently some monks wanted to avenge this calamity with another-Ihe burning of Cairo. Naphtha and sulfur were used 10 Slart fires in a number of Cairene dil'lriCIS, and a wind spread the flames far and wide, leaving hundreds of houses roined. All aHempt5 to stop Ihe creeping destruction failed. As the tire subsided, the authorities summoned the leaders of the various religious communities. indudina: the Coptic and Melchite ~triarchs, the Karaite rabbiI', and numerous other:s to review these h'agic events and 10 renew the COVENAI\Tf OF ·UMAR. to reaffirm lhe rightful posilion of minorities. Ilowever, under the yenl' A.ll. 852/1448. lhe annalist al·SakhdwI Malcd that no church in Egypt escaped some des!l'uetion (£II·&:OkhAwl, 1897, p. 36; Tnjir. 1951, pp. 184-94). In sum, these events left an Indelible mark on C£liro and Coptic religious foundatlon~ throughout the country. HIHUOCRAI'HY

Glubb, J. SoWers 01 fortlme: The Story of the Mam· (likes. New YOI'k, 1973, Heyd, W. Hisloire dl4 "ommllrce du Levant (.II' moytll dgt, 2 Yols. Amsteruam, 1959. Lane-Poole. S. A HI5Iory of Egypl ill Ille Middle Ages. London, 1901. Sakhl\wl, al·. AI.'ribr a/-Mlubiik fi Vlla)'1 al,Su/llk. Bull\q Edition. Cairo, 1897. Tajir. J(ik. Aqbil( wa-Mu)-lim(m Mutldhl4 u/.FallJ af· Arabi i1d 'dm. Cairo. 1951. Wei!. C. "L'Egyptc ambe.'· In Histaire de fa lIa/ioli Igyplicl/llc, 7 voll'.• cd. C. Hanolaux. Paris. 19311940.

Zcllersteen, A. BeilrllglJ ll4r Ge)'chidlle der Mam/llkell.SIt/fallell III dCIl Jahrell 690-74/. Lcidell, 1919. AZIZ S. ATIYA

MANASSA YOJ:lANNA (1899-1930), Coptic church historian. He was born at Hur, ncar Mallawl in Upper Egypt. He joined the Coptic Clerical Col· lege. Cairo, and became a lay prcacher befoTe he was ordained priest of Mallawl Church at the age of twenty. lie wrole many book., on church history and doctrine. His most importanl work is TiJrlkh tJ!·Klmfsah u/·Oib!iyytJh (Hislory of the Coptic Church; repro Cairo, 1983). FlJAD MECAll.Y

MANASSEH, SAINT, sixth·century archimandrite. The SYNAXARION is silenl about Manasseh, who was a relative of A81tAIIAM OP FARSHOT. We pas' sa, the remnanLli (about forty pages) of II Coptic Encomium of this saint (Campagnano, 1978, pp. 230, 238). It S<."eOiS thllt MiUlasseh was an Alexandrian: He was first of all a monk in the community of Saint PACIlOMIl)S. He founded a monastery to the south of Farshu!, "opposite a village eallt.'-d nGI'IMl (Perpc), a village burnt by Camb)'SC$." We do not know lit what age Manasseh becamc a monk, but he hOld lost his mother six years before. The text relates that he often went nOI,h to see his kinsman Abraham. The bishop of Diospolis Parva (Hiw) came 10 conseCI'ate lhe church. lind delivercd a selmon on this occasion. MllnASseh received some nuns from a convent of Pachomiul', that they might pl:tcc them~c1ves under the protection of his praycr. He built for them a convent equipped with a tuwer. We do nOI know Ql what date Mana'<seh died, but the Coptic encomium is impurtOlnt for knowing what Egyptian monasticism was like at the begin· ning of the .sixth century. BltJLlOGRAPIIY

Campagnano, A. "Monad egitiani fr.. V e VI seeo10." Velera Chrlstiauonlm 15 (1978);223-46. RENE·GF.QRCP.s COQUIN

MANDORLA. Sec Symbols in Coptic An.

MANICHAEISM

MANICHAEISM. Among the heresies that were spread in Egypt. Manidmcism played a prominent role, This is shown by the discovery of a library of sc\'en volumes in the Asyil! dialect of Coptic and of a historical work on Mnni wrillen in Greek. This religion spread, in the form of a church, over the entire Mcdilen~nean basin and as far as central and ea.'tem Asia. In the kingdom of the Uigul"$ it even became a state religion, and after the d(:c1ine of that kingdom it lefl trnces In the remnant Slates of Kansu and Chotsko (Chot!iCho) down to the thirteenth century. In the Roman Empire it suffered severe pcrst.'Cution soon afler its emergence and. indeed, was regarded as a eoncenlration of all heresy, Reflecting the number of cultures and p<.:oples among whom it was proclaimed. the tradition has come down to us in many languages: Latin. Greek, Syriac. Coptic. Arabic, Middle Persian, Pa~hian. qdinn. Uigur, Tocha.rian, Chinese. Since thc tradition is largely indirecl. and in the original sourees due attention must be paid to the peculiarity of literary forms oftcn preserved by accident, in reconstructing the Manichaean s)'5tem we must not be content wilh the knowledge derived rrom any one group of texts, not even from a group as comprehensive as the Cuptic sou~s. Mani (Manichaios, from Mimi ~a;;lJ, the 1iving Mani) came frolll the Babylonian part of the Iranian empire. He w:L' born on 14 April 216. His father. Pauck, had become :1 member uf the Jewish·Chris· tian Gnostic sect of the F.LKASITFl>. Mani received IwO revelations, the first Ilt the age of twelve, the second at twenty·four, Hi., "twin" appeared to him and revealed 10 him the mystery in which the con' tent of the faith was made known to him. He there· upon turned ",way from the: Elk;lsites ,\lid beg;ln to proclaim his own teaching, When the Sassanicl AI" dashir I OVel1hrew the Ar:sacids in Iran, Mani went to India. He returned under King Shapu,' J and won his favor, since the king wished to restore the Aehaemenilln empil'e llnd saw in Mani's syncretistic religion 11 common l'cliglon tlmt could bind to his empire Ihe reJi:ions uf the eastern Medi1erl1lnean thaI he wanted to wrest !'Tom Rome, Mani pros' pered under Shl'lpur's sucel-"Ssor Hurmil.l..! I (273274); but when l3ahl'llrn J (274-276/277) came to the throne in 274, Mani was thrown into prison at the instigation of the Magi, and died after twenty·six days in custody. The year ur his dl-Mdth is disputcd (276/277). TIle period of his irnprisonmem gave him opponunity 10 prepare his disdplcs for their task after his death. The mystery revealed to Mani answcred Ihe qucs-

1519

tion of the way to man's l-edemption. For lhi.~. in accordance with GnOSlic theology, ;I knowledge of cosmology was necessal'Y, and this again had to be traced back to ilS metaphysical roots (Kephalaia 15.324). A.s was usunl in CN(lS'!1C1SM generally. Mani. on the Platonic model, made u.~e of myth for his pre' sentalion. The dualism of good and evil, light and darkncs.'. is original in Man!. O\'er against the father of Greatness. consisting or five members or liglu and surrounded by twelve aeons who dwell in the kingdom of light, slands the kinK of darkness, Hyle. While peace and joy prevail in the realm of light. the kingdom or dar'kness is full of unrest and mUIUal eonflicl. Hcnce Mani can apply to it the word of Jesus in Mauhew 12:2Sff. It is only with a view to winning lhe kingdom of light that any unity of pur' pose comes about. This brings the Father or Great· ness into difficulty. since his kingdom is ordered for peace and not for war. He therefore decides to take the field himself. in the person of his sun the primal man. whom he has begonen of the MOlher of Life (also called "of the living"). He puts on the five elements of light-air. wind. light, waleI', and fire -as souls of light, There is a bailie in which the five elemenl' of darkneo;s-smoke. wind, darkness, water, and fire-bind the clements of light by uniting with them, and take the plimal man captive. This defeat is. however. only apparent, for the min· gling means the binding of darkness, depriving it of its power. The primal man turns for help 10 the Father of Greatness. who calls fOl1h a new hiad, the Friend of the Lights, the Great Architect, and the Li~ing Spirit. The LivinJi: Spirit sends a call to the primal man, who gives an answer. Call and answer llscend and, clothed with them, the Living Spirit and the Mother of Life come down to deliver the prirrllll man, In order that the clements or light, too, may be delivered, the cosmos is er'ellJed by the Living Spirit. Ten heavens and five eal1hs lire formed from the skins of the llrehuns and their bodies. Sun ;lnd moon arc produced frolll the bellt mlltture of light. The archons are filted as star:s in the firmament in a whed of the sphere. The dregs of darkness are swept down !'Tom heaven into three trenches. The order of the cosmos is Ill(lintained by five sons of Ihe Uving Spirit, The Splendllenens (GI'eek: PheH. l:oklJ/Qchuli) oversees lhe tenth, ninth, and eighth heavens, and hold,' the world from above. The great King of Hunur overscl-'S the remaining heavens, The King of Glol)' is in ehal'S/! of the paths on which Ihe e1elllcnts of light. wind. water. and fire ascend. AI-

1520

MANICHAEI$M

las (Gn."\:k: Omophoros) bears Ihe cosmos on his shoulder.;. The Adam of Lighl caslS down Ihe sea monsler.;. If in the crealion of Ihe world the Living Spirit effecled a rough separation of light and dark· ness, and thl:n.-by SCi up a mechanism for the redemption of Ihe elemenUi of light, it is Ihe task of the Third Emissary, who resides in the sun while the Jesus Splendor has his place in the moon, 10 sel the machinery of purilicalion into motion. In male or female fonn, by his beauty he provokes the archons of Ihe opposite selt 10 emit secretions thai lead 10 Ihe fomlalion of Ihe sea monster, the plants. and the archons who move on Eanh. In Ihis way a I'fln of the light is l'elined away, The way of purili. cation leads via the Milky Way, "the pillar or glory, the perfeci man," 10 the moon, from which the light is handed on 10 the sun. The archons now, in an obscene fashion, creale a man and II woman after the likeness of the Third Emissary. They believe thai God will do nothing against His image, and that they will be IIble 10 hide behind it. Moreover, Ihe purification of the light is again and again delayed, and practically made impossible, by Ihe multiplication of Ihe human race, unless Ihere i.~ a counterattack on the pan of the light. This occurs finu of all Ihrough Ihe coming of Jesus, who awakens Ihe sleeping Adam and explains his ellislence 10 him. By eating from the lree of life Adam becomes able 10 see, but falls into great affliction. This lcads him to a sea~h for deliver· ance, for which ways are repeatedly offered to him fmm the primeval age on. Ever new apostles, from Seth to Shem, are sent 10 mankind. Then appear the three founders of the world religions of the time: Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus. Their teachings are falsified soon alter their death~, but in accordance with John 16;7f. the Pnraclcte, the Spirit of Truth, comes, to appear as the seal of the prophcls. The Paraclete, Ml,ni's "twin," unites with him, so thllt Mani himself i.~ regarded by the believing eOlll· munity as Ihe ParacJete promised by Jesus Chris\. In contrasl with the majorilY of the Gnostic here· sics. Manichacism formed a church like Iho~e of the Marcionitcs or the Elkasites, from whom Mani derived much. The amhropology of Manichacism aflinns that man in hili present condition is the ancient man, who through the struggle of Ihe lighHlOus willi sin is purified into the new man. This Iighl-nollS is idemical with the first soul·member of Ihe Father of Greatness. so Ihat through Jesus and Mani the illuminator God intervenes among men as an aClive participant. The purification of the community

takes place through a division inlO two groups of believers, Ihe el«t and the catechumcns. The designation ,mdilOrn for the laller goes back 10 an eltpression used for them in the Syrian church, The way of sanctification can be recognized from the relation between the two. Since the object of all thai happens in the world is the final purification of thc light out of Ihe world, the propagalion of the human race mUSI be ever more restricted. Hence Ihe ciCCI muSI be unmarried. In order nOI to hann the lighl, Ihey Illay not work. but arc supportt..-d by the catechumens. The elemellls or IIghl Ihal pass into their bodies wilh lhe food arc thereby purified. This is the Maniehaean Euehal'iSI. In fasting, also, the elecl have more to perform Ihan the catechumens. The latter (Ire under the obligalion of prayer, rnsting, lind almsgiving. Here the c"techumen may so enhance his performance, especially hy additional SCltual abstinence, that he is delivered in a single body, Otherwise Ihe way leads through the transmig....." tion of souls, and one must enler into the body of an eleCI in order 10 oblain salvation. When finally the purification of the cosmos as a whole is almosl complete, whal is left is gathered into the last "slatue" (o"drias). Then Ihe Splenditenens and Atlas cease thcir laOOn, so that the world collapses and passes into a universal conflagration lasting 1,468 year'S. There is, however, no apocataslasis of the original situation; darkness is forever chained in a prison ereclI:d by the Great Architect. 50 that it can never apin be dangerou.\. Some souls. which have nOI fulfilled their task, are ullerly lost. Here we can see the conllict belween Fate and freedom of Ihe will, which can also be recognized elsewhere in gllQsis. To bring the purification to its completion. mankind must be gripped by Mani'& teaclling, and the M'lOichllcan church must ~anctiFy all people morc and more. Mani sent missionaries to every corner of the ear'th. Egypt was early In his mind. Because of the uncel1ainties Ihal the missiunl,ric~, like Mani himself, recognized in the tl'8ditlon~ of the greal religions, Mani believed Ihal Ihe siluation could best be remedied by the crelliion of a canon of sacred writings that he had compo...cd and authori7.ed; (I) the living Gospel; (2) the Treasure of Ufe; (3) Ihe Pragmateia; (4) the Book of the Mysterie~; (S) the Book of the Giants; (6) Ihe L.etlers; (7) psalms and prayer.;. To these Mani added a further volume in which hc prcscnteu the mythological evenlS in piclorial (onn, which earned him the name "the painter:' For this he also composed an explanation, Ihe Book of the Foundalion (perhaps

MANICHAEISM

identical wilh the Episllliu IlmJumenli assailcd by Augustine). Alon~ide the canon cOlllfl'Osed in Syri· ae there is II work in Middle Pel1iilln, the Sllupllr. dan (Book dedkaled to Shapur). Since, howe\'er, Manichaeism was a living religious community. it did not rcst COnlent with the canon, but l:rcated additional new literature, From the Coptk Manichaea.n Psalm book we can see how {l series of hymn collections vrdS assembled, and beside it there is abundant Iranian. Turkish. and Chinese malerial. Historical texts in which menlion is made of the life and suffcrings of Mani served for lhe t:dification of Ihe community (the Cologne codex in Greek. the passion of Mani in Coplic. Inlnian frng· ments), In Coptic there is also a sermon on the great war, which begins from an Iranian mythological theme and deals with the last things. with con· siderable borrowinl from lhe synoptic apocalypse. The Kephaliliil literature is of exn~ordinary scope, harking back to Ihe Masler's didactic discouT5eS or e:cpanding them, or answering new questions according 10 Ihe same model. Mani's mis.~ion wa..~ c::om.:erned with making the message dear !Ind eomprc::hen$ible by adapling to tht: fOI11\li of (lJ[pTCS$ing religious ideas that were in current use in the sevl:ral mission fields. In the Shapllrakall ~pec::lally. lhese were (mnian ideas: farther east, olhl:r Imnian ideas. but especially Buddhist lel11\li, are 10 be found above all in lhe Chi· nese texts. Rivalry wilh Christianity in cenll~1 Asia gave II special prominence to the person of Jesus. The SlIme holdb for lhe West, whcrc Chrisl assumes the place of lhe Thlr'd Emissary and the figure of the Jcsus palibllis is idemical with the suffering Liv· ing Soul. lhe Cross of Lighl. This l:onception of Jesus is particularly stronSly manifested in lhe West, but It is among the essenli"l ingredients of Mani's theology, This is shown by a passflge in thl: Cologne code~ and by the interprdation of the worub of judgment in Mauhew 25:34-46, MnnlchaelslII is II markedly syncretistic religion thaI claims 10 have laken into ilself all that was good in c:lrlier rcligions, It is not an Iranian religion, although lr~nlan elemenls-such as the great war, lhe ascent of Ihe soul after dealh, nnd lhe mOlif of the fourfold God (God, Light. Power, Wis· dom)-arc used a..~ vehicles fo,· iL~ expression. Also, one can hlll'dly speak of any fundamenlal Buddhist COnstituenl. The transmigration of souls derives from the ~Iellenic heritage, ilnd lhe rejection of work for the clect Is a logical eO'lsequence of Mllni's Idea of the dispel'1l'ion uf the panicles of lighl, which he found confinned among the Bud·

1521

dhisl 1ll011ks on his journeys to Indill find easlern Imn. The cenlllli motive for lhe overcoming of dualism, however. derives from Chrilitianily-rt.-demption through J~us Christ-~ve that Jcsus' various functionli arc split into various mythological indo dents. God appeal'S in l'lis son, the primal man. and suffers in Him and in His children, the clements of light. ~Ie is at Ihe same time victolious in I-lim. The crt."3tive activily of God and of His son comes to the fol'~ in lhe Living Spirit. Thc description of the Pillar of Glory as a perfect man goes back to the ecclesiology and Chrislology of Eph~ians 4:lIf1'., since the totality of souls as· pires upward to the moon, where Jesus resides. The Milky Way is seen as rhe place where Jesus under· takes the purification: indeed, he is sometimes even idenlified with it. In addition to the JI'Wli Splendor, lhe primal man abo has hb place in the moon, After his relUm to the Kingdom of Ught he is t:on· cern...-d, likc the riscn and exalted Christ of the Chrislians, for those who are to be redeemed. But alonpide the cosmogonical and eosmologieal activo ity, we see Jesus also as a teacher of the firsl eanhly man and in the form of PlOIIS in cvcry man who is redeemed. Ukewise, Jesus comes al the end of the world as its judge. As the means for ilS presentation Manit:haeism makes use, panicularly in speculative descriplions. of the astrological view of the world. The miJi,.>iion probably gained a foothold between 244 and 260. While Maniehaeism was being pro· daimt:d in the Roman Empire, Addas came to Alell.andria, Mani sent him the Gospel and two other writings, and al lhe S!lnle lime gave him scribes. This shows the l:harat:ler of Manichaei~m a.... a book religion. Pafl'Os and Thomas worked in Upper Egypt, Thc lalter is probably identical with the author of the Psalms of Thom!ls; lhe formcr appears in Mani's leller book (unpubli~hed), The main center in Up· pel' Egypl was Lycopolis (AsyO!), Its dialeel, in addilion 10 Greek, became the language of lhe Egyptian Manichlleans, A few Syriul: fragmcnts have also been found in Upper Egypt (Burldll, 1925, p, Ill). However, lranslution of lhe lileralure appears to have been thl'Ough the medium of Gr'eek. Soon af· ler its appearance. Manichaeism wa.~ atlacked by the state, The edict of mOCU!T1AN in 297 prohibited it under severe penalties (death, penal servitude. e~propriation). 1'l'Ople saw in il a Persian supersli· tion; perhaps Iranian aghation wa..~ suspected be· hind some ,'('volts. The Neoplalonil: philosophy also, in the person of ALEXANDRR OP LYCOPOLls about 300. turned againSI Mani's dot:trine. II W"dS, however, the church especially that saw in Manichaeism

1522

MANICHAEISM

an opponent $0 dangerous as tu have it extirpated until Ihe Arab period. There iii a pastur..1 lener against il as early as the thin.! ccnwry (BOhlig, 1980, pp. 194ft). There arc wriling.~ from the hands of Egyptian theologians. SARAPION Of' TMUIS (d. 362) and DIOYMUS TI-lE BUND (313-398). ATHANASlUS also

may have had a huno in this conflict, as he enrolled ANTONY in such a struggle (Vila Alllmtii, chap. 68). Use Wl\S also made of writings against Mllni li'om outside, ~IS Coptic translations prove (CYRIL 01' JERU· SAU'.M, 6th Calcchcsis, 21-24; ActQ Archdui, cf. PoloL~ky,

1932). In the fourth I;cnlOry the activity of Aphthoniu§:IS leader of the Manichacan community made it m:i,;cssary for Aetius uf Antioch to come to

Alexandria for a deoote with him. The widespread impact of Manicha.eism emerges also from thc facl that both the Coptic Manichllean library-consisting of a work un the Living Go5pcl, letlers of Mani, a psalm book, IWO volumes or Kephalaia, various I()~i, :lnd :l historiC:l1 book-and the Colognc Greck c;ode_ were intended ror the laity. D1BLlOGRAPHV

Adam, A, T/:xtc ZIIIII MrmichiJI.mw.l. Berlin, 1969. Alexllndcr or LycopoJis. Dt plud/is Mlmichat'orum. In PG 18, cols_ 411-48. Turnhoul, n.d. Alf:uic, P. Lu E.critures mallicllett/lles, 2 vak Paris, 1918-1919. Asmu....~en, J. P. XII(Jstv(Jllif,. S/Ildies ill Mallichtu, ism. ACla Th(,.v]ogica Uanica 7. Copenhagen, 1965.

-,:::-:_, Manichaea/! Literature. Repre.lellta/ive TexIs Chitfly from Middle Persiall alld Parthiall Writillgs. Persian Hcrirage Series 22. Delmar, N.Y., 1975. &ur, F. C. Das mallichiJische Re1igiollssystem lIach

dell Quelle/! neu mltersllel" Wid tmtlVickeft. Hi!· desheim, 1973. Rc;print of 1831 editiun. BOhHa, A. "Die Bibd bd dell Maniehaern." Theo[uKicnl dissertation, University of MUnster, 1947. -,:--C. "Die Al-beit an den koptischcn Maniehaica." In Ac/es clrl XXVe COl!gres illlemrJliOllal des 01'1· ell/ali.iles. Muscoll 9-1(, amir 1960, Vol. 1. Mall· cow, 1962. Reprinted in Blihlig, M)'$t~rion und Wa/"/leit, pp. 177-87. ___,. Mys/erion ulld Wahrl,eit, pp. 175-266. Arbeiten zur ~hichte des sptitercn Judentums und des UrchristenlUms 6. Leiden, 1968. ___ "Del' Synkretismus des Mani." In Synkrelis· m14S im syriscll-persiselle/! K'l/lurp:ebief, ed. A. Dietrich, pp. 144-69. Abhandlungcn del' COllingeI' Akademic del' WissC'ns<:haften, PhilologisoCh-historische KI:we 96. COllingen, 1975. _ _~ Die Gliosis, III. Del' MallichiJistlltts. With the assistance of J. P. Asmussen; Introduction, trans· lation, and commentary by A. Bijhlig. Zurich, 1980.

BeMig. A., and H. J. Polutsky. Mlll/ichiJisclle Halldscllriffell der StarUlichen Museum Berlin 1: Kt'pha/. aia. Stullgart, 1934-1966. Boyc;c. M. The Mtmichaeall Hymn-Cydes in Parthi· an. London and New York, 1954. - , _ . "The Manichacan Literature in Middle Iran· ian." In 1I(lIIdhllch der Oriel//(JUsfik, Vol. 4.2. Lei· den, 1968. -,e-' A Reud~r in Mrmichaean Middle Per.lial! and Parrhiarl. Acla Imnica 9. lcidcn, 1975. !3riere, M., cd. and trails. Les Homiliat culh~drales de $cvi!re d'A.lltioch~. PO 29, I. Brinkmann, A., cd. Afexurldri Lycopolitalli "ontrtl Mallichae; opit/iones displlta/io. Leipzig, 1895. Durkin, F. C. TI,e Religion ol/he Mllllichees. Cambridge, 1925. Casey. R. P.. L-d. Serapioll of Thll/Ilis Against Ihe Manichees. Cambridge, Mau., 1931. Chavannes, E., and P. Pelliot. Uti trailt mallichien retrouvi ell Chi"e. Extrac;1 from Jou"'al asialique (Nov.-Dt.-c. 1911). Paris. 1912. Cumon!, F. V. M. La cosmogonie nlllllichrellne d'Dpres Throdore bar Kho"i. Recherches sur Ie ManicMisme I. Bru$Sels, 1908. Decret, F., Malli er la tradirioll IIl1lllichitmne. Mattres spiritucls 40. Paris, 1974. FJiigcl, G. Malli, seille LcI"e lmd .~ehle Schrll/en. Osnabri.ick, 1969. Reprint 1862 edition. Haloun, G. and W, B. Henning. "The Compendium of the Doc;trincs alld Styles of the Te:lching of Mani, the Buddha of Light." Asia Maior(1952): 188212. "Mani's Last Joumey." S,I[fel;'1 of the School of Oritllfal alld Africarl Siudies 10 (19401942):941-53. Reprinted in Henning's Sdtcttd Paptrs, Vol. 2. pp. 81-93. [.eiden, 1977. Nagel, P. Die ThomaspsalmeH des kop/~h.ttra"i. chuischell Psalmtnbuches. Ausgewlihlte TClCte aus der Geschichte del' christlichen Kirche, n.S. I. Berlin, 1980. POlolSky, H. J, "Manichliismus." In Pallly.WissQwa Rctlll'lIcycloplidie, Suppl. VI. pp. 241-72. Stull· gan, 1934. Puech, H.·Ch. Le Mlmir;heisme: Sml lo,rdllrwr, sa duc/rine. Parill, 1949. Rose, E. Die mallichiJischc Chris/%gie. Studies in Oriental Rdigionll 5. Wiesbaden, 1979. Rudolph, K. Die Gliosis, Wese" ulld Geschichte eiPler spiJlamikePl Religion. Leipz:ig. 1977; Gouingen, 1978; 2nd L-d., 1980. 5ave-SIXIerberxh, T. Studies ill the Coptic Manichaean Psalm·Book. Uppsala, 1949. Schaedel', H. H. UrfO",l l/lld FortbUdlmgell des man· ichiiischtll Sysfems. Leipz:ig, 1927. Schmidl, C., and II. J. PolulSky. Eill Mtmi·Flmd ill

ur

Agyplc". Origillaf$Chriflen des Mani und stiner Schuler. Berlin, 1933. Taqi7..adeh, S. H., and W. 8. Henning. "The Dates of Mani's Life." Asia Major (1957):106-121. Re·

MANSI, GIOVANNI DOMENICO

printed in Henning'~ Selected Pallcrs, Vol. 2, pp. 505-20, l...eiden, 1977. Tsui Chi. "Mo oi chiflO hsia pu tsan" (The lower section of the Mflnichaean Hymns). Bulle/ill of the School of Oriental alld A.fricatl 5/11dies II (1943):174-215, with observations by W. B. Hen· ning. Widengren, G. Mani "lid der MonichiJiSlTlu$. StUl!' gart, 1961. ___, ed. Der MallichuislIIus. Wege der Forschung 168. Darmsladt, 1977. ALEXAN()EJl MHUG

MANQABAD (ancient Maltidis). site of a complex of ruiru; dating from the late Roman period, the classilication of which has not yet been asccnained with certainty, The building remains have definite

Chrlslian characteristics. so that the foundation of the buildings may be ascribed to the sill:th century A.D. It n:mained in use until the eighth cenmry. The buildings are laid oot in an ell:tensive and mon: or less rectangular. walled precinct. Close 10 the middle of the western circular wall a rindy constl'\lcted g:lte decorated with comer pilasters and niches was fQUnd. The lhidncss of the w..l!. however, is not very great, and it lacks towers. Within the walls several sl1l3l1 churches and chapels were found, all of which. however, belong to a later periud. Evidently the oldest ccdesia.stical building i~ a :-mall chapel (A) on the wuth wall that once had a cupola. Inside, it is furnished wilh II number of nicheli and windows. On the west side two more rQQITlS arc attached, which may be en· tered only from within the chapel. Church B, which follows immediately lU the cast, Is appreciably larger llnd already pr'esupposes chap· el A. Two dilTerem states of development may be noted In It. The :-1l.rlCtua,'Y in the ellSl or'iginally consisted of :I simple three-room group. Thi:- wa:later abandoned and 11 new apse allached with two lateml side rooms. The facing wall of the original sanctuary was preserved and reused for the khUr/.jS (choir) partition wall. The ncw ap.~e contain:- several rectangular wall niches as well :IS a curious round nkhe in the venell: which is markedly out of alignment. The third church, which was found on the south side of the strcet leading oul from the west gate of the ~ulemem, was from the beginning pl'(wided with a kllllrllS silUated in fronl of the three-room group of the ~nctuary. Also it has a single nave and is entered from the nonh. The apse also contains a niche rising up fmm the floor and in Ihis paniculal'

1523

inslaoce a rcctangular one. A small courtyard situ' ated on the Welll :-ide WaJI added later, The churches descrilx:d all come from the period following the ARAB CONQUEST 01' EGYPT. In any case. Ihe two churches t:quippt:d with a kllllrllS could hllve been built only at the tum of the seventh to the eighlh century. More 10 the cenler of Ihe area. a complex of buildings was ell:posed consisting of different, and in some cases modilied, structures. which can· tained several manu with TOlJnd benches and wall seats. One of Ihe rooms elthibits numerous graffili in Coptic 3nd Arabic. Buildings of a similar nnd were discovered at RAwtr. It is, therefore, conceiv· able that here. too, the buildings had a monastic function. Not very far away the most recent ell:Ca\-a· tions (spring 1985) uneanhed a large. multiroomed bulldina;, in which two consecutive phases lying one on top of the other could clearly be distin· guished. The latest structure was presumably an ecclesiastical building, the 31Tllngement of which had completely d~troycd the older, substantially smallcr-roomr..-d building. The crypt of the later phase IllY well below the floor of Ihe earlier phase. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Grossmalln, P. "Neue frOhchl'islliehe Funde aus Agypten." In A.cles Xl' Congres inlemCl/iotial d'or· clteologic ehretictme, Vol. 2, pr. 1876-79. Pari:-. 1989. PETE.R GROSSMANN

MANSI, GIOVANNI DOMENICO (16921769), Italian churchman lind prolific Iluthor and editor of religious tell:(~. One of his major projecL~ Wll:- the issulloce of Il new edition of Ullronius' All' lIales ecdesiaslid (1738-1756) supplemented by hi:owo notes and addenda. However, the main object of hi:- life remained the compilation of the chul-ch councils, Souorwn COtl· ci/iomm Nova el Amplissimo Cal/cclia (31 vol:-., Lucca, 1758-1798), more widdy known as the Am· plkdma, which covered the subject down 10 lhe (,."OUNCIL 01' FWIIENCE in 1439. As far as the Coptic chun:h is concel'lled, the: first si. volumes, down to the Council of Chalccdon in 451. art: of paramount imponance, since lhe ecumenical movement was n::eogniz.cd by the Copts until that date, Volumes 31 and 31·bis should also be lakcn into account be· cause of the presence of Coptic and Ethiopian dele· gations for church unity at lhe Council of FClT'ol.rol.· Florence. Since then. continuation:- of Mansi's work

1524

MAN~OR, 'ABDALLAH

have been C(lIlducted by other'S to Volume SO, 1"C:lching the year 1870. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Leclercq, H. "Munsi. Jean-Dominique." 1.0 Dic/ioll' naire d'orcllf~ofogie ellre/ibllle el de filllrgie. Vol. 10. pl. 2. cok 1565-82. ParillO, 1932. Quentin, H. J. Jlldll.Domi"iqllc ManJ; el les grandu colfec/;Qn$ CQllciliai,-,s. Paris. 1900. AzIZ S. ATtYA

allested in the city umil thc scvcnll:cnth l:l:ntury, al·Man~rah takes a prQrnincnt place in the annals of ChriSlian hislOI)' as Ihe place whl:re Louis [X suffered the defeat in 1249 lhal effectively spelled the end of the Crusades. BIBLIOCRAPHY Maspero, J., and G. Wlel. AfatiritUlX pour 5ervir il fa giogrQphie de I'Egyple. cairo, 1919. TImm, S. Da5 chrbllich·lcupli5Clie Ag)'pten in ara· bi5cherZeil, pl. 4, pp. 1571-72. Wiesbaden, 1988. RANDALL STEWAII.T

MAN~(JRJ 'ABDALLAH (I772-1831), a Copt

who fought in the Coptic Legion and became an officer in the french army. He was born in the distric::l of BAb al

Ba~r.

Cairn, on 18 July 1772. He

received his carly education from his f..ther, Mu'al· lim MansUr 1:luoayo, who held an administr.uive

position on the estates of the Mamluk amir Ibrahim Bey the Greal. Owing 10 his interest in military maneuven;, MansUr accompanied the !iOldicI"Ii of Ibrohim on nloSt of their milhary exploits and learned hOBCmanship from them while he quktly studied the French language on his own. Later he joined Ihe Copdc Legion, founded by Gcncrnl YA'oUO un· der thc auspicCli of the French army in Egypt. He auained Ihc rnnk of commander for his valor in lighting insurgents in Cairo, who rose against Ihe French In 1801. When the French troops lefl Egypt, he, along with General Ya'qub and other Copts, wenl too. Man~ur fought in the ranks of the Coptic legion when it was rest rue lured in France. He was granted the I'llnk of commandant in 1807 and then placed on reserve. He lived in Paris until his death on IS October 1831. His son, Boktor Man~ur, visit· ed Cairo in 1877 tugcther with a daughter, who was a member of a French theatr'ical company that played at the opera house. BIBLIOGRAPHY

RamzT Tadrus. AI.Aqbii( Ii (l1·Qllm (/1 'Ishrtn, 3 vols. Cairo, 1911. Aztz S. AnYA

MAN$ORAH, AL., city located in lhe Egyptian Delta aboul 15 miles (24 km) northeast of al·Mal:ml· lah al·Kubra in the Daqahliyyah province. AI·Malik al·K.1mil founded al.Man~ura.h in 1218/1219 when he was lighting the Crusaders in DumyA! (Maspero and Wiet. 1919, p. 198). Though Christianity is not

MAN$UR IBN SAHLAN IBN MUQASH. SHIR, famous Chri~tian physician-probably a Copt-who was atlached to the court of the Fali· mid caHph5. His scientific knowledge and experiencc bcl:ame authoritative for many decades.. In particular, al·'AU;z (975-996) and al·!:tAKIM a1·AMR AlJ.AH (996-1021) honored him. In 995, he fell ill and was unable 10 appear at the palace. When he recovered, al·'A;zi;z wrote him a Iell..:r in his own hand, filled with expressions of kindness and good wishes for a long Iifc. This lelt..:r was reproduced by al·Oif!T. The Melchltc historian Ya~y1 ibn Sa'id al·An!akT in his Appel/dix to the AI/I/ais of Sa'id ibn al.Bi!riq, composed before 1015 and then I"Cvised and com· pleleu as rill' as 1028, gave firsthand inrormation, as he wal' himself a contemporary of thcse events. His account reads: AI·l;fllkim (bi·Aml" AHdh] had the Christian staff of the government offices arrested, and they were thruwn into prison un Monday the fourteenth day of the month of Jumlldll II of this same year (",It. 393). They were subsequently freed, une week later, at the requesl of his physician Abu al.Fat~ (ibn) Snhh'ln ihrl Muqo..qhshir al.Na.~r:'l.nl. This phy. sician was one of al·Hdkim's confidants, who had already reecived frum 1l1·'Azlz a great fortune, :m impol1ant positiun, :md alsu pal1icular favor anu esteem. And al-I;fil.kim rcston·d them all to their former employ. (Kl'atchkovsky, 1976, p. 464) This date corresponds 10 Monday 20 March A.D. 1003. The tc"t quoled shows the positivc influencc elterclsed by Abu al.Fall) at the caliph's COUl1, and indicates he Willi still alive in Ihe year 1003. !.ater in the text (pp. 480-81), the same historian records thaI when Aba al-Fatl) Man~ur ibn Sahlan di(:d, he was replaced by another Christian physician. Ist:tAo IBN IBRAHIM ION NASTAs. who advised al·H~kim to drink a little wine for his health. After some timc

MAORlZl. TAOIY AL·DIN AL·

Abu Ya'qub alsu died, and al-Htikim once more banned wine. The hiSl()rtan lhen recountS an event which can be dated during Lent 1007.

Ibn Abi U~)'hi'ah also confirmed Ih:u M:lIl~ur ibn Snhl;in died during the feign or ltl·!:ltikim, The dale Olust h:wc been bclwl.-cn Man:h 1003 and March 1007, prubably around the year 1004. IUIlI.IOGRAPIIY

Ibn Abi U~aybi·ah. 'Uy(m ul·A"bli' 11 [abaq(l/ fjl-Aii. bbil', VoL 2, cd. A. MUller. Koni8~bcrg, IBl:l4. New cd., l:d. N. Ri~. Beinu, 1965. Ibn al·'lbn. Mukhluif/lr Tiirikh al·Duwuf, cd. A. ~Iil)ani. S.J., pp. 181~B2. 2nd ed.• Beirut, 1958. Ibn al·Oifti. Tdrlkh a/.fJlllcamd', ed. J. Uppen. pr334/14-335/8. Leipzig. 1903. Kratchkovsky, I., and Y. Alexandre. Histoire de Yah· ya·lb,,·Sa'id d'AlI/i,)(:he, CQmifllHlftur de Sa'id·/b,,· BiJriq. PO 23, pl. 3. no. 114. pp. )47-520, pp. 464 and 480-81. Par'is, 1932; repro 1976. Stcinschneider. M. Po/ellliscllt! mId upulogelische f.j. ttralur ill arabiseller Sprad,e. pp. 11 Sf, Leipzig, 1877; repro Hildcsheim, 1966.

KHALil. SAMllI., SJ.

MANYAL SHIRA. Sec Pilgrimages. MANZALAH, AL-, See MonastcriL'S of the ProVo ince of Daqahliyyah.

MAQARAH OF SCETlS, See Macarius the Egyptian. SainI.

MAQRlzl. TAQJv AL-DIN AL·

I

13641442), Arab hislori;lO and topogr;lphcr. AI,Maqrlzl composed two major' wurks. a monulllenlll! topo' grOlphical sludy, ul·Mawii'i? w(I·ull'tibdr II Dhikr ulKhi!14! wa·al·Achlir (4 vols.). [md a univer'Sul history, Kil{J.h al·Suilik /i·Ma'rilal fluwu! al·MIIMk (4 vols.). Though at lirst com.:~ntrating his lilcmry activity on local hi.story and topography, he later extended his labors to include ~ocial history and such .'lpecif· Ie subjeCls as weights and measures. In the field of gcneral hiswry, however, he was kd 10 deal with countries neighbclling Egypt such as Nubia, the Sudan. and Abyssinia. In particular, he became involved in Coptic history, where he produced what is probably the only detailed study on lhe 5ubject by a Muslim wriler. This work proved to be a major accomplishment and an original document of the (A.I).

1525

highl.'St imponance in medieval Coptic annals. It wa.~ also incorpornted wilhin his widcr Khi!o! under the title Akhbltr Qib/ Mifr (news of the Copts of Egypt), which aUracted Western scholal'Ship and was puhlished and tr.mslated Into some European InnguagL'S by eminent schol'1I11. In ulin, it first ;Ippeared under the title Makri~ii HislOria Coptor. 11m ... , edited by H. J. Wetler (1828). It was edited by Ihe well·known Gerlll;lll Orient;di~l F. WUSlellfeld under the tille Ge)'dlicll/e der Cop/ell (GUttingen, 1845). An English trnnslntion was produced by S. C. Malan, elltitled A Shorl His/ory ollhe Copa and Iheir Chllrch (LondOII, 1873). MaqrizI begins his work with two short introductions on lhe pfl."history of the Copts as well a... their mythology before they were convened to Chrislianity. The rest of the book, comprising historic matcrial5 concerning the Copts, is dividL-d into a number of scction.... each treating a pha.~ of Coptic hi~tory. The lirst section offers details of thc Chri".. tianiz,,'ltion of lhe Copts. Here he includes the uge of pel'SecIJlions. the convel~lon of Constantine, and the establishment of Christianity as the slflte religi· on, in additiun to the eady slury of the Coptic p.llr[;lrchs tn the end of Bywntine rule. The following section deals with the AllAn (;UIII· QUEST OF EGv ....r and the age of Islamic rule in Egypt. The plltriarchs of lhe Copts, including the Melehite patriarchs, are enumcrnled with inleresting epi!;(Ides of the reign of each of lhcm. A special chapter i5 devoted to ellOplanalory nOlices on the Chris, t;an SI,.'CIS including the Mclchitcs, the Nestorillns. the Jacobites, and "the Barda'aniyyah and the Mar· quIiY)'Olh:' othelVlise those of lhe district of al-Ruh3, thu5 meaning lhe Antiochene church. Another blief chapter deal5 with baplism and the orgalliwtion of the COptic church. The next ~tion cnumerntc5 the lllonasteries, wilh short nolices on each. This is a \'ery ;nlel'esting sectinn, since il inelude5 the fiftecnth·centul)' houses, sOmc of which have disappeared. The finnl sectiun is equally inleresling
Encyclopedio olfslam. Vol. 5, pp. 175-76. Leiden, 1987. WOstenfcld, F. Geschicll/e der COP/CII. COllingen. 1845. AZIZ S. ATiVA

1526

MAQ~ORAH

MAQ~ORAH. See

Architectural

Elements of

Chul'chc~.

Foulkes, F_ S. "Marcellus (4)." In DeB, Vol. 3, pp. 808-813. New York, 1974. Frend, W. H. C. Tile Rise 01 C;llris/i/lnily. Philadel· phia, 1984.

MAQTA'. See Altar·board.

MARCEL,

RANDAU STEWART

JEAN·JOSEPH

(1776-1854),

French Oricntalist. He slUdicd under Silvestre de Sac)' llnd wrote sllldies on Arabic :lnd on Arab his· tory. He "'a~ a member of Napoh..-on's cornlllission

in Egypt. of which he wrote a history, and was in charge of the printing press of the French clIpcdi· lion. The CoplS remained on the periphery of his work. Ilis occa.~i(lnaJ statemenu on them were con· fined to the mooern period. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cani. J. M. VOY"'/(Iwr$ el (niw'ljtl$ fran(Qu en Egyptf!, 2 vols. Cairo, 1932. Michaud, J. F. Biogrtlpllie wliverselle. Vol. 26. PI". 961-63. Paris, 1840.

MARCIANUS, eighlh patriarch of the See of Saint Mark (143-154). He held the office for tcn years and two monlhs during the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius. He was laid (0 rest on 6 Tubah ncar the remains of Saint Mark in lhe Church of Bucalis at Alexandria. OIOUOCRAPIIY

Aliya, A. S. History 01 £o.stem Christilmi/y. Mill· wood, N.Y., 1980. AzIZ S. Any"

MARCUS. Set Mark I, Saini.

M. L BIEllBRIER

MAREA. See ...awlriyyah. MARCELLUS, bishop of Ancyrn (d. c. 374), a supporter of the IIQIoIIOOUSION concepl and corllend·

er against the Alians at the Council of Nle"EA in 325. NonelhdeS5, he was deposed for helerodoJty In his "CfUlillion of Ihe Arian Aste,;us, probably in 336. He taughl thai lhe Son was merely a manifeslation of Ihe Fathcr, with no independenl personality. When the works of creation lind redemption were completed. the Son would he suhsumed again in Ihc Father. This doelrine, for which Marcellus incUl'1'ed Lhe endul'ing wrnlh of Ihe Eusebians, combined clements of thc leachings of bOlh Paul of SamOSfllll llnd Snbellius. Mal'cellus was l'cstored to his sec in ]37 at lhe delllh of CONSTANTINE, bUI r'emoved again in 339. The evidence suggests Ihal he did nol reg"in the see therel1flcr, despile lIre fact thai in a council of Western hishops held In Rome in lale 340 or in 341, Marcellus W;lS aeeepled as lawful bishop of Ancyrn; and again al another council in 342 or 343 in Sardi· ca, the Western bishops asserted the orthodoxy of Marcellus. Howevcr, lhe Eastern bishops, who had walked out of the council, convened in ncarby Phil· ippopolis and renewed their anathema against Mar· cellus and his supponcrs. BIBUOGRAPHY

Cross, F. L, cd. "Marcellus." In OOCC. London, 1957.

MAREOTIS. the Greek name of an ancient city, a disu"ict, and a loke in Egypt. The lUin,.; of the an· cient city lie in Korn al-Idris aboul 2.5 rnik-s (4 km) nonh of al·HllwwAriyyah and some 20 miles (32 km) southwesl of Alexandria. The name of lhe mod· em lI)wn anll its lake, just below AleJtandrla, i~ Mal'yu!. The disll'iel of Mlll'eotis WllS remote and generally inhospitahle. When the palrial'ch DlONYSlUS (247264) was exiled tI.J the area by Aernitianus, Ihe prefect of Egypt, he complained because he had heard that Mareotis was not only devoid of Christians and men of character, hut was hll1.ilrdous because of the incul':'iions of robbers (Euseblus f{js/uria I!.cc!es;aSli"/l 7.11.14-17). The mal1yrdom of SItI!NUI'I!. which speaks of a numb..::l' of Christians from Empaiat (Marcotis) including Shenufe himsetf (Rcymond anJ Barns, 1973, p. 86 [Coptic lext]; p. 189 [English tmnsla· lionJ), is one of scverlll indications lhat Christianity was linnly estilblished in lhe area by the early founh century. Mareotis also ligures prominenlly in thc account5 of Abu MIn~;, Although Ihe different stori...os abotlt Abo Mimi do not agree on his homc· land, the Coptic version of his martyrdom stales thai Mlna's parelils were from the area of Mareotis, and lhe account of his mir:aclcs says thlll Mini him·

MAREOTlS, COPTIC PAINTINGS AT

self was reside", in Empaiat (DreS(;her, 1946, pp, 2, 10). MlnA's budal place was in the dese'1 in the district of Mareotis, but the SYNAXARtON, under IS Ba'unah, commemorates the dedication of the church of Mln1S in the city of Mareotili and claims lhat the chun::ll, along with the city itself, was built 3t the place where Minii was buried, Apparently the city of Marcotis became associated with Mlnl'i's burial place, e\'en though this equation was not precise. AbU ~'i1iI.I. for example, iucntilif:d O'~yr Abo Mln3 in the we,;tem d~n with the city Man~ot.is and al·""'ORlz!. who wrute in the early to midfifteenth cemu,)', said the city of Mareotis WlL'l still in existence in his day, though he evidently meanl the burial place of Mlnl'i with ilS accompanying church (Maspcro and Wiel, 1919, p. 167). Thc IlISTOItY Of' nu; rATIlIAIlClIS records lhat Patri· arch SHEHtm': t (858-880) wem into the church of Mini and pr~ycu for divine intervelltion at a time when the are:a had nOI seen rain for Ihree years. A short time later in lhe pillriarchale of Shenute, the church wa..'! sei1:ed and plundered by members of the Muslim tribe known as the M:lCwljah. While PHtLO wrote Ihal the Therapeutae, an ascetic sect that he described, lived just south of Lake Mareotis (De vim cO/llcmplativa 3.22), Christian monasticism in the district of Marcolis IIppe.::u"$IO have had its beginninw; in lhe fourth century, SOZOMEN reporlS thai SOIllC 2,000 monks were preaching philosophy in the neighlKl,'hood of Alexandria, some in lhe district called the Hermitilge, anu olhers in lhe outlying areas of Mareotis and in Libya (Hi!UOriil uclesiastica 6,29.3), He speaks at !IOlIle lenglh of Ammon, (I man who pursued his dream of living the monaSl1c life by retiring to a desert place south of Lake Mar'Cotis (1.14,3), and of the monk Stephen who Iivcd at Mareotis ncar Marmarica (6.29.13). Doth of Ihese men were conlcnrporary witli ANTONY, who died in 356, ATIiANASItJ::; wrute in the fuurth century that the churches in the district of Marcoti... Iwd no bishop. Instead they were overseen by presbyters who were directly suhject to the piltdar'Ci1alC in Aleximdria (Apologiu SCClmdu 85.3lf.), However, since Athana' sius made this statement when he was involved in a dispute with bchy,'l1S, a church leader in the dis· trict of Marcoti... who was eventually made bishop of the area by Athana~ius' opponents, it is apparent that the asse'1ion is polemical in nature. In 343 lsehyrns, who lIIay have been ordained by the schismatic Ml!LITlUS, aHcndeu the synod in Sardica ao; Ihe bishop of Marcotis (Munter, 1943, pp. 6-7). Whether or nOt Ischyras had Ii succt:ssor as bishop is not known.

1527

The HisfOry of tire Patriarc11S relates that Patriarch AC'..11l0N (661-677) was f,'Om Marcoti..., but then: is no indication whether he hailed from Ihe city itself or simply from the distl'ict of Mare
MAREOTIS, COPTIC PAINTINGS AT, painted walls and ceilings in monastic structures Qr the :sixlh to sevcnth eenlurit.'S in the Marcotis region at Ihe edge of Ihe Western Desert, They were dis, covered in 191 I by Evarislo Breccia, who was excavating Dayr Abo Jirj3, II. sel'ies of hillocks not far from Ihe Nyb3riyyah Canal. aboul 22 miles (35 km) southwest of Alexandria. Some of the pahuings arc now in the Greco-Roman Museum in Alcxandria. Two groups of Slruclu,'es supcrimpost.'<1 one above the olher have been uncovered; lheir pur' pose is unknown. From lhe higher building, which is thc more recent, only Ihe walls have survived. from 3 10 5 feet (I to IV.. III) high, A few fmgmcnt:> of paintings show a face, the prophel Abraham, and a haloed person prnyinlj;, standing in the center of a niche. The lower huilding, which Breccia identificd as Ii crypt, is composed of two rooms connected by a vast bay. The celllngs are covered with paintings in itnittllion of wooden coffer'll, The iconogr.lphictll plan displayed along the walls of these two rooms must have been r11ther clabornte, involving different scenes with figures. On the lower register 1'lI'ge pan· els arc painted in imitation of slabs of milrblc and porphyl)'. Above is a pl'ocession of figures among whom are an unidentified warrior·sainl, Saint Abii 1I.1lnli standing between his camcls, a monk, llnu an Annunciation. This la~1 theme, which is mlher Tal'C in the 1II0St ancient Coptic painting, was accompa· nied by Ihe first word'! of the angel's saluUltion. Above lhe door, thcre is a bust of Christ in Glory in a mandorla. Heavy draperies guide the specUllor's eye toward lhe principal niche, which has complex decoration. In the center, a person praying stands.

1528

MARl

JlRJI$

out againSI II Nilolic landscape of plants and llowel'S, in the midst of which appear two domed roofs, one accompanied by a fish and the olher by a child l'he interpretation of this $Cene is lin enigma. Was il perhaps a vision of PaI'adise or a baplism of Chlisl in a vel)' panh::ular iconognlphy or an evocalion of the Euehllrisl? The question remain.~ unanswered. BlULiOCRAPIIY

Rassal,.l>ebergh, M. "Peinturcs coptes de la region ma.wlique: Abou Girgeh et Alam Shahout." Anmj/.lire de 1'11151illil de plu'lolo,ie el d'hulOirc oricll//.l/es el s//.lv(!S. Brussels, 1983. MARGUElUn: RASSART-DEBER.CH

MARl JIRJIS. See George the Great of Cappadocia, Saini.

MARIVYAH THE COPT, Coptic conson of Ihe Prophel Mul;1ammad. Hl,:r stOI')' begins in .0\.0. 627 .....ilh the dispalch of leiters from Mu1,lammad 10 Ihe rulers of the world, calling them to allegiance to Islam and iL~ prophet as the messenger of Allah. Those leuers indutkd a special message addressed to al.Muqawqas, viceroy of Egypt, who wrole back a cnnJliderate and friendly but inconclusive response. He alw sent the I'rophet gift..; of honey and fabrics ploouced by Egyptian looms, together with two Coplie fClIlale serfs who were sisters, Mariyyah and Shirln (01' Silin). Apparenlly bolh were daughters of a mixed m:m'i:lge with a Greek mother. According to Yllqut's geogl'a]lhleal dictionary, thOlie two girls were from" village by the name of !:Iafn, situated on pm·t of the ruins of ANTlNOOPOLlS. lhe ancien I capital of the Thebllid bel ween the Nile to the west anti lhe Illountaln~ to the cast. of the lwo girls, lhe I'rophel retained Mariyyah for himself and gave her siSler 10 H:\ssiln ibn Thahit, lhe famous PUCI and companion of Muham· mati. LIller', Mo.dyyah hore him an only son named Ibrahim, in whose birth lhe Prophet I·ejoiced. Her newborn eamed her liberution from serfdom, which changed her marital status from concubi· nage 10 thai of l\ legal wife. However, her child did nOt survive long. It is known to h"ve died, probably at the agc of less lhan tWO years, in Ihe lap of his falher, who mourned his dcath deeply. She survived the Prophet and died in Medina in A.H. 16/A-D. 637. Mal'iyyah's nalive village gaim:d prominence in Islamic n.-cords as a pilgrimage site. When it was

visited afler the AIlAIl <..'UNQU£ST 01' F.(:YPT hy 'Abadah ibn al.~mit, 11 companion of the Prophet and a former soldier in Ihe army of 'Amr ibn al"A.~, he built there a mosque lhat bore his name, Masjid al'Shaykh 'Abadah. It still slands in 1:lafn, the name of which was consequently changed to its prcsl,:nt one, Shaykh 'Abadah. The natives have managed to preserve the adobe room lhal was the binhplace of Mariyyah, from a larger building where she had livt.-d before her departure to Arabia. ThaI room is decorated, and Ihe villagers have built a red brick wall around it for prolection. The village has an ancient well from which Mariyyah presumably drew water. The well being still in use, sterile women come to drink from Its healing water in thl,: hope of conceiving. The actual population of the village tooay is in lhe neighborhood of four thousand souls, and ill cultivable soil llmounts 10 five hun· dred acn,:li. Its inhabitants pride tbemseh'es on a peaceful life, free from crime. The adminislration of Miny.) Province, in conjunction with Ihe cenlnll Ministry of Tourism, has acknowledged the historic imponance of the village of Shaykb 'Abadah and its potenlial as a pilgrimage site 10 be frequented by Muslim tourists. BIBLIOGRAPHV

Abu Ja'flll' Mul;1ammad ibn JaMr al·Tabari. Tilrikh /.l/-Uml.llll lIJu-uf-MII/lik, 13 vols. Cairo, 1917. _::-~. CltrOlliqlle, 4 vols., trans. M. H. Zotenberg. Paris, 1867-1874 (mills. of above). Amelineau, E. Lu Giogr/.lphie de I'EgypJe iJ /'tpoqlU~ cop/e. Pal'is, 1893. Butler, A. J. The Arub COllqUl1$l 01 Egypt, rev. cd., cd. p, M. FrJSCr. Oxford, 1978. l:Iamdi Lu\ft "O:\I)':lt lll·Shnykh." Af·llifll! Monthly Review 90 (July 1982):78-101. SCe especially p. 92. !:Iifnl N(l~if. "MlIriyyah al·Qib!iyyah." AI·Hi/iil Mmllh· Iy Review 90 (July 1982):78-101, with ills. Sec especially p. 80. Lamls al-Tal;1l;1l1wt. '''Ab:'ldah, al·Qfll)'ah al.Mi~riyyah ..... AI_Ahram. 25 June 1981. Y:iqut ibn 'Abd Alliih al.l:lamllwl. KillJb Mu';am al· Bu/dlm, 10 vols. Cairo, 1956-1957. _--;-~ JacM's GeographiscIJe5 Worlerbllch, 6 vols., cd. F. Wllslenfeld. Leipzig, 1866-1873; repro Te· hran, 1965. lkinl1 cd., 4 vols., 1955-1957 (trans. of above), Al.ll. S. AnYA

MARK, SAINT, one of the T.....e1vc Aposlles of Chrisl, tnldhionally regarded as aUlhor of the Gas·

MARK, SAINT

pel of Mark and lirllt patriarch of the Coptic church (feast day: 30 Bar.tmOdah). The meager hilltorical SOUI'Ct'S on SainI Mark's life hallC given rise to conllicting accounts about his personality and even about his Gospel. Whereas lib· el"lll Prou:stanl scholars have woven legendal'y con· ;ec:tUI't'S about Mark, the Roman Catholk scholarly community tends 10 porlmy him as a mere satellite 10 Saint Peter, as his secretary and his inlerpreter, and regards his Gospel only as a dicu.tion from the older saint. Attempts al an objective outlook. how· evt'r, are not lacking. Tile New Schaff·lIerwg EncytlopediQ 01 ReligiQIIS Knowledge is II. moderate ex· ample. In a Coptic encyclopedia, however, Ihe reader is entitleu 10 learn the traditional view from within the Coptic church of irs founder. Consequently, we have tried in these pages to summari:re the work wrillen ex cathedra by Anbi SIlIlNOUOA Jlt. poJN: or Alexandria and I I 7th patriarch or the See Saint Mark.

or

Early LIfe Mark. also known in s<:ripturc as John Mark, WdS born in Cyrene, capital of Cyrenaica, in Nonh Amca. some time arIel' Ihe dawn of the lir.;t cenlury into a comfol1able Jewish family engaged in agri· culture. The country was predominantly Greek, panty Jewish. and panly Roman with a hostile Bel" bel' community on its periphery. Owing to Bemcr inroads. the ramily decided to emigrate to Palestine. where they scttled at a new home in Jerusalem jusl about Ihe lime when Jesus began to emerge into prominence. Mark'll father died llhortly afterward, and his mOlher, Mary. uevoteu her fortune 10 ob· raining a thorough education for her son. Mark ulti· nHlldy became vcry proficienl not only in Hebrew but al!\O in Greek and Latin. then the languages of eivili"tl\lion, which he fully utilized laler in his mis· sion. As a young man, he became captivated by the teaching of Jesus (lOd wus buptized by Peter, 10 whom he wall related through Peter's wife. Mark's mOlher rel:cived ksus, who feasted in her house, and latel' llhe opened her l'Cllidence to hill faithful follower.;, who l:Ongrcgated there for daily prnyers. In this way, Mark's house became the firsl Christian ehurch in history, and it was there that the Holy Spirit descended on the disciples afler the Ascension of Jesus. Thus young Mark occupied a place among the disciples, and the Coptic church rccogniz.eli him as one of the seventy appointed by Jesus during his life on eanh to go and spread the news of the Kingdom of Cod (Lk. 10:1~12).

1529

Because of his youth, Mark chose 10 sIan his mis.sion in A.~ia in the company of the older mis· sionaries Sailll "AUL and Saint Barnabas. Wilh them he went to Antioch. then to Seleucia, sailing after· ward to eypros, where Ihey proclaimed God's mcs· sage in the Jewish synagogue at Salamis. They erosst:d the ishlild to Paphos, whcre Paul slrock a Jewish magician named Bar-Jesus with blindness. in Ihe presencc or the governor. Scrgius Paulus. who "believed ... for he was astonished at Ihe Icaching of the Lord" (Acts 13: 1-12). From Paph05, the missionaries sailed 10 Perga in Pamphylia, Asia Minor. where Mark left lh..-m and relurned 10 Jerusalem. At II Iliter dllte. possibly arter laboring in what is now Lehanon. Mark joined Paul in Rome. where he assisted him in the inauguration or its church. Writing to the Colossians, Paul sent his greetings, and added, "Arisu.rchus my fellow pris· oner greets you. lind Mllrk the cousin or Barnabas (concerning whom you have received inlltruction.<; -if he comes to you, receive him)" (Col. 4:10). It is possible that at this juncture John Mark extended his preaching in Italy (0 Aquilcia and the area or Venice, the future republic of Saint Mark, and from there proceeded to his binhplace in Cyrenaica. Mark's Journeys 10 Alexandria Mark returned at an unknown dale 10 the country or his bil,h. Despite the scarcity of materials on hi.s mis.sion there. Mark ill known to have planted lhe seeds of Chrlstianily among his fomler countrymen (Acts 2: I0). Coptic tmdition teache:! that Mark, after petforminK mimcles of healing in Cyrenaica, fol· lowed the road to Alexandria, through inspimtion by the I-Ioly Spirit and nol by instruction from Peter, whom he had nO\ yet joined in Rome. There is l\ divergence of opinion on the route followed by Mark to the great city of Alexandr'ia. According to one view, he wlliked from Cyrene to the oa~ell in the Western Desert, then crossed lhe immense sanuy wastes until he descended into the valley of lhe Nile somewhere in Uppel' Egypt. and moved north along the river until he entered Alexandria. This appears to be fantasy to those familiar with Ihe geography of Ihlll forbidding termin. The othel' route. which SCems humanly possible and di· reet, was walking along the Mediterranean lillom!. It ;s almost cel1ain Ihal Mark followed this route. known from antiquily. 10 reach Alellandria, which cOnlllined a medley or pagan religions. both ancient Egyptian and Gn."co-RollUln, with a sprinkling of Judaic bellers and Neoplatonist philosophy. Appar-

1530

MARK, SAINT

endy in the midst of this confusion, there was an occasional Jew, such as Apol105, who had known !.he Way of Cod according to Jesus (Acts 18:24). Arriving at Alexandria totally cxhausted, Mark found a cobbler named AHIANUS and asked him to mcnd a broken strap of hb tallered !i31ldal. When the cobbler took an awl to work on it, he acciden· tally pierced his finger and cried aloud in Creek, "Heis ho Theos," Ihat is, "Cod is One," Mark's heart fluttered wilh joy at this utterance, which belrayed the possibility of hili companion's monotheism, thus opening Ihe door for the preaching of Ihe New Kingdom. After mIraculously healing the man's wound, Mark took CQUr'1llle and delivered the good tidings 10 the hungry cars of his first l:onvert, In thili manner, the initial spark was strock, and the fir.;t stone in the round:ltion of the Coplic dltu'ch was laid. The cobbler invited lhe apostle to his home, and he and his family were baptized. There followed other baptisms, and the faithful multiplied. So sUl:eessf\l! was the movement that the word spread around Ihal a Galilean was in the city pre' paring 10 overthrow the idols. Popular feelings be· gan to rise, and pt:ople sought out the stranger. Scenting danger hi the air, Mark ordained Anianus bishop, wi!.h three presbyters (MyIi05. Sabinos. and Sardinas) and seven deacons to watch over the growing congregation in caSI.: anything befell him. Afterward, he seems to have undertaken a journey to Rome in response to a call for assistance from Paul. Writing to Timothy. Paul said, "Cel Mark and bring him with YOll; fur he is very useful in s¢rving me" (2 Tm. 4: II). Here we face a problem of chronology. The old· cst chroniele on n."'Col'd dealing wilh the stol)' of evenl~ in this period is the highly rcputcd Hislorill U'c!t<siMIit:a written by EU$EIlJUS Of' C.. . F..SAREA in the fourth eemury. He devotes chapten; to lhe inlrodUl:tion uf Chrislianity in Alexandria and to the composition and emcl'genl:e of lhe Cospel lIeeord· ing \0 MOlrk, He cites no specific date for either event, but he definitely places lhem during the reign uf lhe Roman Clllpclror Claudius, who died in 54, and we must therefore place these events prior to that datl:, To pinpoint a more definite date. we do not have 10 look very far in the work of Eusebius. who wrote two more chaplers on the works of PHILO Of AU!X, ANDRIA. a well· known philosopher and a COnlempo· rary of Claudius. Philo's dates can be ea!iily coordi· nated with those of the reign of Claudius. whom he visited in Rome together with a Jewish delegation from Alexandria in the year 42 to solicit pclnoission

for his Jt..'Wish comlllunity. and o.~lenliibly the Juda· ic ChriSlian communiliC'S. 10 be ex.cused from the obligation of adomtion of lhe imperial stalue (philo of Alexandria De vita cOll/emplafiva), According to Eu$ebius, Philo also wrote an accounl of the reli· gious character of the Chriuian hcnoits and ascet· ics in Egypl as wcll as of the doctrines of an already C5lablished Christian church in thai country during the reign of ClaudiWi, This appears to be one of Eu5Cbius' most elaborale chapters, thus indicating the con!'iiderable spread of Christh:anily and !.he development of the church in the metropolis. A short· er, bUI nonetheless interesting chapter treats Philo's fur1her writings on biblical books, From a study of Philo's works, it is ea.~y 10 place Mark's joulTIey to Ale:otandria as occurring around the same datc as that of Philo's emba.~sy to Rome. At any rale, Mark's preaching in Alexl\ndria muSI have struck rools deep enough in the city years before Philo's death, around the year 50, that we may well be justified in putting the foondation of the Coptil: church by Mark in the forties of the firsl century, Doubts about the veracity of that dale are raised by the argument that Malt. was still too young and that he could not have embarkcd un his Egyptian venture before the Jerusalem synod of 50, but this is too flimsy an argumenl 10 outweigh the respected authorily of Euscbius. the master historian of Chris' tian antiquity. Mark returned to A1cxandria after visiting Rome. poslIibly sevcral years after the synod and in all probability after the martyrdom of both Peter and Paul possibly in lhe year 64. which was also lhe y<..'ar of the burning of Rome. Whether Mark made this liCcond trip before or immediately afler Pete!"'li and Paul's mlll1yrdom is hard to dcfinc with certainty. At any rate. he returned via Cyrene to visit and strcngthen the fuithfulthcre, In Ale:otan· dria, he rejoiced at finding thllt thl: Christian com' munity W;lli multiplying and had built their fin;l church at Buealis, an area where c;tule gl'a~ed by the seashore, The Gospel According to Mark The term "Gospel" is an interesting derivative from Ihe Old English word I:Qdspel, meaning "good news:' which Is equivalent to the Gn:ek ellungelion. Mo.~t probably he wrole his Cospel !>Omc lime duro ing his absente hum Alexandria, between his two sojourns !.hert'. It is sometimes Sllggested Ihat Peter dictated it to him. It is troe that Mark, the enlighl· ened and able scholar. interpreted for Peter. lhe simple fishell'l:lan. in Rome. But this does not imply

MARK, SAINT

that Mark only t"e(:ol'dcd for Peter, his senior in years, though it is quilc cunceiv-able that all the disciples pooled delalls of oral information ahout the Lord's sayings lind acts, which Mark may have legilimateJy ineorporated into his work. Conse· quently, this Gospel, like the other Gospels, must have contained eyewitnC!'-" !lource matel'ial of PI." trine origin. The idea has b~n advanced that the Gospel was wriuen in Latin al the lime of Ihe manyrdom of Peler lind PauloI' shonly therca£lcr, but Ihis is a very questionable hypolheliis, because the Gospel is said to have b(.'C11 known some twelve years aftcr the Cnlcifidon, which fixes i~ comp0!lilion around the year 45. whcrc;t5 the manyrdom of the two saints occurred in 64. Apparently Mark must have written his Gospel in the popular Ic.oine Greek ....':ith· out relying on literary brilliance. All he wanted to produec was a forceful text marked by simple di· r«tness, vivid scenes, and a depth of feeling to captivatc public attention with its unique fa.~ina· don. According to Papiu, bishop of j'liel1lpolis. who wrote beforc the middle of the second century, there had existed an early Ar~llllaic collection of the sayings of Christ known as the Logi~, which must have furnished the evangelists and the apostles with a common source. The thlrd'century papyri discov· ered at OXyl'hynchus in Middle Egypt (see OXYlUIYN· CHUS PAPYRI) have been found to contain fr.Jgments from the l,vKiu Ihlll arc identical with passages from the Gospels. It 1.'1 possible Ih:1I Ihe Gospels in turn were copit:s ur Illurc 'lOcknt vriginals, Accurding to modern scholars, however, dating the Gospel of Mark (ruin the sixties or Ihe firsl century is given priority: il must have been circulated while some apusllcs wc.:rc still living, and it could not have differed from their' own recollection of Jesus. The consc.:nsus among New Teslnmenl eommentalors is that the GosreJ of Mar'k must be regarded flS au· thentil,: history, wtmwver thc truth may be, it is cel1aln Ihat Mark br'Oughl his Gospel witli him 10 Alcxundria, and though his Greek version mu~t have fulfilled its purpose in a dty Ihal was prcpon' demndy Greek, the suggestion is made that anathet· version in Ihe Egyplian Junguage could have been prepared oUl"ide the metm]lolis for the benefit of native eonvens whu may not havc been conversant with the Greek tongue. Mark's Martyrdom At any rate, the Christian population of Alexan· dria W'dS multiplying al a considerable rate, and

1531

TUlllOrs ron through the city, AS on Mark's first visit, thM under the leadership of Mark the Chrislians w....re Ihreatening to overthrow the ancient pagan deities. This po5."ibility innamed the fury of the idol· atrous pupulace, A bostile mob unremittingly hunt· cd lhe evangelist. In 68. Ea.~ter fell on Ihe same day as the fcstiv-..l of the popular JUlgan god Sernpis. A large group congregaled in the temple to Sempis on the occasion and decided to mU\"l' against the Chrislians, who, with Mark leading Iheir prayel"ll, wcre celebrating Easler al their Buc.alis church. The mob forced its way into the church and seized the saint, put a rope around his neck, and draggcd him about lhe streets. With the connivance of the authorities, Mark was incarcerated for the night, It is said that the angel of the Lord appeared 10 him during the night and fonified him to bear the approaching manyr's crown. On the following day, he was again dragged over the cobbled mads of Alex· andria, his body becoming lacerated and his blood covering the gmund, until he finally died. But the mob would not stop at that: they wanted to cremate his mutilated body so that there would be no remains for his followers to honor. Though the sources art' silent on the maller, it appears that Mark wa.~ c.Iecapiulll..-d after his manyrdom. At this poinl. ho_ ever, a violenl wind hegan to blow. and torrential rains poured down on the populace, whieh dispersed, The Christians stealthily nemoved the body of the saint and secretly buried him In a grave that they speedily clll'Ved in the rock under the altar of the Bucalis church, which has carried his name ever since. Mark's Relics The body or the saini remained intact In the Bucalis church under tile jurisdiction of the unilcc.l Coptic church until 451, when the MeJchite Chalee· doninns sei~cd that church, which Ihcy held unlil the Arab inv:L~lon In 641. In 644, before the with· drawal or lhe Greek fleet frum AlcJl.llndria, II sailor entered the chul'cll llnd took the head of the saint to his ship, Tmc.lition sOlys thll! llll other seacraft set sail, save the one containing lhe head, which rc· maincd stational)', As soon as the head wa.~ reo moved, however. thc ship began to movc. It is said thaI 'Amr ibn al·'A.~ Ilummoned the Coplic patriarch BENJAMIN I, .....ho waS a fugitivc in a Nitrian monas· tery, relurned the head to him, and gave him ten thousand dinars to build a special church for hous· Ing it. Benjamin staned lhe cOnstruction of Saint Mark's Cathedral in Alcxanc.lria to house the head.

1532

MARK, SAINT

The building was complct..' d by his successor, ...CATIION. and Ihere the head remained UnTil the persecution by the tenth·centul)' Fatamid caliph al· l.tAKIM. when iI was canied tempororily for ~curity and .o;afekecping 10 DAYR ANUA MAOAR in the Nitrian ,·alley. The body of Saint Mark had been left at Bucalis. but it was stolen by Venetian pil'ales in 828 and carried to their cily. There it was honored, and henccfonh the Venetian commune was named the Republie of Saint Marie.. The Venetians buill a great cathedral, where lhey deposited the newly acquired sacred relics. In 1077. during the patriarchate of CHRtSTOOOU... us. the head "''lIS relurned 10 the Alexandria cathe· dral. From the eleYenth to the fourteenth centuries. the head, which was eoyeted by Muslim gO\'emol'5 in order to usc for e,uoning ransom from the Coptic community, was removed from its sanctual)' and kept moving from one Coptic family to anothe... in order to delude the authorities. With the ...eturn of calm. the head was placcd back in its original sanetual)'. Out in the eighteemh cemul)', new rumors began to circulate that the Venetians werc dete ...mined 10 steal the head. It was decided to colleci the heacb of other saints and place them in a ca.!iket together with that of Sahli Mark Ie be kept in the shrine of Saint Mark's C.uhedrnl in Alexandria, where the $lcred relics could not be distinguished by thiev('!; and pilUtes. This is supposed 10 han' t;lkcn phtce in the patriarchate of PeTER VI (17181726). In 1968, with lhe progress uf r
The Iconography of Saint Mark Saint Mark h;ls been a ft\llorile subject fOl' iconog· mphers of many countries sinee the Middle Ages. He has USU:lJly bt.,en depietcd with his emblem, the winged lion. This emblem wa~ prohably inspired by the opening vcrses of his Gospel, whcre John the lliIplist l'Oared like a lion in the wilderness saying, "Prepare Ihe way uf the Lord. make his palhs straight" (Mk. I:]). His image appears in nume...ous old manuscripts pn:sc.....ed in the Coptic Museum and mon!lSlie libraries. Two lhineenth·centul)'

paintingS may be lI'3ced in a couple of codices, one dated 1220 at DAYR At,..SURyAN in Wadi al·Natliin (MS no. 21). and another dated .... D. 1291 in the I'atriarchal Ubrary in Alexandria (MS no. 5/196). of his older icons, two may be found on the leoneslases of lhe cathedral church of D.:,yr al-$uryin, dated 912 and 928. A third from the tenth centul)' e_isls in the Mu'allaqah Chu...ch of the Virgin in Cako. A thinccnlh-cenlul)' icon was discovered by the American By1.amine Instilute Expedition in 19]1 al the chapel of Saint Antony in OAYR ANBA AN'fC/HIVOS in the Easlern Desen. This is wh_'d 1233. Modem rcprcsenlations are illnumerable in Coptic churches Ihroughout the cOUntl)'. Painlings of high quality by famous Renaissance artists can be found in numerous churches in Eu· rope. One, dated 1507, by Fra Bartolomeo is in the Dominican Monastel)' of Saint Mark in Florence. An attractive painting of the saint with the apostles Peter. Paul, and John by Albrecht Di.lrer, wt..-d 1526, is In Munich. A whole range of paintings. including one of Mark'S martyrdom, are preserved in the Cathedral of Saint Mark in Venice. It is impossible to prescnt a complete record of Ihe paint· ings of saint Ma...k in Ihe an museums of Europe and America.

Saint Mark and the Copl1c Church Throughout Egypt there is ha...dly a church in which the nllme of saillt Mlll'k is not mentioned with the UlmQ5t ...eve...ence. In the SVNAXARION. his mcmol)' is celebrated annually on 30 Baramudah, the date of hi!> m:lI'ty...dom. In Roman Catholic :lnd Orthodux churches his feast day is 25 April. Churches dedicatcd to Saint Mark appea...ed in many countries. In Egypt alone, lhc Copts had thirty.one .~ueh churches in 1975. Thc thirtccnth· century Coptic histori:ln Abo ;.I-Mllk:lrim and the fifleenlh.centUl)' Muslim hlstoJian of the Copts, al· MaqrTzT, cite seven uther churches, whkh havc disappcared. II would be difficult to cite in detail the impact of Saint Mark on Coptic civiliz:ltiun and culture. However, twO itcms stand nUl. First, according to tradition, it is said that Saint Ma...k composed the first Sunday mass to be recited by the faithful in chureh, and that he delivered ilS text to his suceeuo.... Anianu~. This mass must have constituted lhe church offices. until the day,; of CYRIL I the C"'eat in the fifth centul)'. when this patriarch took thut inherited lext and edited it in the form th:ll has reaeh..-d us as the Cy...iIIian mass. Becausc it is severol hours long, il is celebrated todayalmosl solely in mon:lstle chapels. Portions of this mass

MARK II, SAINT

have been discovered on papyrus fragments from the fifth century, scallered in world librariel', identified and unidcntifi(.-d, SCctions of the document have been preserved by the Ethiopians in their old GC'C"l liturgy. The Vatican LibraI)' contains copies of it in three Ihil,eenth.century codices: the Codex RO!&Inensis (Vatican Gr, 1970). the ROlulus ValicallUS (Vatican Gr. 2281), and the Rotulus Mes-. sancnsis (Codcx MCMancnsis Gracca 177). Saint Mark's s..x:ond monumental contribution to the church 110 fiaid to be Ihe foundation of thc CAn;. CHtmCAL SCIIOOL 01' ... U;X... NUlU.... which de\'eloped from humble origin.~ to become thc mOfit authoritative th(,.'OJogical institution oC the ancicnt Chrislian world. It 110 conceivable lhat Mark 10taned a C:ltcchetical system for the edification of the newly convened catechumens, who hungered for ac· quainmnce with the scriptures as well as church doctrines. II wuuld, of course, be a mistake to sec the highly elaborate iOlilitution of Christian learning of the thin! through firth centuries as deriving di· rectly from the nucleus established by Mark.. Amon& the 116 soccc:sson to Saim Mark, 8 took hifi name at their enthronemenl, in addition 10 19 who were cullt.-d John aCter his given llalue. In fact, both John and Mark proved 10 be popular names, not only with the church hierarchy but also with Ihe Coplic community in gener.J1. which indicates the t.'Steem in which the saint is held among all classes of all ag~ in Egypt. IUIU.lOCRAt'HY Anbd Shenouda Ill. MllrqllS al-Rasul (Mark the Apostle), 2nd cd. Cairo, 1975. Atiya, A. S. !!islory of Euslem Chrbtiullily. London, 1968. Butcher, E. L. The SIOry of Ihe Church of Egypt, 2 VOI1O. London, 1897. Cabl'Ol, P., nnd H. Leclerq, cds. Dictionllaire d'arcll/t%gle clm':t/elllll: l1t tie /illirgie, 15 vols. !'nris, 1912-1962. Chenc:lu. P. Les SClinl~ d'EKYple. Jerusalem, 1923. Jackson. S. M .. cd. The Nelli ScllIIff·Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Klrow/edge, 12 vuls. Ncw Yurk, 1963. KAmi! ~JiJ.l Nakhlah. Silsilal TfJrlkh Bl4bliwlll 0/' Kurs/ al·/skalllJari. Dayr al·SuryAn, 1951. Ughlfool, R. H. Ti,e Gospd Message of SI. Mark. Oxford, 1950. lockyer, W. All Me" of lire Bible. Grand Rapids, Mich.• 1964. Rohin.<;On, J. M. The /'rohlelll.~ of History ill Mark.. Naperville, 111.• 1957. Smith. M. Tile Seerel Gospel lof Mark). New York. 1973.

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Swcte, H. B. Nell' TeS/lmumt Comltlf!tl/llry. London. 1902. Weeden, T. J. Mark·Traditions i" COI/f/iel. phillldel· phia. 1971. AZIZ S. ATIYA

MARK il, SAINT, fony·ninth patriarch of the St:C of Saini Mark (799-819) (fcast day. 22 Baramudah). He was an impolunt palriarch, a fascinat·

ing individoal, a master preacher, and an cminenl Coptic writer. Mark's life was closely associateJ wilh Ihal of his predecessor, JOIlN IV. As a deacon in Alexandria, he became John's disciple and helped his mentor In his church building prngr.Jm as well as in his days of need, when Ihe countl)' was strick· en by famine. Then he became a monk of Dayr Anba Maq!r in WAdI al·Na!nin. Mark must haY(: been acquainted with the HelJenL~lic world. since he camc from Alexandria. No doubt he knew Greek. Arabic, possibly SyrIac, and. of course, Coptic. ~Iis election 10 the patriarchate was unanimously approved by the clergy and the bishops assembled at AICJlandria, p.... nly On account of his prcdeccswr's dc'llhbed reference to him as a wonhy succcs' SOl'. Mark lied deep into Ihe desert because. in his humilily, he con1Oidered himself unwonhy of this dignity. Arter the governor'S appravttl was granted. however, Bi1Ohop Mlkhli'iJ of Mi~r (al.Fus!a!l reo turned 10 lake Mllrk to Alexandria by force; according to the IllSTORV or TlIP. rATRIARCIlS, in h'()n chains. Beginning with his Inaugul'lltioll homily after his enthronement at Alexanaria, Milrk demonstrated his preaching ability and his knowledge of Coptic onhodoxy in opposilion to the Council of CHALCEII()N, Conditions in al-Fus\a! and Ale~andria im· proved for the Christians, afi Milrk was ablc to ob· lOin permits 10 rebuild churches since he maintained a friendly l1!ltltlonship with the gover· nor. The situtltiull in the rest Egypt is repor1eJ to have been 1Oecure, and there is evidence that pcople could resume renewed church building activity elsewhere. Mllrk cul1ivated friendly connt.'Ctions with Syria hy writing a synodical epistle 10 I'alrifll"l,:h Cyriacus of Antioch, defining his Coptic Orthodo~ faith, and stressing the unily between their churches. Moroc importam, he succ($,~fully withfitood teaching.~ about the EuchariSt in Syria by the Abrahamitcs. a sect so called after theil' leader. He aJw convincea the leaderless UAkSANurlll... NS. or ACEl'11ALOt, to alliliale wilh the Coptic Onhodox Church, although they

or

1534

MARK III, SAINT

had been fierce adversaries of PEfER III MONGUS (480-488), who had accepted the HENOTIKON (482) of Emperor leno. The Barsanuphians had rt:fused 10 recognize any patriarchs after Peter TIl, but when their chief!" George and his son Abraham, wcrt: ordained bi~ops; by Mark, their f;,.ithful fol· lowers returned to the church as well. Mark overcame many difficulties and jealoLL~ies that surrounded him. He helped during a locust plague in the weslem Delta provino;e of al·Beheira and in Alexandria. lie was able 10 heal Ihe sick and cast away evil spirits, although he himself suffered ill health for twelve years. But despite his pmitive accomplishments, prob· lems persisted. After the dealh of Caliph Abu }a'far IHIli.in al·Rashid ibn al·Mahdl (786-809), Egypt be· came embroiled in local conflicts within his realm. Traffic was interlupted, especially to Nubia and Ethiopia. Plundering and la~ collecting again inten· sified. Andalusian walTio~ brought bouty to Alexandria rrom the Roman islands, which dragged the city inlO Ihe Will' movement of the eighth and ninlh centuries in the MediternmCllO, and the Christians participated in the fighl hetween the Lakhmids and Andalusians, many bt:coming victims. During this period, Mark is said to have bought and freed about six thousand Chri5tian captivC5 intended for the slave market. The Church of Ihe Redeemer, whio;h had ~n rebuilt by him, was o;onsumed by fire. Together with two companions, the dilme5SCd Mark left Alexandria and tried to cany on his duties in absentia. 'Abd al.'A7.iz, governor of the eastern provinces, allempled 10 help him by decree. And in Syria Ihe new Antiochene patl'iaro;h, Dionysiu5, defended himself against the heretical Secl of the Abrahamites, for which Mark expressed ple;lSurc in a letter to tris colleague. Mark also SllW the Bedouins plunder SCF.TIS. even taking some of the monks as prisoners. AI Nab.ui.ih, where he resided for five years aftcr leaving Alexandria, Murk died on 17 April 819. His coffin was placed in the village churrh until it could be moved 10 Alexandria. The litem!)' works of Ma.'k eon.~ist of Iwenty Easter epistles (fel';tal lellers) and twenty-one books of mystagogy. All were probably wl'iuen in Greek and accompanied by an authentic Coptio; vcrsion-.. least for the Easter epistles. Undoubtedly, he wrote his synodical leuer 10 Cyriacus of Antioch in Gl'cck. The homily that was pronounced by Mart at his inauguration exisu in Coptk. Not only is it a good example of Coptic meloric, but also it shoWi Mark's knowledge of the Bible and other theological litera·

ture. As fur as Chrislology is concemed, the preao;h. er shows Christ as a real man, suffering in the body. Againsl ARtllS. HFSTORJUS. lbas of Edcssa, TIlEOOORUS OF MOI'SllIlSTtA, Theodoret of CylThus. Necurius, ORJ. GEl\I. and the COUNCIL OF CHALCEOON. Mark argues the unily of the divine and human nature in Chrisl, without any confusion. L.. T. Lefort (1879-1959) discovered that thi5 homily is extant in Arabic under Ihe name of Epiphan ius of Salamis (c. 315-403). The Arabic texi follows a Greek version of uncertain origin. Anoth· er version exists in Old Slavonic. Bolh of these differ from the Coptic texIS, panicularly in Christo· logical passages; some parts arc missing, Rnd some sections of the Coptic texIS al'e abhreviated. Obviously some of his Greek texIS arc revised for Coptk uSlige. It is possible Ihat Mark made the Coptic revisions himself. Another possibility is Ihal the f"mous enthronemenl homily wa.~ omitted from Coptic tradition and added 10 the Greek by an un· known person. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Orlandi, T. Elt!-lfItml; di lj,11:,1Ia ~ ICIICratttra copra, p. III. Milan, 1970. Vis, H. de. "Homelie eathcdr",le de Man;:, patri· arche d'Alexandrie." I.e Mllsion 34 (1921):179216; 35 (1922):17-39. C. DImJ!f G. M01J..EJI.

MARK III, SAINT, seventy·third patriarch of the See of Saint Mark (1167-1189) (feast day: 6 Tubah). Mark's 5\.'CuI31' name before his hwestllufC in the palriarchate was Abu al-Faraj ibn Abl al·Sa'd ibn Zar'ah. He was a layman of Syrian orighl, related to the sixty-second pauian;:h, Abraham. He was a bachelor known to lill his neighbors, both Coptic and Muslim, for his chastity, his virtue, lind hi~ charity. It appears thlll his predccessor, JOliN v, refcrred to him in the presence of other~ as a lllonaQtic personality, considered by them as a first step towllrd his inveSliture. His selection by the congregation of Mi.!)r was unanimously approved by the bishops and the clergy in recognilion of his religious qualities and his knowledge of Coptic church traditions. He was a comemporary of the latter yearlii of Fatimid rule under Caliph al-'Ac:l:id (1160-1171) and he saw the inauguration of th~ Ayyubid dynasty. He was a witness to saJiJ,J sainI;! al·Di~'s (Saladin's) vic· tories over the crusader kingdom, which were crowned with the reconquest of Ihe city of Jerusa· lem (1187).

MARK III, SAINT

In lhe early yeaB of Saladin's rule, the COplS sulTcn.-x1 heavy c.alrllnilies, for Saladin decreed Ihal thei.· role in Ihe financial adminislmtion of Egypl should be ended by Ihei.· dis.nissal and their reo plOCelllent by Mu.~lhn5. On Ihe other hand, the (;s. labJishment of Ihe feudal system under Ihe Ayyubid dynasty and Ihe !lrpropliation of land estalcs by the leading aristocr.lCY olTered the Copts Ihe opportuni· Iy 10 serve in Ihis new field, where their CJlper1 knowledge was sorely neL-ded. [n other words. Ihe Copts lerl the governmenl ~itionli 10 conlrol Ihe growing feudal system eslablishL-d by the Ayyubid sultans. On the religious scene, the siluation or the CoplS was worsened by the is..~uance of new decrees by Saladin, which mandated the removal of all crosses from churches as wdl as painting the churehes block. Bell.li we~ also silenced, and the Copts were forbidden to eondl,u;:t Iheir religioYs processions in the streets llS they were accustomed 10 do, especially during the holy week, when they moved between churches carrying ol1\'e branches and candles. Sala· din rcinstated previous orders lhal required Cop!.s 10 wear distinguishing dnrk clothing, blue turbans, and girdles (zunl1drs). He forbade the Copts to ride horses or mules, thus restricting them to the use of donkeys. Wine was forbidden. and Ihis implied interference wllh their use of sacrament.nl wine on their altars, although it W3.'i stated thai this RoslriC' don was confined 10 Ihe open usc or alcohol. The decrees al!lo pr'evenled proyers from being said loud enouKh Ihill lhe public could heal' them. The Islamic sources or this age record the p.."lr1iculal'S of this fresh wave of persecution, especialty the works of thc Muslim hl~torian of the Copts, TaqTy ai-Din al·MAQRlzl. The repression was so in· tcnsc thM Copts feared that the Muslim authorities hal'bol'ed Ideas of exiling them from Egypl anJ lay· Ing hand~ on the dwcllings of all the peoplc of thc Covenant (AHL '\'L-DHIMMAH). Thl~ action did nOl COme to pass, becousc the authoritle~ feal'ed that !luch a men..'iure might lead to coll;lpsc of the econo· my of the eountl)', whicl1 wos controlled by the CopIS.

The immedhl,tc con~equcnce of such Il'ials and tribulations was the enhancement of the process of Islamiz.a.tion, and the patriarch looked upon these developments with alann, taking 50lace in prayer. Nevertheless, the skills uf the depressed Copts were direcle<1 lowal..:l Ihe vocations of commerce and agriculture, where they were able to build ur their wcallh and recover their economic prosperity. In addition, their lIelive penetralion Into the Ayyubid feudal system gradually helped !hem recov-

1535

er whnt might be considered the equivalcnt of theil' lost places in the stnte administrative S}'lltem. It Is unclear when the humiliating measures imposL' his old counl1)'men, despl1e his Islarni7,<'\tion. These IncluJeJ a nOled church In Lhe district of al-Basiitin in the region of Cairo, which WIlS incor'j)Ornted in Ihe diocesc or Ml~l' under thc direct possession of the patriarchal seal. AI·Shaykh Abl,l III·Bllrnkl'lt Ibn Abl Sa'id, a famous Coptic scribe, used his fOr1unc in the restorn1ion and beautification of the charel of Saint John thc &lptist wilhln the structure of the C3lhedral church of Abu Sayfayn (SainI Mcrcurius), which had suf· fered greatly in thc burning of Cairo under Ihe Fatimld minister Shllwtlr. ~Ie personally funded the reconstruClion of its timber domes and vaults on four marble columns.

1536

MARK IV

An a.,islic renaissance was aha .,,<,en in the konogr.Jphy in Ihr..'SC churches. The munr..'S of Coptic painters of sacl'ed icons of the redod include Abu

Sa"d ibn al·Zayy:11 and Abu. al-Fat~ ibn a1.Aqma!!, known as Ibn al.I:lawR. It is also nOlcwonhy Ihal Mark III abolished the long-established simoniac.al pmclicc known as CIlI!IItO'I'ONJA, by which former patriarch.'i had offered vacant episcopates 10 the IX:SI bidders. Thus, patn:lrchal remuneration was left open to the free girl.. generously offered by the bishops. In Mark's time. the Nestorian population became depleted, and lhe Coptic church was able 10 recover the Ncstorian monastery in Cairo, which became

pal1 of the ~iolU of the patriarchal diocese. The patriarch also acquired the Church of Saim George at Turah. which the Armenians had appro-

po,ned from CYRIL II during the viUcnltc of Baclr al·Jamall. Peritaps the most significant eventli on the internalional scene were those associated with the name of S:aladin and the recovery of Jerusalem from the hands of II lOitering Frankish kingdom. The reconquest of the Holy Land by the Ayyubid sultan was a major event in Coptic history because it allowed the resumption of the pilgrimages to the holy placCili, a privilege thl.'Y had lost under Latin rule. Issues regtlrding Ethiopia and Nubia also figure prominently during lhe palriarchille of Mark III. AI.Mltllrl:d makes a special mention of the succes· sive embas.\ies of the Abyssinian sovereigns to the caliphs and sultans of EgyPI, beginning with the fatimid caliph al·'I\c,lid, to whom the usual gifts accompanied the Abyssinian missions. This was in order to cement the good relations between the two countrics (md to requ\)st th\) illvestiture of a special Coptic al'chbishop to take care of the religious welfare of a country Ihal was directly under Coptic religious hegemony. The situation W(\S somewhat different when It carne to the soulhern Christian kingdom of Nuhia. CI:L\hes took place between the Jacobite kings of tlml len'llory ll1ld Ihe Ilcighboring frontier districts of the province of Aswan. It is said that Nubian soldiers took Ihe lnialive by raiding a number of villages in the A.\wan province. Consequently, SOIb· din commissioned his brother, Ttininshlih, to launch :l defensive campaign in thc south, which rCiliulted in the capture of Ihe region of Qaljr Ibrim and its fortifications within the frontiers of Nubia. TOn\nshah returned with cunsidel'3ble booly, in· dudill8 Illany prisoner'S and cattle, and gl'3nted the conquered territory as It feudal l..'Slate lu one of his follo~rs nl'lmcd Ibnihim al·Kun:li, who ruled it

from Aswan. The vanquishl..-d king of Nubia tried to CUltivlltc peace with Egypt by sending a substnntial gift to the sultan, but the situOltion betwl..'Cn lhe two countries remained one of uncertain and shaky peace. The enf~blcmcnl of the Nubian monarchy vls-ft·vili lhe sultanale of Egypl opened the door to the progres.\ive penelration of Islam into lhal Christilln country. By virtue of his Syrian origin, Mark was interested in strengthening lhe aln.-ady existing good rela· tions with lhe pal.riarchate of Anlioch. Synodical letlers were exchanged between the two patriar· chates. Missions lhat were previously interrupted by the crusader kingdom and Saladin's conquesl opened the road for communication between Antioch and Cairo, After a reign of almost twenty'twO years, Marl: III died in relative peace, a few years befon: the prl..~ carious reill:n of Saladin came to an end. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Atiya, A.S. CrIIsad~, Commerce alld ClJ{lIIre. Bloominglon, Ind., 1962. 1·lanOlaux, G., ed. Ifis/oire de fa /Ialioll egyptie,,,,e. 5 vols. Paris, 1926. Lane-Poole, S, His/ory 01 Egypt in the Middle Ages. London, 1901. ::--c The Mohamllladall D)'/lastiC'5, Paris, 1925. Runciman, S. lfislOry of {he Crusade!!, 3 vols, Cambridge, 1951-1954. SUliitl Y. LARIB

MARK IV. elghty.fourth patriarch of the Sec of Saini M:lrk (1349-1363). Mark's biography in the HtSTORY OF THE PATRIARCHS is confined 10 a few lines stating his dates and the genel'al remark that his days wer'e pe:lceful. He was a native of Qalyub in the Delt.. uf Lower tK,YPl. Litlle else is known about his eady secular life beyond the fact that he was the son of (\ priest of Ihe CHURCH 01' ALoMU'ALlAOAJI in Old Cairo and that his name W:L\ al·As'ad Faraj. When he became a monk of DAYR SHAHRAN. he changed his namc co G:lbl'iel, and he took thc name of Mark at hi~ consecration as patriareh. He acced· cd to the thron\) of saint Mark during the eady years of the second sultanate of al-N:isir I:lasan (1347 -135 I) and was a contemporary of ~Iih ~hi~ al·DIn (135 1-1354), al·N~ir 1;Jasan's third reign (1354-1361) lind al-Man~Or $alaI) III·Dln Mul)am· nlad (1361-1]63). Mark'. reign was lroubled by lhe calamities that bdell the whole country-Egypt ",,-as stricken by onc of the worsl plagues in ilS history. It is said thlll

MARK VII

at least one·quarter of the population died, and that certain cities sut;h :IS Bilb:IYS were o.:ompleldy va· cated. The plague and the depletion of the population resulted in an t:eonomic collapse. Many fcudatorie5 lost their lahor corps, and agricultural products became scarce. Within the town:>, indU5' uies also suffered on aceOUnl of the death of skilled craftsmen. Revenues of the Slate were depicted, and the church W:IS hardly able 10 pay the land tall. The Islamic administration had to prey upon individual fortunes, and what made mailers even worse \Val; the failure of the Nile Ooods-the arable lands were desiccated and diminish...-d productivity \Val; the result. TIIC Mamluk amin became restive and violently deposed one sultan after anuthcr. To make mallel"5 worse. the bedouin tribes from the desert descended into the valley. especially in the distant and undefendo::d partS of Upper Egypt. and caused funher havoc. In the midst of Ihis confusion, a Copt from the country camc to Cairo and took to the streets. crying moralistic dict:1 lind urginK pcople 10 rdonn their character. He was aITe5lcd by Ihe authoritiC5 and brought befon: the Lslamic justice. Here he declared that he warned the Copts who had aposta· tized to Islam. The judge tried to denect him from this policy and invited him 10 become a Muslim. which hc lIebmantly refused preferring martyrdom for Christ. Finally he was decapitateu anu his body was burned. The law-abiuing Copts, who did not make a noise about religion, did nOI suIreI' during those times. And the Is'ami~ed Cupts, who chose to :lbiue by the new religion, prospered lind occupied high positions in the administration. They included 'Alam ai-Din 'Alxlnlll\h ibn Znnbur al·Oib!I and Fakhr al· Din M.1jid ibn OalilnY:lh :l1·OiblT. The diSllslrous crusade or Peter I de Lusignan and his Cypriot hosts took place during Mark IV's patri· archntc. In that holocllust. the copnc community suffered as mueh as the Muslims in the pillage of the city. There were even Copts :lmuns the prisoners carded by the crusader'S fr'om the city. After living in this atmusphere fur fourteen years and three nloll1hs, Mark III died on 6 Amsll))' A.M. 1079/A,n, 1363.

1537

MARK V, nlnety.elghth patriarch of the S"''C of Silint M3rk (1602-1618). Murk's biography in the HtSTORY OF nlE PATRIARCHS is two lines long. The dates of his iuvcstilure and his deceilSe are mentioned, as is thc length of his tenure. He was the contemporary of three Ottoman suhans, AI.lmlld I (1603-1617), Mo"afa I (l617-1618), and 'Uthm.1n II (1618-1620). The History of Ihe Pll/riurchs stales that he was a native of Ihe village of Bay:'i~iyyah, and O. Melnardus places his monasticism al the Monastery of Saint Maearius (U"YII. "!'1M MAOAII), when~ he was elected patrian;h. He is said to have died peacefully in 1619, but no funher information is a\1lilable about his burinl. BIDLIOCRAPJlY

HallOtnux, G., cd. HiSloire de fa "alioll tgypliemrtl, 7 vols. Paris, 1931-1940. Meinardus, O. Chrislia'l El:Ypt: Allc~tl1 and Modern. Cairo, 1977. Pricis de I'Iristoire de I'Egyple p(lr divers hislOriePls IU archioJoguts. 4 vols. Cairo, 1933-1940.

SUDHI Y. !.ABm

MARK VI, 101 SI patriarch of the Sec of &tint Mark (1650-1660). Mark is u<.'5Cribeu as "a!·llahjUri," which indicates his origin from the city of Bahjurah. The HISTORY 01' nil! I'ATRIAKCllS relates his biography in a malleI' of three lines, which contain the dates or his invesliture llnu his decease. It mentions thllt he WllS a monk of IlAYR ANDA ANTflNIYOS. in the En..~l~rn Desert by the Red Sea. His tenure lasted t~n yean, and he was a contcmpOl"lIl)' of two Ottoman sultans, Ibnlhlm I (1640-1648) lind Mu· ~amm:ld IV (1648-1687). BIBLIOGRAPHY

HallotaU)(, G., ed. J./ISloire dt: /« na/iorl e.gyplicllIlI!, 7 vols. PaJ"is, 1931-1940. M~intlrdus, O. Chrls/lml Egypt: Ancient and Mudcm. Cairo, 1977. Pre.ds de I'hisloirl,J de /'Egyplc par divcr.f his/oricrr,.

el urdre.u!o/;rles, 4 vols. Cairo, 1933-1940. SUIHll Y. UrJII.l

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ibn ~Iajar 1I1.'Asqnlllnl. AI-Durar uf-Kamillo/r, 6 vols. Hyderabad, 1972-1976. Lane'Poole, S. History of Egypl in tlte Middle Ages. London, 1901. The MohulIIlIIUdulI D)'IIUSli~.f. Paris, 1925. SUUHI Y. !.AlIlU

MARK VII, l06th [).'ltriarch of the See of Saini Mark (1745-1769). His original name wa.~ Sam'an, anu he was u nutive of Ihe village of Qulu~nfi in the district or &tm!lut in UPllCr Egypt. As a youth, he retired to I>AYR ANsA sCrtA in Ihe Eastern Desert, where he took Ihc mona.\tic vow and therefrom

1538

MARK VIII

frequemed the neighboring IJAYR ANt'" ANl'ONIYOS for ye:1I11 until his prcdl.'Ccssor. JOHN XVII. died in 1745. At thP.llime the COptic community began rhe search for II worthy successor. In the end, it was

decided 10 recl'tJil the monk $am'An for the dignity, and l'l spt..'Cial delegation CKortcd him (0 Cairo, where he was consecrated patriarch. He occupied the patriarchale for twenty·four yeal"ll, three months. anl.! fourteen days until his dc-..th. The first few years of hi~ reign were relatiyely peaceful. Unsculcd limC!l were coming when the Mamluks regained power, owing 10 the de<:line of lhe OUolTllln Empire. Mamluk tyranny and intrigues broke OUI In the ranks o(the military forces, im'o]y· ing partiC!l of Mamluk amirs. in which KhalIl Bey, the powerful tim!... al-I./oil (prince of the Mecca pilgrimage). 'All (Bey) al-Dimy:l!1 the D~/t~,dQ' (governo,), 'Umar (Bey) GhaytA$, and MuJ:!ammad (Ik.')') Zadeh wc~ murdered. Othen; took flight, including Sanjaq 'Uma, and his brothcr, togcther with l:Iasan, an orderly of Ibr.lhlm, as well as 'Umar, govemor of Jilja (:.I·Jabartl, 1959, Vol. 2, p. 62). They ~achcd Upper Egypt in 1748 and stayed there for cight months. Apparently, these fugitive Mamluks were conciliated with the bedouins whose leader, a certain H;lmm!lm, supplied them with com, bUller, and honey in anticipation of bedouin passage to Hij.'il frum the port of Qu~yr 10 eseape the perils of the Mamluk intrigues at home. An interesting episode concerning the Copts look pillet during that period in Egypt. Since the lime of Ihe Crusades, the COplj; had heen forbidden from undertaking pilgrimages to the Holy Land by bolh the cl'uSllders and the local Muslim !'\.Ilen of Egypl. The pious Copts resented these restrictions and wanted to resume pilgrimages to lhe Holy Sepul· eher. In 1753 they seized an occasion to secure a Ia/IVD (juriJieal consultation) from Shaykh .\l-Azhar in return for a hribe of 1,000 gold dinan;, which legali1.ed the pilgl'inlagc find prevented inler[et'cnce from the Mllmluk lImirs or the Muslim population. Consequenlly, the overjoyed CoplS beglln immeJi· ate preparations for the pilgrimage on a grand scale. The I'endezvous of the congregating pilgrims was the dellCrt cast of Cairo, where daily they ar· rived in l!lNJups, c.myinl!l gifts for thc Holy Sepulcher. Ullers were COnS1l1Jcted for women and chilUI'cIl, tlOU an escort of bedouins was engaged as guide~ for the e~pedi1ion. However. news soon circulated among the Mus· Iims, who took offense to the Christian project. The slruykll al·Azhar 'Abdallah al-Shabruhi, who is.<;ued the 'utIl'D, became lhe subject of popular irc. To

mend his precariouti pusilion, it was insuffidcnt for him to deny the COpl.<; the right to make the pilgrimagc. Instead, he mustered a body of students in al-AUt.ar mosque, whom he inflamed against the pil, grimal!le. TUl!lclhcr with the angry mob, they descended upon the camp of the unsuspecting Chrislians with arms, sticks, and stones. Taken by surprise, Ihe COplS took flight, and their Cllmp was pill'lged with no hope of rcdl'CS
Jabartt, alo. 'Ajo'ib al·A/har, ed. ~Iasan Mul)ammad Jawhar, 'Abd al·FaUdJ:! a]-S:lr"'njtlwi, and al-Sayyid Ibr.i.him Salim. Cairo, 1959. Kaml! $!lih Nakhlah and Farid ICjmil. Khllla~ut Tllrlkh al·Umlllah 1l1.Qib!iyyah. Cairo, 1922. M.IZ S. ATtVA

MARK VIII, 108th patriarch of the See of Saint Murk (1796-1809). He WtlS able to sleer lhe uffait'S of the Copllc church nnd lhe Coptic community with gre.\1 wisdom tlnd milch diplomacy during the momentous eventS of the }'l'ench E~pedltion (1798) .lOd the French occupalion of Egypt, He W;tS still pope of lhe Coplic church when MUI.IAMMAD 'ALI (1805-1848) bectllne viceroy of Egypt. Mtlrk VlII made it a habit 10 issue regular encyclicals to be read in the Coptic churches, urging his pcople to maintain the tmditionol Christian doctrines and vir· tues tit 0 tiroe when Illany CoplS were slipping into viciuus customs. The building of the Cmhedral of Saini Mark al al·Azbakiyyah was 5!ancd toward the end of Mark's reign. The Slory of obtainina the decree authoriling thai building from the Sublime Porte is associated with Ihe name of the nOiable COP! IBRAHIM Al,.JAW·

MARK, LITURGY OF SAINT

flAl!.1. then the he..d uf the scrihe~ of the whule of Egypt. III his ollicial capacity, he was llble to orga· ni7.e the pilgrimage to Mecca of one of Ihe sultan's IlKlics and in the meantime olfen.-d to her valuable presents. In recognition of his service1l. ~he ash.-d him 10 submit a wish Ihal ~he would carry to Ihe sultan. Ibrahim at once requested a decree for building the church, which was immediately granted. The building, however, WolS carried out in the time of his brother, J1RJtS Al...JAWIiARI. who succeeded him in the diwQIl :mer his death. The cathedral was buill on land bdongina to Ceneral YA'oOO and MAUTI YUsUI', and I.hat area became the seat of the new p;r.triarchatc, BtBLIOGRAPUY Tawflq

burns.

NQw~bil:h al.Aqbilt wQ·Mashilhiru-

hrun If al·OQm QI-Tust 'A.fhar, 2 vols, Cairo,

1910-191). Ya'qab Nakhlah Ruf;aylah. Tdrlkh al-UmmQh alQi&!iYYllh. cairo, 1899. MOUNIR SHOUCRI

MARK, GOSPEL OF SAINT.

SU Gospel of

Saint Mark.

MARK, LITURGY OF SAINT, a Greek Iihlrgy once u5Cd in the Church of Ale~andria. A recension of its anaphoric parl is found in the EUCHOlOO10N of the Coptic church lIS the Anaphora of Saint CYRtL Egyptian peculiarities llre mOSI evident in its anllphoric parl, whose opening euch"rislic prayer', after a brief summ"ry of God's saving actions Ic;ading to lhe mystery of the Eucharist as mOlives for lhanks· giving, is internlptcd by lengthy intercessory prayers. The t>
1539

by deacon "nd people are indicated. The same fea· tures are found in the ;lIlaphor.l of the fourth· centu!)' euchologion lI11ribuled to Bishop SARAPION 01' TMUIS (except for the place of the inlercessions and, perhap$, the sf..'COnd cpic.1esiS) and in a sixthse\"enth·ecntury paPYT\lS fTOm DAYR A....UALAY1.All. There is no doubt that they are proper to Egypt. In Ihe surviving texIS of the anaphol'1:l. some phrases of Ihe Syrian Liturgy of Saint James appear. The nonanaphoric parts of the Uturgy of saint Mark also retain typically Egyptian elements. The pl1l.ycr to acCOmpany Ihe IncenS3tion preceding the readings is a prayer for the forgiveness of ~in. The prayer preceding the Lord's Prayer is one of preparation for communion, and a pctilion for the rising of the river waten is fOUnd among the intercCllSOry prayers, OUlside Ihe anaphora, however, in lhe sur· viving manuscripts a process of assimilation to the Byz.antine rite has been carried far, An Egyptiao prayer of ABSOU/TION has been convened into a prayer for a lesser entrance, the biblical readings have ~n reduced to two, there is a greater en· trance with the singing of the Chembicon, the creed follows the KtSS OF PEACE instead of preceding it in Egyplian fashion, diaconal litanies in the By.t:· antine manner have been introduced, and sevel'3l pl'3yers have been ho,'rowed from the Byz.anline rite. Fragments of Ihe .maphor" (one of them from the founh or fifth century) and the Coplil; recension cast lighl on Ihe evolutioll of the anaphone pan of the Liturgy of Sai", Mark, but little is known of the hislory of it.~ nonanaphorie part, lIS rulJ text, with the anaphora in its Melchlte setting, survives in a few late manuscripts, which du nOI agree in all details, The uldest of those containing the complete te~t are the thi11eenth·century Codex Rossanensis (now Vat. grace. 1970) and the Rotulus Vatic.mllS (VI.I. grace. 2281) of 1207. In tbe lalter, tile process of BY7.antinization is rurther advanced. Of the two uldest incomplete witnesses, one, Messilnl gmec. 177, of the twelfth century, has ille~1 similar to thllt of Vat. grllcc, 1970, while the other, an unpublished manuscript of the twelfth-thirteenth century in the Monastery uf SainI Clitherlne at Mount Sinai. provides a le~t similar to Ihal uf Vat. graec. 228l. Manuscript 173/36 of the Greek Orthodo~ patriarch,,!e of Ale~andrla, a copy of lin earlier copy made in 1585-1586, has a lexl shnl!al· to that of Val. grace. 2281 but with the a.",~imil"tion to Dyanline usage1l carried still fUrlher. Almost nothing is known of the history of the Grcek-Mclehite lilUrgy or the circunu;;tanecs of its use. The first c1car "lIu-

1540

MARK, SECRET GOSPEL OF

sion to its usc is also the las1. Around the year 1203 the Byzantine canonist Thcodorus Balsamon, in his responses to questions put by Mark, Melchile patriarch of Alexandria, declared that the use uf the Liturgy uf S'lint Mark (and of the SyriMl Liturgy of Saint James), "read in the regions of Alexandria and uf Jerusalem:' was eontttlly \0 the canonical traditions and uses l-ccognil.ed by thc Sec uf Constantinople. whose liturj!;h::s of Saint JOHN CHRYSOS· TOM and Saint Basil alone were to he used by churches in communion with that sec.

Studies Coquin, R.-G. "L'Anaphore alexandrine de saint Marc." /"e M".~eoll 82 (1969):307 - 356. Cumming, G. J. "Egyptian Elements in the Jemsalcm Liturgy." Jormwi of Theological S/udies n.s. 25 (1974):117-24, Engherding, H. "Neues Lieht llber dic Gcschichte des Textes del' agyptisehen Markusliturgk." Oriens ClrristiafllU 40 (1956):40-68. _-'--' "Das anaphurische FiJr'billgebet del' gl'iechisehen Markusliturgie." Orien/ulia Christiu,ru Periadieu 30 (1964):398-446. AELRED CODY, 0.S.8.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Greek tCxts of the Codex Rossanensis, the ROlulus V.ltie.lIlus, ;lIld, fur the partS following the Intercessory Prayers, the Rotulus Messllnensis (Messina graec. 177) are pl'inted synoptically, with parallcl excerpts (in Latin t1nnslation) from the Coptic anaphor'l:ls of Saint Cyr'il and Saint Basil and the Ethiopie common order, in C. A. Swainson, HIe Greek Liwrgics. pp, 2-73 (Londun, 1884). Swain.~on's text of the Codex Rossanensis, supplemented from other .~OUl'ces, is in F. E. Bl'ightman, ed., Lilur. I:ic,~ J::as/cm atld WC.~/I'm, Vol. I, pp. 113-43 (Oxfonl, 11196). The anaphol'ic part of Brightman's l-esultant text, edited by A. Raes, is given in A. Hlinggi and I. Pahl, cds., Pre); euc:lwri~'/it·u, pp. 101-l15 (Spicilcgium friburgense 12, Fribuurg, 1968). The Grcck n";\gments of the fourth-fifth-ccntury Stwsbourg gracc. 254 and the .~ixth-century John Rylands Papyrus 465 arc conveniently found on pp. 116-22 uf this work. A Sahidic fragment containing a mixturc of known and otherwise unknown elements has been published by H. Quecke in Orie'l/uIia Chrisriana Pen'odica 37 (1971):40-54, An Ethiopic ver'Sion of the anaphoric part of the Liturgy of Saint Mar'k has been published, with Latin transla· tion by A. T. M. Scmhamy Selam, in Eplremerides Iirurgicae 42 (1928):507 -531. Translations English by G. R. Merry in Li/urgies mit} O/Ir
MARK, SECRET GOSPEL OF. See Secret Gospel of Saint Mark.

MARK THE SIMPLE, SAINT (feast day: 10 HdtOr·). The story of Mark who simulated madness is among the perhaps Jcgendmy stories of DANtt!L 01' SCL'TIS (sixth century). There are versions in several languages of the Christian NellI' E:lst: in Greek, which seems to be the original (Clugnet, 1900; Clugnet, 1901); in Al-menian in the editions of thc Vi/tie Ptl/rum (sec the difTerent editions of this work in Peeters, Biblio/hcca Hagiographica Orienlali" .. Subsidiu Hagiographiu, Vol. 10, p. 15, and no. 608): and in Arabic (probahly made from a Syliac version [if the text was summ'lrized from Greek or Coptic, the name would be Marcos] in the Arabic recension of the SYNAXARtON from Upper Egypt, cd. Basset, 1907, pp. 271-73; Forget, Vols. 47-49, pp. 292-93 [text] and 78, pp. 112-14 [trans,]). The story of Mar'k is preserved in the stories placed under the name of the HEGUMENOS of Scetis, Daniel (485-570). The text of the Synaxarion from Upper Egypt begins. nOi like a customary commemoratiun "In this same day such and such a person died" (or "was martyred"), but like a quotation from a homiletic text: "Know, brethren, Ihat on this same day Saint Anbfi Markiya went 10 his rest" (such a transcription suggests a Syrian provenance). The Arabic text indicates that he was a native of Alexandria, which is not in the Greek. He is said tu have undergone the assaults of, or' been dominated hy, the demon of fornication for fiftccn years, then to have returned to himself and become a monk at the mOl1a~tery of the Pempton (near Alexandria, to the west), where he remained for' eight years, which the Arabic omits to say. At the end of the eight yelus. he decided to go into the \Own and tbere simulate madness, which he did. He gained some

MARQU~

lJIIall change, kept ten small pieces for his o..,m net-ods and gave the greater part of it to the other "madmen." He lived in the hippodromc, sleeping on ils bcnche~, 10 the point that he W;L\ described as "the idiot uf the hlprodl'ome." He passed eight ye;l11l in this way of lire. This theme of madness simulated for God Is well known both fTOm the example of Mark and from othen;; it has been stud· ied by Guillaumonl (1984, pp. 81-82), who oWes in it a supreme form of Ihe ('remitic life, and by Vogi (1987, pp. 95-108). At Ihe end of the eight years, which Mark judged as a penitence, Daniel or $cetil> came to Alexandl'ia, fur it was the eUl>tom that the ltegwl/fmos of Seetis should pay a visit to the ptltrian:h-this was surely, as H. G. Evelyn·Whit!,: think.\, TIMOTHY III (d. 535)for the great feast, beyond any doubt that of Easler. He met Mark, and divined thal he wWi a vcry holy monk, for Daniel WlIS elulowcd with a sure dis<:ern· menl. He made him tell him his lifc alld introduced him to the palriarch. He slept in the episcopal l"CSi· dence, near Danif'1. but the laller had to confirm in the morning thaI Mark had died in the night. He held a splendid funeral for Mark. lor which he sum' moned together monks come frOIll Sect is, from Ni· tria, from the KelJia and, the Greek adds, from all the "Iauras" in the ndghborhood of Alellandria.

1541

Roman Museum and regional inspector of anllquitics, who was responsible for the disco\'ClY of a marble city in the desert of Marcotis near Alellan· dria elltcnding over 40,000 squlIre mctCl1>. This WM dedicated to &tInt MENJIS TflE MIRACLE MAKEIl, II Coptic sainI and m:l.rtyr of the lhird eentury (scc ABO MINA). The l'uins or an ancient ehul'eh and monas· telY were also discovered in thlll area. The modem recluse by the name of Mimi, later consecr;ttt--d as Palriarch CYRtL Vt (1959-1971), the 116th pope of Alexandria, buill himself a cell there during his early monastic life. Around that cell arose the reconstruction of a cathedral church and a monastery hearing the name of the saint, The ~ociety organizes lectures and publishes lllonogr..tphs on subjects l-elated to Copts. IItlltlOGRAPIIY

Atiya, A. S., and Mounir Shoucri. Gellius 01 St. Po· c/'om;us (2&6-346). Alcllandria, 1987. MOUNIR SHOUCRt

MARQOS I. See Ethiopian Prelates.

MARQOS II.

S~e Ethiopian I'relllles.

mUt.lOGRAPHY

Clugncl, L, et a1. "Vie et rl':dls de I'abbe Daniel de Se{;te." ReVile de /'Oriel/l chritiell 5 (1900):49-73; 254-71; 370-91. Vie el ricits de I'(lhbt fJm,iel Ie Settjo/I!, BibliothCque hagiographique orientale 1. Paris, 1901.

E\'elyn·White, H. G. The MOllus/eries of tile Wudi'" Nutrijll. pt. 2: The Ilis/ory of /he Mm/(lSferies of Ni/rio otld See/is. New York. 1932, Guillaumont, A. "1.;1 Folic simulee, Ul1e forme d'an· achorese." Revue des lri,>toriellS d'url, des {lrcheo/. 0illleS, (Ies mllsicologlle,~ e/ des urienlillisle.• de /'Univusitc d'Etat de f.ii!l:e I (1984):81-82. Peeters. P. Biblio/h
MAR MINA CULTURAL ASSOCIATION. This is a Copli\: assoclatlon fnunded in Alexandria for the purpose of acquaintin~ Copts with lheir his· tury and cultuml heritage. [t wus inauyur:lted in 1945 by B:\nuh 1:labacht, lhe curator or lhe Greco-

MARQOS lIJ. See Ethiopian Prelates,

MARQOS IV. Su E.Lhiopian Prelatcs. MARQU~. four1ccnth-eentury Me1chitc bishop of

Damiella. A manuscl'ipt of 206 sheets (Silloi Ambie Z64) containing lin Arabic tnlllslarion of Ihe lypikfJ/l of Sninl Sabas made by Abu .,I·Fall;! Ous!anJIn ibn AbT al·Ma'Al! ibn AbI al·Fad,l \\las completed on 5 December A,D. 1355. This translator \\las the father of Bishop Marqu~, as \\Ie learn from a note written by the bishop and :ulded to folio I, which reads, '1'his /ypi"O~1 ....-as given as an alms by the lord [my) father, during his lifetime. to me, the poor Marqu" servant nf the sec of the pon of Daliliella, the protected property. Thi.~ was as a pl'rpctual bequcst, in my favor, as IOllg as I live, And aftcr my removal, it shnll be :, bequesl to the Monaslery of Mounl SilHli, the holy moulliain or Gud , . , . Wdllen on Wednesday 28lh Ishbil! [sic] of the )'ear 6866," The last number is wriuel! in Cup-

1542

MARQUS AL-ANTONI

tic cursive figur(:s. The dale corrCliponds 10 28 February 1358. Another nole wrilten in Ihe hand of the Bishop Marqu~ of Mounl Sinai anathemati~cs whosoever should remove Ihis manuscripl from the mona.5lery (fol. 11'). The handwriling is nlOI'e slipshod than the foregoing nOle, but it is from the end of the fourteenth century. This is probably the Marqulf men· tioned in anolher manuscl'ipl (Sinai Arabie 90, fo!. 318v) as being the bishop of the monaslery in 13981399, when Marqu~, bishop of D(lmiella, was already dead. :md hod bequeathed to Moum Sinai lhe manuscript of his father. KHALIl. SAMIR.

S.J,

MARQUS AL.ANTONt. Praclkally nothing is known of Marqus al.An!uni, save thllt he died on 28 Abib, worked loany mirdcles, and must have been a monk at the monastery of Saint Antony, a.~ his name indicates, However, he is not mentioned in the Al'llbic SYNAXARtON, The :u;eount of hi! life and miracles is found III only one unpublished, lillie-known manuscripl copied at Cairo by the priest ABO A... /otUNA on 14 July 1679, as eommis.~ioned by BOllUs, disciple of Ihe 103rd palriareh, JOliN" XVI (1676-1718). The manuscripl is in the Copric Palriarchale, Cairo Graf, no. 492, Simaykah, no. 627, fols. la-53b (life] and 53b90a [mirm;[,.:sj). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Graf, G. C(,Ilolo,;"c de ma,,,,scriU OfObeS chrbicns conservis lUI Coirc, p. 189 (no. 492). Vatican Chy, 1934.

KHAUI. SA/otIR.. S.l.

MARRIAGE, the relation between husband [lnd wife. [Marrioge is 0 Sllcwme'lI ill the Cup/it: chl/fcil. The wcdaitlg is <:elebraled ill II speciol chufch cere' many, ImJ a mll/filllde ul CUSUlms lradili()lwJJy surround Ihe occ(,lsioll. Th~ entry consisu 01 tlrree articles: The Sacrament of Marriage and The Marriage Ccremony by Bishop Gregorius, and Marriage Cusloms by Cires Wisso Wos..~cJ.]

The Sacramenl of Marriage Mal'l'iage is a spilitual bond belween a man and a woman, sanctified by Ihe grnce of Ihl' Holy Spiril,

joining Ihem imo an indissoluble unil for Ihe pur' pose of establishing a caring and harmonious Chris· tian rnmily. The.'lC distinclive charnctelistics were culled from Ihe Old Tcstamenl. the teachings of Chrisl, the COlli· mandmems of Ihe aposlle.~, and decrees of various ecumenical councils. God blessed Adam and Eve, and later, Noah, saying, "Be fruitful and multiply, and fill Ihe earth" (Gn. 1:28; 9:1). Likewise. Christ rebuked the Phariset:s who importuned Him for a facilc justification of divorce by reminding tht:m thlll "God made them at the beginning male and female, and for this cause a man shall leave fathel' lind IIlOlher, and shall cleave to his wife, alld Ihe twain shall be one flesh" (MI. 19:5-6). The presencc of Christ at Ihe marriage of Can.a was a very significam event. That the Lord accepted an invilalion 10 a wedding lind perlormt.:d His 61"51 miracle Ihere reflects rhe importance lie auachL-d 10 marriage as a s.acrol>anct institution in the Slruc· tUI'/! of society. On this basis rests thc sacramcntal apprO;lch or lhc Coptic chun:h 10 matrimony. Con· sequcntly, during the sacrament of Holy Matrimo· ny, the priesl says this plOlyer. "0 Thou Who wen presenl al Ihe marriage reasl al Cana of Galilee, and bleM it. and changed the water inlO real wine by Thy Divine power. do blCS$ the marriuge or Thy !ervants (names]." In lhe early centuries or Christianily, the falheno and theologians or the church strove to establish a permancnl solid base fOI' Ihe institution or mal" riage. CLEMENT 01' II.LF.UNDRtA laid special stress on the reeognilion of Ihe divine process by which man and woman arc unilied through marriage. His studenl and soccessor al Ihe Catechelieal Schua!. Ongen, in bill commentaries on Mattht..'W wrote, "Ccrtainly il ili God who joins 1W\l in one, 50 that when he manies a wom,to to a man IhC"l"c arc no longcr IWO. And since it is God who joins Ihem, there is in this joining a llraee for tho.~e who at'/! joined hy God. Paul knew this, and he said Iho.t just as holy celibacy wa.~ 0. gI1lCC, so also was marriage. ltccord· ing 10 the Word or God, a grace." The same allilude was expressed by Ambrose, fOul1h-cenlory bishop of Milan, in a leiter to Pope Sirieius: "Neither do we deny thai /lUIrriage ha.5 oc-cn sanclifi("d by Chrisl, since the Divine Word sa~: 'The two shall become one flesh.''' In the fifth century Saint CYRIL UP UF.XANDRtA remarked that "when the wedding was celebrated (lit Canal it is clear thai it was entirely decorous: for indt..-ed, the MOlher of the Saviour was there; and, invited along wilh His disciples, the Saviour

MARRIAG~

too was there, working miracles more than being entenained in fea.~tlng, and e:>pcciaJly that He might sanctify the very beginning of human generation. which c('nainly is a mailer concerning the flesh:' The tifth-century theologian Saint Augustine maintained that "having lx::cn invited. the Lord came to the marriage in order to affirm conjugal chastity and to show that marriage is a Sacrament." Similarly, Epiphanius, foulth.century bishup of Salamis, adduced that "lwO reasons can be advanccd to explain why the maniage was cclebr:.ued with external feslivities in Cana of Galilee. and why the waler was truly changed into wine: so that Ihe lide of bacchanalian fl'eneties in the world might be turned to chastity and dignily in Inarriage. and so thai the ~t mighl be din:.-clcd aright to the enjoymenl buth of wine free of loil and of the favor that p~med it; so that in every way it mighl stop the mouths of those arou.~ against the Lord, and SO that it might show that He ili God with the Falher lind Hili Holy Spirit:· In contraSl 10 that wave of h.acchanfllilln dissipa· tion and intempcl'llnCe to which Epiphanius refers, thcre arose a tendency thaI veered to the other exlremc in advocating str'ict celibacy and harsh selfrestraint. MANICHAEISM and CNO$TICI::>M frowned upon marriage, and many of their adhcrents f10utcd Christian tCliehings on this subject with derision and contempt. The church. however, continued to affiml the sanctity of marriage. In 345 the Council of Gangrn in Asia Minor adopted far·reaching res0lutions thai were di~led against his spirit of false asceticism that condemned marriage and OOycoued ordinary scrvict'S of the church. Among other mea· !iUrCli. the council deereed the excommunielltion of those who inveighed against lawful church mar· riage, those who refused to receive Holy Communion from the hand of a married priest, and those who remained celibate not because of a genuine rursuit uf a stale of celibacy but bec:luse of con· tempt lor' mar'rlnlle .md hatred of mal'licd persons. The council also condemned women who deserled their husbands as u result of a similar disdainful outlook on marriage and a fllise sense of decorum and affected propriety, Likewise. it decl"CCd that member.; of the clergy who turned away Iheir wivcs on the grounds of a more pious relationship could be expelled. Clement of Alexandria, in his Stroma/cis (Miscellanies) wrote, "If, however, marriage, though cOlllmanded by the Law. were yet sinful-really, I do not see how anyone could say that sin has been commandt.-d by God, If the UlW is sacred. then Illarriage is a holy estale,"

Marriage Ceremony

1543

In light of Ihese religious ~nctions, the marriage ceremony, in harmony with other liaCnfficnts, must be conducted in the church. (II is troe that in certain cases it can be held in II private house. but this is the exception to thc rule. similar 10 baplizing an invalid at home or administering the HOLY UNCTION of the sick 10 a dying person in a hospital or ut home.) 111e officiflling priest must he in full ecclesi· aSlieal vestments, not omllting to lake off his shoes. According to ~afl ibn ul·'Ass3.l, "a wedding nlay be conducted only in the presence of a priest who shall pray fur the bridal couple and administer Holy Communion to them in lhe iklil ceremony, by which they arc united and become Olle f1e:>h. a.s God Almighty has ordained. Contrary to this it shall nOI be deemed a proper marriage. for it is through Church prayer alone that man and woman can be· come mUlually Icgilimate." This sanctity of marriage makes il an indissoluble bond that may be broken only on the grounds of adultery (Mt. 5:23, 19:9; Mk, 10: 11-12; In, 16: 18) or death (I Cor, 7:39; Rom,7:2-3). The church also concedes that certain circumslances may be con· sidcred tantamount to death. as when a husband ur wife renounces the Christian faith or is absenl 1'01' a designated numbel' of year'S, in which ellses the p..'\rtnel' may be allowed to divorce and remarry. MlIrriage is thus a lifelong relationship between man and woman, the purpose of which is the enjoyIIlent of mutual company on Ihe basi.$ of equal p3nnership, the procreation of childl-en, and the aVQirl.ancc of sin. The annals or the Coptic church, however, are not devoid of instances in which a couple entered voluntarily into a chaste relation· ship of spiritual communion. although tht.'Y were married. According to the SYNAXARION, Saim OI'.J,II!TRJUS I. third-centulY patriarch or Alexandria. had heen married to his wife for f0l1y·seven years lx::fure he was chosen patl'ial'ch, bUl buth had Jived in strict chastily, AnM Ammoniu~, in the fourth century. lived with his wife for seventeen years in complele chastity until her death, when he becllllle a munk, Other examples are AnM eyros of Jawjar in the eighth cenlury and Saint JOHN KAMA, in the ninth century.

The Marriage Ceremony The marriage ceremony. Interspersed with making the sign of the cross, unfolds stage by Mage, To solemnir.c the contract of marriage. the pricst, hold· ing a CI"OS-~ in his right hand in the presence of the

1544

MARRIAGE: The Marriage Ceremony

bridal couple, their rellllives, :md Ihe church l.:QIl· gregation, bt:gins by sayin~, "In the Name of our Lord, our God and OUI' Saviour Jesus Christ Who has in.~titUlcd Ihe law of vinuousn~~ and rectitudl', we ratify lhe bl'trothal of the blCSSf.-d Onhoc!olt vir· gin son [name of bridegroom] to hls betrothed the blessed Orthodolt virgin daughter [name of bride]," Here he makes the sign of the cross and says, "[n The Naml.: or the Father. the Son and Ihe Holy Spirit, One God. Bkssed he God Ihe Father Almighty, Amen," Thereupon, the deacons chant "Amen" thn.-e limell, and the congregation recites lhe Lord's Praye-r. Once again the priest says, "In the Name of our Lord, our God and O\lr Savior JC:5US Christ ... ," this lime mentioning the name of the bride before thm of the bl'idegl'Oom, tlnd mukes the sign of the cross and adds, "Blessed be His Only-begotten Son, Jesull Christ, our Lord, Amen." The deacons ugain chant "Amen" lhree lillle.~, and Ihe congregation again recites the Lord's Prayer. The priC$t then reo peat5 tbe snml' formula as he said il Ihe Ii..,;t time, mnking the sign of the cross, and adds, "Blessed be the Holy Spirit, tbe P:u'acJete, Amen," and the deacons chant "Amen" three times, Then the pdest says, "Glory and honour, honour and glory to The All-holy n'inity, F:ttber, Son and Holy Spirit, now and al all times, world wiThout l'nd, Amen." Aftcr the pr:t.)·er of lhanksgiving and the pruyer of incen~, the epistle is read, followed by the TRISAGJON und the pnlye,' of the Gospel. The rcading or the Gospel is taken from Mallhew 19:5-6: "For Ihis rcason u Illan shall leave father and moTher and be joined 10 his wife, and tbe twO shall become one.... What therdore God hoIs joined togl'tber, let 00 man put 35under," Certain prayen; and inter· cessions follow, then the creed, the prayers of betroth.,l, and the prayer of ab!iolution, The priest places rings on the ring finger of the left hand of The bridegroom :md the hride and tics a girdle (Ara· bic, trlll/rllr) (Iround Ihe m:Ul'S shoulder. Next comes tbc l'Cading of Ephesians 5:22-6:30, wherein Paul speaks of the married life of devout Christians a.~ the relationship betw«n Christ and the church; tbe key \'erscs are, "For the husband is the be..d of the wife lIS Cbrist is lhe head of the church," and "Hushands, lovc your wives, as CIll'ist loved Ihe church and guve himselr up for her'." Thel'c fnllow some petitions and supplications in which reference is frequently made to the creation of woman fro... the rib of Adam and TO the divine will of Chrisl to be bom of a woman, the Ble~d Virxin Mary. Directing his pnlyers 10 Christ, "who

was present at the murriage feaSI of Cana of Galilee, and cht,nged the water to wine," the pdest requesls the Lm·d to bless t.he m::l.rriage of tbe blidal couple to assist them in lheir fulure life Ihat they may live in peace, piety, and patience wiThout ofTense. Then the priest takes in his hand two marriasc diadems. A marriage diadem is a coronel of gold or silver called in Antbic faj or ikf1l, bOlh meaning "crown." (The term ik/U also refers to the whole marriage eo;:remony.) The diadem has a c,'oss In The center Slu'fOunded by the words "Clo,)' to God in the highcst and on eanh peace," Holding Ihe dia· dems, the priest prays, "God, , , Who dost crown Thy saints with un£:ading erowM, ... do Thou also now bless these crowns we have prcp"red to set upon Thy servants. May they be to them a CfOwn of glory and honour, of blessing and salvation, of re, joicing and good plea~u,·e. of vil'lue and righteou~ ness, of wisdom and understanding. of eomfon and strength." Then he places the diadems, attac.hed by a ribbon, upon thl' heads of the bridl.-groom and the bride and says, "Set, Lord, UPOll Thy servanl~ [names} a erown of invincible grace, of e,,;altcd and great glory, of good and unconquemble faith, Amen." At thaI point he pUiS II white silk cloth on thcir bead,,;, saying, "Crown them with glory and honoOl',O Father, Amen. Bkss them, 0 Only·begot· ten Son, Amen. Sanclil'y tbem, 0 Holy Spirit, Amen." Then he wraps the diadems and the rings in the cloth, Afterward come the Lord's Prayer and prayers of absolution, The service concludes with an i\ddres~ by the priest 111111 encapsuillte.~ certain commandments and piec(.'S of advice. This address is made up of seven sections, the first six of which are each fol· lowed by a shan hymn sung by lhe deacons, while the seventh and last section is followed by the Lord's Prayer, First, he reminds the couple of the wisdom of God's ere:.tion of Eve from Adam's rib. so Ihat he may constantly care for her and she may be obedient to him. To the hl'idegroom the priest 5lIYS, "It is fitting that you should 1l0W reecive y(lur wife with a pure heart, upright mind, and guUcle" intent." The bl'ide is urged to be a]o,•.'3.YS prompted by a genuine sense of obediencc, duty, lovl', and respect, so tlmt, like Sarah, who was r=pcetful and dutiful toward Abraham, hel' hUllband, she may be blessed with ofTsprill11 "us plentiful as the stars in the sky and the sand on Ihe sea~horc:' The scI"Vice for :1 second marriage, called digamy (for the widowed and The divorced), is nearly the same, with certain relevant minur modifications, If bolh parties have been widowed, the crowns are

MARRIAGE: Marriage Customs

not used, since no olle may be crowned lwicc. Where one has nol been married before, he 01' she will r"e(:civc Ihe diadem. The church allows second marriages, in conformity with Paul's words, "I say therefore to the unmarried and widows, 'II is good for them if they abide even as I. But if lhey cannOi contain, lei them marry; for it is betler 10 marry than to bum.''' This section is rcad during the SClVice and is incorporated into the priest's prayers. In A.I,Mu;""i' ul-$ufulI'i SaR Ibn al·'Assa,1 described the second marriage as inferior to thc lirsl; thus th(' church accords it not Ihe blessina of a crownina but a prayer of rorgivent.'S5, In hill "Catechetical Le<:tures" SainI Cyril of Jentsalem said, "And thoM' who are once married-let them nol hold in cOlllempl lhose who have accom· modated themselves 10 a second marriage. Continence ill a good and WQnderful thing; but slill, it is p('rmis.siblc to enter upon a second marriage." The chun:h, however, dis<;ounlenanccs a third marriage. This wa.s best e:Kp~o;ed by Saint Jerome in his leuer 10 Pammacllius: "( do not condemn digamist.~, not even lrigamists, and if I may use such II wuro, nOI even octogamislS.... It is one thing nOt to condemn, anOlher 10 commend; one Ihing to grant forgiveness, another 10 praise as virluouS" (Jerome, 1979, p. 184) Further sub5equent marriage'! are unequivoc
1545

l:Iablb Jiljis. A.l'r<'lr o.l·KIlIlisuil al·sub'ail (The Seven SacmmenlS of the Church). Cairo, 1934. ~Ianli-niyli KassAb. Mujm(l'ut ul-Shur' ul·Klwusf, uw Qawarllll ul·Klllllsuh u/·Musfl.lij'j'uh ul·Jilll/rull (Laws of Ihe Chrislian Uni\'Crsal Church), Beirul, 1975. Jurgens, William A., ed. The Failh of the Early Fa· tJJI.'r$. 3 vols. CollegevJlle, Minn., 1970-1979. San ibn al-'Assal, al-. A/·Ma;mil ul,~uful\'i (The r;;afawl Compendium). Cairo. 1908. Yli~ann;l Salli-mah. Kitdb al·La'ulr ul·Nufisa/z fi Shur~1 '[l4qlis wa.Mu'faqadut al-Ka'llsah. Q:airo, 1903. BISHOP GRWORJOS

Marriage Customs The Coplic wedding ceremony. called "the COl"O" nation ceremony," takes place generally on Thursday, Salurcby, or Sunday. Some lraditiOT15 related to this liacrament have gradually disappeared among urban dwellers. but they still persist in the countryside. One such cUStOm is the "Nighl of lhe Henna:' which takes place on the eve of Ihe wed· ding day. II Is conseCJ1lled 10 the bride, her kins· women, and her women friends. A lrained woman (nrush!uh) prep:lrcs the bride, bathes her, and applies henna 10 Ihe P:lltUS of her hands and soles of her feel lind those of the attending ~ueSls. The bridegroom is represented at the cvc"' b)' hill kins· women, who arrive looded with flowers and bearing a candle a.~ lall as Ihc bride, which is supposed 10 bur'n all night long in her bedroom. The day ends wilh a festive dinner for women only. The bl'idegroom ,llso ~pcnds his day in cdebra· tion with hill beSl man (shib/II) and male friends. The bride's f:nllily presenls him with apparel of silk and cotton and with jewelr)', according 10 the means and sochll slandnnls of lhe family. Anolher popular lI'lldillon lhal has almost disap· pCllred is Ihe procession of the bride on her wed· ding day. Bvel)'one pal1ldes on fOOl Ihrough Ihe streelS with musicians leading. For Ihe more afiluent, Ihe bride and her female allentlanls formerly rode io a decoraled palanqUin on Ihe hack of a camel. The camels have /lOW Ix:en replaced by carriages and automobiles. If lhe wedding is in tl hOlel, the parade lakes place afler the ceremony in Ihe hOlel and before the la\'ish lxlnquet dinner. The bride and bridegroom are paraded lhrough Ihe hOlel, pre<:cdcd by musicians and dancers and followed by Ihe guests.

1546

MARRIAGE OF CANA, FEAST OF THE

According to a CUSlom r.1rcly observed ill IWeSCnl, upon Ihe arrh-al of everyone at the home of the bridegroom, a lamb or calf ....~dS slilughiered, and iL~ blood sprinkled over the threshold, across which the bride had to step. The RClih of the sacrificial animal was distributed among the poor, The wedding night itself, or "Night of the Bride· groom," begins wilh a religious ceremony, which is now held in a church but umil only a few deC3des ago took plnce in the home of Ihe bridegroom. If the home W"dS too small, a larse tent was sel UI~ made of many colorful pieces of fabric appliqued in intricate geometric designs. It was adorned wilh flaWl and strings of multicolored lamps, and floof!l were covered wilh red carpet5. Inside, two gilded armchairs were set on a plalform and resetved for the couple. These gilded chairs are still used in the ehun.:h ceremony. To begin the festivities, the best man goes to the bride's home with bouquets of flowers for the bride Ilnd her allenwnts. The fitther 01' the dosest male rclillive will take Ihe bride to her futul'C husband. Uowever, as she is about to step over Ihe threshold to leave her home. custom demands Ihilt the house· hold scrvanL~ close the 1.1001' IUld pretend to detain her, They consenl to reopen Ihe door only i1fter receiving bids in rcmunellltion for allowing the bride to leave. This Inlier custom is very mrely seen al present. For the ceremony itself, Ihe bridegroom, wcaring a long Cllpe embroidered in white, waits in the chancel for hi:> bride. who approache5 on the ann of her falher or a relntive. She is preceded by the choir and clergy dresso.:d in festive habits and sing· ing 10 the llcc,;,mp<:lniment of cymbals and triangles. She lakes her place nt the right in one of the chairs on the platfot·m. In front of the couple is a table holding the New Testament, II golden cros.~, the wedding rinllS, !lnd incense, The marriage service begins. At Ihe end, after everyone has recited the Lord's Prnyer, the priest, preceded by the choir of deacon:> singing, leads the newlyweds to the e~it. After the ceremony. evel)' guest Is presented with 11 smilll bo~ (or mher conl.ainer) of sugar-coated nlmond~. These bo~cs, according to Ihe means of the family. lIlay be made of sterling silver, poree· lain, cardboard. or olher malerial. A lavish dinner is served, u!>-ually in the home of the bridegroom or under a lent especially ereeleu for Ihe occasion. For some d\..'Caues it has been the custom among Ihe bourgeoisle to host a reception in a large hOlel. The amount of pomp and splendor depends on the

linancinl situation of the couple, but C\'en the poor' est eXlend Ihemselves for Ihe occasion. In f(."Cenl years the festivities have Ilenerally ended with the religious ceremony in the church, and uinnel" has been srrved only to the dose family and friends of the newlyweds. In the countryside, rclntiVt:$ and close friends help defray the wedding expenses by sending gifts such as sheep, poultry, sugar, rice, coffee, candles, and the like, on the understanding Ihat they receive similar consideration when Iheir turn comes. On the following Illoming, friends and relmivcs can at the bridegroom's hou5/: to prcscnl their girls to the newlyweds. Gifts used to consist mainly of eush, which was carefully recorded for reciproca· tion on later oceusions. This cuStom still exists, (l!though presents of all kinds IIrc also offered. 8tHUOCRAPlIV Lane. W. a A'I ACCDU"/ of Ihe Manuel'S cmd CIIS, toms of/he Modern Egyplial/s. London. 1890. u..'Cder, S. H. Modern SOII.~ of/Ire Pharaohs. London and New York, 1919; repro New York. 1973. CP..llfiS W1SSJ, WASSEF

MARRIAGE OF CANA, FEAST OF THE. Set Feasts, Minor.

MARRIAGE CEREMONY. See Marriage. MARRIAGE DIADEM. See M:lflillge. MARRIAGE IN LAW. Sell Pet'sonal Status Law. MARRIAGE SACRAMENT. See Marriage.

MAR$AF.4., a lown in the Della province of Oa!· yObiyyah. AI·MAQRIZI \VfOIC Ihal in the Illte four· teenth or early fifteenth century Ihere wa.~ n reo stored church (If Saint George in Ma~i, BIBLIOGRAPHV Timm, S. Das chrUllic1z.kop/ische A/Cp/ell in ara· b/selzer leil, pt. 4, p. 159]. Wic5baden, 1988. RANDAt.L STEWART

MARTYR, FEAST OF THE

MARSANES, Il GnOSlic prophct of the .second century who was !lOlid to have visited heaven while in ee5tacy. His name is also Ihe tllie of a long but \'ery fragmentary Gnostic won: thou forllls Codex X of the NAC HAMM~Ol l.lI)lI.Alty. The tille ili partly preUIVOO at the end of the text. Neilher the precise length of the leXI nor the numernlion of the pages can be determined with precision (only fotios 1-5 [::: pp. 1-10] are numbered in Ihe Codex; in mod· em editions and commenlaries editors place an as· terisk by all other puge numbel"5). Eve'l the numlx:r of IrnclalL'5 in Codex X has been disputed. The best case however, c;an be made for a single Imctate in the Codex. eXlending frOiIl I. I to 6S·. IS. The title suggests that the supposed author of the document is the Gnostic prophet Marsanes, a figuf(" acclaimed in the untitled Imctate from the Bruce Codex on MaI5llnc:s and Nlcolheos (chapter 7) and in Epiphanius PUlluricm 40. 7. 6, nn Martiades and Manianos as experiencing an ecstatic trip to the heavens and receiving glory from the heavellly powen>. Such a description or MIH'Sancs lits the present tract..le also, since here th(.' author, in Ihe lin;t person, lays claim to visional)' revelations and writes a "revelation," ur apucalypse, which may "esemble not only the apocalypse of Nicotheos alluded to In the Druce COOC;( but also Ihe apocalypses of Zoroaster, ZO_~lri· anos, Nicotheos, Allogenes, MeSS05, and othl,'rs mentioned in POl'JlhYl'Y's Lile 01 Plotitllu 16. Mar$lJnes opeClli predictably with a lacuna bUi proceeds to relate an exhortation, probably deliv· ered by Marsanes tn his Gnostic comrades, on knowledge and "the great Father." It also seems 10 be Marsanl-"li who describes the thirteen seals, or levels of exlSlence, from the lirst and lowest "worldly" levels to the last and highest level of Ihe supreme God, "the Sitent One who has not been known." The author claims that he-Marsaneshas lrue knowledl;e. Through his ascent beyond lhe limits of lhls world, he has auained to knowledge of "the entire place" and has reached the condusion (so striking in a Gnostic context) Ih:lt "in every way the li('nse,perceptible cosmos lli [wol1l1yJ of being completely saved:' The topic of sah'ation leads Marsanes to introduce the descent, work, and ascent of the savior AUlOgenL"li. the "SeM·begollen One," who "descended from the Unbl,:gouen One" and "saved a multitude." While raising several basic Questions about the nature of existence ~nd probing their implications, Marsanes himself rises 10 an awareness of "Ihe supremacy of the silence of the SileO! One" and offers praise. Further revelatory disclosures follow, and il is shown that as "the

1547

Invisible Spirit" a.'\.Cends back up to hcaven, so also the Gnostics achieve bliss by ascending with him to glory. After severol very fmgmental'Y pages, the tr,jelate preserves portions or a fascinating section on the tulture and runction of leiters, sounds, and num· benl, which are linked to the powen and capacities of angels, deities, and snuls. Occasionally exhorta· tions 10 piety Inter,'Upl lhe train of thought, os al 27'. 21-23, where a pronouncement :\gainsl liin finds it.~ place within the diseussion of vowels, con· sonants, and Ihe shapes of the soul. Reflecling con· temporary astrological, magical, and grammatical themes, this long section seeks to instruct the reader in Ihe proper WIly of calling upon or conjurin!!: the angels, so that the soul might eventually reach the divine. In the words of MarSi.mes, such a knowl· edge of the alphabel will help Gnostics 10 "be .separated from the angels" and to "seek and lind [who] they [themli('lves] arc." MarSUlI(~S is a Gnmtic tractate wilh no clearly Chrislian elemenls. It illustrates obvious Plotonist t''aiIS, and may be seen as r'epresenlative of Sethian gnosticism. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books of Jetl alld Iht Ull/il/ed TeXf i/1 fhe nn.,·t Codex, Tire, cd. C. Schmidt, trans. V. MaclkmlOt.

Nag Hanllnadl Studies 13. Leiden, 1981. Facsimile Editioll of tire Nag lIammadi Cvdius: Codiu$ IX Q/1d X. Leiden, 1977. Pearson, B. A. "Mal"$llnes (X,I)." In The Nag lIam· madi Library in English, PI". 417-26. Lc:lden and San Francisco, 1977. "The T.....ctatc Marsanes (NHC X) and lhe Platonic Tmdition:' In Gliosis: Festschrift Illr IIQIII; Ifmus, cd. 8. Aland, PI". 373-84. Gtlllingen, 1978. _:::-_. "X.I: Marsanes:' In Nag HQl1Imadi CQdi"Il~' IX mrd X. cd. B. A. Peanlon. Nag Halllllladi Stud· ies 15, Pl". 229-347, Lciden, 1980. MARVIN W. MEYER

MARTYR, FEAST OF THE, one of Ihe most popular feasts in Coptic and medieval Egypl, Clip<:dally for its asSOdalion with the Nile flood, apparently inherited from remOle antiquily, when the Egyptians devoted a period of fifteen days 10 lavish festh'ilics in honor of the river. The Copt.~ celebral· ed il just beron: the OCCUlTence of the annual flood or the Nile on 8 Bashnns (16 May). The rea.~1 was one of the great national occasions on whic;h bOlh

1548

MARTYRDOM

COpL~

and Muslims held festivities 011 the bank uf the Nile, drinking, d.mcing, and ldnging, The foul" leenth.century Al1lb historkm al'MAOltlZI gave a live· ly account of lhe fea!lt in his own day at Shl1bra al·Khaymah. a suburb of Cairn bordering the Nile. The Copts began Ihe occasion wilh a procession, bringins with them a reliquary containing the fin· gel' bones of one of Iheir martyrs for the blcssina of Ihe river. The legend runs lhal Ihe nood would begin to rise al Ihat moment. AI.Maql·T7.1 told of the Immense qU'llltities of wine consumed during that day !lnd mentioned the e~· ample of one merchllllt who ,wid wine to the enormou.~ amounl of 100.000 sih'er dirhems or Ihe equivalelll of 5.000 gold dinars. Debauchery result· ed, and the governor of Cairo suspended ilS edebnuion from 1303, though it was reinstituted by urder of Ihe Bahrile Mamluk sultan al.Na.~ir f:las.'ln in the year 1354. It is said Ihal later, ..1·Mfllik al· ~li~ ${lIA~ al·Din I~l\.iil (1381-1382) seized the reliqwu)', burned it, and CLlSt Ihe cinders in the Nile. From that time, the practice stopped, though the commemor..lion of Ihe llQO(] persisted in a differcnt fashion. An evcnt known as Jabr al·lOra/lj (Ihe Opening of the Canal) became the substitute for the older cu.~· tom by building a dike across the Nile below the Nilomeler !It ROOah bland. As soon as lhe "ood reached its annuttl maximum height, Ihe dike W;IS broken in the presence of the chief judge, or' muftl, who would testify that the 1I00d had reached its legal limil for purposes of taxation, LInd an official celebration subsequently took placc by sailing a gai· Iy decol1ued ship on the o\Oer surrounded by !I multiLude of olher, smaller boats all gaily painted and lighted. In QUoman times, Ihe celebration wa.~ accompanied by fireworks and the firing of canons. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bonneau, D. La Cru~ d/I Nil, divillill!. l!.,;ypliemlC, II travers mille aus d'hi)'/oire. Paris, 1964. ceres Wissa Wasse£. Praliqlles rill/elles el afimel/· /aires des copies, pp. 216-17. Cairn, 1971. Lane, E W. Mam/ers atld Cllsloms ol/he Mootrn ElO'plilltl.f, 2 VQls. London, 1842. AZIZ $. ATIVA

MARTYRDOM, thc voluntary submissiOI1 to death for the sake of one's faith. The term "martyr" originally signified one who posst-'SSCd firsthand knowledge of a mailer to which one witnessed in public. In this sen!.C, it was first used to describe

Ihe apostles who bore witness for Chrisl and the Resul'rection (Acts 1:8, 22). Later Lhe term ctlme Lo mean one who prnfessed (I ccr1ain belid, II confessor. II has now come to stand for ont: who suffers lonure and dealh in lestimony to the tmlh of the gospel of Jesus Christ ralher lhan recanl and live. The early Christians, in their boundless lovc for Christ, on lhe one hand. and Ihcir indifference to pain. on the olher, made light of physical suffering and did nOI shrink from manyrdom. TIlis unflinching attitude is beSL summarized by Tel1ullian: "Cru· cify us, torlure us, condemn us, destroy usl Your wickedne.<;.~ is the proof of our innocence. , .. The more we are hewn down by you, the more numer· ous do we become. The blood of lUanyrs is Ihe seed of Christians" (Apology 50.12). With the rapid spread of Christianity in the YllJ'i. ous provine~ of the Roman empire, Christinn Y.lJ. ues were interpreted as a serious threat to the tradi· tions of a pagan society and to the emperol~s authoriLy. Moreover, those who embrJccd the new religion and rcfus~d Lo sncrific~ to the Romllll gods or emperors were mllde scapegoats for any major disaslel"!l lhal occurred. By lhe time the ..ge of perseculion came to an end wilh the issuance of the EdK:t of Milan in 313 by Constantine the Creat and Ucinius, the Chrislians had suffered len particularly savage outbursts of massacring under the emperors Nero (54-68), Domitian (81-96), Trajan (98-117). Marcus Aureliu5 (161-180), Septimius Seven/s (193-211), Ma~ll11lnu5 (235-238), Decius (249251), Valerian (253-259), Aurelian (210-275), and Dioclelian (284-305). The price Ihal the church in Egypt paid during Ihis dark episode in the history or humanity was vcry hcavy indeed. It has been estimated, though without strict historical sub5tanliation, that the toll reached a million souls. men and womell of all walks or life. It is in the SVNAXARION Ihat the Coptic church zealously preserves the memory of its ~ons !lnd daughters who gladly laid duwn Iheir lives for their mOlher church (see MARTYRS. COPTIC). Their stories are commemorated through Ihe daily readings lhal give details of their fortitude and their unshakable adherence to their beliefs. These readings OCCur al a significant point of the celebration of the Divine Litur'gy, immediately before the Gospel lections, $0 that the congr'Cgatlon may benefit from Lhe rnanyrs' witness, which is held up for hnilaLion. Eusebius, the fourth-centul)' church historian, kepi a record of these pers~Ulions. The following cycwitness accounl gives an idea of not only the intense pain inflicted upon the victims but also the

MARTYROLOGY

jubilant spirit in which they ei\med their crown of mart)'r'dom: And we OUI'Selve~ also beheld, when we were at Ihese places, many all al once in a single day, sollie of whom suffered decapilalion, others the punishmenl of fire; so that Ihc murderous a.'c was dull...~ and, worn oul, was broken in pieces, while the eXCCUlioncl"$ thcm.sclvcs grew ultedy weary and took it in turns to succeed one aoolh· er. II was Ihen Illlll we obselved a most manlel· lous eagerness and a lroly divine power and zeal in Ihose who had placed their faith in the Christ of God. Thus, a.'l soon a... senteoce was given againsl the Iirst, some from one quarter aod others fmlll another would leap up to the uibu· nal before Ihe judie and confess themselves Christians; paying no heed when faced with terrors and the varied forms of lorturcs, but undismayedly and boldly speaking of the piety towards the God of the universe, and with joy and laugh· tel' and gladneM receiving the final sentence of dealh; SO thaI Ihey S.1"i and sent up hymns lind thanksgivings 10 the God of Ihe universe even to the very last breath. (Eusebius 8.9.4-5) The memories of Ihe martyrs are held in great veneration and eSleem by the AJ>O$tolic Constitulions, which prescribe thnt "collccming Ihe marIyl"$, we 53Y to you Ihal Ihey are 10 be had in all honour with you. as we honour Ihe blessed James the Bishop, and the holy Slephen our fellow· scrvanl. For lhese arc reckoned blessed by God, and arc honour'cd by holy men." They arc honored by both the church lriumphant and the church militant. Saint John the Divine de· seribcd lhe distinguished pOliition accorded to them: ., I .'l:tw under the alt:tr the souls of those who had bl,:l,:n slain for tbl,: word of God .\IId for the witness they had home; ... Then lhey were each givcn a white robe .lI1d lold to resl a lillIe longer (Rev. 6:9, 11). They are equally honored by being mentioned in eve!)' possible occasion in church senlices: in psalms, doxologies, and benediclions; in prJyenl of the Morning Offering of Incense; and in various places of the Divine Liturgy. In all these pmyers they are mentioned before the sainlS and are only pfI..'<:eded by the THEOTOKOS. the heavenly host, :tnd the pl'OpheL'l. Of special significance, however, is the facl that the Copts used the era of per'SeClltion and martyrdom as Ihe raison d'ctre for Clitablishing a calendar of their own. Taking 284, Ihe firSI year of Ihe reign of Uloclelian, as its sianing poilll. Ihe Coplic Anno Martyrii c:tlendar commemoratC5 two things: a

1549

glorious episode in the hislo!)' of the Coptic ehurch and the mlln who was ilS archenemy and persecutor. D1BLlOGRAPJ.lY

Aliya, A. S. A History of Eastem Christiallit)'. Rep!". Millwood, N.Y., 1980. Delahaye, 1-1. uLes Martyrs d'Egypte." Analecta Bo/· lalldiana 40 (1922):5-154. Frend, W. H. C. Martyrdom aud Per$e.cwiOll ill the. Early Chmch. Oxford, 1965. Mason, A. J. The Historic Martyrs of the Primitive. Church. london, 1905. Scoll·Moncrieff, P. D. Pagtmis'" and Christianity ill Egypt. Cambridge, 1913. ARCHlllSHOP BAS1UOS

MARTYROLOGY, The Histaria ecclesiaslica of Euscbius conlains irnportant information on the perse.(:ulions of Christi:tns in Egypt (which here al· W"Jys includCli Alexandria) and on Egyplian martyrs. Special importance IIltaches to those pa.'\..'Illge.'l in which he quolcs from the writing:; of eyewitness~:s or is himself giving a repol1 as lin eyewitness. In Book VI.4I-42, Eusebius givcs an exlensive CXIr.\el from the leuer of ()IONVSIUS (247-264), bishop of Alexandria, 10 Bishop Fabius of Antioch, which among other things has a description or Ihe martyrdom of Apollonia in Ihc riots shortly before Ihe Decian perseculion. In VIII.IO hc quolCS from a letter of Phileas of Thmuis, who di...'<1 a martyr in Ihe persewlioll undel' mOCU-IIAN. According to VllI.9, Eu~ebius witnes.'ed mal1yrdoms in Egypt. In his Martyrs QI Pltles/ine he also gives infonmltion on the sufferings of Egyptian Chrlstian~ in Palestine and on deportalions to Egypt. Also first-rJte sources are papyl'i fmln the Age of Persecution, such as the lihelli of the Oeelan persecution (Bludau, 1931) and the Apologia of Phileas of 'I'hllluis, which cont:tins the (;onvcr:sOltion between Cu!ciOlnus, his judge, and lhe mar1yr', which waS fo11owcd, according 10 the heading, by thc lalter's death on 4 February 306 (Halkin, 1963, pp. 5-27). A compilation and discussion of all the infonnation about the persecutions, including thaI found in luter author:s and in monas· tic literatul'e, is pl"Ovided by H. Deleh:tye (1922, pp. 7-41). When the Age of Perse<:utlon h:td ended, a flour· ishing cult of Ihe mOlrtyn grew up in Egypt, with fealul'eS l)'Ilk:t1 or lhal country. Despite the opJ>O$i· lion of ATHANASIUS. Ihe custom spread of exhibiling mummified mal'Yrs on siands for \·eneralion. Around Ihe ycar 600, a OI;:lwork of martyl"$' sanctu-

1550

MARTYRS, COPTIC

aries e(}\'ered the country. As the criticism of Shenute of Athribia shows, the feast days of the martyrs were very popular festivals. The sanctuaries of the martyn Cynl$ and John in Menuthis, and especially that of ABO MiNA. allnlcted numerous pilgrims, foreigners ,"'long them, (On the cull of martyrs, set Ilaumeister, 1972, pp. 51-86: also Romi· s<:he Quam/hellr;fl 69 (1974J:1-6 and pI. I.) In the train of increasing veneration of the mar1yrs, there wag created a whole literlltul'e-plll1ly patterned on genuine . On the other hand, the Coptic passions arc more uni· fonn in appearance. There \\I'M a preference for a legend with nWller· ous healin(;.<; and resuscitations of the martyr before he victoriously passed over to the heavenly world. Variations llre provided by frclluerll changes of location. The link with the martyr'!i fJanctuary is ernphasi"ted. II appears that the oldest Creek legend of George, or rd(l\eu literature, WIlS the protutype for this kind of Coptic legend-preference for which may be connected wilh ancient Egyptian ideas of integrity. III Egypt the trend of translating activitil'S runs from Gn-ck \'ia the COptic dialects to Arabic. Sahidic initially predominau:d. then IJohairie. Somedmes tCxls originating in Egypt were lranslal· ed into Ethiopic, Greek items may have found their way into all th~ languages of the andent church. Thus, for inSlanCe, a Sahidk and a Lalin version m!ly be witnesses to II Greek origin!ll. Consequently. regard must bc given to all these languages in undertaking a reconstruclion of Egyptian martyr hagiograllhy. Further liter-II)' evidence on the cult of martyr'S is constituted by cullections or mirncle talc.~, sermons with stories or mar'tyrdom, and calenuQI'S showing feasl days. There is the SynaxariUlll Alexandrinum available in the editions of J. FOI"get (CSCO, Scrip· tores Arablci 3-5, 11-13) and R, M. J. Bas.<;et (PO 1-20). Account must also be taken of the Creek syna",aria, the Martyrologium Hitronymianum, and the Ethioplc Calcndar of Saints (Delehayc, 1922, PJl. 41-113). Archaeology, epigraphy, and travelers' reo poru provide further teslimony. Modem research on Egypt's traditions llbout the ma'1yl'1I began from the moment people took an int~rcst in Coptic manuscripts and began to collect them (eighteenth ccntury), Editing of the lexts has

not been concluded thus far; much remains to be done. The question of historicity had spt.'Cial priority lIS a ~arch interest. Dclehaye tackled the problem, making use of the hagiographical method developed by the Bollandists, The danger lay in a.<;"ie~ing thc Coptic legends only in terms of the ideal or historical reporting. Alongsidt the pmblem of history there wcrc, carlyon, interests rcklting to the history of the language and to gr'alllmar and lexicography, which led to involvement with the Coptic te",t5 on Ihe martyn;, Eo C, Arnelineau ob· tained important information, from lopogr
MARTYRS, COPTIC, the souls recognized in Egypt who suffered persecution and died for thelr faith. The majority of martyrs belong 10 the period of ROman pc,'SCeutions from the lime of Nero in the mid·first centu,)" to the time of Diodetian in the early fourth century. It is, of counte, impossihle to assemble the names of all the martyn; who were tortured and executed for refusing to offer incense and libations to the ancient gods and emperon>, but a fair estimate of their number would be about I million. A new category of ma'1yrs appeared in thi! Islamic period after the Arolb conquest in the seventh

MARTYRS, COPTIC

century. The "new martyn;" of this period. ns they were enJled, nre I'elntively few. In the main they were Clu'iSlillns who :Ipostmizcd to Islam but later recanlcd nnd retul11ed to theil' former faith. According to Islamic law, they automatically became subject to the death penalty and were dt:capilated, thereby earning the crown of manyrdom. The survival of Christianity in Egypt must be ascribed mainly to the Coplic manyrs in the Roman period. During the (shunic period the church was genel1llly able to resist the temptation 10 apostasy. Although the significance of the Coptic church and il'J martyrs was largely forgotten after the advem of Islam. they remain a vital chapter in Ihe rise of Christianity in both the Eastern and Weslern worlds. Perhaps the most serious atlempt to gather all thc names of known martyrs whose historicity has ~n a1testoo from established documentary soun:cs is that of De Lacy O'leary, who compiled The SailllS of Egypt i" 'he Coptic Co/elldar in 1937. He made a register of all the saints enumerated in the CoptoArabic SYNAXARtON M well 11$ saints derived from other papyroloaical fragments but not in the Synaxarion. The book registers two categories of saints: manyrs, who uit:.-d a violent death. and holy men and women, usually monks or anchoritt::s, who end· ed Iheir lives petlcefully. This seeond calegory is trcalt:d under SAtNTS. COPTIC. The following listing of martyrs is ba.o;ed chiefly on O'leary's register. The legendary statements in O'Leary's book (krivcd from original sources have been curtailed: only historic materinl has been giv. en along with the official commemoration dale (feast day) of cach saint, when lIvailable. Many, but not all, IIppt::ar in the Copto·Arabic Synaxadon. Not all spellings ar'e lhose used by O'Leary, but alter· nates, inel\lding his, are given. When a saint has a separate biography in tbe encyclopedia, i1 is printed in small Caps, Abadirm (feast day: I Amshir). bi.~hop of Anti· noopoJis during the reign of Diocletian. After he was martyred by Arianus, governor of Upper Egypt, a genel'al Illa$sacr'e of Cbrislians in Anti· noopolis followed; S,SOO were said to have perished. Abadir allIl Era;, see Ter IIlld Erai, below. Abadys, ~e o;us, below. AMMON 01' TARNOT (fea.~t day: 27 Ablb), a native of TamO! in Uppel' Ea,ypt. ABAMOI'I 01' TOI",. or Ammonius (feast day: 13 Ablb). a native of TOkh in Ihe diocese of Bana.

1551

Ablb (Qr Apip) und Arwlla, (feast day: 2S Babah), dose colleagues who entered a monastery. Abib b~ame n deacon and W:IS martyn.od. Apollo, distn:sst.od, moved deeper Into the desert, near Mount Abltij, followed by a group of a.
ACATIION (OM ACATUON) AND HIS BROTIlERS, (feast day: 7 To.l), fourth-eentury ma,'yrs with their mother, from Sunb1!. A./ualldt:r (feast day; 12 Baramo.dah), a student at the Catechelical School in Alcltandria under Pan· taenus and Saint Clement of Alexandria. Impris· oned under 5evertls, he died in 251. He is called bishop of Jerusalem in the Synaxarion. Aluallder and AluimJu Iht: Egyplirm (feast day: I BaramMt), martyred under Decius. They arc cit· ed by the historian Eusebius of Caesarea. Alexander is bishop of Cappadocia in the Synaxarion. A.f1ildylis (fcast day: 3 8:J.·Onah), a soldier in the army of Emperor Constamine the Creat, who, presumably, explained the significance of the Cl'O$8 that appeared in thc sky befon:' a baule and led to the emperor's conversion. JULIAN nm APQS. TATP. tried in vain to win him to the pagan gods and then ordered him Ihrown into a fiery fur· nace. His elllergenee unscathed led to the canven;ion of m:llly spectators. Finally JuHlin orde!X'(1 him dt:i,:apitated (p. 68). He is called a bishop in the Syna:carion. Ammmlir'.~,

or Ammon (feast uay: 14 Kiyahk), bishop of l.'ltopoHs (Isntl), consecrated by Saint Petel' i, Pauiareh of Alexandrin in the early fourth ceOlUry. Ammonlus built a monastery on a hill QUlside the city, where he spent Tuesdlly to Friday every week. Arianus, who W:IS touring the counuy in search of ChrIstians, seized Arnlllonius, moved him to Antinoopolis, and had him tortured and executed. Ammonius ul fflkh, sec Abl\mOn of TOkh, above. Amsuh uf Oill (feast day: 15 Klyahk), a native of Qif! who was told by fill angel in a vision to take a waiting ship on the Nile to Tkow to announce his faith and suffer the consequences. After telling his sister, Theodora, he followed Ihe angel's ad· vice and wns tortured by the governor, Arinnus. and put to death. His body Wl1$ thrown into the Nile. but a crocodile pushed it to shore and Thcadorn buried it with honor.

1552

MARTYRS, COPTIC

,hlUuiru' lIml Kllrni (fea.~t day: 16 Kiydhk), natives of Akhmin who were murtyred. AN... sr...sl.... '#laria, and Aripsima (fe.'lst day: 26 Ki· yahk), three ...., omen martyrs.

As/rolo/e, a magician whom, according to legend, Cod released from hell when Astrolate promised 10 become a manyI'. Athanasia. scc Cyrus, Jolm. helow.

AN"'TOLIUS (rea~1 day: 9 Fibah), fourth-century marlyr In Ihe Basilidcs C)de. All1e,1i"I4.~, 01' Antonius, or AndfirJ. (fcast day: 25 Ablb), a native of good parentage from Bana, who declared his faith In Aminoopoli5. The governor ordered his eXl-~ution by archers. but Anlonlnus miraculously remained unscathed. Afterwards he and a companion, Epimachus, went to Alexandria, whel"e Ihey were tortured. Antoninus went on to Pdusium, where hc was tortured again and beheaded.

At/tallasius and Irelle (feast day: 3 HatOr), brOlher and sister manyrcd under Emperor Maximian.

A/<W1J, or A~ Nob (fcast day: 24 Abib), a martyr

under Diocletian. Ar"lUt.R "Nil Tot.EMlr.£us (fca5t day: 21 Tiibah), a monk and a soldier martyred under Dlocletlan. APOU (fenst day: I MisrA). a fourth.century manyr of the Basilidcs Cycle who was born in Antioch and killecJ in Egypt. Apoffo (feast day: 10 AmshTr), a manyr under DiodClian. APOUDNtllS "NI> PlIILEMON (fea..t day: 7 Baramh:1I), musicians who became martyrs under Dioclctian. Aptill «Ird Jehu (fca.~t day: 16 Abib), martyrs of Sobarou. John is mentioned in the Synaxarion a.~ JollII of the Golden Go!lpet. Archae/aIlS (fe;lst dny: II HlllOr), ma,'yr (p. 84). Archippus, IIhi/emoll, alld Ab/iYYClh (feast day: 25 AmshTr). ARI, or OrT (feast day: 9 Misrah), a priest of ShatanUf who wa.~ martyred under Dioclelian. AklANUS (feasl day: 8 Baramh;lt), ;t Ronmn governor' of Antinoopolls un,ler Diocletian who pcrl;ccutea ChriSlians and later beeame:1 Christian and was himself martyred. Ar/IIS of .'>/lemusi, m(lrtyr. Armel/ius (or ArmClml~) wrd Ilis MO/Iler, (feast day: 8

Bo'Onllh), martyrs. Ar,lenillS (feast day: 18 Baramudah), slave of Saint Susinius, an officer in Diocletian's household (p. 87). Asbalr (fea.~t day: IS Klyahk). native or Qir! (p. 88). ASCLA (feast day: 20 Tl1bah), manyr of the Arianus Cycle umler Dioclclian. Asra, sec PiJrOl/r, Pisouri, alld Asrll, below. Asqahm (feast day: 20 Baramhat).

JerasinulS, and TJreuJotus (feast day: 29 Misr.\), a bishop and his two assistants seized, tortOI-ed, and killed by Emperor Valerian because Athanasiu5 had baptized the daughler or An!Onius. one of Valerian's oRiCCI'$. Alhom, see lIiroou and Alllom. below.

Afllanasil4.~,

Alrasis and Jllllia, 0" Adnisis and Yu'anna (feast day: 18 HatOr), Roman manyrs. Atr
Bajl/;'h, or l'ejt);'1l (fCaSl day: 26 Tubah), a Jieh farmer fl'om Bilad who was eharituble and proFessed his Christianity beror'e the governor Arius. Btljush was sent to Tam\ and beheaded in a suburb called Salamon, where a church was built in his honor. Bu/rlllfJ (feast day: 8 Ablb), a priesl from Bard in Sakhti district who sold his goods and distributed lhe pr'()Ceeds to the poor. He professed his faith hero!'e the governor Ari:mus in Antinoopoli.~ and was tortured and beheaded. BiJllilli'l alld NlltJ!l (feast day: 7 Kiyahk), mal1yrs who were tried befofC Emperor Maximian near IdfU and beheaded. A chorch was later built for their I·clnains. Bar/xlrll a"d Julia"a (feast day: 8 Kiyahk). Barbara, daughter of the pagan noble Dioscul'us. was con·

MARTYRS, COPTIC

vened to Christinnity lind cunsequently deliven~d to the authori1ies by her f:llher. When tliey started to torture her, she \I~.!S juined by Juli:llla, 11. woman s~tatol·. Both were beheaded, Later Samara's rcllll.ins .....ere transferred to 11. church in Old <:Dim that bears her mllne. Sllr'SllnllphillS, or Ouarshufah, or Warshanul}'Us (feast day: 29 Ahih), m:u1yr under I)iodctian with Eudemon, his brother Epislemun, and thek mother, Sophia.

8ARsANUPIUUS (feast Ul'Y: 13 Kiyahk), a "new mar· tyr" who was a monk in the Chun:h of Abu Mimi, Cairo. &sidi, KWlIl"s, Anllullu, MIlSU, Aui, Barlca/us, and ImQilrer KUIIi/IIS (fcast day: 29 &'unah), S(:vcn

1553

ernor of Shetnufe under Dincletion. ""ley were thl'own 11110 II river with stones around their ne<;k.s, but an angel untied the SlOnes, ami they swam ashol'e al BOll'a, where they wei"\":: sei7.ed aKain and beheaded. son of Basilides the General, mal1yl'ed under Diocletlan.

8F.SAMON,

Bimill, or I'AMIN (feast clay: 9 Kiynhk), a "martyr

without bloodshed," who survived Diocletian and lived out his life in a monaslery near al·Ashmunayn. Bishoi, HoI', alld Diodora, or Anbd Bish;\y, AIXI HoI', and TIleooora (feast day: 29 8a'unah), two brothers and tltdr mOl her who were martyred,

ascetics who declared their faith to the governOl" and were lonured, burned, and imprisoned hut remained unscathed. A group of 130 was convert· ed as II result, Eventually Kutulu5 the priQOt was burned Ilnd the rt::;t wen: beheaded (pp. 100101 ).

Bislroi Amib of Nacsi or 8ishay Anub (feast day: 19 &'unah), a native of Panayus in the diocC$C of Damietta who wa.<; an officer under Cyprian, gov· emor of Atripc, Wishing for martyrdom he de· clared his faith, was tOl1ured. lind w.u taken 10 ~Ieliopolis, where he was executed. Hi, slory was told by Julian of Aqf:lM,

Bllsil, (II' 8usi/ius (feast day: II Baramhftt). a bishop who "~dS consecraled by Saint Amun, patriarch of JerusalCllI, B:lsil did missionary .....ork in Sharsunah lind revil'ed the governor's dead son bUi was killed by the Jewish population.

Billku aud Tayubull, or Bi)'\lkhah and lJindyin (feasl day: I Ablb), two priests of TOnah who sought lhe sacrament rcscn'cd for the sick. When lhey found a serpenl had deVO\lI"ed it, they killed and ate the serpenl to save the holy bread and died as mar·

Basil, Theodo:sills (or Theodore), aud Till/olhy (feast day: 20 Amshir), m:lrtyrs. Bllsilidas, or W:isllidas, or Basilides the Gener.!1

(feast day: II TOI), hend of a prominent family in Antioch who was sent hy order of Dloclelian with his family to Egypl, They were separated before bclnK tried, tortured, and put 10 death. B.lsilidas is the cenlral fi!:ure of the B'lsilidas Cycle. Balra, or M~tl'ft (fcnSI (by: 10 Misr.lh), martyr under Dccius, who mirnculou~ly survived being thrown into the fire bUI Ialer Imd his hands and fect amputated and his head cut olf. Behnam (or lJ/d1l1{1I11) IIml SlIm}" (feltSt day: 14 Ki·

yahk), children of a pagan kinK, who were con· verted by MlLlIhew, ., Christian who healed Sarah of leprosy, On lhelr wny 10 juin Christian l'efugees for pmyers, they were discovered by the anny of Empel'Ol' JUHlIll oml killed, Matthew cured their rather who wcnl ini\.ltne al the news, and conven· ed him and the
er and sister who declared their faith 10 the gov·

t)'B.

BULUS AL-I:IABls, or Paul Ihe Solilary, "ncw manyr" of the thirteenth century. Cal!illiclls (fea.<;l day: 2 Tubah), bishop of Syene (Awsim) under Diocletlan. He professed his faith befm"\":: the governor Arianus in Antinoopo!is, was tortured, and was sent by ship to TQkh, He died en rOUie and his body was cast a.<;hore, where it was buried by the faithful.

or Chamoul {fenst dny: Iii l3ashalls),'a na· tive of Kellin who WllS nWl1yred under Diocletian,

CilMOUL.

Chrwll;.hlllll, SQphrOflius, and /)a/(lsitw (feasl day: 20 Hl'ilul'), martyN eJ(eeuted by the govemor Ari:lOus at LuxOl'. Children, H,ree (fea.~t day: 14 Ih'ltilr'), nwrlyN who

ill lhe book of Daniel were ca.~t into the furnace in BahyJon. (See I3JI,lUCAL SUUJOCTS tN COPTlC ART: Three Hebrew Children,) Chri~lOpher,

or ChriSU'fI'lOmS (feast day: 2 B:u",m· udah). mal'tYl' under El1lperor Dl-'Cius.

Claudius Slrule!ules (feast day: 11 Ba'unah), son of Ptolemy, brother of E.mperor NUIllCri:lOllS who wa.<; a gencml in lhe Roman army, After fighting in Annenia, he was exiled 10 AIeJl.3ndria by Din-

1554

MARTYRS, COPTIC

detillll wich the usual leuer asking the governor Adanus to win Claudius 10 Ihe Roman religion. Claudiu~ rClli~tcd SO Arinnus killed him with a javelin. CoUlllhUl, (feast day: 25 lJashalls), son of a promi· nent family of Antinoopolis. he practiced medi· cine withoUl a fcc. then gave up his wealth for a lire of ascellcism. He wa.<; questioned. lonured. and beheaded by a 5Ueccssor of the governor ArianUI>. COI'MES. late.fourth.eentul)' monk who was marIyred under lhe emperor Julian the Apaslate. CntJAA.<; AND DAMIAN (feasl day: 22 Hatur). manyn; with their brothers Anthimus. Leontius, and Eupropl0U5. and their mother. Theodota. Cyriacus, Annll, and Admoll. CYIUACUS AND JUUlTA (feast day: 15 Abib), a son and his mother who were martyred under Dioclctian. CyrlIS, loh". lind Filya. or Apa KIr, John, and Philip (feast day: 14 Ba'Clnah), brolhers. nalives of Damanhiir, who were lortured and beheaded and buried in Ihe Church of Saint Mark, Alexandria. Cyrus (or Apu Kir). loh". Theodoru, Theodosia, Theopistu, ulld AiJru"usiu, (fcast day: 6 Amsh!r).

muiv(,.'S of Alexandrhl who were killed and thrown 10 wild heaSl'i. Athana.'ila wa.'i the mother of Ihe three virgln$. Dahal/lIl11 (fcasl day: 10 Ba'unah). father of a beauti· ful virgin named Youna, who was soughl by Ihe governor Eulogius, who hecame Christian. All three were taken 10 &lis lind exeo.::uted by Eutogius' pagan SUcces.'ior. Duidusll (feasl dllY: 29 lla'Onah). Damnas (fe"~t day: 5 Hilll1r). DANDAlUH, Mm1yn of (fen.~t day: 15 Ba~han~), four hun(lr'ed nntives of Dandarah martyred under Dioclclian. Da.~yah (feaSt day: 2 Tut), an nmecr nf Tanda be· hcaded by the governor Ari.mu~. David (fcast day: 4 Mi~ra), martyred with his broth· er under Dioclctian al Sinjar. His body was preserved al the Mommery of Saint Victor in Asyu~.

faith at Atripe and was tOl1ured and killed by Ludanus in Aleltllndrill. DlDS. or Abadyus (feast day: 25 Tobah), a Ihirdo.::cntury 1KIidicr who WliS mllrtyred. Dioscoms ulld Aesculapius (fea.'il day: I Tubah). as·

eelies on lhe Mount of Akhmtm who were lold by the archangel Michael In II vision to confess their failh to the govcrnor Arianus. According to legend. forty soldiers witnessed the vision lind were converted. All were martyred. Eirenc, or Irene (feast day: 21 Misrah), daughter of Governor Ludnius, or King Udnlus, who was haptized by a disciple of Saint Paul. lorlun,d by her father, but remained unscathed. She was ar· rested by Emperor Numerianus and killed by Dioclelian but miraculously resuscitated, with the result that her father and 113,000 subjocts convcrted. She died in Ephesus. Elias the EUtwch (feasl day: 28 Tubah), a gardener at Pemdje for the governor CulcianWi, whose daughtcr fell in love with him and tempted him. He Iherefore castrated himself and sem thc organ 10 her, saying it was whal she wanled. The angry womlln reported him as a Christian. and he W'J,S mar1yred.

EPIMA. or Bima, or Epiusc. or Anb:! Bimilnun (feast day: 8 Abtb), II native of Panokleus in Ihe nome of Pemdje, or aI-Bah nasa, who was lonured in Alexandria and crucified up side down in Upper Egypt. Saved by a miracle, he was finally hchealleu. EptMACIlUS O~ PP.LUSIUM (rea.'it day: 14 Bashans), a weaver whose mlraclcs at his death resulted in the conversion of 1,750, Epimuchus tlml CordilHl (or Aznryllnils) (fcast day: 4 Ho\tl1r'j, manyrs under Diocle{ian.

Et,dllmon

(fe:\~t

DIlCius (fellst day: 4 BlIl1lmOuah), martyr with Vic·

day: 18 Misra), the firsl martyr from Armanl, according 10 legend inrol'med by an an· gel of the coming of Ihe Holy Family to al·AshmOnayn on its flighl 10 Egypt. He hastened there to wor:ship Chri.~t instead of pagan gods and wa.'i thcrefore killed by the people. EI'Sl!l1ius. see EIiSigllills. below.

tOl', Irene. and others. DIM'I'ANAI1 ANn HER FORTY VIRGINS (feast day: 13 Tubah), d.\lIghtcr of the governor of Lower Egypt and her companions. Diomede, or D
Eugenius, AgQllro(/orus, Qud Elpidilu' (feast day: 14 BaromMt), bishops who were murdered by the pagans to whom they preached. Eulogills (llld ArSCllillS (fca.~t day: 16 Kiyahk). Syrian·born ascetics in DayI' al.l~adld al Akhmlm who survived torture but were eventually killed.

MARTYRS. COPTIC

EWlapius umJ Andrew (feast day: 12 Tilt), monks from Kydda who served in Syria. Disciples of Saint Mncarius the Egyptian, they were martyred by Emperor Julian the Apostate. Euphemia (feast day: 17 Abib), martyr under Diocle· tian. EusEBIUS (feast day: 23 Amshlr), an eminent memo bel' of lhe Basi1id~ family of Antioch under Diocletian. EusICNIUS, or EusegnlulI, or t:.ugenius, or Usagh· ntyiis (feast day: 5 Tllooh), a soldier or general in the anny uf Constantine 1 who was martyred un· del' Julian the Apostate. EUSTAllflUS AND THOOPISTA (fea.>;t day: 27 Tllt), a Roman general and his wife and two sons who were martyred under Tr.lj(1Il or Hadrian.

ExUPERANTIlJS (reast day: I Tutl, a member of the TUEllAN LEclON, mal1yred in the third eentUI')' ncar presenl-day Zurich. Fl!BRONIA, or Afninyah (feast day: I Abib), a fourth· century nun who was martyred, FEux (feast day: I Tut), a member of the Thcban Legion mal1yred in the lhird century near present·day Zurich. f'i1aliJ, or Pil:lte (fea."l day: 10 Abib), martyr of Arri· can origin. FUfO, AND CAXQ, a fourth-century RollIan govcrnOl' (Dado) and a Persian prince and princess who were m(lrtyred 31 Persia. GR~:GORY TIlE ILLUMINATOR (or

fhe Amlenillll) (feasl days: 15 Kiyahk and 19 Tut), a fourth,century patriarch of Armenill who was a "martyr without bloodshed."

1555

HAMAl 01' KAHYOR (feast day: 11 Amshlr), a fifth· centul)' monk who was m:u1yred in Alellandrill. Hanv(Jj (feast day: 16 Kiyahk), a martyr who was killed Wilh a companion. 1.1ui. Ht'lilll (feast day: 20 Kiyahk), a bishop martyred under Arianus 31 Antinoopolis, Heracfeas and Philemon (feast day: 18 Kiyahk), Ina... tyrs. HERACUDES. martyr. Herai. see Tel' and Erai, below. Hilaritl (feast day: 25 Abib), a nalive of Demclial13 ncar Darirah, she confessed h('r faith at TlInah and was sent to Susnah. where she was killed, lIur, martyr. Hor of Sarylzqrls. or Apa Hor of SiryaqOs (feast day: 12 Ablb), martyr tortured at Pclusium and be· headed at Antinoopolis. Hor, BisJII'Ji. and Daidara, or Apa HOI', Anbti Bl.shay, and Theodora (feast day: 29 &'unah), a soldier, his brother, and their mother, natives of Antioch who were martyred in Alexandria, IGNATIUS OF ANTIQCII (fellSt day: 20 December in the Easl. 17 Octoher in the West), first·century bishop of Antlocll who was martyred in ROllle, and Pte/erne (or Plolemy) (feasl day: 21 Tubah), martyrs. Isaue uf ShalPlllllz (feast day: 25 Abib), a pious gardener who was tortured and beheaded after dedaring his faith, ISAAC OF TIFIlRE (or ul Difruh) (feast day: 6 Bashan~), martyr who miraculously restored sight to the blind find was executed at Pemdje. ISIOOMUS. or Isidore of Antioch (feast day: 19 Bash· ans), son of the governor Pantaleon or Antioch, who was killed and revived five times before his final martyrdom under Diocletian. 1.lidorus (ur Isidurc) of Tuki"lzsh, (fcast day: 18 Baramho1.t), a weavel' of Pc1usium who was seized by Diocletian's soldiers, lortured, lind killed.

JOllIe

IsiJunlS Qlld BundilQlls (rcast day: 19 Bashans), men

in the setvice of Diocletian who resigned when he turned againsl ChriSlians. They became monks al Oayr Anba ~mu'il. They were arrested, tortured, and executed, James of Amad;udj, or Jacob the Soldier (feast day: 17 Misra), martyr under Diocletian who professed his faith to the governor of Antinoopolis and was tortured and killed with Abraham and John of Jamnutl.

1556

MARTYRS, COPTIC

JAMES INTI:I\CISU:'I,

or Ja.:ob (he Sawn, or 1I1-Muqn\!a'

(feast day: 27 HOtu!"), a Pcrshlll martyr of 1111: third ccnlury. hunes (Qr Jacob) Qlld 101m (fcast day: 4 HalilT), t ....o

bishup:! who suffered martyrdom under the Persian king Shnpur II in the '-'ady fOUl1h cenlury. JamfJIII (fe:L~1

d..y: 16 Bashans), II nalive of lhe

Delta, who wns manyrcd. J1RlS AI.·MuZAf:llM. ur George (fcasl day: 19 B'L'unah). II "new m(Il'ly"" of the lIinlh cenlUry.

101m of Ash",;,,, fanal], or BikhTbis, or Bikabes ((cast day: to Misra). a soldier seized wilh two bishops, AnM Kallij and AoW Filubbus, and be· hcadcli with ninely.five others at Bartimlin. 101m of Herm;/ia, a ChriStian genenil who was martyred. 101m of Plrunidjoil, a "new martyr," who died in 120').

John of Psenhowl. a manyr. 101m 01 Sllllhill (or al·SallhiUl) (fcast day: 8 Sa· shans), a shepherd who was bcheaded at Atripe. John the Suldier (fe:L~t dtly: 5 Misrnh), a general

undcr Julian thc Apostllte who W(IS ordered tu pur:<;ue Christians hut sccretly helped thclll. He ....~.tS found and killt.-d. JOORE (feast day: 10 Kiyahk), a shepherd who was martyred in thc fourth century. Jm/llla (ur Ya.~hl/) anti Joseph, (feast day: 13 Baramudah), IIS(:etics aswdated wilh MOunt Khurasan. Jrliil/ll (md Hi~' MOlher (fcast day: 23 Ba.~hans), mill" tyn; in Alexandria. Juliana (fcast day: 26 Kiyahk), martyrs. Julietta, or Julita (feast day: 6 Misr6I, martyr. lll{il/S 01 Aqla/u (feast day: 22 Tut). an army officer who helped mal1yn, collected their remains. and recorded their biogrtlphies. He was IIrrested after declaring his faith, tOl1ured, lwiee killed and mi· raculously I'eSIOI"ed, and killed a third time. Dur· ing the inqucst the governor of $amannud and Atripe and 1,500 people were com·crted and martyred. JUSTUS (feast day: 10 Amshlr), the Christian son of Emperor Numerianus, who fought in the Roman army in Persia and was shocked when Diodetian began to pen;t.-cute Christians. Justus was senl to Alexandria, uied at Antlnoopolis. and executed. K(l(m, or Kli'O (fea.~t day: 28 TObah), a native of Binlay (Samwayh) in the Fayyiim who refused III

worship pagan gods under [)ioclctian, was tried by lhe governor of Anlinoopolis, and was killed. KIWON AND AMliN (feast day: 25 Abib), a Roman official al al·Banawan who was dismissed for bad conduct and became a brigand leader, and his friend. They and the rest of thc brigand band overheard Ihe pnlyen of an ascetic and wcrc convel1ed. I......C...RON (fcaSI day: 14 13<\bah), nalive of Tajcli.

whose story is <.:onsidered suspect by sOllie au' thorities. LEoNTlUS 01' TRtl'OU (feast day: 22 Abtb), fourth· century martyr in Syria. L/lc;Jialllu anti FQUf CompalliQlu (feast day: 9 Sa·

'C1nah), a pagan pI'icst who was converted and wilh his assoclale.~ arrested under Emperor Aurelianus, IOl1ured. and killed. MACA-RIllS (feast day: 22 Abib), son of Basilidcs, a minister of Diocletlan, who was tortured in Alexandria, executed at Shatanuf, and buried at 011Ashmunayn. MACARIUS 01' TKOW (fcaSI day: 27 B5bah), a bishop of Tkow and companion of Plllriarch Dioseuros [ arter the Council of Chalccdon in 45 I. He refused an imperial command to subscribe 10 thc council and was killed. MACROBlllS. or Makrliwt (feast day: 2 Baramhat), a native of Ashmun Jurays, bishop of Nikiou, per.;ecute
girl martyred at Antinoopolis. Mama (feast day: 6 Tut), a child from Paphlagonia martyred under Empel'Or Aurelianus. MARK. I (feast day: 30 Baramudah and JO Babah),

one of the four evangelists and the first patriarch of Alexandria. Malfa (feast day: I:l lJiibah), m:u'lyr under Dccius. Ma(fiinah (fcast day: 10 TiH), manyr. MaximllS, Nllmi/ius, VictOf, (lnJ Philip (feast day: I

H5tClr), four brothel'S from Africa who were martyred. MENAS (feast day: 14 Kiyahk), a foreigncr who was manyred in Alexandria. The Greeks commCIllQrMe Saint Menus, bishop of Athens, the ~nnte day. Mellas Ihe /)<1aCOII (fCi.l~1 day: IS Das!lans), manyr. M~:NAS OF

AL-AsIIMONAYN. or Menas the Ascetic (feast day: 17 Amshir). a "new martyr" from AkhmTm, who was killed after thc Anllb conquest (p. 199).

MARTYRS, COPTIC

MIloNAS THE MrRACt.£ MAKER. or Abo Mlna (fca.\t day; 15 IUtur). MenflS aud HashUl (fellst day: 7 Babah). manyrs. Mercurius (fl.-ast day; 18 Tut), a martyr under Julian

the ApOSlate, or Abu s..yfaYIl, or MOlr· qurah (fe3.~t day: 25 H:'IIl)r), a popular soldier· saint who was nmrtyrcu unuer DI.'dus.

MERClJRlUS 01' CAIJSARI!A.

•

Mercurills aud lip/mull'! (feast day: 30 Ablb), nalil'es

of Akmlm and monks of the Thebiad, who opposed lhe Ari31lS and were killed by them. Michael uf Damiella. a "new martyr" in lhe period 1167-1200. He wa.~ a monk of Sceti~ who aposta· tized to Islam ami lhen retuml.-o to Christianity, for which he wa~ killed. Milius (feasl day: 28 Baramudah), an as~ctk woo

connone
Yr.IS

killed under

teacher, and supporter or Ol'igCll who Iyred in J>ale~l;ne.

Pap/lilli/illS (feast day: 20 IJal"llllludah), hel'm;t or Dandarah who was tried before the governor Ari· anus willi Cyril and Cyril's wife, twelve sons, and a daughler. and killed, Pap/mmius (feast day: II September in the Ea5t), a "martyr without bloodshed," a bi.'lhop of the Upper Thebaid who was tortured under Diodetian but lihcraled afler the accession of Constamine. He attended the First Council of Nicca in 325, PapntlllliuJ of Pboll', a deacon of Pbow.

Mos£s THE BLACK (feasl day: 24 Ba'unah), fourth·lnlihh-century Ethiopian slave who tuml.-o brigand. Ihen ascetic. He and lib; companions were killed in a Berber l'aid in 407.

PAUL OF r.~MMAH (feust day: 7 Bjbah).

Nahurlw, or NahM'oh (feast day: 7 H;ltOr), a native of the Fayyiim who went to Alexandria to be martyred under Dioclerian. Nic:clljS, or N;tkll;l (fe"st d;ty: 18 Telt), a martyr, Nidl/Jills (kltsl d;ty: JO Kiy"hk), bishop or Myrn who wn.~

nne of the "martyr"!! withnut blood~hed" be· cause he W'lS saved rrom execution by Diode· tian'~ dearh. He attended rhe First Council of Nice;1 in 325. Nob, Af!a, ~ee A/wh, above.

OLYMJ'rUS (re:lsl lby: 21 Arnshlr), :1 physician of Ni· comedia who was I11nJ1yred under Diocletian.

Illar'·

PAN£SNEU, a deacon from Pakierkie, martyred under C;ulcianus. PANTAlEON (feast day: 15 Bjbah), a fourth.century physician or Nicomedia who was martyred under Emperor Maximinu.~.

Pap)'!as (fea.\t day: 16 ~bah).

NAIlRAflA (fe3.'it day: 8 Abib), a conf("l;..~r who wa.~ tortured undel' I)iocktiltn btll ,......s thell exiled and became an a.\cetie,

WIlS

Pumwr Imll Sllmllllll (feast d..'ly: 27 Ahib).

Moul a,rd Sarall (feasl day: 26 Misr.i), a bmlher and sister under Scptimius Scveros who adopted Ihe mona.~tic life and volunlarily offered them· selves for martyrdom,

Mul, fourth-century martyr in Alexandria.

1557

Po/ape, or Bidaba (fcast day: 19 Ablb), an ancholite who became hi.~hop of CoptOli and Yr.IS martyred under Diodetian. Palll /lle Syrial/ (feast day: 9 AIIIshir), martyr who lived in tll·Ashmunayn, prore~~d his fuith in Alex· andria, and was tortured alld killed ill Anlinoop· olis. Palll alld Salfulla (fellst day: 24 Kiyahk), Illal'lyrs under I>ioclel.ian. Paul, umginus, mill limo (fcasl day: 24 Babllh), rllar1yrs,

PltmR I (reast
Phuibllrmtlml,

PJlOrUAMMON 01' PkllllT, or Phcobumrnon, or Biflim, or Epiphan;u~ (feast day: 1 Ba'unah), a soldier martyred under Diodetiun,

PA£Se AND TECLA (or rhecla) (feast day: 8 Kiyahk), brother and SiSlCI' who were JIIl1rtynxl under Diudetilm. Pamill. ~ec Hlml'l, above,

PillCbs, or BikhThis. 01' B;kahcs (fea.~1 day: 10 Misra), an aSl:etie uf AshmOn Tlmli1;t.

PAMrllll.U$ (feast day: 16 February in lhe Easl, I June in the Wesl). third-eemulY philosopher,

Pi/lllr, Pj~,,.ra. alltl Asra (feast day: 18 TObah), na· tives of Shabali executed at Latopolis.

1558

MARTYRS, COPTIC

PirOOll 1l,1I1 Arhum, ur Abiroh or Piro and AlOm (feasl day: 8 Ablb), two brOlhers, peasants from Tnsempoti, under Diudetian, who dedan~d their faith and wel'l,: beheaded by Al'Illenius, govcrnor of Ale.(Indria, PISI)KA (fcasl day: 9 Tut), bishop of M~n who was mal,y,'ed under Oiocletian. Potmell Ilt.d ElldlUiQ, scc BelljQlI/ill Qlld Elldo.xiQ, above. POI.yeAR,. (feast d:.y: 29 Am5hir), seeond-century bishop of Smyrna who was martyred. Porphyry, or PO'l'hyrius (rt.-ast day: 3 Baramhat), rnal1yr possibly under Dioclelian. Procopi..s (feast day: 14 Abib). pagan governor of Ale}l.andria under Diocletian who was later con· verted, arT'tSted, and beheaded. PWM, ur Anb.\ Bisadah the Presbyter, or Ibsadah (feast day: 24 Tllbah), rnal1yr who declared his faith in al-Qays and was tortured and beheaded. PwTE OF Psot. or Psate, or Bisadah (feast day: 27 Kiyahk), bi~h(,lp of Psoi martyred under Oiocleti·

.n.

Ptolemy, or l'telell1e (feast day: II Kiyahk), native of o-.tndal"'olh who conf('5.<;ed his faith and was tor· tured and killed at Tokh al·Khayl, near TaM. OOnti. (,II' C(,In(,ln (feast day: 2S Amshfr). a native of Rome who was martyred. Quzmllll (ur Co.smos) 01 rQ~IiJ. Qlld Ilis COII/pulliomi, (fe3st day: I &'Onah). REGUt.A (feast day: I TI,t), third·cenlury missional)' wh(,l was a member of the Theblln Legion and was martyred in Switzerland. Rllp~'i/lla (reasl day: 29 TOt), vir'gin who fled from Rome to Ar'menin with sevenlY'eight companions. including her sisters. They were all slain under Diocletian. SakhirwIl 01 Quffln, or AbiskhlrOn (feasl d3y: 8 Ba'· ilo:,h), (I soldier from AsyO!, who with five olhers confessed his fl,itll and was behcad<,d. $a/lb (fell.~t day: 3 Kiyalik), II "new martyr," Sarah arrd Her Clrildren (ur Her Two Sons) (fellsl day: 25 B(ll"llrnOdah), m1l11yrs in Alcllamlria unde]' I>locletillJl. SAKAPAMON OF SCEr]S (feast day: 28 HaIOr), a Jew from Jer\lsalelTl who W3S baptized in Aiexandria by Patriarch Theonas, became a monk and bi~hop of Nikiou, and was beheaded by the governor Arainus under I>iodelilln. SARAP10N (feast day: 27 Tt1bah), a native of BlnOsah in Lowcr Egypt, who was mal1yrcd.

Sebus/e, Furty Martyrs of (feast day: 13 BammMt), Christians slain by Licinius, a Roman officer, in 320. Sergills of A/rib (fca.~1 day: 13 Amshfr), mal1yr, who with his parents was slain by the governOl' Cypri· an. His remains wel~ collected by Julius of Aqfllhs. Sergills alld Bace/lllS, or ... Wlikhus (feasl day: 4

Wbah), mal1yrs slain under Emperor Maximian. Sllall/111 (reMt day: 16 BaramOdah). ShetlllM, n11myr. SHENUFI! (feasl day: 7 B:ibah), a martyr under Diudelian. ShellUle, or Sinutl (feasl day: 14 Baramhat), ana· tive of Bahnasi who was slain under Emperor M:u:imian. SJumu/e, or Anb.i Shinodah (reast day: 13 Abib), a "ne..... martyr" of the seventh CCnlul')'. Sidhottl BishlJy (rea.st day: 17 Baramhil). a "new martyr" of the early nineteenth cenlury. A Chrislian native of Damiclla, he was working in a rice faClOry when a Muslim aecused him of blasphemy against Islam and had him takcn to court. The judge ordered him l10aged and the angry popu· lace tortured him and led him In a procession through the Cily l'iding a burralo. He dit..-d live days lalcr. Simeon (feast day: 14 Kiyahk), a "new mal1yr" un·

del' Ihe Arabs. Simeon/he Afll/elliall (reast day: 19 Bammildah),;tn old limn uf 127 who was $Iaio with ISO other

Christians by Shapur, king of Persia. S;,lQ (feaSI day: 24 B:tmmodah), a high.ranking army offieel' who wa.~ executed with Saini Isidol\ls. Their remains were preserved al Jamnuti (SamannOd). Sophia (feast day: 10 Ba'Onuh), mother of Eudamon lind Epistllmon, with whom ~he was martyr'ed. SOPHIA (fe3.~t day: 5 TOI), a holy woman uf Egypt ur Constantinople, a martyr or all ascetic, whose re· mains were buril::J in Sunta Sophia, Constantino· pic. STEPHEN (feasl day: I TI1bah), archdeacon who was the lirst manyr under Dloclellall. T'ER AND ERA!. 01' Abadlr or Apaler and ini'l or Hcrai (feasl day: 28 TOt), brolher and ~ister from Anti· och mal'Yl'ed in Egypt under Diodelian. Theda (feast day: 23 TOt). Sec CHRISTIAN SUBJEC1S tN COPTIC ART: Thecla. ThedD rmd Mud;; (or MQii) (fcasl day: 25 Abib),

MARUCCHI, ORAZIO

women from OUI'dqas In the Oelta who were mar· tyred. Theoc/io (fea~1 day: II Ba.~hans). a woman connect· ed wilh the Basilidcs family of Antioch who came with them 10 Alexandria nnd was tortured and killed in Sais. She converted fellow prisoner.>, who also WCI'e mnl1yred.

Theodorus. or Theodore (ft.-asl day: 28 Amshir), nati\'c of Pesholer who was tortured and behC'.Iclcd (p. 261).

Theodorus (feast day: 10 Ablb), bishop of Pcnlapolis

who

was

slain under Dioc::lelian.

Theodoru.t AmlfolillS, a marlyr in the 8al;ilidC!l Cycle. THWOORUS SrRATF.1.A'T'F.S. or Theodol"\ls the Gcnernl,

or Theodurus of Shotcp (fcal'il day; 20 Abib), a secondo(:cmury general who hauled a dl1l.gon and was manyred. ThUNJOflil /md Timo/hy (feast day: 2\ B
Theodosia (feast day: 6 Abtb). martyr slain with

twelve olher women.

Theodows (feast day: 29 Misrah). disciple of Saini Alhamuius. who wmI manyred with him "nd &lim Jerasimus. Th/!on/!, manyr. Thomas (fea.~t day. 4 H:!tCir), a "new ma'1yr," a bishop of Damascus who Wol5 bchcaded on the charge of reviling I:dam. Thomas (fcast day: 24 Mis""), bishop of Mar'ash, Syria,
(uied: 7 AmshTr), a soldier who wa.~ marty.'t'd under Din.cletian. Timv/aus, martyr. Timothy, or Titnothcu~ (feast day: 24 Amshlr), a Pl"ie.~t In Ga~.a who was marlyred with the priest MllUhias (p. 275). Timothy (feast day: 13 HatOr), a "martyr withoul bloodsheu," bishop of Antinoopolis who wa.~ seized under DIoclelian but freed under Constanline. TIL

J

Timothy of Memphis, or Timotheus the Egyptian (feast day: 21 9[1'onah), Chlistian saldier under the govel'llol' A.'ianus, who tore up Dioclctian's euict ordering wOr!>hip of pagan god.~ and wa..~ seized, persecuted, and beheaded.

Timothy u"d Th/!ooorlls, see THEOOORUS ANO TlMOTlty. above. TOLEMAUS (feast day: I t Kiyahk), a soldier from Dandarah manyred under Diocletmn.

1559

URSUS OF SOWTHURN (feaM day: 30 Septembel'), a fourth·centUl)' E!o'ptian who was martyred with the Theban legion In Switzerland. Va/eriOn/IS alld Tibarcius (fe"st day: 26 miWr),

brothcrs martyred under Diode!ian. Valesills (fe:lSt day: 19 9aramhfit), one of !'ie...en ,nartyrs ciled by Eusebius. Victor, a member of Dioclclian's court who was manyred. Victor of Asyft! (f/!a.~l day. 5 Kiyahk), a Roman 501· dicr undcr Dioclctian who refused 10 worship pagan gods, was sei7.ed, tonured, and thrown inlO a furnace. VtCTOR OF SOLoTHURH, fourth·century soldier of the Theban Legion manyred in Swilzeriand.

VICTOR STRAretATES. or the General (feast day: 27 Baramlldah), son of Romanus, who, according to legend, wa:i killt."
Persians who were martyred.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amelineau, E. C. Les Actes des ff/o.rlyrs de r£glise copte. Paris, 1890. Evelyn'WhiIC, H. G. MCJllasteri/!s of the Wadi 'II' No.!rim, 3 vals. New York, 1926-1933. Holwcck. F. G. A BiographiC(l/ Diction(lry of lhe 5(1inls, with (I Gelleral Ill/roductiOlI 011 H(lgiogra· phy. St. Louis and London, 1924. Rep.'. Det.'Oit, 1969. H)'Vernat, H. 1.1iS ActliS des murlyrs cle {'Egypte, 4 pts. in I vol. Hildesheim and New York, 1977. O'Leary, DeL. The Sail1ls of Egypi ill tile Coptic Calendar. London and New York, 1937. Repl'. Amsterdam, 1974. AZlz S. ATIYA

MARlJCCHI, ORAZIO

(1852-1931), Italian Egyptologist and archaeologist. He was director of the Egyplian Museum of the Valican and the Christian Museum of the Lateran. He published an ac, count of lhe EKyplian MU5Cum, If Mus/!o Eghio Va' ticat/o. descritto ed illlIstrato da Oravo Marllcclli (1899). He died in ROllle.

1560

MARY OF ALEXANDRIA, SAINT

BIOLIOCRAI'IlV

Dllwson, W. R" and E. P. Uphill. Who Was Who in Egyp/ol(8)', p, 196. London, 1972. Kammerer, W., enmp. A CUp/I"~ lJibJiugrophy. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1950; repro New York, 1969. AzIZ S. ATIYA

MARY OF ALEXANDRIA, SAINT. The life of this saint is known only from a I'ummary given by the l-ecension of the SYHAXA'UON of the Copts from Lower Egypl for 24 Tubah. 111ere is ,'ery lillie aboul Ihe ehildhood of Mary. She ....'35 Ihe daughter of Chri'lian parents and was from Alellandria, She rcfus("d alllhe noble matches that were offered to her, which makes one suppose thai she W'oiS of aristocrotic binh. Her parents being dead, she distributed to the poor and the needy all the goods left her by her father and became a nun in one of the mona.~leries outside Alexandria, which dates this lire befon: the Penian invasion (619629). (According 10 Ihe IU$TORY OF TIlE PATRIARCHS, Ihe Persians dl'Slroyed 600 monasteries oUl~ide of Alexandria, and II is not said that Ihese were later reCOI1Slroclt--c.I,) She there received the monastic habit. She showed herself faithful to Ihe ascetic pmetices of fasling and proyer for fifteen years (nOI Iwelve a.~ the Ethiopic version says). Then she askt--d and obtained from the superior permission 10 live the life of a recluse, which she did for Iwenty-five years. This leads one to think that she look hcr vows fairly young. On II TOb.1h she a5ked for a little holy water to be brought 10 her and washed her fllce :lI1d hands with it, then she received the holy my~telies and dmnk from lhe blessed water, She rell sick and was conlined to bed until 21 Tiib· ah. On that day she received Ihe holy mysleries for the second time, :lnd invited her sisters to visit her three d::lys l::lter, but when that day came, 24 Flbah, they round her dead. They buried her with the other si.~ters.

IIIHI.IOGRAI'HV

Budge, E. A. W. The Rook of Ihe Sai'l/s o/Ihe Elhioplall Chllrcil, 4 vols, C(lmbridgc, 1928, Crulll, W. E. A CUpll1; Dictiollary. Oxford, 1939. RE.N~..cEORC:F.s COOUIN

monk.priest nallled Zoslmus from a monastery in Palesline went out during Lent into the desert be· yond Ihe Jordan, and there mel an old woman who was living as an ascelic in complete 5Olitude. He took her at firSI fOI' a spiril. Since she was witham clothing, she sought to lice. ZOlIimus threw her his cloak 10 cover her. She Ihen lold him her life 510ry. A native of Egypt, !lhe left her parenls from Ihe age of twdve 10 go 10 Alexandria, where she lived for sevenlcen years in proslitulion. One day, nt-oar Ihe harbor, she met some men who were going on pilgrimage 10 Jerusalem. She resolved 10 go wilh them, and 10 pay for her passage conlinued 10 ply hcr trade on Ihe ship, In Jerusalem, on Ihe day of the Ex.altalion of the Holy Cross, she wished to go into the church with the olhers. BUI a mystcrious fon:e held her back several timCli at the door. Rea· Iizing lhat this was because of her 5ins, she was SoCizl-d with compunction and supplicated the Virgin. Converted, she decided 10 go and live as a penilent and solitary in the desert of the Jordan, When Zosimus met her, she had been living there ror fony-seven ye:tors. She asked him 10 come baek 10 see her the following year 10 give her Ihe sacra· ment, The next year she renewed this request. DUI when Zosimus relurned for the third time, he found her dead. In obedience 10 n ml~gc Ihal she had Jeft for him. he buried her, assislcd by a lion, which helped him to dig Ihe grave. This story is also 1'(." ported, with slight variations, in the SYNAXARION fOl' 6 Baramudah. This legend seems 10 have a historical foundalion. In his Li/e oj Cyrial;llS, Cyl'il of Seylhopolis relates how two monks, probably in Ihe til'st half of the sillth centuty, mel n woman whu lived in the de5crt of the Jurdan liS an anchorite and who told them her life stOty before dying :md being buried by them in the cave in which she had lived. Named Mary, she had been 1I eantoress in the church of the Anastasis, Observing that her exceptional beauty invited many mcn to sin, she resolved to leave Jerusa' lem to go and live In the desert of the Jurdan, where she hud been for clghteen yean; when the two monks met bel'. The SIOty is «Iso relaled by John Muschus in his Prallllll SplrllllQle (PG 87, col. 3049 A-D). It is pl'obubly this tellt thut inspired tbe story allributed to Sophronius in lhe sevenlh celllulY·

MARY THE EGYPTIAN, SAINT. The k-gend of Saint Mary the Egypli.1n is dcri\'ed from a Greek Ufe falsely attribuled to Sophronius of Jerusalem (I'{; 87, COI5. 3697-3126). It is there related that a

lJlBI.IOGRAPHV

Ddehaye. H. "Un Groupe de l"kits miles l\ 1';1.Ole." Stadia Hagi0l:rQphiCQ 42 (1966):384-93.

MASPERO, JEAN (JACQUES) GASTON

Delmas, F. [5. Vailhc) "Remarqucs sur la vie de Sainrc Marie l'Egyptienne." Echos d·Orie ..1 4 (1900):35-42; 5 (1901-1902):15-17. Kunze, K. Swdiel1 wr Legende der heiligell Maria Aegyptiaca illl dell/sclren Sprachgcbiel, Berlin, 1969. Schwal17., E. Kyrillo,f >1011 Skythopolis. pp. 233-35. Leip7Jg, 1969. AHTOINE GUlUAUMONT

MARYUr. See 'Abo ~Una: Amriyyah.

1561

still a bishopric in the Middle Agl,:!; (Municr, 1943. p. 14). UlBLIOGRAPHY

Amelineau, E. L.a G~of:raphil! de l'Egypl Ii l'tpoque caple, pp. 243-46. Pads, 1893. Munier, Ii. Reclleil des !istes episcopales de l'tglisc COpfc. Cairo, 1943. TImm, S. Das christfich·koptische Agypten ill ara· bischer Zeit, pt. 4, pp. 1604-1610. Wlesbadcn, 1988. RANJ>AU. STEWART

MA'SARAH, AL·. Set l>ilgrimages.

J\.fASKS, FUNERARY, See Portraiture.

MASHT{JL, town localed in the Egyptian Delta

MASPERO. GASTON CAMILLE CHARLES

appro~imalely

14 miles (22 km) SOUlheast or BanM in the province of Sharqlyyah. II was known in lhe sixth century as Mashlill al'TawA~in (mills) because of its many mills and because of the aClive tr.ade in flour and grains thai it carried on wilh the I:lijaz (Saudi Arabia). During the Quoman period in the eighleenth cenlury, MashtOI held a wt:ckly market and accordingly became known as MashtOI al·SUq (MashlOl lhe market). The town continues to be known hy thi~ name. BIHLlOGNAPHY Mamm~t1.

Kitllb Qawd ..,,, al·Dawdwbl. ed. A. S. Atiya, p. 176. Cairo, 1943. Mul.Hlmmad Ram'll. Ai-Qilm(js u/·JlIghriJ{1 lil·oilad al Miifr1yyuh, Vol. 2. Cairo, 1954-1955. RANDALL STEWART Ibn

(1846-1916), French Egyptologist. He was born in Paris and was educated at the Ecole normale in Paris. He was appointed professor of Egyptian philology and archaeology in lhe CoUtge de France in 1874 and went to Egypt In 1880 as head of the archaeological mission Ihat later became the Institut rran~ais d'Archtologie orientale. Then he succeeded A. E. Marielle as director of the Bul:iq Museum and $¢rviee des Antiquil~ (1881-1886). He cxpanded Ihe Service to a regular departmcnt with Iiye inspectorates. thus inadyertently helping to reo veal the importance of Coptic antiquities. or his enormous list of publications only vcry few touched Ihe field of Coptology. Hi~ real contribu· lion to Coptic sludies was realized in the penon of hi~ ~on Jean Ca~ton, whom he had trained in CopHc. BIBLIOGRAPHY

MA$IL, a town In the nOlthem Delta of Egypt. Though its exact kll::fltion is uOl:ertain, it appears that Ma~II1:ly ~olllewhel'e wllhin the area defined by Rashid to lhe northel'S!, Fuwwah to the southeast, Lake Idku to the northwe~t, and Abu 1:lumIllU~ to the s.outhwelll. In Coptic ducumcnts the name of the town wns written M8XlI,\ or' MO,\OX, and in Greek sourcCll as MfA~ (MelCles) or ME,v,/.<; (MeuHls). The SYNAXARION indicates Ihat Mnsll was a bishop· ric at least a.s early 35 the end of lhe third century. Under the date lJ TOt we read lhal Bishop Bisura, who presided in the city of Metelis at the lime of the emperor fIIOCUlTlAN (284-305). was martyred during the pcrsccutions of that era. The town was

Dawson, W. R., and E. 1'. Uphill. Whu WU5 Who in Ii/;ypto/olj)', PI" 197-98. London, 1972. Kammerer, W., compo 11 Coptic Bibliography. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1950; repr. New York, 1969. AZIZ S. Any...

MASPERO, JEAN (JACQUES) GASTON (1885-1915), French papyrologist. He was the son or the celebrated Egyptologist Ga.~ton MASPERO. who early impalted to him a greal interest in archaeology lmd numismatics. Jean became attached to the Instilut francaise d'Archeologie orienlale as assiSI' ant 10 E. G. CHASSINAT and participated \vith hi~

1562

MASSACRE OF THE INNOCENTS

father in the cataloguing of the Byzantine papyri of the COif0 Museum for the CataloKuc Collllllission of the Service des Antiquilcs, He joined the anny durina world Will'I and was killed bdore the publk,ltion of his work, which his father s.aw through the press. His great promise in Coptil: studies is H:slified by some of his conlribution.~: Hi5toi,~ de!! P(uri· arches d'o4fexulldrie depuis fa mo" de I't:mpert:tlr o4lllOISllOlse jll.'qll'a fa riCQllcililOlliQII des iglises ;acobilts (published posthumousJy, Paris, 1923); Fo//illel> uicutiu HUI/Ilil (Cail'(l, 1932); PlOIpyruS grecs d'epoqlle bYUlIllille, 3 vols" Cairo, 1911-1916. Repr. Osnabrilek, 1973.

a

lUBl.lOGRAPHY

Dawson, W. R., and E. P. Uphill. Who WIU Who ill IZtyplolol{J'. London, 1972. Kammerer, W., eomp. A Copllc BibliograpJry. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1950; n:pr. New York, 1969. Aztz S_ ATTYA

MASSACRE OF THE INNOCENTS.

Sce

Christian Subjects in Coptic Art.

MASS OF THE CATECHUMENS, eucharistic 5Crvice comprising two distinct, inseparable, and complementary sections: the Mass (or Liturgy) of the Catechumen.'; and Ihe MASS OF THE FAITHFUt, so called beCIlUse catechumen.5, who could a\lend thc fiBI pan of the service, were not pennined 10 attend the second unti1they had SlItisflll:torily completed their course of religiou,~ instruction, l'Cceived the S'lcn,ment of baptism, lmd were accepted into the Chris· thlll community of the faithful. In the cllrly church, the Mass of the Catechumen.~ .';taned with the bishop's greeting, "Peace be with yuu," to which the rcsponse was, "And with your spirit." This was followed by readings from both the Old lmd Ncw Testaments, after which the bishop 01' II priest authuri~cd by him delivered a sermon ex· pounding the word of God and the teachings of the church. finally, it pr.lyer fur thc catechumens was offered, and the bi.~hop gave them his blessing. At this puin\, the deacon asked thcm to leave the church. According to tlte Coptic rite, tlte Liturgy of the Catechumens consisl.~ of the three main pans that precede the anaphord; leetions, followed by the se.... man; IntercC$..~lonal prayel"ll, followed by the creed; and the prayer of reconciliation.

A]lflOlnted readings from the .scripwres, thCmati· cally arranged for each month of the Coptic year, are collCi:ted in a fou .... volurne t.aTtONAIl.Y. The readings fait under the general heading.~ of the Pauline epislle. the Cathulic epistle (Catholil:on). the Acl.~ (l'I'Dxl~), the SVNAXARION. the Psalm, and the GOlipd. The scripture readings arc meticulously chosen to illustrate a cenain theme, which nms through all Ihe pass.'\ges appointed for the day. Dul'ing the Mass of the Catechumens, while the appointed paMages arc being read by various dcaeons, prayers are said Inaudibly by the priest on behalf of the congregation so that it may be endowed with readiness to listen, understand, accept, and act. Following the Prayer of A8SOWT10N. the officialing pricst goes up to thc sanctuary, kwes the altar, and puts live spoonfuls of incense into the thurible. in· audibly he says the Pra)'er of Pauline Incense to God the Father. "Eternal God, Who art without be· ginning :md without end, great in counsel, and mia;hty in dC1:d.5, Who art in all places and with all beingll, be with us, our Master, in this hour. and stand in the midst of us all. Purify our Hearts, .sanctify our souls, and cleanse us from all sins which we have done willingly or unwillingly. And gmnt us to offer before Thee agreeable oblations, and blessed sacl'ilil:cs, a .5piritual incense to enter within the veil, 10 Thy Holy of Holies." Meanwhile, the congrcgation sings the following hymn to the Virgin M01'Y in Coptic: "This is the censer of pure gold, bearing the sweet spicc that was in the hands of Aaron the priest wllile he of· fered incense upon the altar." Then it sings the various intercessions in the names of the Mother of God, the seven archangels and the hcavenly host, the apostles nnd disciples, saint Mal'k the Evange· list. Saint George, the saints of the day, and the patriarch. The priest continues with the Three Small I'rnyel's: for the peace or lhe ehuI'eh, fOI' Ihe palriarch, and for thc congregation. He goes round the nltar thdee, with lhe deacon holding the cross and facing him. Coming down from the sanctuat)', the priest makes II circuit around the church while offering incense to the people, tnuching their heads wilh his hand, lind silying, "MlIY the blessing of Paul the Apostle be with YOll." Then he retul'lls to the sanctullry llnd says iUfludibly the Prdyer of Confes· sion of the People. called Ihe Mystery of Return, staninK. "God, Who didst rt.-cclve the confession of the thief on the c~."

MASS OF THE CATECHUMENS

I

The Pauline epistle is re1ld in Coptic and in Arabi<: while the pricst inaudibly 5315 the Prayer of Paul addressed to die Son, beginning with the worrls, "0 God of knowledge and Provider of wbdom, ... Who of Thy goodness didsl call Paul, who was sometimes a persecutor, 10 be it chosen vessel ... an apostle and a preacher of the Gospel, ... be$low un u.s and on all Thy people a mind without dl~lraClion and a purified um.lcrslanding ... and make us also wonhy to be like him In deed and faith." The Catholic Epistle (Catholicon) is taken eilher from the Epistle of James, the two Epistles of Peler, the three Epistles of John, 01" the Epistle of Jude. III the meantime, the pl'jest S:IYS inlludibly the Prayer of the Cathulic Epistle. beginning, "0 Lord God, Who through Thy holy llPOSllcs hath m:.mifcslcd [0 us the mystery of the Gospel of Christ's glol)', ... make us worthy of their share and heritage." Then, unless it has been already Included In the morning olTering of incense, the Intcrce55ion of the Oblations is also !laid inaudibly. The people sing a hymn to the Virgin Mary. "~Iaj[ to thee. Mary. the graceful dOlle who bore for us God the word." and conclude with. "BIe5.o;ed an thou. in tnnh with Thy Good Father anti the Holy Spirit. for Thou hast come and So-wed us." While the appointed section of the Acts is being read, the priest makes the sign of the cross over the incense box and puts one spoonful of incense into the thurible, and while standing at the door of the 5:llIcluary. he !laYS inaudibly the Prayer of the Acts. beginning. "0 God, Who did'lt accept the "'llcrifice of Abraham, ... even so. accept at our hands the SIlCriliee of this incense," He folio""" this again with the Three Small Prayers, and he gOI.:S around the ahur thn.:e times and then incenses before the door of the sanctuary. Then he incenses the Gospel and the people in the inner choir only, Standing at the Iconostasis, he says the pmyer of the Mystery of Return. Therl follows tl retItling from the Synaxarion, a compendium of the lilies of snlnts anti martYl1i arranged according to the months of the Coptic cal· endar, What is being commernol'llted is not the bil1h but the death of the saint: "The day of death (is bener] than the day of bil1h'· (Eccl. 7:1), and whereas the Pauline ('pinle, the Catholic epistle. and the Acts are read by deacons, it is usually the priest who reads an account of the life of the mart)'lis) of the day or the lllernuI"4ble event attached to II, in order to gill(, funher importance to the

1563

place of manyrs in Ihe daily practice of the Coplic chureh. $. H. Leeder is wOl1h quoting here: "Another deeply impressive feature of the Coptic services is the reading of the lives of the saints in Ambic, according to a very ancient custom sanctioned in the foul1h century; ... they keep alive the miracu· lollS traditions which the Coptic people still ..herish with undoubted n:vcrcn..e" (1973, p. 194), following the Synaxarion reading, the congrega· tion singli the Trisagion, the refrain of which is, in effect, the hymn sung by the Seraphim: "Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hOSl'l" (Is. 6:3: Rell. 4:8). Standing lit the entnmce to the sam;:tuary, with lhe delleon behind him holding the Gospel book and 1he CI'OSS, the priest says the Intercession of the Gospel, which begin5, "Master Lord Jesus Chrisl our God, Who said to his saintly diNciple5 and holy apo5tle5, 'Many prophets and righteous men have dcsireJ to Sec the things which you see and have not seen them, and to hear the things which you hear ;md h;l\Ie not heard them. But you, blessed are your eyes, for they see, and your cars, for they hear: May we be accounted wonhy to hear ::lOd act by Thine holy Gospels, through the prayers uf Thy saints." Then both priest and deacon enter Ihe !lanctuary and go around the ahar, while the priest says inaudibly. "Lord now [eltest Thou Thy servant dCp;111 in peace, according to Thy Word; for mine eyes halle seen Thy salvation which Thou hast pre· pared in the pnesence of all peoples, a light for rcvelation to the Gentiles, and for glory 10 Thy people Israel" (LIt. 2:29-32). In the meantime, another deacon reads the appointed Psalm in COplic, followed by the Gospel in Coptic and Arabic, while the priest says inaudibly the pl'llye,' of the Mystery of the Gospel, beginning, "0 Long·suITering One to whom appenailleth llbun· dance of mercy," and prays. among other thing5, for the sick, for the 5afety of men llnd beasls, for the sllfcty of the country, fur the mien, fol' the captives, fol' the fruits ot' the eaJ'th, and for the catechumens, Then the prlest inaudibly says the Prayer of the [conOSlasis, which beijins. "Maker of all creation, visible and invisible, and Whose providence i~ Oller all things, for they are Thine, our Lord, Thou lover of souls, ... while 1 approach Thine Holy of Holies and handle this holy rite, grant me, 0 Lord, Thine Holy Spirit. the lire: immaterial and ineomprehensi. ble which consumeth all feebleness and which bumeth up evil intentions." The sennon that follows the lections is usually

1564

MASS OF THE CATECHUMENS

delivel'ed by the bishop. According 10 AI.¥FI IBN AL· 'ASS."'-. "followins the rcilding frolll the Gospel, the bishop shall hold the Gmpel.book in hand. and addn:t;S the congrcgalic'l. elucidating the contents of the section llull has just been .-earl. In the bishop's absence, the pnL"S1 shall deliver the sermon" (1927, p. 122). It ill also nonnal 10 allow competcm dea· cons 10 preach al lhe 1m-italian of the bishop. The priest then goes lip to the sancluary and says. the following three Greal InterceMlons. standing al the ahar with the deacon facing him on the oppoosill.' side: t. Intercession for Peace: "We pray and beseech

Thy goodness. 0 lover of man. remember, 0 Lord, lhe peace of the One Only Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, which u from one end of me world to the olher. Bless all lhe peoples and all the lands; the JlC'ace that b from heaven grant in all our hearU, bUl also the peace of lhis life bestow upon us graciously. The king, the annies, the magistrates, the c:;ounc:;i1Iol1l, the multitudes, our ncighbol1l. our going.<; in and our goings out, order them in all peace." 2. Intel"Ce55ion for the Priesthood: "Remember, o Lord, our Patriarch, honon.-d Father Abba [name). P,'eserve him to us in safety many years in peac:;eful times, fulfilling that holy pontificate, . , . rightly dividing the word of lruth, ... with all the Onhodox bishops. pn.-sbylen, and deac:;ons, and all the fullness of Thy One Only Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church." 3. Intercession for the Congregiltion: "Remem· ber, 0 Lord, our' eon8rega!ioll, bless them; grant that they be to u~ without hindrance, that they be held withoul impediment after Thine holy and blessed will, houses of prayer, houses of purity, houses or blessing." Each intcrce~~ion is followed by the response "Kyrie I3lcison" rr'OlIl the people. Then the creed is recited aloud by the deacons and the eungregalion. The vcrsion in use in lhe Coptic church is the Ni· cenc·Constantinopo!itan Creed, drawn up at the councils or Nkll.Cll a.nd Constantinople (see NICAEA. COUNCIL OF: CONSTANTINOPLE., COUNCIL OF). While the creed is being recited, the priest wash· es his hands 1111'lce al the non:hern side of the allar, then turns to the west and wring.!> his hands before the congregation as a sign of his own absolution from the guilt incurred by those who dare to par· take of the Holy sacrament unwol'lhiJy. He Ihen begins the Praycr of the Aspasmos 10 Ihe Father (see KISS 01' PI',.."C6), at 1.l1e end of which the

deacon exclaims, "Greel one anuther with a holy kiss. " This brings to an end the Mass of Ihe Quechu· mens. After the catechumens have left the church, the LilUrgy of Ihe Faithful begins. Some church historians, however, hold the view thai the depar· lure of the catechumens look place immedilucly after the bishop gave them his blessing, before Ihe recital of the creed. The Liturgy of the Catechumens is rich in biblical symbolic a,.<;S()(:iations. including the following in· !itanecs: 1. During the Prayer of Pauline Incense, the priest, having made a circuit round the allar, leaves the sanctuary and goes all around the chun:h incensing the congregation. This is meant to reflect the comprehensive outward nature of St. Paul's missionary work in bringing the Gospd to the Gen· tiles. In the Acts Incense, however, the priest does not go beyond the inner choir of the congregation, Ihus representing the fael that the TCSt of the apos· tles concentrated their effons upon Jerusalem and Judaea. 2. After incensing for the Prayer of the Acts, the priest stands at the iconostasis, without entering into the ,sanctuary, which is symbolic of Ihe fac:;t Ihat those apostles who dept:l,"ed from Jerusalem in the coune of their missionary effons did not finally return to it, as each of them was lIlar1yred in the region where he Wll.~ chosen to spread the Word of

cod. 3. The total number of circuit!l made round the altar during the Liturgy of the Catechumens is seven: tlu'Ce circuits after the Pmyer of Pauline In· cense, one after the Mystery of Ihe Return, ,II\d three follOWing the Prayer of the Acts incensing. These seven circuits reflect the equivalenl number of circuits milde around Jericho until it.~ walls fell down (Jos. 6:12-20). The analogy e:'lpresses the idea of lhe immlnenl collapse of the stronghold of evil and iniquity. 4. During lhe Calhollcon, the pdeSI r'emains in· side the sanctuary to represent the idea that Christ commanded the apostles nOt 10 leave Jerosalem but to wait for the promi.~e~ of God the Father (Acts 1:4),

With l'Cgtll'd to other ritualistic practices related to conseeralion or ordirnlliun, il is lin established tradition in the Coptic chul"Ch that the consecration of ncw icons, altar vessels, or instruments take place after reading the Pauline epistle; that ordina· tion 10 the presbytery take place after the Pr
MASS OF THE FAITHFUL

Reconciliation; and lhal cunliCctaliun or a new paui3n;:h or hishop t3ke pl3ce 3l1er reading the Acts and the Synaxarion, to indicate that their lask is a continuation of the aposlolic missiOll. DIDI.IOCR"PHY

Carrington, P. Tile EiU!y Chris/ian Chl/reh, Vol. I, p. 269. Cambridge, 1957. Cummings, D. Tile Rudder (PedalionJ, pp. I. 4, 27. 59, 119. 190, 192,539, S7J, 637, 774. Chicago. 1957. J:labIb Jitjis. Asrdr ol·KclIIfjoh o!·Sob'oh, 2nd ed., pp. 185-236. Cairo, 1950. L.eeder, S. II. Modem &n5 olll'e PII"rOQhs. Repr. New Yort., 1973. Mosheim, J. L von. IIrs/i//des of Ecclesiastical HiS/I;)ry, lrans. J. Murdoch. London, 1865. .$aft Ibn al·'Awl, aJ.. Kitdb al.Qawdnin, pp. 28-68. Repr. Cairo, 1927. Shaff, P.lJiSlOry of lire Clrristiarl C/llIrdl, Vol. I, PI'. 495-96,500. Grand Rapids, Mich., 1955. ARCHBISHOP BA5IUOS

MASS OF THE FAITHFUL, the major section of the eucharisilc $C;lvice, durhlg which the oblations ilre consecrnlcd and the bread and wine become the body and blood of Jesus Christ. II is pneceded by the MASS OF nlE CATECHUMENS. which, in the early chul'ch, was the only part of the Divine UtUTIlY open 10 those who had nOI rcccived the S:ll;:rnment of baptism and, consequently, were nOI yel fully acceptcd Into the Christian community of the fAithful. The IllaS!i consists of the cucharistic pmycr:s, thc con.~ccrntion, collective pmyers, Ihe fIlACI'ION, 1Ir1d the COMMUNION,

Eucharistic Prayers These include the following hymns of prdisc and lhanksgiving: The Heavenly Hymn. The deacon clllls upon the congregation 10 sl:l.Ild in awe and offer to God the sacrifice of pr(lise, which, aceurding lu Saini Paul, is a tribute ullcred by lips Ihal acknowledge His name (Hcb. 13:15). It is :1 loken of gnilitudc in remembrance of the expre~ion of thanks rendered by Christ whcn He instituled the sacrament of Ihe Euchalist (Mt. 26:26-27; Mk. 14:22-23; Lk. 22:19; 1 COr. 2:23-25). The cungn.:g-oltiun responds. ''The mercy of peace, the s,1cl'ifice of praise. ,. Then the pliest and the deacon lift the prosplrereill, the great veil cO\'erhlg the oblations,

1565

and shake it gently, a symbolic repre.~ntation of the rolling of the stone away from the entrance of the tomb and of the Re1lurrectlon, which brought about the re<:onciliation between Cod and man. During the ma.'iS, the priest takes the mat that is over the host into his right hand and makes the three following signs of the C!'OAA: lirst, to the west, signing the congregation and saying, ''The Lord be with you all," to which it responds. "And with your spirit": second. to the east, signing his fellow servers and saying, "Ufl 01' yoor hearts:' to which the congregation responds, ''They arc with the Lord"; and, third, he signs himself, saying, "tel us give than~ to the Lord," 10 which the congregation reo sponds, "It is meet and WOf1hy." Thc first of the eucharistic prayers is a thanks· offering 10 God for His loving kindness. The CherubIc Hymn, The choir and the congregalion then sine thc Chcrobic Hymn, which Saint GregaI")' DialogO!i called "Ihe uiumphal hymn of our salvation." the words of which are derived from Isaiah 6:3. This hymn. whieh occurs in most ancient liturgies and in the Constllulions of Ihe Holy Apostles, appears to have beell first used by the Church of Alellandria. "We havc secn that the Sanctus, preceded by an account of the angels' worship. is to be tmeed 10 Alexandria in the work of Origen (c. A.I). 230) And probably goes back in the Alellan· dria use to a period well before Ihal datc" (Dill, 1960. p. 237). The Angelic Wonhlp. The plie.~t places Ihe mat that is in his left hand upon the altar; then he moves the Olher mat from his right to his left hand and takes the mlll Ih(.1 Is upon thc chalice, Holding it, he makes three signs of the cross, lirsl upon himself, Ihcn upun the scrvCTll standing at thc altar, and laslly upon the congr'egation, each time saying, "Holy." He continues praying ft'om Saint Mark's Liturgy, "Truly heaven MU.! earlh are fuJi of Thy holy glory, Ihrough Thine Only.begntten Son our Lord and God and S;wiur and KinK uf us lll1, Jesus Chrisl. Fi1Ilhis Thy .'mcrifice, 0 Lord, wilh Ihe blessing which is from Thee, by Ihe descenl upon it of lhe Holy Spilit." The corresponding praycrs from Saint Basil's and Saillt Gregory's lilurgies are more comprehensive, The fonner includes memorials of man's fall, of the prophets scm by God 10 teach llum of lhings 10 come, of the incarnalion of Jesus Chrlsl In Ihe ful· ness of time, of His Passion, His RC$urrection, As· cem.ion, and promised Second Coming. Saim Greg'

1566

MASS OF THE FAITHFUL

ory, in his liturgy, nudr'CSSed Christ, referring to the indl'SCribable majesty of God's glOl), and the depth of Uis love for mankind; "Thou hast formed me and laid Thy hand upon me, and inscribed in me the Image of Thy power. Thou has endowed me with the gift of reason, ... Thou hast bestowed upon lne 111y knowledge."

The Consec.ratlon Prayers The Inltltullon Narrative or CrolIIlllng the GIrt.. Pointing to the bread and the wine, the priest says, "He instituted for us this great Mystery of godli. ne~~." tlere the deacon brings Ihe censer nearer to the priest for him to incense his hands, after which he conllnues, "For having resoh'ed to gh'e Himself up umo dC:lth for the life of the world." The can· greg.ation responds, "We believe:' He takes the bread Imo hi! left hand :lnd ral~ the mat that was under the host and placl'S it on the altar, saying, "He took bread on His pure hands, which are blessed, life'glving and without blemish." The congregation 53P;, "We believe this is troe, Amen." With hia; ••:yes looking upward. the pricsi comin' uell, "He looked up towards heaven, to Thee, 0 God, His Futher and Lord of :III. He g:lve lhanks. He bles..o;ed il. lie ."lllnctified it." The last thre<: scmences are e;lch accompanied by the sign of Ihe cross and responded 10 by the congregation with the WQrd "Amen," and finally, "We believe. we confe~~, :llld we gloriry." The priest carefully breaks the obl:ltion Imo one· thll'd arid two·thirds without scpamtlng them, and ~ys, "He divided It :lnd gave it to His saintly disci· pies lind pure :.postles S:lying. Takc, cat of It, all of you, for this Is My Bndy which Is to be broken for you ilnd for lIl:1ny, to be given for the rcmlsslon of .~ins. Do thill in remembrance or me.''' Thcn the priest signs thc chalice: "Likewise the chalice aftel' supper, He mixed it or wine find w(l(cr. He Il
The congregation l'Csponds, "Amen, Amen, Amen, Thy death, 0 Lurd, we do pn:ach, and Thy holy resurr(:ctlon :lnd :l.o;cension to he:lven we do confess. We praise Thee, we bless ThL'C, we give Ihanks unto Thee, :lnd we supplicate Thee, 0 our Lord." Here anI.' must siren the dynamic aspect of such a memorial, whieh is not merely a memal exercise of blinging :In evelll to memory. Aeconling to Jean D:llliclou, "the Greek term 'anamnesis' does not me:ln merely II l'Cmembrance or a memorial of a thing regarded as being absenl, but il menns a reo c:alling or representing the thing in :In active sense. II doa not mean a remembrance of Ihe sacrifil;:e of Christ as something plJrely of the past, something that was done, but as :I real :lnd present sacrifice which hu its effect on U$. It is an efficndous com· memor.uion" (1956. pp. 136-J7). The Eplclells, or I~ InvocatIon of the Holy Splrll. Thill ill a pl:tition for the descent of the Holy Spiril on the oblations to change them inlo Christ's body and blood. Kneeling down, Ihe priest says inaodibly Ihe following prolyer: "We p....y Thee, 0 Lord our God, we Thy sinful and unwonhy ser· vants. We worship Thce by the pleasure of Thy goodness, th:ll Thy Uoly Spirit nlay descend upon US and upon th(.'SC offerings placed here, 10 purify Ihem, lransubstantl:lte them, and manifest them holy unto Thy saints." Here Ihe deacon excluims, "Let us allend. Amen," and all mise their head~. The prieSI crosses the oblation In the palen thrice and says, "And may He make this bread Hi.~ Holy Body," to which each member of the l;:ungrcl!l3tiun says, "I believe," and Ihe priest stl'etchell OUI his hands und bows his head to the Lord, suying, "Our Lord, our God, and our Savior, Jesu.~ Christ. to be given for the remission of sins lmd unto eternal life for all who paI1akc there· of," :lnd the penple say, "Amen." Sii:ninlj: the chalice three times, the priest contino ues, "And this cup, also, Ihe I'reelous 13I00d or His New Testament," to which the people respond as previously, and then he also continues us bcrure. Finally, thcy say Amen, followed hy a threefold Kyrie e!eiSOIl.

While some theologians believe th:lt the actual con:>ccmtion of Ihe oblutions is effccted through the redt:ltion of the vel)' words of Jesus Christ in the institution narrative, othcl"!i :Ire of opinion that only :II Ihe descent of the l'loly Spirit can such const:crntion take pl:lcc. But mther than atuibuling the procl$.~ of the conSCCI'ation to the Son separate fralll the Holy Spirit, it would be marc appropriate

MASS OF THE FAITHFUL

to interprel the act of ,he consccnuion of 'he obla· tions :l$ the combined ""nctificmion by the Holy Trinily. II is notCWOl1hy Ihal in &linl Gregory's UI· urgy the priest supplicatCll the Son 10 M:nd His Holy Spirit upon Ihe worsllipers lllld upon the oblalions, stre55ing at the ~me time the positive mle of the Son in Ihe process of transformation: "Thou. 0 Master, only by Thy own voice, change these gifts which arc prc5Cnled.... Send Ihe grace of !he Holy Spirit upon uS to sanclify and Irnnsfonn ,hese ublations whieh arc presentcd into the Body and Blood of our salvation."

Colleellve Prayers These arc of a eumprchensive nature, as they embrace the entire community of the church, both mllitam and triumphant, united in Jesus Christ. They include Lhe smaller intercessions, the com· memonuion of lkIints, and the diptychs. The Seven Smaller Intercessions. Holding a mat in each rond, the priesl 5:t)'ll these inlerces· sions preceded by Ihe follQwing prnyer: "Make u.s all ",onhy, 0 Lord, 10 panake of Thy Holies unto Ihe sanc,:lificatlQn oC uur souls. our bodies and our spirits, that we may become one body and one spiril. and be given a ponion and an inherilam:e with Ihe sainl.~ who have been well·pleasing unto Tht-'C since the beginning." The seven intcrccssions are as follows: I. Inlcrccssion for Church Peace: "Remember, 0 Lord, Ihe peace oC Thine One, Holy, Universal, and Apostolic Church." 2. Inten;e~ion for the CllUrch fathers: ''The Church which Thou h:l.~t purch:l.~ed unto Thyself with Lhe Precious BloOU of Thy Chr·ist. Keep her and all her Orthodo~ bi~hop~ in peace. And remem· bel' lin;t, 0 Lord, our blessed 1':ILl1er, Pope, and Patriarch [name]." 3. In,ercessiOn fur till.: Church Presby,ers: "And tho~c who with him [Le" 'he patriarch) rightly divide thl.: wurd uf Thy Ll'llth in uprightness. Preserve them unto Thy Church LO shepherd Thy flock in pcace. Remember, 0 Lord, the Onhodo~ pricst· hood and 'he dlaconute." 4. Inlercession fol' Mercy: "And all mini~tl'l'l:, and all who are in virgini'y, and ,he purily of Thy fal,h· ful people. Remember, 0 Lord, to have mercy upon us alL" 5. Intercession for tht' Plnce: "Remember, 0 Lord, the s....rely of Ihis holy place, which is Thine, and all othcr placcs and monasteries of our Onha. do. fathers."

1567

6. In'eret-ossion for Na,ure: Prayers arc said for

the waters, planl.~, the weather conditions, and Ihe rising and falling oC the river Nile. The wording of thi~ intercession is closely relaled 10 the particular season of the year and the cultivation cycle. 7. Intercession for Ihe Oblalions: "Remember, 0 Lord, Ihose who have offered Ihese oblations, those for whom Ihey have been oITered, and thus<: through whom they have been offered. Give Ihem all the heavenly rL'Compcnse." These ~\'en inlercessions penain 10 Saini Basil's Lilurgy. Saint Gregory's, on the other hand, includes a few mo~, namely, intercessions Cor kings and rolen. for rich and poor, for young and old, for celibates and manied couples. It Is to be noted that here, but nOt in the Liturgy of Saint Mark, the intercessions follow, nOt precede, the epiclesis prayers. The Commemorallon of SainI•. The recitation of the names of salnlS Is a significanl part of Lhe Divinc Uturgy. In this section of the Liturgy, the priest says, "For such, 0 Lord, is the eommnndment of Thy only·begotlon Son, thai we share in Ihe commemoration of Thy saints. Graciously. 0 Lord, remember all the sainls who have pleased Thee since Ihe beginning: our holy fnthers and patri· archs. Ihe prophets, Ihe preachers, the evangelists, the manyrs, the conk-uol'S, nnd nil the spirits of the righleou~ who were consummale in their faith:' The D1ptyeh,. At Ihe close of Ihe eommemomtion of sainlS, the deacon lIIi)'S, "Let the ~Iders say Ihe names of our fathers Ihe holy patl;archs who have fallen asleep; may Ihe Lord repose their souls, and forgive us our sins." ~Iel'e the pliest inaudibly sayS, "Remember "I.w, 0 Lord, all thosc who have fallen asleep and re.~(ed, in the priesthood and the laity. VouchwCe, 0 Lord, repose their souls in the bosoms of our saintly fathel'5 Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob." The sillnificllnc,:e of the diptyehs-thc com· memomtlon of, and prayer for, the dcptlrtcd-w", stressed by many or the early ftlthers. The Fracllon This is tbe ceremonial brcaking of the consecmt· ed br'ead in the eudlilristic service (see FRAt.TION). The Communion This is the culmination of ,he eucharls'ic service,

in prepar,uion for which the pricst says, "Make us all wonhy, 0 Lord, to panake oC Thy Holy I}()dy and Thy Holy Precious Blood, in purificalion of 01.11' liOul~, 01.11' bodies, and 01.11' spirits, and Corgiveness or our sins and trespasses, lhal we rnny become one

1568

MATARIYYAH, AL·

body and one spirit with TIlee. Glory be to Thee, with Thy Good Father and the Holy Spirit, forever. Amen."

The celebrant then panakes of the communion himself, followed by lhe other prk"Sls 5Crving with him, befoll." admini~tering Holy Communion to the deacons lind the mcmbcn of the congregation. Meanwhile, the re.c;1 of Ihe congregation sing Psalm ISO, standing throughout as a mark of respect until the celebrant ha... completed lhe washing of the liturgical vessels and offered lhanks 10 God, ~ying. "Our moulh.~ are filled wilh ~ahalion. and our tongues wilh joy, ha\'ing paJ1akcn of Thy immonal Sacl'3mentJl, 0 Lord." Taking II lillie ....'ilter in his palms. the celebrant sprinkles it on the allar, saying, "0 Angel of this oblatiun, who flil:St up to the heights with this our praise, remember us befon:: the Lord, that He may furgivt: us our sins," After the Lord's Prayer, he dismisses the congregati
Brighlman. F. E. Li/llrgies Eastern alld Westen.. Ox· ford, 1967, (oquin. R. G. "Anaphorc alexandrin de 51. Marc," Le MldlOtr 82 (1969):307-356. I>anielou, J. The Bible ulld the Liturgy. London. 1956. Dill:, G. The Shape of the Liturgy. London, 1960. Jungmann. J. A., S. J. The Early UI"rKY 10 the Time of Gregory Ihe Greul, Ir'nns. francis A. Brunner. London, 1960. Leitzmllnn, Ii. MaliS of Ihe Lord's Supper. Oxfol'd, 1974. M~llll!l, T. Y" Chrlsl ill the EllchariSI. Cail'O, 1986. AIlCtllllStlOP BASIUOS

MATARIYYAH, AL-. See PlIgrimages.

MATINS, LITURGY OF, the prayer of the first of the seven CANONICAl. HOURS, 10 he said al daybrcllk. wilh reference to the coming of the True Light (Le., Jesus Chl·ist). It was instituted to offer thanks to God for having brought believers .ow.fely to the moming. Morning prayer wac; prescribed in the Constitutions of the Holy Apostles (1951, p. 496): "OlIer up your prayers in lhe morning, at the third hour. the Sblth. the ninth, the eveninlt, and at the cock-crowing: in the morning, returning thank.'lthat the Lord

has sent you light, that He has brought you past the night, and brought on the day." Reference to morning pl'nyel' occurs also in the writings of most of the early rathcl'S, Dwelling upon the special significance of each canonical hour, Saint Cyprian (The TrtlQtiStis 4.34-35) wrote: "But ror us, beloved brethren, besides the hours of prayer observcd of old, both thc times and the sacraments have not increased in number. For we must also pray in the morning, that the Lord'~ res· urrectiOn may be celebrated by morning prayer . Also at the sunsclling and at the decline of day . when we: pray lUld ask that light may return to us IIgain, we prny for the ad\'ent or Christ." Illstorically, morning pra)'cr was originally per' funned following the Psalmody of Midnight and, in II later development. became a separate office. This is evident rrom the wrilings of John CASSIA'" (c. 360-435). who. as a young man, joined a monaslery at Belhlehem and later studied monasticism in Egypt. He paid tributc to the rigorous practices of Egypti.:ln monks in $elms, in contnast with those or their Western countcrpar1s: "But you must know that this Mauins, which is now very generally observed in western countries. was appointed as a canonical ollice in Our own day. and also ill our own monastery. where our Lord Jesu.~ Christ was born," The institution of Ihe Office of Morning Prayer had. however, been mentioned by Saint BASIL THE GREAT (C. 330-379) prior to the time of John Caliliian: "Among us the people go al night to Ihe house of pl'&yCl'S, and. in distress, affliction, and continual tears, mD.klng confession to God, D.l la~t riSe frum their pmyel'li and begin to sing ps,,[ms ... and so after pa'llling the night In various psalmody, praying al inlervals as the Jay begins tu Jawn, all together, a~ with one voice and nne heart, mise the psalm of eunfeniun to the Lord, e:leh funning rur himsclr his own expl'es.~ion of penitence" (LellerI 207, 3 [p. 247]). !Is in all seven canonical hours, lhe lirst haul' starts with an introductory section consisting of the Lord's Prayer, a prayel' of thanksgiving, and Psalm SO. TIle prelude to lhe morning prayer service is chamcteriled by a tone of earnesl l'equest, gmdual. Iy increasing in fervor: "0 come, let us worship! 0 come, let us I"(~quest Christ our God! 0 come. Jet us worship! 0 come, let us beg Christ our King! 0 come, let us worship! 0 come. let us enu'Cat Christ our S:lViorl" The Pauline-epi.~tle reading, which is taken from

MATfHEW I

EphC5ians 4:1-5. im;orpulllll,."S a Christian pllw of Dclion for the day, sUI)plicd by Saim Paul'li words, "I therefore, a prisoner for the Lord, beg you 10

Icall a life wonhy of the calling to which you have been called, with all lowliness and meekness, with patience. forbearing one anOlher in love... ." This Is follo .....ed hy the n.·ading of nineteen Psalms, aJ; folluws: Psillms 1-6.8,12,13.15,16.19, 25,27,63,67,70,113, and 143. The Gospel reading

is Iaken From John 1:1-11 and is followed by a commentary. the Angelic PSALMODY, the TRISAGION,

and the creed. preceded by ils introrJuction. "Kyrie E1eison" is then said fany-one times, followed by the .. bsolulion and the Lortl's Pm),cr. AJlClllllSIlOP BASIIJOS

J

l\tATIEWOS. Su Ethiopian Pn:la(C!i.

MATTHEW I, eighty-scventh patriarch of the See

I

of Saint Mark (1378-1409) (feast day: 7 Kiyakh). Mauhew I is better known by the title of Matta al·Miskln. or Matthew the Poor, He W3S a native of a small yillage called Bani RCiI., in Ihe di:micl of al·Ashmlinllyn in Uppe" Egypt. His life is beller known than that of his immt:diatc predecessors. and Ihe IlIS-WRV 01' TIIF. PATRIARCHS contains amplc material on his actions and moycments. He also appears in the Islamic sources of the founL'Cnth and lift..::emh centuries. Bom in a family of mcngel' mean.~ whose yoca· tion was agricul1u,·e. he spent his early ye;lr5 as a shepherd looking after his parents' slleep. He had a religious tempermllenl. and a.~ a child. he liked to play the ecclesiaMical game of inveSling othcr chilo dren with llle ranks or deacon and prcsbyter, while laying his hands on thcm :lOd pronouncing the blcssing axios (wonhy) Ih,'ee limes. This slory is rellllniscenl of young ATHANASIUS t. lhe Apostolic. when he was discovcn::d by Al.EXANDElR J baptizing olher children nn lhc seashore. Al lhe uge of roul" teen, Matthew left horne ;lnd went to nne nf the ndghboring monn.qtel'ies In Upper Egypl, and lhere he continued to ;u,;t as :, shepherd for theil· sheep. Those who knew him althe time :ldmircd his eour· age and his spiritual ability 10 preyent the wild beasts :md hycnas from harming his flock. Hc was spar~cly dre~ed and was girdled with a simple rope. BUI he was a young man of great ehann and wa.~ admh'ed by a girl who prniscu his eyebrows. In oroer 10 get rid of hcr, he shaved his eyebrows and. feigning madne~. presented them to her.

1569

not long before his bishop discovered his qu..litiL'S IIn,1 anointed him in the priesthood at the age of eighteen years. When the bishop was criti· cizcu for uoing this, his answer was that the young man was lit to become not only a priest but also a patriarch. As priest, Mallhew decided to go to the Monastel)' of Saint Antony (DAVR ANIlA A,.,,.oNIVOS), where he acted all II deacon, concealing his priesthood. After some l.ime in lhat wilde me». he movoo to Jerusalcm, where he spent his time in ardcnt prayer and fasting as well as in rendering service 10 others. Returning to Egypt, he headed for ()usq:im aml the MonaslCI)' of Our lady. bener known I'S DAYll. AL-MUI;iARRAQ. Although affiliated with thai monaslery. he Ih',ed as a solitary in a neighboring ca,·e. when: he was subjected 10 many trials and exposed to the company of wild bea.~L'i that he man· aged 10 lame. Despite his seclusion from society. his fame began to spread: and after the death of GA· BRIE!. IV. iI wa.~ deddcd by the community of the faithful 10 recruit him for the pauiarchalc. Mauhew was reti<:elll in accepting this nomination. But when pressed beyond his power. he proposed going back 10 the old Monastery of SainI Antony and ask· ing for the verdict of its ciders, hoping that they might deter the conKregation rr(lm hili rceroitment. ~Iowever. Ihe elders confirmed the proposal and he W"olS forcibly earricd to Alexandria for his invcsti· ture on 16 Misra, which happcnL-d to be the com' memoration day of the Vi,-gin. As pat"iarch he lierved the community in eyery way imaginable, and he retllined his humilily by p..'lrticip..'llion with others in Ihe m().'lil meni:ll tasks, although this neyer diminished his respectability in the eyes or olhel'S. All his Income was spent in helping thc needy, the poor, the monks, and the nuns. He helped all who were In oeed, whether they were Copts, Muslims, or Jews. Individual Slor· Ics of his gcncrosity are enumenlted in delail in the It

Wall

History

vi fhli

Patriarch,l.

In 1365 Egypt h(ld sustllil1cd a grcnl defcat hy the crusadel1l ;11 Ale~andrl(l. I'ierre de Lusignan and the hosls of Cyprus h:ld descended on the city and wreaked havoc wilhln lIs walls: they withdrew c;lrrying with them not only lremendous 1001 but also many prisoners and l:uplivcs. Egypt had to pay a heavy price for the liberation of those cllplives, who were primarily Muslims. MIIllhcw pal1lcipated with all the menns III his disJlO!illlln buying the frcedo", of thclie prisoners, which must have COlJl1ed the sympathy of Ihe Islamic administration or the coun· t,y. In the me:lntime. he acted as a forceful liaison between Ih..:: sultans of Egypt all WI'II as the crosad·

1570

MATTHEW I

ing Franks and the sovereigns of the Christian kingdom of Elhiopiot.. Valuable girls wert ellchanged between the two sides, one of the rnO!'t highly valued presents to Ihe religious kings or Bhiopia being a fragment or the true Cross. Matthew's contemporary Mamluk sultans includ· ed 'AlA' al·DIn 'All (1377-1381), $all'll.} ai-Din HajjI (1382), BarqOq (1383-1389), al·Na~ir Faraj (13981405), 'In al·Din 'Abd al 'Mil, (1405), and al-Na~ir Faraj (.~econd reign 1406-1412), Sultan Barqllq requested Matthew to write to the Ethiopiun sover· eign on hl~ behalr in order to Ulablish peaceful arid friendly rclatiom. belween Iheil' two countries. II is interesting to note thai Ihe patriarch's leller was addrcsst:d to IMwod, brolher of the reigning sovereign, and Ihat [);\wod had deposed his brOlher and seized the erown by the time the leiter reached me Ethiopian eapital. Because of thi~, Mallhew WM considered to have prophetic qualilies. Mauhew's reign was nol I'ree from local IroublC!i, nOI only From the Muslim amirs but also from the memben of his own chul'Ch. In onc CllSC, two Cop· tic monh sought to join the priCj';thood and were refused by the patriarch because of lheir unfitness. They decided to vilify the patriarch and poison the minds of the administralion llj.dnst him. When their report W(lS discarded, they attacked the patriarch in perwn and told him lhal one of Ihem should replat::e him as patriarch and thai lhe olht::r should he ;l bishop. Mattht::w smiled and asked them to woolit fony days. after which they could come and take his seal. He even prayed for them and gave them holy communion. Within thiny days, Ihe dissidenl monks died, and Ihis was regarded as a mimcle of a holy mao. Another monk rebelled again~t Ihe pope .tnd apostatb:ed to Islam, and eyen enlisted in the Muslim army. The congregalion reo quested the pope to cune him, bUl instead Matthew prayed for him and his return 10 the faith. 'l1le monk rcc:mtt::d and suffered mar1yrdom, lhe fate of those who withdrew from Islam. This Wrul also reo gar'ded .tS a miracle. Case_~ of those who recanted from tslam atltl returned to Christianily in Matlhew's reign became numerous, and all suffered manyrdom. The Islamic historian al-MAOltIZ! nlen· lions a number of specific cases and tht:: Hi5tOry 01 tire Patriun:hs says lhat fony·nine manyn suffered dttapitation ot..~ the penalty for their withdrawal from Islam after their conversion to il. Matthew's relalionship with the Muslim adminislralion was sometimes precarious. He was in Ihe good graces of &rqUq. who was defeated by ;l Mamluk amir by the name of Min!A-..h, after whkh

Matthew retired to the Karak. Then a dissident member of the Coptic community fraudulenlly informed Minwh Wt Barquq had left his lreasure in the custody of the palriarch. Consequenlly Min!lIsh summoned the patrinrch and demanded lhe lreasure. which he did not po~~eu. l1te patrillreh was sobjected to torlure, but was freed after the truth bet::ame evident. Another Mamluk by the name of Yalbogha al-Samir! once threatened the pope with decapitalion, bUI the feurless pope extended his neck to his persecutor, who withdrcw his sword upon seeing such unusual cournge. In fact. Mauhew displayed Ihis unusual courage on numerous occasions when defending the church and his community. When some dissidents and Ihe Muslim mob wanted 10 d(.'$lmy DAVJl SHAU!V.N, the pope stood fast against them. The case reached the attention of Barqllq, who sent me judges of the four Muslim !>eelS with an explicit order 10 lind the tNth about Ihe allegations thai the structure was 0..... newcd against the slipulations of the COVENANT OF 'UMo\.Il. When il was found Ihat the!>e reports werc fmudulent, the cnse was dismissed and the Illonot..~· tel)' saved. The Hislory of tire Patriarchs mentions another instance whez·c Mauhew succeeded in stopping an act of humiliation to Coptic women. The Mamluk amir SI1dl1n ont::e decreed that Coptic women drcss in dark blue robes. Mauhew objecled and argued against this innovalion and won. Perhaps the 1a...1 memorable t.-pisode of Ihe palri· arch's long reign was Ihe one associated wilh the strong Mamluk amir Jaml11 ai-Din, detailed in the IliSlory of tire Palriarc:/rs. He accused Matthew of complicity in a scheme with Ethiopia 10 deslroy Meeca and Ihe Muslim holy places. The penahy for such a crime was dcalh. Malthew pmycd for a nalu· ral end beCore Jam:'il al·DIn should inniCl Ihe punishment on him; his prayers were answered, Mat· tht::w died at the age of seventy-two on 22 rObah. Of these years, ht:: spent fony as tl bachelor' !lrld a monk, and thh1Y·IWO as p!ltriarch. App;trcntly his funeral was a turbulent occasion in which Innume..· able people congregated from all walb of life. He was buried in the tomb he had prepared Cor himself at DAVit AL·KHANOAO in Cairo. BIBLIOGRAPHY

!bn al·¥yraR, 'Ali ibn Dawi:id. Nulhat a{·Nll/as \VaIl/-Abdiitl Ii TaM'drildt al_Z
MATTHEW THE POOR, SAINT

MATTHEW II. ninetieth patriarch of the See of Saini M:lrk (1452-1465). Manhew appea,", in the HIS. TORY Of TlUl PATlUAII.CIlS under the name MaU4wus.

Briefly recorded arc the dales of his consecration and dCCL-aSC and the fae\ lhal he was a monk of lhe Monastery of Our Lady known as l)"VR AL·MUl:lARRAQ.

Any other information about his life, either before or after his Inv~tilurc. we must galher from the Islamic sourccs.

The Muslim historian al·SakMwI tells us lhal his secular n:lmc before laking the monastic vow was

Sulayman al.~·ldl (Ihe Upper Egyptian). which he changed 10 MaUll or MaCUiwuS when joining al-MuJ:tarraq Monash~ry. He acceded 10 the throne of Saini Mark during the later years ofLhe reign of the

[

Mamluk sultan Jaqmaq (1438-1453) and he was a contemporary of Fakhr ai-Din 'Ulhm1n (1453), Say{ ai-Din InAI (1453-1460), ShiMb ai-Din Al)mad (1460), and Say{ :I.I·Oln Khushqadam (1460-1467). Matthew 11 was consecrated and Iivt.-d in the his· toric Church of the Virgin at t.WuT lUWAnAIl. which was :I Coptic quar1er. Apparently the situation of the Copts in his limes was relatively secure and peaceful, the sultans being tOO involved in their own troubles with their Mamluk amin to devote much time to the patriarch and his church. Howev· er, shonly arter his investiture, probably in the year 1453. an Ethiopian embassy arrived in Cairo with gifts for the ~uhnn. They wanted Matthew to appoint a Coptic archbishop for their country. and they pleaded for pellee and security for the Copts an(ltheir churches in Egypt. A monk named Gabri· el wa.~ consecrated liS bishop of the Ahys,~inian diocesc. An event of univcl'1l3l impol·tance took place in 1453 when Constantinople fell to the Turks under Mu~ammad thc Conqueror. who sent an cmbaSl;y to thc court or Sullan laqmaq to annoum;c his lrium· phant enll)' into the Bywnline capital. BIBLIOGRAPHY Lane-Poole. S. His/ury uf E(;YfJt ill the Middle Ages, London, J90J. _ _ . The Moltammadall Dynasties. Paris. J 925. SUSHI Y. uum

1571

Tflhk al.N~ra in Lowe" Egypt, His biography is less lhan tlwee IIne~ in the History, where his date.~ of inveSliture and death arc mentioned. It also mentions the fact that he wa... an ascetic monk al .,AYR AL.OAR:AMOS when he \\~olS elected to thi.~ high office. O. Mdnan.lus states thnl he was also a resident of Ihe Mona...tery of Saint Mac;:arius (OAYII. ANnA MAoAa). He was II COnlemporary of the Olloman sultans Murad IV (1623-1640) and Ibrahim I (1640-1648). Because he lived in one or the darkest periods of Egyptian hislory, it i~ impossible to discover further infonnation about his life. BtBLlOGRAPHY Hanotaux, G" ed. lIisroir~ de la "IlrioH igypliulIle, 7 vok Paris, 1931-1940. Meinardus, O. Christian Egypt: A,ldem a'ld Mod~rn, CaIro, 1977. StiOHI Y. LAl:Ill:I

MATTHEW IV. pope of Alenndria and 102nd palriarch of Ihe See of Saint Mark (1660-1675). Mallhew (Malt~wus or Mall:\ al·Mlri) of Mir in Upper Egypt was a monk of lMYR AL.8AIlAMOS when he wali selected to the patriarchate. He remained in office for founeen years and sill: months. This is till the infonnation supplied by the HI!>"TOII.Y Of TilE PA· TIIIARCIIS in one of the wlI'kest period.. of Egyptian hislOry, He was a contempol1lry of the Ottoman suhan Mu~ammad IV (1648-1687). During Matthew's palrl:lrclHlte Egypt w:ts governed by a viceroy apPOinled from Constantinopk without ostensi· ble impact on lhe palriarch or' the Coptic church beyond the levy of the annual tax. IUULlOCRAPIIY HanOlaux, G" cd. J!i.l/oire de la 11I1/ion
MATTHEW THE POOR, SAINT, early. MATTHEW III, one hundredth patriarch of the See of Saint Mark (1634-1649). Mauhew is de· sc"ibed in the HISTORY 01' Tltl': PAllUAaCHS as al· Tlikhl. which IilCes his provenance as the city of

•

c1gh,h-eentury holy man. MlIuhcw is mentioned in the Arabic SYNAXARION of the COplS, at the clay of his feast. 7 Kiyahk. The recension from Lower Egypt gives him a rather small place and pUIS him at Aswan instead of ~ftjn. but lhe recension from Upper Egypt accords him a much longer notice.

1572

MAUNDY THURSDAY

Numerou~

Coptic fnlgmcntS, belonging to three co· dice" have come down to us (Campagnano, 1978. pp. 223. 229, 233. flnd 234). He is mentioned also in the Life of AU!XANDER II (70S-730; PO 5. pI. I. p. 79). 1080 $AI-III 11m AKMUNIAN speaks of him in sever· al p~gcs. Through confusion of the diacritical marks. he confuses tSNJ. with An~ina and Askit with ~fon.

According to the IUSIURY 01' THE PATRtARCHS, Apa Mauhcw wa... a nat.lve of ~fOn, but the SYlfa.wriolf makes hilll a native of Bishniy. a small village in the nome of 0Ct~. now \'anished. The I/islory of the Ptllritln;hs lind Abo ~lih say that he was a fisherman. He Is also called an IINCItORlTI; but Coptic fragments say that he founded a monastery in the name of Saint 'ACliOM1US, without specifYing the place. It seems that this ",-as the present monastery of M:llIhew the PO(Ir at bna. It is called the Monas· tery of the Polter. but we cannO! explain this name. The lIistOry of the Po/riard,s. the Synaxarion. and the Coptic £ragmen.... recount aoove all his mir..· des. but the pcrwnality of Manhew shines through them. He seems to have been very severe in making the Iflw of God prev-..i!. The mimcles are interesting because they show lhe Christian menttllity ut this pcri(."I. BIBLIOGRAPIIY

CDmpagnano, A. "Monad egizi:mi fm V e VI ..eco· 10." Vetuu Chr;sliallonllll IS (1978):223-46. Winlock. H. Eo, and W. E. Crum. Tile MOllastery of Epiphallill,~ III Thehes, pt. I. New York. 1926. Rt!N.£·GEORGE5 COQUlN

MAUNDY THURSDAY. See feasts. Minur.

MAURITIUS, SAINT (feast day, 25 TOt), the fa· vorite lind must widely venerated of the saints of the THEBAN I.R(;ION. During the Middle Ages, he was l'evel'ed as the Ilual'ui:m of several professions. in· cluding soldiel~, armorer'S, and dy<::rs. Several or· d<::rs Wl.'re established in his honor, including the Ordel' of the Golden roletee, foum.k-d by Philip the Good of Burgundy (1429), and the Order of Saint Maulice, founded by Amadeus VIII of Savoy (1434). He is rccogniled a... lhe pau-on saint of the diocese of Sluen (Sion. capital of the canton of ValaL~), of the city of Saint Maul'ice·en·Yalais (:mcient Agaunum), of Saint Moritz in the upper Engadine.

and of the canton of Appclnell I (Rhine). where his feast day is a cantonal holiday. lie also became the pllu-on saint of entire communilies and kingdoms: the Langobardi. the Merovingians. the CDrolingians. Ihe BUl'gundians, flnd later the Savoyards. The Holy Roman Emperors looked to him for proteclion. hi 926. Henry I of Germany (919-936) cL-ded the presenl Swi~~ canton of Aa.-gau in retum for the hlllee of Saint Maurice; heneefonh. thi.. lance. along with his sword and spurs. wen: alllong the most significant insignia of the imperial throne. Funhennore. cenain emperors were anointcO before the Altar of Saini Maurice in Saint PeleT·" Ca· lhedral at Rome. More than 650 religious foundalions dedicated to the saint can be traced in France and other Europe· an countries. A large number of churches and altars In Switzerland hear his name; a few of them may be enumerated by canton: Cllrr/01I AIl'l:IlII: Prarrklrche in Berikon. Beinwil{Frciamt. Oberrohrdori, Wtlltlin..wil, as well as in the formerly Catholic churcht."S of Suhr, Umikon, and Zofingen; CaIlIO" LlIctmt: Emmen. Pfeflikon. Ruswil. SchOlZ, Ohm· stal. and Saint Lcodegar In the Hofkirche in Lu· ceme; Call/on SoIOllmm: Domach, K1dnulzcI. Kricgstelten. and Trimbach; AppetlleU J (Rhille): lhe Stosskapelle. Special me'llion lllay be made of the Church and Abbl.-y of Saint Maurice-en·Valais, of lhe Church of Saint Moritt in the Engadine. and of the Monaslery Chapel of Einsledeln, where his. name is highly revered. The Egyptian origin of lhe saint is attested by etymological eonsidemtions. The Coptic Greek name Maudkio.s (fenl.. Maurikia) appc:lrs in the pol· pyri and is identic;al with the Roman name Maudtiu.., according to G. Hcuser. P. MUlIer suggests that the n:lllle nmy have been derived from Moer'is, which is nssodated with the Mdent lake in thc Fayy(Jm; indeed. we encounter this nume on epitaphs of the Ptolcmaic and Cuptie periods, and it is identical with tbe name of this lake, which is still used as II persun,,1 name among the Copts. [See IIIJo: Fellx and Regula; UI'SUS of Solothurn; Yel'ena of ZUrl.llclt,] BIDLIOGRAPIIY

Balthasar, J. A. F. Sdwluclrrifl liir die lebu[sc!lc J.el:iull mler dcm HeiligclI Maun'tills I/Ild seille Geseflsc1lafl, wider Prof. Spretlcell. Luceme. 1760. Berchen. D. van. I~ marlyr de la legioll Th~bairre. Ba...el. 1956. Bmun, J. W. J. Zm Gesdlichte (Ier thebllisc1u!-II I.e.. I:ioll. Bonn, 1855.

MAWHOB IBN MAN~OR IBN MUFARRIJ AL-ISKANDARANi

Dupr.u.. L Le.:i Paniol/s de S. Mal/rice d'AgUlwe. Studia FriburgCnliia. n.~. 27. Fribourg. 1961. G~nrdl,

B. P., and A, S. HUn!. The Teb/lmi:> Papyri.

Vols. 1-3. London, 1902-1938. Henberg. A. J. Du he.ilige Mllllri/ius.

ow..~Jdon.

1936. Heuser, G. Die PecTSQllemUlmen du Knptttl. Leif)"Lig. 1929. Preisigke. F. Sammtlbllch griechischer Urlcw,dell ails AID'pltn. Stl'aSbOllrg, 1913. -::-c;-- Name"bllch. Heidelberg, 1922. Rettberg, F. W. Kirchengeschichlt! Dell/schlund:;. Gtluingen, 1846. Theurillct, J.-M. "L'abbaye de Saini Maurice d'Agaunc dfrs Oligines a III I'<.':forme canoniale (515-530)." In Vallesia. Vol. 9. pp. 1-128. Sinn, 1954. SAMIR F. GIfl.(;I~

MAWH(JB IBN MAN~(JR IBN MU· FARRIJ AL.ISKANDARANI (c. 1025-11(0), redactor and co:luthol' of the H1.!>iORY OF THE PATRIARCIlS, begun by sAwlRUS rBN AL..MUOAFFA'. This imponant historical te11 aCllJally owes ils survival to Mawhub, who, with the a.'i.~i!ilan<:e of olho:rs, <:01lccled the palriarchal lives wrillen by earlier biographers and compiled them into one book, which he completed by adding the biographies of the two pauiardl5 of his own lifetime, In lhis contribution of his O ....'ll, he slresscs the unily with the earlier lives by referring to them regularly ant.I sometimes even by completing them . The many autobiographical notes scattered throughout Mawhiib's texl allow one to reconstroct II fairly accurate pictUI'e of his life and pcrliOnality, in <:onll1l5t to most other conuibutors the His/of)' of tire Patriarclrs, some of whom remain totally nnonymous. Mawhuh helonged to one of lhe most prominent Coprie fumllies of Alcxandlia. Around 1050, his father was enlrusred with lhe preservatioo of lhe skull of Saint MARK. At his father's dearh, Mawhuh himself inherited this honor. He had a brother, AbO al.'AIl\' FlIhd, who suITel'ed martylxlom in 1086. MawhOb's wife is mentioncd once, and his son YO!):.nn;>, twice. He also referred 10 his maternal unete ~daqah ibn Sunlr, who wn.~ a nephew of Tadros, bishop of R:L~hid. Mawhub's wealth and social p~tige appear particularly in episodes in which he acls as an interme.. diary between the Coptic community and the Muslim authorities. When the govcmQr manages to II

'0

I

1573

keep the <:hureh of Mar JirjL~ in Alexandria open, despite the closing of churehcs all over Egypt, Mawhub is among the pen;ons who secretly fC(:dve lhe keys, When Ihe marauding Lawata Bcrbcn lake the patriarch CHRISTODOUUlS (1047-1077) as a hostage, it is Mawhab who pays the ransom. Although the name of Siwlrus ibn al-MuQafTa' is usually al1ached 10 lhe His/vf)' of /he Palriarchs, it has been recognized for some time thai his contribution, according 10 most scholan, con~i~ted of the collt..'Ction of Coptic ~ource teltlS and their tmnslation Into Arabic, whereas the final redaction was lhe wQrk of Mawhub (Gmf, 1947, p. 302; Samir. 1975, p. 157; Johnson, 1977, pp. 106-110, 115-16). Amung those aUlhoN, I). W. JohnSQn (1977, p. 108) drew allcnlion 10 thc problem of the ~tdking paral· leis between lhe redactional notes llscribed 10 Sllwlrus (Inti ,hQSC of Mawhoh. J. den Heijer, contending tba! all those notcs must be alldhuted 10 Mnwhob, concludes, therefore, that MawhOb is thus to be considered lhe col1cclor of the Coptic SQur<:es and the main editor of the His/vI')' of the Palr;arcJlS. Den I'leijer was assisled in Ihis task by lhe deacon Abo l;Iablb MikhAil ibn Badir al·DarTUmhiirl, by the priest Yu'annis, knvwn as Zukayr, l'upcrior of the monastery of Nahy:l, and by the deacon &qlrnh.. Nakhlah (1943, p. 20) a.scribed to S1wirus the nOte in which these men are mentioned and thcrerore regarded them lIS his contemporaries. (For the teltt of this note.!il.'l.' Seybold. 1912, p. 132, and 19041910, p. 141). The deacon Abu l;IabIb also aCled as lranslator of the Coptic texts into Antbic, MawhOb staned his work in March or April 1088. He apparently completed his edition of Lh'cs 1-65 after the death of the caliph at.Muslan~ir in 1094. At this poinl, he started writing his own hVIJ blogrnphics of the patri· archs of his own time.~ (den Heijer, 1984, wis. 33947).

The rwo patriarch lives of Mawhob's IWlld lIrc Ihose of CltlUS'l'OVOULUS (1047-1077) and CYRrr. II (1078-1092). G. Graf (1947, p. 302) ;md most bter author'S erroneously attribute only the first of these to Mawhob and the othel' to his successor, YO~ann;\ ibn $A'Id (d. den Hcijer, 1983, pp. 107-124). For the lifetimes of these lwo palriarchs, MawhOh'l' texi is a unique contemporary source, which as such has nOi yet been adequately apprecialed by students of medieval Egyptian history. MOSI Arab gcogrn· phers and historians who dealt with Ihis period (which roughly coincides with the ealiphato: or al . MU5lan~ir Bmah) nourished considerably later.. Compared to thC5C latcr authors, MawhOb's text is,

1574

MAXIMUS

of course, r':lther limited from the chronological point of vicw, And, since he deal1 with many events with the authority of an eyewitness, he did not always diJiplay the same ohjt:eljvily that they did toward the evenl~ described. Rather, he conscioUfily sought 10 prest'nt I10t only the official history of Ihe Coptic church but also an expres.~ion of allegiance 10 Ihe Fatimid caliphate and 10 the amir al-JuyCish, Badr al·Jamtl!J. As for Mawh(lb's methods as II hlsto· rian, he usually made sure to indiclltc his "IlUI'ces carefully, and his style can generally be called clear and simple. The difficulti6 one may uevenhcless encounter in perusing Mawhub's 1\\'0 biographies are caused by their associative rather than Strictly chmnological or thematicul arrangement. Mawln1b's bingr.lphics consist of :1 series of pas· stlges of Vl\l1'int: lenglh in which three cillegories of subjects may be discerned: pure ecclesltlstieal hi.~to· 1)'; reilltions between the Coptic community and Ihe Muslim rulers; and various political, L'Conornlc, and social affairs. As. for intenUll church matters, the livcs of the two patliarchs in
Copts and other Christillns in Egypt. such as Mel· chiles, Syrians, tlnd especially Armenians, as well as with foreign countries, palticularly Nubia and Ethi· opia (used in the anal~is by Meinardus, 1970, pr. 376-78,418-19). The main themes of nonconfessional histol)' treated by Mawhub arc Ihe political chaos and die strife between the Turkish and African batallions, the subsequent r'Cstoratiun of order by Dudr al· Jllmo.li. the great famine of 1066-1072, the rise of the Nile, agriculture, and natural di!iaSters, BIBLIOGRAPHY Burmcster, O. H. E. ''The Canons of Christodulos, Palriarch or Alexandria." Musto" 45 (1932):7184. Butchel'. E. L. The Story of /Iu! Church of E'~ypl. London, 1897. Evelyn-White, H. G. Tlu: MO.UlSluies of Ihe Wadi 'II Nalnm, Vol. 2, The HislOry of Ihe MolltlSleric:; of Nitria and of Sec/is. NL'W York, 19]2. Heijer, J, den. "Ouelques rcmarques sur III deu, xieOle panic de I'I-Iistoirc des Patliarches d'Alclt' ..ndrie," Bulle/ill de III Sor:ic/c d'llrl;hcologie cople 25 (1983):107-24. _---:. "S!lwlrus ibn :t1.Muqllffa' Mawhiib ibn Mufanij et III genese de L'Histol"e des PlItl'inr'ches 41 d'Alexandrie." Bibliothcca Oriemalis (1984):336-39. Johnson, D. W. "Funher Remarks on the Arabic History of the Patriarchs of Alex.andria." Oriens Chri:;liatlu$ 61 (1977):103-16. KAmil ~ilil.l Naklah. Ki/llb Turikh \\'a·]adllwif Barilri. kat a!,/skunl!uriyyah a!'Qibr. Clllm, 1943. Meinardus, O. E. A. Chrls/iall £WP/, Faillr umfUfe. CII;ro, 1970. Munier, "l. Reel/efT des /iSleS cpiseopafe.~ de f'igfise cople. Cairo, 1943, Mu~er, J. "Contribution a I'eglise caple." Blllleli" de fa Sueiill d'archeofugie cop/e 10 (1944):11576. Sami]', Khalil. "Un 'I'raitc incdit de Severe ibn al· l'lntelligence," Muqaffa' (Xc sii:e1c), Flambeau Orlen/ulia Chris/Iall" Periodica 41 (1975): I 50-68. Seybold, C, F. Afc:candriniscltc Patriarc-hctlgcsclrieh/c VOII S. Marcus his Michaelf (6/-767) "aeh der iI!/C!i/cli /266 gcschrie~"clI lIatldscllri!l. Ham' burg, 1912, _.,.--' ed. Severl/s Bell af.}.1oqaffa' /liSlOria Pmrillrcharum A!cxalldriIlQrl/tIl. cseo 52, 59, Scrip/ores arabici 8. 9..~er. 3, pts. 1-2. JOHANNES DeN HelJER

ue

MAXIMUS, fifteenth patriarch of the See of Saint Mark (264-282). Ma:dmus succeeded OIONYStllS mE

MAXIMUS THE CONFESSOR

GREAT and remained at !.he htoad of (he (A)ptic church for eighteen yeaT'$. He .....0L5 a contemporary to six Roman emperon, beginning wilh Ihe relatively mild reign of GallienllS (260~268), followed by Claudius II (268-270), Aureli:mus (210-275), TadIUS (275-276). !"'ol'ianus (276). and Probus (276-

282). He spenl his carlier years as prt:sbytcr and companion of Dionysius, with whom he shal'ed Ihe

agonies or

VALERI.4.NUS'

perseeulion

lind

exile to Ke·

fTo, a frontier lown of the Libyan Descl'l, aluJ Cullu-

I

I

lhius in the district of Mar"Culis by Ihc prefect Aemilianius. lie was uhimatcly penniued 10 return wilh his bishop to Ihe metropolis. where they -"I:m· 00 ministering to Ihc faithful. undisturbed by Ihc Slormy yean under preceding emperon. In fact, the episcopate of Ma",imus, compared with Ihal uf his pn:dc<:cssor, was relatively peaceful, allowing the patriarch to combat rising heresies in the Middle East. Most important and most dangerous among these heresies wa.~ Ihe one associall..-d with the name of Paul of Samosata. bishop of Antioch. Paul interfered in theological discussions and invented a new doctrine that Christ atlaincd godhead by II gmdual development, Ihal Ihe Trinily was a closely knil combinatiun of F:lthel', Wisdom, llnd Word in a single HYl'OSt'ASIS. I-lis Christology r'esemblcd the rorthcoming Ncstorian doctrine lhal Jesus the In· carnate Word was one person, differellt from the Divine. For the !in;1 time, the HOMOOUStON contro· versy was raised. A council was convened at Antioch. llUended by more lhan seventy bishops, where these confused ideas were ellOposed. The discussiorui were led by a certain Malchion, head or the theological school of Anlioch. Dionysius was invited to panicip:lIe, but. owing to his advanced age and fee· ble body, he wrote a special epistle to the synod, which wa.~ supJlOIied by MalIOimus after him, and, in the end, Paul was deposed and exconTlllunicated in 268. It is possible, bUI not certain, that Maximus auended this synod. !It any rate, he plllyed a role in the termin::J\ion or PlIul's heretical assumplions by supporting the arguments set forth in the epistle of Dionysius on the subject, The HISTORY OF THF. PATRIARCHS offen piou., de· tails about two movement.' that filled the reign of MlUimus. The first conCCffili the he~y of Paul of So.mosata, and the second is the emergence of MANI· (;IIAELSM and the life of Mani, whose preaching strock roots in Egypl in the third century and survived in the fOOlih alongside Gnostic teachings.. Mani's life (216-276 or 277) overlapped with Maximus' episcopate. This explains Ihe space given to

1575

the development of his syncretistic religion under the biography of Maximus in the History of Ihe Pa· triarchs. We need not enter here into the inlricacies of Moni's thought. BUI it looks as if in the period of his exile from Persia for thiny years by SapoI' I, he must have spent some time in Palestine preaching his rellglon and adApting c1cment., of it to Christilln doctrines. The Hi.~tory of the PUlriarc1JS gives an account of Mani's encounter In a Palestiniun city with :1 certain Bishop Archekms. who refuted his argumenlS. Nevcrthelci'ill. Mani's teachings seem to have spread to Egypt, where they survived until the complete cmdication or Manichaeism from that country in the fourth century. On Ihe whole, the episcopate of Maximus was prei!minenlly devoted to ministration., 10 Ihe failhful :lnd to combating heretical movements, in an atmosphere of relative peace from aClive persecution because Ihe empire was involved in sirife be· tween rival claimants 10 the imperUil throne and in fighling peslilence. Local unresl and political sepa· l"lIlism in Alcxandria kepi pagan minds from acting on their tl'aditional hostility toward theil' ChliSlion neighbors. Maximus dicd OJ! 14 B:mlmiidah, Ihe day of his commemoration in the COPlic SYNAXARlON. BIDUOCRAt'HY

Alt"ncr, B. Patrolog)'. Eng. lrans. Hilda Graef. london. 1958. Bardenhewer. O. Ge$Chiehte der altkirchlicheH Uti!. rallU, 3 vols.. Freiburg, 1902-1912. Duchesne, L Early Hislory of the Chrislilm Church, Vol. I, pp. 341 If.. London, 1909. Ou~ten, J. Parralagy, 3 \·ols. Utrecht and Antwerp. 1975.

A7.IZ S. ATrVA

MAXIMUS THE CONFESSOR,

a B)'7..anline

monk who fought against Illonothelilism; he died in 662. Al leasl three of his works were translated into ArJbi<: in the high Middle Ages: lhe 400 Chaptus 0/1 Charity (C/avis Palrvlogia Gracca, 7693), the 200 Theological and ECllm.rni(:ul Chaplers (Clavis Patrol()giQ Cra~ca. 7694). and his discussion with Pyrrhus (Clavis Parrologia Graeea, 7698), translaled by 'Abdallah ibn al-Fa~1I al·An~kl in Ihe first half of the eleventh century. Other works of his probably exist in Arabic in Ihe Sinai contelion or elsewhere (Grof. 1944, Vol. I. p. 372, no.. 3). Probably because of hi., theological altitude, Max· imus wa., nOi vel)' widely read among Ihe Copts.

1576

MAXIM US AND DOMJTruS, SAINTS: Coptic Tradition

AI-Mu'taman ibn al-'AWI docs nOl mention him in the bibliography he inSCl1cJ il1(o the first chapler of his Summa Th~ofogiQe. composed around 1265. nor docs Abo a],Bar.\Ut ION KABAR in Chapler 7 of his Lamp of DCl,kl1lts.~, completed around 1320. Ncvcl1hele!OS, a Coptic Ambie manuscript dated 21 Kiyahk A.M. 1008/17 December ..... 1>. 1291 contains the 200 TheolUfl,ical Qtld Ecumellic"1 Chapters (PC 90. cols. 1084-1176: Clovis PatT%gia Graeen. 7694). This is (II the Coplic Patriarchate, Cuiro (The. ology 245, GrtlC no. 398, Simaykah. 110. 451, fols. 76b-98b). However, the manuscript Is incomplete, containing only cightY·l\vo chapters according to Graf. or all 100 according to Sirnaykah, from the first hundred; and fony.three according 10 Graf. or fifty-two according to Simaykah, from the second hundred. The name of the lrnnslator, most probably a Melchile. is nOI given. BIBLIOGRAPHY Graf, G.

CQlul()gm~

CQnsen'ef /111

de mQllIlScrils urabes chrbieus Caire, Vatican City, 1934. KUA1JL SAMIR. S.J.

MAXIMUS AND DOMITIUS. SAINTS.

(The

ell/ry on {he.~e I",,, brOllwrs ,·ollsi.IIS of 111'0 parIs: Ihe Coplic Tradition and Ihe Arabic Tl1Idhion.]

Coptic Tradition The Life of the brothers Maximus and Domitius i~ known through one long document llltributed to a eenain PSHOI OF SCETIS, who professes to be a native of Constanllnople and who ended his days 011 Scetis as a dl~iple of the greal MACARIUS (d. c. A.D. 390). He claims 10 have received lhe personal le~timony "f Macnrius. [n fact, thc lllo~t recent person quoted in this document is Theodosius the YoungeI', who began 10 rcign in 408. Pshoi's long accounl is not the oldat life of Max· imus and Oomitius. In fact, he quotCll-using the formal epithet "it is wriuen that"-an ilpolhegm of Saint Macarius (no. 33 in lhe Greek nominal coHee· tion~ anti in the Old Latin Il-ansllltion). The episode tells anonymously how Saint Macarius received IwO young "Romans" (i.e., Greeks) in the dC5Crt of Seet· is, and how that wa.. the occa.~ion of the founding of a mQnllsto:!l'Y. In II shoner fonn, lhe episode is also insel1ed in lhe LIfe of Snint Maearius of Scclis (Bibliothcca Hagiogrnphica Orientalis 573, cd.

Amelhleau, 1894, p. 87) iluributed tu SERAPION 01' TMUlS (d. c. 362). As nothing preci~ is known about Pshoi, who authored the Life of the tWO brolhers, only internal criteria allow one to estimate the date of composition of the Life. Nobody has ca~t doubt on lhe reality of the foundation of the DAVR Ai.BARAMUS (or pa·Rhomaios, that of the Romans) by the IWO brothers received by Macarius, bUI their names appear only in Pshoi's Life. Pshoi's account has come down in two different form~ in Coptic. The more important is a Sahidie version translllted and published in 1917 by H. Mu· nier (Pierpont Morgan Library, codex 40, lenth or eleventh century). Unfortunately. the text lacks a beginning. About len leaves dealing with the youth· ful year'S of the sainls arc missing frum the begin· ning of the Life. Dct:lils of the beginning cun he found only in the liCeond docunlent, a Bohaide Life. (Vatican LibraI)', Coptic manuscript 67, fols. 34-58, published by E. Amelineau, 1894). Comparison of the second pan of lhe two Lilies in the two versions shows that the Sahidic redaction is more complete ami more precise. Thl'ough accident or negligence, many details have been omilled in the Bohairk \'ersion, which, when it adds something is SIX:cific and modemi7.ed. One example is the camel driver of Djcbro Mene:sine, who is mentioned in the Sahldlc version; the Bohalric vel'Sioos adds "fl'om the diocese of Mbal" or ·Arwal. TIle legend rnay be summarized as follows. Under Valentine, son of Jovian (363-364), religious peace reigned. Maximus and Domitius, the sons of Valen· line, lhe new Constantine, n:ceive a perfect education In asceticism and mysticism amI seek to be· come monks. They first go to NICAt;A, the place of the J 18 fathers, where they mect the holy priest John. The laller cltnnot receive them, but recommends them to Agabos of Tarsus, a Syrian anchor· ite. Agabos cannot accept lhem either, but in a dream he sees Saint Mac:lrius of Seelis, who will receive the two youths. There follows a l>eries of miracles occurring in different towns. [n Askalon. Saint Mncarius delivers a man possessed, al> he ap· proaches Ihe dwelling of the holy brothers; al lconi11m II greedy dr.lgon is immobili1.ed and neutraliLCd by lhe pt-ayer of the mil1lcle workcl'S; at Lystr'a a leper is cured; at Pisidian Magdala a mlln with an inverted face is pUI straight. Pshoi informs u£ that he has his information from merchants met earlier in Constantinople (00 doubt it has to do with the miracle worked by COSMAS ANI> DAM tAN on Ihe per· SOil of Carinus: even the names of lhese two thau· lllaturgcs al'e not tOO remote from those of the IWO

MAXIM US AND DOMITlUS, SAINTS: Arabic Tradition

brolhel1i). At Cabaln, n ce,uin lucharinh performs miracles through the power of the devil. He is e;lOor' ciscd by an order wrinen by Maximus in the name of Mncnrius. From Ihis point, the Sahidic account allows us to recover the story whO!iC beginning is lost of a l.aodiccan woman who appears 10 have killed hl'r illegitimate child; al Scleucia in lsauria a concubinary priest, suffering from cancer of the stomach, is healed in the name of Agabos and Macarius; in Athens Skeplic philosophel1i, simulnl· ing illnesses, are stricken with the very mtlladiCli that Ihey had imitated, Ilnd arc then cured by Domitius (this mirdcle and that of the dragon are found panicuJarly in the work of Gregory ThaumawI"gus). BUI afler some time, Valenline finds the youths with lhe help of s
1577

acter of Valentine was undoubtcdly Valentinian I (d. 375), called to succeed Joviall on 25 FcblUtll)' 364 at Nlcnea. Potentially, what is in Ihe mind and the aim of Ihe hagiographer was that Ma:.:imUJi and Domltius were the half·brothers of Valentinian II, the friend of Ambrosius. a pious and ascetic young man, proclaimed Augustus at the age of four in 375 and assassinated in 392 at the age of twenty-one. His intense religious life is a fact of hiStOry. The potential rival or TheodO$ius was evidently Ihe brolher of Valcnlinian I, Valens (28 March 364 at Constantinople to 9 Augusl 378), whose legitimacy Pshoi IIbsolutcly denies. Indeed, already toward 371, lhere were intrigues aimed almaking Theodosius emperor. In 380 there was II Maximus in lhe sec of Constanlinople for some months after GKliliO· }I.Y OF NAZ1ANZUS. Pshoi's lhesis is clear: The eastern par'l of lhe empire, subject to the Arian Valclls, is saved by lhe thaumaturgical spirit of Macar'ius act· ing through the legitimate heirs of Valentini.m I. Onc can scarcely prove that the existence of this Pshoi of Constanlinople is pure fiction nor can one discount his appreciation of cach miracle and each hagiogntphic Iheme. BI8UOGRAFHY

Amelincau, E. Hi5toirt des momU/e.res de Basse· Egypte. Annales du Muste Guimet 25, pp. 262313. Paris, 1894. Munier, H. "Unc Relation copte sahidique de la vic des saint.s Maltime et Domke." Bllffeli" de 1'I'I$t;tlll frtm(ais d'Archio/ogie orielltale B (1917):9J-14O. MICllf..t. VAN !;SUROOCK

Arabic Tradition The Ar
1578

MEDICAL INSTRUMENTS AND KIT

evolutlon of thc name Domitius through Dumada'us tov.'3ro Tirnothy, which is found in more reccnt documenu. Anothcr manuscript (Sin. Ar. 53<1) changes the date of death to 17 !
Baumstark, A. (lese/rich/c dcr syrischen Lileralllr, p. 293, n. 12. Bonn, 1922. Nau, F. Us J.cgclldcs S)'riaques J'Aaron dc Saroug, de Maxime d fJomecc, J'AbrallUm mailre de Bar. roma, t!-I dt!- /'empereur Maurice, PO 5. Paris, 1910. MICHEL VAN EsBROECIl;

MEDICAL INSTRUMENTS AND KIT. St!-iJ Medicine, Coptic.

Chronalogica'Table of OslrACA with Medicine

Alld

PApyri Dt!-a(;,rg

WM (Worrell, 1935): eight leaves of c. 5/6 cent. parchment P~GE

NO. WM 1 19 2 19 3 20 4 20 523 624 725 82S 926 1026 1126 1226 IJ 26 14 26 1527

LtNES 34-38 38-40 53-55 56-59 133-160 161-178 176-182 183-186 186-193 194-195 195-198 198-200 200-202 203-205 205-207

P~GF. No.

t627 1727 1827 1927 20 188 21 188 22 188 23 188 24 188 25 189 26 190 27 189 28 193 29 193

LINES

207-2[0 210-212 212-220 221-240 al-l0 ~111-b5

b 6-12 b 13-22 b 23-26 a 1-20 a 21-b15 b 16-25 10-14 15-18

KW (Till, 1949): papyrus c. 7/8 cenl. CO (Crum, 1902): ostmca e. 7/8 cent. Ep (Mt!lropoIiIAIl MUStJlWI of Arl, 1926): OSlr'llca c. 7/8 cent. c. 7/8 cent. Hall (Hall, 1905): ostraea Saq (Excavation,~ III Saqqara, 1909): letlvcs of p."lrehmenl e. 7/8 cent. ZB (Zoegn. 1903): leaves of parch. ment c. 8/9 cent. SA (Souriant, 1888): leaf of parch. c. 9 ccnt. ment Ryl (Crum. 19(9): leave! of parch· c. 9 ccnt. ment Ch (Chassinat, 1921): large papyrus c. 9/10 cenl. BKU (Agyp/ische Urklllldcn, 1904): c. 996-1020 Coptic documents MK (Munier, 1918): paper e. 11/12 cem. TM (Turnev, (902): paper c. 11/12 cent.

MEDICINE, COPTIC. The first evidence for Coptic medicine comes rrom I'aehomius in lhe lirst half of the foul'th cemul'y (Lefort, 1933. 87ff.). All other Coptic texts dealing with medicine arc pre· served in copies that date from the firth to the twelfth centuries. From the mid·nincteenth century on, Coptic medicine, evidence for which is available in a number of brief works dealing with diseases attested in the Coptic language, has been studied scientifically. The extant material in this area, how· ever. is still so incomplete that a classification cor' rc:sponding to that of Old I!gyr...ian medicine has not been possible. Tht!- Coptic-Arolb period is not included in this discussion.

Primary Literature In Monastic Libraries In monillitic librari~ we find evidence of first aid for the brothen;. gUI.'Sts. :lnd refugees: "Prescription book, simply named" (Bouriant, 1889), and other prescription boob that show a great number of pages (Zoega, 1903, pp. 626-30). Skin diseases are mentioned, together with the prescription! necessary for them. Impeligo and itching aliments are named tlnd thc following treatment recommended: swabbing with warm vinegar, aUar of IVSCS and Wolter, or the Juice of a sea leek (aloe) mhted with the contents of a melon (ZB 8 (for abbreviations

MEDIClNE, COPTIC

1579

see lhe chronological tablc below]). AnOlher pre· scriplion called fm' the usc of canine excreta, which was smcllred on a band:age and applied to the psora scabs; guanlOlees WCI'e given that no irritation WQuld ensue from such lreatment (ZB 18). Leprosy (Kolw, 1982, pp. 58-63), efflorescence, and disen.<;· es of the liver (including jaundice) and of Ihe kidneys art: also menlioned in this book of prescrip· lions (ZB 28). Di.\Ca.~es in nil pal1S of Ihe body, including the genilals, nrc listed. Thus, for example, a prescriplion for treating pain in Ihe breasts or the penis or the leslicles rL'Commcnds the applicalion of breast milk 10 the affecled part of the body. Fat or allar of r~ also could be used (BA 3).

Literature of the Fifth and Sixth Centuries. Upper Egypt A COptic: lext on JXlrchmenl from the fifth or sixth

century was wrillen by or for practicing doctors and dealt with various ailments: for instance, diseases of lhe spleen (WM I, WM 29), and constipation, for which purplives are recommended (WM 15. WM 25). This text also deals with illnesses of \l.'Omen and children. for instance. a painful ulerine complaint (WM 6) and a prescription to treat the pain of a leething baby (WM 3). For adult loolhache, il wus recommended 10 rinse lhe moulh wilh wan» asses' milk (WM 13). A few prescriplions took inlo considerdlion the trealmenl of wounds, for cxumple, stanching of blood and telief of hcmo...·hages (WM 21, WM 23). Consiller-llion was given to domcstic hygiene in connection whh eliminalion of vennin from hou.~es (WM 7). In addition to lhe medical pt'escriplions from lhe Coptic maler'iul in lhe Vienna collcction, whkh t:onlains prc~criptionll for "palpitations" and Il[ecplessness (Till, 1949, pp. 43-49), lhere are ref· en::nccs 10 podagra (gout). $Ieeple$sness, p(lipilll' tionll, :lnd also hemoPlysis (Agyptische Urkllnden, 1904. PI'. 24-31).

The NInth and Tenth Centuries: Chasslnat Papyrus A cOlleClion of 237 prescriptions from the ninlhtenth centuries. published in 1921 by Emil Ch(lss, inat, conlains unsy.~tematic(lJly recorded pn:Sl:rip' tions for various diseases bUl predominantly eye diseases, which have been the plague of Egypl for centul'ies. AmOllg those menlioned are C(ltaracts, shortsightedness, film on the eye (Till. 1951. p. 17. 0.17). intlnlllllllllion, abscl."SSCs, trichiasis, and cica· trizl.'d eyelids resulting from trachoma (Kolla. 1978.

Medical lnstl'umems. Fifth-sevemh eemury. Left to right: fOI'Cepli, dilator for urelhra, chisel for bone surgcry. Courtesy Coptic Museum, C,,;ro. pp. 41-50). A number of prescripdons refer 10 looth complaints (e.g., teeth with sore gums (CH 153), vllriOUS stomat:h ailments. and even flalulence or attach of Worm$, the recommended treatment for which consi~ted of powder'ed leuuce seeds in warm walet' (eH II) in order 10 expel the wOt'rn.~. While old Egyptian medicine (e.g.. the Ebers papyrus and the Kahun papyrus) was concemed with medicine for women, the Chnssinal PllPYruS con· talns only four pteseriplions (eH 24, CH 123-25) for women who suffer from n painful or tight uterus (Till, 1951. p. 27). Children's medIcine is rarely mentioned (CH 38, Cli 230, CH 231). Although diagnoses and clinical desctirnions are not recorded in the COplic Jiterdlure. there arc allusions to lhe wider sphere of Coptic medicine Ihat included injuries llnd diseases of lhe various organs -head, bruin, temples. eyes, cal'S. mouth, leeth. bn'asL~, slomach. bowels, liver. kidneys. spleen. sexual organs, and skin-a.~ well as pains ill lhe CJl· tremitit$.

1580

MEDICINE, COPTIC

.,

f~ ,,

,.~

,l,

~

,; "

, ,

I,

, ••

\"

I

! 2

~U!

1

I " ·t

I, •

i

\ I'

I

1

1I 3

6

,•

4

\

-~,

5

.,

MEDICINE, COPTIC

One prescription Iist.<; all the diseases of the head. the temples. and the brain that cause pain (Crum, 1909, no. 107). Another pr6Cribes opium, milk, and caWs fill. which should be warmed and placed, a drop at a time, into the painful ear (en 114), A patient with a toothache ought to rinse the mouth with a small amount of warm asses' milk (WM 13). Weak or painful breasts should be smeared with breast milk (BA 3) or rubbed with a mixture of sUlrch, pig fat, and attar of roses (BA 4). One text records the diseases of the 5wollcn stomach, which cmit5 black hile, Icaving it sore (CH 70). Diseases of the sexual organs arc also mentioned. The penis and the testlcle.~ can be in· fected with disease (BA 3). Problems with the uterus are described as follows: it can hUI' and nlso can be tight (CH 125). In addition to dc.~criptions of pains in the extremities-lhe hand, the foot. or the knee-, number of Coptic medicinal texIS found hel'e (as in the finds from the monastic Iibrnry) deal with skin complaints-for instance, psom scabies of variou5 kind:;;: the prurient (CH 127 and Z8 13), the wild (ZB 16), and the water psora (ZB 14). The papules are also described in great detail (CH 163), and prurigo is mentioned (ZB 29). nlere are also pruri· go blister-; (CH 219, Z8 27), Till thinks these refer to shingles (Till, 1951, p. 32, Q 23). Leprosy wali recognized in the Coptic period. A pre5Cription names a medicine for "all diseases of leprosy" (1.8 28). A mummy lb.tlng back to the sixth century has extremities that show signs of lepra m/lti/ans (Koha, 1982, pp. 58-63). In direct conu'nSt with Old Egyptian medicine, surgical operations and surgical in~trumenL~ are described only to a very limited elChmt. The :>ole mention of an insLrumcnt is in circumcision or Ihe pulling of a toolh by means of a pllir of tongs or an iron in~tru mcnl (CH lSI). Among psychic disorders oilly sleeplessness (BKU 2) lind possession lire referred Lo (BKU 8 and 12).

1581

nlera~tic

measurt:li arc given for ophthalmologi· cal and skin complaints. as well as the treatment of open wounds. Ointments, powden, plllSten, baths, eye drops, t:tblet.~, and Fumigations were prescribed. Medical Proresslon and Nursing The hieTllrchy of Coptic doclon was not as dear· Iy demarcated as among Ihc ancient Egyptians, and there wen: no specialists for panieular diseases. Occasionally fields of activity are givcn; for in· stance. doctor and chiroprnetOl' (Coptic MSS in the Bodleian Library, P 32), as well as veterinarian ("doctor fOI' hOrM:s"; Crum, 1939, p. 342h). There wel'c "teaching doctors" or "masters" as well as "medical practitioners," and uppermOSt in the med· ical hiel'tlrchy W(lS lhe "senior physician," That there wcre doctors of both scxes is made clear by one text IhllL mentions a woman doctor who performed hel' l'Ounds in the monasLic communities (Leipoldt, 1908-1913, vol. 4,161,6). Such descrip. tions of attendance Oil patients in the Inonastcl)' Furnish us with the evidence we have for the founhfifth centuries, the precursors of hospitals. The mum\Stic rules of P:tchomius provide an insight into the nursing duties, especially as they affected the conduct of paticnts: (1) it was custom:try for the patient 10 lie down on a ixld; (2) no one was allowl-d to oil a patient or to bathe him without explicit pennission; (3) when a brolher suffered :tn injul)' and did not go to bed, but wandered about lookina for a hospital ganncnt or some oil, the hospital manager had to go to the place of the community (a son of displ'nsary) ;md fetch what wa.~ neces...ary. A repan by Apa ShenUle on the siege of the present.day chy of oO:!i- in Upper Egypt descrihcs the nursing prncticc in the White Monastery in the mid· die oflhe fifth centlll)' (Leipoldt. 1908-1913, Vol. 3, p, 69), The medical !ilemture of the (tnclent Egypli:ms and of the Copts was transmitted anonymously,

SUl'glcal inStrumenLs arc displ:tyed by the Coptic Museum butlhcir provenance is not known. They al'C made or brollze, They consist of the following items: I. Call/cries. These are differently shaped. They were llSl'
1582

MEIR

Mcdicllllcxls lIro.': found on leaves of parchment. un osmiC:!., and on monastery walls (Thompson in Qui· bell. E.tCUVfII;Ollill'/ Suqqura, Vol. 3, 1909. p. 57, no. 10J). In recent limes 11 has been established lhal Ihe medical lilcmlore of lhe ancient Egyptians did

not come

10

an abrupt end, but resurfaced hi a

number of inslnlclions in the collection of pre-

scriptions in Ihe Coptic language. Thi:; has been recognized in Ihe work of Sigel'isl (1963, p. 329)

:lnd Gr.\pow (see Deines, Grapow, and Westendorf, Vol. 2, 5. n. 3).

BIBUOCRAPIIY

ADPlische Urkmrdtm aus den KUniglichul MlIsee" til Berlin, Koptische U,kwrdul, Vol. I. Berlin, 1904. Bourianl, U. ""'ragmen! d'un livre de miidecin en cople lh~bain." Acadlmie du inscriptions ct ~11tJ$·/ellru. Comples re"Jus 1887, ser. 4, 15 (1888):319-20.374-79. Notes de voyage." Recueil de IraVllUX II (1889): J35. Cha.~inat, E. Uti pap)'rlls III/'dical cople. Mcmoin:s Publies par Iel' Memh~s de I'lnslilut fr.tm;ais d'ArcheolOiie orientale du Ctlire 32. Cairo, 1921. Crum. W. E. Coplic OSlrucu /rom Ihe COlleCliolls 0/ Ihe Egypl Exp/oroliull Fuml. Ihe Cairo Museum atld Olhers. OKford, 1902. Calalaglle a/lhe Coplie Malll/scripis ill IIII' Colleciioll 01 Ihe 101m R)'latld.f Library Mallchesler. Mllncheste,·, 1909. ___. A Cupl;e; Di,·I;u.l/lry. Oxford, 1939. Deines. H. von; H. Gr'o.lp<)w; lind W. Westendorf, ed,.. Gnmdriss dcr Mcdiutl der a/ull Agyplef. 9 vols. Bel'lin. 1954-1973. l:iJ:callulimu III Saqqara (/907-/908). Vol. 3, The Coptic hl$crirl/imIS. cd. H. Thompson. Cairo, 1909. Hlill. H. R. Cupric ulld Greek TeXis o/Ihe Christia>! Periu" /rum O)'lruku. Sldue, elc. ill the lJrili.~h Mm·IJmll. London, [905. J:{asan KamAl. AJI.'fibb a/·MisrT ld-QadTm. 4 vols. in 2. 2nd cd.. Caim. 1964. Koha. K. S, "Zur Geschkhte der Diagnose der alltlgyplischen Augenkl'ankheil ·Trachom.· .. In Medi~illi)·dlli. Diul;llostik ill Gesehicllte ulld Gegclllllarl. Festschrifl fur Heitl~ Guerkl', cd. C. Htlbrlch, F. Marguth, and J. H. Wolf. Munich. 1978. ___ . "Die Leprn im alten Xgypten in def koptischen Zeit:' In Aussal~·I.eprll·llallsell· Krllllkheil. Ein Mellschheitsprublem im Wande/. Kalalog der AllsslellulIg im Dell/schell Museum, pp. 58-63. Munich, 1982.

_ _ . "Neue Ergebnis.~c zur Medizin der Kopten." Sud/lUffs Archiv 68 (1984):157-72. Discusses fCeenl developmenls in the Invel'tigalion of Coptic medicine. Lefon. l... T. PudwlIlii vi/ue suhidict scrip/ae. Paris, 1933.

Leipoldt, J. $ill/l/llii Opera. Vols, 3-4. Ptlris and L.eip7Jg, 1908-1913. The MelrUPQlitun Mllseum 01 Ar/ Egyptiall Expedition. The MUllaslery 01 £pipha/lius al Thebes. PI. 2, Coptic Os/raca alld Papyri, ed. W. E. Crum. New York. 1926. Munier, H. "Deu", recenes medicalts coptes:' AII"ales dll Service des ulltiq.. i/CS 18 (1918):28486. These te",tl have been reedited in E. Chas.<;imll, "Deux formulcs phamlaccutiqucs coptl'S." BlIlletill de l'btstitul /rUllfais d'archeo/ogie orii!ntale 49 (1949):9-22. OuibclL J. Ii. /J.xcavlIlimu at Saqqara (/905-6), (1906-7}, (1907-8', (1908-9, 1909-10). 4 vols. Cairo. 1907-13. The Coptic inscriptions cd. Sir Herbcn Thompwn. Sigerist. H. All/ilnge drr Medhin. Zurich, 1963. Till, w. C. "Koplische Rezeple:' Bllllelill de fa Sociili lI'archio/ogie cOI1/e 12 (1949):43-55. ___ Die ATVreiJumde der Koplfm. Berlin. 1951. Turnev, B. A. MareriQI)' po archeofogii cllrisliallskavo figipta. Olderll)'; ol/isk h t. 2. Trudow Kiewskava SeuJa, no. 9. Moscow, 1902. Reediled by w. Till in 8 ..11elill de la Sociili d'archeu/ugie cople 12 (1949):49-54.

Worrell. W. H. "COI)tic Magical and Medic.allellb." Orielda/ia 4 (1935): 1-37, 184-94. Zoega, G. Cata/o~lts cmlkuru'" mallllscriplOrum. qlli in Mllseo BurgiQllu Ve/ilris adserval/II/r. Leiplig, 1903. Reprint of 1810 edition. KAMAL SAIJRI KOLT/\.

MEIR, village close to

~anabl1

in the Liby:m moun· tains and sile of thl) necl'opolis of the ancient capi· 10.1 or the nome, Kousit (today the villtlge of 0.1Qu~iyyuh). The tumbs or the SiXlh Dynasly were filled up to serve as dwellings by ChristiM hermits, and in particular Ihose of Senbl aod Oukhotep pre' serve Ir1lCes of mon:tstic occupation. On the outside in the fur;ade with pOltico and eulumns. the hermits mlsed a wall of unbaked bricks in such a way as to furm chambers. On the inside, the columns were CUI away to enlarge the free space. Niches and apses wefe hollowed into the walls, the sculptures we,'e ITlutilllled, and the p.'lintinss were covered with plaster. The Greek and Coptic inscriptions have been published, Ihe former

MELCHIZEDEK

1583

by G. Lefebllre (1911. 1". 248), the laller by J. CU~dal (1901, pp. 87lT.). The plans of these lomb~ are found in Blackman (1915) and in Badawy (1953, pp. 67-89). An up-todate description of lhese hypogea is gillen by Meinardus (lSI ed., 1965, p. 271; 2d cd., 1977, p. 377).

lhe Egyptian people, while I'epudialing B)7.llllline· Mekhite heKemony. The Me1chltcs inllQlunlarily de· veloped withIn the eme"ging q;yplian nationalism liS it became slronger. Thllnk$ to a stubborn fidelily to Cyrillian Chl'istology, the Coptic chuI'l:h slood firmly within Ihe pre.chalccdQnian Christological ol'thodoxy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BtBLIOGRAPHY

Badawy, A. Us Premiers i/abfissemell1s cI,reliellS dllllS lu IIllcielllles lumbes d'EKYple. Tome o:,:om· mcmQrntif du millcnaire de III Dibliotheque palri· archaic d'Alex.a.ndrie), pp. 69-89. Alexandria, 1953. Blackman, A. M. n,e R~k TmPlbs of M~iT. London, 1915. CIMst, J. "Notes archeologique:s et philologiques:' Bulleti" de t'I"st;flll frll"{'lIis d'lIrchiulogie oriell/a/e 1 (1901):87-97; 2 (1902):41-70. l..debvre, G. "Egypt(' ehretknne 4." ANNales du Servia des All/iqujt~s de f'Egyple 11 (1911):238SO. Meinardus, O. Christiall Egypl, Anciem ilnd Modem. Cairo, 1965; 2nd ed., Cairo, 1977.

Atiya, A. S. A /lislory 01 EaSlem Christianily. L..on·

COOUtN MAURICE MARTIN. SJ.

RENn.GOOIlCES

MELCHITES AND COPTS. Melchites (almost nil GI'eeks) ilnd Copt$ (nLURUS (458-480). CQnsequently, tne hither· to united see or Snint Mn"k was split between twu Jines of p:ltriarehal ~uccession: the Coptic and the Greek, laler called Melchile (or roY.1USt), whil:h originated from Conslaminople whlle obeying Chal· cedon. 111e spill in the p:ltriarchal K'(: of Alexandria was consummated from the juridical point of view bUl not dOKrnalical1y, in spile Qf the appearances. Even up to the presem Ihe nOl'mal liturgy of the COptic ehurch is the Lilurgy of Saint Basil. The COpL<; remained delloted to the national cause of

don, 1968. 1·leiler, F. Die OS/lire/fflll. Basel, 1971. KaralellSky, K. P. Histoire des palriarcals me/kiles (A/ualldrie, A"ficx:he. Jirl/salem) dt'Pljis Ie schisme JIlotloph)'sile dll sixirme sire/e ;usql4' Q nos ;Ollrs. Vol. 2, fase. I; Vol. 3, rase. 1-2. Rome, 1909-1911. MARTINtANO P. RO/,;,CAGUA

MELCHIZEDEK. a priest in the Old Testament and \Illrious other Jewish, Christian, and GOOlitic sources. who is sometimt'5 rcgarocd as a prefigure or Christ. A fragmenlary codex In the NAC 1lM!J,lAOl UBIlARY (IX. 1-27.10) b gillcn the title Melchit.edek. which wggesLS that lhe supposed author is nono.l other than the biblical figure. This traelate may be described as a Gnostic apocalypse, or book of rellelation. and In fuct ils contents are designated as "these I'evelalions" (27, 3-4). In atMition lu the title itself, the opening words of the tractate I'efel' to "Jesus ChriSI, Ihe Son [of God]" (I. 2-3) and estab· lish the text a.<; unmistakably Chlistian. Typical of apoelllyptie Iller.ltllre, rClleliltions pre' dominate in Me1cJrit.edek. Initially an Interpreting angel. prob:lbly GanmJicl, infurms Mclehi:wdl:k of Gnostic trulhs hDvlng to do with the salllation of "lhe congregation uf (lhe children uf] Seth" (IX. 5. 19-20). Most remal'kable in Ihls revelation is lhe polemical JXlssagc directed again~t Ihose Docetists who dcny the I'calily or thc inCfI,malioll, dcath, and resurrection of Jesus: "Thcy will say of him that he is unhegouen nllhough he has been begol1en, he docsn'l ellt ellcn though he docs cal, he docsn'l drink even lhough he docs drink, he is uncil'(;ulll· cised although he hM been circumcised, he Is unlleshly although he did come in lJesh, he didn'l come into suffering [although) he did come into sulrering. he didn'l rise from the dead (although] he did rise from the dead" (IX. S. 2-10). This 1i"'1 rellelalion comes to a close wilh the angel warning

1584

MEL1SMA

Melchizedck not 10 disclose the secrets to the pro' fane. In the 111:1(\ seclion of the traclllte Melchil'.edek in the Ii...,., person ~ingul(lr rCliponds to the revelation by participating in prayer, baptism, and liturgical pl-a!se and conCession. Then another major revelation is recounted fTom approJlimalely folio 19 to the

end of the tractate. Unfortunately, Ilule remains of the lext of th<.'SC last pages. Several heavenly rnCS" sengel'S seem 10 communicate: knowledge to Mel-

chizcdck and exhort him to be slnmg. Finally after another warning to keep Ihc.!;e "unfle-shly revelalions" from ncshly pcnons, the texl concludes with Ihe angelic "brothen" allCcnding back to heaven. The person of Mclch~cdck is portrayed in the tractate as the ancient hero, "the priest of God Most High" (IX. 12. 10-11; lX. 15.9-10; IX. 19. 14-15; cr. Gn. 14:18). FunhemlQre, in Jewish apocalyptic lilerature (ef. 11 0 Me/ch) this priestly figure has a future eschatological role as well and may function as a holy warrior and heavenly commander. In the Coptic tractate Melchizcdek is nOI only a heavenly warrior but is also identified with Jesus Christ. as he is in the New Testament Leuer to the Bebrews. Thus Melchi~dek. like Christ. struggles through suffering and death ag.dnst his enemies and ultimately prevails over them and destroys !hem (IX. 26. 2ff.). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Fut·yimile Edilioll olille Nag lIammadi Codices: C()dices IX (mel X. Lciden, 1977. Pe:;u'$On, B. A. "The Figure of Melchizedek in the First Tractate of the Unpublished Coptic·Gnostic Codex IX from Nag Hammadi." In Proceedings of Ihe XIf,}, Ill/emlllimla/ CO/lgress of Ihe l/lumalioJl. III Anodullr:m lor lire Hislory of Religio/ls, ed. C. J. Blecker, et •• \., PI'. 200-208. Leidcn, 1975. _ _ . cd. "IX,I: Melchi'l.edek." In Nug HWlmwdi Codices IX {Iud X. Nug Hpm/lltlui Sludies 15. Lei· den, 1980. Pearson, B. A., and S. Giversen. "Mekhizedek (IX, I)." In Tire Nag fo!lllllmudi Library il! El!glislr. Lei· den and Srlll Francisco, 1977.

MARVIN W. MEYER

MELISMA. See Music, Coptic: Description.

MELITIAN SCHISM, begun when "'I'.uTIUS (or Mdetius), bishup uf Lycupolis (modem Asyill) in

Upper E~pt, objected to the terms set by PETER I of Alexandria for the rcadmission of lapst.-d Christians. MeHtius began to ordain supporters of his stricler policy, and they constituted the core of the movemcnt. Pers<:<:ulion continued and Melitius was ex· i1ed. Upon his return from exile (aher A.D. 311), he began 10 organize a schismatic church. ACltlILA$ and then AI.F.XANDER I. successors of Peter as bishop of Alexandria, apparenlly failed 10 reach agreement with the Melitian pany. A serious auempt 10 heal the breach was made ilt the First Council of "'ICAEA (325). It was decided that clergy ordained by Mc1ilius could retain their status: Melitian bishops, if properly elected. could succecd Catholic bisho~ when the 5CCS became vacant; and Melitius would retain his title. These measures of reconciliation weTC not suffi· cicnt, perhaps because "ntANASIUS I, who succeeded Alexander in 328, did not approve of !hem. From this point on, Ihere are many references in the writings of Athanasius 10 the continued activity of !he Melitians. They joined with the Arians in opposition to Athanaslus, though It is unclear to what extent they supported the Arian theological position. In 332 Ihey brought various accusations against Athanasius to the emperor; whalever the truth of specific charges, Ihls aClion shows lhat !he reconciliation planm.-d lit Nicaca was being under· mined by ooth panies. Melitius was succcedcd by John Arkaph (date unknown; probably between 325 !lnd 332) as leader of the secI; Ihe names of subse· quent leaders arc unknown. There is p.... pyrological evidence for a t.hrlvlng Metitlan monasticism in the fourth century. The Mclitian monks lived lugelher in groups, but it is unclear whether they had laruclUred cenobia (like the Pachomians) or semi-c:::remi· tic eOllllllunities (like lhe monks of Niuia and Scetis). Scll.lIered refercnccs indicate lhal the sect survived lInlil lhe eighth century, bUI it seems grad· ually to have changed its character and purpose. Il began tiS u movemenl in favor of strict discipline, ]lIler formed lin alliance with the Arians, and, ac· cording to a reference in Theodon::l (Cu/tlpfmclium 4.7), slill lalel' developed distinctive forms of war· ship lhat included hand clppping and music. The Mclitlan sect had some success with Coptic· speaking Christlans. This is suggcsted by the Egyptian mtmes of some of the Melilian bishops (see the list in Athanasius Apologia cot/Ira "riatlOS 71). by the papyri that mention Melitian issues, and by the refel-ences to the sect in !he Coptic writings or the Ppchomians and SlIENtJTE of Atrlbe.

MELITO OF SARDIS

BIULlOGRAPIIY

Bell, H. J. Jcws and CJrristjmlS in Egypt. London, 1924; Weslpol'. Conn., 1972. Contaill5 Ihe Melit-

ian pap)'1i and a brief hislOry of the Secl. Hardy, E. R. Chris/iall Egypt: Church a/lli People. OxCord, 1952. KCltler, F. H. "Dcr mclelanische Streit in Agyptcn." uiuchrif/ IlIr die 'Icllles/ametlflicile WissclIschalt 35 (1936):155-93. A modem work on the subject. JANET TtMDlE

MELlTIUS, founh'ccnlury schismalic bishop of LycopoJis. I..illie is known about Mditius (also spelled Mdetius), bishop of Lycopolis (ASVO'T) in Upper Egypt, until he !.>«ame involved in a dispute with 'ETEJI. I. bishop of Alcxandria. DIOCLETJAN'S pers«ulion of ChriSliltns (beginning in 303) raised Ihe queslion of how 10 treal lapsed Christians who wanted 10 rejoin lhc church. Mclltius felt that Pe· ter's treatmcnt of the lapsed was too lenient. He began 10 ordain supporters of his views and was excommunic:ued in 306. A new outbre.'lk of persecution led to Melitius' banishment to the mines and to the death of Peter I of Alexandria (311). Whcn the persecution endt.-d, MciitiU5 returned from elCile and continued to build his Sl;:hismiltic church, with considerable SUCCl'SS. The matter was discussed at the First Council of NICAeA (325), whcre mcasun,.os were agreed upon 10 bling the schismatics back into the church. Melilius w:.s to relain his title l:l.'; bishop. But Ihese mea..~ures were ineffective, and 111 the time of Melitius' death (dale unknown, hut prob.'lbly before 332) the Metitian movement was f1oul'lshinR in Egypt. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Coptic ~ources do nOI con lain .lnY information about Melillus. The Ilwny references in the worb of Alhnnasius (particularly Apology Agaillst tile Ar· 11II1S) arc the [mlin patristic source. For moder'n work, sec C. Vallaggini, "Melizio di Licopoli," in E'lciclopcdill C/lllo/jca, Vol. 8, cols. 640fT. (Vatican City, 1952), and I~. R. Hilrdy, Chri5tjmr Egypr: Clllm;h uflfl P/!.opl/l. (Oxford, 1952). JANErr

MELITO OF SARDIS (d. c. 177). CAESAIU'A

TIMlIJE

EIISEDIUS OF

(Ec:dI!5iastical History 5.24.2-6) has pre-

served for Ul> a leller of about 190 of Polycr.llcS of Ephesus, who pntist.'S the important Christians of

1585

Asia Minor who clung 10 the custom of celebrating Easter on the Jewish calendar day of 14 Nisan, ralher than on Ihe Sunday afler the first spring moon. Among them, Polycrntes mentions "Melito, the eunuch whose entire work is in the Holy Spirit, and who rests al Sardis, awaiting Ihe visitor from heaven when he will lise from the dead." Melito composed an apologia Intended for MarcUl> Aureli· us between 169 and 177. Eusebius enumerates the titles of about fifteen olher works by Melito, of which either only the titles arc known or only some fragments cxist lhal are dilficuh 10 connect with one of the litles menlioncd by Eusebiu$. One work has resurfaced. C. Bonner discovered, at the end of a fiflh·century Greck pIIpyrus codex in the Chester Beally collection (partly at Michigan), the It::xt of the Peri POs<:ha. He idcntified other texts in Greek, Syriac, and e~n Sahidic Coptic. He pcrceived, in fact, that homiletic fragment 17, a fifthcentury Coptic papyrus leaf coming [rom thc Danish excavations at WIldI Sarjah, corresponded to a passage in the Pen' Pa5Cna. This leaf still bears the page number 93 on the back. It W:lS published by W. E. Crom and H. I. Bell (1922, p. 47). W. ~I. Willis announced in 1961 the discovery of a very old Coptic pIIpyrus in the Crosby codex in the Uni· versity of Missi!\,~ippi Uhrary, conlaining the second part of the homily of Melito (Willis, 1961. pp. 38192). Its period would, however, be lhe fifth and siltth centuries (Hall, 1979, p. 7). H. Chadwick recognized a r~sum~ of Ihe s.nme homily in Latin, un· der lhe nalllCS of Leon and AUll:usline (1960, pp. 76-82). Finally, M. TeSlu1. published the Bodmer Papyrus 13 (1960). This time thc codex is indeed from the lhird century. The homily on Easter thus rediscovered was probably composed about 164166. J. N. Birdsall published the GeorgiMl version, paragmphs 1-45, identified by M. R.lchard (1967, pp. 121-311). O. Perler malle a synthesis of every· thing in SOI4rcc.{ chrCtiCIlIlC.{ (1966). But Ihere ap· pcared, [mlher, the second half of lhe Georgian homily, paragraphs 46-105, by M. van Esbroeck (1971, pp. 373-94). Finally, Slual1 G. Hall had access to all the wit· nesses, having been able to consult reproductions of the papyrus of Mississippi 1, still to be published. Hall. provided with the entire collection, published the Greek edition, taking account of the variants or imcrcsting k'SSQns of each manuscript. Paragraphs 11-16 are represented there by the initial C, which indicates thc JXIgc from Wlldl Sarjah, while the same initial designates the Mississippi teltt f!'om

1586

MEMNONIA

par..grnphs 49-105. Better agreement can quile oflen be recorded between the Bodmer papyros and the Coptic version. This mct is calculated to stimulale the aplll"eciation of Iiteralure that is restored only in Coptic. The lCXI of the homily itself is on lhe bordenine between lhoology, with the great lig· ures of the ful611menl of the Old Testamenl Pa."-~ over through Chrisl'S passion, and a form of lilerd' ture lhat occasionally touches on hymnography. This type of literature bclongs 10 the second Gn:ek Sophi\1 movemenl. The anlilh~~ and Ihe balance of Ihe members in lhe enumerations Irnlke lhe 1CJ\1 highly concentr.lled.

BIBLIOCRAPIIY

Bird.ull, J. N. "Melito of Sardis I'IEPI TOY lLUXA in a Georgian Version." u MllSI!OIl 80 (1967): 121-38. Bonner, C, "A Coptic Frngment of Melito's Homily on the Passion." Hluvura Theo/ogi<:ul Review 32 (19]9): 141-42. Chadwick. H. "A Latin Epitome of Mc!ilO's Homily on the Pascha." JOIln/al of Theological Swdit!S, n.s., II (1960):76-82. Crom, W. E., and ~1. I. Bell. W~df Surjah. Copenha· gen, 1922. El>broc:<:k. M. van. "Lc Trait~ sur la Paque de M~li· Ion de SardCli en Georgien." Le Milston 84 ( 1971):373-94. Hall, S. G. MeUro of Sardis: 011 Pascha alld Frag· ",euIS. London, 1979. Peder, O. M~lifOIl (Ie Sardes, S"r fa Paqlli!. Sources ehn':liennes 127. Paris, 1966. Richard, M. "Rtlppon sur une mission d'et\l([e au Greee el:l. Chypre." Blilletin d( /'lnsfllUl d'hlswire cl de rec/um:"e de tutes 13 (1964-65):49-50. Testu1., M. M
MEMNONIA, name presumably derived from Memnon, roughly designating Ihe area where, to lhis day, the majcslic slawes of Memnon's colossuscs stand in Ihe fields on the west bank of lhe Nile at ·nlebes. In other wor(\s, this is the vii· lage lhal arose from dynastic limes around MADINAT llAno or the funerary temple of Ramses 111, known 10 Ir.avders from lhe scvcnleemh century who described its Co[:l1ic houses as nalTOw and ralher

high. These habitalions wen: cleared by the Chk,lgo Institute In its elfOl1S to recol'd the great temple inscriplions bclwc.:n 1927 and 1933. The villnge bearillg that name is identical wilh Ihe Coplic Djeme and Ihe Demotic Jama or Jamu. That VillllgC grew into numerous subsidiary suburbs Slrewn over the hills of Ihe wesl bank from Madlruu Hiibu 10 DAYK AL-MAOINAIl and Dayr al·BDI.1I1. In fact, the growth of this village inlo an eXlensive town' ship mUSI have laken place after Ihc decline of Thebes in Plolemaic I.illles duling Ihe first century D.C. and Ihe trdnsfcr of Theban economic and industrial aClivity to Memnonia. During the eany Christian cenluries, its Coptic population grew and lransfonned the ancient monuments into Christian religious foundalions. from lhe recorded inscriplions on papyri and ostraea found on the site, it transpires that a total of twenty-eight churches and monasleries must have existed within lhal region. Four of them were established in.sidc the temples and can be identified. while most of the remaining foundalionli have completely disappeared. B10LlOCRAPIIY

Balaillc, A. Memnollia. Cairo, 1952. Crolll, W. E.. and C. SleindorlT. KOplische Rechlslfr· IWI/detl der achfell JoltrJ/lmderlS I'Otl Dieme [fhe· ben). L..eip7.ig, 1912. I-lijlscher, U. Med/tlcl /lab.. Excavations, 5 vols. Chi· \:lIg0, 19]4-1954. HISI1MAT Mt::SSIIIA

MEMPHIS, the Greek name of the eity known in Egyptian as Mennufer and in Coptic as MGHMI or MGN" (varianl spellings of the name abound in Coptic documents). The cily was one of the most popu· lous places in ancient Egypt .md pl<\yed an imporlant par'l In Ihe admlnlstmllve and religious life of the Egyplitln people. The rcmtlins of Memphis, which include .. number or lemples, a palace, an embalming hou.~e, tombs, and necropolises, arc 10' cllted nellr the modern village of Mtl RahTnah on the weSI side of the Nile about 12 miles (19 km) south of Cl)iro, Before 10.0. ]25 Memphis is mentioned only a few times in Coplic tellts. Among lhe signifieanl occurrences of the name in thili literature is the account in the manyrdOIll of SHIiNUFE lhal recounts how Shenufe WllS laken by ship from Chonasa to Memphis and then to Dall\lj. The story explains lhat lhere were a number of temples and pagans in Memphis

MENARTI

for whom $henufe pelformed val'ious mirndes (Rcymond and Barns, 1973, p. 90 (Coptic texts]; p. 192 [English translation]). Our knowledge of blshop5 in Memphi~ begins wilh the I'CPQI1 vf ATIlANASIl/S that around 325 a man named John waf; the Melit.ian bishop in the city (Munier, 1943, p. 3). Lists of the bishops who took p;m in the Council of NtCAI'..... in 325 indicate that Memphis was also an ol1hodox bishopric at this early pedod; IJishop Antiochus represented Memphis at the council (Munier, 1943, p. 5). Some· time after Anliochus rerius (the transmiucd spell· ing is perhaps a scribal error for Pestorius) was bishop of Memphis. Contemporary documenlS indicate that Perius was known as a pillar of orthodoxy (Rossi, 1885, pp. 102-103). A later bishop was Phil· ippus, who compiled a life of Saint Mahanti (Gmf, 1~, p. 535). The fiBt bishop of Memphi~ mentioned in the historical sources for the period after the ARAB CON. OUEST OF EGYPT is Menna.~, who presided in the middle of the eighth century. The HISTORY OF THE PATRIARCHS record~ that he once assisted KIlA'Il- I (744-767) in a pn~yer service for the rising of the Nile. The ~CC~'lOr of Mennas appears to have been Apa Ccorge, who accompanied Bishop Mi· chae[ of Cairo and Patrian:h JOliN IV (775-799) 10 AICJtandria sumetime around 798. A Coptic text from the Monastery of Jel'Cmiah at5;)qqara (sce DAVR APA JEREM'AH) names Jacob, bishop of Memphis, 1.<; a cOlltempomry of Pa.riarch VOSAIl • (830-849). An· vther text from the same monauery speak.<; of Bi.~h· or Antony of Memphis, but there is no indication whether he preceded or followed Jacoh in the of· lice of bishop (Quibell, 19[2, no. 331). Memphis was still a bishopric around 1240 when Mark, bish· op of Awslm (Wnslm) and Memphis subscribed tu the canons of Patriarch CYRIL III IBN tAQtAQ (1235[243). Monasticism was established io the area around Memphis lit .HI c~,rly period. At the end uf the fourth centUlY the author of the III$'I'O'I.IA MONACIIOllUM IN AOOYPTO reported seeing many fa· thers and a large number of monks around Mem· phis lIntl the ApophllteglllCl/a PalrulIl says that the Monastery of Anleniu8 WllS located ne:,r Turah, above Babylon. across f\'Om Memphis. The most famous of the mOllasteries in the area was DAYR APA JEREMIAH In Saqqara, the old necropolis of Mem· phis. ABO $Aut:t THE AR.\IaNIAN. who wrote at the beginning or .he thil1eenth century, knew of only IWO churches in Memphis. One of tht.'SC churches,

1587

which he said was spread with malS, Wl'S locllted ncxt to a house conSlnJcted of green granite. The other church, which IUid been restored in his day, was nelt! to the place where MM('s wa.~ said '0 have slain the Egyptian (Ex, 2:11-15). BIBlIOGRAPUY

Bunnester, O. H. E. "The Canons of Cyril III ibn Laklak." 8ulleli" de /0 SocUtt d'orc1le.ologie caple 14 (1950-1957):113-50. Cotelicr, J. B., cd. Apophthcgm% Potrum. PC 65, cols. 71_440. Paris, 1864. Fcs.tugit~, A.•J., ed. His/aria Monachorum in Aegyp/o. Bruuds, 197t. Munier, H, ReCI/cit des /isles epiR;upales de f'eglise cop/e. Cairo, 1943, Ouibell, J. E. E..rcal'aliofl5 at Saqqara (1908-9, /90910J: The MOrlas.tep)/ of Apa Jeremias. Cairo, 1912. Reymond, E. A. E., and J. W. 8. Barns, eds. Four Martyrdoms from /he Pierporl/ Morga1l Cupli,' CQdices. Oxford, 1973. Rossi, F. "Trascnzione di aleuni te5ti copti tmni doi papin del Mw;co egizio di Torino." Memorie della RealI! Accademia della Sdenu di Torino, ser. 2, 36 (1885):89-182. Timm, S. Das ,·hris//ich.koplis,·he A.gyptc" i" arabi· scher Zeit, pt. 4, pp. 1549-58, Wicsooden, 1988. RANDAU. STEwART

MEMPHITIC, See Appendix.

MENARTI, the name given in modem times to a small island situated at the foot of the $ccond Cata· met of the Nile, a few miles south of the town of Wadi Haifa. The name in Nubian means "is[and 01' Mei," but some scholars believe this mtly be" cor· mption of Mikhailnal1i (i~land of Michael). Neal' the Soul hem lip of tlte island WI1S tl fairly large vllltlge that in medieval times was appal'enlly nn imporllln1 lIdministoltive eCOler as well as the home nf a monastic community. GeogrJphicll1 evidenec suggests that the village at Menal1i may be the Tllkoll or Ullkwa mcnlionetl in the no longer extant, hut oft.quoted tenth·century lravel account or IlIN SAtJM A....AswANI. enti.led Re· purlS on Nubia, Makollyia, 'A{w6, Beia, and Ihe Nile. According to Ibn Snllm, this W'dS the limil of upriv· er naviga.ion for boats coming from Egypt, and was a cUStOms PUS' on the frontier bc.ween Lower and Uppcr Nubia. At .his point all cargoes were deliv· ered into the hands of Ihe cparch of NOBAT'A. and

1588

MENAS

no mercham was allowed

10

pass beyond Takoa

cltCCpl with hi! pcnnission (Burckhardt, 1819. p. 494). It is pollsible also that Menan! was the site of

the Monastery of Michael and Co!;ma:s, which is described bUI nOI located in ADO .VOW.!'S Churches Qnd MOIIQsu.rie5 01 Eg)'pt and SOJI/t Neighbouring COIllI/ries. Archaco1oaical eltcavations in 1963-1964

revealed unmistakable evidence of a monastery. Then: is good evidence for identifying Menani wilh the Island of Michael thai is mentioned in a number of hlle medieval Ar.lbic histories. Accord-

"Sudan Ailliquilies 5elvice Excavations at Meimll11, 1963-64." Kush 13 (1965):148-76. _::-_. "Settlement P(llIcrn in Microcosm: The Changing Aspl,.'i;1 of a Nubian ViII(lge During Twelve Centuri~." In SeuJemc.1/ Arch
AOAMS

ing to AL.NUWAYRI (d. 1332), the Island of Michael was "al the hud of the calaracl of Nubia, a place full of rock outcrops in the middle of the river." This perfectly dcscribc:s the silwuion of Menani prior 10 il.$ flooding by Lake asser. AI.Nuwayrt further rc<:ount5 that the Island of Michael was three limes captured by Mamluk amlics between 1276 and 1366. The eparch of Nobatia, or Lord of the Mountain, as he is usually called in Arabic teXIS, is

described as having jurisdiction over the island, with the implication that he had a residence there. Other Ar.ab ht"torians list the Island of Michael alllOni the territories in Nubia Ihat were ceded by lhe king of MAKOURIA to the Mamluk sultan Baybars, but it is evident frum both hislorical and arehat'Ological evidence lhal Mamluk conlrol was never more Ihan nominal. A I:ll'ge pan of the archaeological sile al Menani was excavated by Ihe Sudan Antiquities Service bc· tween 1963 lind 1965. The excavatiOns revealed that lhe settlement was first established in late Meroitic times, around ..... 1>. 300, and thereafter was occupied until sometime around 1500. Most of the excavated remains proved to be those of ordinary houses, but there was also a church and, in the later medieval period, a small monustel)'. This laller showed evi· dence of deliberole vandalism (prohably in lhe course or one of lhe M
MENAS, superior of Dayr Apa Apollo at Bawl!. Menas is not known other Ihan from a vel')' fine kon of large dimensions (57 x 57 cm) preserved in the Louvre Museum in Paris and often reproduced, for it Is a magnificenl example of Coptic art. We may be confident that he was the superior of a monastery, for this painting describes him as "Menas, proUIOS," a title thai is inscribed twice, whereas Christ who protects him wilh II familiar gesture (passing His right ann over his shoulders) receives Ihe litle savior (so/er) only once. The gesture. witb the nimbus that surrounds Menas's visage, is proof Ihat he W(lS vcner-lled by his eontemporariel:. The title protslOS, olten given, is applied to the superior of a large monastery, but may also be given to the superior of a simple ·'house." We may cautiously conclude that Ihis tille docs not necessarily indicate Ihal Ihis Menas was at the head of a l(lrge monlllliery. l-listorillns of art, noting Ihal Ihe style of Ihis icon was vcry close to the paintings from B:'l.wl~, have thought tlmt this pillnting (liso h:td some chance of deriving from there. Thus P. du Boul'guct (1968, pp. 39, 132; 1964. no. 164), as in thc Cu/cl!ugllc frwl~'ciis de i·E:q)o.~ilion cople. aftirlllS that this piece derives from B:lwl!; K. Wessel (1963. pp. 186-88) culls him abllOt and saim. However. elClImlning lhe case of the icon represenling "Abr~h:tm, bishop" in the State Museulll of Bel'lin, which Is orten said to de· rive from Bawl!. M. Krause ltIkes issue with this asscl1ion and compares lhe case with thllt of the icon of Menas. which was given to the Louvre Museum before the excavations by J. Cl'::unt lind J. Ma~pcro (1971. pp. 106-11; 5Ce in pal1icular p. 108, n. 17). We thus have no proof, dirt.'Ct or indire<:l, that this icon derives from Bawl! (no inscription publisht-d by CI&lat or M(lsperu mentions (In abbot Menas. a name very common in Egypt). Besides, it is very possible Ih(ll one and Ihe samc anisl, whose talent was well known. could have wol'ked at sever-

MENA$ THE MIRACLE MAKER, SAINT

I

aJ places. Much later, cer1ainly, we know from his signature that a single :l.11ist was able to e~e<:uh: his work at Akhmlm, llt Isna, and at Aliwan (see Coquin. 1975, p. 278): the painter Mercurius. who executed his paintings between 1301 and 1318. It is therefore not impo~~ihle that the same artist canil:d out work lit sevcr.ll placcs. which lea\'cs us uncertain about the provenance of lhe painting in the Louvr(: Museum. ali about thai in the State Museum of Berlin. 11 seems. as Krause auviSl."S. more prudent to confess our ignornnee. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barison, r. "Riccrchc sui monasteri dcll'Egilto bi· zantino ctI ar.lbe. secondo i documend dei papin greci." At8Yplll$ 18 (19]8):29-148. Bourguct. P. duo L'an copu:. Catalogue of the expositKJn of Coptic art in the Musee lIu Petit Palais, Paris. 17 June-IS Sl:ptember 1964. Paris, 1964. L'u.rt ,·Qplc. Paris, 1968. Trnnslated as The Arl of the Copls by C. Hay·Shaw. New York, 1967. Coquin, R.·G. "us inscriptions parittales des monastcrcs d'Esna: Ibyr aJ·Suhada'.Dayr al·Fahuri." 811/1elil/ de 1'It1$lillll Irum;uis d'Arcilio/ogie orictllQle 75 (1975):241-84. Kahle, P. 8afu'iwh. 2 vols. London and Oxford, 1954. Kmuse. M. "Zur LokaJisierung und Oatienmg kOpli· scher Denkm:iler." leitschrill li;r il1O'ptische SpracJlc IlIId Allcrillmskum/e 97 (1971): 106-111. Wessel, K. KfJplisdle KUI/st, die Spiitalllilt.e itl Agypl. Cl/. Re<:klingh:lUscn. 196]. Trnnslated as Coptic Art by J. Carroll .md S. Hatton. London. 1965. RF..NF.·GEOIlCF..$ COOUIN

MENAS, SAINT, cJghth·century bishop of Tmuis. The life of Anb4 Mcnas is known from lhc SYNAXAR· tON. the nolice of whleh is read 00 7 Hatur, and lhe H1J'iTORY nF Til" l'A'l'KthKCIlS, in the notice on KHA'IL I. Menas W,IS 11 native of Samanniid in the nelta. He WIlS nn only SC)1l, anI.! was m,lrriccl ,Igainst his will. He kept his vllllinity with his wife, (lnd lhcy put on hnircloth bells unl.!er lheir !lannents and spent the night in prnyer. MCllllS left his wife and went to UAVR ANUA ANTONtVOS, where he met Kha'il I, the future patriarch of Ale~andria. They wenl to the monas· tery of Saint Macalius In Scetis. where at this lime AIlRAIlAM ANIl CI!OItCIl hnd made themscJvl"S famous. Soon Mcna~ wa.~ n:l.med bishop of Tmuis by the palriareh SIMON I (689-701). He was !.he spiritual father of four p:uriarchs and laid his hands on them al Iheir consecr:ltion: Au:.xANOER II (705-7]0); cos-

1589

MAS I (730-731); 11IF-OOORUS (731-743); and Khli'i11 (744-767). He dil:d probably in 768. RIlNa.GEOKGEli

COOUIN

MENAS OF AL.ASHMUNAYN, SAINT.

or

Menas (he A.~cetlc, a "new manyr," who was killed after the Arnb eonquC5t (feast day: 17 Amshir). According to Ihe SVNAXARJON, he ..... as born at Akhmlm of Christian parents who were farmers. He received the call 10 Ihe monastic life quite early ..nd became a monk in a monastery at Akhmim. Laler he wenl 10 a monastel)' ncar al-Ashmunayn. Having heard lhat the Arabs denied Ihat God had a Son, he wenl off after obtaining the lIuthori7A'\tion Qf the superior of the monastery, outside the town of al·Ashmuoayn, to find the leader of the Muslim army, and asked him if he lruly denied that God had a Son. When lhe commanuer affirmed that he did. Ml'nas quoted the Gospel of John: "He who believes in the Son shall have clemal life, :l.nd he who does not believe in the Son shall not s« life, but lhe wrath of God .shall descend upon him." The commander flew into 1I vloleOl mge, and ordered that Menas should be cut in pieces and thrown into Ihe Nile. The faithful gathel'Cd him together. and eclcbrntcd his feasl on the anniversal), of his dealh. RENll-GroRGEli

COOUIN

MENAS THE MIRACLE MAKER, SAINT. The Coptic church eommemormcs Saint Menas on IS Hatur. On his person, lire, llnd dellch we h(IVC e~tensive sources in Greek, Coptic, Old Nubian, Ethiopic, Latin, Syriac, and Armenian. Many of these texts htlVe not yet been published. The ~ourc· e~ may be subdivided into mnrlyrdom, SymlXanOn, Encomium, miracle collections, and other categn· ries (Krause, 1978, pp. 1125-211). Theil' Slalcmcnts arc contr.lclictory. Basically, the Encomium expands the statemcnts of the lII:trtynJom anu eont"ldicts other statements. Menas was an EgY]ltianaccol'ding to the Encomium, a well-born Egyptian from Nikiou. Statements that he came fl'Om Nepaia1 or from south of Mareotis lind that he had been a camel driver [U'C refuted. According to Ihe martyrdom and the Encomium, he wa~ a soldier stationed in Phl)'gill. After he had abandoned his unit and wilhdrnwn into lhe wlldemes.~, he confessed his Christian failh and on 15 Hattir 296 suffered a martyr's death. According 10 the Encomium. Menas's regiment was transferred to Egypt for the protec-

1590

MENELIK II

lion of Man.'Qtis, and his body t<'lken along as a relic. He effected a peaceful crossing, and by lire drove aw.Jy sea monsters with long necks. On the mllrch to Mareotis the oody wa.~ laid upoo a camel. When the camel, and ..Iso olher camels on which the body was haid, refused to stand up, this was interpreted as the wish of the martyr to be laid to rest at Marcotis, and Ihere he was buricd. The beginning of the cult of Menas is variously rclatL-d, According to Ihe Encomium, the lirst healing wa.~ of a )'oulh, crippled from birth, who slcpt at the grave of MCllas. Acconling 10 Ihe SYNAXARION. lIIangy sheep smeared with a mixture of earth from thc grove ;and water were healed, and only thereafler were people cured, According to the Encomi· um, a small oratory in the form of a tetmpylon was built over the grave. Other churches followed (5Ce ABO ,.IIMA). The contradictions in regard 10 the person of Menas. his sojourn in Pht}'gia, and his burial in Egypt; the facl lhat there were several martyrs by the name of Menas outside of Egypt (O'Lcat)'. 1937, pp. 194[,) but that no Egyptian mm1yr named Mena.~ is aUcslcd from the time of I>IOCL/:.'TIAN (Dclehaye, 1922, p. 31); and the relationship of the mal1yrdom of Menas 10 the eulogy of BASIl. TIte GReAT on Gon.lius have raised Ihe question of the hiSlorical Menas (Drc5Cher, 1946). Four hypotheses can be ltdvanced: (I) Menas was an Egyplian martyr (Delehaye); (2) Menns was a Pht}'gian martyr; (3) there were tWl,) martyrs by the nallle of Menas, one in Egypt and nne in Phrygia, and the two were confused by the halli~raphers (Drescher); (4) Menas is nOl a historical figure at all but replaces a pagan god (Horus or pcrhap:i a Phryghm god; R;lOl· say, 19111, p. 166). Advocates of this last thesis havc to postulate II Christianized pagan cult, which so far they hllve been unable to demonstrate archaeologi· cally. A dcrivation of the iconognlphy of Menas from the repr'esenlatiolls of I-Iorus is also not tcna· hie (KI'ausc, 1978, col. 1132), [See u!~'u; <;hr'istlan Subjects in Coptic Art.) HIIU.IOGRAPHY Dclchaye, H. "Les manyrs d'Egyptc," Allulec/Q Bollundi/III// 40 (1922):5-154, 292-364. Drescher, J. Apu Mfmu. A Seleetiml of COJltie Texu Relllling 10 St, MeliUS, Cairo, 1946. Kraus.e, M, "Kann Abu Mena." In ReQUexikon wr bYZulI/illisc1rcll KWlSl, Vol, 3, eols. 1116-58. Stull· gan, 1978. Miedema. R. De heilige Mellas. Rouerdam. 1913. O·Leal'y, De L The Saitrls of Egypl. London, 1937.

RamSllY. W, "The Ulili7.alion of Epigraphic Copies:' Journal of Hellellic Sludie.f 38 (1918):124-92. Mo\.RTIN KRAUSE

MENELIK II (1844-1913), emperor of Ethiopia. From 1865 to 1889, he was king or Shewa (S.""IwtI), and from 1889 to 1913, cmperor of Elhiopia. Hc was the last Ethiopian sove~ign to expand the empire by conqucst and he enlarged it to about three times the original sb.e of the Chrislian core area. He also 5Ct the empire on the course of moderniza· tion by establishing an economic infrastructure, constructing means of communication, reorganiz· ing the state administrative institutions, and open· ing schools in which the Copts played a significant role, Menelik's parents wcre thc negus Khliyla MalakOl of Shewa and a woman of humble origin namL-d EUeg1yyahu. Upon the death of his father in 1855, he was taken captive by Emperor Tewodros II (1855-1868) who Incorporoted Shewa into the em· pire aflcr over a hundred years of autonomy. He was treated well, as the emperor saw 10 il th(lt he continued his education. later he gave him his own daughter in maniage. BUI as the political instability of thc empire incrc:t5Cd in the 18605, the emperor kepi him in confinement, Menclik cscaped in 1865 and installed himself on thc throne of his fathel'S. In 1867, he IhrC'"dtened the stronghold of Magdala on behalf of the Coptic metropolilan, Abuna Sal1m11V (c. 1817-1868), with whom he wa.~ in scuct con· tact, but he withdrew soon for strntellic l'Casons. Thc metropolitan died in cOl1finement in October of the same ycar, Though hc claimed the Imperial insignia and ti· tic, MCllelik was not crowned nor did he hal/e a bishop. Thc territorial acquisition of I.~majl Pashu al'Qund the Red Sca resulted in a eunnicl with Emperor YoJ:1anncs IV, lind Mellelik tded to exploilthe situation by entering into correspondence with tile khedive. He sent tin educaled cleric as an enl/oy, who returned wlih an Egyptian force led by Mun7.inger Pa.~ha, whu tried to r'cach Shewa through the Danakil depI'ession, but the command· er and his force were surprised and routcd. Yohanncs IV defe!lll.'d two other Egyptian contino genlS in the nonh in 1875-1876 and thcn with his newly captured weapons lurned southward 10 Mcndik. who submined to YoJ:1anncs IV without lighting in 1878. Hc assured his subjects of his 01'Ihodo... faith and tried to implement thc imperial

MENOU, JACQUES FRANl;OIS 'ABDALLAH

policy of ohliging the Mu~lim ~ubjt'C1S to convert 10 Christianity. In 1882 Yol.H'nnes IV assigned to MeneJiIi: one of the foul" bishops he had brought from AlexMdria. Abuna M:ltcwvs. After lhe death of the emperor, Menelik became the logical heir to the throne. and the melropolitan. Abuna reu"os, submitted to him. Out Mendik fa· \"Orcd Miitcwos and after consuhing wilh the patriarch in Alexandria, he raised him to the status of a metropolitan, by whose hands he was crowned em· peror of Elhiopia in November 1889. Mcnelik al50 involved lhe metropolitan in Slate affairs. In 1902, he sent him on a diplumatie mi55ion to Russia, and in 1907 he let him take conlrol o( education. Trodi· tionally. education was sponliOred by the Ethiopian Onhodoll Church. Early in the twentieth century, Menelik initiated the first 5e(:ular govemment schools in Addis Ababa and some of the provinces. and staffed them with Coptic Christian recruits. One of their number, J:lannii ~lib Bey, became the lint director of the school opened in the capital, and a year latcr he became director of eduemlon for lhe whole empire. Menelik suffered a stroke in the same year from which he never fully recovcred.

BIBLIOGRAPHV

Gucbrc Sdlasit. Cllroniqut dll Regnt dt MilleW: II TO; del! Toil! d'ElhiQpilJ. ed. M. de Cappet, Vois. I and 2. Paris. 1930-1931. MlIhtama Sellli.~ Walda Masqal. Ze!o:ra tJagar (His· torlcal memoll'!l), 2nd edition. Addis Ababa, 1962. Marcus, H. G. Thl! UII! alld Timcs of MCIlelik /I of EllJiupia, 1844-/913. O~ford. 1975. Pankhurst, R. Ecunumi,· Nis/oT)' of Ethiopia, /8001935. Addis Abab'l. 1968. _ _ . "Menilek :md the Utilisalion of Foreign Skills In Ethiopia." Joumal 01 EthiopitHl Studies 5. series I (1966):29-86. BATRU TA~

MENOU, JACQUES FRANf;OIS 'ABDALLAH, French general born in 1750 in Boussay de wt:hes (Tou1'aine) and died in Veniee in 1810. He took part in Ihe French E~pcdition tQ Egypt in 1798 and was mililary governor of the province of Rosetta until Klebe,' gave him the command of Cairo. Arler the murder of Kleber by a Syrian Mu.~lim, he succeeded him in the sup,-eme command Qf the French Oriental Army. From the beginning, MenOll had been a burning

1591

advocate of Napoleon'~ n;:ligiOll~ and colonial policy. Napoleon had tried II) win Ihe sympathiCli of the Muslim population by syslemrltic pmpagnnda and demonstration Qf his pro-Islamic aUitudCli. Howcv· er, Menou's suppo,' for Islam soon went beyond mere manifestations of respL'C1. Early in Mareh 1799 he convened 10 Ishlm and adopted the first name 'Abdallah. He also married a .fhar/fall, a woman who traced her line of descent back to the prophet Muhammad on both her fathe'~i'I and her mother's side. He thcn lIc;leu in lIccordance with his religious belief when he became lhe head of the "Egyptian colony." MenOl.l relied upon lhe Muslim elite and look advice (rom the '1I1t'llilS (Muslim religious leadenl). His oruen concerning the ad· ministration o( law and public revenues as well as his proclamations concerning social problems proved his desire to preserve Islamic institutions ilnd even to reform them in accordance with French standards. Menou's relationship wilh the non·Muslim groups of the population was decisively innuenee
1592

MERCURIU$ OF CAESAREA, SAINT

Ottoman allack against Egypt in 1801. which forced \'lim \1) C~pi\\l.\a\e.. BIBLIOGRAPHY

'Abd al.Rarym;\n 'l]-R;:\fr',. Ttl'rlkl, a/.1!tlftlkah al0(/ ....1111)')'61' Il'tl.Ta!tlwwur Ni¢m af.l!ukm II Miff, vuls. 1_2. Cairo, 1948. b Jonqul/:rc, C, E, L. M. dc Talrt\nel. f/E.rpedilioll d'£gyplc, 17!)/J-180J, vols. 1-5. Pads, 1899-1906. MOIZki, H. Dimma (HId EgaliIC. Die "idllmu.ilimi· schell MillderlHdrell Agyple"s ill der lwei/en !Jaille des IS. )allr/WIle/efts lind die £XpelUtion BOlla· fXJflCS (/798-/801). Donn, 1979. R"''Ybaud. M. K. L HislOire de J't!JCp~dilioll frallfuise em Egyple. vols.. 1-6. Paris, 1830-1836. Rigauh, G. I~ Gilliral Abdcdluh Mel/oil ella derIli~re pilau de f'txpeditioll d'Egypt/!. (1799-180/). Paris, 191 l. Rousseau, Fr:m(ois. Kreher ttl Mcnoll .... /1 Egypf/!. depl/is Ie depart de BOI/rl/Xlr/e. ami, 1799-seplembre 1801. Pads. 1900. HARALD MOTLKI

MERCURIUS OF CAESAREA, SAINT,

II

Ruman llrmy officer who was m(lrtyred in Ihc third centul)' in Caesarea. Cappadodll, lind is credited with m;01lY subsequent miraculous :lppcarances. Known in Arabic as Abli S...yfayn. he L~ commemorated by the Coptic church on 25 Hatlir. In addi· tion. two tuher f(,:lSt days arc observed in memory of this So.. int: 9 n...·unah, when pans of his ~cred relics were brought to Egypt. by Patrian::h X)tIN Xlll (1484-1524): and 25 Abib, when these relics were preserved in a church in Old Cairo dedicated 10 his name.

The Christian Tradition Coptic matcl'ial on Mercurius is plentiful. (I) Sailll Mi!rcllrilj.~' Pass/vII Ulldltr Decius. which is substantially in agreement with the principal Greek text (IJibliotheca Hagiogruphku Graeca 1274), is prescn'ed in five manuscripu. The oldcst, from the ninth century. is in the Pierpont Morgan Libra,)', New York (M 588). Others are in the British Must.... urn, London. (Or. 6801); the National Library. Paris (fragment 129.15, 19); and the Morgan Library (M 589), a Fayyumic versmn from the tenth century. (2) There is a fmgment of another Passion in the British Museum (Or. 6802) at the beginning of an anonymous text (Budge. 1915). (3) An abridgment of the PnSSiOli is within an incomplete ven;ion of a Panegyric of Mercurius auributed to Acaclus of Cacsare;l in the Morgan Lihrary (M. 588, 589). (4)

An account of scvt:n mimcles performed at the con!>\ru<:.\\of> (){ MeK~rlW: mart)"'ri~m ;'f> ~ru \5 in the Morgan library (M. 588. 589) and in another ven;ion of the Pane&"'ric by Acacius in the British Museum (Or. 6802). (5) Fraglllents of other miracle Stories nre in a manuscript from Dayr Anba Shinli· duh now in the National Libr'ary. Pads (129.15. 20), and fr..lgments in Ihe National library, Vienna (K9456) and K7655 :I-b). (6) The complete Pane· gylic by Acacius (the only one in existence) is in the British Museum (Or. 6802). (7) A pllnegyric attributed to Saint Basil the Great (Orlando. "Basilio ... :' 1976. pp. 56-58) seems to be pan of a pseudo-Basilian CYCLE hi which the presence of lhe Sarmates tribe in !..:uic:! regularly occurs. An account of Mereurius' Illiraculous execution of the cmperor Julian the Apostatc is attached to the PAssion under Dedu$ in the British Museum (01". 6801) and is also in the panegyric by Acad· us in the Morgan Library (588) (Orlandi, "Pas' sione ... ," 1976. pp. 54-61). where it states that the account is taken from Eusebius' Ec:d/!$illstical lIisw')' (ehnps. 10 and II). The basic account uf MCl'cUl'ius' life is as folluws. Born to (l pagan Macedonian family of hunlcr'S in the third century, he is namcd Philopatel·. Later, Gordianus. his father, is miraculou.~ly rescued from the jaws of death through the inten'ention of an angel. an event that prompts him to seek eonver· sion to Christianity. The local bilihop who bapti7.ed the family names the child Mercurius. As a twenty· ycar-old soldier. Mercurius distinguishes himself in the Roman war in Armenia, fighting in the cohort of Manenscs under the command of Satuminus (Sardonicus or Banonikos in Coplic). The vision of a dazzling man. an angel. helps him to victory. Con· sequently. the emperor Dcdus makes him II general. But the angel tells him his victory came from the Lord, the God of the Christians, of whnm he had heard in his childhood from this falher', Gordianos, an officer in the same cohort. Whcn MCl'curius refuses to IIccompany those who sacdfiee to A11emi.~. the moon I::oddess, Decius sum' mons him. Mercurius throws down his (U"fOS at the emperor's feet in order to take UI) the arms of Christ. Decius then subjects him to a 5eriC!i of tor· tures. He is nailed by his arms and legs o\'er a fire. but his blood extinguishes the fire and he is healed in prison. Then he is hung upside down with a Stone hung around his neck and beatcn with four· ply cortls and burnt with a red-hot iron. Finally the emperor orden; him taken back to Cappadocia to be finished off with a sword. Thc punlcy is accom· plished in long sllIges. At the moment or eJ(etUlion,

MERCURIUS OF CAESAREA, SAINT

the saint'~ body tum~ white and emits heavenly fragrances, The e~ecutlon is com,nelllomtt--d on 25 HatOr. The miracles pocrfonned by Mcrcurius on the oc· casion of the construction of his martyrium in Caesarea ar'e lhe chief subject of the panegyric attribut· ed to Acaclul. The scene" are ,'ery lively and much more Egyptian than Cappadocian in fecling. Through his innumerable appearances, Mereurius punishes the rich who wish to eY'dde coopcmtion in the erection of the church. One appearance is to a rich pagan who is stealing the bricks brought by the faithful. The man u knocked down by his camel, while Mereurius appealll to him with his lance, ~riking his foot. Then the camel sei1.es him by the fool. and the plan of lhe ouilding. according to the word of Mercurius, i" drawn on the ground with the wretchetl man's back. N«dh:ss to say, he is convened and is instantly healed of his wounds. Another Itppt:aranec il in tonncction with a little love drama evoked for the making of the martynum. A young man, broken·heaned to see his sweethean promised in It more worldly matth, in· terviews a wizard, who innicl!i a fatal headache on the girl. Saint Mercurius disentangles the threads of the drama on his feast day. at the foot of the shrine containing his relics. The wizard is convenl.-d and goes off to be a monk; the girl is saved and marries the repentant young man. Cacs,'lrea, the place itsclf, is mentioned only once. The mO!lt complicated and famous of the miracles of Saint Mereurius IS the death of Julian the Aprnaate in 363. Julian's cont~lI1porarit-"S wondered about hiS sudden assassination [he died in Mule in Peniaj, wllhoUI bcinll: ublc tQ exphlin it olher than lIS a result of divine repl'Ollch for the emperor's :lUempt to bl'lng thc cmpirc back to paganism. This ldelt is expressed popularly by .~h{)wing Julian, In lhe middle or his Pcrsi,1Il elllllp
1593

executlonet· is one of the f01'y mar'yrs, and in the other I3asil sees Saint Mercurius in II vision exct:Ul· ing Julian and the next day ~nd~ that the saint's lance in an icon is covered with blood. This account is found in The I.i/e 018Qsif by Amphilochius (Bibliotheca Hagiographica Gracca 247-60). a lext placed in the ninth century according to vCl)' old triteria. Orlandi shows that the text WllS already tntnslatctl into Latin in the ninth tentury. A readap· tation oft.....o mil'l:u;:le stories can be found in a Sinpi Georgian mpnuscript datt--d 864, and the mirade about Peter of Sebastela (Bioliotheca Hagiographica Graeca 257) is found in an Araoit manuscript dated 855 (Shanidze, 1959, pp. 70-73; van Esbrocdt, 1978, p. 384).

Orlandi therefore distinguishes two separate cen· lers for the blossoming of Ihe h:gend of Julian: Antioch, where the fOl1y martyrs are the prot agonisl!i, and Cacsarea, where Saint Mercuriw; is the elttcutioner of Julian. The explanation in the Syriac tradition would be the result of compiling and hal" moni1Jng with word play on Mar QUrus, Cyrus being the aClUal name of one of the fony martyrs. This explains Ihe lack or any PllS$ion of Saint Mereurius in Syriat, while in Armenian and Georgian the ma'1yrdom under Dccius is well repre· sented.

The Arable Tradition Abu Sayfayn means "the father with the two swords"; the weapons that always accompany his imnge doubtless originate from accounts of MereuI'· ius's execution by JuHnn the Aprn;tate. Abu Sayrayn Is treated in many l;ourees. His m:\I1yrdom under Dccius Is described in a nlneteenth.century manu· scripl in lhe National Librar)', Paris (Ar"ole 478t. fols. 108-117) and in a fOUI,eenth.century manu· sCdpl rl'OIll Ihe Monastery of SlIinl Clltherine, Mount Sinai, in the National Library (Arabic 397, 1015. 193-210). The Mount Sln:,1 m:museript follows the Pa.~.~ion with Basll's nccount of lhe 5101)' of Mercurius and JuJiun. A collection of eleven mira· cles is in a manuscript In lhe Nalional Liorar), (Ara· bic 4781, fols. 118-51); fifteen miracles are reo counted in a Sevenleenth·centuryll1anuscripl there (Ar-dOle 4793, fols. 49-122). A panegyric attributed to Aeacius has been trnnslatcd from Coptle into Arabic in an ('Ightcenth·century manuscript in the Coptic Museum, cairo (Graf 479, rols. 172-91). Abu Sayfuyn appears with his two swords in many icons. In the tenth centm)' Abraham. patriarc.h of AleXllndria. built a church in Cairo in his honor, dedicating it 011 25 Ablb. In lhe eleventh century

1594

MESODIALECT

Patriarch Christodoulus made:: the church his residence. The saint':; relil;S were moved thcn: in 1488. Ac;c;ording to Delehaye (1975), the cult of Abu. Sayfayn ili most widely spread in Egypt. ABO ~ll;I TIlE ARMENtAN Slales that a monastery and a large number of the churchL"S were dedicated to him in th;1I country, In Cairo alone, three churches are dedicated to the saint, one in Ofl~K flt.-SHAM' in Old Cairo (dating from the sixth century), another assoclated with a convent of women known as DAVR ALoBANAT, and a third at J.tAKlT ZUWAYLAH. BIDUOGRAPHY

Binon, S. £.uai slIr Ie cycle de sail1l Mercure. Paris, 1937. Budge, E. A. W. Mm:e[JaueOlI5 Coptic ruts in Ihe Dia/eCI 01 Upper Egypt. London, 1915. Delehayc, H. Les Ugendes grecqlles des sainl$ mili· (aires, pp. 91-101. Paris, 1909; repro New York, 1975. Esbroeck, M, \';10. "Un reuillet oublil: du codex arabe or, 4226 Ii St.7lSboul'g," Am.decta Bul/mld. iana 96 (1978):384. OrlandI, T, Storia della driesa di MIC$$lmdria. Vol. I Milan, 1967. Studi cOflti. Milan, 1968. _ . Kopti$che Papyri thco/o/:i$d/eu Illholis. Vien· na, 1974, _::,-_ "Basilio di Cesarea nella lille::ralura c;:opta." Rivista degli studi orie'l(aJi 49 (1976):56-58. _::,-_ Passiolle e mirucoJi di S. Mercurio. Testi e documenll per 10 studio delt 'a.ntichilii, serie capta. 17,22, and 54, Milan, 1976. Till. W, Kop/ische JltiJigtPl' IIl1d Miirty~e~/egtlldtll. Rome, 19]5. MICHEL VAN EsBROECK

-==.

MESODIALECT. See Appe./du, MESOKEMIC, See AppendU. METADIALECT. See Appendi,t. METALWORK. COPTIC. objcc;:ts made or met· al in Egypt from the socond 10 the thinecnth c;:cntu' ry. The slIIdy of Coptic metalwork presenls serious problemli. Onc is that metal objects recently removed rrom an environmcnt that has sheltered them for centuries arc subject to change and must be C;:lIrcfully preserved. Another is that scientific

methods of metallographic;:a1 analysis, which would give inronnation on their origin, manufae;:ture, and history, have rarely been applied to them. Until they are. scholars can attempt only a limited, empirical study based on genel'lll knowledge or ancient metal· working. on documentary evidence suc;:h as old texts as iconography, and on the ubjeC;:15 them· selves, orten it is not known where metal objects regard· cd as Coptic;: were found. Many have been acquired through the an market. Aside from archaeological discoveries, an Egyptian origin is most often sug' gested for them by reason or their style. BUI Coptic fonru; cannot be clearly distinguished rrom late Roman. Syrian, Byzantine. and. uhimatcly, Muslim types, It is only those objeclS found in situ or those wilh an irt5(:ription in Coptic;: lhat can with c;:oJ:lfidence be described as Coptic, and thcse are few in number. Also, it Is idle to lly 10 establish a distinc;:tion between Christian and non-Christian objeC;:15 ellc;:ept where the liigns arc dear. It is undentood that Coptic art is Egyptian an produced during a period that witnessed the end of paganism, the ~prcad of Chrislianity. and the beginnIng of the Muslim el'll. Thus, wh:ll waS produc;:ed was nol ex.clusively the work of Christian c;:rnftsmen; nor wa.~ it intended just for Christians. Dating is L'qually problematic. In the present state of research, it would be premature to allot a date to each object studied. PublicaLions ortcn suggest dates but only too rarely offer adequate evldencc ror them. The means of dating are litratigraphy for arehaeological finds, and comparative studies. Ex· amination of the style of the motifs represented on meta.! objects or comparison of such motirs with their representlltion in other techniqueli may olfcr dues. but only under the presupposition that the dating of the worb uscd fo.· c;:omparison is ac;:cu· rate.

Economic and Stylllltic Aspecls In the Coptic period, Egyptians worked those metals thllt were traditionally known in the ;Indcnt world-gold, silvcr, copper, and bron~c (an alloy of copper with tin or lelld), which wcre most rrequent. Iy used. Iron and lead were used more rarely. Extraction. Deposits of metallic;: ore were located in the Eastem Dt.'SCrt, in Sinai, and in Nubia, Some metals, such lIS tin or silver, were round in small quantities in other matcrials or were imported. Cold and some copper and iron were present in a rree state; the remainder had to be extl'llcted from orcs, The initial operations-crushin8 and caSling

METALWORK, COPTIC

of the ore, and shaping of the ingots-were carried out on site, The ingots were then hammered and lempered to yield more mistflnt products, The metalworker:o; u~ed rudimentalY melallools and improvised crucibles and furnaces. In this lechnology they drew on an inheritance that went back to lhe times of the phamohs. Metalworking Techniques. In a second stage the melals were forged or cast to manufa.:,:tul'e objec:ts, They could all be hammen:d hot or cold. The Mlet'ts obtained were Ihen CUI. shaped by hammer on an anvil, and pul together or hammered thin for plating; $Ometimes the metal was drawn into fine wire. Casting made it posiiible 10 creale small objects with complex shape,;. The tradit;onal lost·wax process (using a waIl·cooted model, a clay or stone mold, and molten metal) was still in use. Steatile molds used to cast pendants and amulets have ~ur vived 10 the p~nt day in the EaYptian Museum, Berlin, Bnd the Brooklyn Museum. The unmolded metal objeci was then finished with a chisel and decorated. Dccorntivc tcc:hniques included repous· se (hammered) work, engraving (incising) with a gl'1lving 1001, perforatiOns, inlaying, burning on a lathe, or joining by wc:lding or riveting. Goldsmiths '11$0 did filigret' work and granulation and set slones. OrganluUon or the Trade. Much is still un· known about the organi"Wtion of the metalworking trnde. Though workshops of the Early Christian period have been found in Europe and Ihe Middle E.'lSt, evidence fmm Egypt is lacking. The existence or such workshops, however, is indicated by marks from engravel'S' tools and by inscriptions. Alexandria WllS probably one of lhe greal eenleu or the goldsmith's tr'llde in the ancient world. Nevertheless, we musl nol suppose for this period any highly developed speelali1.Jlllon either in metalworking technique or in the stalus of the craftsman. Some smiths worked on their own aeCOlln!. and lraveling smiths in the countryside made objects of the lowliest type. But a w\)I'kshop or considcmble dimensions w:u neeC55l1ry for some metlilworking. Rich men or' municipal or religious institutions could lease such shops to craftsmen. E. Wipszycka (1972, pp. 62,103) mentions churchc~ that had a metallur· giclil workshop. The founders of sueh shops were privileged, for the Thcooo:slllO code exempted them from pellOnal imposts. Goldsmilhs were also merchants and banke!'$ of a kind. and they could em· ploy many cl'Bftsmen. Style. The style of an objecl is often bound up with ilS malel'ial but not always. Some melal l1asb. for imilance, might imitate glas.<; or eernmic bonles.

1595

Conversely, polle!'$ sometimes .:,:opied metal can· winel'S. Style does not necessarily enable us to give the precise dale of a piece. Only certain repre.enta· lion elements in melalwork can be compared to the same elements sculptured in 510ne or wood, which ha\'e been more extensively studied. to give us an indiclilion of chronology. Style may also be atfe,;;:ted by fashion and by foreign imports. Trade was brisk in the ancient world, and lituraical objects from Syria and goldwork from Byzantium were probably imported into Egypl. 111US many Coptic objec:ts arc comparable to Syrian and Byzanline metalwork. Conversely, objccls in the Coplic slyle found in Nubia, North Africa, and Europe had perhaps been exported rrom Egypt or had bttn copied from £iyptian models or expons. ArtIcles ror LIturgical and Everyday Use Some melal objects such as eups and buckets were for everyday usc. Others were for liturgiwl U5C, as lIltcsted by church inventOriCfi and represen· tations of censel'S. lamps, and crosses in other

Benediction cross. Bronze. Heighl: 20.3 COl; widlh: 8.8 cm: thicknl$.<;: 1.2 em. COllrttS, I.ouvre Must"m, PlIris.

1596

METALWORK, COPTIC

forms of art. Sculpture, painling, and textiles also show us metalwork used as jewelry, musical instruments, and hame!l.~ pieces. AlmOSI all the lituTgical and everyday objects mentioned below arc made of bronze. Excepl for lamps and cenSer'S, whose func· tions arc dear, they will be classified by shape rath· er than function. Crones. The ero.~ is a frequem molif in melal· work, either for its symbolic value or as decoration. Some crosses were formerly 8nached 10 olher objeels as handlC:ll VI' appendages. Sollie we~ designed as pcndanu (sec the section "Luxury Objccts"). Others, as can be seen in iconogmphy in other malerials, wen: fixl-d on long handles or slaves to be used in jiving benedictions. Such bene· dictional crosses are small and show great variety of or'namentation, Generally their branches arc of equal length; sometimes thcy have Ilared ends and decorative allachmenlS such a.~ balls or palmettes. 11le lower brunch is extended by a handle, liO Ihe cross could be ....'avcd about, or by a sockel for fixing to a shafl. The cTO!l.~ may be decoratively engraved with circles, inscriptions, the Virgin's face, a.~ in an cxaillple in the Louvre Museum, Par· is, or Christ's face, as in Ihe Egyptian Museum, Bel'lin. The point of a silver cross fOUIld at Luxor now In the Coptic Museum, Cairo, must have been sueh a bcnedietional cross. Similar crosses, but l"rgcr, were perhaps eanled in procession. Their horizontal branches have hooks allllched, from which hang small CT05SCS and

Patel·a. Bronze. Height: 7.3 em; width: 10.1 em. Courlesy [.OIwre Mils/mm, PI/ris.

pearls. Examples lt~ in the Mctropolitan Museum, New York; and the Egyptian Museum, Berlin. There is also a line silver votive cross in Berlin. Four holes have been made al the bonom of the transverse branches, but lhc pendants have disappeared. The front and back 1tl"C deeOll'ltcd with Inscriptions and inci5ed faces: Christ, the Virgin, Saint John, Apa Shenutc, Ama Mannou, two angels, and the archangel Gabriel. Pate~e. Patell'le are shallow cups or saucer.; used by pagans for pouring libations on tombs and by COplS in the liturgy. Coptic pateraI.' a~ bronze cups lilted with a handle. There is some doubt whether 10 dliSSify the simpler ones of ~Iativcly deep prop0l1ions and II horilOntal handle as pa. terae or just ordinary pots. Examples arc in the Coptic Museum, Cairo, and lhe Egyptian Museum, Berlin. The decoratiOll of the paterae was placed at the base, £II'Ound the cup, lind on the handle. One of them, in the Dumbanon Oaks Collection, Wash· ington, D.C., shows i:t raised foot, incised motifs, and an Invocation for purification engraved on the handle. The rim may be cmphasb:ed by a perforated horizontal f~toon, or it may be sUrTOUnded by pearls or inscribed. The handle may be dt:coratcd by a geometrical or figural motif such as the body of an aninml (as in examples in the Benaki Museum, Athens; the CoptiC Museum, Cairo; and the Louvre) or a nude woman with crossed legs and raised arms, showing a palm and a crown (as on a fnlgment from the Benakl Museum), or Just a I:rown containing a croSll (as in the Coptk Museum, Cairo: and the Louvre). The two dolphins sUlTOund· ing the crown suggest a pagan origin from the Aph· rodite cycle for this Christiani:w;i mOlif. Ughtlng EquIpment. Coplic lighting equipment, like that of other peoples in Ihe ancient world, included II variety of oil lamps, candelabm, alld ehandeliefl'i. BJ"t)n~c !l,mps consist of a reservoir for the oil; It mouth, which may be provided with a lid, for receiving the oil; and one or more spouts for the wkk. Shapes ,'ary, depcndina on how the lamps are to be held or arranged: handle, flat bonoln, feet, or a hole for slipping it on to a eandelabrom, rings for hanging il on chains, or it hook ending in II duck's head, such as an example in the Egyptian Museum, Turin. Some lamps, for example. in the Louvre and the Egyptian Museum, Berlin, have a rectangular body with one rounded sIde carrying Ihe handle. On the opposite side, two I:hannels extend for thc wicks. These box·shaped lamps arc closed by II lid with hinges and rest on foul' [eel. The most com·

METALWORK. COPTIC

mon lamps are like lhosc mode of tcrra-eOl1a. They have a nat bOllom, and a small lid can close the SlJpply opening. SollIe examples are more original and include lamps in the shape of a shoe, ball· shaped lamps with twO or three SpoulS. 01' lamps with a foot and two SpoUlS symmeUically placed. The more e1aboratc lamps ure distinguisht..-d by Iheir decol'ntion. Some lumps have a rent..'Ctor, a movable It-af con· nected by a hinge to the rear of the lamp, which increases the light. It is decoratively worked with a leaf, shell, or roselle wilh perforation. This type of lamp was often placed on a candelabrum. lamps decorated with a cross have Ihe general appearance of lamps wilh a rencctor. Between the handle and Ihe tiller hole there rises a cross either sct in a crown or with widening branchn that curve al the ends. This decoration may indicate a liturgical usc. Lamps with scrolled handles arc tilled with a lid, have one or two slender spouts, and have a foot lhat filS, for the most part, on a candelabrum. The bandle shows :l.n elegant scroll development, remi· niscent of folialed scrolls and somctime5 with leave.~. Otber motifs may be intermingled with them, sueh as erosscs, birds, or a small figurine like

lamp with scrolled handle. Bronze. Height: 20 cm; length: 26 em. COlfrtuy Lollvre Museum. Paris.

1597

Elongated lamp with lid. Brontt. Length: 14 em; Height; 4.5 em. COllnesy Louvre Mllseum, Paris. the Thorn Extractor in Ihe Egyplian Museum. Turin. which is hellenistic in inspiration. Some lamps represent human ligures. The body of a lamp in tbe Egyplian Museum, Berlin. cunsists of a person sc:l.tcd wilh oUlSlI'elehed legs. Other lamps have a face as a dC(:orf,tion, either on the reservoir sL'Ctlon or at the renee tor or h:l.ndle level. Finally. a lamp of greDl originality in Berlin resem· bles :l. boat holding five !l.3i101'!1 and ados.

lamp decorated with cross. COllrlesy Coplic Mfl5lmm. Coiro.

1598

METALWORK, COPTIC

Other lamps havr animal decoration. The handle may be woned into the shape of II horse's or grif. fin's head. Lamps shaped like animals are more numerous; and among Ihem we may dislinguish beaslS. birds, lind dolphins. Some rare 5.1mples represent an animal poised on its paws, for example, camels in the Louvre and the Coptic Museum, Cairo. or the two-headed bull and Ihe lion in the Egyptian Museum, Berlin; or upside down with its paws lied together, sueh as gazelles in the Egyptian Museum, Turin, llnd in the Louvre. Birds were a greal insplrallon for Coplic bronze workers. We can dislinguish a cock in the Egyplian Museum, Berlin, and the Archaeological Museum, Florence, a duck in Ihe Egyptian MLJSe+ urn, Turin, and numerous doves and peacocks.. The body conSlitutes the oil Tf'SCrvoir, with Ihe lid on the back; lhe head, sometimes turned backward, fonns the handle. The SpoUI of the lamp has it.~ opening in Ihe tail, which may be divided. This tail reslS on the bird's feel. but generally this Iype of lamp could be hung by means of chains. and some also could be fitted on a eandela.brum. The dolphin, which is very popular in Coptic art, lent its shape to some lamps. Some arc very round· ed; one in lin,: Louvre is straddled by II putto (cu· pid). Others, more elongated, mayor may not rest on a suppon. The head. someliml..'S surmounted by a cross. is in Ihe middle of Ihe lamp, and from ils open mouth either one or IWO SPOUIS emerge. The lail is raised and widens oul, like a flower, round a supply orifice. Sometimes such a lamp is so lapered and the dolphin so stylized that it is no longer rccogni:table. Callddabra arc many·brallched sUlnds that hold lamps or candles. Stability is ensured by a b:1se consisting of thrl..'C feel, generally executed in the form of fcline paws or even like three liones.o;cs rampant, as on a canJdabnJlll in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection. The three feet are sometimes coy· ered by a light drapery form. Above lises a shaft designed as a lillie column, a baluster, ur a cross. It is surmounted by a disk and the point on which Ihe gallery lighl was filled. On a nOlable ellample in the Nelson·Atkins Gallrry of An, Kansas Cily, Missouri, Ihe shah is a figurine of Aphrodlle al hcr loilel, and lhc k'CI are sea crntaurs struddk-J by Nereid". According to M. C. Ross (1942), this unique objecl would have been a wedding gift. There arc also simple calldle~(iclu holding one candle. They have a splayed foot and are decorated with moldings. Even a lamp with sevcr.ll SpOUIS provided only relatively low lighting. To illuminate large areas

such as churches, multiple lighting sources were a m:cessity. A chandelier (pol)'€andelonJ, a hanging lighting fiJcture with sevrral lights, gave a more in· lense ilIuminalion. ChandclietS occur in IWO fonus. The firsl is a perfuraled bron~e disk, with sockelS around Ihe circumference 10 take small bowls or cups filled with oil. The one in the Rhenish Stale Museum. Trier, still ha~ 11.'10 glass cups. It Is decoraled with crosses. one of which ha.~ a reprcscnl;ltlon of Christ, Ihe VII'gin, and Saint Juhn. The cross is a frequent decoration for these chandelieni. It can be scI in a circle or repeated on a radiating wroughl melal shape. A second type of chandelier is a cylinder, 10 which are attached by hinges variOUll hems. often dolphins. canyina small cups for oil. The Olle in the Louvre shows a pcrfOTatl..'1.I inscription. Two com· plete examples lire preserved in the Coptic Muse· urn. Cairo, and in the EgJ.'Plian Museum. Berlin. Crllels arc small hemispherical cups filled with a nal handle and a narrow spout, probably used for pouring oil into lamps. The handle, which is elegantly carved. is sometimes decorated. Exampl~ in the Egyptian Muscum, Berlin, and the British Museum, Lundon, have a mntif of guinea fowl face·to· face on either side of the lree of life. Such oil· pourers were produced in Islamic arcas as far' away as Iran. The Louvre has preserved a sIIllffer, somelhing Ihal looks like a !Xlir of scissors that mUSI have !>ren used for snuffing candles.

Polycanclclon disk. IJron7.e. Lenglh: 24.5 em; width: 23.1 cm. COIme5)1 LQIIl'rli Muselllll, Paris.

METALWORK, COPTIC

Ceo_en. Cen_en, or incense bumers, were imporumt Htw'gical objects. Most were made of bronte, but two valuable examples of silver, found at Luxor, 31"e in the Coptic Museum, Cairo, Swung with the help of hand'held chains or a handle, they may be divided into three groups according to shape: hol1ow-dish ccnsen, box ceoscn, and cen· sers with a handle, I-Iowever, the presence 01' absence of a lid, the way of holding or suspending the censer, lind the cxtraordinary dt:corntivc variety make each one almost unique, HolIgw-dish censers are derived from the open dish or co\'ered chalice. Three rings gn the edge of the dish makc it possible to hang the censer on chains linked by a holding ring. Sutthe censer can also n:st on a base or on three k'C't similar to those of candelabra, as, for example, in the Coptic Museum, Cairo. Three-footed ceoscrs have the dish in the shape of a hcmisphere, as in examples from Saqqara (Ouibcll, 1912) or, mon: frequently, a poly· gon. An example of this type in the Walters An Gallery, Baltimore, h.M a cross above the tenninal ring.. The most unusual example, in a private collection, consists of a baluster shaft between the

Censer with chain. Silver. Censer-Height: 16.2'-'01; diameter: 10.2 em; Chain-Length: 14 em. Courtesy 1.(Juvre lIf"semPl, Puri.C.

1599

Censer with handle. Height: 21.3 cm; length: 25.5 em. Courtesy Louvre Muumt., Paris.

three feet and the dish. II is decorated by a perrorated festoon with birds (PaBall alld Christitln E1O'pt, 1941). Hollow-dish censers without a lid have bowlshaped belliC$ dl,.'C'orated with moldings, Ilutings, a perforated geometrical motif, for example, one found at Kc1lia in 1982, or the fcatures of the foul' apocalyptic ligures on an eltample in the Louvre. Here we mu~t remember the group of 5()-(;alled Syrian censers, sevel'Dl of which were discoven,'-d in

~Ilser

wilhout a lid, decorated with the four apoca· lyptiC ligures. Bronze. Height: 7.5 em; width: 13.5 em. Courlesy LOlll're Mllse"m_ Paris.

1600

METALWORK, COPTIC

Egypl and which would be imports or local copies of a Middle Eastern type. They arc deeoolted with scenes from the life of Christ in n~lief (Leroy. 1976. pro 381-90).

Some hollow·dish censens wilh a lid are shaped like a chaUce, the belly of which is a hemisphere. mounled on a slender foot. A hcmispherical lid connected hy a hinge IlUIkes the chalice a complete sphere. It is pctfol1l1ed and sunnounted by a CI'"O!'iS. as in elitllllple., from Madinat HAbu (Holscher. 1954), the Coptic Museum. Caim. and the Egyptian Museum, Berlin, or by a baluster. as in a silver censer fTom Luxur in Ihe Coptic Museum. Masks perfomtooal eye and mouth levds are engrm'ed on the lid of another lIilver example in the Louvre. For some lidded cen!leT'S it is the belly that has been shaped into a human face. E1amples arc found in the Louvre, with lid' lhat al$O show faces. and in the Walters An Gallery and the Egyptian MUSC\llll, Berlin. Tbese last are more squat and have a lid like a cap. Another example in Berlin is reminiscent of a pine l;one !let on a perforated foot. Box cen!lers may be cylindricoal. ret:tangular.
Box incense burner with bowl and cover shaped like a human head. Brom:e. Slxth century. Ileighl: 20 em. Courlesy LOlnlre MuseulII, Parls. polygonal in shape and are !let on several feel. Gen· erally sueh censers have lillie in the way of decont· tion, except for two examples in the Egyptian Muse· urn, Berlin. One shows a Bacchle scene and lhe other, In silver, has animals in relief. They have lost their lids. [n other box censers it is the lid thaI gives them distinclion, since it is perforaled and linked to lhe bolt by a hinge and a fastener or ;1 groove. To this is sometimes added an arrangement for hanging the CenSer. One example in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection is somewhat reminiscent of a chapel. The most intriguing type, of which eighl examples are known, is surmoumed by an animal group in relief such as a lioness bringing down a boar. M. C. Ross s«s in this It homogeneous group manufactured in the Thebald and dating from the end of the fiflh or the beginning of the sixth l;cntu1)', because of the hard sculptural slyle (1942, pp. Open box censeromalnellled wilh birds and pigeons. Drom·.e. Courtesy Cup/ic Museum. Cairo.

10-12).

Some ccnsefll do nOt really come into Ihe eatego-

METALWORK, COPTIC

Perfuming p.J.n and lid dl.:cor.l\cd with a wild "nimal riding a pig and pl'ovided with a chain. Height (total): 16.5 cm; length (Iotal): 12.6 cm. Periuming panHeight: 6.4 em; width: 6.3 cm; length: 10.2 cm, COllrlesy Wllvre Mus,wm, Paris, ry of boxes but arc considered pan of the above series because of their animal design, for example, a fi~h cen~er at Ihe W"ltel'S Art Gallery, and hoTSCs on (:cnsers in th~ ESYIltian Museum, Turin, and the State Hermil:lgc Muscum, Lcningr'ad. Censcrs with a handle have a slightly rounded dish c:J.moutlaged by a \:ylindrical framework, from which emergeS II handle or II ferrule intended to receive a handle. These censers werc mcant to be held, nOI swung. TIle cylindrical part may be perfor'aled in the design of a grid, foliations, or animals. It rests on three fect lhat n:prcscnt fcline paws, hares, 01' aedlculae (small shrines), These censers have a dome·shaped lid aunched hy a hinge and sometimes also a fastener. Periorated wilh an ele· g:mt foliated trellis, the lid is crowned by a decorn· tive grip in the shape of a baluster, aedicula, or animal, such as an cagle holding a serpent in its beak on an exarllple in the Louvre. This type of cen~r had an innuence Oil Muslim productions (Aga-Oglu. 1945, pp. 28-45).

1601

Brazlen. It is nol easy t(l classify as censer:s cer· tain bronze objects that arc perforoltcd Illld :ll'C of uncertain purpose but that may well have been re' lated to some kind of combustiun. These are, for instance, cups in the Louvre that are almost lIatbOllollled and have a highly pierced belly with folia· tion or leiters. One of thcm has the style of a dilihshaped censer with hanging rings. A SUPPOI' for a censer, the cut-out p.J.ltem of which con~titutcs a ~ries of monognuns, is preserved in the Egyptian Museum, Berlin. Cups, Basins, Cauldrons, and Buckets. Numer· ous containers may have been used as cult objeCL'i or bfa%iers, and some of their shapes are found in censers. But failing proof of their funclion, it io; better to classify them by shape along with secular utensils. Cups may be, on the one hand, simple bronze bowls without any decoration, such as Ihose found lit MaaTnal HAbO (Htllscher, 1954); the biggest of them arc shallow bowls, or btuilu. On the other hand, cups may be marc c1aborate in form or decoration. The rim may be f1al'ed, f1al, or bounded by a carina (ridge). The bowl may be decoraled wilh simple motifs, in relief, illcised, or even inlaid with silver. and il ll\ay rest on one or morc feet. Olle elegant series has feet alld tWO articulated handk'S on the rilll, which can be fcstoonL-d. ThL"SC cups are sometimes adorned wilh gadroons. as arc examples in the Coptic MuseuIII, at Cairo; the Egyptian Museunl, Berlin; :md the Louvre. Another forlll has a round belly resting on tlH'ee feel. a cylindrical neck, ami a flat rilll. The fine~t example of Ihis type is in a private collection (pas,m ,w,1 Christl,m Egypt 1941, no. 82). An inscription and crO!l.'iCS inlaid with sil·

Brazier. BI'On1.c. l'lelght: 16.8 em: diameter: 6.5 COl/rle~"y LU/lvre MI/scllm, Paris.

CIII.

1602

METALWORK, COPTIC

Small cauldron. From excavations at Tlid, 1980. Height: IJ Clll: diameter. 12 em. COllrte5Y Louvre All/sew", Paris.

of two in the Coptic Museum, Cail'(l, have II feline shape. Felines are al~ found on IWO flasks (nal'ro\\'necked containers) preserved in the Louvre. One is in the shape of an amphora (two· handled \r,lSc); the second has only onc handle and rests on a lriangular SUppolt. Some flasks of the same kind in Ihe Louvre and the Egyptian Museum. Berlin, lack a handle and have a pcrforat\.'d suppol'l. These bronze "asu can be compared wilh Ihe wooden phials (small boules) studied by M. H. RUlSChowscaya (1976. pp. 1-5). Other brom:e flasks, which may be called phials or boules depcndin(f; on their size, exhibit great diversity. Two Iypes siand out. One type has a rounded belly or ribs set on a small base and nar· rows to a neck that ends In a wider, molded rim. Examples arc in the Coptic MU5eUm, Cairo, and the Louvre or were found at Saqqara (Ouibell, 1912) or Madinat HAba (HOlscher, 1954). Aju(f; in the British Museum has Ihe same shape but wilh a turned han_ dle decor,lIed with a horse's head. The second type

l'cr show that iI was a liturgical object. Anolher, wllh II chain, wu round at Tlld in 1980. One won· ders if II should be regarded as a ccnscT. A cup in the Coplic Museum, Cairo, has a lid pierced by a hole and decoltllcd with animals in high relief.

Small cylindrical dishes filled with II pouring spout arc cruCiS perhaps intended for tilling lamps with oil. Wider cylindrical containers, with or without II fOOl, mllY be regarded as cauldrons. One of them, decorated with ligures in relief under archways, is in lhe Coptic Museum, Cniru.

Similar to the clluldrons. but a little higher than they (in,) whle. llrc buck.els, which have a flared or slightly convex belly. Their movable handle is at· laehed 10 lwo rings (1\ the top. One bucket in the Coplic Museum. Cail'O, is IIccompanied by a lripod support, More elegant examples are in the form of a bowl in Clliro 01' of a situla (buckt:t) in the Louvre, Finally, M. C. Ross draws attention 10 lwo bucket eensel'S, thl: bellies of which are worked in the form of a bust, perhaps of Dionysus. Because of their Roman derivation, he placc5 them at the very stan of the Coptic period (1970, p. 34). Goblell, FIMskl, and Jugs. Gob/els with a cylindrical body, fiued with a veltical handle and with small feet. n.'SCmble tankards. A brief imcription appears on the one in the Louvre. while the handles

Silula. Bron7.e. Height: 17 em; Including the rillg: 27 em; width: 13.6 em. Counts)' um"re Museum, Paris.

METALWORK, COPTIC

Dish, Ewer, Flask (left to right). Engr.JVed 5ilver. COllrlt$)' Coptic

of Oask has a cylindrical belly that rests on severn! feet and is laden wilh decorations in relief. The deeoralions may be geometrical. or Ihey may represent planu or ligures under archways, like the dancers wilh erma/a (castanets) or the musicians on flll.~ks in the Coplit Museum, Cairo. The neck is between two scalloped crowns. Two leaden eulogy M\PUU,AI'. (small, two-handled Ilasks) are in the Cop· tic Museum, Cairo; one is an effigy of Saint Mena.~, of a type generally mulle of term·colla; the othcr represents Saint Theodol"us. Ther'C lire twn lugs, or pitchers, in the Egyptian Museum, Berlin, each equipped with a hinged lid. Onc is elongated like an ewer; the other has a munded belly th(ll displays II human face. Ladles and SI)OOI1S. The simprlillm (small ladle) was used in the Greco·ROman period in either a liturgical or secullll' context and continued to be used by the Copts. It consists of II small cup at the end of a lonl!, vertical handle, which is often crooked so thaI It can be hung frOIll the top of the container from which it dips liquid. Severnl simpllla have been found in CKCavalions at Idfu in 1938, Madrnal HtlbO (Htslscher, 1954), and Tlld in 1981. An eKample in the Coptic Museum, Cairo, has a cylindrical cup and is ornamcnlcd with folialed re-

MIISt:/IItr,

1603

Cairo.

Hefs and wilh rearing horses where the broken wrought metal handle begins. Some ladles have handles WQrkl,.-d in the shape of a duck'li head. a motif inherited from the pharaonic pcriod but also found In Roman silverware. A ladle in II1e Museum of Art ;lOd UistOI'Y, Fribourg, Switz· erland, has a duck incised on part of the handle, which has been wrought liS a medallion. On some ladles the handle is made nf two sliding parts that allow il to be extended. A curious serving implement in the Coptic Muse· urn, Cairo, has a bowl with a spout worked In the shape of a camel's head lind n hotizontal h:mdle. Alongside wooden or bone spoons, there are more luxuriou5 ones made of bronze. A shell spoon-bowl is assOCiated with an iron handle in an ellample in the Coptic Museum, Clliro. Welghls and Balance!!. The Copts used IwO types of instrumenu for Weighing. The lirst type, the bal· ance scale in usc since pharaonic timC!l, consisted of a haft, 01' fulclum, connected by a bolt to a beam from which hung two pans. When the object to be weighed in one JXIn and the weight in the other wen~ in equilibrium. a pointer on the beam 1.ligned with the hafl. This eKtrcmcly precise instrument was designed to weigh smnll quanlilies and lUuS!

1604

METALWORK, COPTIC

Key. Iron. COlINe$}' Coptic MuseU/II, Cairo.

Ewer decoraled wilh a cros.... Bmm.e. Courtesy Coptic Muse""" Cairo.

have bccn used by goldsmiths. It was stored with the weight!l in II compl1l1menied wooden boll (Rutsehowscaya 1919, pp. 1-5), Some ellamples have been preserved at University College, London, and in the Metropolltan Mm,eum, New York. Another example, without a box, is in the Coptic Museum, Caim. The second type, the steelyard scale, or Romall balanel,l, was intrOOUCl,ld into Egypt by the Roman.~ and is still in usc for weighing gross amounts. It consists of II bill' or rod of two unequal p0l1ion.~. The quallllLy 10 be weighed is hung, in n pim 01' by itself, from Ihe ~hol1er ponion. Three hook~ allow the rod to be: held in three positions. The longer ponlon i~ triangular in cross-section and mnrked on elleh race with tl sctlle corresponding to the hanging position. II hanging counterweight slides 1I1onij the triangular seclion until lhe rod is level. The mark where it stops IndiCAtes the weight. The metal counterweights arc spheres, cubes, or poly. gons, They nl'l~ engraved and somelimes inlaid with silver wilh marks and motifs such as the em!1.~, which may be in a crown or II stylized chapel, ur saered PCrsOOllijc.s. Examples arc in the Coptic Museum, Cairo, the Egyptian Museum, Bel'lin, the Brilish Museum, and the Dumbllnon Oaks Collection. A

whole balance has becn preserved at Univenity College, and aoother is in II private collection (Engelbach, 1919, p. 46). Key•. KL")'S of iron or bronze are preserved in large numbers In the Coptic Museum, Cairo, and the Egyplian Museum, Berlin. A complele sel was found lit Madlnal HAbu (Htll5Cher. 1954). Their shapc$ arc extremely diverse. The shilft mily be curved, and lit the opposite extremity from Ihe steps there is a rinB. The tinest cxamples lire decorated with capitals lind Wilh animal ligures and are inlaid with silvcr, lIS, for example, arc kt..')'S of the convenls or SuhIij in the Coptic Museum. Cairo. MUIIc.1 In.trument.. Judging from numerous iconogrnphieal evidence, one of the chief Coptic instrumenL~ wa..~ the crow/a, or castanets, which consisted or two small bronze cymbals lillc~l be· twecn the limbs or a wooden grip, a..~ in the Muse· UIII of An and History, Fribourg, Switzerland, Or' a

Keyfrom Dayr AnM Shinudah. Courtesy Cop/ic Muse"'fI, Cairo.

METALWORK, COPTIC

bronze grip, :,s in Ihe Coptic Museum, Cail'O, which mlso has little hells. Various dl~ks have bLocn found, singly or in pairs. Some were part of crotll/a, lind others were small cymb:\ls played hori:wntally 01' like caslanels (Hickman, 1949, pp. 517 If.), Small bron7.e bells were used more as a signal for gathering people together than as a musical inslru· ment, For example, they were used in monasteries or churchC5; Ihe slyli7.ed n..-pn:sentalion of a chapel on a hell in the Louvre seems to indicate its reli· glous purpose. Uand bells or small round !)ells might embellish certain objects, such a.~ the crota/a refelTe!! to above, or pieces of hal'1lCSS. They Ollso served to idenlify catlle. (See MUStC. MUSICAl, INSTRU·

"""'-) Miscellaneous Objects, Larlu: lips and a"o",· hellds wt"re madc of metal, but it iii hard to distinguish those In museums dating from the Coptic period unless they come from excavations such as Idfll and Madlnal Habo (Hol...cher, 1954). Metal was used fm' hamunes, such as one found in Ihe ruins of Madlnat H:'Ibii (Holscher, 1':154). M. C. Ross calls altenlion to cel1ain decorative parts adorned wilh the CrOM (1970, p, 37).

1605

Ute/lsils "lid im,lmmellU such as chisels, knives. hooks, needles, nails, and razors are undecorated functional objects of bmll7.c 01' iron, Sometimes they are g'lthered logether on a ring, for example, Ihe tongs and needles from Idfu in Ihe Museum of Art and Hist0l)', Fribourg, An ivol)' case prC5crved in the Louvre contains some scalpels lhal could have belonged to an eye surgeon.

Luxury Objects Phlled Boxe•. Some objects may ~ embellished with decorative metal plllies to make them morc prccious. Thus sume boxes were adomed with small ph,tes sUlTounuing the lock 01' with plate pan· e1s covering all Iheir surfaces or simply onc of them. The decoration is Ihen incised, as in a weights boll in the Louvre, or wrought in repom.~, as on bolle... in the Coplic Museum, Cairo, and Ihe Egyptian MuS(.'Um. Bel'lin. The ...ubje<:ts are onen drawn from p::lgan mythology: the hunl, centaurs, GOl'son m'lsh, figures frOlll lhe Apl1rodite cycle, or Ihe Isis cycle. A pelfor:lled plating on one bux in Berlin shows animals in frames, set Oul in such a way as to fOI1Tl a cross inscribed in a circle. Jewelry. Two kinds of jewelry have been found In COpl1e Egypt. One kind is very IUliurious in Byzan· tine fashion, liUch as the sumptuous jewelry made of gold and precious siones in Ihe tre:l.-~ure of An· tin~ (Ocnnison and Morey, 1918). The orner kind is extremely simple, fushiom:d out of less splendid maleri..ls, clearly bec.luse of Ihe puvel'Y of Egypt and (he precepls of austerity counseled by tl1c cle1lO'.

.... ---_. .' A .. .• .

.,.....-.---.~

. . •

'." ' : ''. ; " ,

...(,~

•

"',

Small bell dccor:lled with a chapel fa.;ade. Bl"()n2e. Eighth century. COll~lesy Louvre Mllse""" P"~i.~.

J'

\

~

,f "A ',.~ •. ·r . ,".;. " , • ,~l,.· ..; ... , ~'t_., ;; ~

" .,

.

'. _tt~: .'), i, • ..1'#~'-"" ".,J\;.... ~

~

\. ··~-!"'l·"';"·.~,tLoJ...

11."'.

Metal·pl..led box for weighing. Height: 4.2 em; widlh: 12 em. COll~"SY LollV~e Mllsellm, Paris.

1606

METALWORK, COPTIC

PalcllCS (arm bands). Silver. Courtesy Coptic Museum, Cairo.

Bracelets ,how varied decorations, from the sim· plesl, made of bronl.e or iron, to the most elaborate of gold. silver, or precious Stones. Where the bracelei is an open circle, its extremities are either plain or deconllcd wilh flowcn or animals' heads. The serpent shape u an inheritance from Greek or R0man jewdf)'. The c1oscd~ircle bracelet ohen shoW!i II series of medallions with incised decorations, such as inscriptions. geomcuical motifs, or ligures of saints. The most sophisticated have a fastening and are embellished with tursades (twisted cords),

granulation, medallions. and additional insertions. E:lrrings arc of gold. silver. or bronze, and are sometimes decor::lII,:d wilh pearls and semiprecious

stone!', The d\.'(:orativc element is fixed on the open ring thaI goes Ihrough Ihe lobe of the car. It i~ composed of a polyhedral bead of perforated mclal, or a crescenl, or a disk with networks of scrolls, sometimes delinealing the cross. The decorative d-

Pair of eaning~. Silver. Lcnllth: 11.6 em; width: 3.8 em. COllrlesy l.ouvr~ Museum, Paris.

ernenl may also be a pendant consisting of a single drop, or a row of beads and drops, sometimes in three tlcn. T.....o iron mirmn In the Egyptian MUst"\lm, Berlin, consiSI of a disk, decorated with peacocks facing cach other on a noral background, and a worked handle. In Univenlty College are a simple mirror of tinned copper stored in a wooden case . and a snlall bronze mirror decorated wilh interlaced designs and fiued with a small handle. A n:pIlca is in the Egyptian MuSC'um, Berlin. The Louvn: has a genuine glass mirror set in a bronze fr.une filled wilh a ring. Some ne<:klaces consist of a circle of bronze or iron, which may be augmented by pendeloqucs (peaNhaped pendant jewels) and medallions. A cm!;!> is auached 10 the necklace of Scrnpion found at Antinoe and preserved in lhe Louvre. Other necklac(,'S are made of gold chains with decol'tltive motifs. The chains are derived from Greco-Roman jewelry. They are embellished with perforated disks, beads, repr-esenlational elements, such as ducks in the Walters Art Gallery, or pendants, such as a medallion of the Annunciation from Antino/;! and a magnificent gold and lapis lawli shell containing a figure of Aphr'Odhe in the Dumbarton Oaks Collee· tion. Pendants and amulets htIVe been found in isola· tion" but they mllY have been pal1 of jewelry. The most numerous are in the form of a cross. Small crosses were al~ hung on the anTIS of the large votive crosses. Those that bear representations in relief of Chris!, lhe Virgin, and archangels arc pen· dants or e'lcolJlio ("reliquary crosscs"). A Christian Iconography can also bc scen 011 medals and amulets made of bronze or lead: the life of Chrisl. angels, and s:l.ints on hOI'Seback. Inserip· tions identify the figure or the owner of the objecl. Some bron'te pln.~ were perhaps used in hair dressing. As fur as we know, no diadems hu\"e been

METALWORK, COPTIC

1607

trea.~Ul'e

found at Luxor and now in the Coptic Museum, Cairo, are lI11'ee r'eclangular trays, which might also be regarded as ",issoria. They are decorated with crosses or chi·rhu monograms and with religious dedications. Figurine•. Ful1-sizc Coplic metal statuary is al· most nonexistent. Among the numerolU brom:e fig· urines, real statucucs ~re rare, except for some: animals in the Egyptian Museum, Berlin. The others were. or still arc. pan of the decoration for othcr objects such as patel'lle (saocers), VlISCS, lamps, and censers. There is an imponant group of slllall animals and birds, some of which may have been amu. lets. Some of the animals are decOl'lllions for handles or spouts. Among persons represented, dancers and musicians are frequent, for example, on the handles of paterae and figurines in the Egyptian Museum, Berlin. An Aphrodite, perhaps at her toilet, constitutes the foot of a candelabrum (see above). The galloping soldiers in the Charles Ratton Collection in Paris and the Egyptian Museum. Turin, IIrc probably saints on ho~back. as suggested by a cross on top of the shaft held by the soldier in Turin. Mirror encased in a brom:e disk with a border of sm311 medallion~. Bron7.e and Glass. Diameter. 6 em. COllr/tsy LOl/vre MIISl:llm, Puris. found in Egypt despite the numerous representa· tions thnt testify to their existence. I3rooches, fibu· 13e, and bell huckles nre in the University College And the British Museum. Besides some simple rings, open or closed, there arc numerous seal rings thul arc similar to amulel~ in their lconogfllphy ur inscriptions. They are gen· er.ally made of bronze. Sometimes the seals arc not mounted in r'ings, Some were used for stumping the cucharistic bread, Mluorln, Mis~'uriu 'Ire richly decOllltcd dishcs used as luxury table servlee al banquets since Ro. mall times. Only a few examples come from Egypt. The fragmentary bronze dish in the Coptic Museum, Cuiro, is deeurated with episodes from the life of Achilles. Two othcr'S of gilded silver in the Dum· barton O'lks Collt:ctlon show two pcrsons in a me· dallion surrounded by palmenes, perhaps the Hippolytus cycle. Threc dishes from the Benaki Museum were obtaincd in Egypt and show mythological und Nile scenes. The luxurious m'lterial and style of these missuri(l have nothing Coptic about them. Thcy could have been manufactured in Egypt or imponed from COnstantinople. 'n the silver

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aga.()glu. M. "About a Type of Islamic Incense Burner," Art BII//etiu 27 (1945):28-45. Badawy, A. Coplic Art u"J Archaeology. Cambridge, Mass., and l,.(mdon, 1978. Bena1.eth, D. "Leli encensoirs de In collectiun eopte du Lou\'re." Revue du l..vuvre (1988):294-300, 464. BoubL"'Piccol, C. "Uronl,es eoptes du Muroc," Bulle· ti" d'archalologie murocaille 6 (1966):329-47. Dallon, O. M, CfltulujJlW of Early Christiurl Antiquities alld Objec!.1 frolll the Chris!itill Eu),t of the British Muse/mI. London, 1901. Dennison, W., lind C. R. Morey. Stlldies ill EaSI Chris/ian and Rom/ill Art, pI. 2. New York, 1918. Engclbaeh, R. Ancienl Egypt, London and New York, 1919. Forbe.~, R. J. Sindies ill Allcle"t TecllllO/OIO" Vols, 8, 9. Leidcn, 1964. Hickman, H. "Cymbales et croltllcs dans l'Egyptc anclenne." Amlilies 1111 S/l.rvlce des amiquil.!S de I'Egypte 49 (1949):5 17ff. Holscher, U. The ExCllvat{OIl of Medimtl-llubu, Vol. 5. Chicago, 1954. Leroy, J. "L'Encensor 'syrien' du couvcnt de Saim· Antoine dans Ie d~'1 de In mer rouge," Bullctill de l'hlS/ilw frallfais d'archiulogie oriell/ale 76 (1976):381-90. Lucas, A. Allciem Egyplitlll Malerillis alld Ilidusiries, 4th ed. London, 1962.

1608

METANOIA, MONASTERY OF THE

Michalowllki, K., el al. Tell EdfulI, 3 wis. Cairo, 1937, 1938, 1950. Pogm. (wd Chri.~lio" Egypl. Exhibition catalog. DrooklYll Museum, 1941. Pelde, F. Objet'l:> uf Daily Use. London. 1929. Quibell. J. E. Excol'alium' ul Suql/oro (/908-/909; /909-l910). Cairo, 1912. Ros.'i, M. C. "A Group of Coplic Incense Burners:' Americall Journal of Archaeology 46 (1942): 10-12. ___ "By/.anline 8ron1.es,'· Ars in Virginia 10, no. 2 (1970):34. RlUschowscllya, M. H. "Objets de toileue d'epoque cople." Revue dll l.ouvre (1976):1-5. "BoltCli a poids d'(-poque copte:' ReVile du Louvre (1979):1-5. Schwal'l1., J. "A propm d'ulenlllJell 'COplCli' Imuves en Europe occidenlllle." Bullelm de la Sociit;

d'archeoloJie caple 14 (1950-1957):51-58. Strzygowski, J. Koplisclle KUI/st. Catalogue gcntnll des anliquit~ egyptlennes du Mosee du Caire. Vienna, 1904. Wipslycka, E. Re$$(mrces cl lu aClivil1is icon· omiques des egliscs d'Evpte du IVe au VUe siicle. Bru5Scls, 1972. Wulff, O. Bescllrdbu"8 der Bifdll'erke dcr christ/icllell Epoc/,ell. Ktlnigliche Museen loU Dcrlin. Vol. 3. pI. l. Berlin. 1909. DoMINroUE BENAZETH

w

METANOIA, MONASTERY OF THE. 111e Alexandrian Mona.'itery of the Met:moia (Penitence), also clllled the MonaSh~ry of Canopus or of lh~ Tabennelliolell, played a prominent role in the reli· gious hislory :lnd Ihe :Idministl'l.ltive life of B)"o(i:lnline Egypt. One can merely catch a glimpse of this, for sources contllin obseurith..' S and cuntradictions.

Origins No ureh/lcolollicallrtleeS of the MClanoia r~l11(\in. It ill known only that it W(l.~ situated twelve milell COlsl of Alexundri(l, in Ihe euaslal suburb of Canopus, the pr'ellerll Ahu 011'. 11 ill mentioned for- Ihe first time unlicr lhe name Met,lnoi:, in 404, by 5.1int JF.RnMP. in his pJ'erace 10 II llunslation or normaTive P:lehomian wlitings intended in pari for its monks (PL 23, pro 62-63). The odgillal nucleus of rhis foundation was a colony of Pachomian monks (sec l'ACHOM1AN MONASTICISM). or TabennesiOTes. f!'Om Upper Egypt settled at Canopus in 391 by Archbishop TUEOPHILUS. on the llite of pagan sanctuaries tMI had jUllt been suppressed. It appears also that Theophilus cndowed Ihis colony willi the means of

existence (Orlandi, 1965-1970, Vol. 2, pp. 61-62. 66-67). This entailed uprooling the traditional CUIL'i and eliminating Ihe influence of the philosophical school of Canopus. which. given its proximity 10 the city, Wll.'i particularly offensive to the church of AI· eXlindria. On Ihis score, Ihe foundalion of Ihe mono a.'itel)' lit very well into the religious policy of Theophilus, who was violently hoslile 10 pagani:;rn. The archbishop, whose good 11~l:lIions with the I'admmians arc othelWisc well known, 1A'Quld have had dilriculty in lindina more lrusly auxiliaries and bel' ter moral exemplars Ihan these monks, who were sll"Ongly organi1.ed and already enjoyed an excellent reputation throughoul the McdiTelr.lm:an world. And it must be said that the TabennesiolCS did what "'as exp«led of them, both by their "asceticism and pr.ayer" and, above all by cstablishing on the site the cull of Ihe relics and of the manyrs, one of the best weapons or Christian prupag3nda at that lime. It seems. inddenlally, thai part of the celebrity of the TabennCl'iOICS rdau:d to the wealth of relics in their church: a shroud of the Holy Face and the c10lh with which JCSlL'i girded himself when he W"ollihed the reet of his disciples. There was also a "venerable cross" (John of Nikiou, 1883, pp. SIS, 574; d. Butler, 1978. p. 314, n. 2). On a more mililant level, the Tabenllesiot~ took an active part about 482-489, on Ihe orders of the palrian.:h I'tlTIiIl MONGUS. ill Ihe dCShuclion of a clandestine shrine or Isill al Menouthill, quite dose to Canopus (Kugener, 1907, pp. 16-35, esp. 27-32). It seems that the foundation was at first called simply the Monastery of ClIllOPUS lind only lalel', between 391 lind 404. adopTed the namc Metanoia. 1'hi.~ change, which Jerome judges h:1PPY, bel rayed (1 new objeclive. Canopus was renowned in antiquity for itll rihald relaxations: no doubl it seemed necessary to unite Ihe lask of refol'ming morals with that of convel'tlng he:u1s (on Ihe particular vocation of Ihe insliturlons called Melanoia at By· ?.anrium, see Ilu Cange, 1688). Under Theophllus, the monalltery appears 10 have rapidly ;lcquircll Ilrelll presti!!e. According 10 Je· mme, it am'acTed "vcry numerous Latins" (d. Rcmondon, 1971, p. 781. n. 43). The celebntled anchorite AlIi>F.NIUR OF .".CF.Tri> AND yURAH. of Roman origin, made a stay of Ihrec yelLI1l Ihcrc before returning to Turah. A woman of senalorial rank came from Rome to visit him. Later on, Archbishop Saint Cyril (JOG 77, pp. 1100-101) PI'()IIOUnced t"'O llhort homilies at the Metano!:t in honor of the famou:; local saims. Cyrus nnd John.

META NOlA, MONASTERY OF THE

In Ihe middle of the fiflh cenlury Ihe name Melanoia had l-el'llac¢(llhal of Canopus. II appeal1i thai III thai lime the suhurb as II whole benefited, by virtue of an "ancient custom," f1"Om the sigm,l privilege of asylum, guaranteed by the monastel)' itself and by the archiepiscopal church, but was probably II herit:lge from the pagan regime. Within the im· munlty pel'imetcr there wa.~ a balhing eSlablish· ment. This information is dr.twn from the testimony of a priesl at Ihe Council of CIIAU;rooN (451). who dt:darcd that he found refuge there against the PCI'· secutions of the archbishop I>IOSCORUS (Schwam:, 1938, 2.1.217). lienee, the Ml'lanoia "'115 already indil'Cclly im'olved in Ihe l-eligiuus quarrel!: Ihal de\'c1oped ill'ound Ihe l:oundl. This is the place to ask about the later Christologicil! choices of the estotbllshment.

The Melanoia after Chalcedon Some authol1i S<.-"C in the Melanoia a "bastion" of Chukedonianism (cf. R(:mondon, 1971, p. 771 and n. II). lIere are tile fuc\$ that can be adduced for Ihis vk...... The arehbishop Timolhy 5ol10faciolm came origin:llly from the ranks of Ihe house of COlnopu.~, and il was there lhal he went into hiding u["lOn the arrival of his anti·Chalcedonian l'ival TtMO· THY AEUJRUS in 475. On his deotth. the Tabennesiote John Talaia maintained for three years the line of' the Cha1cedonian pontiffs. This John had formerly been a member of a delegillion sent to the emperor leno 10 bring hinl a pelilion. In 482 the Chalcedon· ians withdrew 10 C3110pUS in protest against the HEN('mCON or the same emperor. !klwccn 5]7 and 539 the Tabennesiotcs supplied a third "Melchite" archbishop in Ihe person of Ihcir superior Paul. finally, in September 641. on the eve of Ihe pc-..ce negotintions with Ihe Ar'abs, Ihe Chalcedonian an:h· bishop Cyrus sc(;l'ctly ddib"nlfed Wilh thc general TheodonJs behind the closed dUUl1i of the chul'ch or th" TabennesiOles. It was no doubt rrom there that he went in procession to the Ale)(andrian church of the Caesareum bc-
1609

stantinople Ihreatened with an accusalion launched by his monks. His religious views lIlay well have pll1yc.-d a pan in lhis conniel. From time to time, traccs of antiClmlcedonianism havc been found at Canopus. Ae· clll'ding to a Coptic soul'ce that is of mcdiocre historical value but must be taken into account because of the spidl which it embodies, PAPHNtmus. archimandrite uf the Pachom ian home or Ta· bcnncsc in Upper Egypt, a fervent adherent of Dioscorus, stayed for a year at Canopus shonly before Ihe council. He there re<:eived another persecutctl friend of Ihe archbishop, MACAIUUS, UlSHOP OF TXOW. On the death of Macariu.~, Ihe mOnastel)" ha"bored his deacon I'inoution. About 482-489 the monb had no difficulty avel· obeying the order of Pcte.' Mongus ''Cgarding t11<:~ shrinc of Isis at Menouthis. Hence. they recognized his authority. If in thc lime of Archbishop Timothy III (517-535), and no doubt al his instigation, their church I'eceived precious relics of Jesus Christ, il was evidently because the relations were good. Between SS6 and 564, in a period when Justinian wa5 trying to unite the separated churches doctrinally, lWO "ullra-Chalccdon· ian" bishups wcre imprisoned at Canopus, one of Ihem Victor of Tunnuna. Finally, toward 620. Ihe monks. sparc.-d by the Persians, welcomed the future archbishop AF.NJAMIN. from this, one may conclude thai the Cllrislological line of the Tllbenncsiotes of Alexandria was In a stULl' of flux, which lllay reflect divcrgences of opin· ion, opportunism, or cven indifference or passivily. On the organization of this monastery, there sur· vive, by a narc chance, three papyrologiCtlI dossiers from the sixth lind scvcnth ccnturies that show it essentially prcoccupil'd with its material and disciplinary affairs, respectful of the civil authority, and even supponh'c of Ihe administl1llion in ils most vital task, the l.'ollc."t:tion and fOTWllrding of the an· nunary t:l)(es. The first of these dossiers (P. Fouad, 86-89) is a tot;d of four lellen; deriving pl'Qbably from Middle Egypt of the si)(lh cenlury, as indicaled by Ille hand· writing. The lellers ....ere addresscd with great deference to Abba Gc.-orge, the superior or PRQF.sros of the Mctanoia, by monks dependent upon thc foun· dalion at Canopus. Some ....ere en route 10 Ihe molher house of Ihe Pachomian order, Ihe Bau (a Greek form of Pbow). This was a case of IwO ilionasleries situated in these pans, obviously in son1e kind of affililltion with the Melanoia. A lettel' from the monks or one or these momlstclies accuses

1610

METANOIA, MONASTERY OF THE

their old superior of rnaladminlslr.nion-no more provisions. no mon:~ money, nothing bUI deblS, according \Q the :Iccounls-and says that a lay au· thol'ity Is bu.~y wilh the affair. Anutllcr letter relates to quarrels with a slanderer. Then~ is fear lhal he may harm the Illona.~teries in the l.-'YCS of the duke of the Thcbaid at Antinoopolis. It appears thai the superior gencl1ll of the l'achomians and the superior of the nuns, following the example of Archimandrite Paphnulius. wcre then resident al Canapus, close to "boo George. The other twO dossiel"5, collected and brilliantly commented on by Rcmondon (1971, pp. 769-81), derive from AphrodilO (Middle Egypt) and Hennapolls. The documents in the lirst date from between 541 and 550, or even 567, and in die second, from the first yea"" of the :w:vcnth century. Th~ two dossiers contain essentially fiscal documents. Thus, one learns that the Melanoia, represented by local agenUi sometimes l;allcd diaconites, collected, ac, counted for, and conveyi!d in iu own boat!> par1 uf Ihe wheat levied as taxcs. Perhapli it even carried it to Constantinople. In thi~ regard, one must I'l.-'Cllil that there was among the Pachomians an old tradi· tion of bootmanship, going baek 10 the origins uf the order (Chilly, 1966, pp. 25, 37); that sea voyages as far as wnSlantinople held no terro.-:o; for "the brothers of Tabcnnisi" (Johnson, 1980, p. 81), and that the usc of theil' lIeet by the stale is also very early allested by Rupprecht (1983, 11972). This is all th;\I is known fur certain about the Metanola, The sources !lCarcely go beyond the end of the seventh century. (It may be deduced from John of Nikiou thnt the church of the TabennesiOICS was then still standing.) Wh:lt happened thereafter to the monaslel)' remains a mystery.

Pnchomlan Foundations at Alexandria Alone among the authon; who huve dealt wilh Ihe Mculnoia, V;m Clluwenbergh (1914, pp. 76-77) dis· linguished II secnnd TabenncsiOlc establishmenl (which he located (l,clru mur(u) rrom lhe house nf Canopus, wllhoUl, It mU.~t be said, very eunvincing rea~ons, Given the present slale of Ihe documenta· tiun, buwever, ()lie mighl advance !lOme arguments in favor of the e~islcnce of a seeund ruundalion, bUI one situaled illlrf/ "'''1'0$, although the sources, in view of the confusion, do not allow of any agree· ment on this issue, According to Orlandi, the Pachomian culony c31lt.'
garden thlll hlld belonged to Saint ATHANASlllS, situate
These olherwise incoherent data do agree on some poinlS, notably the e~istence of an Clitablish· menl of Pachomians at Ale~andria concurrent with lhal at CanOpllS, toward the south (Orlandi and Eu· narius), and of a church and a martyrium of the Baptist (Orlandi and Rutious). The lauer building will later be found associatcd twicc,: with the Taben· nesiotes, in a mannc,:r that might lead one to believc that Ihey were not far from it, It was here that the funeral of MaCllrius of Tkow, the guest and protege of the Illonks, took place (Johnson, 1980, p. 96). The building was dedicated to Elisha and John (N:IU, 1903, p. 304). The archbishop John Talaia the Tabennesiote is said 10 have been pl'iest and stew· ard Ihen: (PG 147, col. 136). One might also identi· fy the church of which Orlandi and Ruflnus spoke with Ihe "church of Ihe Tabennesiote!'," the resting place of the relics of Christ, to whleh Cyrus tile Muqawqas retired In Seplember 641 before goiog to lhc Ale~"ndrian church of Ihe Caesarcum armed with the cross of his hosts, A procession rrom Cano· pus to Alcxandr'in lakes several houn;, In ;111 prob.,· hllity, the point of depal'ture was within the city itself. The SOU1'CeS arc seriollsly divergent in I'egard to Ihe sile or thll foundallons, givlog a garden (Or· landi) and a Sen,peulll (Eunaplus and Rulinu.~). Ag:lin, the hislol'ical lradillon vades on the pen;on 10 wholO the building or buildings that replaced the Sen,pculll were dedicated. Thus, one reads of a dlurch of Arcadius, Theodosius, or HonOl'ius (see Schwart7., 1966, p, 99, n. J: Orlandi, "Uno Krltto ...." 1968, pp. 295-304; SlOria"" 1968. Vol. I, pp. 94-98; Vol. 2,1970, pp. 95-97,100-02). Nor is there any lllore unanimity In regard to thc functions of John Talaia before his accession 10 the episcopate: for ~:lI11e he was general steward of the archiepiscopal church and no longer steward of the manyrium, This is puttling. As In the olher fucts.

METROPOLITAN

the inferences about the runcT"JI of Macarius of Tkow and the withdrawal and retllm of the Muqawqas have, On the whole, no firm basis. It is also l>ermissible to lhink that if then:: had been a second Paehomi:m monastel)' at Alexandria, Jerome would not have failed to mention it in his prdllcc. Finally, other literal)' allusions 10 the Tabennesiotes direcl one loward Canopus, or 011 the \'el)' least never absolutely prohibit thai inlet-pretalion. What may one finally concede? That one or lwo religious buildings in Alexandria, one of them dedi· COIled 10 John the Baplisl but both hard to place acCUl"luely, arc rather lJobKurdy placed by an incoherent hislorical tradition in the tenure of the Pachomians. Perhaps this mar1yrium and church were served by TabennesiO(e5 established nearby, at· tached 10 lhe Metanoia OIl Canopw;. Th~ colony, if it ever exL~led. seems insignificant in comparison wilh the house of Canopus, whose hiJ;toricity is at any rate nOI in doubt.

1611

Maspero, J. HlS/lJire I/e~' palriarc/res d'Alcxalldrle. Paris, 1923. Nau, F., cd. ilnd lrans. "H~loire de Dioseore, patri· arche d'Alexandrie ccrite par son disciple Theopiste." Journal a.~ialiqlle 10 (1903):5-108, 241310. Orlandi, T., ed. and trans. Sloria della chiesa di Alesstmllria. 2 vols. Milan, 1968-1910. "Uno scritlo di Tt.'Olilo alessandrino sulla del Scrapcum?" UI Parola del PasMlto (1968):295304. Rfmondon, R. "I.e Monastere alexandrin de la M(,.~ tanoia etail·il beneficiaire du fise;: au a son service?" 5mdi III Ollore di Eduardo VollefTa, Vol. 5, pp. 769-81. Milan, 1911. Rupprecht, H. A., ed. Sammelbllch lriecllischer Vrklllldell ailS ){gyptell, Vol. 14. Wiesbaden, 1983. In Essays in Ulmor 01 C. Bradford Welles. New Haven, Conn. 1966. JEAN GASCOO

METROLOGY, COPTIC, In stone and telttile BIBLIOGRAPIlY

Botler, A. J. The Arab C(mq/lest of Egypt and the l.aSI Thirty Years of Ihe Romall Domillion. Oxford, 1902; 2nd cd. (cd. P. M. Fraser), Oxford, 1978. Cauwenbergh, P. van. /;'wde SlIr /es moilles l/'Egyplc deplli.~ Ie Condie lie Chulcidoille (45/) jllsqu'Q I'i"vusiou arabe (640), pp. 16-18. Paris and Louvain, 1914. Chilly, D. J. The Dcsl!fl a City, pp. 54-55, 66, 92. Oltford, 1966. COlelier, J. B., ed. ApOpll/!leglllalU Palrlllll, pp. 71440. PC 65. Pads, 1864. Crum, W. E. "Review of S. PlldlUmii Villi Dohairlcf' Scrip/a." IOl/fIIal of Theological S/I/dies 28 (1926):326-28. Du Cange, C. Glossarillm ad Scriplore.~ Mo!diao! e( Illfi~/!lle Graeclla/is. Lyons, 1687. Reprinl in 2 vok Bologna, 1977. Hardy, H. R. "1'11/1 /.arl:e 6Slll//15 uf EYZlm/irre Egypl, pp. 46-47. New York, 1931. John of Nikiou. C/mmique de Jean, i!veqlle de Ni· klarl, ed. and lrans. H. Zotenberg, pp. 125-608. NOliccs et Cltll'aiu; des malluscrits de la Bibliu· tMque ntllionate 24. I'"ds, 1883. Johnson, O. W., lrnns. A Prwegyric Oil Macarius, Bis/lQP of Tkull', A/lribuled /0 Dioscoflls of Alexall' drill. cseo 416. Louvain. 1980. Kugener, M. A., cd. :tnd trans. Vie de Sivere par lueharie Ie Seholastiql/e. PO 2. Paris, 1907. LadculC, P. Emde.f Sllr Ie cimu/Jitlsme pakhollliell, pp. 201-202. Paris and Louvain. 1898.

workshops, Coplic crafL~men probably used sample books wilh favorite pattems and wooden stencils in ordcr to reproduce certain pallerns many times. Doth samples and stencils n.'quit'e a general system of measu,·cmen1.5, and stoncmason$ ordered thcir quarl)' blocks according to standard si7.es. Some mea.wrements taken from third· to ninth-ccntul)' relids and le:o;tiles in the Museum Simconstift, Trier, and Ihe Coptic Museum, Cairo, give cvidence that Coptic eraftsmen refused the Roman foot of II¥.. inches (29.57 em), but adhered to the royal Egyptian yard of 20* inehes (52.5 cm), Ihe smallest unil being one-fifteenlh, lhlU is, III.J inches (3.5 em). To whar Clttenl, however, there were minor' changes of lhis syslem dlle 10 laelll Coplic traditions and cenlers remains doubtful unless large·sealc investigalions arc carried ou!. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Nauerlh, C. Kapllsclre TCXlilkwl.I1 im spdlalllikell AI:YPltW. Trier, 1978. DIeTER AHRENS

METROPOLITAN. In lhe carly days of the Christiall ell'l, the upostk-s chose metropolitan cities as centers for the dissemination of their evangelistic teaching. Here they established churches, which lhey put in the charge of bishops. With the gradual spread of Christianity and the increase in Ihe IIUlll'

1612

METROPOLITAN SEES

ber or churches,

Ih~

older ehul'eh c(une to enjoy a nlOlher-
him who is firsl among them and account him as

[the metropolitan) of his own province, so thaI From him they may be able to reecive a formal or commendatory leller." BIBUOGRAPHY Cumminp, D. The Rlldder {Pcdaliorl}. Chicago, 1957. ARCI1U1SIIOP 8Astuos

or

their head, and do nOlhing consequence without his consent; bUI each may do those thing.~ ollly

which concern his own parish. lind the country places which belong to it." A metropolitan

ha.~

the right 10 cOllvoke provin-

cial synods and preside over their sessions. A metropolitan has the right to confirm the election or bishops in his province. The First Ecumeni· cal Council of Nicaea decreed, "I( is by tlll mCtlnll proper lhut :1 bishop should be appointed by all Ihe bishop:s in the province; but should lhis be difficult, either on ao.;eount of urgent neces.~ity 01' becaose of di~lance, dll'ee al least should meet together, and the suffnges of the ah.or,cnt (bishoP:SJ also being given and communicated in writing, then the ordination should take place_ But in every province the r.uilieation of what is done should be lell 10 the Metropolitan:' Canon 6 of the same council adds, "And this is to be universally unde~tood, that if anyone be made bishop without the consent of the Metropolilan, the Great Synod has declared that such a man might not be a bishop." In 341 the Synod of Antioch nipulated, "A bishop shalt not be ordained withoul a synod and the pres' ence of Ihe melTopolil::m of lhe pl'Ovince. And when he i.~ present, it is by
METROPOLITAN SEES, The ancient privilegof the See of Alellandria, a.~ confirmed by the sbth canon of the Council of NICAI!A (325), placed the provinces of Egypt. Lihya, and the Pentapolis in Cyrenaica under' lhe jurisdiclion of the bishop of All.:xandria, although these provinces had their own mel ropol itans, C$

Ancient and Medieval Times The Metropolitan Sec of PI01ellla'is in thl.: Pl.:ntapo· lis (Cyrenaica) wa.~ established by Saini MARK the Evangelist before he visited Alexandria for the fi~t lime. After consecr.:lting AN1APoIUS (68-85) bishop of Alexandria. he returned to the Pl.:ntapolis "and remained there two yea~, preaching and appointing bishops and priests and dcaeons in all their dis· triCIS," according to S;\wll\ls. The following were among the bishops of this sct:: Ba.~ilidcs, .....hose name .....as recorded by Eusebius as "bishop of lhe parishes in lhe Pentapolis," 10 whom DlONVSILIS. patriarch of Alexandria (d. 264), addressed various epistles. Only one epistle ha.<; survived; it contains e)l.plannlions givt:n as anSWI.:n; to questions proposed by Ihal bishop on various topics, laler receh'ed liS canons of the Council in TruJlo. Siderius, bishop of Palaehisca and llydl'llx, was consecrutl.:d by onl.: bishop (philo), not three as was the custom. Saint Athanasius (326-373) condoned thnt irr'cgularily in view of thl.: Ari:," troubll.:s. He was 1:ller translated to the me\l'opolilnn see of Plol· em:li"s. Syncsius (c. 370-414). though m:m;ed (con· ll'lll)' to the canons of the ehurl.:h), was eonSl.:ernted bishop of Ptolemai"s by Pope THEOPlllLU~ of Alexan· dria (Smith and Wace, 1974, pp. 756-80), This see must have continued until the end of the fifteenth century, for QiryiiqlL!f, ml.:tropolitan of the Pentapolis, was mentioned by Pope JOliN 'Ull (1484-1524). He was among those bishops who were unable (0 reach Iheir sees at (he beginning of the sixtecnlh century b«ause of the OUoman conquest of that region. Consequently the metropolitan was obliged to abandon his sec and live in the

METROPOLITAN SEES

dcscl1 (If SCllTIS (K;im'il Salih Nakhlah, 1954, Vol. 4, pp. 59-60). Thereafter, no mention is made of that see eJlcept fOT the indusion of it.~ name in Ihe honorific titles of the patriarch of Alexandria. As a first 5tcp in formally reestabli.~hing the See of the PentapoHs nowadllys, Pope SHENOUDA III added the name of Penlapoli5 to that of the metropolitan see of Del.lcirnh, in the procos of const:cmting i15 preseOl bi5hop. The Mctropolitan Sec of Ethiopia was euahlished by Pope Athana.~iu-~, .....ho consec....ted l'IIUMIlNTlUS as bishop (c. 340). Frumcntiw. wa.<> called ABON (our father), and UOIil 1950 the metropolitan OT abiin of Eihiopi(l W(lS (In Egyptian appointed by the pat';· arch of Alexandria. The lnst l~llyptirm flb/m uf Ethiopia W(lS l:onsl:cTilted in 1929 and died on 22 OclOber 1950. Thereat'1el". Anb:'l 13l1silius, the Ethiopian bishup of shew;l, was cho~en the firlit Ethiopic a/)(m of E.thiopia by Pope YOsAu [[ (1946-1956). On 2 ScptemDl:r 195 I, five Ethloplnn bi... hop~ were conse· crated by Abuna Basilius, in (lceord(lncc with the p.·uriarch's approval. In 1959, afteT long negotiations, the status of the Ethiopian church was finally recoa;nized by the Sec of Alexandria as autonomous and aUlocephalous, and i15 head was eonsecrat<:!d by the p;ttrian::h of Alo.!Jlllndria as "CatholicU5," though in Ethiopia it· KIf he bears the title Patriarch. Pope CYRIL III IBN I.AOLAQ (1235-1243) was Lhe first Aleundrian patriarch to consccmte a Coptic melropolitan for Jeru.\3lem, the Unoral. and Syria (sec JF.RUSAl.f.M. COI'"TJC SEE oF): this caused considerable friclion between him and the patriarch of Anlioch (Ko.m'l1 :?-,Ii~ Nakhlah, 1954; Vol. I, pp. 59, 82-90). The patriarchs of AlexandTia and Antioch Sh(U11y afterward n::ached a compromise: the latter recognized the jUl'i~iction of Jhe new metropolitan, Dnd the former agn::ed to extend it no ful1her than Gam. It Is decr-eed in the fifth canon of Cyril ibn Laqlaq "th"t the signntul'e of the metl'opolitnn of G,rt:a (lod that which "joins it shall be required for conforming to the aforementioned b\:lief of the 1acobite Church, and for [his] conformity to that which confOrolli to it, and thal he Tejects those whom the Councils n-ject, and that if he does not eonfonn with this, he shall be excommunicated" (Bulmes· tel', 1946-1947, p. 108). Despite this. the see has always been .-eg:arded as lhe melTopolitarl See of Jerosalem and the Ncar East. 1L is now recognized ;u; a palliarchate, OIl· though it is superintended by a metropolitan. The site now known as Old Cairo is mentioned by

1613

Strabo, Ihe Greek geographer and historian (24 D.C.), and by PlOlcmy (A.D. 121-151) under the name 8ABYLDN. This city was a bishopTic by the fiflh century OT befoTe, 5ince there is meOlion of a cer· tain Cyl'U5, bishop of Babylon, among the Egyptian bishops who were present al the Council of Ephes· U5 ht'id in 449 (Munier, 1943, p. 19). AfteT the ARAB CONQUEST OF EGYPT lhere arose a new qUlu1er called al-Fus!;}!: the city became the capital of Egypt and the seat of government, !lnd was evelltually known as M~T. Hence, it was sometimes rccogniled a.~ a metropolitan see. Already in 743 ..... e reltd of a cCI1;lin Theodoros the Metropoli. lan, bishop of Mi~l', who assisJed in the eleclion of Pope KIlA']L I (Municr, 1943, p. 25). The See of Mi~r l'o.!placed the older Sec of B:\bylon, and its cathedral church was that of Saint MercUl'lus (CHlJRCIl OF AUO SilYI'AYN) until the reign of Pope CHRISTOOOUlUS (1047-1077), who tr'ansrerro.!d the ~ent of the p;:Itriarchlite from Alexandria to Cai· ro and made thili church a patriarchal one. On lhe death of Anba Yu'annis, bishop of M~r (1122), Pope GABRJEL II ibn Turayk (1131_1145) did not conse· cmte anyone after him for Mi:!r. But, in 1240, in the patnan::hate of Cyril III Ibn Laqlaq, Anba DOUIS A'" BOSl-il was conSCCl'1ltoo bishop of the See of Mi~r (Burmester, 1950-1957, pp. 117-31). Pope CYRIL. tV (1854-1861) n:cslablished the mel· ropolitan See of ~H!!T by conSCCl"8ting Anba Bu!ros as bishop and promoling him 10 the melropolil3n mnk. This was the last OIo.!tropolit3n of the St:e of Mi~r.

The date at which the See of o-..miella (DUMYAT) was mised to metropolitan status is uncer1ain. In lhe lwelfth century, lhere was Mlk}m'Jl. bishop of o-~mjella, who was a contemporary of PoPo.! M1CIlAU!. v and who refuted Murqus ibn Oanbar in the days of Pope MARK til (Bumlcster, 1936, pp. 101-128). In the thil1eenlh cenIUl)', ther-e waS Anb;, Chris· todoulus Ibn al-Duh;tyrT, meJropolitan of DamiclIa. who wrote a Coptic grammar (Gl1If, 1947, p. 378). He was a contemporary of Pope Cyl'il ibn J..nqluq Ill, who spoke of the IIIctropoliWn See of Damietta in his canons, indicating "that the rank of the metropolillill of Damictla who is at present (occupying this see] shall renlain according 10 the cuslom of those who pTeceded him in the aforementioned frontier city of Damieua and according to Ihat which in containL-d in Ihe biogmpblC!! of the patri· archs for th05C like him [who are] in it" (Burmes· tel'. 1946-1947, p. 108). In the fourteenth century. Gregory, metropolitan of Damiena, attended Ihe consecmtion of the holy

1614

MICHAEL

chrism In 1320 and in 1330 (KAmil ~Iih Nakhlah, 1954, pp, 34, 52). Gradually, however, this see lost its distinctive status 10 lx.'Comc part of a larger adjacent see for long periods. It was reinstlitOO in the twentieth cen, tury, but was headed by a bishop, not a metropoli~".

Seventeenth Century According to A. J. Butler (lg84, Vol, 2, p. 313), who quoted the seventeenth-century traveler J. M. Vanslcb, there were only three mctropolitan sees: DamleHa, Jerosalcm, and Ethiopia. According to Vatican Coptic manuscript 45 (sevcnteenth-century, though probably copied from a thineenth-ecntury one) the metropolitan sees were Damietta, Abyssinia (Ethiopia), and Jerusalem (Munier, 1943, p. 65).

Eighteenth Century In addition to the three sees just noted, one reads of Anbd Bu!ros, metropolitan of Jirja and Upper $a'ld, who W'.lS consecrated by Pope MAKK VII (17451769). In a pastoral leller, Anba Bu!rus mentioned his metropolitan jurisdiction as the Sec of Jirja and Upper $aId, and all the Christian people in the See of AkhmTm, Jirj:!, Oif!, Ou"" Naqadah, Isnd, Annan\, and their envirvns,

Nineteenth Century Metropolitan Theophilus was consccrntcd (1808) by Pope MARK vm (1796-1809) a.~ a general metropolitAn and llcted as the pope's ,tssistant until his death six months later, Subsequently, Theophilus wa.~ elected 10 the plllrillrchale undcr the name of PL'TIlR Vll, surnamed al,J:iwli (1809-1852). Metropolitlln Cyril, who was consecrated a generallllctropuliwn in April 1853 following the decease of l'eter' VII, was installed as patriarch undcr thc name Cyril IV in June 1854. Four mor'C rnelropolilan~ were consecrated by Pupe Cyril IV (1854-1861); AnbA B"'SILlUS, melru· politan of JenlSlllem, al·Sharqiyyah, al-Daqahliyyah, al.Gharbiyyah, llnd al·O(lnl1l (Sue..: Canal); Anba Yu'annis, mctropolitan of al.MlnOfiyyah; Anbil MurqU5, meu'opolitan of BcI.1Ciro; and Anbti Bu!rus, bishop and, later, metropolitan of Cairo. Butler (1884, Vol. 2, pp, 312-13) mentioned four mctropolitans or archbi."hops under lhe jurisdiction of the Coptic ptllrilln:h, those of Alcllandria, Min' ufiyyah, Jerusalem, and Abyssinia.

Twentieth Century The ,itle metropolitan is now u~d in purely honorific ~nSC' for lhose with only diocesan, not provincial, powcrs. Apal1 from Ethiopia, which became a patri:trchate in 1951 (headed by a catholicus having his own metropolitans and bishops), and Jerusalem, which is a Coptic patriarchate supelintended by a Coptic mctrvpolitan, all thc dioct.'SCS of Egypt and the SUd:1O are now called metropolitan sees, which, though sometimes headed by metropolitans, are more commonly supelintended by bishops liable 10 promotion in due COUBe, At pre<:ent there are eighl metropolitan sees: AsyU!: Jerusalem and the Middle East; Jilj5.; Nubia, Umm Dunndn, and 'A!barnb: al-Kha'1llm South and Uganda; al.Q:J.Iyt1biyyah; Bani Suef and al·BahnasA.; and Giza and A!n~. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Burmester, 0, II, E. ''The Sayings of Michael, Metropolitan of [}dmiella." Oriell/olis Christiana Peri, oJica 2 (1936):101-128, ___ . ''The Qmons of Cyril II ibn uqlaq." B'lflcIi" de la Soc/lit d'archtologie COplt' 12 (1946_ 1947):gl-136, and 14 (1950-1957):113-50. Butler, A. J. The Ancient Coplic Ch"r"hes of Egyp/. Oxford, 1884. KAm'll ~alil;1 Nakhlah. Siisilul T(Jrlkh ol-Bi/bi/will Ba· !iJrikal a{·Kursl al·lskaudarf, Dayr al·Suryan, 1954, Munier, H. Recucil des /isles episcopo/es de /'tglise copte. Cairo, 1943, Neale, J. M. A /fis/o')' ollhe '·Iuly E,ulem Church: nle Pulr;u,,·llllle 01 Alexll"tlrill, 2 vols, London, 1847, ~anHl"1 al·Sury:1nl. AI.Adyirllll Il/.M;.fr;yyah al· 'Amirah, Cairo, 1968, EMILI.! MArrr.;1l. ISrrAO

MICHAEL, Sell also WIder Mikhu'il or' Khu'il.

MICHAEL IV, sainI and sixty·eighth patriarch of the Sec of SainI Mark (1092-1102). Uule is known aboot Michael's secular life before he took the rno· nastic vow, nor do we know with precision the date of his enrollment in the monastic order. Historical references 10 him stal1 whh Ihe slatement tbat be WIIS a n1iddle·agt.'tI monk who, after attaining lhe prit.'Sthood, decided to become a solitary in it secluded cell al SINJAR. There a depulation of bishops and clergy, together with .a number of leading Cop-

MICHAEL V

tk :archon~, m:ainly from Alexandria, offered him the church leadership. The gl'OtlP had first convened In Alex:andli:a, then in Q:airo, where they were joined by 11 nUll1ber of Upper Egyptian bishops. They were directed 10 a Syrian solita!)' monk by Ihe mime of Samuel by a deacon of the monas· lelY of S:ainl M:acarius. On interviewing Samuel, hOWeVIT. tht..'Y had doubts about his orthodoxy and his knowledge of COptic church traditions. Finally thcir 5Carch led them to Michael at Sinjar, to whom they olTereu the patliarchale on certain cunditions. which he accepted in writing. Michael agt"Ced that lIe woulJ rlOI use simony (CllliIROTONIA); that he would not claim any share in episcopal income; and that he would relunl to the bishops all the religious property and churchCli that hi~ predec~ 501'5 had confiscated. After signing this documcnt, Michael accomJXlnied the delegation 10 Alexandria for his consecratiun, lhen tu DAYR AN"oA MAoAR. and finally to the Mu'allaqah church in Old Q:airo, whcre the 1;I,:at uf the JXluiarchate had been movcd from Alexandria during the tenure of Pope CHIUSTODOUWS (I047-1077). There \""-~ no reticli'nce on Michael's part in ac· cepting the nominatiOn, as there had been with many previous l);ltri:an:hs. And it is doubtful that he ever intended to keep his wrillen promises to the delegation. l-tis patri:archate wus filled from the out· set by problems relating to his signed documents, which he wallled 10 recover from the bishops after his inVl'stiturc. After he bl'Came patriarch, he de· nied his promises and refused to rctum the confis· cated churches and mona.~terie~ to the bi~hops. This resulted in a major dash betwcen thcme~pcclally with IInno. Sinhut, bi~hop of Mi~r. Mi· chael cven threatened tile posscssors of the signed document whh cxcommunic:llinn if hi~ will wa~ resisled. Anbn Sinh(lt c,:vcnlUlilly hlld to nee to Dilyr IInb1i. SamO'lI in Qalamiln in the Fayyl1m province, whel'e be found sheller frum patriarchal wmth. l3ul /lnbS Sinhllt wa~ popular with the congl'egation, which sent (l ddcglltion to the patri;m;h to seek a .~olutlon to the pr·oblem. They hinted that they might appeal tu the Islamic state as a last res.ort. Thu5, the Intimidllted plltriar'Ch hlld no choice but to absolve the bi~hop of Mi~r and allow him to return to his diocese. The root of the problem, which w:a~ the common interest of both in the fi· nances and the ecclesillstical organization of a diocese sh:al'ed between them, rem:ained unsolved. A.~ a solution to lhe problem, the patriarch startl,.x! to contemplart the excommunication of Anba Sinhiit, who ag:ain fled, this time to the more distant Monas·

1615

tCI)' of Saint Sevel'US (n.. . vk ANI)A SAwIMUS) in the region of AsyU!, In 1102, Michael was stricken by (he plague and died :after a few days. Perhaps the most momentous international event during Michael's reign was the beginning of the Cl'Usade movement in Western Europe and the fall of Jerus;a.lefll to the Latin!' in 1099, For the Copts thi!' wa... a major event, since thc Roman Catholic occupants of the Holy Land regarded the Coptic Monophysitcs as heretics and conS(,."quently barred them from pilgrimage to the holy places. This situa· lion persl~ted until the recovery of Jerusalem by SalaJin in 1187, BI81.10CRAPilY

Lane·Poole, S, IIlsto'1 of Egypt ill the Middle Ages. London, 1901. SUtllU Y. I..ABl8

MICHAEL V. seventy.firsl JXltriarch of the Sli'li' of Saint Mark (1145-1146), Michael, ur Mlkh;1'il ibn Danash(arl as he is listed in the HtSTORV OF THE PATRt"RCltS, was a monk oflhe Monastery of Saint Maca.... ius (DAYR ANSA MAOAR). He was a man of line stature and he was dignHicd, chaste. lind saintly. Nothing is known about hi!' l;ecular life beyond the faet that he was not a highly educated man. Michael concentroted on the ai' and tradition!' of mon3Stlcism, without aspirinll to hillher office. When his prcdecessol', GAUR/F.!. II. dIed and the blshop.~ and arehon~ began their arduous search for a worthy successor, II monk of Anbl'l Mnql'lr by the name of Wanas or Yo.nu~ ibn Kadr!n came forth and requested the nomination for himself. This automatically reno dered him unworthy of consideration in the eyes of thc mnjority of thc congregation, despite the sup· pol1 thaI he secured from a few members of the community. Thus, it wns decided in the absence or a dear choice to write three n:ames on three cards ami a fowih wilh the nalllc of Jesus Christ and place them on the 3ltal'. After praying for three successive days and nights, they askeu an innocent child to pick up the winning name. Michael'.~ name emerged from the lot as the Lord's candidate. Michael WtlS made a deacon, then a presbyter, and on the third day he became a IIEGUME.NOS or archpl'iest. His final nominotion was sanctioned by the caliph. He was taken to Alexandria for furmal consecration in the Cathedral of Saint Mark, where he W35 met by the dignilalil,.'S of the capital with gl'eat honOI'. 'nle IlistOry 01 fhe P(llri(lrchs states that

1616

MICHAEL VI

his days were st.'Cure and peaceful Dnd thaI nothing special occurred in his reign beyond the consecration of five new hishops. Nothing is said about si. maniacal imposts (CHEIROTONIA) From IIny of tht'SC bishops, and it must be assumed that his 5h0l1 reign

was unevenlfullx:CllUliC he rendcl"Cd his taxes with· out prolest.

Michael's (llilri..rchalc la~ted eight months and four days, the last five months of which he spent severely ill lit the Monastery of Suint Macariu.~. where he died and was buried. Some !lay th;'ll his death was precipitated by poisoning III Ihc hand~ of the supporters of his old ri ......ll Ibn Kadran, bUI this view is nUl authcnlicaled. SUIlUI Y. LABIB

"'UCHAEL VI. ninely-second pallial-ch of the See of Saini Mark (1476-1478). Michael (or in Arabic,

Mikha'i1) is briclly mentioned in the ltlSTORY OF THE PATRIARCHS: the dales of his investiture and his death are given, but no reference is made 10 the monastery from which he was t;hosen to occupy this ecclesiaStical high office, The Sce of Saint Mark remained vacant for more than a year lifter the decea~e of his predeces.~or CA· I:IRII'.L VI. The Coplic sources provide no cxplanalion for this long inlerregnum, SO it must be assumed thai Ihe clergy, Ihe bishops, and archons could not find a suitable candidate fQr Ihis important post, so vital to the Coptic community, Michael WOolS the son of a priest named Yutmnnd ibn Sumay'ah, and his nalive lown was Manf..lu! in Upper Etopl. He renuined in Ihe palriarehale for the rather SOOl1 period of two years and Qne month and twenty·two daY5. The Islamic chronicler Ibn Iyas says Ihat Michael died of the plague during the l'eign of the BUljI Mamluk sultan Oa'itb:'\.y (14681495), Appnrcl1tly Ihe Copts enjoyed relative securi· ty during his 5hol1 tenure, since Ibn Iyas ,~tales thai the sultan &llVe Michael a robe of honor when he wcnt 10 pay homage to him, FurthermOl'e, Ibn Iyas praises Michael as a patriarch of good character, who was beloved by his corcligionislS. Although the Coptic sources arc silent on the significant Coplic pcr.;onalities of this short reign. the Islamic sources name severol eminent Islamized CaplS in this period who occupied the most importa.nl position... in Ihe gU\'emment or Egypt, They are lisled by the Muslim names to which Ih!..'}' changed after their conversion. Their names are found in the obilUllriCli of the annals of Ihe chronicleI' Ibn Iy:'\.s, The follOWing is a list of the.~ names,

each of which was followa! by the epithet al.()ibll (the Copt) in spile or their 15lami7.t1tion. (Sec PROFESStONAL ACf1VlTlF.S OF COPTS IN UTE MEDIEVAl. F..(:YI'T.) AI ~hib Sharof al·l>ln Ya1;lya ibn :?anrah al-Qib!T AI·Oth;li 'Abd al·Karfm ibn Abi al.Fa<,l1 Mu1;lamnlad ibn Is~tiq al.()ibll AI-O:i<,li layn aI-Din 'Abd al-O:idir ibn 'Abd al.Ra~· man ibn al-JI'lIn al-Oibtl Sharaf ai-Din Musn Ibn Yusuf al-Oib!1 AI·Odd! 'Alam ai-DIn Shakir ibn al-J]'lln al-Qibtl al·Oumya!I Abu al·l3aqa' ibn al-Jl'fln al Oib!i AI-O:'\.<,Ii Sharaf al·DIn Yal.lyA ibn al-Ji':in al-Oib!i Apparenlly most of them attained the ministerial poshion or vi'lier in the suhan's adminislrotion. and Ibn lyas makes special mention of 'Alam ai-Din Sh:'\.kir for his profound knowledge, his humility. and the high n..'gam in which he was held by the sultans. He wa.~ lhe founder of Ihe mosque in the region uf Birkm al·Ra!I, and he Ii\'ed to be a centenarian (1368-1477), Michael was buried in Qliro at the Church of Babylon al.Dal'aj. BIBLIOCRAPHY

Mul,UlrllmaJ ibn A1;lmad. Bada';' (,{·b,Juir If Waq(l'i' tlf-Dllhflr. 5 \,015. Cairo', 1960. Lane·Poole, S, His/ory 01 Egypt ill the MiJtlle Agel", London, 1901. ___ The Mohammada" Dynasties, Paris. 1925. Ibn

Iyd.~,

SuOHI Y. LUlUt

MICHAEL THE ARCHANGEL, FEASTS OF SAINT. See Feslal Days, Monthly.

MICHAEL THE ARCHANGEL, SAINT. In Coptic Christilln tl'adition, Saint Miehllel lhe Arch· angel holds an imp0l1ant place, comparable to Ihal of Ihe Virgin Mnry, Or the Eastern ehUl'ehes only the Cupts and the Ethiopians have developed devotion to Ihe archangel 10 the SlIme degree. Among lhe IIl'Changels, Michael is explicitly named in the Old Testamenl (On. 10:13. 21; 12:1) and in the New TCl;ilamcnl (Jude 9 and Rev, 12:7). The cult of angels developed very rapidly in the early church (Barbel, 1941). The most l'amous (5hrine or Mi· dmel) ....'lIS al Khonai. between Colossae lind Hiero· polis in Asia Minor, but recently a building of Ihe SlIllle type was di.5Covcl'ed at Apalllea in Syria; similar buildings existed from the early fourth cenlury

MICHAEL THE ARCHANGEL, SAINT

ill Constantinople (lll
(lnah, the festival of the dedication of his church, and 12 HtlI11r, the fcstival of his investiture in heaven. l1lC:re is also II fCl;liYoll of SainI Michael un the

twelfth of each month. This triple lilUrgical program will be illuslralc:,d with the help of some literary Icxa. Then follows a survey of the principal Coptic texts that speak of Saint Michael.

The Dedlcallon of the Chureh of Saint Michael

•

The f~liY:lI of 12 Ba'ulUlh has the following story in the Synnxarion. A pious woman namt."
1617

Alexander suggested liS a compromise lhal the lem' pIe become a chul'Ch dedicaled to SainI Michael. The church is usually called Ihe Caesarion. II W:lS laler Ihc slle of a falcful scene in which the antiehaJcedonian r'adient Saini MACARIUS OP 'I'KOW was killed by a kick from the emissary of Constantinople. The l:Iiological part of this account can be con· firmed by the lenth--eentury chronicle of Sa'id IBN AL-BtT1l.IO, which, however, speaks of Ihe god 1·lermes; by al·Maqrlzl, who speaks of Saturn (lll~fa1); and by JOHN OF NIKtOU, who specifies thai Ihe Cae· sarion had been buill by C!l.'Opall-:l in honor of Cae· sarion, Ihe son she bore to Julius Caesar. According to Athenaeus, the seeond-century author of the Dl'i. pno$Ophisles, there was a temple of Cronos (a Greek agricullufOll god identified with the Roman Saturn) in Alexandria. A homily allributt."
1618

MICHAEL THE ARCHANGEL, SAINT

much In common with Christianity. These Milhl'aic fealurelO lOuggesl a possible aSl;imilalion to Michael even before Pall;arch Alelfander's official founding of the Church of Saint Michael (Nilsson, 1974, pp. 449-519).

Saini Michael'. Inyestlture In Heayen The other f~tival of Saini Michael in the Synaxarion, 12 H6tur, concerns his investilUre in heaven as the replacement Cor Maslema, or Satan, .....ho had been thmwn out of heaven for refusing to worship Adam newly emerged from God's hands. The Synall:' arion underlines Miehael's cosmological role, ilOla· bly in his connection with the flooding of the Nile, and describes II miracle iIlustrnting Michael's fideliIy to his devotees. The arehangel asks Domtheus !lnd his wife Tht:upista to spend on the archangel's festival all they posse:'i.~ Cltcept their clothes. When they comply, Michael goes 10 their house and has them open the belly of a fish, where they dl~over a pune full of gold. The festival of Michael's investiture in heaven is dl.."SCribed in an apocryphal work attribUied to SainI John the Apostle, The Book 01 tht 'nvtstitllre 01 lt1ic1llu!l, preserved in its entirely in Sahidic and almost completely in Fayyumie (published by C. D. Miiller, 1962). The work was atlackl..-d by Saint John. bishop of PlirollO!l, shonly before 600 (published by A. van Lansehool, 1946) for making Michael chief of Ihe angels only after the dcvil's fall and for givIng the festival a precise dale, 12 HatOr. The Book 01 the IIlv(!stiwre is relllled al many poinls to thc Transitus Marice, a body of apOClyphal works about the deOlth of the Virgin Mary d:lting from lhe fifth century. In the Book of the Inwstitllre Michael is responsible for tr.tnspl:mting to eanh the Tree of Life stolen by Mastemll. The Ethiopian text of the Transilt/s (Arms, 1973, pp. 3-6), incomprehensible without the help of the /Jook ol/he Illvestitllre, explains the origin of evil by the refusal of Sakla· bnoth, greatest of the angels, to worship man. He becomes chief of the demons, and Michael is enthroned in his place. In heaven he describes a scries of souls, among them that of the paralytic heal· ed by SainI Pl:ter (Acts 14:8) on 12 Hatiir. This tl:xt, however obscure and incoherent in ils details, is a remarktlble witness to the cull of Saint Michael. A homilitic text attl'ibuted to Saint John Chry50stom (Valican Librory. Coptic Codex 58, Simon, 1934) is an exemplal'Y demonstl'ation of Ihe monthly celebration of the archangel. His appearances on eanh are d~ribed as follows: on 12 Sa'unah he visits Abraham as one of three angels including

Christ and Gabriel; on 26 Ba'unah he appears to Lot 10 save him from Gomorrah and also to Joshua when the walls of Jel'ieho cnunble; all 12 Barall1hat, he speaks to Jacob at Bethel; on 24 Bashans, he announces Samson's binh 10 Manooh; Ull 24 Baromudah, he ul'ges Nebuchadne7.1.ar 10 atlaek Jerusalem and later spt:an 10 Daniel in prison; on 12 Bashans, he sei7.e5 Habakkuk by Ihe hair 10 feed Daniel in the pit; on 29 Baramh:.'il (Easter) he sits 011 the Savior's tombslOne; on 23 Arnshlr, he blesses Ihe fruits of the eanh; on 12 Baramudah, he delivers Peler from Herod's prison: on 12 ,"bah, he aplX'ars 10 the centurion Cornelius; on 10 Baramhlt, he appears 10 Constantine, giving him victory over the Persians; on 12 H:ilur, he smashes the idol 8m under Saint Eumenius, palriarch of Alexandria. This series of annh'ersaries is the occasion of the monthly devolion. There are a great many other homilies on Saint Michael preserved in Coplic. A homily attribuled to Saint Eust&lhiu$ of Antioch, later eldled 10 Thraee, was delivered in a sanctuary built in honor of Saini Michael by Saint John Chrysoslom during his legendary exile in Thrace (aclually in Armenia). The Bohairic text was published and translaled by E. A. W. Budge (1894), the Sahidic text by A. Campagnano (1977). The homily bclollgs 10 a series of works with an anll-Chalcedonian tendency. Thrnce (in modem Greece and Bulgaria) was where the arch· angel Michael helped the emperor Constantine can· qucr lhe Persians, lIecording 10 II lalcr applicalioll to Michael of a legend about Mercury, and it was said to be where John Chl)'SO/;lom look refuge. Thc homily l'clates the StOI)' of pious l!uphemia with a host of detail that the Synax3rion p:lsses over in silence. She is given senatorial mnk through her husband, who is called Aristllrchus ("excellent gellel'll!"), a lIlan who waS loyal to lhe emperor'S Honorius and Arcadius. A homily attributed to Saint Maellrius of Tkow (Lafontaine, 1979) Is an antj·Chalcedonian text on Saint Michael in his church on his fcast day. It mentions John Chl)'sostom as pel'seeuted by the Empress Eudoxia, Arcadius' wife. A homily atlributed to the patl'iarch Sel/erus of Aotioch preserved in Sahidic and Bohairic (Budge, 1894) tells of the foundation of Saint Michael's Church in Thrnec by John Chl)'SOstom. A homily auributl..-d 10 Ihc fifth·century patriarch of Alexandria Timolhy II Aelul'\IS Is Ihe clOsesl to the Book 01 the Illvestitllre. E\"ell if Ihe writers were thinking of Timothy I, the cOlltenl agrees perfeelly wilh Ihe visions of Saint John the Aposlle in Ihe Book aI/he IlIvtstiwn. Also attributed to Timolhy

MICHAEL THE ARCHANGEL, SAINT

11 AeluJ1JS is II homily on AbbalOn, the fallen angel whom Michael replaced (Budge, 1915).

•

J

Opposinll these strongly nnli·Chulcedoninn works "'ere homili~ that followed the example of John of Pllr&lIOS' aUllck. nu.~ homily of Saint Theodosius I, sinh.century patriar<:h of Alexandria (Budge, 1904. in Bohairic; Budge, 1914, in Stthidic) crilid:r.es lormulnlions like those in !.he Book of tI,e Itlves/i/Ure, which il suggests rcdaling to lhe early sixth century. II tells a highly developed version of the story of DoTOlhcus and Thcopisla in the Synuarion. A homily llnributed 10 Cregory the Theologian, wrillen in rcqx>nsc to Etucbius. bishop of Armenia (Lafonlaine, 1979), keenly opposes lhe position laken by the Book of the rllVf!Sflture. Not all the homilies on Michael necessarily I)e. long to one side or the other of the Chalcedonian dispute. A homily lluributt.:t1 to Saint Alhanasiu.s I, founh-century patriarch of Alexandria (Pierpont Morgan Library, New York, M 602; Orlandi, 1981) describes a visil from SainI Pachomiwo to Alhanasi· us and, through the inten:ession of SainI Michael, the detection of a deacon who is a murderer. The ume codex contains two homilies attributed to $aint Basil the G"eal (Orlandi, 1975). There Saint Michael is seen making a fortress against the Per· sians in u1.ique-no doubt a late adjustment for the legendary Thr:.ce. The same manuscript con· tnlns IWO othe.· homilies of Athanasius in which Saint Michael occurs in Ihe title. Other homilies are preserve
1619

Coptic homily atlributed 10 Saint Cyril. rOUl1h-cen· IUry bishop of Jerusalem (Budge, 1915, p. 59). However disconcerting the Coptic JitCl'lllure on Mi· chael may at first appear, it contains strictly histori· cal information about the movement or ideas among the different parts or Ihe church hi Armenia and Egypt. BIBLIOGRAPHY Arra.s, V. Dc Transitu Mariac Apocrypha AClhiopiet. CSCO 343. Lou\'ain, 1973. Barbel, J. ChrUtos Artgelos. Bonn, 1941. Budge. E. A. W., ed. Saint Michael thtl Archangd:

Three Encomiums by Theodosills, ArchbUhop of Aluandria, Severns Patriarch of Antioch and £11slalh;,;s Bishop of Tralu. London, 1894. -:-:_ MiscellQlteolfs Coptic Tuls in Ihtl Dialtlct of Uppu Egypl. London, 1915. Campagnano, A., A. Maresca, and T. Orlandi. Qual· tro omilitl cople. Vita di Giovanni Crisoslonro, tlncomio dfli 24 vegliardi, erlcomio di Michele ar· charlgelo di Ellstarj{) di Trac;a, pp. 107-72. Testi e Documenli per 10 SlUdio dell'Antichita Sene Copta 60. Milan, 1977. Canivet, P. "Nouvelles inscriptions grecques chri:ti· ennes a i'llIarte d'Apamee (Sync)." TravallX et Mbnoires 7 (1979). Crum, W. E. "HaiiQgl'llphicn from Leipzig Mnnu· K:ripts." Proceedirtgs of the Sudely of Biblical Archaeology 29 (1907):305. Devos. P. "Dc Jean Chrysostome a Jean de Lyeopo· lis; Chrysostome et Chalkcdon." Ana/tlcta Bollan· diana 96 (1978):395-98. Duml:zil, G. NaiSS(lIlCe d'ardumges. Pilrili, 1945. Hyvernat, H. Bihliollrccae Pierpont Morga" codices pholographicc e:tpressi. Rome, 1922. Itinerarillm BlIrdiga/cnse, ed. P. Geyer and o. CUnl2. Corpus ChriSllllOorum, Sel'les Latina 175. Turnhout, 1965. Lafonlaine, G. "Un ~Ioge ..:opte de Saint Michel, attribuc II Macoirc de Tkow." Le MU~'eoll 92 (1979):301-320. Lanlschoot, A. V.ln. "Fragments c;uptCli d'une homelic du Jean de Pal-allos contre Ie! livres hCrctiqucli." In Miscellmlea Giovalllli Merculi 1. Sludi e Tesli 121. Vatican City, 1946. MU]]er, C. D. G. Die Ellge/leltre der koptische'l Kirche. Wiesbaden, 1959. Contains full sources in the footnotes. _ _ , cd. Die Biklrer der Einselvmg dtr Efltn[:el Michael l4/1d Gabriel. CSCO 225, Scriptores Cup· lid 37. Louvain, 1962. Nilsson, M. P. Gesch/cllft dcr gricdrischcll Rcligiotl, Vol. 2. Munich, 1974. Orlandi, T. "Basilio di Cesarea nella lelleratura COpIA." Revisla deg/i Sludi Orierttali 49 (1975):4959.

1620

MICHAEL OF DAMIEITA

Test; e Uucwm,mli per fa Studio Dell'A'Itich· ila. Serie Copla 60. Milan, 1977. Simon, J. "Homelic cople inedite 5ur S. Michel CI Ie bon l'lrron." OriclI/alill 3 (1934):217-42; 4 (1935):2:22-34. MJ(;HEL VAN EsBROECK

MICHAEL OF DAMIETTA. See Mikhail. MICHALOWSKI, KAZIMIERZ (1901-1981), Polish archaeologist and Nubioiogisi. He studied classical tlrch:lt:ology at lvov and continued his sludi""lIi in Berlin, Heidelberg. Munster, Paris, Rome, and Alhens. In 1934 he collaborated with the Institut fr.:lni;a.is d'Archeolugic orientale in Egypt in ils cXClIvations at IlAYR AL-MAOINAH. near 1..wI:or.

After World War II he resumed his aclivitics, beginning with the cll\:avaliun al TAIJ.. ATRIB (1957) and a visiting professorship al Alcllandria (1957_ 1958). hI the spring of 1959, he founded the Polish

Center for Mediterranean An.:hacology at Heliopolis_ As president of the Society of Nubian Studies for many )ocar:o;, he distinguished himself in the field of CllI'istian Nubiology. His major publications include Pafmyra (Warsaw, 1968); Fflras, cell/re arlistiqlle de f(l NI.bie chr~ti CtlllC (lciden, 1968); The Art of ,illlcicm Egypt (london, 1969): lIml Kamak (translated from Polish: London and New yo,'k, 1970). His festsehrift is M~ /lmges olferts h K. M. (WaNiaw, 1966). AZIZ S. Any"

MIDDLE EGYPTIAN DIALECT. See Appen. dix.

MIEDEMA, REIN (1886-1954), Duteh Coptologist, archaeologist, and tll't historian. He was privatdocenl at lhe universities of l..eiden tlml Utrecht, and was direC1Qt' of Ihe Institute of Religious and EcclesiastiC'II Art in Ulrcchl.

ecclcsia.~tical

!lOUl'ces were dissipated in a multitude of collections and were often incomplete or unavailable, he conceived the idea of bringing these together in a series or set of series of unifonn size for the benefit of scholllrs. His pn~liminalY plan envisioned 979 quano-si7.e volumes with two columns 10 the page. This included P:mologin Latina (221 vok), Patrologia Grat..'C& (161 vols.). the Encyclopedic theologique (171 vols.), and a number of olher series of documenlary and ecclesiastical charaeler. He succeeded In publishing his initial volumes at Bailly in Paris, whieh brought him many subscribers. But his ambition wenl far lx..-yond his estimate, for he eventually conceived of the publication of about two thou.sand volumes. In 1850. with the encouragement and support of the archbishop of Versailles, he found it neces.o;.ary to establish his own printing press and eullabor:tte wilh regular technicians in the an of printing. Migne had Ihc vision and ohility to recruit highly qualified priestly assistants in variou5 fields, such as Ht..-brcw, Greek, and Latin. In the end, a vast pr=..~, with all its divisions. and an anny of three hundred workers made it possible fol' a succC!i5ion of serie-; to see the light of day. A new volume nppcared almost every week. Standing high nmong his products of enduring value, in spite of Ihe existence of texlUal errol'S and misprints, arc the two P:ltrolo. gille: the Latina comprising as complete as pOMible a body of ecclesiastical writing.~ in Latin to the I'eign of Innocent Ill, In 221 volumes (Paris, 18441864), includioll fuur volumes of indices: nod the Graeca. with the Greek ol'iginlll and 1I IXIr:tllcl Latin translation, in 161 volumes (Paris, 1837-1886), br'Ought down to the year 1439. In 1868 a 'ire destroyed the printing eSlablishment, but the pl'inted texts of bOlh works continued to be reproduced with aU their imperfections liS the only complete reeor'd of patdstic litenuurc in cxistence. Nlltul'lIlly these volumes included Ihe flit hers of tho Coptic church, who wrote mainly in Greek and parlly in Iheir native Coptic. D1DI.lOCMAPHY

B1lJl.IOCMAPHY

Dawson, W, R., Egyptology. I). Kammel'el', W., Arbol', Mich.,

1824, Seeing that the patnsllc ami

and E. r. Uphill. Who Was Who ill 202. l..(In
I.•eclerq. H. "Migne (Jacques-Paul)." In Dicliomrairt' d'archi!o/ogil! cllrl!tienllfl el lIe lilllrgie, Vol. II, pI. 1. Paris. 1933. A:w: S. Al'IYA

AllZ S. ATtYA

MIGRATION, COPTIC. The COpt5 as a commu· MIGNE, JACQUES.PAUL (1800-1875), French priest and editor. He received his On.lin:llion in

nity were ~delllary by nature and upbringing. They loved the land of their blr1h and were averse (0

MIGRATION, COPTIC: United States of Amcrica

migl'lltiun to other countries throughuut their long history. The idea of moving frum their aneeSlrnl home 10 a new milieu in search of beller oppOltun· ilil'S dawned upon Ihem only rt'cemly, aflcr the middle of Ihe Iwentieth cemury, when Ihey began under variOU5 economic and socinl inOucnces to seek olher 0PI)()rlunilics ahmad. In the folluwing .c;ections. infulllliltion is provided aboul specitic cummunities in Afrkn, North America. Austr.llia. and Europe. Even more interesting is the eslablishmenl of Coplic churches in thc Arnb world. Achurch was founded hy Pope CYRIL VI (19S91971) in Ku .....a it. In 1972 Pope SHE.":OODA JlI consccrnled a church in Bcirul. Lebanon. Other churches followed during Ihe 19701> in Amman (JurJan); Baghd:u.l, Basrah, Musur (Irnq): Dubai, Abu Dhabi (United Arab Emirales); MlIsqa! (Oman), lind al· ManArnah (Bnhr'ein). There L~ a church al BenghaZi and another al Tripoli Ihat was presenled lu Ihe Coptic communily by Colonel Oaddali in 1972. When the Copts migraled to new countries. Ihey illlllledi.:uely soughl a place of worship. Their financial resources as newcomers In a new hmd being modest, Ihey found 1\ solution by burrowing or buying old dUll'ehcs from uther Christian denomina· tions (frequently without payment or for a nominal price). L.... ter. wilh an increase in members and more aftluencc. lhl-')' were able to build thdr own churches or 10 ;)&pt lhe acquired on,--"S to suit their archileclura[ ;lOd religious tradilions. "ric:."Sls and monks from Egypl lire assigned to serve abroad. With Ihe e~ellision of the fioly Land, where CopL~ slnlck roots centuries ago (!'oCe JIlIlUSA· UJM. COI'TI(; SI!J! OF), Ihe Coplic chul-ch is cxpanding outside Egyplian borders. ChurchC!i. small monasu:rie!l. seminaries, and religious and culluml cenlers arc beinit established in many pan.~ of the world_ 1'I0we"cr. il L~ diflicuh 10 give absolule num· bers of CopL~ abroad, owing 10 the hick of accurale n:gistl'ilt ion. POPE SHF.NOUlM III

Canada TIle establishment uf the Coptic church in North Arnerit:a hegan in Canadn under the pontifie.lIe of Pope Cyril VI (1959-1971). The firSt pI'iCS!. Father Morqus, with 11lL' help of 1hiny-six Coplie f;lmilies already living In Toronlo. established :I. congl'egatiun there. The ground-breaking ceremony of the firsl Coptic Orthodol Church 10 be buill in N0I1h America look

1621

place during the visil or Pope Shcnouua III to Toronto. The Toronto congregalion palticlpating in Ihe evenl consisled of 700 Coplic f:llllilics. Canada at the lime had 1.300 Coplic families. Churches in Canada include five in Ontario (Toramo, MlssiSS
BIDUOCRAPHY

Brown. Lawrence G. Tile Amuicnll Immigru/i(m Colfec/io,,: Cllltufal Co"piels Qud Socinl Adjllst· ments. New York. 1969. cl-Ma.~ri. Iris H. Tlte Swry of/he CoP/so Cail'O, 1956. FAYEI': M. ISHAK

United States of America The Copts' attraclion 10 the United Stales was fostered by the American schools c.~lahlished in almosl all imponanl cities in Egypt and Ihe missionIlJ)' movement Irwt had been ;letive in lhe cuunlry for a king time. MilllUlion to America. .~tr'ictly speaking. was nul confined 10 Ihl,l CopiS. II induded Muslims as well. Aceurding to Ihe 1970 Amel'iean Census (U.S. Bureau of Ihe Census, 1970. Tahle 192). Ihe Egyptian immigrants lolaled 31.358. of whom npPIVlimalely 25.000 were COpIS. The census of successive years showed a steady flow uf refugees immigrnting through Lebanon undel' the auspices of the Wurld Council of Churches. the Cnlholic Missionary Services. nnd olher organiza· lions. More immigrants came to juin :l.lready naluralized American cili7;tns from Egypt. In 1973, thousands of Copls became cilizens of Ihe Uniled Siaies and were conscquemly inslrumema[ in hringing ovel· more members of lheir families. Thc increa.~e in the Coplie POPUI;'liol1 is reflected in the number of Coptie churches in Ihe United Slates. These rosc lTom IWO churches In 1970 10 fOlty-one churches in 1989. The number of Copts in 1989 "''a.~ estimated 10 be :l.n:xmd 160.000-180.000. The first priest appoinled 10 Ihe UnitLod Siales (September 1970) was Father G3.briel Abdclsayed fOI· Ihe first church in lhe United Slates, in Jersey Cily. New Jersey. Coptic churches in Ihe Uniled Slales include nine in Califomin (one in San Fl1lndsco nnd eight in Los Angeles; Ihere is 1111>0 a small mOn:'lSlery in Burstow). one in Colorado (Englewood). four in Florida (Plant Chy. Orlando, Pompano Beach. and DaylOnn Beach). one in Georgia (Allanla). 1\\10 in

1622

MIGRATION, COPTIC: Africa

llIinuis (Chicago), one in Ma........chusetls (Nallick), one in Michigan (Detroit), olle in Minnesota (St. Paul), one in Missouli (51. Louis), four in New Jersey (two in JCT"icy City anti one each in East Bruns· wick and East Ruthe.ford), six in New York (Brook· Iyn, Queens, Statcn Island, Long Island, Pearl River, and Roch...-stcr), one in North Carolina (Ra· leigh), tlwee In Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, Lancas· IeI', and Pitlsburgh), one in Rhode Island (Providence), Ihree in Texas (San Antonio. Dallas, lind Bel Air), one in Virginia (Falls chun:h), and one in Washinglon stale (Seanle). Some groups arc nol yet large enough to juslify a chun.:h. In this case they galher in one place and a Coptic pric& from the nearest area holds a mass for them at regular inler· vals. Examples are Baltimore (Maryland), and Hamden (Connecticut). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brown, Lawrence, G, The Americall Immigration Coffectio": Culmral Ca"picls and Social Adjust· "lell!s. New York, 1969. Constant, H. J., Jr., Yearbook of American and Canadlall Churches. New York, 1989. GABRtEL ABDEL'iAyyrn

Africa Modern Christi:mily in Africa owes it:> inception 10 Ihe l3uropeun lmd American missionuries who came in the train of the white colonialists. With Ihe di!;:lppeurnnl;c of l;olonitll regimes and the rise or independent nation·stales, the missionaries began to di!;:IPlX:ar. The leadership of lhe churches was :I..~~umed by African.~ who were educated and train· cd abrU:ld. Huwcver, mllny Africans separated themselves rl'Om the missIonary churches and/or furmcd their uwn inditlcnous churches known as African Independent Churches (more than six thou· sand churches tilt uver Africa). Their leaders Icd their nmive conStilutents into a tdbal and cultural form of wonhip that mixed native clements with Christian IC
So it was that thc Coptic chul'ch was established in the 19705 with the consecration in Cairo of a

bishop of African affairs, to reside in Nairobi. On 13 June 1976, Father Antonios aJ-Baramu.~r, a monk of DAYR At..tM.RAMOs and formerly a pr3cticing physichin as well as a deacon and layman, was elevated and given the name Bishop Antonius Man:us. At firsl, his nod consisled of seventy.live COplS of Egypl.ian origin llnd 2,000 Ethiopians. Aid...-d by lWO Coptic monks, Bishop Anlonius ....'lIS able to gain 4,100 converts of Kenyan origin and to serve many newcomers from Ethiopia. With Ihe steady expansion of Coptic Christianity in East Africa, numervus c;;hurches weTC founded in various arcas of thaI vast country. At present, thc Coptic churches number twelve, including a Cathe· dral of Saint Mark and a Church of Saint Antony in Nairobi. The remaining churches are evenly distrib· uted in the w('Stem Nyan7.a provinces around Lake Victoria and the Ukamb:mi area. Furthermore, the Copts have a church in Ibrari (Zimbabwe) and one in Lusaka (zambia). The serviccs lire canducted in the local vernacular and the Coptic liturgies have bcen lranslated into five nalive dialects. In addition to priests from Egypt, native Kenyans are now being ordained lI5 priCSIS. Two modest beginnings of monastic institutions have been established in the diocese of Arrica: the Monaslery of Saint Antony in Nairobi and Saini Menas' Monastery in Ebusakami in Ihc Western provincc. Each chul'ch h3.~ iL'I Sunday M:huol. E
Australia Coplic migration to Australia was prccipit:lted by circumstances assoclated with Ihe econol1lic poli· cies ur the Nasser regillle. It was natul"i11 for the Copts to envisage migrating to Eurupe and Ameri· ca, but with the difficulties that IIrose in accepting Immigl1'lnts to the Western European countries as well as to the United St:lIes lind Canada, Copts i)e. gan to look to the stllt-open door in Australia. Emi· gration of Copts to AUSIl".llia had started in a small way as early as 1964, and gl'lldually reached its peak in 1969. They concentrated along the populous eastem coast wherc they numbered approximately

MIGRATION, COPTIC: Great Britain

35,000. In 1969, the Copts established their first church in the city of Sydney, which they dedicated to saint Mark. Other churches followed. In 1989, Australia counted fourteen churches: six in Sydney, four in Melboul'Ile. and 00(' each in Adelaide, Penh, Ilrisbanc, and CanberTll. The concentration of Copls in the large city of Melbourne led (0 the esLablishmcnt of a Copde monastery in Ihal area. I

1623

small privale l:hapel is also in usc in Tanlaris-sur. Mer ncar Toulon; it is dedicated 10 Saint Antony and Saini Michael, The 1araest Coplic congregation is in Pari... with over 700 members. Marseilles and Toulon follow with around 400 members each. With Ihe exception of the chapel at Le Revest.lesEaox, Ihe CoplS in F,-ance l:l:ll:br.l.le m.ass in host churches.

GABRIEL ABOElSAYYFD

BIBLIOCRAPHY

France For centuries the Christian faith in France had kepi close ties with the Holy land, Egypt, and the desert fulhcl'$, Beginning in the fourth century, the maritime connections between Alexandria and Mar.

seilles helped tile Infiltration of AlcJt:1ndrian ChrUilian thought in Gaul. h was at th<: beginning of the fifth century that John CASSIAN, imbued with Egyptian monastic ideals. arrived In MarscillC$, Two of his boob. the "lSlitll/~S and thc COllltr~nc~s. in which he wrote ..bout the urI:. customs, and wisdom of the deserl fathers, we"e thl: n:suh of his stay among them. A teslimony of hilli innuenCI: still exists in Saint Victor in Marseilles and the monastery of Urins on thl: island of Saint ~Ionordt (opposite Cannes); Pachom. ian monaslidsm inspil"ed the roll: of these establishn1l:nts as well as thl: rules of many others across Europe. This inOuence COntinued for centuries, On PenteCOSt 1974 (2 June). assisted by seventeen bishops and archbishops of the Holy Synod. Pope Shenouda III canonically establh.hcd the Eparchy of France by ol'daining two European monks who had shared the life of their desert brothcrs in lJAYR MoIRA UISIlOI. The monk Mlircos from Amsterdam was made bishop of Marseilles, Toulon, and all of Fr'llncc. The monk Allmnasios, a Froench mltional, recdvcd the lille of ehorepiscopus of the city of Paris, Five spirilual Cl:nter'll have been established since. Thc Coptic Ol'lhodox Hermitage of Saint Mark, with a chapel dedicated to Our Lady of ZaylCln, is the scat of the bishop in Le Revest·les·E'.ault near Tou. Ion. In Plessis l'!:.vcque, ncar Meaux, the Priory of Saim Mar\.; is the seat of the l:horepiscopus; its chapel is dedicated 10 the MOlher of God and Saim Mark. In Pnris, the Coplie parish of Saint Mary and Snint Mark holds servil:es in the crypt of the Church of Saint Sulpice, In Marseillcs !.he parish of Saint George and Sailll MlIrk was founded in 1983; mass l~ held in the Church of Saint Nicholas, A

Chadwick, O. Joh" C(;lssja/l, a S/lldy /If Primitive MOIllWidslIf. Cambridge, 1950, Crislini, L Jea" Cassie/l 011 la spiril'lu/ite d.. desert, 2 vols. Paris, 1946. PIERIlE DE 8oGIMNOFF

Germany The Coptic church in Gennany was inaugurated in March 1975 by Pope Shenouda III, in response 10 an appeal from the growing Coptic community in the Fedcral Republic. Father $allb Suty.il wa... dclegaled as its first minlSler in Frankfurt, where the Copts secured a historic EY.lngelical church nearby, known as the Bethlehcm Church, built in 1199. They named it the Coptic Orthodox Church of Saint Mark. Another chur(:h followed at Stullg.'lrt and was dedicaled to Saini George. At pn.::>t:nt. Gel'. many has a total of ...even Coptic churches. Besides thl: above there moe churches Oil DUsseldorf (dedi. caled to the Virgin Mary), Munich (a gifl from lhe Roman Catholic church, which WliS dcdicated to saint Ml:nas), Hannovel' (a gift from the Evangclical Prolestants, dedicllted to Saint Alhamlsius the Apos. tolic), Berlin (dedicaled to Saint Anlony and Saint Shenute), lind Hamburg (dedicatl:d to Saint Peter, Seal of the Mal'lyl's). The Copts in Germany in the IlIle 1980... cnnsisted of approximately 500 fumiJies. A Coptic centcr at Krcssclblll:h neal' Fl'lInkfurt bccame the nucleus of a mnnastic institution. $AI.IU SURY..l.L

Great Britain The modern hislOry of Egypt has fo... ten~d closer cullural relations wilh Britain than with any othe,' Westl:m count''}'. From the early decades of thl: h\'Cntieth century, Egyptian siudents were scm to pursue higher studies in British universities. A good

1624

MlKA'EL I

proportion of those Sludents were COplS who subse· quently were able 10 secure posilions in Ihe medical profession and \Poirious "cademic inslitulions throughoul Britain. This proved a greal incenlive for many 10 seck perm;menl residence in Drilain. This small eommunilY of ellpatriales grew consider· ahly during Ihe 19705 as a result of the "'lliing of emigr
Switzerland The numbcr of Copts in Switzerland in 1989 was about 700. They live lIluinly in Zurich, Geneva, Lau· sanne, Bascl, Lucerne, and Lugano. In 1981 Pope Shenouda III ordained a monk. Serupion Anb:'l. Blschoy, from the Anbii Bishoi Mon· a.~tery, as the fil1lt pdeSI of the Coptic church in Switzcrland. When he later was consecmte\l bishop and moved 10 Cairo, Olhers wcre appointed In re· place him. Wilh Ihe ellception of Geneva, where Ihe COPI! rent a governmcnt-owned church. the other congregalions usc mainly Calholic churches. BISHOP SERAPION

Other Countries .. is difficult 10 follow Copllc immigl'ants 10 other countries of Europe, since Ihere is no official regis· ICI· 10 indicatc Ihcil' continuous mO\'emcnIS. 1·low· ever, Coptic communities are known to exisl in AUSlria. where cOllgregatiolls meet regularly in Vi· cnna. Unl, Klagenful', and Graz. The Copts in Am· slcrdam purchased a church Ihat Ihey dedicated 10 Saint Mark. A Coptic ehul'eh "\Ia.~ established in Mi· Ian in 1986. while .small congregations arc Found in Athens and Madlid. Onc Coptic church exists in Slnckholm and IInother in Copenhagen. GAORIEL AODELSAYYED

MIKA 'EL I. See Ethiopian Prelates. MIKA'EL II. See Elhiopian Prelates.

l\lIKA'EL III. See Ethiopian Prelates. MlKA'EL IV. See Ethiopian Prelales.

MIKHA'IL I. See Jerusalem, Coplic

See of.

MIKHA'iL I, IJ, III. See Kha'il I, II, 111.

M1KHA'IL, twelflh-century bishop of Damiella. The dales of the birth and death or lhis celebr'ated Coplic bishop are nol known, only Ihal he lived unLler lhe patriarchs MARK lit (1167-1189) and JOHN Vl (1189-1216), llml he completed the first edition of his Nomocanon in 1188, as he says himself, and lhat he was still alive when his adversary Murqus Ibn Oanbar' died in 1208. He WtlS the first Coplic bishop to reccivc thc honorific title of I11111rlll1 (mctropolilan), which doe.~ nOI confer any parlicular judsdiction in Egypl. The division of the territory into provin\:es did not e:o;ist, but each bishop was directly dependent on lhe plllrinl'ch, so much so thai the word mu!rfHl in I~gyptian Arabic becllmc synonymous with bishop. Mikh:l'll handed on lhis privilege to his succcssors. MlkM'11 of Damletla's plincipal work is his Nomocanon, of which a first \'el'Slon was completed in 1188 in LUllOI', a.~ was indicated in his manuscript (Nalional Libr.lry. Puris. Al'ab. 7428; d. Bollriant, 1886, p. 393, n. I).

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-----:...L

MIKHA.'iL

I

He had to com bat one of his prie sts. Murqu$ ibn Oanbar, agai nst who lll he wro le seve ral pole mica l work s. amo ng them A JIIMificnlio'l of Ihe Peculiari· ties of Ihe Cup/so a wor k reca pilu lated later in his Ten eml otls of Michael Qf Dam ieua (Bu rme ster , 1936, pr. 101 -128 ), and "Le llcr to Mar k ibn al· Oan bar" (Cra r. 1923 . pp. 180 -192 ). writ len afte r the latte r had join ed the Melchiles. He also acte d as a pole mici M agai nst the

Musl im.~

in a lette r know n

as "Le ner 10 One of Ihe Lea rned Mus lims :' unfo l'llnale ly still unpu blish ed. Apart from the Tell Camms. whi ch have been pres erve d in chro nolo gica l cano nica l coll ecti ons as a sum ma, )' of his cont rove rsial wor k agai nst MUI'· qus ibn O:m b..r. he wro tc, acco l'din g to AOl1 alB:U'l~1 IIJN KA8Jr.R, a wor k in five,: chap ters wilh the tille Kild b som li' a/-bugh)'ah lillllm {II/aba Iillllfsihi II/.kha/u~ wlI,u /,"ui lil yuw " uf.qi~li.! (The Des ire of Him Who Seeks for Him self Salvation on the Day of Retr ibut ion) . Two manllscript~ arc note d by P. SOOth (Cairo, 1938, p. 65). but thci r pres ent whe reabou ts are nOI know n. Ano lher .....or k that llppc:II'S to be 1000t is quo ted in a lilllrgical dire ctor y (Val. Ardb. 58). '111C litle IrllIlSlated into Engli~h mea ns Book of the I)etllon~trn· don . and Guid e in the Safe Way and the Very Practicab le Palh on the Doe ll;ne of Faith and the Refutation of the Mclchites (Gmf, 1947, p. 335) . Finally, a shor t trea tise of refu tatio n of the obli ga. tion of conFession coul d well be by Michael of [)-dmielta. alth ough it is anonymoU5. BIBL IOG RAP HY

Bou rian t, U, "Rappor1 [Ill min istre de l'ins truc tion pub liqu c sur llnc mission dans 10. Haute-Egyplc (188 4-18 85). " AUm oirts pl/bUes par /es mem bres de III MiSJion urch ia/o giql le frill/raise Cair e, 1 ( 1886 ):36 7-40 8. 8un ncst er, O. H, E" ed. and tran s. "Th e Sayings of Michael, Metropolitall of Dall1ieua," Orilm/alia Chri.l/iull/l Periodieu 2 (1936): 101- 128. Graf, G. Eill Re/o nllv ersi lch irme rhal b der kopt is· chen KirchI.' im ~wo/flen JlIllrhmldert, Pad erbu m, 1923, Sam ir, K. "Bib liog raph ie du dial ogu e islam o·ch retien ." Is/wl1oellrisliuntl 2 (1976):230, Sbm h, r. AI-Fillrisf, nos, 528 -529 . Cairo, 1938. REN t-GE ORG Eli CoaUtN

"'I

MIKHA'IL, Ihirt eenl h.ce ntur y bi!ihop uf Atn b and Malij. The exac t dale s of his birlh and cons ecra tion

1625

as bish op or of his deal h arc not known. We are cerl ain only abou t the date s of l.....elve sma ll Iheological treat ises writ ten hetw een 1243 and 1247 be· fore he beca me bishop. O. 1-1. E. Bur mes ter believed that he lived in Ihe four teen th cent ury, on the grou nd thaI IflN KADAR (afte r 1324) docs not spea k of him in Ihe cata log of the Antbic Christian auth ors in his ency clop edia the Lam p of Darkr,es.> (Mi:tbii~l ul-<::lIllIIull)); G, Graf l'emllrks that this si· lenc e is not conc lusiv e, for Ibn Kab ar also omilS to men tion the patr iarc h GABRIF..L It ibn al-Turayk (113 1-11 45), 10 who m, how ever , seye ral wor ks arc altribUled, AllIong them the Hook of EaSllJr, The silen ce can be e~plllined, for MTkM'j] is cons ider ed to be the auth or or corr eClo r of the rece nsio n of the SYNAXAIlIO!'i from Low er Egypt: Ibn Kab ar wou ld ha,'e had to spea k of him in conn ecti on with Ihe liturgical boo b. His silen ce ill his cata log of writeT.<; do.::s not prov e thllt Mikhll'TI Jiyed aFter him. Glonf thinks lhat he mus t haye been cons ecra ted bish op afte r the deat h of CYRIl. lit ibn laql aq (123 51243), a patr iarc hate that was follo ..... ed by a \/lIenn' cy of Kve n year.>; he place., Mlkh1l1l's cons ecra tion afte r 1250, It lllay bc note d that the min utes of the cons ccl'n lion s of thc holy chri sm at the rtlona~lery (DAYII.) ANBA 104"0,.1,11. indi cate in 1300 a Butr us (Pet er) as bish op of Aui b /Ind Mallj; he was prob ably lhe succ esso r of Mlkhfi.'il, who in cons eque nce wou ld have died befo re 1300 (Muyscr. 1944, p, ISS). We can thus say unly thai he was lin auth or of the Ihirl eent h cent ury. If .....1.' havc no ful1her info rma · tion , this is due no dou bt to the fact that the IUSTORY OF 11IE PATRIARCIIS, iF il gives a deta iled life of the Patr iarc h Cyril III Ibn Laqlaq, has preservc<.l onl." vel)' brie f noti ces un the later patt"iarchs. We have mor e iofo nnal ion abou t the writings of thi.~ bish op, A serk '5 of twelve ~Illall theo logi cal lrea tises deal with Ihe following them es: (I) a repon by Mik hnl of an inte rvic w he had with som e Muslim jut'ists, the object of which was Ih(: reje c· tion of the Jew s by Cod, beca use of thei r cons tant idolatry: (2) a reply to the ques tion of Ihe com pali · bility of the hum an activ ities of Christ with His divinity, deba led by the ~Ille inlerlocutor.> in an inte rvie w datc d to 1247; (3) a diss ertat Ion un the basic tcae hing s of Ihe Chri stian religion, and the thin gs com mon and disti ncti ve in the Chri stian sects; (4) a reply 10 the ques tion of the wor ship of imagt'5 date d to 1243; (5) a reply 10 the ques lion whe ther or nOI Ihe I'epentont sinn er may rece ive com mun ion: (6) a I'eply to the ques tion whe ther soul s rece ive thei r rt-cOmpemie for the good or the ill tht:)' have don e imm edia tely afte r thei r sepa ra·

1626

MIKHA'iL

tion from Ihe body, or whether their relribution i... deferred to the day of judgmenl: (7) a diMt'nalion on predC$lination, or reply to the question, d~ God reward every man in the same manner, or a little more or a little less, or according 10 Ihe quan· lily of vinues and vice~?; (8) a reply 10 Ihe question, is the durlltion uf life flICed without any possibility of cICtensiun or' contraction, or docs the dealh of men corne by chance?; (9) a treati.~e on redemption by the Cross of Christ (this In~atise IIIUst be identi' I:al wilh the one that he inlended fOI' a friend, when he was bishup of Mali;, entitled "to refute those who prelend Ihat Christ rcdeem ...-d only sinners, or thOlOC who say that he redeemed only thWie to whom the good things are llllribllled"); (10) a reply to the question, can a pan of lhe body of Christ (that is, a pan of the consecrated hOSI) be called Ihe Christ?; (II) a queslion and answer on the dura· lion of the fasl before receiving communion; and (12) a question and answer on Ihe subject of the meaning of lhe tn-e from which Adam ale. Grnf notes that this series of twelve treatises is preserved in two manuscripts (P. Sbath collection, no. 1040, A.D. 1787; YQI.Hlnnil. Bali! collection, which Sbath himself docs nut olhclwise call attention 10 nol' docs he indicate the datc). At Ihe end of the fiflh treatise he cites one of his works entitled Book ol/he Exposi/ioll oflhe Ulliotl (in Christ). This is pn-scrved in a manu!lCript belonging, like that of the pl"C(;eding texis, 10 the Yu~annl\ Ball! Colleclion (Sbalh, al-Fillris. no. 525, p. 65). There is also a Ireati5e entitled Book (In Ihe ChrisJia .. Religiol/, II is prcsel"'ed only in a single manuscript (Sooth, a{.l-"ih,is, no. 524, p. 65), belonging to a Calholic Syri;\f1 named Bakhkh5sh Salim. We do not know if this manuscript still e~iSls. The authol'lihip of tIle work entitled Book 01 Spi,illial Medidml, which had ;1 grellt vogue and was lranslated into Ethiopic in 1667 (Cemlli, 1968, ('I. 176), rem,lins problematic. It is II manual of moral and ('Iastor.:r.1 theology, a kind of penitenlial; lhe European editor of this te~l, J. CoIn (1906, pp. 70237; 1907, pp. 1-135; 1908, pp. 110-229; edition in Garshuni with a l...1tin Irnnslation) thoughl Ihat the aUlhor of lhis work could be Murqus ibn Oanbar, by reMan of the passages lhal re\'Clll the author 10 be a Mdchit\!. In facl, the manuscriptS are now of Coptie origin, now of Melchite provenance; some appear 10 be of unknown origin. U. Zanetti has thought to have rcdisco1lered the book Of/Ill'. Mas· ler aurl Ille f)i.~cip/e by Murqus ibn Oanhar, a book Ihal ha.~ ... ome re1>embl;lIlces with Ihe fonller (1983,

pp. 426-33). Despite the title. which its editor gave it, and the fact tbat it has been plagi:lri~ed by Farajallah al·Akhmlml in a Nomocallol/, we cannot, like GI1\f. give il Ihis name. for il is not a true canonical or chronological collection. nor syslem· alie, but is lilnited 10 questions of penitential disci· pline. A series of lhirty,seveo questiuns ;md responses alldbuled to a "MichaeL bishop of Mallj" may be f!"Om the ptn or Mlkhil.'il, 01' anOlher of the same name. By it.~ content, Ihis compendium resembles the preceding work, although il is nol possible to delennine the U'\le author. The language, vCIY "ulgar, suggClils assigning a later dale 10 this compila· tion. at Ihe decline of thc Iheological Iitcralure uf the Copts. The cornpilatioo of the recension of the SYNAXARION of Ihe Copl!> from 1.o"''Cr Egypt is attribuled to Michael, bishop of Atl1b and Mallj. Two things mUSI be noted. Fil'lit, Ihe SynaICalion is, in genel1\l. wril' len in two semesters, In Ihe most anci\!1lI manuscripts of Ihe firsl pan, Ihe name of Michael, bishop of Atrlb and Mallj, does not appear. Only the beginning of the second part gives his name. We may thus deduce that he worked only on this second pal"!. Sel:ond, none or lhe manuselipts can give us his redal:tion, ror all the manuscriplS Ihal have come down 10 us mention Sailll RARSOM THE NAKEO. .....ho di...-d in 1317. This dale i5 gh'en, on Ihe one hand, by the Synaxllrion ilself, at 5 al·Nasl llnd by Ihe .....ork of Ibn al-Suql\'1 (l'd. Sublet, 1974. p. 210, nO. 307). On the other hand. it speab of the relics of John of Sanhfil as If they ....'Cre $Ii1l in the church of Damanhur-Shubr1. AI·Maqrizl says elp~~ly that they were bume,l by the ordl'r of Ihe Muslim governOI' in 1354, and 1I0tel> Ihal the cult of these relics Ihen disappeal'ed. We must then locale the n~cen' sion of Ihe SynaICariun of Ihe COptll from Lower Egypl between these two dates, 1317 lwd 1354. For the reM, the Ethiopic version of this same recension doc!> indeed give Mlkln'l'II, bishop uf Atrlb and MaJij, as author of the compilation, which it dates to 1246 -1247 (...-d. Colin, 1986, fl. 326), but it indiclll...' S as coauthor JOHN, bishop of ParnlJos. We therefore cannOI know wilh any pn-cision .....hat was the work of Mlkhi!.'il. bishop of Alrib and Mali;. If it was he who compiled what was 10 b ...... come the Synaxarion of the Copt!> along with John. bi5hop of ParaUm, we cannot kno..... in what Mlkhl\'tl's "compilation" consi5led. NOlable slylistic dilrerences (\'ocllbulary. syntmt) ellist belween the twO parts, but we do nOI know whether they a.re due to the pen of Mlkhtt'll of AtTib and Malij ur 10 a

MIKHAIL, KYRIAKOS

later redactor. II would be appropriate 10 compare this Synall:llrion wilh the twelve smnll treatises, which have liOllle chanl:e of being from his pen. BIBLIOCRAI'HY

Cer'UlIL E, La leltew/"ra elio/liea. Le klll:l1lture del mondo 30. Flon:llee and Milan, 1968. Colin, G. Le Sy'lU.(aire ithiopicn. Mois de Maskarum. PO 43, pt. 3. Tumholll, 1986. Coin, Fr. J, "Der Nomokltnon MihAils von Malig." Ori,ms ClrrislianlfS 6 (1906):70-237; 7 (1907):1135; 8 (1908):110-229, Munier, H. Recueil des Usus rpiscopafes de regfise caple. CDh'O, 1943. Mllyscr, J. "Contribution tl I'etude des Iiliteli episl:(Ipales de l'el;lisc copte." Bullelin de 1,/ Suditi d'ArchI!Qlu}lie co/)/e 10 (1944):115-76. Sbath, P. BibIiOlhi!qllt: de IrJallUscri/s Pcwl S1Jalh, pr~I'e syrien, d'Alltp, 3 volli. Cairo, 1928-1934. -:-C. al·Filiris (cu/Ulogul.' de mu'wscri/s Mabes), Cairo, 1938. Zanelli, U. "Le Livre de Marc Ibn Oanbar sur lOll confession relrouvee." Orietlla/ia Christiam, Peri· adiea 49 (1983):426-33.

MIKHAIL, KYRIAKOS (1877-1957), Egyptian journalist and poIWel,". He was born ~lt al·Maraghah, nC'lr Suhaj, in Jiljt\, Hnd educated at the American College of Asy11! and the Cuptie College in Cairo (Mltdrasat al.Aqb,.,\! Ill-Kubra). His inlerest in jUlimalism was demonMnued at an early age when he combined his reponing to the Egyptiatl Cau"e and the Arabic.language ncW$p.apel's AI· Mu'ayyad and AI.Wa!all with his teaching profession. L:uer he assumed a full·time job as a correspondent and 1ll01led tu Alexandria in 1908, Here he wrote to lhe London press a vehement criticism of the High Commissiuner Sir Aldan Gonlt's Annual Rep011 of 1911, in which Gorst attacked the Coptic Congress for lIS show uf "Coptic gl'ievanccs" in that year (Mikhail, 1911, Pl'. 28-29; Killlnl, 1962, Pl'. 105-106: &~r, 1979, pp, 59-67). In 1911, Mikhail was delegated by the Coplie Congl'"t'S$ and thc Coptic Society to gu 10 London, where with the assistanl:e of Louis nnlis. II Coptic political personalily, he established an Egyplian In· formation Bureau. This was lhe beginning of a new phase in his career a.~ he published articleli suppo.,tive uf the Coptic cause in the English press, During 1911 Mikhnil wrote Copts and Muslems Under Ihe Uri/ish COlllroi. A. J. [lutler rep011ed thaI the IUne of tbe book was "admiringly calm and tempemte,

1627

and Ihe author hns been ob\'iously careful 10 avoid any expressions to which a Muslim reader may take eXl:eplion" (Mikhail, 1914, p. 13). It was about this tin,e when the Nationalist I'arty (AI-l;Ii7.b al,Wa!anl) was founded, and ils leaders were uutspoken in their hustility to the Coplle cause. These par1y leaders were exiled in Europe in 19 J 1-1912, and lhey "found anolher largel for abll.'IC in the visil of Kyriakos Mikhail, the young Coplic joumalist, to London, where he was endeavouring to seck n:drcss for certain grievances of hili people" (Alexander, 1911. p. 369), Mikhail asserted lhat Ihe COpls "have asked for justice and eqllalily wilh other Egyptinns" (Mikhail, 1911, p. 19). He accu.'lCd Prime Minister Riy:ig Pasha uf siding with the Muslim Congress in Cairo and with its (lioatie newspaper. Af.Ahllll, published in Alexandda. The pllper repudiated the Cuptic claimli voicell by the COPTIC CONGRESS OF ASVOT (Mikbllil. 1911, pp. 32-35: Ba~r, 1979, pp. 67-71). When Mikhail founded the bllreau in London, he used il to address business and political issues unlil the outbreak of World War I. He was able to 1:001' bat the views uf a certain member of Parlia.menl named Robenson, who in a series of articles in the Time.' defend..od Commissioner GOnlt's colonial po!i. cy in Egypt. In 1912 he decided to start his uwn newlipaper in Egypt, but his request was rejected by the Egyptian go~emmenl. Conliequently, he published Freedom 01 tlJe Pr...,.~ iu clO'PI (1914), in which he lIt1acked "estrlctive laW$ on the press ;IS well as discrimination against Coptic organs. Shortly before Egypl was dcdarcd an English prolectorate in 1914, Mikhail protested this expected action in an article in the Westminster CaUlle. During World War I, he was not allowed to leave Britain and so nlllde a living by wriling and Icelllring on Egyptian politics. sudety, and history at Bil~ mingham and Oxford universities, as well as at the Egyptian Christian Club in London. During that pel" iod, Egyptians in Britain were threatened with Ilrrest as Ouoman subjel:ts, bUI a debote in Ihe Hou.'lC of Lords led by Lord Cromer l:onlcsted any such aClion, thus enabllog Mikhail to retain his freedom. With the end of World War I, the English merchant marine replaced Efyptian workers with Englishmen back from war. The dismissed Egyptians faced litany difficulties, bUI through Mikhail's effons, Parliament l:onvinced lhe govcmment to extend finan, cial aid to them until they left for Egypt six months later, Mikhail also led thc Egyptian workers out of Cardiff during lhc riots against Ilon-Englilih colored

1628

MIKHA'IL 'ABD·Al·SAYVro

workers in 1918. To make both end'l meet, he wrole anicles and opened the Redline 6ookslorr, which proved to be a principal supplier of literature on the Midllle Ea'lt, This was a successful financial ventUl'C, but was dosed in November 1919 at the til11e of his Jeportation from 13r1tain. With the emergence of $a'd Zaghlul, a leader in Ihe modem history of EJypt, and his exile to Malta on 8 March 1919, MikJlail wrote approximately a hundred ankles in the English pn..'S:5 and submitted numerous memornnda 10 British members of Par· Iiament in defense of the nationalistic Waft! IXll'ty and its e...iled leader. Afler Zaghlul'5 release /Tom exile and the depar1urr of the Wafd to Paris, Mikhail assumed the role of informing the English public of Egyptian affairs. His involvement in Anglo·Egypli,\tl relations inlensified with the issu· anee in November 1919 of his Egyp/ian News/eller, which was intended for members of Parliament. This was cen50rcd by the authorities, who also accused him of meddling wilh Ihe opposition Uibour Par1y and leading an Egyptian student demonstration in London. His position WtlS discu.~sed in Parliament, And he was accused of working against 13ritish intcrests.. His residence, olfice, and book· slore wcre searched by the police.. On 9 December 1919 he was arrCllted and incarcerated, pending his final depor1ation from Britain. On his arrival in Egypt in [:lIe Decem~r 191\l. Ihough he had been instructed by the authorilil$ to refrain !Tom discussing polilics, he was reeeivcd by Ihe public as a national hero in Alellandria lind Cairo. In January 1920 Mikhail was e1ecled a member of the eelllrlli committee of the Ward Party. With the normali:wtion of relations with Britain and Egypt's declaration of indcpendence in 1922 Mikhail I'C'turned 10 London, where his ~idence be=me a focal point for the WlIrd politicians and many governmcntil! missions visiling England. He also helped incoming students obtain higher education in thAt counlry. In 1950 he WitS I'ecruited for participation in the ward negotiations with Elhiopia concerning Ihe regulation of the Nile waters. on accounl of his pen;onat friendship wilh Emperor H...tLE S£IASStt'., whieh had grown during the imperial exile to Lon· don in 1936. Ariel' Mikhail died in London, his body was taken back to Egypt and buried in his native village. BIOI,IOGRAPIlY

Alexander. J. R. The 1'rwh About Egypl. London, 1911.

Mikhail, K. Copt$ and Mos/enu Under British Ccm' tro/: A Coflulion ()f "-acts (1.Ild 0 Re~I."'e of A,,· /hQrit(Jli~'e Opi,rions un the Coptic Olle~li()". Lon· dotl, 1911. _-'-' Freedom of the Prus i,t Egypt. London, 1914. Mul)ammad Sayyid KT11ni. A/-Adub af·Qibti. Cairo, 1962. RAGAI N. MII......R

MIKHA'IL 'ABD.AL-SAYVID, noted nineteenth·century teacher of English in the Coptic Col· lege founded by CYRil. tv. He is one of three Copt!i who under concealed identity were admilled to al. Azhal', the oldt:st Islamic university in CllilV. There he studied Al1lblc language lind literature. M(lI'e significant in his career was his founding in 1877 of the Copt.ie daily newspaper ol.. Wa!an. This was a forom in which the Copts expres.s.cd their views, not only on Coplie mailers but also on na' tional problems of <;onstltutional impor1ance. One of the burning discussions of the day wa~ the parlia, mentary repn:scntalion of lhe Copts as a special group. Though the subject was oot accepl(.-d for inclusion in the conslitution, the role of o/.WO!O'l in the discussion wa'l remarltable. AI. Wa!on ccased publication as a Coptic organ In 1930. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Tawflq Iskaro.s. Nowdbigh o/.Aqbil! fI ol·Qom 0/· Tiut·'As},ar. Cairo, 1910. Ram~T Tadros. af-Aqbll! Ii of·Qam aPlshr;'I. 5 Vols. Cairo, 1911-1919. MOUNlk

SHOUCRI

MIKHA'IL A.....BAJ:lRAwl (or al·Nal.m'lwI, sin<;e the manuscript has no di:lcritical point), known only as the owner of the oldest and 'inest manuseripl of lhe Summa T/ICO/ogicll (known as Moj.mi' U~1l/ of-DIll; Voticon UbreJry. Arabic 10J); ....Tincn by Mu'taman al . Oaw[ah ibn al·'Assl'\1 (chaps. 1-21 only), copied in Egypt during the author's lifetime. An unpublished autogrllph note on folio 208v, dated A.M, I 198/....11. 1482, indicales this. BIBLIOGRAPIlY

Samir, K. "Date de composition de la $amme ThealogiQue d'ibn al-'AssAl." OricPl/olia ChriSliona Periudh:a 50 (1984);94-106. KH...lIl SAMIIC, SJ.

MIKHA'IL JIRJlS, MU'All.IM

MIKHA'IL IBN BUrRUS, prolop,~allis or lhe Greek Or'lhodox patriareh.lte of Alexandri:t in 1790. This ]>O$ilion liS "firsl singer" COITL'Sponds to the "pretenlor," who directs the tWO choirs doring the liturgical servicC5 (d. Clugnct, 1895, p. 132). This Wll$ Ihe position he occupied when he cop· iL-d a manUStripl containing lhe p!laher lind the biblical hymns. probably for the USc of the pa1riar· chal chun;h of Alexandria (Sinai Arabic 42). The colophon (fol. l72b) tells us or his position find the date on which he cOInplctcdlhe copying, 4 September 1790. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aliya, A. 5., and J. N. Youssef. Cara/ague rai.fOnnt! of rhe MOWH Sinui MallllScripls, p. 96. Alexllndri
1980. Clugnet, L Vit'/io/malrc f.r~c·/ra/l(;ais des tloms lit· IIrgiques tm lI.sage duns I'egli.se grecflIle. Paris, 1895. KllAI.lL SAMrR. SJ.

MIKHA'IL IBN GHAZI, Mdt;hilt; priest known only from tht; manu$Cripr he copied in C:tiro and completed 00 12 Februal)' 7204 of Adam/A.I). 1696 under Ihe Mclchile pall'iarch of Ale",andrin, Ger.I.'.i· mus II Pal1adas (1688-1710). The manuscripl he copied is now the Sinai Arabic 59. which contaim. the Psalter including Psalm lSI, the biblical odes, and rhe Kalhi.mlQlu. HIHlIOGRAI'HY

Aliya, A. 5., and J. N. Youssef. Ca/ul(lgu~ raisotme 01 Ih~ AfOUtl1 Sinai Malluscripls, pp, 117-18. Alex· andria, 1980. Nasrallah, J. His/oirt- dll mQUv~m~tll liuer(lire dall.s Nglise me1chite, Vol. 4, pl. 1, pp. 174-75, Louv· (lin and Paris, 1979. KHurL SAM1R, S.J.

MIKHA'IL IBN

YA'Q(JB

'UBAYD AL-

All~RI, copier of the manuscript Sinai Arabic 223, a liturgical COllcClioo of 142 pagL'S, including the office of communion, evening and moming pl'llyers, and the eudmristic Iilur'llil,:s attribured lu JOHN CHRYSO$I'OM. SASII. TIlE GREAT. and Gregol)' the Theologian. He cOlllplcted il on 21 Noveml)CI' 1774. This Melehite from Cairo is quite different from the lwo MIkh.nl ·Ubayd mentioned by G. Graf in Geschichte d~r chrisllicJlI!II arabischetl Ii/era/llf (Vol.

1629

3, p. 351: and Vol. 3, p. 474), who were oolh Mar· onites, the tirst of whom lived in the mid· seventeenth celllul)'.

OIDLIOGRAPUY Atiya. A. 5., and J. N. You.sscf. Cataloglle rui.sOlllle of tlte MQu/1/ Sinai Manuu·ripl.s. Ale~andria, 1980, KHALIL SAM1R, S.J.

MIKHA.'IL JlRJIS, MU'ALLIM (1873-1957), master chanter of the Cathedral of Saint Mark in Cairo and described a.~ the figure in whom the Cop· lie church's vocal music was preserved and frOln whom its immortal chants were lmnsmitled through his pupils. He was n blind man whose intense sensitivity for Coptit; chanting and church hymnology impn:ssed upon his inborn mU5icai genius the fullest record or traditional Coptic musicology as he had heard it ITom the older priestly maslers of lhal al1. This evolved especially from the ancien! monasteri~ where unbroken conservative lradilions handed the singing or liturgical texIs from general ion to generalion. From his cady yourh he showed an oUL~tanding aptitude to learn Ihe wnes in which only two chant· ers specialized before him: Mu'allim Ann1niyfu and Mu'alllm ~Iib. Hence he is considered as Ihe chan· nel through which church tunes in their pure JilUilI form weTc transllliucd intact frolll ancient and medieval times 10 the modern em. He was brought up in his early childhoud like the majorily of Coplic children, joining lhe Coptic kilt· Ulb. or lowest elementary school, of Abu al-Sa·d, in the Azbakiyyah quartel"$. Then: he remained ror two years. from 1879 to 1881 during which time he studied the Psalm.~ and hymns as well as Ihe Coplic and Arable languagL>s. Later he joined the Coptic Clerical College, which was lhcn under lhc admin· islmlion of Yusuf ManqariyilS. He graduated in 1893 and was appoinled tCllcher of church music Ihere. In 1895 he was asked to teach church ritual. religion, Coptic, and Arabic in the school for Ihe blind. SCI up at Zcltoun. a subul'b of Cairo. He used the Braille method in lellching Ambic, and designed the Coptic (liphabet aftel' rhe same method for teaching Coptic. He was chosen by CYRIL V as church singer of the talhedral and as teacher of church music at Ihe Clerical College. When the Higher Institute for Cop. tic Studies was founded in 1954, he collaborated

1630

MIKHh'IL AL-MI~Rj

with Rdghib Mufedl.l, hend of the department of Coptic mU$i<: :It the InstitulC. I-lis most imponnni ll<:hie\'cmenl was the tr.msla-

lion of the Coptic service inlo Ambie, in collabora-

Nasrallah, J. /listeire rill mQllveme,u lilteraire dmu N:g/ise melch!te V' all XX' siede. Vol. 3. pt. 2, p. 56. n. 97. P(lrhl and Louvain, 1981.

,i"

KHAUL SAMtR. S.J.

tion with the q"lIIm,,~ PIlII.OTIlAWOS IBRAHIM, who was n priC$1 at the cathedral under CYRIL V.

His legacy cominued with his pupils, some of them blind like himRlf, who attcndl..-d his classes of religious canlQI'1l. ~lis task extcnded from Coptic vocal music to Coptic clocUlion where he had 10 n:ctify the pronunciation of a language long dead and Inrgely fOr&ollen.

MtKHA'IL AL.MI~RI, a monk at the M<XJ!'Io'T SINAI MOHASTUY OF SAINT CATI1EltlNE III the end of the

Ihir1l,.-cnlh century. He is known from a note he left 301 the end of an Ambic Pcnl:ucuch (Sinai Arabic 4, copied by Jibrll ibn MuS! a]·""'tib in A.H. 353/A.D.

963). Thi.~ note (on fol. 281b) reads. ''l11e scIV,onl of lhe SCIV.tnts of lhe Word of God. Mikh:i'il al·Mi~ri. read from this holy Pentateuch in the holy monash:ry of Tlir Sin.... this being in the yea" 701 of the J-lijrah. May the Lord God gr.ml pardon to him who pl'"dy:> for him." This date correspond~ to the yeal" 1301-1302. This Mclchitc monk c,:ame from Cairo (Miljl") as his elhnic sumtame indic.ates. This monk may well be the same one who ....~d.S present al the armistice between the king of Egypt. Man~t'll" Oah'iwt'ln, :lOd Ihe Republic of Cenoa on 14 May 1290. This armisti<:e stulc::d thaI the Geno.'lll signalol'ies SWOI't;! on Ihe Gospel in the presence of Peter, the Melchite bishop of Miljr, of Arsenius the abbol of the Melchite monastery of a1·0u~yr neal' Cairo, of the deacon Mattil., and of MlkM'II, monk of Sinlli. The trellty WIlS made at Cairo. A copy of this document is found in an anonymous work re' eounling Ihe lire of Man~t'lr Oaldwt'ln (Brockel· mann, 1949, VoL 1, p. 551). Mlkha'il al.MiljrI shoukl nOI be confused with Mlkhd'll ibn Ya'qt'lb ihn 'Ubayd al-Mi~rl, who in 1774 e::opie::c:! the IwO lilurgles of JOHN CltRVSOSTOM and BA..~Il. Tltl'. GREAT contained in Sinai Ambie 223 (Allya and Youssef, 1980. p. 414). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aliya, A. S.• and J. N. Youssef. ClJta/ogue rai.~DllIIe 01 /he Meull/ Silla; Manlfscripls, pp. 28-29 and 414. Alcllandri(l, 1980. Brockelmann. C. Gnchichte de:r arabischen Uleralur. 2nd ed.• Vol. I. Leiden, 1949.

MIK.HA'IL SHARU81M (1861-1918). Coptic hiSlorian. At the age of seven he enrolled in the Coptic school of l;I~rit al'Saqqiyln. where he became proficient in Arabic, English. French. and the dements of Coptic, In his early youth. he began to write inlerestina stories in Arabic. and at the age of fourteen he was employed as a reda<:tor in foreign languages in the ministry of finance. He was later lllOVed to the post of private secrelary 10 Ismlil1 Pasha :?iddlq until the death of his employer in 1876. Afterward he was transfem:d 10 the customs department in Alcllant.lria, wheT(! he T(!n13ined until 1880. lhe date of his n:lum to Cairo. For two more years. he was recalled for service under English and FT(!nch heads of departments owing to his Ian· guage skills. Then he was sclecled by MuJ.lammad Sul!li.n Pasha to establish a new department to deal with all mailers connectcd with the British occupalion army. After lhe suppression of that depanment. he returned 10 the ministry of finance as a tram,l,.· tor. In 1884 he moved to a judicial capacity for the region of the e3.'It Delta comprising the:: provinces of D-.qahliyyah and Sharqiyyah as well as the gover· nOl'ates of Damieua, Port·Said, :md al·'Arish. Ik'<:ause of his steady progress in the lIdmillisml' tion. the khedive conferred the lit Ie of bey on him, and he was also de::corated by Ihe Greek monarch. the shah of Persia. Ilnd the king of Spain. In 1888. be decided to retire from service, owing 10 dilferences bel ween him and the minister Riya4 Pasha. Then he devoted his life and energy 10 agri· culluml pursuits and to the writing of his monu· mental history of Egypl entitled a/.Kc;11, with which hI) became identified. In 1894, he was solicited by the minister of fimlOee, Ahmad Ma~loum (Plishn), lind his English under.secretary 10 return to government scrvice ali director general of the important survey depart· ment. He remained in service until 1903 shuttling from one deJm,rtmcnt to anolher. During that peri· od, he was decomted by lhe Olloman sulmn and by the Elhioplan emperor. At this point, he was eager to resume his hislorictll wliting of a/·Kllll that he had begun five years before, He thull prevailt:d upon his superiors to IICCepl his ~ignation from public office and devoted his remaining years to

MINA I

caring for his propel·ty in the provine..':> of Giza and Bani Suef and to the completion of his history. He was able to publish four volumes. The 6l'5t comprised ancient history to the end of Roman dominatkln and the advent of the Arab conquest. The sec()nd deals with the medieval period ami rule of the Islamic uynastics until the emergence of the Turks and Selim lI's Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517. The founh treats the modem history of Egypt with the French f.1tpeditiOIl leading to the establish· ment of the MUt:tAMMAD 'ALI DYNASTY. which he fol· lowed down to the reign of lhe khedive Tawfiq Pasha. He spent the remaining years of his life in preparation of malerials for lhe fifth volume, which unfortunately was left unpubli~hed. His library was donated to the Coptic Museum, and his notes for lhe fifth volume arc in the process of being pub· IIshed. AZIZ S.

MILLET, corruption of the

ATIYA

Ar~bic term miJJtJh (re·

Iigion or rite). The word ha.... come 10 signify the people or community of a non·Muslim prolCi;:ted religion-that is, lhe Jews and the Christians. aJil al-lt.itlJb or aM al-dhimmah (people of the book [the Bible), :lnd people entrusted to Islam). Ai'JZ S. ATtYA

MINt\.

I, or Menas I. fony-seventh patriarch of the See of $:lint Mark (767-774). Mina was a monk of Dayr Anrnl Maqar, when he became associated with anu acu..-d as a disciple of hi~ predecessor, KHA'!L t. who was a monk in the same monastery. The bish· (Ips llnd the clergy of AlclI:lndria, together with the Coptic archons, do not seem to have had any trouble in coming to full unanimity about the election of the monk Mlnl1 as the worthy successor of Kha'il, lind they faced no difficulty in securing rhe govcrnor'~ approval, whidl was followed by Mina's peaceful consecration. The Stale of lhe Copts Juring his reign was totally dilfcrcnt from what it had been under his prcdeceswrs. Peace and pl'Ospcrity seemed to return to Egypt, and the community of the faithful suffered no extl'llordinary financial imposts. Nevenheless, that peaceful nUllosplterc was dis· tutbed by a stmngc intcrnal incident, so dilferent from the former persecutions that the community had suffered from the ruling claM. A monk named Bu!1'US, of Ihe same monastery as Mlna, was an

1631

ambitious but vicious IX'rson. He asked the palriarch to make him a bishop, but his requcst was refused bCi;:ausc he was considered unfit for that c:ccl..-siasliclli office. So he withdrew from his mono astery and went to Antioch, where he submined false patriarchal letters of introc.luetion to the Anti· ochene patriarch, George. who welcomed him as a representative of his colleague and brother, the pa. triarch of Alexandria. He further wrote 10 the bishops of his diocese to treat the visitor kindly and offer him all the help he might need. Consequently, Bu!'"Us was able to collect great amounts of money, which enabled him to reach the capital and meet Ihe caliph, to whom he reported that the patriarch of Alexandria wa.~ a magician and able to transform with chemical t"Uscs much metal into gold, to be used in filling his churches wilh gold saemmenttll cups. The Abbasid ctlliph, Abu In'l'ar al.Man~Or (754-775), was hard-pressed for funds and listened to the Impostor, who prevailed upon him to issue a decree making Bu!l'US patriarch in$tead of Mina, on the condition thai he would cede the accumulated gold of Ihe church to the caliph. Armed with that de<:ree, he rtturnt.-d to Egypt and requested hs governor, 'Abd al-RlI~man ibn l;Iudayj (769-772), to carry out the caliphal order. Consequently, Ibn l:Iudayj summoned Anba Mimi and confronted him with the royal dCi;:ree, which he meekly accepted. But the congregated bishops were furious and reo fused to accept the impostor, who had openly abused Anba Mina.. Two of the bishops, Mini of ~abii and Anba Moeses, bishop of Awsim, pounced on Bu!1'US, seized his cap, and threw it down. They reported to the governor that their churehes had only glass and wooden utensils for sacramental use, and that they poss..'SSCd no gold or silver utensils, since they had already been plundered by former govcmol'5 in times of persecution. Apparently the mailer ended when Bulros threat· ened the govemor lhat he would t:lke his complaint to the higher authority of the caliph's administrtltion in tile cupit,,!. because of the governor's rather lenient lreatmen! of the patriarchal party. This in· furiated the governor, who arresled BU!I'Us and placed him In prison for three years, during which time the $ituation was again nonnali7.ed and Mlnlt could exercise his patriarchal authority in peace. Evidently, Bu!l'US was freed and returned to his native village, where he was rejected and disowned by his own family for his treaehcry. Mlna seems 10 have spent Ihe remaining period of his reign in peacc and harmony with the blamic administration of tbe country, and the Copts in gen·

1632

MINA 11

era! dId not

~utfer

fl"Om the pel'5ecutions and finan·

cial impusl5 Ihut h;IU lx.-cn customary under the

rule of forlller governors. '·Ie died peacefully in 774, after the completion of seven yeaTS on the ,hl'(lne of Saint Mark. BI.8UOGRAPHY

IlanOlaux. G., ed. lliSlOjre de fu IIalioll e.gypl;C""l!-. 7

vols. Paris, 1931-1940. Lane-Poole. S. A His/ory of Egypt ill /he Middle Ages. London, 1901. The Mollalnmadan [)yna.u;('s. Paris, 1925. SUUIII Y. LA81D

",dNA

n, Sixty-lirst patriarch of the See of Saint

M.. rk (956-974). Mimi ~ndal11.

w:lS

a native of the village of

lie became a 1I10nk in the monastery of

Saint Macarius (DAYR ANBA MAQAR). He was a docile

youth and his parcnt$ married him to a relative against his will. So when he joined his wife in seclusion, he preadlcd to her the virtues of chastity llnd a godly life, which she accepted. After lhey had lived logether fur Ihree days, wilhuut physical eonlact, ~he allowed him 10 silemly withdraw 10 WAdi HabIb. There he bel:ame the disciple of a sainLly old monk, 10 whom he l"evealed his silualion and his l:hastily in the seclusion of his cell. Consequemly, his spiritual falher accepted him for monaslil: life and inslructed him in all religious lradilions. Mint'! was Ihus concealed for three yean;, (luring whil:h h(' proved his SlInctily. When Ihl: sixtielh p.'\lriarch, THEOPHANES. died, the bishops and del'MY of Alexandria became aWlm:: of the old and saimly monk of Saint Macarius, whom they asked to succeed the deceased pope. But he declined on account of his advanced yeaI'll and di· rected them to II younger person, his diseiple Mina, whom they readily accepted and carried againllt hill wlI1 In iron rellers to Alexandria for' cOllseel1ltioll. While touring the diocese with his bishops, he went to his vi1luge of $llrld'll:l, where a native divulged tu the bishops thM Min:'! was a married man. Mimi confessed the rnunillgc (lnd told them tu ellll un his wife for their lIecret. The revelation of their nomi· md marital relatiun and their purity appeased the bishops, :md Mln.:l began one of the most important patriarchal reigns, during which momentous eventli in Ihe hi~lory of Egypt took place. Nominally, £gypl was slill a province of the mori· bund Abba.~id caliphate in Baghdad. AI·MuW (946974) was thc Abbasid caliph, bUI Egypt, which had

almOSI s..~urcd independence under the TuJunid dyna.~ty, pas.~ed to the kingdom or lhe rkhshids. The governor of the CUUnllj' was Abu al.()!isim Onjfir ibn Mul.1DmmDd al-Ikhshld ibn Tughj (946-960). But neither Abu al·Qhim nor his brother and liucces· sor, Abu al·tlasan 'Ali ibn al·lkhshld (960-966), was in real command of the govemmenl of Egypt, for Iheir falher, al·lkhshld ibn Tugbj, had placed Ihem under the tutelage of an Abys.~inian slave and eunuch by the name of Abu ul·Misk Karur, whom hc had bought for len dinan;. Observing the unusual lalenls of Kafur, he appoint(.'l! him regenl over his two young sons, who cared only for the life of luxulj' and their stipend of 400,000 dinars a year. aware of what was happening Neither of them _ in the church or Ihe patriarchate. They were equal· Iy unaware that their regent had employed a Copt by the name of AbU al· Yumn Qu:r.man ibn Mjna as his vi1.ier. In Ihese cin::umstanees, the Copts, their ehun::h, and the patriarchate had a breathing space and a period of relative peace and sc.:cUrily, provid· ing Ihey rendered the (("ARAJ tWl. The last or Ihe Ikhshids, Abu al-Fawtloris Ai)mad ibn 'All (968-969), had a shon reign, during which the Shi'ite caliphate of al·Mu'izz in the WC$t W'oLS biding its time for a fateful auack on Ihe Sunni Abbasid regime in the cast. In 969 al-Mu'izz dispatched his able genernl, Jawhar al·Siqilli (the Sicilian), apparently an Isla· mized Christian from the island of Sicily, with an army for Ihe invasion of Egypt. Arler Clllabilshing permanent pc.:aee in tile pruv· inces of nonhwf:l;tem Africa, al·Mu'iu. had his eyes on Egypt. Along the litlur,il of the Meditcrrnncan toward Alexandria, 11e began to pr'epare the road for the imminent invasion by digging wclls and by constnJCling rest houses for his army. In ~'ebFUary 969, headed by Jawh"r, his troops began to move from Qayrt\wl'in towllrd the Eayptilln capital. The situation in Egypt was fuJi of confusion and diseon· tent. A man from the inner Sunni circles and a descendant uf thc Prophct himself, Abu Ja'far Mus· lim, hastcncd to meet Jllwhur oUlside Alexllndrill and offer capitulation of the city for a promise of amnesly for all the population, both Muslims and Copts alikc. With little 01' no rc~i~tance, his armies reaehed Gi"al in July of Ihe same ycar. In little time, with a white tlng, Jawhar's hel'lllds were marching lllunll: the streets of al,Fus!:l\ (Cairo), announeinll: tOial amnesty for all who surrendered withoUl re· sislanee (lane-Poole, 1901, p. 102). The depressed Copts had nothing 10 lose by the ehallge of masters. On the contrnlj', their proSpI.'ClS looked better with the advent of a mOI"e lenieO! regime.

MINUF AL·'ULYAH

However, according 10 the Hl~TORY OF TllE PATRIARCHS, IhlTe wa.~ re~i~tance in TinnTs from a band of a thousand Muslim youths, who Sl.-ocm to have closed the g:ttc~ of their city and fought lhc enemy resolotely. The Coplic miljOrity of the population, pressl'
1633

poned from Palestine. In the cnd, however, lhe situation was amclio....i led. and people began 10 prospe.· unde.· Falimid '1.111.' in lhe Illller ye:.1'S of Mimi, .....ho dicd wilh peace and prosperity around him. IIIHl.lOGMAPHY

Amelineau, E. I.Q G~oJ:rQphie tI, I'EKYPle is "ePfH/II~ COpt,. Paris, 1893. Lane-Poole, S. His/ory of Eg;'pl in the Middle Ages. London, 1901. ::--,-_ The Molla/tl/lladal/ D)·IIQSlies. Paris, 1925. PariliC, F., cd. The Book of CQleudQrs. New York. 1982. StiBHI Y. LABIS

/\tINA, SAINT. See Menali the Miracle Maker. Saint.

MINA

TOGO. See Togo Mina.

MINSHAH, AL·. S,e Pilgrimagcs; Pshoi. MINOF AL·SUFLA, See Mahahhal Minuf. MINOF AL·'ULYAH, old Arabic name of a city in the Western I)elta now known simply tiS Minuf. Located in the province of Minufiyyah, the city lies about 15 mites (24 km) west of Banhii. MinCif al· 'Ulyah WIIS known in Greek a., "Ollll{}q,l.<; (Onothphis) and in Coptic US ),1~(1 01' OtlOy-IEI. Minaf a!·'Ulyah wa.~ 0. bl~hopl'ic by the middle of the fourth century as evidenced by the altendance of Bishop Adclphios of Onouphis at n synod in Ale~· andtill in 362 (Munier. 1943. p, 8). Though we can· not be cel1ain becau~e there are some pet'lods for which we have nu reeurds, it appeurs that the city hali had a hi~hop fOI' 1110St of the time since lhal century. The scat of the present bishop of Mimif al-'Ulyah i~ ShibTn 1I1·Kolll. localcd abolll 8 miles (aoout 13 km) nOl1hea5t of the city. Saint Abraham (see AllltAlIAM 01' MINUF) was from Minor al-'Ulyah as was the manyr Simeon (see SAt~'1'S. conIC). who was put 10 dealh in the Arabic period. There Is slill a Coptic church in MinGf, the con· suuction date of which is unknown.

1634

MINYA

BIDLIOCRAPIIY

Munier, H. Reel/til des lisles ~piscopQfes de f'cgfise cop/e. Cairo, 1943. Timm, S. DQS cJrris//ich.kopliscJr(' Agypltn il/ orobischer Zeit, pt. 4, pp. 1575-85. Wiesbadcn. 1988. RANDAll. STEWART

l'ttlNvA,

cily located on the west bank of the Nile in Middle Egypt ;Ind the capital of the province of Miny3. The city Wall known in Coptic as THCDHH (Tmone). Bdore the late nineleenth century. Minyil wa~ known In Arabic as BanT Kh~lb after al·Kha~lb ibn 'Abd al.l;lamTd, the linandal administralor of Hanln al·Ra..~hTd. The city v..as a bishopric by the C'arly fOOrtl'1:nth century, as evidenced by the at· tendance of a Bishop YilsAb of Min~ at the prepa· T:ltion of the holy CHRISM in 1330 {Munier, 1943, p.

"'l· BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mnspero. J .. lind G. Wiet. Malirial/x pour servir Q 10 geographie de f'Egyple. Cairo. 1919. Munier, H. Reel/eil des /isles ipiscopales d... /'ig/ise COplt'-. Cairo, 1943. RANflAU. STEWART

of the surrounding peasants. Finally, thanks 10 his inherilfmce, which Bishop Athllnllsius (probably of al·Bahnas.1) administered for him after lhe death of his pal'Cnts, he caused a ChUI'Ch to be built (remaps at al-Oalamun). which Bishop Athanasius and othen conSCCnlted, and which was known by MiljlIinUi jl"Unes gens chez it'S Coptes:' Les CllhieTS copIes 6 {1954):1731. Till, W. Daliurme lwd Prosopographie der kopti.schell Urlt.lmdell GI/S Thebell. Oslerreichische Aka· demie der Wissenschaften, PhilosophischHistoriscttc KI:u.sc. Sitl:·bcrichte 240, pt. I. Vien· na, 1962. RF.Nt!;.(JF-ORCES COQUIN

MISBAJ:I AL·:?:VLMAH WA.IDAJ:I ALKHIDMAH (The Luminal)' of Church Services).

MINVA AL.QAMH, See Pilgrimages. MI~A'IL, SAINT, ascetic. The principal SOUI'Ce for his life is the notice for 13 Kiyahk in the SYNAX· MIiON of th,;! (optS from Lower Egypt; lhe Synaxad· on from Upper Egypt docs not refcr to him. The flaUl,;! Mi\ll1'll is evidently a bor'r'owing from the Bible, li'equent in the By7~'mtine period, when the cull of the TllIum llllUlillWS IN TilE FUkNACE was very popular. Nothing is said of the childhood of this saint. We le:'Tn only tlwt his bir1h was miracu· lous and that at the age of twelve he entered the mom,stcry of al·Qakmnin, very probably the one in the Anuth of the Fayyilrn. We leam the lites custom· ary for the receplion of a candidate. His parents having uie(1 when he was still slllall, the bishop the "lace (who i.s not named) took care of his edu· l:lltiun. The superior of the monastery was l:alleu AnM. Is~.1q, but there Is nothing 10 identify him with iSllae, author of the life of Samuel, the famous founder of the monastery of al.Qalamun. MI~'il proll'1:h..-d the monastery in a time of famine, which he had "redicted 10 the abbot. llg3inst the a......auIL..

or

theological encyclopedia that Is the principal writ· ten work of Abu al·BarakAt tUN K....lIAl(. Its aim was 10 tronsmit 10 future geneT:ltions the knowledge of the doctrine proclaimed by the first apostles and theil' successors, 10 pass on the proclices of public worship, anu 10 protect church doctrine from deviations and distortions. It does this by treating the whole range of ecclesi(lstie(ll (Inu theological sub· jects in essays and In reviews and summaries of the contents of other wurks. The listing of the sources reviewed and SUIlUnarl7.ed makes this work espedally valuable for the history of Christian Iiter..lture wrillcn in Arabic. According tn G. Graf (1947), the dogma of the oneness and thrccncss of God and the incarnation of the Logos is given lil'St, wilh Ihe deviating doc· trine of the Melchites and Nestorians outlined and a list of seventeen oldel' hel'Csies also given. Then Ihere Is blogT:lphical infonnalion on the lirst apos· tIes and the scv,;!nty disciples. along wllh a list of the Alexandrian patriarchs. A list with a description of the contents of the compendiums of ecclesiasti· cal law follows. An introduction to lhe &riptures.

MISSIONARIES IN INDIA, COPTIC

with II. pn.'SCntlltion of lhe biblical canon and pedagogical nOies on the individual books, is ncxt. Chapter 7 has a valuable catalog of CllI;stian writers and works in Arabic, giving the sourct:s of church tradition. The remainder treats rites and ritual, church architecture and fumi5hings, consecration5, cloister life, bapli5m, weddings, burial, prayer, holy days. and the ecclesiastical calendar, It i& most easily accessiblc in ViIICCOUl1'S French translation (1928), VINCENT F'REDEIIlCK

M1SR. See Prcss, Coptic, MISSIONARIES IN INDIA, COPTIC, The story of the 6rst Christian missil;maries in the south· em part of the Indian subcontinent i5 35S0Ciah:d with the apostle Thomas. According to the apocry· phal Acts 01 Thumfls (Judas·Thomas in the Syriac version), written by Barde53ncs, a famous author in Edessa, Syria, in the late second or early third een· tury, Gondophemes, king or Malabar on the south coast or India, sent messengers to Jen.l53lem to search for an architect to build a palac::e for him, Thoma., agreed to undertake this task and wen! to India. He had in mind a c::elestial, nm an earthly, palace, and when he stllrtOO spending the king's money on the poor, Gondophemes seized him and put him in prison, At that time the king's brother Gad died, but III his blllial he came to life and recounted the miraculou5 visions he had witnessed in heaven, Conscquently, the king released Thoma.~ and witli his brother allowed Thomas to bapti:.ce him. The apostle thcn committed the nasccnt church to a deacon named Zcnophus or Xanhippus and proceedcd to prc:,ch Christianity in other areas of IndIa, ~Ie was manyred, and his body was taken back to Edessa by a feHow Chrislian. When It son of Gondophernes became seriously ill, the king ~ought the relics of the deeeused saini 10 heal his ailinlj: child. Though Thomas' body w3.~ gone, the miracle of hClIling the prince was per· formed in absentill by the sainI. Consequently, the royal family adopted the new religion: thus Christianity became established in the Malabar kingdom. Though the Story is :l.pocl)'phal, the historicity of the introduclion of Christianity in India is not without foundation. 'nle trade route5 between Syria and w~tem India had long existed via the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, :l.nd there was an active trade in pepper between the tv.'O countries. A colony or

1635

Jews, Greeks, and Syrians is known to have existed at Mu:.ciris·Cranganore on the Malabar Coa.~t, and we must a.uume that Thomas joined that group. The descriptions of the coun of Gondophemes in the Acts 01 Thomas fit a maharajah's houschold rather than a Panhian royal houschold, and the general climatic conditions are identical with tho.~e of the area under eonsidef'lliion, The numismatic evidence also confirms Ihe existence of King Gondophernes around the middle of the first century, Even if we choose to overlook the legendary and apocryphal nature of the Acts, certain other data offer testimony to the ancient and apostolic dUll'aC' tel' of Malabar Christianity and its relationship with the Coptic church and its Syrian sIster chun:h. First, P'ANTAE.NUS, the first head of the CAlB:HETICAL SCHOOL Of AlliXANDRIA (on the authority of the histo· rian F.t.tSEBIUS OF CAl!SAllEA), "was appointed as a herald for the Gospel of Christ to the heathen in the East, and was sent as mr as India." Consequently Pantaenus mw;t have rcacht.-d the Indian subcOntinent before the end of the second century and have round that other prcaehen or the new religion had preceded him and had left the Indians "the writing of Matthew in Hebrew leiters, which was preserved until the time mentioned." Second, the earliest reference to Indian Christianity appeared in official records of the First Council of NtCEA in 325 when "Bishop John the PeBian of the whole of Persia and India" appean.-d at that ecumenical assembly with a delegation of East Syri, an bishops from Edessa and Nisibis, It is quite possible that that dcleglllion included Tlieophilu$ the Indian. Third, the most authoritative statements accepted by historians about Malabar Christianity occur in the records of COSMAS INDICOPLI!USTliS, a famous cal" ly medicval travelCl' fl'Onl the MOUNT SINAI MONASTERY OF SAINT CATHERtNE. His scafarinll adventures between 520 and 525 were recorded in hIs Christian Topography, He states thut he found a Christian church established in interior India, with Indian clergy and a considerable congregation of bdiev· ers. AI its head was II bishop of "Kalliana," which must be identified as Ouilon tn Travaneon:, In the thirteenth century, Marco Polo confirmed the exis' tence of that church when he visited the south Indian 5ubcontinent on his way to China, At Ihat tinle a new missionary enterprise from Roman Catholicism was launched by Pope Innocent III, whose emi55lll'Y to the Far East, John of Monte Corvino, spent 11 year (1291) in Malabar, lie was followed by a Doillinican friar named Jor·

1636

MlSSORlA

danus. who rdl,h~d India in 1319 and 1328 and was ordained Roman bishop of Quilon by Ihe Avig' nonesc pope John XXII. Gradually, Malabar Christi· anity was drawn within the pale of Roman Catholicism. In fuel, Ruman Catholicism in Malabar emerged in the face of prcc:dsling Orthodox corn· munities :IS well as a number of Nestorian families. The arrival of the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in the fiftecmh centul'}' led to the inauguration of a new chapter in the story of Malabar Christianity. With the advent of Islam and the Ar,lbs in Egypt during the Middle Ages. the missionary spirit :!omang the Copls Jied. The weight of Muslim persecutions deUected the church fmlll international projects \0 deal with Immediate problems at home. P1BUOGKAPIIY

Browne. L. W. The Indiull Chris/ill/IS of 51. Thomus, Cambridge, 1956. Dahlmann, J. Die Tlromas-l.e/iellde. Freiburg, 1912,

FOrlescue, A. Tile Lesser Ellstem C:J"'n:hes. London, 191 J. Mt:dlyeotl, A. Ii India and lire Apostle Thomu.s. Lon· don. 1905, POlhan, S. G. The Syrian Chris/iallS 0/ Kuala. New Yort., 1963. Winstedt, E. 0., ed. Tht. Chris/illl! Topography of COSIPIIlS Indieop/ellS/l.'s. Cambridge, 1909. AzJz 5, ATlYA

M1SSORlA. See MctalwOl'k, COplle. !\11T DAMSIS. See Pilgrimages.

MITER, See Liturgical Vestments,

MODAL1SM. See MonarchitmisrlI.

MODERN EGYPT, COPTS IN, Following thc wilhdrnwal of the French in ISO I. CoplS fell on bad limcs, lIS they wen~ adherents of the same religion as the depaning enemy. Conditions imprm'ed four )'C3n later wilh the emergence of MUJ:LUlMAD 'ALl in 1805, to whom the Copts proved indispelL<:able in carrying out his reform plans, thus keeping up lhe Islamic administrative Il'1Idition since the beginning of thc early Middle Age!. Severnl eminent CoplS

slood In his favor for rcnderina him ielvices in finance and adminislration. The most notable among lhem was al·Mu'allim GIIALI, who carried OUi a survey of the whole country and divided it into provinces, each with its own capital and smaller subdivuions for lhe purpose of efficienl revenue asses5menl. It is also believed lhat Grum lIuggeslcd 10 Mu~am mad 'Alllhe idea of linking Ihe Meditemmean and the Red Sea by mt'ans of a canal, a projecl 10 be financed principally by Egyptian capilal. Yel, as in the case of a few other people close to the vleeroy. he fell victim to a campaign of intrigue tholl rcsulted in Mul,lammad 'Ali's twice cxiling him lind twice rclnsIllling him, until he WtL~ eventually killed in 1821. His son BASIL!US succeeded him 1I.~ auditor genenll of aeCounlS, and had the title of bey confence! upon him, thus becoming llll,) fir'Sl COpt 10 achieve this position. 1H1fkIJS IICHA IIRMAN1YOS, whu lml! previously been governor of the province of Jilj.:\ in Upper Egypt during the French occupalion, was appointed gov· ernor of Wadi eardis lind given a free hand to rcstOI'C law and order. Far.:lj Agha !lnd Makrnm Ag· M were assigned similar offices in Fashn and I!fi~, rcspectively, As a result of lhe CoPIS being more qualified, many distinguished themselves as adminisll'1llUrs, engineers, surveyors, accountants, scribes, and translaton. In recognition of their 5ervkes and coopcrnlion in implementing refornl projects, MuJ.mmmad 'All issued various decrees lIulhorizing COPIS to have new churches built and older ones n:storcd. 'Abb.:\s I, however, wa.5 nol lIS tolerantly or favorably disposed loward the CopiS 1I.~ hill fulher, Upon his acce.!l5ion, many Copls lusl their posilions of influence. Il is believed Ihat at one time he considered the idea of deporting all Copts 10 the Sudan, and asked the tllen shuykh of AI-Al.har, Ibr.-Ihlm al-f1AJORI, to prepare the necessary legal opinion, but lhe hllter declined. The reign of 'Abbas, however, wilnessed lhe Slarl of thc infiltralion of various missionary movements into Egypl. Roman Catholic societies established a foothold in lilja, and Prolestant groops in Bani Sud. Minyli. and Asyu!. Under &I'ld. the Copts fared belieI'. In 1855 lhey were given equal righlS of citi7.enship wilh the abolition of lhe poll IaJ[ imposed on Chrislians and Jews ever since Ihe AJtAIJ CONOUF.sT OF ECYl'T in 640. In 1856 they were conscripted 10 the amly for the first lime, When Sa'id decided 10 purge Ihe anny of Turkish and other foreign elements, Ihe Copts were quid 10 respond and enlist.

MONARCHIANISM

With his European education and upbringing, Khedive ISMA:ll followed a 10l.a.lly oninhibitcd policy of goodwill and IOlerance. His 1866 decree gave generous financial help to Coptic schools, and when he invited heads of statc to the inauguration of the Suez Canal in 1869, he impr'C$5Cd Empress Eugenie by taking hcr on a round of visits to weahhy Coptic families in Upper Egypt. He also gave 1,500 leddQns of land as a .-etigious endow· mcnt to the Copts, and an annual grant of £200 in aclmowledgment of their services in the education of both Coptic and Muslim children. Copts continued to hold imponant executive, legislative, and judiciary positions, and whcn the parliament was lirst established Ism:i'11 prescribed the inclusion of a Coptic member among the representatives of each I'rovince. The COptS did not deny 'Urll.bl their moral or' IIHlleriut support in his struggle La free the country from the oppressive rule of both the Ottoman suI· tan and Khedive Tawfiq. "Under 'Ura.bt a Copt was promoted to be sub-Minister of JUStice, a POSt which carried with it the s\lpcrintcndence of the OAl!l's couns and the necessary minor appointments for the courts" (Leedcr, 1914). With the British occupation in 1882 the numbcr of Copts in senior official posts was significanily diminished as a result of the enforcement of a S(}called policy of British jWiticc that wa.s aimed at redressing thc inlance in favor of the majority, and giving the impression that such Wll.'l !.he witl of the Muslim government in power. In due time this gave rise to a situation where Copts and Muslims were mutu31ly suspicious. During the rcign of Mu~ammad 'All, domestic lind foreign trade was almost cumplctcly in the hands of Copts and Maronite SyRians, and whcn various services wcre franchised, Copl'l became agents for foreign commercial firms. Some also act· ed lIS consuls 011 behlllf of various countries. Thus many Copts showed great entr'eprenCurilll skill and made immense fonunes. At the turn of the cenlury, there were many Coptic landowners in the provinces of Minufiyyah, Daqahliyyah, and Ghal"biyyah, and by mid·century their numbers had greatly increased In Upper Egypt where a large section of the pupula· tion were COpts. When NiIliSCr int,-oduced his socialist measures in the carly 19605, many enterprises cxclusively or largely ownl.'
1637

families but also from endowmenl$ belonging to lile patriarchate and the monasteries. All dispos' sessed land was subdividcd among peasants, but few CoplS benefited from that action. The number of Copts in government posts steadi· ly decreased in the second half of the twentieth century due to a dramatic increase in the Muslim population. At the beginning of Ihe century, Copts occupied 40 percent of the government posts. In 1927 they occupicd 9 percent. At present It is Iaken for granted that there are certain leadership and government positions to which Copts are not enti·

thl. [See f/lsQ: Mui:lammad 'All Dynasty.] BIBLIOGRAPHY Baer', G. A lIistury ul Landuwnership ill Madem Egypt, p. 63. London, 1914. Cromcr, Lord. Modem Egypt, Vol. 2, pr. 208-212. London, 1908. Leeder, G. Modem Sons 01 the I'lwraQlu, pp. 33234. London, 1914. Wakin, Edward. A Lime1y Mit/ority: The Modem Story 01 Egypt's Copts. New York, 1963. SAMlRAI.l BA'.IR

MONARCHIANlSM, a movement in the tnmtarian controversy in the early church that denied lhe distinction of Persons in the relationship be· lween Father and Son within the Godhead. It be· came a heresy. There wcre two quite separate groups of Monar· chians. Modaiisl Monarchians claimed that God was a single and differentiated being whose ,"onarchy was nothing else than si.,gu{f/re el tmictl/n imperio lUll, "l'I singular and unique empire," as Tenullian expressed it about 213 in refuting Praxea~, a modalist Leacher in Rome. This meant Lhal the Son and the Holy Spirit hud no individual existences buL were simply "modes" or aspects of the Futhel'. The AdoPlionist or Dynamic Monarehians Stood lit the opposite end of the theologicill 5pcctrum. They clnimed, according 10 their opponent, lhe Roman presbyter IItPP()lYTUS. in his refutation "that Jesus was a mere man (Psi/os anIJrr()fX)$), born of a virgin according 10 the counsel of the Father. After he had li... oo a life common to all men and had become preeminently religious, he received at his baptism "the Christ" in the fonn of a dove. This gift enabled him to manifcst miraculous powel"5, which he had not shown before, and arIel' his deaLh he was "adopted" into the Godhead. JC$US wa.~ there·

1638

MONARCHIANISM

fon: enti rely hum an, thou gh cont rolle d by the Spil"it. He was to be reve red as the gre'lIc.s1 of all Ihe prop hets , but whe ther he was to be wor ship ed "as God" was ques tiun able . Tho ugh som e trac es of Modalist Mon arch iani sm may be foun d in teac hers den oun ced by Just in Martyr, the doct rine first allra cted serio us nOlice in Rom e abou t 200 thro ugh a scho ol of Chri stian s from weSlcrn Asi'l Minor, of who m Noetus, Polemon, lind PraxCIIS were the mos t prom inen t. According 10 HiJ'lpolytus, Noctus proc laim ed open ly that "ChriSI was the Fath er himself. and thai the Falh er him self was bum , suffen:ll and died ." Ano ther 01'thud ox wrilel", Epip hani us of Sala mis, affirmcd abou t 380 that whe n ehlll1engcd. Noetu:> prot este d, "Wh at halm am I doin g in glorifying Chri st?" The obje ctio n to thes e ideolS, apa n from inhe rent abo surdity, was that they dest roye d the con cept of the Trinity. As Ten ulliu n sum med up in his I"eply to Praxeas, Praxeas "did two bits of the devi l's busi· ness in Rom e. He ooll ishc d the Para dete and cl'\lci· lied the Father." Nev enhc less , IWO earl y third -een tury bish op' of Rome, Zep hyri nus and Calixtus, tend ed tu fa\'or 01 Mudalist Munllrchian fOl'm of Chl'istology. Modlilist an mOlUlrchiani.~m was refin ed by Sabe llius the Liby abou t 220 (sec SA81111..."'tSM), and in this form played its pan in the Trin itari an contro\'er.>ies of the third cent ury, as well as in the disp utes in the half.centUl'y following the Fil'st Council of NIC... F..... (325). It influ ence d the altit ude of thc Rom an chu rch tow ard both the Nice ne Cree d, with Its a<;..<;enion Ihat chri sl ""'as "of one sum tanc e with the Fath er," and Ihe Chri~lological definition of ChalccdOll. As was to be CJlpt.'Cted, lhe two ROlnan bish ops stron gly oppo:scd the Dyn amic Mon arch ians , who were influential in Rom e at abou t the sam e lime lIS Ihe Modalisls. The Dynamic grou p wer e also Greekspea king Christians, such as The odul us, a tann er from By.r.anlium, and n1l.'.
narc hian ism in his deve lopm ent of the doct rine of the Logos, thou gh he fC$Crved his angr iest com men ts for the Adoptionist5, for "den ying the divinit)' of Chri st" (Dia/ogI4C with IJCl"acle.idcs, p. 439) . Origen also disp uted with Beryllus, bish op of Bostlll in the prov ince of Ambia, who , acco rdin g 10 Euse bius , was char ged with hold ing Modalist Mon arch ian views. Modalism, in the form of Sabc lilan ism, took roul in Cyre naic a. Non h Africa, in lhe mid -thir d cent ury, whe re it was con trav ened by DIONYStUS TilE GREAT. bish op of Alexandria. He, how ever , used tenn inoi ogy that sugg este d Ihat Chrisl, fal' from bein g an aspe ct of the Godhelld, was "el'e atur c," and pal't of the crea ted orde r. An appeal by lhe Cyre naic ans to Rom e brou ght Dionysius bish op of Rom e into an inde cisiv e exch ange of lelle n; with his fellow bish op in Alexandria abou t 263, acco rdin g to J. F. Beth· une· Bak er. The bishop of Alexandria dem onS lratc d the stro nges t oppo sitio n of his ~ to what he inte rpre t· ed as the "Ad opti onis l" vieW!! of Paul of Sam0S3ta. bish op of Antioch. The tend ency of the chu rch in Alexandria, thro ugh its OIcccptanee of the l.ogo5-sur:t. ("Word-flesh") inte rpre tatiu n of Jcsu s' rela tion ship to Ihe God head , was towa rd Modalisl Monan::hian· ism. Susp icio n of this view und erla y the doct rina l obje dion s of the majo rity of the Easl em bish ops to Alexandria, and to his Sain t ...TH...N...SlUS. bish op d. uncomprollli~ing adhe renc e to lhe Niee nc Crec The Ea.~tcrncrs fean..-d that Mon arch ianl sm wou ld lead Ihe chu rch back low ard Juda ism. Sain t BASIL TIll! GREAT of Cae sarc a wro te abou t 375 to a grou p of lay nota bles in Cae sare a (k/l cr 210. S): "Fo r it i~ indi spen sabl e 10 have a dell l' unde l'sta ndin g that , as he who fails to conres.~ the com mun ity of esse nce or subs tanc e falls into polYlheism, so he who n::fus· es to gran t the disti ncti on of the hypostases ("in di. vidu aliti es") is carr ied off into Judaism." Only whe n the Cree d of Con stan tino ple (381 ) chO!le fol'ms of wor ds lhat safe guar ded lhe sepa rate individuality of the Pers ons of the Trin ity did the fear of mon arch ianism as a hidd en dang er to Chri stian orthodoxy fade.

or

81D UOG RAP JlY

Athanasius. De d~cret"s N"c~llnis. In PG 25. cols . 415 -476 . Paris, 1884. _ _ . Epismlll de .~ynodi$. In PG 26, eols. 681 794. Paris, 1887. Bardy, G. "Monan::hianism." In Diclionll(Jir~ de thi% gie ctJlh ofiq llt. Vol. 10. pt. 2, cols. 219 3-22 09. Paris, 1929.

MONASTERIES, ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF

Bethune-Haker, J. F. All [/lIrodUClioll {O tl,t Cody IJis/Q'Y Qf Chris/io" Doc/rine /0 lhe Time of /he COUHdl of cholccdoH, 9th ed., chaps. 7, 8. Lon-

don, 1951. Hamad., A. von. lIu/or')' of DUK'm~, Vol. 3, chap. I. New Yon:. 1958. Kelly, J. N, D. Eorly Chris/ioll Doc/rillts, 5th (:d., chap. 5. London, 1978. Kidd. B. J. His/of)' of Ille Church 10 A.D. 461, Vol. 1, pp. 359-71. Ollford, 1922. W. H. C. FRENO

MONASTERIES,

ECONOMIC

ACTIVI·

TIES OF. Despite schisms, persecutions, ocea· sionlll devllstation by the bal'hal'lans, and the Persian and Ar'ab conquests in 619 and 641, respectively, the histOl)' of the I!gyptian monasteries from the fourth to the eiijhth centuries con.~titutes a whole. The period wa.~ one of expansion and m;l\crial prosperity. V;Il"ious categories of soun;:esliterary, papyrologieal, and archaeologicalindicate this. This is not the place to anal)'7.e them or to appmi'!e theil' value. It is enough to say, by way of delineating the limils of the present essay. that they do not allow of a rigorous, objective, quantifil.-d grasp of the facLS. Hence, the way in which the subjects brvachl.-d here have been treated is largely impreMionistic.

Inslliutlonal and Legal Basel or the MonuUc Economy According 10 the times and places, Egyptian manllstic economy varied with ...~gard 10 individual liberty and hiernrchical centralism-at times lead· ing to collectivism. Nor i~ Ihis shnply a reflection of the well·known opposition between the life~tyles of the hermit and the cenobite. Throughoul the fourth to eighth centuries, an import:mt clement of monasticism wholly escaped the framework of the monasteries, These were the as· celic extremists who had withdrawn into the desert plnees lind were completely isolated, but it also involved an entire urhan and village population of both sexes. such a'! the remtmo/h spoken of by Saint Jerome wilh disdilin (Epis/le 22.34), or Ihose wom· en who "wilhdrew" into their own houses (cf. Remondon. 1972, p. 260), or semi-tromps like Mn,'k the Mad (Clugnet, 1900. pp. 60-62), not to mention the ilincrnnt monks. or gyroWlg"~S. These people kept body and soul togelher as circumstances per' mltted or Iheir own desires suggested, sometimes in little informal groups, won:ina, trading, or living on

1639

their income. In these instances, the monastic economy was indistinguishable from a privale domeslic economy. Within organized monasticism, economic individualism played a significam part; the monasteries displayed some reticence about taking in people who were in financial difficuily. This was to prevent encumbering their own filUlnces and especially to test vocational genuineneliS. Thus, many monks at the beginning of an ascetic clln:cr were in easy circumstances (d. Cadell, 1967, pp. 195-201 for the papyrological examples, and Martin. 1979, pp. 14f., for the literature). When they enter-ed a monastery, they were entirely at liberty to get rid of their wealth (Saneli Paellom;! Vi/aff GmffCf.lff, Vila prima, 80) if they tl10ughl that by doing so they were doing good works. But generally they held on to it and thereby their full economic :1Od legal ca· pneity, They continued to manage thell' property in their own way (d. Cadell, 1967). Moreover, they had at their disposal the products of their lubor and what it brought in. During their lime in the monaslery, Ihey enten.od 1010 all sorts of contractual negotiations, whether with their "brolher" ascetics or with civil society. Thus, one finds recorded loans (Remondon, 1972, p. 259, notes in this connection that Ihe monk.'! mOSt frequently figure as creditors). sales, the leasing of houses or lands (d. Cadell, 1967), and the emancipation of slaves "to redeem their sins." The cells (ktdlio) aod the monasteries Ihem~lves were oflen the propeny of their lay or l.'Cciesiastical founders. "ICSt: Rsscts could gi\·e rise 10 security arrangement'! or mortgages. They could be pas-'led on to one', heirs, as in Ihe case of the monastery of the renowned ABIlAIlAM Of HEAMONnus (Amlani). Despite the protests of the emperor JU!>'TINIAN. the Egyptian monasteries could be sold even to lay peo· pIe. For example, the Melitian est!lblishmcnt of labia (Hawwarah) llnd that of Abb:'i Kopl'eous at Oxyrhynchus were hoth sold In this WIlY. To sum up, Ihe institution of monasticism often seems weak and insubstantial in the face of allthc pl'lvate inter· ests involved in it. and in these instances one might hesitate 10 speak of a monastic economy. However, historically the !rend appears 10 have reinforced the inslitution in two ways: the establishment of a spe· cific economic administrotion goina beyond the individual actions of the monks or regulating them, and the working OUI of prolective legal, constitulional rules. As to the first point, Ihe Pachomian ccnobites may have provided an example to follow. In this

1640

MONASTERJES, ECONOMIC ACfIVITIES OF

environment, the economic primacy of the in~titution

was

question of principle. The wuys into practice ore well known: an au-

3.

of putting lhi~ thoritarian division and planning the wOI'k, spcciali:r..:uion in the houses. careful bookkeeping, the early institution of local ~co"omi, or stewards, IIInd or the general stewardship of the order (Sulleli Pachomii Vi/lie GrQ~cae, Vila prima, 28. 59, 83). Outside the P:lchomian world, and probably match· ing Ihe im;:rcase in the monasteries' own weahh :lntl the varied developments in economic and com· rnercialllnks with civil society. the same tendencies reveal thenucJvcs, but without such clItrcmc I'C· suJt.~. Everywhere one (;an find some evidence of diakol1ioi. "gcncrnl" and "sJX.-cial stewards," and dioikttai, or special funds, though one cannOi al· ways define exactly how Ihese words were underslood, other than dUll thcy related to Ihe managemenl or Ihe common finanCCli and the common propel1y (Kahle, 1954, Vol. I, pp. 30-40, Vol. 2, fol. 312r). Somelimes there appears to be a confusion uf Ihe supedor wilh lhe sleward, and in all soriS of ways thc spirllual din..'Clor of an establishment car· rit:d significant r<:spom,ibilitics of a matcrial and financial nalure, especially as regards taxes. In this connection, one must nOie that the intel'C!its of the superior are distinguished on the bookkccping level from lhose of the n..'St of the communily. This position wa.~ open to purchase at a vel)' high price-up to fifty·three golden solidi. This sum served as I::aulion money for good m,lnllllement (d. Schmidt, 1932, pp. 60-68; KJJ.hlc, 1924, Vul. 2, foJ. 312r). Parallel to the pl'eceding, IheH~ developed legal safeguards. wilh legal personalilY (diklJioll) embodied in the person of the superior and legal c,:ompetency-early allested-to receive legacies and consequenlly to make a seulcment of an t.'State ill propria perwllQ. From the shuh centul)', many monastel'ies with assets held tht:: status of founda· lions of public law, comparable to lhlll of the im· pcrial domus divillCl or of lhe bishops' churches. Consequently lhese a.~!>Cts were res eXira commtrcimll and thu.~, in principle, inalienable and nol subject to distraint or allachmeot. Justinian's anger on learning that Egyptian monasleries Wlere some· times put up for sale demonstrates that in his mind Ihis slatus IIlUSI alrcady have been lhe nonn. No trace ha.~ been preserved of the legal mcasures Ihal could enfor-ce it, bUI one can, wilhoul lhe slightest doubt, gauge lheir effects. Thus, life leases or long lcaSCli were practiced by CCluin monasteries. These are instances of direcl borrowing from the system of public land grants and implied siZllble re5tric·

or

tions on the right to transfer propel1y, in eonfonni· ly with thc genel1l1 nIle expressed in Justinian's Novella 7.1. Also Iypieal of this system, which had a sacrali1.intl: effect, was lhe use of fiscal tCl'minololl}' (e.g., the word demosioll) to I'cfel' to monastic im':Ollle (ee. the well-known I'ccord of the Kindt'r_ scht'IIkuIIgell [children given as gifts] from wC!>tcm Thebes). Levies on long leases were themselves as· similaled to a foml of tax (Ga.scou, 1985, pp. 1415).

Resources of the Monastt!rles A monastery's reSQurces came first and foremost from the monks' work. On lhis point Egypt gives an example to the re5t of the world (Cassinn De ills/llU' tis c~"obiornm 10.22). Howcver, work in the mono astel)' was not seen lIS an economic activity but as a form of asccsis, of high mornl and religious value, and ncccssary for menIal stability (d. Gui1laumonl. 1979, pp. 117-26). Over all, work was divided inlO "tasks" (lnd "ll'ade.~." By lhe ronnel" is mClInl aetivi· tics connected wilh subsistence lind with the well· being of the communities. Cooking, baking, weav' ing, shocmaking, working Ihe lields and lhe gardens and local mineral resources such as salt, building cells, and the like were often done by lhe monb themselves. The more manual aspects of lhese fOl'ms of WOI'k seem to have been the n:sponsibilily somelimes of speci'll staff of relalively [ow standing, such as lhe novices or penitents. The pur"ose of lhe lrades wa.~ lhe production of goods thai could be exchanged. On this point the monasteries specialiu:d vel)' clearly in baskct· making and ropemaking. Evidence for this COllies from an abundant literalure and from papymlogical documentation. The I1lW material. palms and reeds, was t.'aSily obtained. This simple, mechanical, repetilive actlvily, which did not requir'C much intellec· tual eoncentl1ltion und could be :u;\;omplished in lhe seclusion of one's cell, WllS regarded as well adapted 10 spiritual disdpline. Thus, in lhe Ions ruo, the monasteries ended up by \'inually monopolizing a good proportion of Egyptian procJuclion of baskets, mats, and ropes. These articles could be (:l\changed-MACARIUS THE EGYI"rtAH thWi obtained bread from the guards at the nitl'eworks of $cetisbut above all, they wel'e sold. Selling could bc lhe responsibility of (he community, of ltly wholCllalers, or of lhe workers themselves. Thc m..rketing oullclS could be VCI)' dislanl; thus, the Paehomillns went from Pbow 10 Alexandria 10 trade their mat'. A legal lat preserves a request for a passpon suhmit-

MONASTERIES, ECONOMIC ACTIVITfES OF

ted to Ihe Arab authorities in the name of Theban rnonb who wished 10 go to Ihe FayyOrn 10 scll ropes. On 50me lXcasions the customers came to the monastery (e.g., the sailors spoken of in Or· landi, 1975, pp. 66-67). One of the best·attested trades is wC3ving. Documentation comes primarily from the "Holy Mountain of Djeme" at weslel'll nlebes. Then: one finds archaeological lraces of the in.~tallation of weaving looms in the cells. and thc wrillen sources give detailed informalion on Ihe raw materials, palm libers and /lax (so much sought after that some A1cxlmdrian monks came to the l1tebaid 10 look fOf" it), and production standards. A whole manufacturIng O'"Kanization, which had an influence on civil society, had developed ,lroUlH,l DAYII. EPIPHANIIJS and n::qulred the aid of employees. The establishment ~upplied lhe neighborhood with linen and c10Ihs. Some monks contracted with the pe,lsants fOI" the production of lOW. Of course, other trade.• were pnleliced, too, but these occupalions ;Ire much leu well documellieu than the forcgoing. However, one musl mention al Sceti~ and in the Fayyiim work done in the fields for II wage. (18), painting. and Ihe copying of books. Income from work in principle allowed everyone to caler 10 his own needs and to save a little. In weaving it was even possible to grow rich (up to onc hundred solidi, oce.:ording to Jerome, E.pisf(e 22.33). Thus, economically speaking, the wort or Ihe monks was in no way eilher a loken performance or a marginal activity. Very soon, and above all among Ihe Pachomians, the monasleries came 10 conlrol other. \'cry powe... ful 1'C1lO01'Ces. It is correCI 10 say Ihal to a great eXlent they owcd these to their own endCllvors and ingcnuily, for instance. in the Tahenneslote Nile !low trnnspol1 business that was so eharacteri.~tic of this milieu; likewise, they owed it 10 their 10iL fOf" inShmee, in clearing land 01' working mines at Qalannin. Many acquisilions of land 01' Items of equip· ment were financed rrorn Ihe communities' own funds or from the.: "p0l1ions" contributed by the monks. Hcre one mOSI mention banking as contribUllng 10 gains in Ihis categOl'Y. IndiYidually, but also as a body, Ihe monks indulgcd in the giving of crcdil. Credit-which is 10 say usury-was veiled by sales on delivery. a type of tr:tnsaclion scyeral times allcstl..'d in Ihe archiYe$ of the Hennopolis Monastery of AbW Apollo:; of TItkoi:~ (d. Uarrauer and Sijpc::slcijn, 1982, pp. 2%-302). relating to wine and grain. II would, however, appear that the chief road 10

1641

wealth was by way of assi5tance from the OUl~ide world. the diocesan ecclesia.~lical hierarchy, the upper echelons of the administration. and the laity. This aid was nol alwa)'!'i spontaneous. The monb would canyass, soliciting from door to door. Aiel' ter senl by an O~yrttynchus community 10 a lay potentate iIlustratc:s Ihis: "We beg 'your l.ordship to ordain that we be sent the liberality which it is Ihe custom of your iIIu.'>Irious house to bestow on us, $0 lhat we nlay give your Lordship our thanks and, sinnCI"ll as we are, may send up to heaven our cusIOmary prayers for the health of your Loni~hip and for the prOilperity of your illustrious house" (Rtmondon. 1972. p. 272). The imp011 of thi~ te~t lics in its indication that the "considcrnlion" that lay people preoccupied with lheir salyatlon were cntltled to cxpect was prayel'S. This concern was paramount when a person was "at the article of death"; thu~, ~ome donations to the monastcries arc in Ihe nnture of funenny foundations. In 570, Phoi· bammon, the principal physician of ANTtNOOPOlIS. bcque:llhcd to a Monaslery of i\pa Jeremiah an inalienable plot of vineyard "as an elemal memorial for the rt:5t of his soul" and for the expense of his perpetual commemorative mass (prosphora). His body was 10 be buried in the monastery, and his name recorded in the register of deaths. The pre· ferred location of monasteries on thc jabal (mountain), thc traditional site of the cemelery, pn:disposed them 10 carry out the $Crvice of taking charge of corpses. II is hard 10 list the entire range of oblalions. These could be occasional gifts or bounties in kind. in cash. in prt:cious articles, or even In the form or servants with the Slanding of oblatcs. which would be lefl behind by visitor.; or pilgrims. or left In their wills by piolls people thinking of their llppro,lching demise, or fulfilling II vow. They could al~ be acts of patronage. like that of Cacs;\1'ius, who built or reSIOr'Cd Ihe church of DAYR o\NBJ. SHINODAH, or the White Monastery (cf. Monner'el de Vi1I,lrd, 19251926, Vol. I, pp. 18-20). Oblations were fr'cqucnlly presented In the form of regular annulll puyment5. which WllS of pnriieular cconomic advantage: thu.~, a widow of Oxyrhynchus provided the Monaslery of .\lAMO·Il. OF OAUMON annually with Ihree measul'eS of oil (van eauwenbergh, 1914, p. 117). Other offcr· ings wen: more substanlial: the consul Apion II, around 565, wa.~ sending anllually two hundn'd double Illeasures of low-quality wine 10 an es.tabIishmem of Abba Jen:mias. Archbishop John thc Almoner maimaincd the monasteries that he had founded with the income from lands that he pus-

1642

MONASTERIES, ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF

sesK-d in his native townSlllp of Amathonta. t-lnaJly, one shou ld men tion that the emp eror Zen o ordain ed tlmt the mon ks uf Saint Mac ariu s of Seet is be providecl with :1J1 they requ ired in the w.lY of corn , wine, and oil, and all they need ed to equi p thei r cells. Many a gift boil ed dow n in the end to a capital end owm ent ship:<;, callIe, workshops, a~ricultunll lands, and, above :dl, real estate. Thu s the mon as· teries, despite the apprehensiOIlS of The odo rus (Sfm cli Pucllolllii vi/ac grac cac, Vita prima, )46) , quickly found them sdve s in char ge of subs tant ial patrimonies. The sUl"Viving inform'll Ion abou t the m:lnagement of JXItrimonies rdal es priOl~'ll'ily to wealth in Ihe fom l of land. Ultlfundia (1llrge land ed esta tes) wer e a rarity. Rather, beca use of the chan ce nalu re of obla tion s and acqu isiti ons, one finds rder enc es to num erou s IOl~. often small and iJlOl:ltcd and (juite far frum the m(0I1a.~tic cent ers themselves. Thu s the land s of the reno wne d Dayr Anba Shin udah are scat tere d aboUl in the village of Aph rodl to,]1 miles (SO km) to the nort h. in the Panopolis, Ilnd in the Herm opol is and Antinoopolis areas. In Panopolis one tinds anal ogou s cases with the Monastery of Zmi n or Smi n, whi ch is the Tesm ine of the Pach · omi an corp us. This parc elin g out and geog raph ical disp ersio n explain in JXIrt why the most valu ed met hod of cultivRtlon WllS tena nt farming. Thu s the in mona.~teries wcre cont ent to [Xlck ct the rent s cash or in kind that were Inad e available from thei r tena nts, who wer e trea ted with neit her mor e nor not les.~ hars hnes s than by lay prop rieto rs. They did Intel"Vene in agri cult ural or inuu stria l prod ucti on. These reve nues coul d give ri~e tu r·esale. Bishop Thc odo rus of Pent apol is pur\;hased fifteell hundn,-d knidia of winc from the Tab enne siote monastCI)' of Poulnkoris (Iler mop olita nl, and a curi ous lillie Coptic text in the John Rylands Museum rela tes the reMlle of eueumhel1i belo ngin g to the MOlla~tery of Saint PhoiOOmmon. It is difficult to mca sure the scop e of land acqu isitions. According to a fiscal roll dati ng In all prob · ability from the begi nnil lg of the eigh th cent ury it is clea r that the Mon:lstel)' of Saint Jere mia s of Saq(lll' ra was one of the biggest taxpayel1i in the region of Memphis. This enab les onc 10 gauge its wea lth indio rectly. The land regL~ter of Aphrodito from the begimllng of the sixth cent ury, rela ting to a qua rter of the grou nd arell of lhis vfllage, shows lhat ]] per· cent of the lands wer e :llre:ldy In the IlImd~ of the local or oeig hbor ing mon aste ries. The re om: reasons for thin king that for the othe r thre e quar ters. the prop onio n h:lrdly differed. On the level of vil-

lages like Aphrodito, the mon aste ries wcr e therefore pow ers to be reck oned with and were stan · dard s of econ omi c mea sure men t, as indk ated by the texts whe re Ihe IOtal ttmuunt of inco me is COlI· cula ted in acco rdan ce with the bush el (me/ roll) "of the mou ntai n:' "of the mon aste ry:' or "of the mon k" (Drew·Bear, 1979, pp. 29Iff.). Only one mon aste ry out of the twenty at pres ent known uppeOlJ'S in u Jist of the prin cipa l taxpayers of Oxyrhynehus, for a vel)' mod est payment. The re is non e in a comJXIrable cont emp orar y list. The rec· ords from Her mop olls and Antinoopolls, altes ting to the exis tenc e of mor e than forty momlSteries, in no way lends one to thin k thal ther e was a signlfi· cant conc entr atio n of land ed p1"Operty in thei r hand s. though It is lIue tMt the B:'iwf! arch ives arc unpu blish ed. Actually, given the available info rma · tion, which includ~ no data of \;on sequ ence for Lower Egypt (Alexandrian grou ps, Nitr'ia, Kellia, and Scelis), it cloes not look a~ if the wea lth or the mon aste rics in land ed propcl1y had deve lope d to the C;!ltent or that of the patr iarc hate , the imp eria l crow n, the "ari ous bish ops' chur ches , or the lay dignitaries, su\;h as the Apions. As fal' as can be juclged, the 1I10na~terit:S were re3iOOnahly well-to-do, but the distr ibut ion of thei r wea lth was very un· even, for the road to riches depe nds on num erou s circ ums tanc es that not evcry mon aste ry coul d cum · pas!i. Geographical position was vcr)' Important. It is, for insta nce. \;el1ain that the riches of the Pacho· minns owe d Illllch to thei r care not to seul e thei r establishrnenlli tOO far from civil cent ers or wate r· ways. The proximity of a city like Alexandria or Antinoopolls a fortiori favored the inflow of ubla· tions. AJlowOlnce must be mad e for ability in pop u· larid ng the cult uf a sain t, esw blish ing a bish op's resid ence (e.g., DAYR AIAlAHRJ), and, in time s of schi sm, main tain ing IntSting rela tion s with the "Melc:hite" :lrch blsh op 01' the imp eria l pow er. It was simply a ques tion of guod man agem ent of thei r affairs, for th\;re are exum ples of nlon aste rles in difficulties, strip ped of ever ythi na, burd ened with debt or victimized by dish ones t monks. Thu s one finds an extr eme vOiriety of C;tses, from the richest to the P00tes\. Out lays Monastic wealth and inco me basically prov ided for inte rnal cons ump tion and various redi strib utio n purpOM:s. Despite thei r ideals of aUlarchy and hard work. the mon ks wer e not always in a pol'iition 10 be

MONASTERIES, ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF

whully sclhufficient. Receipts in kind hclpt-od direclly, and income in Ihe form of money served for the procurement or good~ or ~l'\Iiees. For CMmple, the -'tylites or Antinoopolis had a contr.u;:tual arrangeml'nt for their supply of water with a professional ass-driver. The monu or the Oktobidekaton purchased oil and wheat al Alexandria. Pan or the receipts had 10 be used ror Ihe mainlenance of Ihe buildings, especially plilccs of worship, ror which nOlhing ....'as too line, a.~ evidenced in Ihc excava· tion", 3t Bliwil lind S:'(lqllra. Dil'ine service, with its multiplicilY of funerary mas....es and feslivals, certainly also involved siUlblc expenses for Ihe ~c ..a· mental species (wheat and wine) and for the lighting (oil). But de~,r1y it w<\s in redistribution llctivitics lhal the monastedes SWllllowed up thc best parI of Iheir sUl'Pluses. BUlb the literature and Ihe r
,In

1643

In Ihe BY7.anline period, Ihe monasteries paid la't· eli becllusc: of their landed esllllC$. It was for tax purpoliCS Ihal their liln<1s wen: entered in Ihe land register, and in fact, many mOnasteries arc found among pay.:rs in the HennopoJis li'iCal codices of the bq:inning of the sevcnth century. Under .hl' Umayyads there was to be added Ihe personal laK, which wa.~ mlher heavy. In Ihis lield the financial liability lay on the superior. The monasteries also provided their fiscal guilranlee to any taxpayer who was in distress, and this meant that somelimes Ihey had to pay.

The Monasteries and the General Economy of Egypt For' lack of ovcmll dMa, this part of the subject is Ihe most delicate and the moSI diflicult to h:lOdlc in an objeclive manner. A. H. M. Jones (1986, Vol. 2, p. 933) is slightly patronizing in his description of a. "huge tll'my of clcrgy and monks" as "idle mouthli, liviog upon offerings, enuowments and ~Iale subsi· dies." It is quite true, in line wilh Jon(,.'$, that in certain rc.~peclS Ihe monaslicism of the late empire, and espcc:;ially in Egypt, represenled a burden and a high economic and social expense. Reliable figures as to the population of Ihe Egyptian mona,sleries, both in detail and in general, are lacking, bUI there is every indication that it must have been in thc tens of thousand!; of men and women (see Ihe summary of the litcrnry sources in Johl1$On and West. 1949, pp. 67f.). But as Ihere is no acceptable means of estimating the 101111 egyptian POPUhllion, one may jib al speukin8 of Ihe monks a.~ a "huge army." On Ihe ba.~l~ of the ar· chives, Ihe imprClision i~ that civil society did nOl lind monasticism importunate or burdensome. Neverthelcss, the monks did represent a liignificant population thaI was \IIilhdr~wn from the function of reproduction and established in lhe oftcn vcry difficult conditions of the desert frlnge.~ of the valley or of the inlcrior descl1, and was Ih,1I much more diRieult to fced, clothe, house, and cnr'e for. Alsu thcsc rcgions were insecure, being the Iirst to be exposed 10 the incursions of Libyan and Samcen lribes, and this involved eOlits for their p''Oleclion. The pilgrim known as Antoninus of Pi:lccn~ thus s.aw in wadi Feir~n in Sinai pan of the local civil population organi1.ed into lerritorial militias that drew their provisions and uniforms from Egypl and whose purpose it ....'as to defend Ihe monasleries and the hermits against the Arabs (Geyer, 1964, p. ISO). Sometimes the army was quar1ered in the monaslery, as at Pbow under Justinian. It is known

1644

MONASTERIES, ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF

thot the upkeep of personnel was a burden on the budgets of the neighboring munidpalilies of Anl~eopolis and

Apollinopolis Pan'a.

One cannol mitigate Ihe drawbacks associated wllh the monks by ciling the muiliplicity of their humanitarian ac1ivilie.~, for despite their high social and moral value, they were sterile in a strictly economic sense. There nre, however, certain subtle aspects 10 this reproach of sterility thai cannot be ignored. Demographkally speaking, although it is ll'\lc thaI the monasteries look in very young people and sometimes even children and thus withdrew them from the generative cycle, it is also \mc Ill:11 many a monk was Ihe father uf f\ family but found in the monasteries the opportunity for an honorable retirement after a vcry full life. This was so in the case of the protukQmetts (headman) Apollos, father of the poel I>lOSCORUS OF APHRODrTO. As 10 the COSI of Ihe monk.'!' upkeep, il should be remembered thM even without its retlching the excessive degree of privation related in the liter,lture and without iLS being basically different from Ihal of presemoday Egyptian pea.~nts, their Iifeslyle was most frugal: no meat and lillie in the WIly of genuinely cooked food. Moreover, Ihere is every reason to think, as shown above, that the tasks and trndes that occu· pled the monks covered in large rnea~urc the costs of their upktoep. What is more, it carl be argut'd that monasticism offered a cenain number of clear economic advanlages for society and the state in Byzantine Egypt. In the lint place, the monasteries were cenlen of population tlnd, a~ such, developed regions normally given over to solilude or lu burial gl'ounds, like Ihe fringes of the desen. or else abandoned by the civil populations. SOmetimes the Paehomians in· stalled themselves near desened villages. By their activilics in clearing the ground and in mining, Ihe monks of Qalamun restored to life the site soulh of the Fayyurn, Dayr Abu L1fil maintained a humnn presence to the nOl1h of Lake Oarlin, whereas the corresponding civil site, Soknopa·ioun/!sos. had long sinee returned 10 the desen (Munier, 1937, pp. 1-5). Regular links, commercial inlercourse, and pilgrimages became CSlablishe<1 between these advanced positions of Egyptian society and thc Nile Vlllley. The defense or the countr')' acquired lhere a strategic deplh thaI made up for lhe mililary costs, Funhermore, the monasteries stimulatt-d production, din:i:lly by thcir own activities, trades, and involvemenl in aClivities related 10 Ihe surrounding world (e.g" Pachomian boat transportation) and in· directly by their role in banking (providing loans

for pUlling ground under cultivalion) and. above all. by developing .s.~fe economic areas through subinfeudalion, For example, long-tcrm leases created tenures that were more advantageous than private propeny, For a relalivcly modesl anuual levy, Ihe lessee obtained on a transmissible life basis an asset thaI was immune from s.ci:wre hut open to transfer of righLS, if necessary, and was tax,free, as lhe levy look Ihe place of the taxes, II was thus pos.~iblc 10 devOle one's attention ",ith evcry confidcnce to im· provemenl of the eslate. If truth be told, many private fOl'tunes must havc been built up at the expense of the monasteries. One may inSlance those of the prosperous ugriculturnl entreprcneurs such as Phoibammon, son of Triadelphos, a farmer of Ihe White Monaslel')' and of the Monastery of Apa Sourous (d. Keenan, 1980, p. 151), or Ihose of many lay people who prolt"Cted their wealth by using it wholly or panly to found or endow a monastety, reser....lng the right of munag· Ing it on the material side by various expedienlS. An assured examplc of Ihese sliglllly questiollable faun· dalions exists in Ihc didQtlill of Ihe Holy Apostles of Aphrodito. t'Slablished by Apollos, the rich ye0man, whose son lJioseorus later became curator. Trusteeship by lay curatol1i, whicll was (Ill economic and fin'llleial administration, seems to have been widespread at the time. It could. moreover, be n.-qucsted by lhe monks themselves as a remedy for material difficulties or as insurancc against insecurity, There was what appears 10 be Ihe beginning of a contract of lrusleCfihip entered inlo by Ihe Apions of Oxyrhynchus with an unknown lttonaMery, showing: lhe range or responsibilities granted to these pOlcnlates. The result is as described by Remondon (1972, p. 274): "On Ihe one hand, Iht monastery is transformed into a producllon center, a workshop opcmling for a powetful family; on the olher hand, into a distribution cenler ror their personal alms, i.e.. into a pressure or propaganda tool. Thus in P. Olfy. [16.]1952 is round lhe Injunction from the il, lustrious how;c (of Ihe Apions) 10 Ihe mOSI holy Parnouthl05, archimandrile of the Monaslery of the ConsubsUtntiality, 10 di~lribute 600 loaves 10 thc people of Tarouthlnon, viz. 200 persons." These extreme examples show the rnonasterie~ operating to the advllntage of lhe lay world and in a position of tOlal suburditllltion. Finally, thc slate prolited, not only in fiscal lenns but also by the muhiplicilY of services demanded. Thw; very JOOn Pachomian boat lransponalionthat of the Tabennhe monastery in Ihis inslancehad to take its share In the /IllviClIlllria !u/lctiQ {na-

MONASTERIES IN AND AROUND ALEXANDRIA

val operation), in the tr.ln~portation of the wheat hlx. In the shuh and ~evenlh eenluries this service wa.~ still weighing on Ihe Paehomians, in Ihis ease the renowned Alexandrian establishment of the Metanoia. whose buatmen sailed throughoul Egypt. In the Amb period, the authorities cont.inued 10 require Ihe scrvico.:s of the mona.steries far public trnnsponation work: lhe MontlStery of Qalamun thus had to lend out its camels 10 lake wheat to Clysma. It Is also known Ihal the Byzantines depos· ited their fiscal receipts in the White Monastery, using it a.~ a kind of bank. To sum up, the Egyplian monasteries gave back to the civil wodd a good portion of what they had cost ;t, by the gu31':1n(~S, the in.~tances of patronage, and the various services and opportunities for profit that they provided. BtBLlOGRAPHY Amclint:au, E. Motlllltllm/s pollr servir iI I'hi$toire de /'Egyple chri/ielllle. Mcmoires publies par lcs membres de 13 MiS5ion archeologique frnn~'aise au ~ire 4. PllriS, 1895. Bagnall, R. S. "Priee in 'StIle!; on Delivery:" Creek, Romnn, nlld Bn:nll/ille S/Ildies 18 (1977):85f. Cadell. H. "Papyrolagica." Chnmiqlle d'Eg)'pte 42 (1967): 189-208. Cauwenbergh, r. van. Emdes sur fcs moil/es d'Eg)·/ltc. raris and Louwin, 1914. Clugnet, L "Vic et rl:dts de I'Abbe Daniel de SC~le:' ReVile de J'Oricllf chrl!lien 5 (1900):49-73, 254-71,370-90; see also 391-406, 535-64, and 6 (1901):51-87. Cotelier, J. B., ed. Apoplrthegmala Patmm. PO 65. Paris, 1864. Drew·Bear, M. "Deux Documents bY1.anlins de Moyeone ElOYpte." Chroniql4l~ d'Egyplll 54 (1979): 285-303. Gascou. J. "Les Cl':lnd.~ OOrllllincs. la cite et I'etm en Egypte by7.anline (recherches d'histoire agrai]'c, fiscnle el lldministmtive)." 1'r
1645

n:lsticism:' Jahr/Illch lilr Alltike IUJI] Cirristlll1lW1J 20 (1977):72-89. Judge, E. A., and S. R. Pickering. "Papyrus Doeu· ment::ltion of Church llnd Community in Egypt to the Mld·roUl1h Century." Jallrbllch lilr Jtmike IIl1d Chris/el/tllm 20 (1977):47-71. Kahle, P. E. Ba/a'izall: Coptic Textslrom Deir d_Ba· la'iia/' iI/ Upper Egyp/, 2 vols. London, 1954. Kl'Cnan, J. G. "Aurelius Pboibammon, Son of Triadelphus: A Byulntine Egyptian Land Entrepreneur:' Blll/et;n 01 Ihe Americnn Society 01 Pnpyr%gisis 17 (1980):145-54. us Enllilages chr~lIens dll diufI d'Esno, 4 voh. Fouilk'S dc I'lnstitut fran~ais d'Archeologic oricmalc. Cairo, 1972. Manin. A. "L'EgIi.se ella khOra cgyplienne au IVe siecle." ReVile des itl/des nuglls/iniemle5 25 (1979):3-26. Monneret de Villard, U. Lcs COllvenlS pres de S<;haS (Dl:yr e/·Abiad el Deyr e/-Allmar), 2 vols. Milan. 1925-1926. Munier, H. "le Deir Abou-Ufa:' Blllfl'fin de In Socittc d'arch~olol:ie copte 3 (1937):1-5. Orlandi, T., ed. and lrans. V;te dei monnd Phil e umgi",... Milan. 1975. Remondon, R. "L'Eglise dans la soclet~ egyp1ien ne a I'cpoque byzant ine." Cllroniqlle d'Egypte 47 (1972):254-77. Schmidt, C. "Oas Kloster des Apa Mena." Zeilscllrilt lur Qg)'ptiu:he Sprache lind A/tertllmsklmde 68 (1932):60-68. Wessely, C. "Die Vitll S. Theodorae." In FUnlulit/ter Juliresberich/ des K.·k. S/oa/sgymuasiwns in Her/lids, pp. 24-44. Vienna, 1889. Winlock, H. E., and W. E. Cnlm. The MOllClSIl'ry 01 EpipllmlillS a/ Thebes. New York, 1926; rep'·. 1977. Wips'...ycka, E. Les Ressollrcl!.' It!.~ aef;vi/es econo· miques ell'S eglises 1m Eg)'pfe dll IVe lilI Vile )·ie· de. Bmsscls, 1972.

e,

JEAN

MONASTERIES, NUBIAN,

GASCOlJ

See Nubian Mon·

asteries.

MONASTERIES IN AND AROUND AL· EXANDRIA. Very few rIlonllsneries in the city of Alcxandrill lire mentioned in lhe texts besides those of Brucheum, of Paul the leper, an
1646

MONASTERIES IN THE BEHEIRAH PROVINCE

n/JI the ~ame as the one designated OAYIl ASFAl. Al/ARl;) in the Middle Agcs), and the DAYR OIBRhOs, whose locadon rernain~ doubtful. In Ihe west, there were the LillUl7Dmen/Jn. the Monastery of Ihe Forty S;linlS, lhe patri..rchal residence of Metras. a sec· ond Monaslery of Stlint Mark, and then, on the I/Josue of Itmd bel ween the Mediterranetm and Lake MaryU!, the monasteries whose names were linked to the mill."~loncs near which they had bc..-cn built: Pemplon, Enaton, (medieval DayI' al.Zuj1j). Okwkaidek:uon, and Eiko~lon with the laurn of Qalamun and the cenobium of Mnphorn. Here al"l~ Iisled only tho.~e montlShlrle~ whose rnelllOl)' i~ prescl'Ved by short rcference~ only. The beller known monasteries covered in separ.\tc enlries. The Monastery of Brueheum is also the name of a very old part of the lown, situated near Ihe sea, to Ihe cast, mentioned by Saim JEROME in his life of Saint I-lilarlon. tl herlllit. The Monastery of Paul the Leper held the relics of the Prophet Elisha according to Ihe Chl1JlI' ogro.plzio. of Theophancs eompil~ belween 810 (lnd 814. On 11 May 463, Elisha's relics were tmnsferred to the Monastery of Paul the Leper in Alellandria. ul1cr, they were sUPlX'sed to have been moved to Constantinople to the Church of the Holy Af>Ostles, Acc/Jrding to the Coplle sources. since the patrinr· chatI.' of THEOI'IUI.uS (385-412), the~ relics had bec!n in the rnartyrium of John the Baptist and Elisha The M(lIIaStel)' of the Tabennesiotes wa!'i, perhaps, in Alcltaodri:l ilself on part of the !'iiw of the Serapion, a Pachomian monaslery; or else, simply, Tabenne!'iiOle monks sel'Ved the Church or the MurIytium. or both :It once, of John the Bapti!'il and Elisha A traveler. Bernard the Wise, about 870 indicates "/Jutside the E:lsi Gate, Saint Mark's Monastcry, where therc arc monks nClll' the church whcrc the saint himself restl,.'d," He adds that a short lime before Venetians had carried off the Soo"1inl'S body to Venice. The same Westem tTa\·e1er tell!'i of huving seen "outside Ihe Western Gate, Ihe so-called Monastery of the Fony &lints, where monks :llso live." No nther suurce mentions Ihis monastery. On the same westem side bUI near the sca, AbO al·Militim ciles a Monastery of Saint Mark. unfor· tunately without any other detail. It Is not possible for this monastery to be identical with the one placed by Beman! the Wise outside Ihe East G:lte. where as many !'iourees 1IlleSl, the Martyrium of Saint Mark stood,

H. G. Evelyn·White haJI m:lde a ca.'tC for the exis· tence of a Monaslery of the Molht'r of God "at Ga:tarla. near Alexandria" (1932, p. 371. n. J. and p. 447). A certain Samuel Bar Cyriaeus, a Syrinn Sly' lite monk, belween 1081 and 1101 copied several SyriaI.' manuscripts originating from the [M.YR AJ., SURYhN, But the Syl'iac he gawrta is not the proper name of a place; it meanS "in the island (of the BanI N~rJ." Morl·o,'cr, one of lhe colophons of whi<.:h Evelyn.white speaks says explicitly "in the island (be galDrra] elilled NiqiyOs." TIll" copyist mllst therefore be identified wilh Ihe Syrian hermit of whom the HISTORY OJ' '1'111\ PATRIAIl(;IlS .~pc:lks at that same period, as being at M.arT, in the Jrt?.Irnt Bani Na~r. BIBUOORAPJlY Evelyn-White, H. G. The MOllasleries ol/he 1Vadfn No.tr(OI, pI. 2. The History of the MU'lasteries vi Nilrio. /Hrd Seetis. New Yor'k, 1932. Wright, T, Early 1hweu in Pfl/eSliflf!. London, 1848 Wright, W. Ca/a/QI;:/le of Ihe Syriac MatlilSen'plS ;, the British Museum. London, 1870-1872. REN~·GWIl.CESCOOUtN

MAUIl.1Cf. MARTIN.

S.J.

MONASTERIES IN THE BEHEIRAH PROVINCE. Fl,.'W mona"tcrics or hennitages are 311ested in this prm'ince of the west of the Oelta. Apart from the great eommunitk-s of the KEWA and NITIl:IA. one lIlay l'cally mention only DayI' Am!'i. This place name is quoted as a vi1l:lge towt\rd 1180 (Toussoun, 1925, VoL I, PI". 215, 223). [I is also mentioned in the u/.TIIJ,fah al·Sulliyyuh (A.H. 715!A.D. 1315; tr1lnli. Sacy, p. (64). It was in the mo.rka'l. (district) of Abu Ilummus, . . therefore 10 the northwest of Damnnhur. H1BLlOGRAPHY

AI· Baghdadi Abd aI·Latif ibn YOsuf. A/.Tfll.'!flll alSa"in'ah. Trdns. by Silvestre de Sacy as in fle/alicm de I'Egyple. Paris, 1810. "L'Elat des provine· es" is translated in an appendix. Toussoun, O. Memoire S/lr f'his/oire dlf Nil, 3 vols. Caim, 1925. Rrn<(:·Gr,nRCES COOUlN MAURICE MAR1'IN, SJ.

MONASTERIES IN AND AROUND CAIRO, Seveml monaSteries that earlier wen: outside Cairo arc today swallowed up by the development of greater Cairo.

MONASTERIES IN CYPRUS

To the n0l1h, there wa.~ a village called Daman· hlir Shllbrti or Danmnhllr Shllhld (O"yr Yuh"nlll'l), and nOI far fmm lhcre bUI out.~ide Cairo in the Middle Ages, OAYM Al"KHANOAO, whk:h contained several churches. Within Cairo therc were IWO eonvcnt.s of nuns near the residence of the p3trian:h, called DayI' al·Rahib:i1, the lirst dedicated to Saint Mary the Virgin and the second dedicated to saint Theodol'Us. One of these IWO mona.<;lcries is in l:IARIT ZUWAYLAH and the olher in tlAltiT ALoMO",. There is no te~t to help lix Ihe: date: of Ihese: convents, bUI it is pmba· ble that they arc as ancient as the patriarchal resi· dence situated ncar the lirst of thcm, which dates from the ponlificale of the palnarch ",ACAJI.IUS II (1102-1128). To the south in Ihe ancient Mi~r oUlside Cairo is lhe Monaslery of saint Mereurius or DAYR ABO SAy· "AYH. This monastery w.-s rttonstructe,:d und,;:r Ihe patriarch CYRIL v (1874-1927). A pa.<;Sage between the churcht.'S of Anba Shimldah and Abu Sayfayn at first appears to be a cui de sac, but leads to the convent of nuns (Jullicn, 1891, p. 225). A certain number of object.~ wonhy of mention are here (Coquin, 1974, pp. 58-59), Inside lhe 0"$11. AW;IIAM' is DAYR AI. ,"NAT, mentioned by lravclt,rs from the sevcnteenth and eighteenth cenluries on and by the IIISTORY OF TIlE PATRIARCHS, Mention should be made of a wooden door of the Filtilllid period (Coquin, p. 151). Two groups of churcht.'S still bear the name of l)aYI': DaYI' Uabillln al.!)al1'lj and DayI' Tadl'us (Coquin, pp, 18H,). Farthe,' to the south is the DayI' MlkhA'J1 al·Qibli. This is today no more Ihan a church lhat is mentioned at se~er'Ul places by lhe History of the Palri· ard,s (the text~ arc conveniently collected in Coquin, pp, 2051f.), The oldest mention or Ihis church appeal'S 10 be from 1210, We llIustlllso menlion llic two monnster'ies caJle<1 D.4.YR .4.L-TIN and DayI' al Nu~hah, as well as DAVR .4.L-N.4.SrUR.

IJIHI,IOGItAt>HY

Coquin, C. l.e,~ Edifices chrbilms lIu Vieux C"ire. UibliolMque d'etude:s COplCll II. Cairo, 1974. Jullie'l, M, /.,'E~ple, l>ull1'lmirs bibliques el drreliens. Lillc, 189l. Vamileb. J. M, Nouvelle rela/ion ell forme de jOllrnal d'un ,'oyage fail ell Eg)'ple ell 1672 el /673. p. 241. Paris, 1677. Transl. as The Preselll Stale of Egypt. London, 1678; I'epr. Farnborough, 1972. RI!N~-COOR(;I;S COOUIN

MONASTERIES IN CYPRUS,

1647

The earliest mention or COplS in Cyprus comes fmm a traveler. lohann van Koolwyck, who writes that Ihey .lrrived following the eaptul'e of Jel'Usalem by Sali'i~ aI-Din in 1187 (Bul1l1esler, 1942, pp, 11-12). A ICller of benediction d."llt:d from Christmas A."'. I 225/A.lI. 1508 from the ninety-foul1h lXItriarch of Alexandria, JOHN Xlil (1484-1524) gives II list of the bishops submilling to his jurisdiction. There wa.~ then an Anba Mikha1l, metropolitan of Cyprus and aflerwanl of Rhodes (Muyser, pp. 161-63). This presuppose$ a fairly IoII'ge Coptic community on tbe island. In a census takcn by Ihe Turks in 1777, Copts were conspicuously absent and pn:sunlably dit.l not then form part of the island's populalion. The lalest mention of thc Coptic community ocl;un; in 1646 in a colophon of an Arabic commentary on the la.~t three boob of the Pentateuch lhat was copied in Cyprus and now is in possessioo of the Coptic Palriarchatc. Belween 1646 ilnd 1777, therefore. thc Coplic community of Nicosia, the capital city, disappeared for an unknown reMCln. The Coptic monasteriC5 of Cyprus include the fol· lowing: Monastery of Saint Antooy at Falllagusia (fourteenth century) The oldest allestalion of the pn..-sence of Coptic monb in CYPrllS curnC5 from a Spanish Oominican, Alphon.'lC Bonhome (or Buenhombre), who diseovered an Ar.-bit: Life of Saint ANTONY at II Coptic monastery al Famagusta, In the dedication that he added to his Latin tr.msl:.lion and dated 1342, he stated that a COptic monaslery wa.~ present in the upper part of thc town of F:lIlla· gu~ta in the SQutheastem pan of the island, Bon· homc unf0l1unately docs nOI specify thc origin of the convent. nor the number of monks. An aet of W.4.QF (religious dunation of I:totl) fur the benefit of lhe Chur'Ch of Saint Anl0ny at Famagusla very probabiy dellis with the same I:onvent (und:ltctl Egyplinn mnnuscript with foul1eenth· centUlY writing; Troupeau, 1972, p, 58). Monastery of SainI Macllrius of Klirnll (sixteenth century) An nct of waqf for lhe benefit of the mono astcry of Saint M:lcari\IS of KJimll in Cypnls is pl'e· served in a manuscripl dllied 1526. It is not possi· hIe to ,~y whether this convent is idenlical with lhe fuJlowing one (Troupellu. 1972, p, 85). Mona~tel)' of Saint Macatius at PJalani (sixteenth century) The historinn Etienne de Lusignan in 1573 wriles of a Coptic monaslcl)' callcd after Saint Macarius th:1t was sitUAted outside Nicosia toward the north. ncar the village of Platani, II belonged 10 the AnneoitlOs. It is very probably the convent of Surp Magar (Saini Macarius), which still exists to-

1648

MONASTERIES IN THE DAQAHUVYAH PROVINCE

day, 16 miles (26 km) northea'il of Nic05la In the mountains ncar Ihe village of Ho.levka. It still be· lonl:s to Ihe Armenian community (Burmesler, 1972, pp. 10-11; Keshishian, 1967, pp, 178-79). Momlstery of Saint Antony at Nicosia (seven· leemh century) A manuscript of biblicnl commen· lal)' of Ihe Coptic Patriarchate of Cairo, according to Ihe colophon of Ihc second part. was \\Ilillen "in the island of Cyprus, Ihe well-guarded, in Ihe God· loving 10wn of u\'kosia [Nicosia], in Ihc monastery of the gn:at saini, our falher, Anbi Anlu.niyUs, fa· Iher of all monks"; Ihis note L.. dated 7 BAbah A.M. 1363/A.D. 1646. Three or foul' Coptic monasteries are therefore altested in Ihe island of Cyprus from Ihe fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries. It is not possible to sny when and how lhey have disappellred. BIBLIOGRAPHV Burmester, O. H. E. "The Copts in Cyprus." Bulletin d, fll SociCIC d'llrchiologie caple 7 (1942):9-13. Halkin, F. "La L..egende de saint Antoine lraduite de !'al'llbe par Alphonse Bonhome, O.P." Analecta &Jllurrdim.a 60 (1942): 143-212. _"'~. "Un Monastere cople :\ FnmagoUSle au XIVe sicc1e." LI! Muscon 59 (1946):511-14. Keshishian, K. K. Romantic Cypms. Nicosia, 1967. Muyser, J. "Contribution l\ l'etude dn llstes cpisco· pales de l'eglise copte." nul/elll! de la Soc!ele d'rm:hcologic cople 10 (1944):115-76, Troupcau, G. Ca1alOC1I1! des maml$(;riIS arabes, pI. I: Mmlllscrils chrl!tiCIIS, Vol. I. Poris, 1972. RE.~~-GEORC(;s croUIN MAURlCl:. MARTIN. S.J.

MONASTER1ES IN THE DAQAHUYYAH PROV1NCE. This provin<:e occupies the northern part of the Delta between the Mediterranean, the Sue7. Canal, and the so-called D:lmielta Branch of Ihe Nile. The monastic setllernents tIllested in Ihis region by !iternry evidence are fairly numerous. We dislinguish them by Ihe :aclual murku! (district) in which Ihey were situated. Nawasi and aJ-Dayr (Afarkal or AJA) The village of NawasA is situated near the Nile to Ihe north of Mil SamannOd. The Life of the Patriarch CltRISTODOULOS (1047-1077) mendon... a rt."(;luse of saintly fllme named Shenuti who lived Ihere in 11 cell toward the end of this pl1tdarch's reign. This Village, which still exists, is indicated as the sellt of a bishorlic under the following patriarch,

CYRtL It. A m:ap prepared by Cuest (1912, opposite p. 980) shows its medieval situation. A village slill bears Ihe name of a!·Dllyr. In A,H. 933/A,D. 1526-1527, it was called Kafr al·Dayr be· cause, writes RlImzl, lhel'e was a Chrislinrl convent there. Tmula (,uarkaz or al-Slnbllliiwayn) According to John CASSIAN (Cof{(l/iolles 14.4 and 16.1), there was in the neighborhood of Tmuis (to' day near Timay al-AmdTd, nOrtheast of al-Sinbilliwayn), a large cenobium (Amelincau, 1893, pp. 500501: Maspcro and Wiel, 1919, pp. 59-60). TambOq (Marknz of al.Man$urah) When Daniel, the ramous superior of Scetis, refused to suhsc.ihe to the T/Jmc of Pope UlO, which Ihe Emperor JUSTINIAN wanted to impose on the Egyptian monks, he Oed with a disciple 10 Tambliq and Ihere built a small monmaery, 10 Ihe west of the village, where he livcd until Justinian's death (565). When the barbarians invaded Scetis at the cnd of the siJ,:th or Ihe beginning of Ihe seventh cenlury, Daniel returned 10 Tambuq. where he died and was bUl'led (Guidi, 1900, pp. 562-64). ~I. C. ,"VF.I.YN·WtHTE doublS lhe authenticity of the episode of the Tumlf of Leo at Seelis, but appears 10 admit Daniel's exile lind death lit Tambiiq (1932, 1'1'.24650), Cauwenbergh considers lhis even! authentic; it is indeed in confonnity wilh whm is known of JUSlinian's rcligious policy from 535 onward (1914, PI'. 25, 28, 85). Ramzi thinks Ihat it is the village known loday as al.Dan~btq,

PanephYlIllI, Herdcleopolls Panra. TOnah, and Barbiyyah (Markaz or aJ-Manzalah) The town of PlInephysls may have been situated on the sile or Ihe present dlly al·Man7.alah. or it may have been farther north, if we are tu believe John Cassian's report that it wa... submerged by Ihe rising of Ihe walel'S of Lake al·Manzalah following an eaT1hquake (C/JllaliOllcs 7.26 and 11.3). He locates mere a cenobium of more lhan a hundred brothers and a convent of virgins: in Ihe neighborhood there were many anchoriles. The sile is menlioned several limes in Ihc APOf'lITIIF.<:MATA 'ATRUM. Herac1eopolis Parva was the ancienl Selhron, situated, no doubt, farther cast than Panephysis bef/Jre the Suez Canlll was built. It is also referred to in the ApuphIIJ(1)t>1f1/Q l'alrwJ1 liS 1I place inhahiled by :HIchorites.

MONASTERIES OF THE EASTERN DESERT

In Lake IlI·M3n?.alah, the isl3nd of Tunah is mcnlionc(1 by AUO At....""\I(,\RIM. who locates there a mono aslery dedicaled 10 Saini I'aehomius belonging 10 lhe Melchites. It was deslroyed by lhe Ghu7~ in 1168. The dale given by Abu al·Mnkdrim is th"t uf Shlrlulh's expedition against Egypt (Lane·I'oole, 1925. p. 17911:; see also Amelincau, 1893, pp. 502503). In his IiSl of Ihe chun:hcs and munasleriCli uf the lwdflh 10 fifteenlh cemuries, F. 'Awa<,! (1932, p. 218) indicsl(S bClween Tinnis and Damiella, al· thuugh it h"d been deslroyed, a monastery of the Trinily belonging 10 Ihe Mdchile5, in a place which he writt'S as Bazqiyyah. The source of lhis infomlalion is without any doubt Ihe won: of Abu aJ· ~bk.irim, but the publisher (1984, p. 134) has prinl' ed Barbiyyah, without specifying Ihe location.

Monastery of Pamln (Markaz of Dlklrnls) Abo al·Makarim indicates in the neighborhood of Ihe small lown of Ashmlln Tan:i~ (today called Ashmtin al·Rummlln) a monaslery where Paroin the Confessor lived. The aUlhor has perha~ confused him willi the saini of lhe same name whu was a monk n('ar al·A.~hmunayn in Middle EsJpI.

Monastery of Saini George at Shala (lUarkaz of FArlskOr) Abo al·MnkOrilll menliuns al Sha!<'i a large monastery and a church with the name of Saint Geurge; Ihe laller wa.~ destroyed by the Muslims and lransfOl'med InlO a mosque bee:lUsc the Frnnk.~ had land· ed there al the lime of Salol) al·Dln's viclory in 1177. On GUeSl's nwp (1912, oppusilc p. 980), Shat<'i is to lhc cast of Damleltn aod \lCI)' near lhe luwn.

Monasll:!ry

or Jeremiah (Governorate of

Damlcttll) A Jllunasle!)' of Jeremiah (DayI' Apa Jeremiah) is situalcd by Abu IlI·Mnkllrim in lhe Ish.nd of Damictlao lis lufly buildings could be seen from Damietta. bUl dul'ing Ihe r~igll of the Falimids, lhcy WCI'C lowcred because of the advanced position of lhis convenl, and thc provisiuns that were kept there for fear of 11 siege were removed to Damiella. The IU$TOIlY 01' 11m .'ATIl.ARCUS notcs Ihal this conv('01 belonged to Ihe Melchilcs and was one parasang (belween J lind 3'1.t miles) from Damieu.a. 10 Ihe north, on the weSI bank. On 9 May 1211, the Fl1lnks landed Ihere in force 10 allaek Damiella. No

doubl il was dcslI'oyed at the i'Ilmc time Damiclla.

1649

a.~

old

8IBLJOGRAP'HY AIII~lineau,

I;' lA ~~Q~raphie de. l'Egyple. it J'tpoque. COpte.. Paris, 1893. Cauwenbergh. P. Vlln. Etllde SlIr le.5 IIIoilles d'Egypte.. Paris and Lou\'ain, 1914. Evdyn.White, H. G. Tile History of the. MOllasteries of Hitria alld of Scctis. New York, 1932. Gue.~t, R. "The Deha in Ihe Middle Ages." hmrnal of 1111" Royal and Milllit: Sucie.t)' (1912):941-80. Guidi, I. "Vic el rCt:its de I'abbe Daniel de Scete.'· Re.\I/ie de /'Oriellf cltrbien 5 (1900):535-64; 6 (1901):51-53. La.nL....Poole. S. HistDry of Egypt in lire Middle. A~e.5. London. 1925. Ma.~pero, J., and G, Wiet. MQ/eriallx pour S4!rvir a fa I:togrQplrie. de /'EDPle. Memoires publib par les mcmbrcs de l'lnslitut m"m;ais d'Archeologie ori· entaIl,' 36. C:liro, 1919. Mu~ammad Ramr.l. .4.1·00nl/i$ a!.}ughrii(i IiI·Bi/ad al M4rlyyaJr, 2 1I01s. in 5 pIS. Cairo, 1953-1963. RENt·GEORCES COQIflN MAURICE MAR'tIN, 5.1.

MONASTERIES OF THE EASTERN DESERT, "Easlem dt'SCn" refers tu all of Egypl be· tween the fertile valley of Ihe Nile and the Red Sea. P'erhaps bet:ausc Ihc watering plllCeS and the regular COll1l\ll1n roules are less numerous lhere, the hermilagL'5 nnd monasteRies are few. Two cenlen; should be poinled olll: one to lhe nonh formed by OAYR ANIlA Afo(J'ONIYOll and r>AYM ANIlIl IIOtA wilh lhe hermitages lhar dusler or cluslered around lhem. > The wAdis that debouch on the Wddl 'Arabah where lhe Dayr Anba An!uniyus is silu:lted-the WadI Nat· fuh llna the Wdal Hannebn, which come down from the Jabal al-J(lllihlh al-BuJ:triyyah, at 'Ayn Bardah and Blr BakhIt (somelimes called Abu KhIl)-were inhabited by hermits. 'Ayn Bardah is situated neal' II well, as ils name (lhe cold spring) indicates, half· way between the valley of the Nile and rhe mOMSlery of SlIinl Anlony. The be.~l known is lhe group of hermitages with its cenler, a small munastery callea OAYR ABO lIAItAJ, siluatcd on the l'CXld lhal runs alonll the Red Sea about 42 miles (68 km) south of Suez. The second monastic Celiler in Ihe easlern desert is farther .soulh and ncar lhe Red Sea, nOI fal' From the road thaI today links Ihe lown of Qena 10 Ihe Red Sea, lhe Mons Porphyrites, 50 called in tbe

1650

MONASTERIES OF THE EASTERN DESERT OF THE DELTA AND SINAI

Hcllcnislic period because of its prophyry quarries, loday called the Jabal Abcl Dukhkha.n (mOuntain of the f:llher' of smoke) and quite close to the lAUAL OAITAlI.. Leading 10 the first llnd il~ porphyry quaT' I'ies is the WAdi Oa!!;ir. which still retains traces of its occupation by Christian hennits. of which numerous leXIS speak. 8IBLIOCRAPHY

Bi!>sey. F., lind R. ChOlbol·Monllcau. "NOles de voyage sur I'ouadi Ar.lb.. h. Ruines de constructions chretienncs dan.~ Ics brunches cst cl ouest de I'ouadi Hanncba." Bulle/in ele la Saddle d'ell/de.! his/oriqucs el geograp1liqllcs de l'I.~lhllle de Suet 5 (1953-1954): 155-60. Fontaine, A. L "Exploration dans J'ouadj Arnbah, Ayn Barda, scs vcstiges d'habitats anciens." Bulletill de III S<x:itti d'etlldu his/oriquts ef giographi. ques de I'b/hme de Slle~ 5 (1953-1954):59-86. "Le monachismc cuptc ct la montagne de S\. Antoine." Bulle/ill de I'll/sWill lI'crudes copies 1 (1958):3-30. Fourteau. R. "Voyage duns la partie seplentrionale du desert arabique." BIllie/iiI de la Societe de gtogruphique d'Egypte 5 (1900):5171f. REN~-CEOItG£5 COQuIN

MONASTERIES OF THE EASTERN DESERT OF THE DELTA AND SINAI. A number of plm:es are menlioned [n the andent sauna.os as Ihe ahodes of lllonh in this vast region. Pelusium is today called Tall al-Faram:i. and is 2 miles (3 kill) fTOm the Medilerranean co.'lst and 14 miles (23 km) ca:;t of the aJ·Tinah station on the railway line that links Port Said and al·bmA'i1lyyah. It is ciled sevcr.l1 times as thc center of an area in which anehorll/!!; lived. AIJO $Al.IH THE ARM"NIAN writl,.OS thnt in his time (lhiJ1eenth cenlury) there were numerous chul'c1le.~ and monnsteries in ruins in Ihis place. He nltribule5 its destruction to the Persians (619-629) and the Arobs. Kasios or MuuT'll Casios. today Katib al-oals, was about 50 miles (75 km) east of Port Said, on the north edge of Lake BardawiJ. It was the site of a monastery of Saint Rom,mos, where JACOB BARAllA£. US, the restorer of the Monophysite hierarchy, died on 30 July 578. OSlrncine was al Ihe ea~lem exlremity of Lake 8ardawil. Some identify it with the villll/!.e called KIllHBAT AL-F1L(lStYVAIl, others with the hamlet of 7..ananiq; J. CJectat exca\"oIted a fortress.monastery

there. More recently another monastery has been discovered bUI nOI excavated (F[gueras, 1982). Rhinokorua is gencr,llly identifie<.l with the pres' ent al-'Mlsh: this was the first lown in Egypl when one came from Syria. The Greek hislorian S07.0men (/listoria eccfesias· /lea 6.31) names three am:horiles al this place. T.....o brothel'$, Melas and Solon became bishop!> of the town, one after the other, the first was exiled by the Arian emperor Valens (3M-378) anti died in 375. The third ascctic, Oionys[us, built for himself a her· mitage to Ihe nOl1h of Ihe lown. SOZOlllen spedfics that all three were autochthonous, which no doubt means that they originated from Ihe bedouin tribes of the peninsula. [Su afS<}: Clysma; Pharan: Raithou.]

BtULlOGRAPUY Amclinenu, E. La Geographie de I'Egyfl/<' lJ l'epoque copte. Paris, [893. Ball, J. Egypt i'l Ille Classical Geographer.~. Cair'O, 1942. eledat, J. "Fouilles l\ Khirbct al.Flousiyeh." A.mules d.. Service des ""fiqui/tS de f'£gyple 16 (1916):6-

32. Figueras, P. "Le Cbristianisme au Nord-5inlli:' I.e Mot/de de 10 Bible 24 (May·july 1982). Kugener, M. A. "Redt de Mar Cyriaque." ReVile de /'Or/enl cllrtliell 7 (1902):197-217. Maspero, J" and G. Wiet. MaterilU/.l flour servir iJ. la g{iU~r(lphie dl;! I'Egyple. Mcmoires de l'lnstitut fr..lfll;ais d'archeo10gie orientale, Vol. 36. cairo, 1919. Rl!N~·GEORGES CooUIN MAUlUa1. MARTIN. S.J.

MONASTERIES OF THE FAyyOM. In the nollce abuut the patl'ian:h KItA'IL t (744-767), the HISTOKV OP THE PATKtAItCHS indlcules that Ihere were then thh1y·/ive mona~lerics in the FayyUrn. A80 $AlJt:t nlE ARMENIAN repcats the same informalioo, which he seems to relate to thc same period; he nallles or describes only eight of them. AI·NAbulsi cites thirteen. A certain number of these monasteries still exist today: DAVil. AsU tsUAO (or 0a)'T al.J:Iammarn). DAVR ADO L!FAH, IlAVR AL·AL\B, tlAVR AL-MAUK CHU· BRlvAL (NaqIOn), DAVR ANOA SAMO'IL OF QALAMON, OAVR MAR ,1RJIS OF SIDMANT. and sume hcrm[la1:eS irl Ihe Wadi al·Rayyan. Monaster[es that have disappeared are well enough known from various documents: DAVR ABIRON. lhe two DAVK AL-'ADHIlA' and DAVR AL-

MONASTERIES IN THE GHARBIYYAH PROVINCE

IKHWAH III Say:ll:lh, the mon:L~!ery of al·HamUli, the scriptorill of 1l,l'fClN. For many other\'l, on the comrary, we have no more than spomJic mention of lhcir cxislcncc. here llnd lhere among the wrilers Abu ~'ili!) and al·N

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